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4088745 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CONVOCOM | CONVOCOM | The West Central Illinois Educational Telecommunications Corporation was incorporated on February 9, 1976. Its membership was a consortium of Educational Institutions in West-Central Illinois. Bradley University in Peoria, Western Illinois University in Macomb, Blackhawk Community College in Moline, and Sangamon State University in Springfield.
Its mission was "to establish an educational television network, provide educational content, create local and public affairs programming to serve the residents and businesses of west-central Illinois". Bylaws for the corporation were approved on January 13, 1984.
The brand name Convocom was adopted in 1978 for the corporation and its offices were established on West Bradley Avenue in Peoria.
History
Educational television in Illinois
After World War II, the University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign hosted the National Association of Educational Broadcasters (NAEB). NAEB was created to establish broadcast allocations of AM and FM radio and TV channels for non-commercial educational programming. The Rockefeller Foundation funded two-week seminars in 1949 (Allerton I) and 1950 (Allerton II); these seminars consisted of 22 educational broadcasters from across the United States. The meetings established the foundation for National Public Radio (NPR) and the Public Broadcasting Service (PBS). The NAEB was based in Urbana, Illinois, from 1951 until 1961, when it moved to Washington, D.C.
The University of Illinois applied for a television license soon after the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) lifted its freeze on new licenses (July 1, 1952). Educational television was a new concept at the time, and most of Illinois' commercial broadcasters opposed the prospect of the University of Illinois owning a television station. A bill that would have forced the University to withdraw its application for the television license was narrowly defeated in the Illinois legislature. Afterward, the Illinois Broadcasters Association (ILBA) funded a taxpayer's lawsuit filed by Evanston restaurant owner Stephen Turkovich, that claimed financial support for the station violated provisions of the state's 1955 Finance Act and the Illinois Constitution did not allow the University of Illinois to operate a television station.
The case went all the way to the Illinois Supreme Court, which ruled in favor of the University of Illinois' application for the television license. Because of this, educational broadcasting in downstate Illinois was delayed for fifteen years, while other states proceeded with development.
Establishing an educational consortium
In 1970, the west-central region of Illinois was one of the few areas in the United States without a PBS station. Commercial broadcast television networks and their local affiliates in the west-central Illinois region provided some educational programming for children in the 1950s and 1960s, but this content disappeared by 1970. Parts of the region were served from WILL-TV in Urbana, WTVP in Peoria, and Iowa Public Television outlet KIIN-TV in Iowa City. Cable television systems in north-central Illinois and Macomb carried Iowa Public Television or Peoria's WTVP, while WILL-TV was piped in by cable systems in Springfield. When WTVP signed on from Peoria in 1971, Quincy, the second-largest city in west-central Illinois, was one of the few portions of the nation without access to public television.
A number of meetings were held with civic organizations, businesses, elected public representatives, and private and public educational institutions from 1970 to 1976. The outcome of these discussions was the establishment of the West Central Illinois Educational Telecommunications Corporation, incorporated on February 9, 1976. It was a consortium of Bradley University in Peoria, Western Illinois University in Macomb, Blackhawk Community College in Moline, and Sangamon State University in Springfield. Its mission was "to establish an educational television network, provide educational content, create local and public affairs programming to serve the residents and businesses of west-central Illinois". Bylaws for the corporation were approved on January 13, 1984.
The brand name Convocom was adopted in 1978 for the corporation and its offices were established on West Bradley Avenue in Peoria. George Hall was appointed as the first president that same year. He had previously served as general manager for North Carolina State University's educational television station.
Initial engineering design and FCC application filings were performed in 1977 and 1978 by Gary Breed and Don Markley of D.L. Markley and Associates, in Peoria, a well-known broadcast engineering consulting firm. Breed was a faculty member of Bradley University's Engineering department and Markley, president and owner of the firm, grew up in Ipava, Illinois.
The original television network design for Convocom would encompass five broadcast transmitters. Peoria's WTVP would be the flagship station, with WQPT-TV in Moline, WIUM-TV in Macomb, WQEC in Quincy, and WJPT in Jacksonville (serving Springfield) as satellites. The master control would be located at Convocom headquarters in Peoria, at or near the flagship station of the proposed network WTVP, with three microwave interconnections (links) in the Quad Cities, Macomb–Quincy, and Jacksonville–Springfield.
The D. L. Markley design was a balance of engineering, economics, and the service region of the education institution members in the largely rural west-central Illinois region. Larger urban areas in the region were considered crucial for ongoing community support and sufficient financial support (grants, fundraising) to cover operational costs of the non-commercial educational network.
West Central Illinois Educational TV Network (Convocom) was presented to regional representatives, educational institutions, major businesses, civic and community organizations in 1977 and 1978:
Notes:
1. WJPT planned to use the WJJY-TV tower at Bluffs, Illinois. That tower collapsed on March 26, 1978, in an ice storm. A new tower site west of Waverly was selected and began broadcasting August 11, 1984.
2. WQEC was added to the original design in 1979 since the new WJPT tower at 800 to 1,000 feet (eventually located in Waverly) would not provide coverage to the Quincy and Hannibal market.
Convocom
The first new Convocom station, WJPT in Jacksonville, planned to sign on in 1979 using a tower near Bluffs, Illinois, that had previously been used by ABC affiliate WJJY-TV. The station was intended to serve both Quincy and Springfield. However, the tower collapsed in a massive ice storm early on the morning of March 26, 1978. Constructing a replacement tower at the Bluffs site by April 1979 would require $1 million, well beyond Convocom's original budget. Due to changes in the anticipated regional coverage from that location, Convocom sought and received a license for a fourth station, WQEC, to serve the Quincy/Hannibal market. In the summer of 1978, it also began surveying a replacement tower site for WJPT.
Since the 1960s, Western Illinois University (WIU) had been surveying tower sites for a planned educational television station and relocation of the university's FM station, WIUM, a guyed radio tower erected in 1956. The tower was located next to Sallee Hall in the middle of the university's rapidly expanding campus. In 1976, after examining a number of sites south of Macomb, WIU selected a tower site on land bequeathed to the university by Jack Horn, regional Coca-Cola bottler. Then, in 1977, WIU and Convocom agreed to co-locate the television station, WIUM-TV, and supporting microwave relay network on this same tower. Construction of a new tower was completed in 1980 and WIUM's transmitters were relocated to the site in 1981. Two microwave relay towers were constructed in 1983 between Peoria and Quincy at Cuba, Illinois, and Carthage, Illinois, for master control, PBS program feeds, local program feeds, and TV studios at WIU in Macomb and at WGEM-TV in Quincy.
By 1983, a site west of Waverly was selected as the site for an tower for WJPT. However, for reasons that remain unknown, the FCC only licensed WJPT for 34 kilowatts of broadcast power at that specific location. As a result, WJPT only had a fringe (grade B) signal in Springfield, leaving it all but unviewable in the capital except on cable. A site east of Quincy owned by Blackhawk of Quincy, Inc. was selected for a new tower for WQEC. Convocom had to raise $5.5 million to complete construction of these planned and unplanned replacement facilities.
George Hall resigned as President of Convocom in 1982 to serve as Virginia's Director of Telecommunications under Governor Chuck Robb. The consortium appointed Dr. Jerold Gruebel as the Executive Director of Convocom in April 1983. Dr. Grubel had previously served as the assistant director of Indiana Higher Education Telecommunications System (IHETS)—a statewide network of video, voice, and data networks connecting all 77 of Indiana's colleges and universities with headquarters in Indianapolis.
WQPT in Moline signed on November 2, 1983, to serve the Quad Cities metropolitan area, east-central Iowa, and north-western Illinois through a translator (channel 48) in Sterling, Illinois. WQPT, owned and operated by Black Hawk College, elected to develop its own brand identity for the Quad Cities market and never joined the Convocom microwave network and control facilities in Peoria as originally envisioned in the 1970s design. Western Illinois University-Quad Cities assumed ownership of WQPT in 2010 and began a series of capital improvements. On June 30, 2014, the master control for WQPT was migrated and centralized at WTVP in Peoria, as envisioned in the original 1970s D.L. Markley & Associates design.
WJPT in Jacksonville signed on August 11, 1984, to serve the western portion of the Champaign–Springfield–Decatur market and south-central Illinois. This gave the central Illinois region the distinction of being served by two separately programmed PBS stations since WILL-TV in Urbana continued to serve as the PBS outlet for the eastern half of the market. Springfield is assigned to the Champaign–Springfield–Decatur market by Nielsen Designated Market Area (DMA) and the FCC Television Market Area (TMA) since the 1950s.
WIUM-TV in Macomb signed on October 1, 1984, as the primary station serving Macomb, WIU, and west-central Illinois.
WQEC in Quincy signed on March 9, 1985, serving Hannibal and Quincy, western Illinois, northeastern Missouri, and southeastern Iowa.
WTVP in Peoria, owned by the Illinois Valley Public Telecommunications Corporation (IVPT), signed on June 27, 1971, serving the Galesburg, Peoria, and Bloomington television markets. IVPT elected to keep its brand identity, board ownership structure, and broadcast operations in Peoria. Like WQPT, the station never elected to join the three newly built Convocom broadcast facilities in Macomb, Quincy, and Jacksonville outlined in the Markley plan.
Springfield Public TV Opportunity
After World War II, frequency channels (VHF and UHF) were being assigned by FCC Engineering staff for television stations. Unfortunately, local television was non-existent in Springfield before July 1953.
In October 1948 the Freeze of 1948 occurred, with channel 2 (VHF) moved from Springfield to St. Louis. Channel 8 (VHF) was eventually moved from Peoria to Moline by 1963. Springfield was assigned channel 52 (UHF) for future educational television.
Springfield community never created a local educational television station in the 1950s or 1960s, but instead relied upon WILL-TV, Urbana, IL for educational programming.
Smaller network and change in mission
Over the next ten years, regional, political, and consortium membership change led to revisions in financial support and a different mission statement. Convocom's service region in 1985 was smaller than the original 1970s D.L. Markley & Associates design. In 1989, Dr. Jerold Gruebel argued that Convocom offices in Springfield would permit access to Illinois legislators as well as the Illinois Board of Higher Education to further a new mission statement for Convocom: "To collaborate with people and enterprises in the communities we serve to bring quality programs, learning opportunities, and economic development to our region."
Over the next 6 years (1989-1995) Dr. Gruber began a realignment of Convocom and its original vision.
1. Relocate offices from Peoria to Springfield, to pursue state lobbying (IL Board Higher Education).
2. Reduce higher education institution participation.
3. Create a new marketing and branding program (Network Knowledge).
4. Change FCC call signs of broadcast facilities to match: WIUM-TV became WMEC and WJPT became WSEC.
On July 1, 1995, Governor Jim Edgar signed a bill which realigned the public higher educational structure in Illinois. The Board of Regents and Board of Governors were abolished. Sangamon State University was merged with the University of Illinois system as the University of Illinois Springfield.
Western Illinois University was expanded to a dual campus, single university structure with the creation of a new Western Illinois University-Quad Cities campus. This dual-campus for WIU as a public-private partnership was modeled after University of Illinois and Southern Illinois University multi-campus structures.
John Deere, the Moline Foundation, IBM, and the Rock Island County Board provided land grants, facilities support, and resources for this new WIU riverfront campus in Moline. Before 1995, the Quad Cities was the largest metropolitan region in the U.S. without a public four-year university.
New Broadcast Architecture
In 1997, Convocom purchased 30 acres of land southeast of Colchester, near Fandon, for a new tower. The WMEC transmitter was moved to this new tower. This transmitter relocation ended WIU's co-location support for WMEC at the WIUM-FM tower location (1983–1997) on WIU's Horn Campus, south of Macomb.
In 1998, in order to address reception problems in Springfield from WSEC at Waverly, a 1,400-watt translator was built in the city, originally broadcasting on channel 65 as W65BV. Previously, Springfield viewers could only get an acceptable signal via cable and satellite. This translator was moved to VHF channel 8 in 2001 and became W08DP.
On July 21, 2000, Convocom filed with the FCC a request for a Waiver of Section 73.1125. This waiver request was to relocate the master control and technical and engineering facilities from Peoria to Chatham, southwest of Springfield. This eventual approval by FCC effectively ended the original 1970s design and would have financial consequences in the next decade. WILL-TV in Champaign-Urbana is the recognized primary PBS member for Springfield, with WSEC as a secondary affiliate. The FCC, Nielsen, and PBS continue to recognize Macomb's WMEC as Network Knowledge's flagship station.
In 2013, an experimental collaboration involving joint management and operational cooperation of WTVP with WILL-TV and the University of Illinois worked well enough that the WTVP Board of Directors voted in December 2013 to extend this cooperative agreement for an additional three years. The overall purpose of the agreement is to help both public broadcasting stations operate more cost-effectively in serving eastern and central Illinois.
In July 2008, WQPT, owned by Black Hawk College, an original member of the Convocom consortium, lost financial support when the station was removed from the college's FY2009 fiscal budget.
In May 2010, WQPT was sold to Western Illinois University-Quad Cities (WIU-QC), with the primary objective to return WQPT to its original mission of creating more local and public affairs programming. The station moved from its longtime home on Black Hawk's campus to new studios and offices in Riverfront Hall on the WIU-QC Campus on July 1, 2014. WQPT-TV was added to cable television systems serving Macomb and McDonough County after the WQPT transmitter was relocated to Orion, Illinois, in 2002 and later in 2010 when ownership changed to WIU-QC. The Macomb and McDonough County cable television systems have carried KIIN Iowa Public TV and WTVP in Peoria since 1969.
On June 30, 2014, WQPT centralized its master control at WTVP, in Peoria, as planned by D. L. Markley and Associates in the original Convocom network plan.
The smaller, three station Network Knowledge network relied heavily on corporate and government grant funding, instead of membership support (only six percent of the viewing audience donates to the three stations). In contrast, Friends of Iowa Public Television (Iowa Public Television Foundation Board) was created in 1970 for the development, growth, and support through building a strong statewide membership base. Its 65,000 member households across Iowa and bordering states contributed nearly 90 percent of the out-of-pocket costs for acquiring and producing general audience programming.
References
Television channels and stations established in 1984
Television channels and stations established in 1985
1976 establishments in the United States |
4089057 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2000%20in%20the%20Philippines | 2000 in the Philippines | 2000 in the Philippines details events of note that happened in the Philippines in the year 2000.
Incumbents
President: Joseph Estrada (PMP)
Vice President: Gloria Macapagal Arroyo (Lakas)
Senate President:
Blas Ople (until July 12)
Franklin Drilon (July 12 – November 13)
Aquilino Pimentel Jr. (starting November 13)
House Speaker
Manuel Villar (until November 13)
Arnulfo Fuentebella (starting November 13)
Chief Justice: Hilario Davide
Philippine Congress: 11th Congress of the Philippines
Events
January
January 4 – Rape convict Alex Bartolome is executed by lethal injection at the National Penitentiary in Muntinlupa City, the country's seventh and the last execution since the re-imposition of capital punishment in 1994 and before its abolition in 2006.
January 6 – The Parañaque City Regional Trial Court, in its decision dated Jan. 4, convicts Hubert Webb and seven others, two of them in absentia, sentencing them to reclusión perpetua in connection to a family murder case in the city in 1991; sentences also a former policeman, convicted of cover-up, to a lower prison term. The ruling would be upheld by the Court of Appeals, but reversed later by the Supreme Court; co-accused Joey Filart and Artemio Ventura remain at large.
February
February 23–March 7 – Mayon volcano in Albay erupts, with the most violent occurred, February 28 – March 1; its status is raised to the highest, Alert Level 5, on February 24 due to its hazardous explosions with pyroclastic and lahar flows that affected parts of the province, with several thousands evacuated even outside identified danger zones.
February 25–27 – Series of bombings occur in Mindanao, prior to Pres. Estrada's six-day visit to the island, targeting buses and a radio station. Incidents are blamed on the Moro Islamic Liberation Front (MILF), which had broken talks from the president.
February 25 – In what would be the single deadliest bombing incident in the island, an explosion, allegedly by the terrorists, occur inside two passenger buses aboard a ferry boat Our Lady of Mediatrix in Ozamis City, killing at least 45 people and injuring more than 100. Another bus bombing in Rizal, Zamboanga del Norte kills 5, while a bus-bombing attempt was discovered in Cagayan de Oro.
February 27 – Seven people are injured in a bombing of radio station DXMS in Cotabato City.
February 28 – An explosion at the gold-rush site at Mt. Diwalwal in Monkayo, Compostela Valley results in the deaths of 11 miners; more than 40 are hospitalized.
March
March 16 – MILF rebels led by Commander Bravo attack and occupy Kauswagan, Lanao del Norte and later clash with Government troops, with more than 40 rebels, 9 soldiers and 2 civilians die in the fighting until the town is abandoned by the guerrillas and is retaken by the troops on March 18; the incident is one of the attacks occurred in several municipalities in the Lanao provinces.
March 20 – Abu Sayyaf Group (ASG) rebels seize more than 50 people in Basilan, including a Roman Catholic priest as well as teachers and students from two schools in Sumisip and Tuburan towns; some of them are held hostage for months.
March 21 – Pres. Estrada, in his visit in Kauswagan, Lanao del Norte, declares an all-out war against the MILF in Mindanao following rebel attacks in Lanao provinces as a warning to the separation of an Islamic state; ended July 12.
April
April 8 – Government troops launch an attack on Camp Belal, a MILF camp in Munai, Lanao del Norte, with 16 rebels and a soldier reportedly killed.
April 12:
At least 69 people are killed when an unlicensed, overloaded wooden ferryboat ML Annahada heading for Tawi-Tawi and Malaysia capsized at sea after leaving a port in Jolo, Sulu, with more than a hundred others missing and feared dead.
Armed Forces of the Philippines (AFP) reports that 70 MILF rebels and 23 government troops have died in escalated clashes in some municipalities in Lanao del Norte for the past few days.
April 16 – A grenade explosion on an intersection in Baclaran, Parañaque City kills eight people and hurts 30 others.
April 19 – Air Philippines Flight 541 explodes and crashes into a coconut plantation in Island Garden City of Samal, killing all 131 people on board. It is considered as the country's worst aviation accident in history, with fatality count surpassing those from another plane crash in 1998.
April 22 – Military troops launch an assault against Abu Sayyaf in Camp Abdurajak on Basilan Island, in response to a claim on Apr. 19 that the extremist Muslim rebel group have executed two male teachers, and in an attempt to rescue the hostages who have been held captive for a month; three soldiers and 25 rebels are reportedly killed in the attack; they capture the main rebel camp in the island on April 28.
April 23 – ASG gunmen seized 21 people including 10 tourists and 11 resort workers, two of them Filipinos, from the resort island of Sipadan, Malaysia. Hostages are brought to the Jolo in the southern Philippines; most of them are released later that year except for a Filipino captive who would escape in 2003.
April 27 – Army troops capture a MILF camp in Baloi, Lanao del Norte following a clash that has killed at least 26 guerrillas.
May
May 3:
Four ASG hostages, including a Roman Catholic priest and 3 teachers are killed during an operation which soldiers rescued 15 another hostages. There are also reports that 5 children have been killed by the ASG and a female teacher has been missing; all among the victims who were kidnapped in March.
Twenty-one soldiers and a CAFGU member are killed in an encounter between government troops and the MILF in Matanog, Maguindanao, in what would be the biggest single battle loss suffered by the government during the war.
May 4:
The ILOVEYOU computer virus, originating from the country, is released by a student, spreading quickly throughout the world and damaging around 45 million computers worldwide.
A firefight between secessionist MILF and government soldiers occurs in the Lanao del Sur–Maguindanao provincial boundary, when rebels allegedly occupied a highway; ends with the capture of the MILF–BIAF headquarters on May 7, with 108 rebels and 3 Marine soldiers died within two days.
May 6 – Six persons are killed and 37 others are wounded in separate bus explosions in Surigao and Butuan cities.
May 7 – An Army Special Forces unit in Lantawan, Basilan, searching for ASG hostages taken in March, is ambushed by the bandits, killing 13 of its soldiers.
May 16 – An explosion in Glorietta Mall in Makati injures 13 persons.
May 21 – An explosion and a stampede in SM Megamall in Mandaluyong kills one person and injures at least 11 others.
May 25:
A Philippine Airlines Flight 812 is hijacked by a man, later identified as Augusto Lakandula, just before its landing at Manila. The suspect, who robbed passengers and attempted to jump out of the plane while in Antipolo, is found dead in a forest in Real, Quezon at night.
Philippine peso closes to ₱43.40 per US dollar, the lowest since October 1998.
Late May – At least 33 MILF rebels and three government soldiers die in a clash in Marogong, Lanao del Sur.
June
June 21 – The PBCom Tower, the tallest building in the country upon its completion, opens.
June 27 – Thirteen soldiers are killed when New People's Army (NPA) rebels ambushed a convoy of military medical personnel in Jones, Isabela.
July
July 2 – A Philippine Air Force (PAF) aircraft crashes into the Sulu Sea, off Cagayancillo, Palawan, after experiencing engine failure on its takeoff, killing 11 of the 12 people on board including an Armed Forces of the Philippines (AFP) official and a provincial governor.
July 9 – AFP captures from the MILF its main camp, Camp Abubakar in Maguindanao, after a week-long military attack, as part of a campaign against Moro insurgency in Mindanao.
July 10 – Hundreds of shanties are buried in a collapse of a dumpsite, destabilized by torrential rains caused by tropical cyclones, in Payatas, Quezon City; 234 people are confirmed killed, as high as 800 are missing and presumed dead.
July 16 – About a hundred armed men, suspected to be MILF rebels, attack a village in Bumbaran, Lanao del Sur, kill 21 Christian residents inside a mosque, and go on a shooting rampage that injures 11 people.
August
August 4 – An attack by heavily armed men on a road in Cotabato occurs; 16 people are killed and 10 others are seriously injured.
August 10 – Maasin, Southern Leyte becomes a city through ratification in a plebiscite of RA 8796 which was approved on July 11.
August 11 – A clash between the government forces and a religious cult locally known as Tadtad in Pangantucan, Bukidnon results in deaths of at least 16 cult members and 4 from the troops.
August 21 – NPA guerillas ambush a group of army soldiers in Himamaylan, Negros Occidental, killing 17 of them.
September
September 8 – Digos becomes a city in the province of Davao del Sur through ratification of Republic Act 8798 which was approved on June 15.
September 10 – San Jose del Monte becomes a city in the province of Bulacan through ratification of Republic Act 8797 which was approved on July 15.
September 18:
Bislig becomes a city in the province of Surigao del Sur through ratification of Republic Act 8804 which was approved on August 16.
Tacurong becomes a city in the province of Sultan Kudarat through ratification of Republic Act 8805 which was approved on August 16.
September 19 – The Sandiganbayan declares that the escrow fund in the Philippine National Bank amounting US$627 million (January 2002), allegedly kept by the Marcos family in Swiss accounts, belongs to the government, forfeiting them to the latter. The decision would be reversed in 2002, but reinstated by the Supreme Court in 2003.
September 30 – Masbate becomes a city in the province of Masbate through ratification of Republic Act 8807 which was approved on August 16.
October
October 4 – Luis Singson exposes Pres. Estrada's alleged links to illegal gambling; followed by a privilege speech of Sen. Teofisto Guingona in Senate.
October 8 – Koronadal becomes a city in the province of South Cotabato through ratification of Republic Act 8803 which was approved on August 16.
October 18 – An impeachment complaint is filed by the opposition groups, with House of Representatives, against Pres. Estrada.
October 20 – A massive power outage affects most parts of Luzon including Metro Manila, caused by system failures in the transmission lines of the National Power Corporation in Pangasinan and Bulacan; electricity was fully restored 16 hours later.
November
November 13 – The House of Representatives votes to impeach Pres. Estrada, with impeachment case filed against him regarding his alleged links to illegal gambling.
December
December 7 – Impeachment trial against Pres. Estrada begins at the Senate; the first for an Asian head of state. Its last day would be on January 16, 2001; trial aborted, Jan. 17.
December 9 – Muñoz, Nueva Ecija becomes a city through ratification in a plebiscite of RA 8977 which was approved on November 7; the first Science City in the country and in Southeast Asia.
December 15 – At least eleven members of the Pulahan sect are killed in a clash with a rival group, the Philippine Benevolent Missionaries Association, in San Jose, then part of Surigao del Norte.
December 16 – Sorsogon becomes a city in the province of Sorsogon through ratification of Republic Act 8806 which was approved on August 16.
December 23 – Bayawan becomes a city in the province of Negros Occidental through ratification of Republic Act 8983 which was approved on December 5.
December 25 – At least 45 people died when a bus falls into a ravine after being hit by another bus in Bansalan, Davao del Sur.
December 30:
Multiple simultaneous terrorist bombings in Metro Manila, occurring on Rizal Day, kill 22 people and injure more than 120 others. In 2009, three of those involved in the attacks would be sentenced to life imprisonment.
Balanga, Bataan becomes a city through ratification of RA 8984 which was approved on December 5.
Talisay becomes a city in the province of Cebu through ratification of Republic Act 8979 which was approved on November 22.
Holidays
As per Executive Order No. 292, chapter 7 section 26, the following are regular holidays and special days, approved on July 25, 1987. Note that in the list, holidays in bold are "regular holidays" and those in italics are "nationwide special days".
January 1 – New Year's Day
April 9 – Araw ng Kagitingan (Day of Valor)
April 20 – Maundy Thursday
April 21 – Good Friday
May 1 – Labor Day
June 12 – Independence Day
August 27 – National Heroes Day
November 1 – All Saints Day
November 30 – Bonifacio Day
December 25 – Christmas Day
December 30 – Rizal Day
December 31 – Last Day of the Year
In addition, several other places observe local holidays, such as the foundation of their town. These are also "special days."
Television
Sports
January 31 – The Welcoat House Paints won the third straight PBL title in the 1999–2000 2nd Yakult-PBL Challenge Cup after beating Ana Water Dispenser in Finals Game 3 58–56.
February 11–13 The Philippines hosting the 2000 Asian Beach Volleyball Championship held from February 11 to 13, 2000 in Pasay, Philippines
June 11 – The Alaska Milkmen won their third PBA All-Filipino crown in the last five years with a 4–1 series victory over Purefoods TJ Hotdogs. The title-conquest was their 10th championship.
June 27 – The Welcoat Paint Masters won their fourth straight title of the Philippine Basketball League after they beaten the Shark Energy Drink at The 2000 PBL Chairman's Cup held at Makati Coliseum
August 6 – The 2000 ABC-PBA All-Star Game is the All-Star game was held on August 6, 2000, at the Philsports Arena in Pasig.
August 24–27 – The Philippines hosts the 2000 FIVB World Grand Prix at the Araneta Coliseum in Quezon City.
September 12–17 – Dagupan City was hosting the 2000 Asian Junior Women's Volleyball Championship was held in Dagupan City.
September 15–October 1 – The Philippines participated in the 2000 Summer Olympics in Sydney, Australia by sending a delegation of 20 members. But all of the athletes lost in the said event and did not home their medals.
September 15 – The San Miguel Beermen claim their 14th PBA crown by winning against Sta. Lucia Realtors in five games. The Realtors were on their first finals appearance since joining the league in 1993.
November 25 – The San Juan Knights defeated Negros Slashers, 104-91 in Game Six, at the San Juan Gym for their first MBA national title.
December 20 – The San Miguel Beermen retains the PBA Governors Cup title and captured their 15th PBA crown, defeating Purefoods TJ Hotdogs in their finals series, four games to one
Births
February 16 – Carlos Edriel Yulo, gymnast
February 23 – Lexi Gonzales, actress, dancer and singer
February 26 – Alexa Ilacad, actress
March 1 – Nikki Samonte, model and singer
March 2 – Bianca Umali, actress and dancer
March 8 – Thea Astley, singer, actress and host
March 12 – Sabrina Man, actress
March 30 – Sean de Guzman, actor
April 7 – Vincent Magbanua, actor
April 21 – Taki Saito, actress, performer, host
April 23:
Gillian Vicencio, actress
Fana, singer
April 28 – Sela Guia, former member of MNL48
July 15 – Edward Barber, actor
July 20 – Sheki Arzaga member of MNL48
July 22 – Kaori Oinuma, actress
July 28 – Kaitlin De Guzman, artistic gymnast
August 3 – Vivoree Esclito, actress
August 6 - Kira Balinger, actress and singer
August 16 – Elijah Canlas, actor
August 18 - Vyn Kyle, rapper
August 21 – Kate Valdez, actress
September 16 – Therese Malvar, actress
November 28 – Jacob Rica, actor and model
December 12 – Brace Arquiza, actor and model
Deaths
January 22 – Teodoro Locsin Sr., journalist. (b. 1914)
February 6 – Oscar Aldaba, Mayor of San Teodoro, Oriental Mindoro. (aged 50)
February – Max Buan, journalist.
February 22 – Francisco "Kitch" Ortego, Jr., journalist. (aged 66)
March 20 – Ramon Mitra, Jr., Filipino statesman, diplomat, and a pro-democracy activist; House Speaker (1987–1992) (b. 1928)
March 23 – Bing "Mang Temi" Angeles, actor and comedian (b. 1928)
April 8 – Alfredo Alcala, Filipino comic book artist (b. 1925)
April 11 – Salvador Lazo Lazo, Filipino prelate of the Roman Catholic Church (b. 1918)
May 3 – Rhoel Gallardo, C.M.F., Catholic priest (b. 1965)
May 11 – Cipriano Bautista, mayor of Navotas. (b. 1929)
May 15 – Roberto Benedicto, businessman, lawyer and Founder of Philippines Daily Express, BBC, RPN and IBC. (aged 83)
May 28 – Francisco Vestil, Filipino basketball player (b. 1914)
June 11 – Sarah Jane Salazar, Filipino AIDS activist and educator (b. 1975)
July 2:
Salvatore Socrates, Governor of Palawan. (aged 66)
Maj. Gen. Santiago Madrid, Chief of the AFP Western Command. (b. 1945)
August 13 - Juanita L. Nepomuceno, former Governor of Pampanga (b. 1914)
September 7 – Romeo Guanzon, former representative of the lone district of Bacolod City. (aged 79)
September 27 – Pablo Cuneta, Filipino politician, former Mayor of Pasay and father of Sharon Cuneta (b. 1910)
September 29 – Maningning Miclat, Filipino poet and painter (b. 1972)
November 24 – Bubby Dacer, Publicist (b. 1934)
December 4 – Tito Arévalo, Filipino actor and musician (b. 1914)
December 22 – Cezar Lacanilao, vice mayor of Alfonso Castañeda, Nueva Vizcaya.
Deaths unknown
Valeriano Abello (b. 1913)
Jun Aristorenas, Filipino actor, director, dancer, producer and writer (b. 1933)
Further reading
Notes
References
2000 in Southeast Asia
Philippines
2000s in the Philippines
Years of the 20th century in the Philippines |
4089671 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanaya | Nanaya | Nanaya (Sumerian , DNA.NA.A; also transcribed as "Nanāy", "Nanaja", "Nanāja", '"Nanāya", or "Nanai"; antiquated transcription: "Nanâ"; in Greek: Ναναια or Νανα; Aramaic: ננױננאױ; Syriac: ܢܢܝ) was a Mesopotamian goddess of love, closely associated with Inanna.
While she is well attested in Mesopotamian textual sources from many periods, from the times of the Third Dynasty of Ur to the conquest of Babylonia by the Achaemenids and beyond, and was among the most commonly worshipped goddesses through much of Mesopotamian history, both her origin and the meaning of her name are unknown. It has been proposed that she originated either as a minor Akkadian goddess or as a hypostasis of Sumerian Inanna, but the evidence is inconclusive.
Her primary role was that of a goddess of love, and she was associated with eroticism and sensuality, though she was also a patron of lovers, including rejected or betrayed ones. Especially in early scholarship she was often assumed to be a goddess of the planet Venus like Inanna, but this view is no longer supported by most Assyriologists.
In addition to Inanna, she could be associated with other deities connected either to love or to the city of Uruk, such as Ishara, Kanisurra or Uṣur-amāssu.
Name and origin
It is accepted in modern literature that "Nanaya" is more likely to be the correct form of the goddess' name than "Nana," sometimes used in past scholarship. The meaning of the name is unknown. Joan Goodnick Westenholz notes that based on the suffix it is most likely Akkadian in origin. She also considers the only possible forerunner of Nanaya to be a goddess whose name was written Na-na, without a divine determinative, known from a few personal names from the earliest records from the Gasur and Diyala areas. The land later known as Namri might be located particularly close to the metaphorical birthplace of Nanaya. However, she notes the evidence is contradictory, as Nanaya herself is not common in later records from the same area, and her cult was centered in Uruk, rather than in the periphery.
Two theories which are now regarded as discredited but which gained some support in past scholarship include the view that Nanaya was in origin an Aramean deity, implausible in the light of Nanaya being attested before the Arameans and their language, and an attempt to explain her name as derived from Elamite, which is unlikely due to her absence from oldest Elamite sources. Occasionally Indo-European etymologies are proposed too, but the notion that there was an Indo-European substrate in Mesopotamia is generally considered to be the product of faulty methodology and words to which such an origin had been attributed in past studies tend to have plausible Sumerian, Semitic or Hurrian origin.
Frans Wiggermann proposes that Nanaya was originally an epithet of Inanna connected to her role as a goddess of love, and that the original form of the name had the meaning "My Inanna!" but eventually developed into a separate, though similar, deity. Olga Drewnowska-Rymarz considers it a possibility that Nanaya was initially a hypostasis of "Inanna as quintessence of womanhood," similar to how Annunitum represented her as a warrior. However, Joan Goodnick Westenholz argued that the view that Nanaya was a manifestation of Inanna in origin should be considered a misconception.
An artificial Sumerian etymology was created for the name in late Babylonian texts, deriving it from NA, "to call," with a feminine suffix, A. A possible translation of this ancient scholarly explanation is "the one who keeps calling" or "the calling one". Invented etymologies were a common topic of late cuneiform commentaries.
Functions and iconography
Nanaya's primary function was that of a goddess of love, and she was referred to as bēlet ru'āmi, "lady of love". The physical aspect of love was particularly strongly associated with her, and texts dedicated to her could be explicit. For example, a cultic song describes her in the following terms: "When you lean the side against the wall, your nakedness is sweet, when [you] bow down, the hips are sweet," and indicates that the goddess was believed to charge fees for sexual services. She was also viewed as a guardian of lovers, according to a text from Sippar (Si 57) titled "The Faithful Lover" and to some spells especially the disillusioned or rejected ones. Joan Goodnick Westenholz describes her character as seen through the Sumerian texts as that of a "sweet erotic lover" and "perpetual lover and beloved".
A characteristic frequently attributed to Nanaya as a goddess of love, present in the majority of royal inscriptions pertaining to her and in many other documents, was described with the Sumerian word ḫili and its Akkadian equivalent kubzu, which can be translated as charm, luxuriance, voluptuousness or sensuality. Joan Goodnick Westenholz favors "sensuality" in translations of epithets involving this term, while Paul-Alain Beaulieu - "voluptuousness." Such titles include belet kubzi, "lady of voluptuousness/sensuality," and nin ḫili šerkandi, "the lady adorned with voluptuousness/sensuality." An inscription of Esarhaddon describes her as "adorned with voluptuousness and joy." However, it was not an attribute exclusively associated with her, and in other sources it is described as a quality of both male and female deities, for example Shamash, Aya, Ishtar and Nisaba.
Nanaya was also associated with kingship, especially in the Isin-Larsa period, when a relationship with her, possibly some type of hieros gamos, was "an aspect of true kingship". Joan Goodnick Westenholz rules out any association between Nanaya and nursing in the context of royal ideology.
Nanaya was also one of the deities believed to protect from the influence of the demon lamashtu, in this role often acting alongside Ishtar.
Nanaya eventually developed a distinctly warlike aspect, mostly present in relation to the so-called "Nanaya Eurshaba", worshipped in Borsippa independently from Nabu. She was instead associated with the god Mār-bīti, described as warlike and as a "terrifying hero", and, like in Uruk, with Uṣur-amāssu. Like Inanna, she could also be identified with Irnina, the deified victory.
According to Joan Goodnick Westenholz it is possible that a further aspect of Nanaya which presently cannot be determined is alluded to in an incantation from Isin, according to which she was the denizen of a location usually regarded as profane rather than sacred, the šutummu, understood as treasury, storehouse or granary. The text contrasts her dwelling place with the dais on which Ishtar sits.
Neo-Babylonian archives from Uruk contain extensive lists of cultic paraphernalia dedicated to Nanaya, including a feathered tiara (presumably similar to that depicted on the kudurru of Meli-Shipak II), a crown, multiple breast ornaments (including breastplates decorated with depictions of snakes and fantastic animals), assorted jewelry and other small valuables like mirrors and cosmetic jars, and a large variety of garments, some of them decorated with golden rosette-shaped sequins).
In a single late text Nanaya is associated with an unidentified spice, ziqqu.
Astral associations
One of the most recurring questions in scholarship about Nanaya through history was her potential association with Venus, or lack thereof. Many early Assyriologists assumed that Nanaya was fully interchangeable with Inanna and likewise a Venus goddess, but in the 1990s Joan Goodnick Westenholz challenged this view, and her conclusions were accepted by most subsequent studies. Westenholz argues that the evidence for an association between Nanaya and the planet Venus is scarce, and an argument can be made that she was more often associated with the moon. Olga Drewnowska-Rymarz, following her research, concluded in her monograph Mesopotamian Goddess Nanajā that Nanaya was not herself a Venus goddess, and at most could acquire some such characteristics due to association or conflation with Inanna/Ishtar. Michael P. Streck and Nathan Wassermann in an article from 2013 also follow the conclusions of Westenholz and do not suggest an association with Venus in discussion of Nanaya as a luminous deity. Piotr Steinkeller nonetheless asserted as recently as 2013 that Nanaya was simply a Venus goddess fully analogous to Inanna, and interchangeable both with her and with Ninsianna, without discussing the current state of research. Ninsianna is well attested as a Venus deity and was associated with Ishtar and the Hurrian form of Pinikir who had similar character, but Nanaya was regarded as a figure distinct from Ninsianna in Uruk and in Larsa.
Corona Borealis was associated with Nanaya in astronomical texts.
Nanaya in art
While references to statues of Nanaya are known from earlier periods, with no less than six mentions already present in documents from the Ur III period, the oldest presently known depiction of her is the kudurru of Kassite king Meli-Shipak II, which shows her in a flounced robe and a crown decorated with feathers. This work of art is regarded as unusual, as the inscription and the deity depicted on the monument are integrated with each other. The other figures depicted on it are the king in mention, Meli-Shipak II, and his daughter Ḫunnubat-Nanaya, who he leads to the enthroned goddess. Above them the symbols of Ishtar, Shamash and Sin are placed, most likely in order to make these deities serve as a guarantee of the land grant described in the accompanying text.
Another possible depiction of Nanaya is present on a kudurru from Borsippa from the reign of Nabu-shuma-ishkun.
On an Aramean pithos from Assur Nanaya is depicted in robes with a pattern of stars and crescents.
A number of Hellenized depictions of Nanaya are known from the Parthian period, one possible example being the figure of a naked goddess discovered as a tomb deposit, wearing a crescent-shaped diadem. Late depictions also often show her with a bow, but it is uncertain if it was a part of her iconography before the Hellenistic period.
Associations with other deities
Deities from the circle of Inanna
God lists consistently associated Nanaya with Inanna and her circle, starting with the so-called Weidner god list from the Ur III period. In the standard arrangement she is placed third in her entourage, after Dumuzi, Inanna's husband, and Ninshubur, her sukkal. Another text enumerates Ninshubur, Nanaya, Bizilla and Kanisurra as Inanna's attendants, preserving Nanaya's place right after the sukkal. In later times Ishtar and Nanaya were considered the main deities of Uruk, with the situation being comparable to Marduk's and Nabu's status in Babylon. While Ishtar was the "Lady of Uruk" (Bēltu-ša-Uruk), Nanaya was the "Queen of Uruk" (Šarrat Uruk).
Many sources present Nanaya as a protégée of Inanna, but only three known texts (a song, a votive formula and an oath) also describe them as mother and daughter, and they might only be epithets implying a close connection between the functions of the two rather than an account of a theological speculation. Olga Drewnowska-Rymarz assumes that the evidence only makes it plausible that king Lipit-Ishtar regarded Nanaya as a daughter of Inanna. Joan Goodnick Westenholz describes the relationship between the two goddesses as "definite if unspecified". Only in very late sources from the first millennium BCE they could be fully conflated with each other. Laura Cousin and Yoko Watai argue that their character was not necessarily perceived as identical even in late periods, and attribute the predominance of Nanaya over Ishtar in Neo-Babylonian theophoric names to her nature being perceived as less capricious.
A variety of epithets associate Nanaya both with Inanna and the Eanna temple, for example "ornament of Eanna", "pride of the Eanna", "the deity who occupies the high throne of the land of Uruk".
As early as in the Ur III period, Nanaya came to be associated with the goddess Bizilla. Her name might mean "she who is pleasing" in Sumerian. God lists could equate them with each other. It is assumed that Bizilla occurs among deities from the court of the prison goddess Nungal in some sources too, though Jeremiah Peterson considers it possible that there might have been two deities with similar names, one associated with Nungal and the other with Nanaya. It is possible that Bizilla was regarded as the sukkal of Enlil's wife Ninlil in Ḫursaĝkalama.
Much like Ninshubur, Nanaya was frequently associated with the lamma goddesses, a class of minor deities believed to intercede between humans and major gods, and in some texts she is called the "lady of lamma." One example comes from inscriptions of Kudur-Mabuk and Rim-Sîn I, who apparently regarded Nanaya as capable of mediating on their behalf with An and Inanna, and of assigning lamma deities to them.
Uṣur-amāssu is another deity who is well attested in connection with Nanaya. Olga Drewnowska-Rymarz notes that some publications regard Uṣur-amāssu to be a cognomen of Nanaya rather than an independent deity. However, they were two distinct deities in Neo-Babylonian Uruk, and Uṣur-amāssu's origin as an originally male deity from the circle of Adad is well attested.
The Elamite goddess Narundi, in Mesopotamia best known for her connection to the Sebitti, was possibly associated with Nanaya or Ishtar.
Kanisurra and Gazbaba
The minor goddess Kanisurra and Gazbaba were regarded as attendants and hairdressers of Nanaya. The latter was associated with the sexual sphere, and her name might be derived from the term kubzu, frequently attested in association with Nanaya. In Šurpu she is described as the "smiling one," which might also point at a connection to eroticism, as smiles are commonly highlighted in Akkadian erotic poetry. Paul-Alain Bealieu notes that association with Nanaya is the best attested characteristic of the otherwise enigmatic Kanisurra, and that her name might therefore simply be an Akkadian or otherwise non-standard pronunciation of ganzer, a Sumerian term for the underworld or its entrance.
It is commonly assumed that both Kanisurra and Gazbaba were daughters of Nanaya. However, as remarked by Gioele Zisa there is however no direct evidence in favor of this interpretation. In the Weidner god list, the line explaining whose daughter Kanisurra is, is not preserved.
In one text from the Maqlû corpus Ishtar, Dumuzi, Nanaya identified as "lady of love") and Kanisurra (identified as "mistress of the witches", bēlet kaššāpāti) were asked to counter the influence of a malevolent spell. In some love incantations, Ishtar, Nanaya, Kanisurra and Gazbaba are invoked together. Another goddess sometimes associated with combinations of them in such texts was Ishara.
In late texts Kanisurra and Gazbaba are collectively labeled as "Daughters of Ezida". Most groups of such "divine daughters" are known from northern Mesopotamia: Ezida in Borsippa, Esagil in Babylon, Emeslam in Kutha, Edubba in Kish, Ebabbar in Sippar, Eibbi-Anum in Dilbat, and from an unidentified temple of Ningublaga, though examples are also known from Uruk, Nippur, Eridu and even Arbela in Assyria. Based on the fact that daughters of Esagil and of Ezida are identified as members of courts of Sarpanit and of Nanaya respectively, specifically as their hairdressers, it has been proposed by Andrew R. George that these pairs of goddesses were imagined as maidservants in the household of the major deity or deities of a given temple.
Marital status
In love incantations, Nanaya occurs with an anonymous lover in parallel with Ishtar/Inanna with Dumuzi and Ishara with almanu, a common noun of uncertain meaning whose proposed translations include "widower," "man without family obligations," or perhaps simply "lover."
In some early sources Nanaya's spouse was the sparsely attested god Muati, though from the Kassite period onward she started to be associated with Nabu instead. She sometimes appeared as part of a trinity in which Nabu's original spouse Tashmetum was also included. In the role of Nabu's spouse Nanaya could be referred to as kalat Esagil, "daughter in law of Esagil", which reflected a connection to Nabu's father Marduk. Both Nanaya and Tashmetum could be called the "queen of Borsippa", though the former eventually overshadowed the latter in that city. Tashmetum however retains the role of spouse of Nabu in most Neo-Assyrian sources, and was worshipped in this role in Kalhu and Nineveh. The evidence of worship of Nanaya in the same areas is inconclusive.
In the first millennium BCE pairing Nabu with Nanaya in some cases, for example in Uruk, represented efforts to subordinate the pantheons of various areas of Mesopotamia to the dominant state ideology of the Babylonian empire, which elevated Marduk and Nabu above other deities.
One late Babylonian litany assigns the epithets of Tashmetum, but also Ninlil and Sarpanit, to Nanaya.
Parentage
Urash, the city god of Dilbat, could be identified as Nanaya's father. She was sometimes specifically called his firstborn daughter, and she had a connection to his main temple, Eibbi-Anum. This parentage is especially commonly mentioned in emesal texts, where "firstborn of the god Urash" is the most commonly recurring phrase describing her. Another of Urash's children was the underworld deity Lagamal, while his wife was Ninegal. In one neo-Babylonian ritual text, Nanaya and Urash, paired with Ninegal, appear in a single formula.
Texts from the reign of Rim-Sin I and Samsu-Iluna are the oldest sources to identify her as a daughter of Anu, a view later also present in an inscription of Esarhaddon. Paul-Alain Beaulieu speculates that Nanaya developed in a milieu in which An and Inanna were viewed as a couple, and that she was initially envisioned as their daughter. However, as noted by Olga Drewnowska-Rymarz, direct references to Nanaya being regarded as the daughter of Inanna are not common, and it is possible that an epithet indicating closeness between the deities rather than a statement about actual parentage is meant. References to Nanaya as a daughter of Sin, likely a result of syncretism between her and Ishtar are also known, for example from a hymn from the reign of the neo-Assyrian king Sargon II.
Other attested connections
It is possible that the goddess Ninḫilisu (Sumerian: "graceful lady"), who was worshipped in Ur III Umma where she was served by a gudu4 priest, was related to Nanaya, as elsewhere nin-ḫi-li-sù is attested as her epithet.
In a bilingual Akkadian-Amorite lexical list dated to the Old Babylonian period, Nanaya's Amorite counterpart is Pidray, a goddess otherwise only known from later texts from Ugarit, in which she is treated as analogous to the Hurrian goddess Ḫepat instead.
Worship
First texts mentioning Nanaya come from the period of Shulgi's reign. She is attested in the administrative texts from Puzrish-Dagan, where she is among the 12 deities who received offerings the most frequently. Records also show that queen Shulgi-simti, one of the wives of Shulgi, made offerings to many foreign or minor deities, among them Nanaya, as well as "Allatum" (the Hurrian goddess Allani), Ishara, Belet Nagar, Belet-Šuḫnir and Belet-Terraban.
Her principal cult center was Uruk, where she is already mentioned in year names of kings Irdanene and Sin-Eribam from the Old Babylonian period. Her main temple in that city was Emeurur, "the temple which gathers the me." She was also worshipped in a sanctuary within Eanna, the main temple of Inanna, which was called Ehilianna, "house of luxuriance of heaven." It is possible that it was originally built by the Kassite king Nazi-Maruttash. According to an inscription of Esarhaddon, Eriba-Marduk expanded it. It still functioned in the Seleucid period. Another of her temples located in Uruk was Eshahulla, "house of the joyful heart," built by king Sin-kashid. In neo-Babylonian Uruk, Nanaya was second in rank only to Ishtar in the local pantheon. Paul-Alain Bealieu considers them to be the main pair among the city's quintet of major local goddesses, the other three being Bēltu-ša-Rēš (later replaced by Sharrahitu, a goddess identified with Ashratum, the spouse of Amurru), Uṣur-amāssu and Urkayītu (a theos eponymos of Uruk,) As early as in the Middle Babylonian period, Nanaya was called the "queen of Uruk and Eanna," as attested on a kudurru from Larsa. In Neo-Babylonian sources from Uruk, she is called the "queen of Uruk," while Ishtar was the "lady of Uruk."
Nanaya was among the deities taken away from Uruk when Sennacherib sacked the city, though she was subsequently returned to it by Esarhaddon. Ashurbanipal also claimed that he brought her statue back to Uruk, though he instead states that she spent 1635 years in Elam. It is presently unknown what event his inscriptions refer to, and it might merely be a rhetorical figure. If it refers to a historical event, it is possible that it occurred during the reign of Ebi-Eshuh, during which Elamites raided Sippar and perhaps Kish, though due to lack of any sources other than the aforementioned late annals this cannot be conclusively proven.
Offerings made to Nanaya in neo-Babylonian Uruk included dates, barley, emmer, flour, beer, sweets, cakes, fish and meat of oxen, sheep, lambs, ducks, geese and turtle doves.
After the reorganization of the pantheon of Uruk around Anu and Antu in the Achaemenid and Seleucid periods, Nanaya continued to be worshipped and she is attested as one of the deities whose statues were paraded in Uruk in a ritual procession accompanying Ishtar (rather than Antu) during a New Year celebration. The scale of her popular cult in Uruk grew considerably through Seleucid times.
The name Eshahulla, known from Uruk, was applied to a temple in Larsa built by Kudur-Mabuk and his son Rim-Sin I, which seemingly was also a temple of Inanna, unless two temples with the same name existed in the same city. In Larsa, Nanaya was one of the foremost deities, next to Utu (the city's tutelary god), Inanna, Ishkur and Nergal. Joint offerings to Inanna and Nanaya of Larsa are known from a number of documents. She is also attested as one member of a trinity whose other two members were Innanna and Ninsianna, in which Inanna's functions were seemingly split between the three goddesses, with Nanaya being allotted the role of the love goddess.
In offering lists from the archives of the First Dynasty of Sealand Nanaya appears alongside various hypostases of Inanna, including Inanna of Larsa, though the latter could also be associated with the rainbow goddess Manzat instead. In a single case, Nanaya is also accompanied by Kanisurra in an offering list.
A temple of Nanaya built by Lipit-Ishtar existed in Isin. The oldest recorded hymn dedicated to her also comes from this city. However, there is overall less evidence for the worship of Nanaya in Isin than in Larsa, as the kings of Isin apparently favored the goddesses Ninisina and Ninsianna instead.
In Babylon Nanaya is attested for the first time during the reign of Sumulael, who ordered statues of her and of Inanna to be fashioned in his twenty sixth year on the throne. Later she was worshipped in the Eturkalamma, "house, cattle pen of the land," built by Hammurabi for deities of Uruk - Inanna, Nanaya, Anu and Kanisurra, and later on in the temples Emeurur and Eurshaba, "house, oracle of the heart." A temple named Eurshaba existed in Borsippa too, though Nanaya was worshipped in a chapel in Ezida, the temple of Nabu as well. A late ritual text describes the procession undertaken by Nanaya, her court and various other deities from Borsippa to Kish. A festival celebrating the marriage of Nanaya and Nabu is still attested from Borsippa from Seleucid times. A unique writing of Nanaya's name, dNIN.KA.LI, is known from documents related to it.
In the late Old Babylonian period the cult of Nanaya was also introduced to Kish, where the clergy of Uruk found refuge after abandoning the temporarily destroyed city.
Temples of Nanaya are also attested from Kazallu (Eshahulla, "house of the happy heart"), and from Nerebtum, though the name of the latter is not known, and it is simply called e dNa-na-a-a in known texts.
In Nippur Nanaya had no temple of her own, though offerings to her are attested from a temple of Ninurta located there.
It is possible that Nanaya was worshipped in Der, though the evidence is limited to a list of deities of that city taken away by Shamshi-Adad V during his fifth campaign against Babylonia. Some evidence also exists for offerings made to her in Sippar and in Dur-Kurigalzu.
In Assur, there was a gate named in honor of Nanaya and Uṣur-amāssu. However, it is uncertain if her cult had much presence in northern Mesopotamia.
There is a lot of evidence for private worship of Nanaya, including seals with the phrase "servant of Nanaya" seemingly owned by many women. In incantations related to love (for example asking for feelings to be returned) she is attested as early as in the Ur III and Old Babylonian periods. Numerous theophoric names are attested as well. However, none of them come from the Ur III period, and in the Old Babylonian period they are limited to only a few cities, including Dilbat, Kish, Sippar, Larsa, Ur and most likely Uruk. Over two thirds of the known Old Babylonian names come from the first two of these settlements alone. Both men and women with such names are listed in records. In the neo-Babylonian period, Nanaya was the deity most commonly present in theophoric names of women, with 106 individual women and 52 different names attested. Examples include: Qis-Nanaya ("Gift of Nanaya), Nanaja-šamhat ("Nanaya is the most beautiful"), Nanaya-ilu ("my deity Nanaya"). One historically notable individual bearing such a name was Ḫunnubat-Nanaya, daughter of Babylonian king Melišipak (ca. 1186-1172 BCE), depicted alongside her father and the goddess on a famous kudurru. Another was Iddin-Nanaya, a sanga priest of this goddess active during the reign of king Irdanene of Uruk, apparently responsible for various misdeeds, including the removal of a star symbol from the doors of the Nanaya temple.
Outside Mesopotamia
In offering lists from Ur III period Mari, a goddess named dNin-Na-na-a, seemingly Nanaya with the determinative "lady" (nin) added to her name, appears in among gods introduced from Uruk, alongside Ninshubur, Dumuzi and (Nin-)Bizila. Additionally, a deity of uncertain identity known from Mari and Khana, Nanni, is more likely to be connected to Nanaya than Nanna, as the name is grammatically feminine. In the west Nanaya is also attested in Emar, though only in a god list.
The only known reference to worship of Nanaya among the Hittites comes from a single document mentioning her as the goddess of the town Malidaskuriya in the district of Durmitta, located in the proximity of the middle of the river Kızılırmak. It has been proposed that her worship in that location was a relic of Old Assyrian practices. Possible theophoric names are known from Hittite sources too.
Nanaya was also worshipped in Susa in Elam, where she is particularly well attested in Seleucid times. It is uncertain at which point was she introduced to this city, though it has been proposed her arrival in the local pantheon was connected with the theft of her statue during a raid. Greek authors regarded her as the main goddess of Susa.
Literature
A bilingual Sumero-Akkadian hymn to Nanaya from the first millennium BCE, written in the first person as a self-laudation, describes many other goddesses as manifestations of her, in line with the syncretic tendencies typical for the literature of this time period. Each of them is listed alongside a specific location. Among the goddesses mentioned are Damkina (Eridu and Kullaba), Ninlil (Nippur), Ishara, Bau (both in Kish), Sarpanit (in Babylon), Shala (in Karkar), Annunitum (in Agade), Mammitum (in Kutha), Manzat (in Der), a number of goddesses whose names are not preserved, as well as various forms of Ishtar, including Ishtar of Babylon (described as bearded), Ishtar of Daduni and Ishtar of Uruk. Nanaya herself is assigned two cities, Borsippa and Sippar. No mention is made of Tashmetum. The purpose of this composition was most likely elevation of Nanaya above the other goddesses.
In a mythical explanation of the rites of Egashankalamma (the temple of the Assyrian Ishtar of Arbela) pertaining to the mourning of Ishtaran's death, Nanaya is described as a goddess who provides Bel with an iron arrows.
In the Hurrian tale of Appu six deities are listed alongside the cities where they were worshipped, among them Marduk, Shaushka and Nanaya, whose cult center in this text is Kiššina. Joan Goodnick Westenholz considers it to be an unidentified location, but Volkert Haas assumes the name might be derived from Kish.
Later relevance
In a papyrus from Achaemenid Egypt the formula "Nanaya of Eanna will bless you" occurs. In the following Hellenic period, her cult spread to various distant locations, including Armenia, Sogdia and Bactria, though it has been pointed out that the goddess in mention was the result of a process of Hellenistic syncretism and it is difficult to tell which of her features had their origin in the Mesopotamian image of Nanaya. It has been proposed that Parthian coinage was in part responsible for her spread, though no known coins explicitly identify any figures depicted on them as her. The first attested reference to Nanaya in Bactria is a coin of Yuezhi ruler Sapadbizes. Later she occurs in an inscription of Kushan emperor Kanishka, who proclaimed that he received kingship from her. She also appears on Kushan coins. Her name is always spelled as "Nanaia" in Greek, but as "Nana" in Bactrian. The iconography associated with her is entirely Hellenic in origin, rather than Mesopotamian, though her position as a giver of kingship might be derived from Mesopotamian tradition.
Nanaya is mentioned in the Second Book of Maccabees. She also appears in Acts of Mar Mu'ain, according to which Sasanian king Shapur II ordered the eponymous Syriac saint to make offerings to various deities, including her. Dedications to Nanaya, written in Pahlavi scripts, appear on some jewelry from the Sasanian period. However, there is no evidence that the rulers from this dynasty were involved in her cult, similar evidence is also lacking for the Achaemenid emperors from the earlier period of Persian history.
The last Mesopotamian reference to Nanaya appears in a Mandean spell from Nippur dated to the fifth or sixth century in which she appears alongside Shamash, Sin, Bel and Nergal, though all of these deities, including her, appear to be treated as male in this case, indicating that the precise identity of the figures invoked was already forgotten.
Some late references to a goddess partially derived from Nanaya are known from Sogdia, where a Greek and Kushan-influenced version of her was worshipped in Panjakent as late as in the eighth century. Her depictions in Sogdian art have no clear forerunners in earlier tradition, and appear to be based on four-armed Mahayana Buddhist figures.
Syriac scholar Bar Bahlul, active around the year 1000, in his Syriac-Arabic dictionary defined Nanaya as a name which Arabs purportedly applied to the planet Venus. This is the last known pre-modern reference to Nanaya.
References
Bibliography
External links
A tigi to Nanaya for Išbi-Erra (Išbi-Erra C) in the Electronic Text Corpus of Sumerian Literature
A balbale to Inana as Nanaya (Inana H) in the Electronic Text Corpus of Sumerian Literature
A German translation of Appu (CTH 360.1) in Mythen der Hethiter. Das Projekt of the University of Marburg
Mesopotamian goddesses
Love and lust goddesses
War goddesses
Inanna |
4089847 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germany%E2%80%93Russia%20relations | Germany–Russia relations | Germany–Russia relations display cyclical patterns, moving back and forth from cooperation and alliance to strain and to total warfare. Historian John Wheeler-Bennett says that since the 1740s:
Relations between Russia and Germany...have been a series of alienations, distinguished for their bitterness, and of rapprochements, remarkable for their warmth....A cardinal factor in the relationship has been the existence of an independent Poland...when separated by a buffer state the two great Powers of eastern Europe have been friendly, whereas a contiguity of frontiers has bred hostility.
Otto von Bismarck established the League of the Three Emperors in 1873 with Russia, Germany, and Austria-Hungary. But after Bismarck's dismissal in 1890, his successors chose to support Austria against Russia over competing influence in the Balkans. Germany fought against Russia in World War I (1914–1918). Relations were warm in the 1920s, very cold in the 1930s, friendly in 1939–41, and then turned into war to the death in 1941–45. In the 1920s both countries co-operated with each other in trade and (secretly) in military affairs. Hostilities escalated in the 1930s as the Fascists sponsored by Berlin and the Communists sponsored by Moscow fought each other across the world, most famously in the Spanish Civil War (1936–39). In a stunning turnabout in August 1939, both countries came to an agreement, and divided up the previously independent nations of Eastern Europe. That détente collapsed in 1941 when Germany invaded the USSR. The Soviets survived however and formed an alliance with Britain and the U.S., and pushed the Germans back, capturing Berlin in May 1945.
During the Cold War 1947–1991, Germany was divided, with East Germany under Communist control and under the close watch of Moscow, which stationed a large military force there and repressed an uprising in 1953. Since the end of the Cold War and German reunification, in 1989–91, Germany and Russia have developed a "Strategic Partnership" in which energy is indisputably one of the most important factors. Germany and Russia depend on each other for energy, namely in Germany's need for energy from Russia and Russia's need for heavy German investment to develop its energy infrastructure.
According to a 2014 BBC World Service poll, only 21% of Germans view Russia's influence positively, which is on a par with the United States of America. Russians, however, have a much more positive view of Germany than Germans do of Russia, with 57% viewing Germany's influence positively and 12% negatively.
Relations turned highly negative in 2014 in response to Russia's seizure of Crimea from Ukraine and support for insurgents in Ukraine. Germany was a leader between NATO Quint in imposing round after round of increasingly harsh European Union sanctions against the Russian oil and banking industries and top allies of President Vladimir Putin. Russia responded by cutting food imports from the EU.
The 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine led to a near complete reversal of German-Russian relations with the new German Chancellor, Olaf Scholz, "ordering" the immediate transfer of thousands of missiles to the Ukrainian military to aid in its fight against the invading Russian forces. Germany has also participated in severe economic banking sanctions against Russia since the start of the war. However, Germany is very dependent on Russia for natural gas and has been less willing to sanction this sector, aside from halting the Nord Stream 2 gas pipeline and the attack on September 26 temporarily shutting the pipes down. The pipeline made up a significant portion of Germany's petroleum imports from Russia. In response to sanctions imposed by Germany and the West, Russia gradually plunged flows of gas, which came to a complete halt in September 2022.
History
Early history
The earliest contact between Germans and East Slavs is unknown, though evidence of East Germanic loan-words suggest Slavic interactions with the Goths. Substantive historically recorded contact goes back to the times of the Teutonic Knights' campaigns in the Baltic, where the Knights took control of the land in the 13th century CE. Prince Alexander Nevsky defeated the Teutonic Knights at the Battle of the Ice in 1242.
Russia before the mid-18th century stood largely aloof from German affairs, while Germany, until the Napoleonic period, remained divided into numerous small states under the nominal leadership of the Holy Roman Emperor.
After Russia's Great Northern War of 1700-1721 against Sweden, however, Russia's influence spread definitively into the Baltic area.
German migrations eastward
Over the centuries, from the Middle Ages onwards, German settlers steadily moved eastward, often into mostly Slavic areas and areas near to or controlled by Russia. Flegel points out that German farmers, traders and entrepreneurs moved into East and West Prussia, the Baltic region (Lithuania, Latvia and Estonia), the Danzig and Vistula River region, Galicia, Slovenia, the Banat, the Bachka, Bukovina, Transylvania, the Volga River district of Russia, Posen, the Duchy of Warsaw, Polish and Ukrainian Volhynia, Bessarabia, and the Mount Ararat region between the 17th and the 20th centuries. Often they came at the invitation of Russian governments. The Germans typically became the dominant factors in land-owning and in business enterprise. Some groups, such as part of the Mennonites, migrated to North America 1860–1914. The Germans in the Baltic states returned home voluntarily in 1940. Some 12 to 14 million were brutally expelled from Poland, Czechoslovakia and other countries in Eastern Europe in 1944–46, with the death of 500,000 or more. When the Cold War ended Germany funded the return of hundreds of thousands of people of German descent, whether or not they spoke German.
A number of Baltic Germans served as ranking generals in the Russian Imperial Army and Navy, including Michael Barclay de Tolly, Adam von Krusenstern, Fabian von Bellingshausen, Friedrich von Buxhoeveden, Paul von Rennenkampf, Ivan Ivanovich Michelson and Eduard Totleben.
Many Baltic Germans (such as Baron Roman von Ungern-Sternberg, Baron Pyotr Nikolayevich Wrangel, Yevgeny Miller, and Anatoly Lieven) sided with the Whites and related anti-Bolshevik forces (like the Baltische Landeswehr and the Freikorps movement) during the Russian Civil War.
Prussia and Russia
With the creation of the Kingdom of Prussia in 1701 and the proclamation of the Russian Empire in 1721, two powerful new states emerged that began to interact.
They fought on opposite sides during the War of the Austrian Succession (1740 – 1748), but the war saw both grow in power. Russia defeated Sweden and Prussia defeated Austria. Russia and Prussia again were at odds during the Seven Years' War (1756–1763) and fought the battles of Gross-Jägersdorf, Zorndorf, Kay and Kunersdorf. However, when Russian Tsar Peter III came to power, he made peace with Prussia by signing the Treaty of Saint Petersburg, allowing Prussian King Frederick the Great to concentrate on his other enemies.
Prussia and Russia in agreement with Austria then cooperated to carve up Poland-Lithuania between them in 1772, 1793, and 1795. Poland disappeared from the map.
Both Russia and Prussia had absolute monarchies that reacted sharply when the French Revolution executed the king. They at first were part of the coalition against the new French regime during the French Revolutionary Wars and later the Napoleonic Wars. During the Napoleonic era (1799 to 1815) Austria, Prussia, and Russia were at one time or another in coalition with Napoleon against his arch-enemy Great Britain. In the end, the two German states of Austria and Prussia united with Russia and Britain in opposing Napoleon. That coalition was primarily a matter of convenience for each nation. The key matchmaker was the Austrian Chancellor Klemens von Metternich, who forged a united front that proved decisive in overthrowing Napoleon, 1813–1814.
Russia was the most powerful force on the continent after 1815 and played a major role in the Concert of Europe which included France, Russia, Austria and Britain, but not Prussia. In 1815, the Holy Alliance consisting of Prussia, Russia and Austria was completed in Paris. For forty years (1816–56) Russian-German diplomat Karl Nesselrode as foreign minister guided Russian foreign policy. The revolutions of 1848 did not reach Russia, but its political and economic system was inadequate to maintain a modern army. It did poorly in the Crimean War. As Fuller notes, "Russia had been beaten on the Crimean peninsula, and the military feared that it would inevitably be beaten again unless steps were taken to surmount its military weakness." The Crimean War marked the end of the Concert of Europe. Prussia was shaken by the Revolutions of 1848 but was able to withstand the revolutionaries' call to war against Russia. Prussia did go to war with Denmark, however, and was only stopped by British and Russian pressure. Prussia remained neutral in the Crimean War.
Prussia's successes in the Wars of German Unification in the 1860s were facilitated by Russia's lack of involvement. The creation of the German Empire under Prussian dominance in 1871, however, greatly changed the relations between the two countries.
The German and Russian Empires
Initially, it seemed as if the two great empires would be strong allies. German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck formed the League of the Three Emperors in 1872 binding together Russia, Austria, and Germany. The League stated that republicanism and socialism were common enemies, and that the three powers would discuss any matters concerning foreign policy. Bismarck needed good relations with Russia in order to keep France isolated. In 1877–1878, Russia fought a victorious war with the Ottoman Empire and attempted to impose the Treaty of San Stefano on it. This upset the British in particular, as they were long concerned with preserving the Ottoman Empire and preventing a Russian takeover of the Bosphorus. Germany hosted the Congress of Berlin (1878), whereby a more moderate peace settlement was agreed to. Germany had no direct interest in the Balkans, however, which was largely an Austrian and Russian sphere of influence.
In 1879, Bismarck formed a Dual Alliance of Germany and Austria-Hungary, with the aim of mutual military assistance in the case of an attack from Russia, which was not satisfied with the agreement reached at the Congress of Berlin. The establishment of the Dual Alliance led Russia to take a more conciliatory stance, and in 1887, the so-called Reinsurance Treaty was signed between Germany and Russia: in it, the two powers agreed on mutual military support in the case that France attacked Germany, or in case of an Austrian attack on Russia. Russia turned its attention eastward to Asia and remained largely inactive in European politics for the next 25 years.
Germany was somewhat worried about Russia's potential industrialization—it had far more potential soldiers—while Russia feared Germany's already established industrial power. In 1907 Russia went into a coalition with Britain and France, the Triple Entente.
The ultimate result of this was that Russia and Germany became enemies in World War I. The Eastern Front saw Germany successful, with victories at Tannenberg, First and Second Masurian Lakes and Lake Naroch. The czarist system collapsed in 1917. The Bolsheviks came to power in the October Revolution. The new regime signed the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk which was highly advantageous to Germany, although it was reversed when Germany surrendered to the Allies in November 1918.
Interwar period
After the peace treaties that ended the Great War, the newly created states of the Weimar Republic and the Soviet Union both found themselves outcasts in the international system and gravitated toward each other. The Treaty of Rapallo (1922) formalized their warming relationship. Until 1933 the Soviet Union secretly provided training camps for the German Armed Forces.
The coming to power in 1933 of Adolf Hitler and the creation of the Nazi state with its virulent anti-Semitic and anti-communist rhetoric made for extremely hostile propaganda in both directions. Nazi propaganda, across Europe and Latin America, focused on warnings against Jewish and Bolshevik threats emanating from Moscow. The Comintern, representing Moscow's international Communist network, moved to a popular front approach after 1934, allowing the Communists worldwide to cooperate with socialists, intellectuals and workers on the left in opposing Fascism. The worldwide left-wing support for the Republicans in the Spanish Civil War (1936–39) proved of enormous aid to the Communist cause. Germany and the Soviets both sent military forces and advisors into Spain, as did Italy.
The Spanish Civil War was in part a proxy war. The Nationalists led by General Francisco Franco and the Republican government fought it out for the control of the country. Militarily, the Nationalists usually had the upper hand and they won in the end. Germany sent in the Condor Legion comprising elite air and tank units to the Nationalist forces. The Soviet Union sent military and political advisors, and sold munitions in support of the "Loyalist," or Republican, side. The Comintern helped Communist parties around the world send volunteers to the International Brigades that fought for the Loyalists.
In August 1939 the two totalitarian states stunned the world by coming to a major agreement, the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact. They agreed to invade and partition Poland and divided up Eastern Europe. The Soviets provided Germany with oil and reversed the anti-Nazi rhetoric of Communist parties around the world. At the same time, the Soviet and German interests were not reconciled in the Balkano-Danubian region. Thus, during 1940-1941 hot Soviet-German discussions concerning a new division of the South-Eastern Europe were going on. In June 1940, Moscow recognized that Slovakia was in the German sphere of influence. Otherwise, Russian request for the exclusive influence in Romania, Bulgaria and Turkey was rejected by Berlin in November 1940.
German invasion of Soviet Union and World War II
In 1941, it was Russia's turn, yet Joseph Stalin refused to believe the multiple warnings of a German invasion. Operation Barbarossa began in June 1941, captured or destroyed multiple Soviet armies, and reached the gates of Moscow by December. Stalin fought back and forged close relations with Britain and the United States, both of which provided large amounts of munitions.
The Eastern Front became the horrendous ideological and race war with more than 27 million killed, including Soviet prisoners of war and Jews. It was perhaps the bloodiest conflict in human history.
After the war: the Soviet Union and the two German states
The defeat of Germany by the Soviets and the Western allies eventually led to the occupation and partition of Germany and the expulsions of most ethnic-Germans from Soviet-conquered areas.
The creation of West Germany and East Germany complicated relations. West Germany initially tried to claim that it was the only German state and the East was illegitimate and under the Hallstein Doctrine refused to have relation with any socialist state except the Soviet Union itself. This policy eventually gave way to Ostpolitik, under which West Germany recognized the East.
Gorbachev gave up on trying to support the deeply unpopular East German government. After the Revolutions of 1989 and the fall of the Berlin Wall, Germany was allowed to reunite by the World War II Allies. The Communist regime in East Germany collapsed and the country became part of West Germany. One issue was the presence of large numbers of Soviet troops; West Germany paid for their repatriation for housing them in the USSR.
Remarkably, despite the two 20th century wars, there are very few hard feelings against Germany in modern Russia, particularly on the part of Russians born after 1945. Moreover, in many places in Russia German war cemeteries were established in places of fierce World War II battles.
Federal Republic of Germany and the Russian Federation
Relations between the two nations since the fall of Communism in 1991 have been generally good but not always without tension. German chancellor Gerhard Schröder placed high value on relations with Russia and worked for the completion of the Nord Stream 1 gas pipeline between them. His successor Angela Merkel, an Easterner and former dissident, has been more critical and clashed with Russian president Vladimir Putin over human rights and other issues. However, she, like her predecessor, always put a high value on the Nordstream pipeline, due to its ability to increase Russian influence. Most of the human rights issues could be seen as side-shows for the public - whilst the end-goal was always the completion of, and compensation for, NordStream. The project under both the Bush and Obama administration moved forward at rapid pace, but with only 300 km left, the Trump Administration halted the project by putting pressure on the Danish company overseeing the completion of the pipeline. Germany's relations with Russia were never likely to be as cozy under Angela Merkel as under her predecessor, Gerhard Schröder, who adopted a 3-year-old Russian girl and, on his 60th birthday, invited President Vladimir V. Putin home to celebrate.
Germany created a German-Russian Forum () in 1993. Alexandra Gräfin Lambsdorff was its first president.
21st century
After the failure of the Soviet Union and troubles of the early Russian Federation, a policy of rapprochement named Wandel durch Handel ensued.
In 2007 then-Minister of Foreign Affairs Frank-Walter Steinmeier published a long article explaining his rationale on EU being such a exceptional role model on international cooperation that Putinite Russia will unavoidably get "like us" by merely "intertwining of interests" (Verflechtung), and also that "a pan-European peace order and a lasting solution to important security problems (…) can only be achieved with Russia, not without it or even against it".
Even after the five-day Russo-Georgian War in August 2008, Steinmeier argued for a new Ostpolitik and proposed a comprehensive project of ‘Partnership for Modernisation’ – a continued attempt of ‘westernisation’ of Russia and thus an export of norms, institutions and procedures of the western community. Relations were normal in the first part of the new century, with expanding trade relations and an increasing German reliance on pipeline shipments of Russian natural gas, especially in light of the November 2011 completion of the Nord Stream 1 pipeline. Generations of German foreign ministers helped over many years to admit Putin into the WTO, which occurred after a span of two decades in 2011.
Relations turned negative in 2014 in response to Russia's seizure of Crimea from Ukraine and support for insurgents in Ukraine. Germany was a leader between NATO Quint in imposing round after round of increasingly harsh sanctions against the Russian oil and banking industries and top allies of President Putin. Russia responded by cutting food imports from the EU.
Since the crisis began, Chancellor Angela Merkel told President Putin that the referendum on accession of Crimea to Russia is illegal.
2014–2021
The European Union, the United States and their allies began using economic sanctions to force Russia to reverse course regarding Ukraine and stop supporting 2014 pro-Russian unrest in Ukraine. The Los Angeles Times reported that:
Merkel and her fellow Western leaders are angered by Russia's actions in Ukraine, especially its seizure of Crimea, support for pro-Russia separatists in eastern Ukraine and fresh military incursion. Moscow's denial that it has any involvement in Ukraine's blood conflict only irks them more. The German chancellor has signaled a tougher stance toward Russia, spelling out her willingness to sacrifice German economic interests and further boost sanctions to send a strong message that Moscow's actions are unacceptable. [She said,] "Being able to change borders in Europe without consequences, and attacking other countries with troops, is in my view a far greater danger than having to accept certain disadvantages for the economy."
On the left, however, former Social Democrat Chancellor Gerhard Schröder announced his understanding of Russian policies and support for Putin. The New York Times editorialized that Schröder's decision to "embrace him [Putin] in a bear hug sent an unacceptable signal that some prominent Europeans are willing to ignore Mr. Putin's brutish ways." According to the Russian news agency ITAR/TASS in September 2014, Russia's Prime Minister Dmitry Medvedev admitted the sanctions are hurting the Russian economy and slowing its growth. However he expected to support oil industries that are hurt, to seek financing and high technology from Asia, and to import food from new sources. Germany also tried to persuade Russia to return to the Treaty on Conventional Armed Forces in Europe, which it had abrogated in March 2015. Even as late as 2016, "German leaders rejected the proposal to send weapons to the post-Maidan Ukrainian government, as advocated by Republican congressmen in the US and treated as a possibility by Barack Obama, since pursuit of a military solution to the conflict collided with Germany’s post-war pacific security culture."
Germany has traditionally been one of Russia's key economic partners. The annual trade turnover between the two countries had exceeded the $80 billion-level just before the sanctions were imposed. It is estimated that mutual sanctions entailed the decline in the bilateral trade volume of up to 20% that meant billions of losses for the German economy and, obviously, many jobs being cut. By early 2014, when the conflict was about to start, not only did German exports to Russia constitute the third of the whole EU's, but more than 6,200 German firms operated in Russia itself. In 2017, for the first time since the introduction of anti-Russian sanctions in 2014, bilateral trade increased - by 22.8%, amounting to about $50 billion. In the first eight months of 2018, the volume of mutual trade between Russia and Germany increased by almost a quarter compared to the same period last year. At the same time, Russian exports to Germany in 2018 increased by 35% to $22.1 billion, while imports rose by 12% to $16.9 billion.
Russians believe their main enemies in the world are the U.S., Ukraine, Poland, Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania, with 62 percent of Russians polled have a poor opinion of the EU, while Germany is rated poorly, according to a Levada Center poll that measures sentiments towards other countries. Belarus, Kazakhstan, Cuba, China, India and Armenia are Russia's best friends in the world, according to the poll asking which countries do Russians see favorably. Nonetheless, Russians are most hostile towards the United States, with 82 percent of Russians polled picking America as a top-five enemy. Ukraine came second, with 48 percent of those polled believing the country is a foe. Germany, while not rated favorably, is seen with a friendlier attitude by Russians.
A Levada poll released in August 2018 found that 68% of Russian respondents believe that Russia needs to dramatically improve relations with Western countries, including Germany. A Levada poll released in February 2020 found that 80% of Russian respondents believe that Russia and the West should become friends and partners.
The East StratCom Task Force of the European External Action Service registered an increase in false information propagated in Russia about Germany as a result of the deterioration in German-Russian relations developed since the Poisoning of Alexei Navalny.
In October 2021, German Defense Minister Annegret Kramp-Karrenbauer had talked about the possibility of deploying nuclear weapons against Russia. She noted that nuclear weapons are a "means of deterrence."
2022–present
After the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine started, Germany, as one of the EU countries, imposed sanctions on Russia, and Russia added all EU countries to the list of "unfriendly nations". Germany joined other countries in spring 2022 in declaring a number of Russian diplomats persona non grata.
In April 2022, the German government said it will send 1 billion euros in military aid to Ukraine. On 17 May 2022, German Finance Minister Christian Lindner said he is "politically open to the idea of seizing" the frozen foreign-exchange reserves of the Central Bank of Russia —which amount to over $300 billion— to cover the costs of rebuilding Ukraine after the war. Russian Deputy Foreign Minister Alexander Grushko remarked that it would amount to "complete lawlessness", and that the measure would hurt Germany if adopted.
German Riol Chemie GmbH has allegedly illegally delivered chemicals to Russia, including precursor for Novichok.
In late 2022, Germany announced its first trade deficit since 1991, after it introduced a Russian oil embargo. The country has been buckling under an acute energy shortage, approving cost-intensive subsidies to protect households from soaring energy bills. In fall 2022, Russia had halted gas flows via the Nord Stream 1 pipeline several times, blaming Western sanctions against Russia. Russia's foreign ministry blamed the United States for Germany's energy crisis, by pushing its leaders towards a "suicidal" step of cutting economic and energy cooperation with Moscow, which he claimed had been a reliable energy supplier since Soviet times, despite previous Russian-Ukrainian gas disputes having affected Russia's natural gas supply to Europe in 2006 and 2009.
The discussion on the legitimacy of economic sanctions against Russia had a significant impact on Germany's political landscape. Parties to the right (AfD) and to the left (Die Linke) are split on the issue whether economic sanctions are effective to stop the conflict, and how they impact the German economy. Proponents of the right wanted to support the Nord Stream 2 pipeline, while politicians to the left have voiced similar concerns with regard to Germany's economic viability.
In April 2023, Germany expelled 50 Russian diplomats, the action was reportedly taken "in order to reduce the presence of Russian intelligence in Germany". Russia closed four of the five Russian Consulates in Germany. The Russian Ministry of Foreign Affairs responded by expelling 34 German diplomats from Moscow, stating that Germany "continues to demonstratively destroy the entire array of Russian-German relations". In May 2023, the German Foreign Ministry stated that hundreds of Germans would be expelled from Moscow at the beginning of June, this due to a decision by Russia to cap the number of German employees in the country. Those expelled include employees from the German School Moscow.
Russians in Germany
Since German reunification, Germany is home to a fast-growing and large community of people of Russian ancestry who have moved to Germany as full citizens. In the 1990s, some 100,000 to 200,000 arrived annually. Germany also has funded the communities that remain behind in Russia.
Education
Russian international schools in Germany include the Russian Embassy School in Berlin and the Russian Consulate School in Bonn. There is a German school in Russia: German School Moscow.
Cooperation
Russia regards Germany as its foremost European partner; conversely, Russia is an important trading partner for Germany.
Germany and Russia are cooperating in building the Nord Stream 1 gas pipeline.
Many former East Germans have a good command of the Russian language and considerable knowledge about Russia. The German language is in a firm second place (behind English) at Russian schools. President Putin speaks German at a near-native level, Chancellor Merkel speaks Russian fluently and both leaders also have a strong command of English. On 11 April 2005, a "Joint Declaration on a Strategic Partnership in Education, Research and Innovation" was signed by Chancellor Schröder and President Putin. This accord aims at stepping up bilateral cooperation in the education sector, particularly in training specialist and executive personnel.
Germany has a heavy industry with the size and capacity to modernize infrastructure in Russia. Russia in turn has vast natural resources which are of significant interest to the German economy.
A major success in environment policy is Russia's ratification of the Kyoto Protocol on 27 October 2004, which will also bring economic benefits.
Germany was a strong supporter for Russia's participation in the Group of 8.
Germany along with France and Russia opposed Ukrainian and Georgian invitations to NATO during NATO's Bucharest summit in 2008. Consequently, NATO did not invite Ukraine and Georgia to MAP (Membership Action Plan).
Embassies
The Embassy of Germany is located in Moscow, Russia. The Embassy of Russia is located in Berlin, Germany.
See also
Russia in the European energy sector
Germany–Soviet Union relations before 1941
Cold War II
References
Bibliography
Berkhoff, Karel C. Harvest of Despair: Life and Death in Ukraine under Nazi Rule (Belknap, 2004)
Beyrau, Dietrich, and Mark Keck-Szajbel. "Mortal Embrace: Germans and (Soviet) Russians in the First Half of the 20th Century," Kritika: Explorations in Russian and Eurasian History, Volume 10, Number 3, Summer 2009 pp. 423–439
Burleigh, Michael. Germany turns eastwards: a study of Ostforschung in the Third Reich (1988)
David-Fox, Michael, Peter Holquist, and Alexander M. Martin, eds. Fascination and Enmity: Russia and Germany as Entangled Histories, 1914-1945 (U. of Pittsburgh Press; 2012) 392 pages; considers the perceptions and misperceptions on both sides
Dulian, A. "The Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact: Historical Background," International Affairs: A Russian Journal of World Politics, Diplomacy & International Relations, 2009, Vol. 55 Issue 6, pp 181–187
Dyck, Harvey L. Weimar Germany and Soviet Russia, 1926-1933 (1984)
Forsberg, Tuomas. "From Ostpolitik to ‘frostpolitik’? Merkel, Putin and German foreign policy towards Russia." International Affairs 92.1 (2016): 21-42 online
Geyer, Michael, and Sheila Fitzpatrick, eds. Beyond Totalitarianism: Stalinism and Nazism Compared (Cambridge University Press, 2009).
Haslam, Jonathan. "Soviet-German Relations and the Origins of the Second World War: The Jury is Still Out," Journal of Modern History, 79 (1997), pp. 785–97 in JSTOR
Jacobs, Jonathan. "Between Westbindung and Ostpolitik: Reconceptualising German-Russian Relations 2014-2017." (2019). online
Jelavich, Barbara. St. Petersburg and Moscow: tsarist and Soviet foreign policy, 1814-1974 (1974).
Kuklick, Bruce American Policy and the Division of Germany: The Clash with Russia over Reparations (Cornell U. Press, 1972)
Laqueur, Walter. Russia and Germany (1965), covers what Russians and Germans thought of each other, 1860–1960.
Leach, Barry A. German Strategy Against Russia, 1939-41 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1973)
Lieven, Dominic. Russia against Napoleon: the battle for Europe, 1807 to 1814 (2009)
Liulevicius, Vejas Gabriel. War on the Eastern Front: Culture, National Identity, and German Occupation in World War I (Cambridge University Press, 2000)
Liulevicius, Vejas Gabriel. The German myth of the East: 1800 to the present (Oxford University Press, 2010)
Naimark, Norman M. The Russians in Germany: A History of the Soviet Zone of Occupation, 1945-1949 (1997)
Nekrich, Aleksandr Moiseevich. Pariahs, partners, predators: German-Soviet relations, 1922-1941 (Columbia University Press, 1997).
Overy, Richard. The Dictators: Hitler's Germany and Stalin's Russia (2005)
Roberts, Geoffrey. The Soviet Union and the Origins of the Second World War: Russo-German Relations and the Road to War, 1933-41 (1995)
Salzmann, Stephanie. Great Britain, Germany and the Soviet Union: Rapallo and after, 1922-1934 (2002)
Schroeder, Paul W. The transformation of European politics, 1763-1848 (1994) detailed diplomatic history covering Prusia and Russia (and the other major powers)
Stent, Angela. Russia and Germany Reborn (2000) on 1990s
Taylor, A.J.P. The Struggle for Master in Europe: 1848-1918 (1954), a broad overview of the diplomacy of all the major powers
Uldricks, Teddy J. "War, Politics and Memory: Russian Historians Reevaluate the Origins of World War II," History and Memory 21#2 (2009), pp. 60–2 online; historiography
Watt, Donald Cameron. How War Came: The Immediate Origins of the Second World War; 1938-1939 (1989), pp. 361–84, 447–61.
Weinberg, Gerhard L. Germany and the Soviet Union 1939-1941 (1972)
Williamson, Jr., Samuel R. and Ernest R. May. "An Identity of Opinion: Historians and July 1914," Journal of Modern History, June 2007, Vol. 79 Issue 2, pp 335–387 in JSTOR
Yoder, Jennifer A. "From Amity to Enmity: German-Russian Relations in the Post Cold War Period." German Politics & Society 33#3 (2015): 49–69.
External links
Petersburger Dialogue (in German and Russian only)
Bergedorfer Round Table
Russia
Bilateral relations of Russia |
4090487 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saskatchewan%20Highway%201 | Saskatchewan Highway 1 | Highway 1 is the Saskatchewan section of the Trans-Canada Highway mainland route. The total distance of the Trans-Canada Highway in Saskatchewan is . The highway traverses Saskatchewan from the western border with Alberta, from Highway 1, to the Manitoba border where it continues as PTH 1. The Trans-Canada Highway Act was passed on December 10, 1949. The Saskatchewan segment was completed August 21, 1957, and completely twinned on November 6, 2008. The speed limit along the majority of the route is 110 kilometres per hour (70 mph) with urban area thoroughfares slowing to a speed of 80–100 kilometres per hour (50–62 mph). Portions of the highway—the section through Swift Current, an section east of Moose Jaw, and a section between the West Regina Bypass and Balgonie—are controlled-access. Highway 1 serves as a major east–west transport route for commercial traffic. It is the main link between southern Saskatchewan's largest cities, and also serves as the province's main link to the neighbouring provinces of Alberta (to the west) and Manitoba (to the east).
The four-lane divided highway passes through three major urban centres of Saskatchewan, Regina, Moose Jaw and Swift Current. A site in the Western Hemisphere Shorebird Reserve Network, an internationally acclaimed shorebird conservation strategy, is at the village of Chaplin approximately equal distance between Swift Current and Moose Jaw. Located southwest of the Trans-Canada is the Cypress Hills Interprovincial Park, which features Fort Walsh and the highest elevation of Saskatchewan. Highway 1 traverses ranch lands, the Missouri Coteau topographical area, and rolling prairie agricultural plains.
The highway generally runs west to east along the route, following parallel with the transcontinental Canadian Pacific Railway route. The Trans-Canada Highway traverses historical settlement areas. The transcontinental railroad of 1885 brought settlers to southern Saskatchewan. Commemorative historical sites along the Trans-Canada Highway mark the historical changes of the 72 years since the CPR came through.
On November 9, 2011, the section between Moose Jaw and Regina was designated "Saskatchewan's Highway of Heroes" to honour province's soldiers who died in service
Origins
The Minister of Mines and Resources held the first Federal-Provincial Conference regarding the Trans-Canada Highway in December, 1948. With consent from all provinces, the Trans–Canada Highway Act was passed on December 10, 1949. Following this a second Federal-Provincial Conference was held to bring together the final details for the agreement. The Highway Act aims for the completion of the Trans–Canada Highway route by December, 1956. The third Federal-Provincial Conference hold April 25, 1950 saw Ontario, Manitoba, British Columbia, Prince Edward Island, Saskatchewan and Alberta sign the agreement which provided federal funding for the proposed transcontinental highway. The shortest and most practical routes could be chosen by each province respectively, given that provinces adjacent to one another agree on the meeting locations. The transcontinental hard-surfaced two lane highway was to have pavement widths of and ; shoulder widths, low gradients and curvature; bridge clearances and sight distances; few railway grade crossings; and be able to bear load capacities of 9 tons an axle. As of 1950, have been agreed to. By 1955, the Trans–Canada Highway program had only seen of highway completed in areas outside of Quebec. of the paved of the Canadian highway Trans–Canada highway system had been completed by November 1, 1955 to Trans–Canada Highway standards. Premier T.C. Douglas presided over the opening ceremonies on August 21, 1957, opening the Saskatchewan segment of the Trans–Canada Highway
The Special Projects Branch of the Department of Resources and Development administers the Trans–Canada highway Act checking specifications, and prior construction. The contributions from the Dominion Government to the provinces may be up to 50 per cent of the cost of construction approved by the Governor in council. The actual construction is controlled by each Provincial Highway Department respectively. The estimated length of mileage for Saskatchewan is of the total .
1957 saw the Saskatchewan portion of the Trans–Canada Highway come to completion, the first province to finish their section in Canada. The year 1962 saw the entire Canadian highway completed which came to a total expenditure of $1.4 billion (about $18.26 billion today). The last of the highway between Moosomin and Wapella was twinned and opened on November 6, 2008, providing a completely twinned corridor. The total cost of twinning was $217 million with the Canadian government contributing $59 million.
History
A First Nation trail used by fur traders, and Red River carts pulling settlers effects was the first path between Moosomin and Fort Ellice, Manitoba. The transcontinental CPR paralleled this trail when coming through in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.
Provincial Highway 4, the precursor of the Trans–Canada Saskatchewan Highway 1 followed the surveyed grade of the transcontinental CPR between the Alberta and Manitoba border. Travel along Provincial Highway 4 before the 1940s would have been travelling on the square following the township road allowances, barbed wire fencing and rail lines. As the surveyed township roads were the easiest to travel, the first highway was designed on 90 degree right angle corners as the distance traversed the prairie along range roads and township roads. Two horse then eight horse scrapers maintained these early dirt roads.
One of the problems that came about was when the Manitoba survey met the Saskatchewan survey. The Manitoba survey allowed for road allowances placed east and west every . This system was followed west of Manitoba until just north of Indian Head. Whereas, the Saskatchewan survey conducted in 1887, allowed for road allowances and placed roads east and west every . The two surveys needed a correction which took years to smooth out.
Agriculture is Saskatchewan's main industry and taking grain to elevators was first accomplished by horse and cart, to be replaced around World War I by truck travel. Long haul trucking flourished between 1950 and 1970, and the trans–Canada was completed across Canada by 1970. Since the 1970s, 17 times the number of grain trucks and 95 per cent of goods transported now are hauled by truck across the Saskatchewan.
Speed limits
From the Alberta border (eastbound from Medicine Hat and Calgary), Highway 1 is a four–lane divided highway with a speed limit of . (Short stretches through the infrequent urban areas are at though). Moose Jaw has 4 lane traffic bypassing the main portion of the city with a strictly enforced speed limit with photo radar. At Regina, the official course is via the Regina Bypass, a controlled-access highway located south of the city that opened in October 2019, and has a speed limit of . After Regina, Highway 1 continues onward to Brandon and Winnipeg.
Communities
Alberta to Swift Current
Travelling west along the highway on the Alberta side, Highway 1 reaches Medicine Hat, Brooks, and Calgary. Travelling east, the highway begins near Walsh, Alberta and crosses into Saskatchewan entering into the Rural Municipality (R.M.) of Maple Creek, which was established December 10, 1917. (A rural municipality (R.M.) was an elected governing system providing essential services such as police, fire, health, education and infrastructure services for rural residents. Historically, community residents could pay taxes or supply a couple days per quarter section labour constructing roads, bridges, and fireguards instead of paying taxes.) Maple Creek, a town of 2,198 residents (2006 census), was established in 1883 and is located 8 kilometres south of the Trans-Canada Highway 1 via Highway 21.
The next R.M. is Piapot No 110 and a ghost town of Sidewood an early ranching area of Saskatchewan. Sidewood served residents between 1911 and 1952. Piapot No 110 first provided infrastructure improvements for this rural area in 1913 and is now an administrative division for a rural population of 392 residents. The small village of Piapot has a southerly access to Highway 1 also via Highway 614.
The village of Tompkins, and the town of Gull Lake are among the communities of R.M. of Gull Lake No 139. Both Tompkins with its 173 residents and Gull Lake serving 965 residents have their own municipal government. Gull Lake is an older community establishing its post office April 1, 1889. The south Saskatchewan region, an early ranching area was home to the 76 Ranch. The ranch house, constructed in 1888, is now the Gull Lake School Division office. Within Gull Lake No 139, which was created in 1913, are several wind turbine generators that can be seen when traversing the Trans–Canada Highway.
A neighbouring village of Webb with its population of 44 is situated within the next R.M. of Webb No 138 just south of Highway 1. Webb No 138 incorporated on December 13, 1909 providing road construction and maintenance. The post office was set up in Webb on March 1, 1908.
Swift Current to Moose Jaw
Swift Current No 137 becomes the next R.M. to travel through and here the unincorporated areas of Beverley and Java are the next communities along the route. Both of these communities are enumerated as a part of RM bringing its population to 1,587 residents. December 12, 1910 saw the incorporation of the RM of Swift Current No 137. The highway runs through three cities on the way from Alberta to Manitoba, of which Swift Current is the first. Swift Current was first established in the North West Territories in 1883 and has risen to a population of 14,946.
The original route of this highway was via Chaplin Street through Swift Current. The Trans-Canada became a four lane expressway in 1968, and the new route went past Swift Current to the north. Motels, shopping malls and fast food enterprises are located along the highway route. Subdivisions and neighbourhoods now extend past the highway, so again highway 1 traverses Swift Current.
Excelsior No 166 R.M. is the next rural governing body out of Swift Current that encompasses the community of Waldeck directly on Highway 1 at the junction of Saskatchewan Highway 628. Rush Lake is 4 kilometres north of the highway. 1903 first saw Rush Lake become established, soon followed in 1906 by Waldeck, and 1909 for the RM in this area.
The town of Herbert with its post office established in 1904 has 742 residents now. Herbert once renowned as having ‘The
World’s Choicest Wheat Lands’ is at the junction of the Trans–Canada and Saskatchewan Highway 612. Morse, as well as Ernfold are unincorporated areas, which adds their populations to the 435 residents of R.M. Morse No 165. Morse is immediately north of Highway 1 at the intersection with Highway 644. The Morse Museum and Cultural Center celebrates pioneer history in a 1912 brick school house. Saskatchewan's third biggest grain marketing point in Saskatchewan as of 1912, continued on this route by setting a record for shipping 2-1/4 million bushels of wheat in 1915. Morse has erected large cattails for their roadside attraction. Ernfold is at the western edge of the separation of the east and west bound lanes of the Trans–Canada. The western route is about in length, and the eastern route is about long, before the highway comes together again.
Uren is the first community arrived at within Chaplin No 164. Uren bustled between 1911 and 1961. Chaplin, at the intersection of Route 1 and Highways 19 and 58, was established in 1907. It is an unincorporated area that adds its population to the 138 residents (2006 census) of Chaplin No 164. An American Avocet as well as Piping Plover are large statues built by the roadside commemorating the world-famous bird sanctuary at Chaplin, Saskatchewan. Valjean, and Secretan are also too small to have their own municipal governments and they are located along the highway proper. Valjean supported a post office between 1912 and 1968, whereas Secretan's post office survived from 1911 to 1970.
Wheatlands No 163 established in 1909 features the communities of Parkbeg as well as Mortlach. Parkbeg, an unincorporated area, had a post office established in the North West Territories in 1896. The community also lays claim to being the hometown of Saskatchewan Roughriders mascot Gainer the Gopher. Parkbeg is now located on Trans–Canada 1 east, a segment that is 16.5 kilometres in length. The Trans–Canada west is long and is about north of Parkbeg. Mortlach, a village of 254 people, is about south of the highway and established its post office just months before Saskatchewan became a province in 1905. Four major pipelines, TransCanada, Conoco, South Saskatchewan Pipeline, and Trans Gas find their home in Wheatlands RM.
There is only one community along the highway within R.M. Caron No 162, which is Caronport. The village of Caronport, 919 residents in 2006, did not receive a post office until 1947, but the RM was serving the area since 1912. Local Improvement District (L.I.D.) #9 started making area improvements as early as 1904.
Moose Jaw to Regina
Moose Jaw, also called "Little Chicago", is a city of 33,665 (per the 2021 Census of Population) along the Trans–Canada. Capone's Car, Moose Family and Mac the Moose are all large roadside attractions of Moose Jaw. Moose Jaw Trolley Company (1912) is still an operating electric cable trolleys offering tours of Moose Jaw. Temple Gardens Mineral Spa Resort, Tunnels of Moose Jaw, and History of Transportation Western Development Museum. are major sites of interest of this city. The juncture of the Moose Jaw River and Thunder Creek produced the best source of water for steam engines, and Moose Jaw became the CPR divisional point. AgPro Inland Grain Terminal operated by Saskatchewan Wheat Pool. These large capacity concrete grain terminals are replacing the smaller grain elevators that were numerous along the highway, sentinels of most communities along the route. Improved technology for harvest, transport and road construction have made the large inland terminals more viable economically. The rural governing body around Moose Jaw is Moose Jaw No. 161, which serves 1,228 residents (2006 census), which includes the Moose Jaw, Canadian Forces Base. Meat-processing plants, salt, potash, urea fertilizer, anhydrous ammonia and ethanol producers abound in this area with easy transport access to the Trans–Canada Highway.
Belle Plaine, an unincorporated area, is within Pense No 160. The RM serves only 490 residents as of 2006.
Regina
Sherwood No 159 is the R.M. of the western perimeter around Regina, Saskatchewan's capital and the second largest city with a 2016 population of approximately 215,000 people. Sherwood R.M. provides essential services to 1,075 residents. As Regina expands, it annexes land from Sherwood No 159.
The Trans-Canada Highway originally followed the Trans-Canada Highway Bypass (a controlled access highway also known as Ring Road), around the southeastern portion of the city and then exited at Victoria Avenue and continued east; a signed city route existed followed Albert Street and Victoria Avenue through downtown. As the city and congestion grew, especially to the east along Victoria Avenue which was an arterial road with traffic signals, a new bypass was required. The Regina Bypass, a partial ring road on the west, south, and east portions of Regina, opened in October 2019, and the Highway 1 designation was moved to the bypass. The Regina Bypass also serves a new route for Highway 11, the main route connecting to Saskatoon, Saskatchewan's largest city.
Regina to Manitoba
Edenwold No 158 is the R.M. east of Regina comprising White City, as well as Balgonie along the highway proper. Edenwold No 158 serves 3,611 residents. As Regina grows eastward, it annexes land from this RM. White City a town of 1,113 residents could also be considered a census subdivision of Regina. Balgonie an unincorporated area first established its post office in 1883. It is now situated at the intersections of Saskatchewan Highway 46, 364, 10, and the Trans–Canada. As part of the Regina Bypass project, Highway 1 between Regina and Balgonie was upgraded to a controlled-access highway and is the longest freeway section in Saskatchewan.
St. Joseph's is a hamlet on Highway 1 and is a part of South Qu'appelle No 157, the next R.M. along the way. The town of Qu'Appelle (624 residents in 2006) had historic beginnings with fur trading posts in this area, and is located within this R.M. Qu'Appelle was first named Troy, and was an administrative centre of the North West Territories.
Indian Head, a town with a population of 1,634, is within Indian Head No 156 along with the ghost town of Dingley and the town Sintaluta. Sintaluta has a population of 98. Indian Head has erected a large sculpture of an Indian Head at the side of the road.
Indian Head features the historical Bell Farm, which was a large farming enterprise of . Pioneer homesteaders in the early 20th century farmed quarter section homesteads that were in size. This was a 1/2 mile by 1/2 mile (0.8 km by 0.8 km) farm.
Wolseley, a town of 782, is within the area of Wolseley No 155. The town of Wolseley is home to heritage properties such as the Provincial Court House building was constructed in 1893 and is the oldest surviving Court House building in the province. The Town Hall/Opera House, built in 1906 is a classic building and is used for all sorts of community events. A 1904 Queen Anne revival-style home is now the Grenfell 'Adare' Museum. This home built by Mr. Edward Fitzgerald was built on a large property that was annexed by Grenfell.
Elcapo No 154 contains the urban communities of Grenfell, Oakshela and Broadview. Grenfell has a population of 947, and Broadview 611. Grenfell is home to a 14,700 tonne inland concrete terminal as well as a large grain elevator located at the CPR line. Oakshela, an unincorporated area, is the only municipality served by the RM. The town of Broadview was an 1882 Canadian Pacific Railway divisional point. The Broadview Museum houses heritage of Broadview and area.
The town of Whitewood, 869 residents in 2006, was first established as Whitewood Station, North West Territories in 1883. Dr. Rudolph Meyer led a group of French Counts to the area of Whitewood in the 1880s to develop a community similar to the communities for nobility in Europe. Merchant's Bank Heritage Center is a heritage building of Whitewood, which celebrates its link to the French Counts of St. Hubert. The next RM along the way is Willowdale No. 153, which nestles Percival and Burrows within its population. Burrows is located at the junction of Highway 637.
Wapella, an incorporated town, located within the Martin, 339 rural residents.
Next along the way are Moosomin, Saskatchewan, Rotave, and Fleming, Saskatchewan all within the Moosomin No 121 R.M. The town of Moosomin, Saskatchewan hosts 2,257 residents at the junction of Saskatchewan Highway 8, 1, and 709.
The Trans–Canada highway across Saskatchewan finally finishes up before the Manitoba-Saskatchewan border at Moosomin No. 121.
Geophysical features
Highway 1 travels through geographical sites of interest as well as conservation areas. The highway begins in a mixed grassland ecoregion known as Maple Creek Plain. The Great Sand Hills are north of Highway 1 and the Cypress Hills region is south of the highway. The Cypress Hills Interprovincial Park features Fort Walsh and the highest elevation of Saskatchewan. Cypress Hills is accessed just 62 kilometres southwest of Highway 1. This area is known for its rolling with some steep hills and ravines.
Piapot Creek, Bear Creek, and Skull Creek are near the Wood Mountain Hills, also known as The Bench. After leaving the Maple Creek Plain, there is the Gull Lake Plain. Oil producing wells dot the landscape along with clumps of trees, sand hills, prairie grasses, and wind turbines producing wind energy.
Swift Current was founded as Rivière au Courant, which translates in English to Swift Current. The Swift Current Plateau is a prairie grasslands area. The Chaplin Plain is the next grassland ecoregion, and Highway 1 is just to the north of Chaplin Lake, which is situated on a huge bed of salt, producing a saline lake. The Western Hemispheric Shorebird Reserve a large shorebird conservation area is located on Chaplin Lake, and is renowned internationally. This area between Swift Current to Moose Jaw is considered to be part of the Missouri Coteau topographical area (extending south to the United States).
The area to the south of Parkbeg is termed the Coteau Hills. Besant Recreation Site and campground is located west of Caronport. The Dirt Hills, a grasslands ecoregion are west of Moose Jaw. The city of Moose Jaw arose at the junction of Moose Jaw River and Thunder Creek. The Wakamow Valley (administered by the Wakamow Valley Authority) has been developed with trails, playgrounds, and picnic areas. Nicole Flats Nature Area (Buffalo Pound Provincial Park) is a preserved feature of the area. Both Moose Jaw and Regina are situated upon moist mixed grassland ecoregions, specifically called the Regina Plain. Regina is located south of the junction of the Wascana and Qu'Appelle Rivers, and the area is now called Wascana Lake. Aspen parkland prairie is east of Regina. The Moose Mountain Upland ecoregion is east of Regina and south of the Qu'Appelle River.
Fairly Lake is located within the town of Wolseley. The lake was created because the CPR dammed up Wolf Creek to provide water for steam locomotives. Grenfell Regional Park is located west of Grenfell.
Echo Valley and Katepwa Point are two neighbouring provincial parks near Broadview. Kipling Plain gives rise to the topographical feature called the Squirrel Hills and further to the east the Wood Hills. Moosomin Lake Regional Park, is located to the south of the Trans-Canada Highway in the Pipestone Valley on the shores of Moosomin Lake. The Melville Plain is the remaining ecoregion along the Trans-Canada Highway before the Manitoba border.
Major intersections
Unlike most other North American jurisdictions, exit numbers on east–west highways are numbered from east to west (i.e., in the case of Saskatchewan, starting at Zero at the Manitoba border, and increasing when moving westwards to Alberta.
Books
Prairie Memories. Webb History Book Committee. Webb, Saskatchewan: Webb History Book Committee, 1982.
See also
List of Saskatchewan provincial highways
References
External links
Saskatchewan #1 Trans–Canada Highway Mile by Mile
Saskatchewan Highways Website–Highway Numbering Homestead
Saskatchewan Road Map RV Itineraries MilebyMile
Big Things of Canada, A Celebration of Community Monuments of Canada . Big Things
Navigating the Trans–Canada Highway
Online Historical Map Digitization Project Rootsweb
Saskatchewan City & Town Maps*Saskatchewan's Highway Network Government of Saskatchewan
Trans–Canada Highway. The Canadian Encyclopedia
Trans–Canada Highway
Trans–Canada Highway Act
Trans–Canada Netword
Trans–Canada Highway Transport Canada
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Saskatchewan 001
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Roads in Regina, Saskatchewan
Transport in Swift Current
Transport in Moose Jaw |
4091127 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20brothels%20in%20Nevada | List of brothels in Nevada | This is a historical list of the legal brothels in Nevada. They are arranged by name within location (the nearest town or named place) within each county that licenses such establishments. Defunct establishments are retained for completeness. Note, however, that this list so far only covers the modern era of brothel prostitution in Nevada, from about 1950 onward, after the closure of the red light districts of Reno and Las Vegas.
According to the Nevada Brothel List site, there were 21 legal brothels in Nevada as of February 2018, down from its peak of 35 in the early 1980s. As of September 2023, there are only 19 legal brothels open in Nevada in just 6 of the state's 17 counties.
While prostitution is legal in parts of Nevada, it is illegal outside these licensed brothels. Prostitution is illegal under state law in Clark County, which contains Las Vegas and its metropolitan area. Other counties may choose to allow it, if they desire to. Currently Carson City (an independent city), Douglas County, Eureka County, Lincoln County, Pershing County and Washoe County (which contains Reno) ban brothels. The other ten counties permit brothels, but four of them do not currently have any active brothels.
Active brothels
Elko County
Carlin
Dovetail Ranch – The Dovetail has been a brothel on and off for a number of years. In 2002 the brothel was remodelled as a log cabin and a license issued to Michael and Pamela Tangreen. Melba Jordan and Marie Cutler were granted the license in 2003, both had previously worked at Donna's Ranch in Wells. The Dovetail closed in June 2006 and reopened in January 2008. It was refurbished in the spring of that year and one of the courtesans, "Tempting Tiffany" took over as manager. The brothel was the winner of the CWMC 2011 Small Brothel of the Year Award. The Dovetail has sometimes marketed itself as an Asian Ranch.
Sharon's Brothel & Bar – Permanently Closed.
Elko
The Desert Rose Gentlemen's Club – This brothel opened in late 2014 in the building that had previously housed the No. 1 Geisha (which closed in 2011).
Inez's D&D Bar – This brothel is reportedly supposed to stand for "Dancing and Diddling". The brothel is a next-door neighbour to the closed PJ's Lucky Strike,. It was one of the first Nevada brothels to have an internet presence. The brothel is under the same management as nearby Mona's Ranch.
Mona's Ranch – Originally built as a family home in 1903, it was later converted to a brothel. It was formally known as Bette's D&D. In February 2018, their brothel license was suspended for 180 days after a barman was found to have drugs in his bedroom in the brothel.
Sue's Fantasy Club – Sue's has a mirrored dance floor and pole. Courtesans are all of Asian heritage.
Wells
Bella's Gentlemen's Club
The ranch opened in 1950 as the Hacienda Ranch and is located just off Interstate 80. The rooms have different themes, and there is a jacuzzi and a BDSM dungeon. It has been owned and run since 1981 by Bella Shauna Cummins. In the late 1990s, Cummins had a road built from the ranch to the highway. The road avoids patrons having to cross the busy tracks of the Union Pacific Railroad. In 2004, the ranch was temporarily closed by the local sheriff's office for irregularities in medical certification of the prostitutes. The owners of Bella's, Shauna and Lance Cummins, subsequently sued Elko County Sheriff Dale Lotspeich for allegedly acting outside the law in closing the establishment. Their action against the sheriff was unsuccessful.
Donna's Ranch
The ranch was originally established near the railroad to serve the men constructing the nearby railroad. Wells was a major cattle pick-up point on the Central Pacific Railway, cowboys who had driven the cattle to the railroad celebrated in the ranch.
Current owner, Geoff Arnold purchased the ranch from Evelyn and Ken Merrill in 1999 for $1,000,000. The boxer Jack Dempsey was a previous owner.
Lander County
Battle Mountain
The Desert Club The Desert Club first opened in the late 1800s, and is reputed to be one of the smallest brothels in Nevada. In 1986 the brothel was bought by Ginger and Chuck Barrett along with the nearby Calico Club. It closed down in 1991 and reopened in around 2016.
Lyon County
Mound House
By local ordinance, brothels are restricted to the Mound House area.
The Love Ranch
Formerly known under several variations of the name Kitty's, this brothel was owned by Dennis Hof. Hof is best known as the star of HBO's Cathouse and proprietor of the nearby Moonlite BunnyRanch. Hof reportedly renamed this operation in 2004 to better take advantage of the "BunnyRanch brand name", which he has heavily promoted. In June 2008, this house was again renamed, this time as The Love Ranch in order to build a unique identity for the brothel. It is sometimes referred to as The Love Ranch North, to differentiate it from Love Ranch Vegas.
Moonlite BunnyRanch
The brothel, now known as the Moonlite BunnyRanch, first opened in 1955 as the Moonlight Ranch. There is a historical marker on the premises, found just inside of the property's original main gate, as the ranch is located near a stop on the original Pony Express. It operated discreetly until 1971, when Nevada began regulation of houses of prostitution. Dennis Hof, a frequent customer, purchased the business in 1993 for $700,000 and invested another $500,000 in upgrading the facilities and decor.
The Moonlite BunnyRanch was featured on HBO's America Undercover show specials, Cathouse (2002) and Cathouse 2: Back in the Saddle (2003). This led to the series Cathouse: The Series, airing in two seasons in 2005 and 2007. The ranch was also featured as a supposedly "haunted house" in an episode of Proof Positive and is frequently mentioned on the Howard Stern Show, usually to announce that another porn star has started to work there.
Sagebrush Ranch
Originally, the first Sagebrush Ranch was about 20 mile east of Carson City off US-50 East up Six Mile Canyon Road in Mark Twain through the 1980s. It was a two-story building, which was still in Lyon County before moving to current location. Then for a time, the Sagebrush Ranch was two separate (but connected) licensed brothels: the Sagebrush I (originally known as the Sagebrush Red-Light Ranch) and the Sagebrush II, just north of the original brothel. In 1999, the Sagebrush I building was destroyed by a fire that was accidentally sparked by an overturned candle in one of the ladies' rooms. While no one was seriously hurt in the fire, the Sage I building was a total loss. During its rebuilding, the Sage II building housed a combined operation. When the lavish new replacement facility opened in mid-2001, the ladies all moved into the new building, called simply the Sagebrush Ranch.
Kit Kat Guest Ranch
The Kit Kat Guest Ranch is a legal, licensed brothel located about east of Carson City in the unincorporated town of Mound House, in Lyon County, at 48 Kit Kat Drive. It reopened in May 2016, after being purchased and renovated by Dennis Hof.
Mineral County
Mina
Wild Cat Brothel – Known for its Ionic columns marking off the car park, it was formerly the Playmate Ranch. As the Playmate it was run by Bill 'Little Bill' Wilkins, who also owned the nearby Billie's Day & Night. It closed in about 2010 and was bought by Phil Maita who reopened it as the Wild Cat in 2013.
As of September 2023, the Wild Cat Brothel is "Temporarily Closed" according to its Google Business Profile listing.
Nye County
Amargosa Valley
Alien Cathouse (sometimes referred to as "Lathrop Wells") – Originally the Cherry Patch II, and owned by Joe Richards, it was purchased by Dennis Hof, who sold it prior to his death.
Crystal
Love Ranch South
The Love Ranch business was purchased by Dennis Hof, owner of several other Nevada brothels, in the fall of 2010. It has since been extensively upgraded. Formerly called the Cherry Patch Ranch, Crystal Love Ranch, Mabel's Whorehouse, Madame Butterfly's. On October 16 2018 Dennis Hof died in this facility, which subsequently closed.
Pahrump
Chicken Ranch
Walter Plankinton opened the Nevada Chicken Ranch in 1976, as close to Las Vegas as legally possible. He encountered strong opposition from local law enforcement and other brothel owners. In 1978, the Chicken Ranch was burned to the ground, allegedly by arsonists. The twelve prostitutes and two employees barely survived. Plankinton reopened with a new set of trailers five days later.
In 1982, Plankinton sold the Chicken Ranch for $1,000,000 to Kenneth Green, a San Francisco businessman, and Russel Reade, an ex-teacher. Reade, who had contributed $25,000 towards the purchase, became the manager. Around 15 women were working at the ranch at that time. On February 8, 2006, the ranch accepted a purchase offer for $5.2 million.
Sheri's Ranch
Unlike other brothels in the state, Sheri's Ranch styles itself as a resort, with upscale rooms and furnishings, sports bar, tennis courts, a spa and outdoor swimming pool. In January 2001, the business was purchased by Chuck Lee, a retired Chicago homicide detective of 20 years, former owner of an AT&T retail store, and car dealership owner from Las Vegas, Nevada.
Author Lora Shaner, a former madam of the brothel, wrote a 1998 book about her experiences, Madam: Chronicles of a Nevada Cathouse, reissued and extended in 2001 as Madam: Inside a Nevada Brothel.
Storey County
Sparks
Mustang Ranch
The original Mustang Ranch was forfeited to the federal government in 1999 following owner, Joe Conforte's convictions for tax fraud, racketeering and other crimes. In 2002, the brothel's furniture, paintings and accessories were auctioned off. The Bureau of Land Management sold the Ranch's pink stucco structures on eBay in 2003. Bordello owner Lance Gilman purchased the buildings for $145,100 and moved them to his Wild Horse Adult Resort & Spa five miles to the east, where the relocated and extensively renovated buildings eventually became the second brothel located at that complex. However, the rights to the name Mustang Ranch, which Gilman had hoped to use for this new brothel, were tied up in a court battle with David Burgess, the owner of the Old Bridge Ranch, nephew of Joe Conforte, and manager of the Mustang Ranch from 1979 until 1989. In December 2006, a federal judge ruled that Gilman was the "exclusive owner of the Mustang Ranch trademark" giving him the rights to use the name and branding.
White Pine County
Ely
Ely City Council restricted brothels to one area on the outskirts in 1959. At one stage the brothels covered three blocks and employed over 400 women. The two remaining brothels are located in "Bronc Alley" red-light district in High Street.
Stardust Ranch – In 1999 the City Council voted 3–2 to shut down the Stardust but Mayor Robert Miller overturned this decision because of the economic benefits the brothel brought to the city.
Big 4 Ranch – One of the oldest brothels in Nevada, it was built in the late 1880s and opened as Rainey's dance hall. In 1939 it became a brothel, named the "Big 4" after the four men who co-owned it. The brothel closed in 1999 and was bought by the owners of the Stardust Ranch
Defunct brothels
Churchill County
Fallon
Lazy B Ranch – It opened in 1975, and was reputed to allow minors as customers, even having a separate waiting room for them. There was no main-connected power or water at the brothel. Power was supplied from a generator. A well was dug but the water was too salty to drink, so drinking water had to be shipped in and the women showered at the nearby Salt Wells Villa. The brothel closed in 1999 and it was rumoured that it was bought by Momma Katt, the former madam at Sue's in Elko, but it never reopened.
Salt Wells Villa – This brothel was a collection of trailers located at Salt Wells, 15 miles east of Fallon. It opened in 1975 and featured a fireplace, pool table and a dancing stage. In 1977 it was firebombed. The local sheriff's wife, Mildred Banovich, was charged with arson and received a short jail sentence after pleading guilty. The brothel's owner, Reina Fuchigami (aka Gina Wilson), sold the business in the 1980s after being accused of employing underage prostitutes. The brothel changed hands several times until bought by James Kopulos in 1996.
Many of Kopulos's customers were from the nearby Fallon Naval Air Station, who received a 10% discount, and some paid by credit card. The cards were billed as "James Fine Dining". A 1998 report by the General Accounting Office censured the Navy for about 50 of its cardholders spending more than $13,000 at Salt Wells and other Nevada brothels using their travel cards. Free showers and coffee were offered to truckers.
In January 2000, GQ magazine called Salt Wells Villa the best brothel in Nevada.
Prostitute Maggie Holmes accused the brothel of not withholding taxes from her money and failing to pay for her medical examinations in 2003. In response Kopulos claimed he did not understand the intricacies of local laws. Later in the year the brothel was closed for a short while after inspectors found rodent infestation and a lack of drinking water. In financial trouble, and the county having voted to revoke his license, Kopulos surrendered his license and closed the brothel in May 2004.
Clark County
Las Vegas
Arizona Club – Originally a large bar in Las Vegas's Block 16, famous for its 40-foot mahogany bar. When the bar changed hands in 1912, the new owner built a second story to house a brothel. It became known as the "Queen of Block 16". The brothel continued until 1942 when the Las Vegas authorities, under pressure from the US Military, closed the whole of Block 16.
Roxie's – Closed in 1954 after a federal raid. At the trial it emerged that the county sheriff had been receiving bribes to keep the brothel open.
Elko County
Elko
PJ's Lucky Strike (closed, early 2000s) – It was located next door to Inez's D&D.
No. 1 Geisha
Formerly Mona Lisa Ranch and CharDon's Club, it closed in 2011.
Wells
Blue Fox Brothel
Esmeralda County
Lida Junction
Cottontail Ranch
The ranch opened in October 1967. It is also known as the Cottontail Ranch Club. In 1967, Howard Hughes allegedly made several visits to the Cottontail Ranch for entertainment while he was living in Las Vegas.
In the 1970s, then madam Beverly Harrell battled with the United States Bureau of Land Management which was attempting to have the brothel removed from federal land. Harrell also was a candidate for the Nevada Assembly in 1974.
The Cottontail Ranch was closed in 2004 when the madam retired.
Goldfield
The Den – Attached to the Ajax & Martine Saloon.
Harem – It was run by Dorothy Reed.
Eureka County
Brothels are now illegal in Eureka County.
Eureka
Pat's Country Club – This brothel was located half a mile east of Eureka and was only open for a short while. It was operated by the owner of Fran's Star Ranch
Humboldt County
Winnemucca
Winnemucca's brothels were concentrated in a single cul-de-sac called The Line. There was parking for about 80 trucks, and the truck drivers were offered free showers & coffee.
Cozy Corner Brothel – This brothel was refurbished in 2000. It closed in the winter of 2005 and reopened in the summer of 2006 as the Wild West Saloon.
My Place Bar and Brothel (formerly Irene's Combination Bar; closed and demolished)
Paradise Cafe – This was also a strip club, the prostitutes also performing the striptease.
Pussycat Ranch – It has also been known as Pussycat Saloon and Pussycat Brothel. It was built in 1839 as a saloon. It is now closed and demolished
Simones de Paris – Simones reopened in 2001 and featured a Jacuzzi. It is now closed and was demolished in 2008.
Villa Joy Brothel – This was the largest brothel in Winnemucca. It had a strip club attached, the Paradise Cafe.
Lander County
Battle Mountain
Calico Club (closed) – In 1986 the brothel was brought by Ginger and Chuck Barrett along with the nearby Desert Club. The Calico Club was sold to owners of Donna's Ranch in October 2000 and renamed Donna's Battle Mountain Ranch.
Lincoln County
Prostitution made illegal in 1978, but several legal brothels operated before then.
Coyote Springs
Betty's Coyote Springs Ranch – Opened in 1970–71 by Sally Hall, it was known as Sally's. It was taken over by Betty Armstrong (aka Betty Rustin) in 1972 and the name changed. The brothel was later taken over by Judy Kuban and the name changed to Judy's Ranch. Located on Highway 93, this brothel featured a waterbed room, swimming pool, and horse stables. This brothel closed when Lincoln County introduced its prostitution ban. The owner was co-appellant with the owner of Sheri's Ranch in the unsuccessful attempt to have the ban overturned.
Sheri's Ranch
This brothel was located on Highway 93 and featured a swimming pool and an airstrip. Following the ban on prostitution in Lincoln County, the owner, Lorraine Helms, appealed against the brothel ban, on the grounds it was unlawful. The Supreme Court of Nevada ruled that the ban was lawful in 1980. The brothel subsequently relocated to Pahrump in Nye County.
Lyon County
Restricted brothels to Mound House area, east of Carson City, in 1970, forcing brothels in other parts of the county to close.
Mound House
Starlight Ranch (1970s – early 1980s)
Wabuska
Town House Guest Ranch – This was a busy brothel in the 1960s and closed around 1970 when Lyon County restricted brothels to the Mound House area.
Yerington
Old Hospital (1940s)
Green Lantern (1950s)
Mineral County
Hawthorne
Desert Dollhouse/The Green Front – In the 1970s the Green Front operated from a main road in Hawthorne. Because the cars of local officials were often seen in the parking lot, it relocated to a discreet side street circa 1980. In the late 1980s, under pressure from local inhabitants, the brothel moved to a dirt road off Highway 95 north of Hawthorne and the name changed to the Desert Dollhouse.
Mina
Billie's Day & Night – A small brothel run by septuagenarian Opel Radcliffe It was later owned by Bill 'Little Bill' Wilkins who also owned the nearby Playmate Ranch.
Francine's Lucky Strike Brothel
Schurz
B.J.'s – B.J.'s operated from a converted motel on Highway 95 from 1980 to 1981. It was named after Betty and Jean, the two women who owned it.
Nye County
Ash Meadows
Ash Meadows Sky Ranch
Originally built as a motel and restaurant, the Ash Meadows Lodge, a brothel was later added. Located on a gravel road 2.5 miles from the California border, it was one of the first three brothels to be licensed by Nye County in 1958. Vickie Starr brought the brothel in 1971 after selling Vickie's Star Ranch in Beatty. She changed the name to Ash Meadows Sky Ranch, "sky" coming from the brothel's airstrip. The ranch was one of the most impressive brothels in Nevada during the period, featuring a swimming pool, restaurant, hotel, and golf course. A few years later Nye County declined to renew the brothel license because, due to its remote location, it was costly for the medical examiner to visit weekly for the prostitutes check-ups. The brothel closed. Several scenes from the 1987 film Cherry 2000 were shot at the disused brothel.
Belmont
Cosmopolitan Saloon – Mentioned in the Belmont Courier, March 21, 1874.
Crook Shop – Mentioned in the Belmont Courier, June 27, 1874.
Beatty
Red Rooster (operated prior to 1960s)
Willow Trees (operated prior to 1960s. Also known as the Weeping willows)
Angel's Ladies
Originally planned as the Cottonwood Club, it was opened as the Jolly Dolly by Joe Conforte as one of the three brothels licensed by Nye County when they first passed brothel legislation in 1958. The other two were the Ash Meadows Lodge in Ash Meadows and the Buckeye Bar outside Tonopah. Betty Anderson ran the brothel. Vickie Starr purchased the brothel in 1959 or 1960 and changed the name to Vickie's Star Ranch. The brothel was badly damaged by floods in about 1970 and Starr sold it to Fran York and an investor in 1971, who changed the name to Fran's Star Ranch. York bought out the investor in 1979 for $250,000. It featured an airstrip and a 50' swimming pool In 1997 the brothel was sold to Mack Moore who changed the name to Angel's Ladies, Angel being the name of his wife. The brothel closed in August 2014.
Bikini's Gentlemen's Club – Guy Brenkman, owner of a strip club in Peoria, Illinois, moved to Nevada with the intention of opening a brothel. He brought 80 acres about a mile south of Beatty and built his brothel, which also featured a strip club. In January 2011, Nye County issued a brothel license for Bikini's Gentlemen's Club. The license was for five prostitutes to be working at any one time, out of a total of ten. Brenkman fell foul of the advertising regulations for brothels, however, resulting in his license not being renewed in June of the same year.
Crystal
Cherry Patch Ranch – Opened by Maynard "Joe" Richards in 1978, the Cherry Patch Ranch consisted of several trailers beside a road and dirt airstrip. Following Richards' bribing of a Nye County commissioner, the property was sold to Dennis Hof. Hof would announce several plans for reopening the closed brothel under different themes, however none would come to pass. The property was part of the sale of Hof's properties in 2022.
Montgomery Pass
Janie's Ranch – Housed in a number of trailers, Janie's Ranch was located on Route 6. The women lived in one trailer and entertained in another. It was rumoured that the entertaining rooms all had cameras and intercoms. The madam, Betty, would yell at any disagreeable customers through the intercom. The brothel closed in the early 1990s.
Rhyolite
Adobe Dance Hall – The Adobe was built in May 1905 by Bob Buynum. It consisted of a dance hall, bar, and rooms for the prostitutes' use. It was brought by Harry Duval, who owned a further eight cribs and a brothel in the red light district in 1910.
Alberta Dent's – Originally Maggie Keeley's, it was valued at $3.500 in the 1907 tax assessment.
Jewel Consolidated – Mabel Vaughn purchased a property in 1905 and converted it into a brothel. It marked the northwest corner of Rhyolite, Nevada's red-light district. The brothel was destroyed by fire in August 1908.
Tonopah
Bobbie's Buckeye Bar – The Buckeye Bar was located on Route 6 just outside Tonopah on the site of the Buckeye Mine. It was opened by Mary ("Madam Bobbie") Duncan and Margaret Cox after Cox's previous brothel, The Trees, had been shut. Duncan later became the sole owner and the name was changed to Bobbie's Buckeye Bar. In 1963 the brothel was refurbished and greatly extended. The brothel closed when Madam Bobbie died in 1989. Nye County had enabled an ordinance that brothels must be at least 300 yards from any road. The Buckeye Bar was 100 yards from the road, but Duncan had been allowed to continue operating under "grandfather rights". The county refused to continue the grandfather rights to the purchasers of Duncan's estate. They appealed but were unsuccessful, so the brothel never reopened.
Big Casino – Opened in late 1904 or early 1905, the Big Casino was a restaurant, saloon, betting parlor, dance hall, and brothel. It claimed to be the biggest of its type in the world. It also had a small orchestra.
There were three gaming tables and a bar inside the dance hall. There was an oak rail between the bar and the maple dance floor. Along one side of the dance floor were booths, each with a table and chairs and a door that could be closed. There was a balcony with rooms leading off this where the house prostitutes took their clients.
The Casino had wires to all the major racetracks of the time, and offered bets on all major sporting events. The Gans-Herman World Lightweight Boxing Championship fight was held there on New Year's Day 1907. Following the introduction of Nevada's anti-gambling law in 1910 the fortune of the Casino started to decline. In 1912, the Casino's liquor license was revoked by the Nye County commissioners for violating anti-gambling act. The following year, U.S. Circuit Court at Carson City appointed a receiver for the Big Casino Company to run the establishment until the financial matters were straightened out. Effectively the federal government were now running a brothel. It became known as "Woodrow Wilson's Dancing Academy". During this period, the 25–30 women working at the Casino were paid 40% of the drinks they sold and 50% of the charges for dances and 'other services'.
After the closure of the dance hall, the Casino was converted into the Big Casino Hotel in 1920 and continued the brothel activities. On August 23, 1922, a fire swept through Tonopah's red-light district and the Casino was destroyed.
Nugget Bar – On December 18, 1951, the owner of the Nugget Bar, Inez Parker, and a prostitute who worked there, Alice Nashlund, were found in the bar having been assaulted. Nashlund died of her injuries two days later. Customer Ray Millan was arrested for the murder. He was acquitted at his trial. District Judge William D. Hatton directed a grand jury should look into the matter. The grand jury concluded Nashlund was murdered by person or persons unknown.
Taxscine's – Run by Taxscine Ornelas, this brothel was one of the two remaining brothels in Tonopah's red-light district in 1951. During World War II, Taxscine was known by the airmen at the nearby Tonopah Air Force Base as "The Little Desert Mother".
The Trees – After the red-light district in Tonopah was closed in 1952, Margaret Cox started a new brothel nearby. It was closed on the order of the District Attorney William J. Crowell on October 14, 1953.
Scotty's Junction
Shady Lady Ranch
The ranch was located south of Scotty's Junction between Nye County Mile Markers 91 and 92 on US 95. It was known for challenging Nevada laws that prohibited the advertising of prostitution services, and that effectively banned male prostitution by requiring all such workers to receive regular cervical exams. The ranch closed in 2014. It is currently operated by new management as a bed and breakfast.
Pershing County
Pershing County used zoning laws to close its last brothel in 1970 and banned prostitution entirely in 1972.
Lovelock
All Lovelock brothels are now closed.
La' Belle – La' Belle was the most impressive brothel in Lovelock. It was owned by Irene York.
Monterey Bar – The Monterey Bar was located within Lovelock.
Roadhouse – This brothel was located a couple of miles outside Lovelock. It closed circa 1970 when Pershing County passed a law restricting where brothels could be located.
Storey County
Sparks
Mustang Ranch (1967–1999)
Opened by Joe Conforte in 1967, it burned down in 1975 (suspected arson) and was rebuilt about 500 feet (150 m) from the original site. A second brothel was built on the site in 1982 and known as the Mustang II, the original being rebranded as "World Famous Mustang Ranch". The brothel was seized and shut down by the IRS in 1999. The buildings were later auctioned off and moved to form the nearby World Famous Brothel.
Old Bridge Ranch
Built on the site of the original Mustang Ranch It featured prints by Olivia De Berardinis, Salvador Dalí and Gottfried Helnwein on the walls. The owner, David Burgess, was a nephew of Joe Conforte, and managed the Mustang Ranch between 1979 and 1989.
In 1998 Burgess's brothel operator's license was revoked on the grounds he was a member of the Hells Angels. The Supreme Court of Nevada ruled that being a Hells Angel did not violate any conditions of the licensing, so his license was reinstated. In 2008 Burgess's RV was stopped in Wyoming by police. A search of the vehicle uncovered drugs and child pornography. Burgess was found guilty of possessing and transporting child pornography, and he was jailed for 15 years. Story County officials changed the brothel licensing laws to prevent Burgess's non-licensed associates from running the brothel and the brothel closed.
Wild Horse Ranch (2002–2011)
On June 7, 2002, the Wild Horse Canyon Ranch opened for business in an eight-room temporary facility located on the property that would eventually become known as the Wild Horse Adult Resort & Spa. In May 2003 the newly built main house of the renamed Wild Horse Ranch opened for business. The former temporary facility was then renovated and became the Manager's Residence. The gated entrance to the entire property also opened at this time.
On November 15, 2011, The Wild Horse Ranch lost its brothel license and was forced to shut down. The license was revoked due to owner Lance Gilman illegally having a silent partner, Tom Gonzales, from whom he borrowed $2.25 million for 5% ownership.
World Famous Brothel
The original Mustang Ranch was forfeited to the federal government in 1999 following owner, Joe Conforte's convictions for tax fraud, racketeering and other crimes. In 2002, the brothel's furniture, paintings and accessories were auctioned off. The Bureau of Land Management sold the Ranch's pink stucco structures on eBay in 2003. Bordello owner Lance Gilman purchased the buildings for $145,100 and moved them to his Wild Horse Adult Resort & Spa five miles to the east, where the relocated and extensively renovated buildings eventually became the second brothel located at that complex. However, the rights to the name Mustang Ranch, which Gilman had hoped to use for this new brothel, were tied up in a court battle with David Burgess, the owner of the Old Bridge Ranch, nephew of Joe Conforte, and manager of the Mustang Ranch from 1979 until 1989. The brothel was known as "World Famous Brothel" until the court ruled in favor of Gilman using the Mustang branding in December 2006.
Virginia City
Julia's Place (19th century) – Operated by Julia Bulette.
near Wadsworth
Triangle River Ranch (1955–1959) – Reported to have been operating illegally, located at the junction of Storey, Washoe, and Lyon Counties. Thebrothel's trailers were moved across county boundaries as legal situations dictated.
Washoe County
Reno
Brothels were restricted to an area known as "The Stockade", prior to their final closure in 1949. Brothels included:
The Cottage
The Willows (closed 1949)
White Pine County
Ely
Green Lantern – The Green Lantern first opened in the 1950s and was one of the most impressive brothels in Ely. It closed briefly in 1995 on drug charges and permanently closed in 1999.
See also
References
Further reading
External links
NVBrothels.net (Archived pages, the Internet Archive, August 8, 2003):
Nevada Brothel Directory – list of operating brothels, circa 2003
Closed and Renamed Brothels – closed/renamed brothels list, circa 2003
Nevada Brothels Map – map of operating brothels, circa 2003
Closed Nevada Brothels Map – locations of closed brothels, circa 2003
Nevada Brothels Map – List of all operating brothels in Nevada and a map with locations, circa 2010 |
4091132 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stop%20and%20identify%20statutes | Stop and identify statutes | "Stop and identify" statutes are laws in several U.S. states that authorize police to lawfully order people whom they reasonably suspect of committing a crime to state their name. If there is not reasonable suspicion that a person has committed a crime, is committing a crime, or is about to commit a crime, the person is not required to identify himself or herself, even in these states.
The Fourth Amendment prohibits unreasonable searches and seizures and requires warrants to be supported by probable cause. In Terry v. Ohio (1968), the U.S. Supreme Court established that it is constitutional for police to temporarily detain a person based on "specific and articulable facts" that establish reasonable suspicion that a crime has been or will be committed. An officer may conduct a patdown for weapons based on a reasonable suspicion that the person is armed and poses a threat to the officer or others. In Hiibel v. Sixth Judicial District Court of Nevada (2004), the Supreme Court held that statutes requiring suspects to disclose their names during a valid Terry stop did not violate the Fourth Amendment.
However, some "stop and identify" statutes that are unclear about how people must identify themselves violate suspects' due process right through the void for vagueness doctrine. For instance, in Kolender v. Lawson (1983), the U.S. Supreme Court invalidated a California law requiring "credible and reliable" identification as overly vague. The court also held that the Fifth Amendment could allow a suspect to refuse to give the suspect's name if he or she articulated a reasonable belief that giving the name could be incriminating.
The Nevada "stop-and-identify" law at issue in Hiibel allows police officers to detain any person encountered under circumstances which reasonably indicate that "the person has committed, is committing or is about to commit a crime"; the person may be detained only to "ascertain his identity and the suspicious circumstances surrounding his presence abroad." In turn, the law requires that the officer have a reasonable and articulable suspicion of criminal involvement, and that the person detained "identify himself," but the law does not compel the person to answer any other questions by the officer. The Nevada Supreme Court interpreted "identify" under the state's law to mean merely stating one's name.
As of April 2008, 23 other states had similar laws. Additional states (including Arizona, Texas, South Dakota and Oregon) have such laws just for motorists, which penalize the failure to present a driver license during a traffic stop.
Encounters between law enforcement and the general public
In the United States, interactions between police and others fall into three general categories: consensual ("contact" or "conversation"), detention (often called a Terry stop, after Terry v. Ohio, ), or arrest. "Stop and identify" laws pertain to detentions.
Different obligations apply to drivers of motor vehicles, who generally are required by state vehicle codes to present a driver's license to police upon request.
Consensual
At any time, police may approach a person and ask questions. Police may suspect involvement in a crime, but may lack knowledge of any "specific and articulable facts" that would justify a detention or arrest, and hope to obtain these facts from the questioning. The person approached is not required to identify themselves or answer any other questions, and may leave at any time.
Police are not required to tell a person that he or she is free to decline to answer questions and go about his or her business; however, a person can usually determine whether the interaction is consensual by asking, "Am I free to go?".
Reasonable suspicion
A person is detained when circumstances are such that a reasonable person would believe the person is not free to leave.
Police may briefly detain a person if the police have a reasonable suspicion that the person has committed, is committing, or is about to commit a crime. Many state laws explicitly grant this authority. In Terry v. Ohio, the U.S. Supreme Court established that police may conduct a limited search for weapons (known as a "frisk") if the police reasonably suspect that the person to be detained may be armed and dangerous.
While the police officer must have reasonable suspicion to detain a person, the officer has no obligation to inform the person what that suspicion was. The only time the officer would have to articulate the suspicion is when the person was arrested, and the person later challenged the validity of the stop in court.
Police may question a person detained in a Terry stop but, in general, the detainee is not required to answer. However, many states have "stop and identify" laws that explicitly require a person detained under the conditions of Terry to identify themselves to police, and in some cases, to provide additional information.
Before Hiibel, whether a detainee could be arrested and prosecuted for refusing to disclose their name was an unresolved issue. Authority on this issue was split among the federal circuit courts of appeal, and the U.S. Supreme Court twice expressly refused to address the question. In Hiibel, the Court opinion implied that a detainee was not required to produce written identification, but could satisfy the requirement merely by stating the detainee's name. Some "stop and identify" laws do not require that a detainee identify himself or herself, but allow the refusal to do so to be considered along with other factors in determining whether there is probable cause to arrest.
, the Supreme Court has not addressed the validity of requirements that a detainee provide information other than their name. Some states, such as Arizona, however, have specifically codified that a detained person is not required to provide any information aside from a full name.
Arrest
A detention requires only that police have reasonable suspicion that a person is involved in criminal activity. However, to make an arrest, an officer must have probable cause to believe that the person has committed a crime. Some states require police to inform the person of the intent to make the arrest and the cause for the arrest. But it is not always obvious when a detention becomes an arrest. After making an arrest, police may search a person, their belongings, and their immediate surroundings.
Whether an arrested person must identify himself or herself may depend on the jurisdiction in which the arrest occurs. On June 23, 2022, the Supreme Court of the United States voted six to three in the decision Vega v. Tekoh that police may not be sued for failing to administer Miranda warning. However, Miranda does not apply to biographical data necessary to complete booking. It is not clear whether a "stop and identify" law could compel giving one's name after being arrested, although some states have laws that specifically require an arrested person to give their name and other biographical information, and some state courts have held that refusal to give one's name constitutes obstructing a public officer. As a practical matter, an arrested person who refused to give their name would have little chance of obtaining a prompt release.
Obligation to identify
States not listed do not have a requirement to show Identification to law enforcement officers. Some states listed have "stop and ID" laws which may or may not require someone to identify themself during an investigative detention.
While Wisconsin statutes allow law enforcement officers to "demand" ID, there is no statutory requirement to provide them ID nor is there a penalty for refusing to; hence Wisconsin is not a must ID state. Annotations for Wisconsin §968.24, however, state "The principles of Terry permit a state to require a suspect to disclose his or her name in the course of a Terry stop and allow imposing criminal penalties for failing to do so", citing Hiibel as authority. Hiibel held that statutes requiring suspects to disclose their names during police investigations did not violate the Fourth Amendment if the statute first required reasonable and articulable suspicion of criminal involvement. The Wisconsin Supreme Court held in Henes v. Morrissey that "A crime is made up of two parts: proscribed conduct and a prescribed penalty. The former without the latter is no crime...." In this case no statute penalizes a refusal to identify oneself to a law enforcement officer, and no penalty is set forth in the statute for refusing to identify oneself. This statute is part of Chapter 968 entitled "Commencement of Criminal Proceedings. By its very terms sec. 968.24 empowers a law enforcement officer to stop and question 'in the vicinity where the person was stopped'. The statute does not authorize a law enforcement officer to make an arrest." (These quotes come from the dissenting opinion but is in line with the majority opinion.) Additionally Henes v. Morrissey held that a detained person not providing their name isn't on its own a violation of 946.41 Resisting or obstructing officer as the act of not identifying oneself is not a false statement with intent to mislead the officer in the performance of their duty.
Neither is Illinois, since the Illinois Second District Appellate Court Decision in People v. Fernandez, 2011 IL App (2d) 100473, which specifically states that section 107-14 is found in the Code of Criminal Procedure of 1963, not the Criminal Code of 1961, and governs only the conduct of police officers. There is no corresponding duty in the Criminal Code of 1961 that a suspect who is the target of such an order must comply.
, there is no U.S. federal law requiring that an individual identify themself during a Terry stop, but Hiibel held that states may enact such laws, provided the law requires the officer to have reasonable and articulable suspicion of criminal involvement, and 24 states have done so. The opinion in Hiibel implied that persons detained by police in jurisdictions with constitutional "stop and identify" laws listed are obligated to identify themselves, and that persons detained in other jurisdictions are not. The issue may not be that simple, however, for several reasons:
The wording of "stop and identify" laws vary considerably from state to state.
Noncompliance with a "stop and identify" law that does not explicitly impose a penalty may constitute violation of another law, such as one to the effect of "resisting, obstructing, or delaying a peace officer".
State courts have made varying interpretations of both "stop and identify" and "obstructing" laws.
Variations in "stop and identify" laws
Four states' laws (Arizona, Indiana, Louisiana, and Nevada) explicitly impose an obligation to provide identifying information.
Nevada stop-and-identify laws require you to identify yourself to officers, but the law only requires you to carry identification while driving. If you are stopped by police while driving, you will be legally required to present proof of your identity by Nevada law.
Fifteen states grant police authority to ask questions, with varying wording, but do not explicitly impose an obligation to respond:
In Montana, police "may request" identifying information;
In Ohio, identifying information may be required "when requested"; an obligation exists only when the police suspect a person is committing, has committed, or is about to commit a criminal offense, is witness to a violent felony offense, or is witness to an attempt or conspiracy to commit a violent felony offense;
In 12 states (Alabama, Delaware, Illinois, Kansas, Missouri, Nebraska, New Hampshire, New York, North Dakota, Rhode Island, Utah, Wisconsin), police "may demand" identifying information. However, in New Hampshire for example (RSA 594:2), statutory language authorizing a 'demand' for identity does not establish a legal requirement to provide documentation of identity (ID), or even a requirement to respond in the first place. Further, a law enforcement officer is authorized to make such 'demand' only of individuals for "whom he has reason to suspect is committing, has committed or is about to commit a crime".
Identifying information varies, but typically includes
Name, address, and an explanation of the person's actions;
In some cases it also includes the person's intended destination, the person's date of birth (Indiana and Ohio), or written identification if available (Colorado). Ohio does not require the person's intended destination. Ohio requires only name, address, or date of birth. Date of birth is not required if the age of the person is an element to the crime (such as underage drinking, curfew violation, etc.) that the person is reasonably suspected of. Indiana requires either name, address, and date of birth, or driver's license, if in the person's possession, and only applies if the person was stopped for an infraction or ordinance violation.
Arizona law, apparently written specifically to codify the holding in Hiibel, requires a person's "true full name".
Nevada law, which requires a person to "identify himself or herself", apparently requires only that the person state their name.
Texas law requires a person to provide their name, residence address and date of birth if lawfully arrested and asked by police. (A detained person or witness of a crime is not required to provide any identifying information; however, it is a crime for a detained person or witness to give a false name.) Texas P.C. 38.02
In four states (Arkansas, Florida, Georgia, and Rhode Island), failure to identify oneself is one factor to be considered in a decision to arrest. In all but Rhode Island, the consideration arises in the context of loitering or prowling.
Seven states (Arizona, Florida, Indiana, Louisiana, New Mexico, Ohio, and Vermont) explicitly impose a criminal penalty for noncompliance with the obligation to identify oneself.
Maryland requires a person to respond to identification request if the person is wearing, carrying (open or concealed), or transporting a handgun.
Virginia's criminal code obligates an individual going upon the property of another with intent to hunt, fish, or trap to identify themselves upon demand of the landowner or the landowner's agents (§ 18.2–133), and further imposes an affirmative duty on law enforcement to enforce that section (§ 18.2–136.1).
, the validity of a law requiring that a person detained provide anything more than stating their name has not come before the U.S. Supreme Court.
Interaction with other laws
In states whose "stop and identify laws" do not directly impose penalties, a lawful arrest must be for violation of some other law, such as one to the effect of "resisting, obstructing, or delaying a peace officer". For example, the Nevada "stop and identify" law challenged in Hiibel did not impose a penalty on a person who refused to comply, but the Justice Court of Union Township, Nevada, determined that Hiibel's refusal to identify himself constituted a violation of Nevada "obstructing" law.
A similar conclusion regarding the interaction between Utah "stop and identify" and "obstructing" laws was reached in Oliver v. Woods (10th Cir. 2000).
Interpretation by courts
"Stop and identify" laws in different states that appear to be nearly identical may be different in effect because of interpretations by state courts. For example, California "stop and identify" law, Penal Code §647(e) had wording similar to the Nevada law upheld in Hiibel, but a California appellate court, in People v. Solomon (1973), 33 Cal.App.3d 429 construed the law to require "credible and reliable" identification that carries a "reasonable assurance" of its authenticity. Using this construction, the U.S. Supreme Court held the law to be void for vagueness in Kolender v. Lawson, .
Some courts have recognized a distinction authorizing police to demand identifying information and specifically imposing an obligation of a suspect to respond. Other courts have apparently interpreted demand to impose an obligation on the detainee to comply.
Wording and interpretation by state courts of "obstructing" laws also varies; for example, New York "obstructing" law apparently requires physical rather than simply verbal obstruction; likewise, a violation of the Colorado "obstructing" law appears to require use or threat of use of physical force. However, the Colorado Supreme Court held in Dempsey v. People, No. 04SC362 (2005) that refusing to provide identification was an element in the "totality of the circumstances" that could constitute obstructing an officer, even when actual physical interference was not employed. Utah "obstructing" law does not require a physical act, but merely a failure to follow a "lawful order... necessary to effect the... detention"; a divided court in Oliver v. Woods concluded that failure to present identification constituted a violation of that law.
It is not universally agreed that, absent a "stop and identify law", there is no obligation for a detainee to identify themself. For example, as the U.S. Supreme Court noted in Hiibel, California "stop and identify" statute was voided in Kolender v. Lawson. But in People v. Long, decided four years after Kolender, a California appellate court found no constitutional impropriety in a police officer's demand for written identification from a detainee whom they reasonably suspect of having committed a crime. The issue before the Long court was a request for suppression of evidence uncovered in a search of the defendant's wallet, so the issue of refusal to present identification was not directly addressed; however, the author of the Long opinion had apparently concluded in a 1980 case that failure to identify oneself did not provide a basis for arrest. Nonetheless, some cite Long in maintaining that refusal to present written identification constitutes obstructing an officer. Others disagree, and maintain that persons detained by police in California cannot be compelled to identify themselves.
Some courts, e.g., State v. Flynn (Wis. 1979) and People v. Loudermilk (Calif. 1987), have held that police may perform a search for written identification if a suspect refuses to provide it; a later California decision, People v. Garcia (2006), strongly disagreed.
In the case of Utah v. Strieff (2016), the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that an officer's stop of Edward Strieff and his demand for identification from Strieff was unlawful under Utah state law, but that the evidence collected pursuant to the stop was admissible due to the determination that Strieff was subject to a pre-existing arrest warrant. Therefore, the pre-existing warrant "attenuated" the unlawful stop-and-identify.
In North Carolina, State v. White interpreted North Carolina's "Resisting officers" statute to apply to suspects who fail to identify themselves to police officers. Conversely, West Virginia's courts decided that their resisting arrest statute did not include individuals who refused to identify themselves.
Recommendations of legal-aid organizations
Some legal organizations, such as the National Lawyers Guild and the ACLU of Northern California, recommend to either remain silent or to identify oneself whether or not a jurisdiction has a "stop and identify" law:
And in any state, police do not always follow the law, DO NOT TALK TO POLICE. Anything you say can and will be used against you. If you fear that your name may be incriminating, you can claim the right to remain silent, and if you are arrested, this may help you later. Giving a false name could be a crime.
In a more recent pamphlet, the ACLU of Northern California elaborated on this further, recommending that a person detained by police should:
...give your name and the information on your drivers' license. If you don't, you may be arrested, even though the arrest may be illegal.
Other countries
Many countries allow police to demand identification and arrest people who do not carry any (or refuse to produce such). Normally these countries provide all residents with national identity cards, which have the identity information the police would want to know, including citizenship. Foreign visitors need to have their passport available to show at all times. In some cases national identity cards from certain other countries are accepted.
For example, in Portugal it is compulsory to carry the state ID card at all times. This card is called the Cartão de Cidadão (Citizen Card); it is an electronic card which includes biometric information, ID number, social security number, fiscal information, et cetera. Police can only ask for the ID card in public or a place open to public and only if there is a reasonable suspicion the person committed a crime. A certified copy of the ID card can be presented in such situations. If a citizen does not carry the ID card or its certified copy, the police will escort the person to the police department to remain detained until clear identification can be obtained.
In other countries like Australia, Canada, New Zealand, and the United Kingdom police generally have no power to demand identification unless they have a statutory power to do so. For example, these countries have laws that require pedestrians, drivers, and passengers to produce their licence (for drivers) or state their name, address, etc. when stopped by police. Police may also require people to identify themselves if they have reasonable grounds to believe that they have committed a crime.
See also
Brown v. Texas
Hiibel v. Sixth Judicial District Court of Nevada
Kolender v. Lawson
Miranda v. Arizona
Terry stop
Loitering
Carding (police policy)
Stop and frisk
References
External links
ACLU "Bust Card" What To Do If You’re Stopped By The Police
ACLU Know Your Rights When Encountering Law Enforcement
10 Rules for Dealing with Police from FlexYourRights.org, a 501(c)(3) educational nonprofit organization.
California Codes
Colorado Revised Statutes
Nevada Revised Statutes
New York Legislature Source for New York State Laws
Stop-and-Identify Laws from Police Chief magazine
Suspects Who Refuse to Identify Themselves from Police Chief magazine
The Identity Project: Hiibel
When Do You Have to Give Your Name at the RNC Protests? An analysis of New York's "stop and identify" law.
U.S. state criminal law
Search and seizure case law
United States Fourth Amendment case law
United States Fifth Amendment self-incrimination case law |
4091204 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phryne%20Fisher | Phryne Fisher | The Honourable Phryne Fisher ( ), often called "Miss Fisher", is the main character in Australian author Kerry Greenwood's series of Phryne Fisher detective novels. The character later appeared in a television series called Miss Fisher's Murder Mysteries, and the film Miss Fisher and the Crypt of Tears. Phryne is a wealthy aristocrat and private detective who lives in St Kilda, Melbourne. The first 15 novels are set in the year 1928. With the assistance of her companion Dot, and Bert and Cec (who are wharfies, taxi drivers and "red raggers" [Australian slang of that period meaning communists]), she solves all manner of crimes.
As a crime fiction character, she has been called a "quintessentially Australian" construction. Phryne is no ordinary aristocrat, as she can fly a plane, drives her own car (a Hispano-Suiza) and sometimes wears trousers. While displaying bohemian panache, she manages also to maintain style and class. Phryne was accidentally named after Phryne, a famous Greek courtesan who lived in the 4th century BC. At her christening, her father forgot the classical name Psyche that her parents had intended for her.
Biography
Early life
Phryne is described in the first of Kerry Greenwood's books, Cocaine Blues, as being named after the courtesan Phryne, after her father forgot her chosen name of Psyche at the christening. Phryne was not always rich, having been born into a poor family in Collingwood, Melbourne. Her childhood was one of poverty and she occasionally had to scavenge for food in the pig-bins in Victoria Market. She often ate rabbit and cabbage because there was no other food available. In Cocaine Blues, she tells her maidservant and secretary Dot that during her youth, she "starved like Billy-o" and that her sister died of diphtheria and starvation.
In the First World War, the other male heirs to a British peerage were killed, and Phryne's father inherited the title. In the book Blood and Circuses, her father is described as an earl, but in the TV series her father is a baron. As his daughter, she was granted the style of "The Honourable Phryne Fisher" (which is the title for a daughter to a Baron or Viscount while as a daughter to an Earl she would instead be "Lady Phryne") and an enormous fortune. She has an aunt, Mrs. Prudence Stanley. Although she is described as having sisters and a brother, it is not clear how many sisters she has, but her younger sister died of diphtheria.
After completing school, Phryne ran away to France where she joined a French women's ambulance unit during the Great War, receiving a reward for bravery and a French war pension. She then worked as an artist's model in Montparnasse after the war. Following her time in France, Phryne travelled widely and has disclosed that she has, amongst other places, visited Florence and spent a night in a Turkish prison (for unknown reasons).
Move to Australia and career as a detective
Phryne Fisher's career as a detective is described in Cocaine Blues as having had its origins in an incident that took place at her family's estate in England. At an evening ball, a diamond necklace belonging to one of the guests disappeared, and Phryne was able, through observing the guests and the room, to quickly identify the person responsible for the theft as Bobby, a young cricket-playing aristocrat.
Impressed by her skills, another guest at the party, a retired Colonel Harper and his wife, Mrs. Harper, engaged Phryne to travel to Australia, her country of birth, and find out if his daughter, Lydia Andrews, was being treated well by her husband, John Andrews. This set in motion the events described in the first of Kerry Greenwood's books on Phryne Fisher, Cocaine Blues. Phryne's motivation to take up private detection as a career is rooted, at least initially, in boredom with the activities of high society in England. Although she did previously engage in charitable works, Phryne noted that "the company of the Charitable Ladies was not good for her temper."
In Flying Too High, Phryne Fisher decides to settle down in Melbourne, buying a house at 221B, The Esplanade, and moving in there with Dot Williams, her maid. She also engages Mr. and Mrs. Butler to act as her butler and housekeeper, respectively. Phryne confesses to her friend Bunji Ross that she bought the house because it was numbered 221 and that she added 'B' in an obvious reference to the home of Sherlock Holmes at 221B Baker Street.
Through the course of the books, Phryne collects a personal maid, Dot; two adoptive daughters, Ruth and Jane (whom she rescued from slavery); a cat, Ember; a dog, Molly; and two loyal servants, the Butlers. She also has relationships with a string of lovers, most notably Lin Chung, a wealthy Chinese man (whom she rescues in the city one evening). Lin is the only lover with whom she maintains a relationship for more than a few books and even goes so far as to make a deal with his autocratic and overbearing grandmother that after he is married, she (Phryne) be allowed to continue a relationship with him.
Character and appearance
Appearance
Phryne is described in Cocaine Blues as having a 'short black cap of hair' which is very straight, and cut to leave the nape of her neck and most of her forehead uncovered. She has grey-green eyes. In Flying Too High, she is described by an acquaintance as being 'small, thin, with black hair cut in what I am told is a bob, disconcerting grey-green eyes and porcelain skin. Looks like a Dutch doll." – a description that Phryne herself agrees with.
Character and skills
Phryne can shoot and often carries, and uses, a lady's handgun in her purse. She is frequently described as being possessed of great courage and fearlessness, and personally admits to having very few actual fears (one of them being head-lice, which she abhors). She rarely cries, noting in Cocaine Blues that the last time she had done so was over a book of poetry by Wilfred Owen, after being sickened by the deaths in World War I.
Phryne is a skilled and experienced pilot, and in Flying Too High, performs a number of dangerous and skillful flying maneuvers in a Gipsy Moth plane in response to a flying instructor's doubts about her skills. She has also flown Dr. Elizabeth Macmillan, her friend and a surgeon, through dangerous conditions to provide medical assistance to those who needed it. In addition to planes, Phryne is a skilled, if somewhat reckless driver, and drives a red Hispano-Suiza, one of her prized possessions.
She is fond of dancing and has learned to dance the tango from 'the most expensive gigolo on the Rue de Chat-qui-Peche' in Paris. She speaks French fluently, with a Parisian accent and peppered with 'indelicate apache idioms'.
Phryne is described as being fond of the luxuries her position and wealth afford her, while always being conscious of her impoverished origins. She tells the Princess de Grasse in Cocaine Blues that "there is nothing like being really poor to make you relish being really wealthy." She often carries cash on her person, reasoning that she is unused enough to wealth to want the security of having readily available funds. She is generous with her money, and tips well.
Phryne is frequently described as dressing in high fashion and her clothes are often described in great and elaborate detail. She occasionally dresses in trousers and men's shirts. Phryne also enjoys good food. She is 'devoted' to lobster mayonnaise with cucumbers, in particular. Despite her numerous relationships and conduct that some parts of society might find shocking, Phryne describes herself as being immune to blackmail, showing no alarm, for instance, when Bobby Matthews, a thief she had once caught, threatens to tell all of Melbourne that she had once visited an expensive gigolo in Paris.
Relationships
Although Phryne has had several relationships with men, she is described as being disinclined to settle down and marry. She is described in her books as using a diaphragm sold by Dr. Marie Stopes to avoid unwanted pregnancies. She is described as being heterosexual, and often politely rebuffs advances from women who are attracted to her.
In Cocaine Blues, for instance, she is the subject of the attentions of both Sasha De Lisse and his twin sister Ellie, but tells Sasha that she would prefer him over her, in general. She also declines an unstated offer from a woman attending to her at the Turkish Baths in Melbourne, and notes that she had visited several bars frequented by lesbian and bisexual women in the company of her friend and gigolo, Georges Santin, in Paris. Phryne notes that she "had little leaning towards homosexuality but she had liked the lesbian bars. They were free of the domination of men, creating their own society."
Family
Phryne's relationship with her family can occasionally be strained. In Cocaine Blues, after a theft of jewelry belonging to a guest at a dinner party hosted by the Fishers, Phryne's father and mother engage in a vocal altercation, a situation that Phryne describes as 'normal'. On her arrival in Melbourne, she is initially embarrassed to discover that her father had left a number of unpaid debts of honour there, including one to the local MP, Mr. Sanderson.
Phryne once describes herself as having 'not the faintest spurt of maternity' and demonstrates a disinclination towards young children.
Main and recurring characters
Dorothy 'Dot' Williams
Dorothy Williams, known as 'Dot' is Phryne's confidential maid and social secretary. Phryne meets Dot soon after her arrival in Melbourne, while taking a walk through the city. Dot, possessed of a knife, had been trying to find and kill her former employer's son, who had repeatedly harassed and molested her and had her fired when she resisted his advances. Phryne convinces Dot to hand over the knife and gives her food to eat, and then secures Dot's revenge by using the knife to surreptitiously cut through her persecutor's braces (suspenders), thus disrobing and publicly embarrassing him. Phryne then offers Dot a job as her personal maid and secretary, which Dot accepts. Dot is described as being a very devout Catholic and is very neat with a particular talent for delicate mending and sewing work. She is close to her family and her mother, in particular, whom she visits frequently.
Bert (Albert Johnson) and Cec (Cecil Yates)
Cecil Yates, known as 'Cec', and Albert Johnson, known as 'Bert', together run and operate a taxi cab in Melbourne, Australia. Phryne Fisher first meets them when her ship docks at Melbourne, and they transport her luggage as well as Dr. Elizabeth Macmillan's to their respective hotels. Cec is described as being tall and blonde-haired, with brown eyes and a taciturn, quiet manner. Bert, on the other hand, is short, darker and older than Cec, as well as more voluble. Cec and Bert are both described as 'red-raggers' i.e. Communists. Cec, in particular, is a gifted navigator with a keen memory for the streets of Melbourne, and is also described as having a soft spot for any animal or person in trouble. Cec and Bert eventually join Phryne as investigative assistants. Phryne Fisher pays them enough money to enable them to buy a new taxi to replace their old one.
Jane (née Graham) and Ruth (née Collins) Fisher
Phryne's adopted daughters, Jane, age 13, and Ruth, no older than 15, possibly 14.
Hugh Collins
One of Jack's police constables and Dot's beau.
Mr Tobias Butler and Mrs Aurelia Butler
Phryne's butler and cook. Mr and Mrs. Butler initially planned to retire after working for a long period of time, but were persuaded out of retirement by Phryne Fisher's generous offer of employment as well as her request that they maintain the confidentiality of her work as a private detective. In Flying Too High, they are known by the names 'Ted' and 'Else'
Dr. Elizabeth Macmillan
Dr. Elizabeth Macmillan is a Scottish surgeon who works at the Queen Victoria Hospital for Women in Melbourne, Australia. She is a friend of Phryne's. Dr. Macmillan and Phryne reunited during Phryne's voyage by ship from England to Australia in Cocaine Blues. Dr. Macmillan is described as being of around forty-five years of age, with a broad, strong physique, rough and calloused hands, and a weatherbeaten complexion. Her black hair, now turning white, is cut into a 'short Eton crop' and she tends to dress in men's clothes for convenience. Phryne and Dr. Macmillan first meet when there is a 'flu epidemic at a remote island, and Phyrne steps in to fly Dr. Macmillan in on a plane despite dangerous weather conditions. She then assists Dr. Macmillan in attending to the unwell residents of the island, including slaughtering a Highland cow to make them broth.
Jillian Henderson
Jillian Henderson is a lawyer and a friend of Phryne Fisher's. She frequently represents clients referred to her by Phryne, and has inherited her practice from her father, who was partner in a firm called Henderson, Jones, and Mayhew.
Detective Inspector John 'Jack' Robinson
Phryne Fisher first meets Detective Inspector Jack Robinson while investigating a cocaine ring in Cocaine Blues, and becomes friends with him thereafter. He respects her skills and intelligence, and the two frequently collaborate on criminal investigations. He is described in Murder on the Ballarat Train as being a "private man with a doting family, who grew grevilleas and rare native orchids in his yard."
Police Constable Jones
Woman Police Constable Jones works for Detective Inspector Jack Robinson and is one of the few women in the police force. She frequently acts as a bait and decoy in investigations and has won a medal for Gallantry for baiting and capturing a suspect in a string of rapes.
Secondary characters
Lin Chung – Phryne's lover
Li Pen – A Shaolin monk and Lin's bodyguard
Books
In other media
Television
Miss Fisher's Murder Mysteries is a television costume drama series based on the novels, starring Essie Davis in the title role. The Australian Broadcasting Corporation and Every Cloud Productions produced the series of thirteen one-hour episodes, the first series of which premiered on ABC1 on 24 February 2012.
A second series of 13 episodes followed in 2013, telecast from 6 September to 22 December.
A third series of 8 episodes has been released in 2015. The first episode aired on 8 May, and the season wrapped up with Episode 8 on 26 June.
A new series called Ms Fisher's Modern Murder Mysteries featuring a niece named Peregrine, in a somewhat later time period, is being trailed on the UK Drama channel.
The series has been well awarded:
Australian Film Institute Award Nomination for Best Television Drama Series (2016)
Australian Film Institute Award Nomination for Best Costume Design in Television (2016)
Australian Film Institute Award Winner for Best Costume Design in Television (2014)
Australian Film Institute Award Nomination for Best Lead Actress in a Television Drama (Essie Davis, 2013)
Logie Awards, Gold Logie Award Nomination (Essie Davis, 2016)
Logie Awards, Silver Logie Award Nomination for Best Actress (Essie Davis, 2016)
Logie Awards, Silver Logie Award Nomination for Most Outstanding Actress (Essie Davis, 2016)
Logie Awards, Silver Logie Award Nomination for Most Popular Actress (Ashleigh Cummings, 2013)
Sichuan Television Festival, Gold Panda Award Nomination for Best Writing for a Television Series (2013)
Videogame
In 2015, Every Cloud Productions announced that they had partnered with Melbourne studio Tin Man Games to create a Miss Fisher’s Murder Mysteries game for mobile devices. Miss Fisher and the Deathly Maze, a detective game in the visual novel style, was released in two parts for iOS and Android devices in 2017. Both parts were released together for Windows and Mac computers via Steam in 2018. The game received positive reviews, and won an Australian Game Developer Award (AGDA) in 2017.
Feature Film
A stand-alone action-adventure feature film, Miss Fisher and the Crypt of Tears will pick up the story from the end of the third series. It began production in October 2018. The film is budgeted at $8 million and will be directed by Tony Tilse.
Since 2016, there had been speculation on the possibility that the television series would be made into a feature film. In May 2016, Essie Davis acknowledged interest in playing Miss Fisher in a film. "[We’re] just working out the ideas of how to make it bigger and better and more fabulous than the TV show," she said. Later that year, it was revealed that plans were afoot to produce a trilogy of Phryne Fisher films.
In April 2017, a photo was published on the official Miss Fisher Murder Mysteries Instagram account showing Essie Davis and Nathan Page holding advance copies of a film script titled Miss Fisher and the Crypt of Tears. On 14 September 2017, a crowdfunding campaign was launched on Kickstarter in support of the film. On 15 December 2017, an additional ongoing crowdfunding campaign was begun through IndieGoGo in order to allow fans to continue supporting the effort. The original campaign reached its goal of $250,000 in less than 48 hours.
Bibliography
References
External links
Fictional Australian people
Fictional Australian police detectives
Fictional private investigators
Fictional historical detectives
Fictional people from Victoria (state)
Fictional nobility
Literary characters introduced in 1989
Fictional gentleman detectives
Female characters in literature |
4091300 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red%20%28band%29 | Red (band) | Red (stylized as R3D or RED) is an American Christian rock band from Nashville, Tennessee, formed in 2002 by brothers guitarist Anthony Armstrong and bassist Randy Armstrong, with lead vocalist Michael Barnes. The band's first lineup also consisted of drummer Andrew Hendrix and guitarist Jasen Rauch. Currently, the lineup has consisted of the core trio of the Armstrong brothers and Barnes, along with drummer Brian Medeiros.
After they recorded several demos displaying a style of alternative, hard, and Christian rock music, Red landed a development deal with their longtime producer Rob Graves which led to a record deal with Christian label Essential Records in 2004. Their debut albums End of Silence (2006) and Innocence & Instinct (2009) were nominated for a Grammy Award for Best Rock Gospel Album, and spawned the popular singles "Breathe Into Me" and "Death of Me". Red's mainstream popularity grew and their third album, Until We Have Faces (2011), reached No. 2 on the Billboard 200, which was followed by Release the Panic (2013), which peaked at No. 7. After Of Beauty and Rage (2015), Red started work on their sixth album, Gone (2017), which released in October 2017. Their recent seventh studio album, Declaration, was released on April 3, 2020. Their eighth studio album, Rated R, was released on September 29, 2023.
History
Formation and signing with Essential (2002–2004)
Red was formed by identical twin brothers, guitarist Anthony and bassist Randy Armstrong, and lead vocalist and pianist Michael Barnes. The three grew up in Linesville, Pennsylvania, where Barnes first met the Armstrongs at elementary school and remained friends. They gained inspiration to pursue a music career after they attended festivals, including acts at the Christian-themed Creation Festival, and wished to perform on stage. They became members of Ascension, their early gigs taking place in youth centres around Erie, Pennsylvania, playing covers of contemporary Christian music before they turned to hard rock. After the three finished their education, they relocated to Nashville, Tennessee in February 2002 after Audio Adrenaline guitarist Barry Blair had heard their music online and invited them to record. The three worked day jobs, Barnes as a nurse in an emergency room and the Armstrongs in a mall, while using their spare time to form their own musical style, which was influenced by Linkin Park, Sevendust, and Chevelle as they liked the band's emotionally-driven music. The first lineup of Red was completed in 2004 following the addition of drummer Andrew Hendrix and guitarist Jasen Rauch. Randy said they wished for a band name that was "short, meaningful, and easy to remember", and spent two years searching for groups with a similar name and secured a trademark with "Red".
With the lineup secured, Red entered a longtime association with producer, songwriter, and musician Rob Graves. After they had recorded four demos in a garage and a nursery that displayed their style of alternative, hard and Christian rock music. Rauch, who had worked as an intern in the same Nashville studio as Graves and supplied them with free equipment, invited Graves to listen to their music for his opinions. Graves recalled: "It was really rough, all over the map, but I could hear the elements were there ... I told them it was really good, it had potential". Graves took them under his wing, and paid for studio time and the production of their first demos at Paragon Studios which happened across two years. Graves then signed Red to a development contract with his independent production company Six Feet Over, which led to a recording deal with Provident Label Group which then assigned them to its Christian label Essential Records after they liked their demo. Essential gave Red the green-light on a full-length album. Speaking on their Christian influence, Barnes said: "We are Christians in a band, but if people feel more comfortable and say that we are a Christian band, we do not to shy away from that". Hendrix parted ways with Red before recording began; he was replaced by drummer Hayden Lamb.
End of Silence (2004–2008)
After spending two years on the album, End of Silence was released on June 6, 2006. Recorded in Nashville, the album features orchestral arrangements from Bernie Herms and David Davidson, reflecting on the group's interest in classical music. Rauch gave his insight on mainstream music and his own influences to the rest of the band as they were primarily followers of Christian music and had little knowledge of contemporary pop. The band's logo was designed by Randy Armstrong. It had a successful impact, receiving a Grammy Award nomination for Best Rock Gospel Album at the 49th awards, and reaching No. 6 on the Billboard Top Heatseekers and No. 7 on the Top Christian Albums charts. Later in 2007, it was re-released by Epic Records, and entered the Billboard 200 chart at No. 194. The album was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) in 2015 for selling over 500,000 physical copies in the US. The first of its six singles, "Breathe Into Me", reached No. 15 on the Billboard Mainstream Rock chart, won a GMA Dove Award for Recorded Song of the Year in the rock category, and was certified gold by the RIAA in 2015 for 500,000 digital sales.
Red supported End of Silence with a tour that began in 2006 and supported by various acts, including Three Days Grace, Breaking Benjamin, and Candlebox. In November 2007, their transit van and trailer crashed into a guardrail on Interstate 24 and slid sideways across a highway, causing major damage to the vehicles and Lamb suffering injuries to his already injured shoulder that forced him to sit for some of the remaining dates. Lamb returned, but the injury had affected his ability to travel and perform which led to his departure in 2008. He was replaced by his friend Joe Rickard. The incident became a source of inspiration and "fuel" for the band's future songs. In 2009, "Lost" won a GMA Dove Award for Recorded Song of the Year at its 40th ceremony. By 2009, the band had performed over 500 gigs.
Innocence & Instinct (2008–2010)
Red started work on their second album, Innocence & Instinct, shortly after they had completed End of Silence. In January 2008, they began a six-week period rehearsing and laying down drum tracks so they could continue recording while on tour. Graves joined the group on the road and assembled a studio at the back of their tour bus. They would assemble hotel mattresses in a corner and record vocals in the enclosed space. Recording took place at Little Big Sound, The Graveyard, and Paragon Studios in Tennessee. and Their website issued a statement explaining the album "was forged from a storm of inspiration and catastrophe", and later revealed Dante's Inferno and artwork by Gustave Doré as inspirations behind the music. They halted its progress to headline a nationwide club tour in March 2008, their first without a restrictive time slot which allowed them to develop their stage performance.
Released on February 10, 2009, Innocence & Instinct fared better on the charts than their first effort, entering the Billboard 200 at No. 15 and selling 39,000 copies in its first week. "Shadows" was co-written by Breaking Benjamin founder and singer Benjamin Burnley. A Deluxe Edition was also released with "Forever", an additional track, and bonus features. The single "Fight Inside" became the first by a Christian rock band to enter the Radio & Records charts at No. 1. In 2009, Red unveiled their new website to coincide with the video and single release of "Forever". Soon after, the band confirmed that Lamb had left the band due to the injuries sustained from the car crash along with Rauch, who wished to dedicate time with his family, and Rickard had become a full-time member. Rauch's contract with Red allowed him to continue writing for the band for some time after his departure. Innocence & Instinct won Rock Album of the Year at the 2010 GMA Dove Awards.
Red toured the album from February 2009 through 2010 with Saving Abel, Pop Evil, and Taddy Porter on the Class of 2009 Tour. On their website the band announced that they will be touring with Pillar and The Wedding on their new tour "Nothing and Everything" Tour which started in January 2010. In March, the band toured with Breaking Benjamin, Thousand Foot Krutch and Chevelle, followed by the Awake and Alive Tour with Skillet and The Letter Black.
Until We Have Faces (2010–2012)
Red worked on new material for Until We Have Faces during their 2009–2010 tours. They travelled with a portable case that unfolds into a mini recording studio, allowing them to put down ideas in the green room at venues. In a departure from their usual songwriting methods, much of the demo material stemmed from Rauch's rhythms he developed for song ideas on his home kit, leaving the rest of the group to develop their parts from them. Barnes said the band wanted to direct the album towards the idea of someone finding their own identity, and drew inspirations from various sources, including the novel Till We Have Faces by C.S. Lewis.
Until We Have Faces was released on February 1, 2011. The band released a teaser video online, featuring the band's name on a sheet of parchment which burns away and revealing the album's title. A picture was posted on Graves's Twitter account showing three guitars with tape on them showing tunings of A#, A, and G#, which hinted that this record may be heavier than the previous two. As part of the preliminary hype for the album, Red asked fans to send photos of their faces to the band. On December 9, codes were given to all fans that sent in pictures of their faces to download an MP3 for the song "Feed the Machine". The fan photos were used to create a mosaic poster. Red promoted the album's release with performances on the network television shows Late Night with Conan O'Brien and The Tonight Show with Jay Leno, their first television appearances. The album also debuted at No. 2 on the Billboard 200. "Feed the Machine" started to be added to Active Rock Radio stations in mid-February. Until We Have Faces has sold approximately 100,000 copies in the US. "Start Again" won Best Rock Recorded Song of the Year at the 2011 GMA Dove Awards.
Red was a part of the 2011 WinterJam lineup which started up in January. They joined Union Entertainment label-mates Hinder on their All American Nightmare Tour which kicked off on May 10, 2011. On June 5, 2011, they started their Kill Th3 Machin3 Tour with Oh No Fiasco, Taddy Porter, Red Jumpsuit Apparatus and Evans Blue. In September 2011 they went on the "Rock Allegiance Tour" with Buckcherry, Papa Roach, Puddle of Mudd, P.O.D., Crossfade and Drive A. They hit the road immediately after this to start their second leg of the Kill Th3 Machin3 Tour, with Brian "Head" Welch, Echoes the Fall and Icon for Hire. The tour ended in Atlanta, Georgia on October 26. RED completed the WinterJam 2011 WEST COAST in November and participated in Christmas Rock Night during the holiday season. Red was also the first band to ever enter Loudwire's Cage Match Hall of Fame, beating bands like Skillet, Seether, and Nickelback. In 2011, Red were made Grand Marshalls of a parade in Linesville, Pennsylvania, the town where the Armstrongs and Barnes grew up.
In February and March 2012 they were on the Redvolution Tour with Thousand Foot Krutch, Manafest, Nine Lashes, and Kiros. Red announced a European tour in April 2012.
Release the Panic (2012–2014)
On July 10, 2012, Red announced their fourth album, Release the Panic, was in progress. For the first time in their career, the band worked with a different producer other than Graves, choosing Howard Benson. He intentionally stripped the band's sound and made it less produced, and Red adopted a more melodic and alternative rock sound than previous releases. They worked one year and a half on writing the music, and around two years recording. The first single, "Release the Panic", was released in November 2012. Release the Panic was released on February 5, 2013. The album debuted on the U.S. Billboard 200 chart at No. 7, with first week sales of around 41,000. Red coincided the release of Release the Panic with their 3-disc anthology album Who We Are: The Red Anthology, formed of their first three albums.
Their subsequent tours culminated in Rickard's final performance with the band on January 26, 2014, before he finished the sessions for the Red remix EP Release the Panic: Re-Calibrated, released on April 29, 2014, and left the group. Debuting at No. 75 on the Billboard 200 charts, the release includes six songs from Release the Panic with orchestral arrangements and new elements added to the original tracks and one new song. Rickard was replaced by Love and Death drummer Dan Johnson, in time for an eight-city tour with Demon Hunter and Veridia.
Of Beauty and Rage (2014–2017)
For their fifth studio release, Red resumed their association with Graves and, in January 2014, returned to the ski lodge studio in Maine to develop material for Of Beauty and Rage. As they prepared new material, they discussed what they had learned while making Release the Panic and what they wished to do differently for the new album. A snowstorm occurred during this time, forcing the group inside which, according to Barnes, benefited the writing process. They produced four demos as the result of what they thought Red fans wanted to hear, and aspects in life that passionately drives them. The group experienced "personal heartbreak and loss" while making it, and named the opening and closing instrumental tracks "Descent" and "Ascent" respectively, as they found studio time partnered with their faith uplifting. During the album's recording, Red announced their total career sales had totalled 1.1 million units.
The album was released on February 24, 2015, and debuted at No. 11 on the Billboard 200 charts. A graphic novel, The Ever, telling the story behind the album, was released in January 2016.
In June 2016, End of Silence was re-released as a deluxe edition to commemorate its tenth anniversary. It contains a new song, "If I Break", a song already cut but left off the original album, an instrumental demo, "Circles", and other bonus content. Red celebrated the release with an anniversary tour which marked the return to performing songs from the album after a long time, playing smaller venues, and using older instruments.
Gone (2017–2018)
On September 26, 2017, Gospel Music Association released an article about an upcoming album. The article also stated that Red had sold almost 2 million albums. Material for Red's sixth album, Gone, was already being worked on in November 2016, with the main rehearsal sessions taking place the month after. Anthony Armstrong expressed a shift in releasing albums in the traditional way due to the decline in physical sales and the popularity of digital music. He also said the group would stray from Christian music markets more on this release, and would focus more efforts into promoting and touring within the general music market, which is where they began. Gone was officially announced in September 2017, and released on October 27, debuting at No. 13 on the Billboard 200 charts. A 17-track deluxe edition was also released.
In March and April 2018, they toured with Lacey Sturm, Righteous Vendetta and Messer.
Declaration (2019–2022)
The band posted an update, via a YouTube video on January 21, 2019. They announced that they are no longer signed to Essential/Sony and they will record their next album independently. They also announced that touring drummer Dan Johnson will join the band full-time as their fourth member, thus making a four-piece lineup for the first time since 2014. On June 7, the band released "The Evening Hate", their first new released music since leaving their record label. After announcing a small run of 10th anniversary tour dates for Innocence & Instinct, the band released another single, "From the Ashes", accompanied by a lyric video, and announced more tour dates. On September 17, they announced a tour with In Flames for 36 dates across North America. On October 11, the band announced a new EP, The Evening Hate, would be released November 1, in addition to releasing a new single, "Hemorrhage", a cover of the Fuel song of the same name.
On January 10, 2020, the band announced that their upcoming seventh studio album, Declaration, is set for release on April 10, 2020. On March 25, the band announced that Declaration would be released a week earlier than its original April 10 release date. The album was released on April 3 as planned, and peaked at No. 61 on the Billboard 200 charts. On February 9, 2021, the band announced that they had parted ways with Dan Johnson. Shortly after Johnson's departure, the band hired new drummer Brian Medeiros.
Rated R (2023–present)
The group's first live album, Until We Have Faces: Live and Unplugged, was released on December 2, 2022. During the announcement of the live album's release, the band also announced that they will release a new album sometime in spring 2023. The band went on both headlining tours and supporting tours with American bands Alter Bridge, Mammoth WVH and Pistols at Dawn for January and the majority of February.
On January 24, 2023, they revealed the name of the new album to be Rated R on their Facebook page. On June 16, the band revealed the album would be released on September 29, 2023, while also stating that the lead single of the album titled "Surrogates" would be available for all streaming services on August 4. The band also announced they embark on the "Rated R Tour", which starts in September and carries on until 2024. On September 1, the band released two new songs, "Cold World" and "Minus It All".
Musical style
Red's musical style has been described as Christian rock, alternative rock, alternative metal, Christian metal, nu metal, post-grunge and hard rock.
Band members
Current members
Michael Barnes – lead vocals
Anthony Armstrong – guitars, backing vocals
Randy Armstrong – bass, backing vocals, piano
Brian Medeiros – drums
Touring musicians
Dango Cellan – drums
Lucio Rubino – guitars, backing vocals
Former members
Andrew Hendrix – drums
Hayden Lamb – drums
Jasen Rauch – lead guitar
Joe Rickard – drums
Dan Johnson – drums
Timeline
Discography
End of Silence (2006)
Innocence & Instinct (2009)
Until We Have Faces (2011)
Release the Panic (2013)
Of Beauty and Rage (2015)
Gone (2017)
Declaration (2020)
Rated R (2023)
Awards
GMA Dove Awards
References
External links
2002 establishments in Tennessee
Alternative rock groups from Tennessee
American alternative metal musical groups
American Christian metal musical groups
American musical trios
American musical quartets
American nu metal musical groups
American post-grunge musical groups
Christian alternative metal groups
Christian rock groups from Tennessee
Essential Records (Christian) artists
Hard rock musical groups from Tennessee
Heavy metal musical groups from Tennessee
Musical groups established in 2002
Musical groups from Nashville, Tennessee
Sony BMG artists |
4091317 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LGBT%20rights%20in%20Russia | LGBT rights in Russia | In the Russian Federation, lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) people face significant challenges not experienced by others. Although sexual activity between same-sex couples is legal, homosexuality is disapproved of by most of the population, and same-sex couples and households headed by same-sex couples are ineligible for the legal protections available to opposite-sex couples. Russia provides no anti-discrimination protections for LGBT people and does not have a designation for hate crimes based on sexual orientation and gender identity. Transgender people are not allowed to change their legal gender and all gender-affirming care is banned. There are currently no laws prohibiting discrimination based on gender identity or expression, and recent laws could be used to discriminate against transgender residents.
Russia has long held strongly negative views regarding homosexuality, with recent polls indicating that a majority of Russians are against the acceptance of homosexuality and have shown support for laws discriminating against homosexuals. Despite receiving international criticism for the recent increase in social discrimination, crimes, and , larger cities such as Moscow and Saint Petersburg have been said to have a thriving LGBT community. However, there has been a historic resistance to gay pride parades by local governments; despite being fined by the European Court of Human Rights in 2010 for interpreting it as discrimination, the city of Moscow denied 100 individual requests for permission to hold Moscow Pride through 2012, citing a risk of violence against participants. In 2016, Russia was rated the second least LGBT-friendly nation in Europe by ILGA-Europe.
In December 1917, after the October Revolution, the Russian Soviet Republic (later the Russian SFSR) decriminalised homosexuality. However, in 1933, the Soviet Union under Joseph Stalin recriminalised sex between men. Article 121 was added to the criminal code on 7 March 1934 for the entire Soviet Union that expressly prohibited male homosexuality, with up to five years of hard labour in prison. During the Soviet regime, Western observers believed that between 800 and 1,000 men were imprisoned each year under Article 121. According to УГОЛОВНЫЙ КОДЕКС РСФСР from 1950, it was article 154a (154-а. Половое сношение мужчины с мужчиной (мужеложство) — лишение свободы на срок от трех до пяти
лет) After the dissolution of the Soviet Union, homosexual acts between consenting males were re-legalised in 1993, removing Article 121 from the RSFSR penal code.
Since 2006, under Vladimir Putin, regions in Russia have enacted varying laws restricting the distribution of materials promoting LGBT relationships to minors; in June 2013, a federal law criminalizing the distribution of materials among minors in support of non-traditional sexual relationships was enacted as an amendment to an existing child protection law. The law has resulted in the numerous arrests of Russian LGBT citizens publicly opposing the law and there has reportedly been a surge of anti-gay protests, violence, and even hate crimes. It has received international criticism from human rights observers, LGBT activists, and media outlets and has been viewed as a de facto means of criminalizing LGBT culture. The law was ruled to be inconsistent with protection of freedom of expression by the European Court of Human Rights but as of 2021 has not been repealed. In 2022, the law was extended to apply to anyone regardless of age, thus making any expression deemed a promotion of non-traditional sexual relationships illegal.
In a report issued on 13 April 2017, a panel of five expert advisors to the United Nations Human Rights Council—Vitit Muntarbhorn, Sètondji Roland Adjovi; Agnès Callamard; Nils Melzer; and David Kaye—condemned the wave of torture and killings of gay men in Chechnya.
Since the Russian invasion of Ukraine, the authorities have stepped up conservative measures particularly against trans people. On July 24, 2023, President Putin signed into law a bill gender-affirming care in Russia.
History
Under the reign of Peter the Great in the 18th, who introduced a wide range of reforms aimed at modernizing and Westernizing Russia, there was a ban on male homosexual activity, but only in military statutes for soldiers. In 1832, the criminal code included Article 995, which stated that "muzhelozhstvo", or men lying with men, was a criminal act punishable by exile to Siberia for up to 5 years. Men lying with men was interpreted by courts as meaning anal sex. Application of the laws was rare, and the turn of the century found a relaxation of these laws and a general growing of tolerance and visibility.
In the wake of the October Revolution, the Bolshevik regime decriminalized homosexuality. The Bolsheviks rewrote the constitution and "produced two Criminal Codes – in 1922 and 1926 – and an article prohibiting homosexual sex was left off both." The new Communist Party government removed the old laws regarding sexual relations, effectively legalising homosexual and transgender activity within Russia, although it remained illegal in other territories of the Soviet Union, and the homosexuals in Russia were still persecuted and sacked from their jobs. Under Joseph Stalin, the Soviet Union recriminalized homosexuality in a decree signed in 1933. The new Article 121, which punished "muzhelozhstvo" with imprisonment for up to 5 years, saw raids and arrests. Female homosexuals were sent to mental institutions. The decree was part of a broader campaign against "deviant" behavior and "Western degeneracy". Following Stalin's death, there was a liberalisation of attitudes toward sexual issues in the Soviet Union, but homosexual acts remained illegal. Discrimination against LGBT individuals persisted in the Soviet era, and homosexuality was not officially declassified as a mental illness until 1999.
Soviet Article 121 was often commonly used to extend prison sentences and to control dissidents. Among those imprisoned were the well-known film director Sergei Paradjanov and the poet Gennady Trifonov. Under Mikhail Gorbachev's administration in the late 1980s, the first gay organization came into being. The Moscow Gay & Lesbian Alliance was headed by Yevgeniya Debryanskaya and Roman Kalinin, who became the editor of the first officially registered gay newspaper, Tema. The fall of the USSR accelerated the progress of the gay movement in Russia. Gay publications and plays appeared. In 1993, a new Russian Criminal Code was signed, without Article 121. Men who had been imprisoned began to be released.
Current situation
The age of consent currently stands at 16 since 2003, regardless of sexual orientation.
Homosexuality was officially removed from the Russian list of mental illnesses in 1999 (after the endorsement of the World Health Organization's ICD-10 classifications).
Single persons living within Russia, regardless of their sexual orientation, can adopt children. Russian children can be adopted by a single homosexual who lives in a foreign country provided that country does not recognize same-sex marriage. A couple can adopt children together, as a couple, only if they are a married heterosexual couple.
The Russian constitution guarantees the right of peaceful association. Nevertheless, organs of authority in Russia refuse to register LGBT organizations.
Public opinion
Public opinion in Russia tends to be hostile toward homosexuality and the level of intolerance has been rising. A 2022 survey found that 74% of Russians said homosexuality should not be accepted by society (up from 60% in 2002), compared to 14% who said that homosexuality should be accepted by society. In a 2015 survey of 2,471 Russians, 86% said homosexuality should not be accepted by society. In a 2007 survey, 68% of Russians said homosexuality is always wrong (54%) or almost always wrong (14%). In a 2005 poll, 44% of Russians were in favour of making homosexual acts between consenting adults a criminal act; at the same time, 43% of Russians supported a legal ban on discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation. In 2013, 16% of Russians surveyed said that gay people should be isolated from society, 22% said they should be forced to undergo treatment, and 5% said homosexuals should be "liquidated". In Russian psychiatry, Soviet mentality about homosexuality has endured into the present day. For instance, in spite of the removal of homosexuality from the nomenclature of mental disorders, 62.5% of 450 surveyed psychiatrists in the Rostov Region view it as an illness, and up to three-quarters view it as immoral behavior. The psychiatrists sustain the objections to pride parades and the use of veiled schemes to lay off openly lesbian and gay persons from schools, child care centres, and other public institutions. A Russian motorcycle club called the Night Wolves, which is closely associated with Russian President Vladimir Putin and which suggests "Death to faggots" as an alternate name for itself, organized a large Anti-Maidan rally in February 2015 at which a popular slogan was "We don't need Western ideology and gay parades!"
Same-sex unions
Neither same-sex marriages nor civil unions of same-sex couples are allowed in Russia. In July 2013, Patriarch Kirill, the leader of the Russian Orthodox Church, of which approximately 71% of Russians are adherents, said that the idea of same-sex marriage was "a very dangerous sign of the Apocalypse". At a 2011 press conference, the head of the Moscow Registry Office, Irina Muravyova, declared: "Attempts by same-sex couples to marry both in Moscow and elsewhere in Russia are doomed to fail. We live in a civil society, we are guided by the federal law, [and] by the Constitution that clearly says: marriage in Russia is between a man and a woman. Such a marriage [same-sex] cannot be contracted in Russia." The vast majority of the Russian public are also against same-sex marriage. In July 2020, Russian voters approved a Constitution amendment banning same-sex marriage. In the 2021 case Fedotova and Others v. Russia, the European Court of Human Rights ruled that it was a violation of human rights for Russia not to offer any form of legal recognition to same-sex relationships. However, Russia left the court in 2022.
Military service
Before 1993, homosexual acts between consenting males were against the law in Russia, and homosexuality was considered a mental disorder until adoption of ICD-10 in 1999, but even after that military medical expertise statute was in force to continue considering homosexuality a mental disorder which was a reason to deny homosexuals to serve in the military. On 1 July 2003, a new military medical expertise statute was adopted; it said people "who have problems with their identity and sexual preferences" can only be drafted during war times. However, this clause contradicted another clause of the same statute which stated that different sexual orientation should not be considered a deviation. This ambiguity was resolved by the Major-General of the Medical Service Valery Kulikov who clearly stated that the new medical statute "does not forbid people of non-standard sexual orientation from serving in the military." However, he added that people of non-standard sexual orientation should not reveal their sexual orientation while serving in the army because "other soldiers are not going to like that; they can be beaten". President Vladimir Putin said in a U.S. television interview in 2010 that openly gay men were not excluded from military service in Russia. In 2013, it was reported that the Defense Ministry had issued a guideline on assessment of new recruits' mental health that recommends recruits be asked about their sexual history and be examined for certain types of tattoos, especially genital or buttocks tattoos, that would allegedly indicate a homosexual orientation.
As of April and May 2023 there has been a proposed crackdown on the changing of genders. The Russian State Duma is considering passing new laws to prevent men from changing their gender from male to female without surgery. The proposed changes, as first discussed by the Russian Minister of Justice, Konstantin Chuychenko, in April are to "rule out the possibility of changing a person’s gender purely by changing the documents.” Duma Committee on Family, Women, and Children's Affairs head Nina Ostanina said: "Amendments will soon be introduced in the State Duma to officially ban gender reassignment without surgery," In part it is to protect "family values" in Russia. However Russian men have considered changing their genders to avoid being called by the military authorities. According to one Russian source "In connection with the special operation, many young people have turned to private clinics to provide a sex change to avoid conscription..."Vyacheslav Volodin, Speaker of the Duma, claims that some "2,700" such decisions have been made in "recent times".
Gay pride events
There have been notable objections to the organization of gay pride parades in several Russian cities, most prominently Moscow, where authorities have never approved a request to hold a gay pride rally. Former Moscow mayor Yuri Luzhkov supported the city's refusal to authorize the first two editions of Nikolay Alexeyev's Moscow Pride events, calling them as "satanic". The events still went on as planned, in defiance of their lack of authorization. In 2010, Russia was fined by the European Court of Human Rights, ruling that, as alleged by Alexeyev, Russian cities were discriminating against the gay community by refusing to authorize pride parades. Although authorities had claimed allowing pride events to be held would pose a risk of violence, the Court ruled that their decisions "effectively approved of and supported groups who had called for [their] disruption." In August 2012, contravening the previous ruling, the Moscow City Court upheld a ruling blocking requests by the organizers of Moscow Pride for authorization to hold the parade yearly through 2112, citing the possibility of public disorder and a lack of support for such events by residents of Moscow.
Chechnya
Anti-gay purges in the Chechen Republic have included forced disappearances — secret abductions, imprisonment, and torture — by authorities targeting persons based on their perceived sexual orientation. An unknown number of men, who authorities detained on suspicion of being gay or bisexual, have reportedly died after being held in what human rights groups and eyewitnesses have called concentration camps.
Allegations were initially reported on 1 April 2017 in Novaya Gazeta, a Russian-language opposition newspaper, which reported that since February 2017 over 100 men had allegedly been detained and tortured and at least three had died in an extrajudicial killing. The paper, citing its sources in the Chechen special services, called the wave of detentions a "prophylactic sweep". The journalist who first reported on the subject went into hiding. There have been calls for reprisals against journalists who report on the situation.
As news spread of Chechen authorities' actions, which have been described as part of a systematic anti-LGBT purge, Russian and international activists scrambled to evacuate survivors of the camps and other vulnerable Chechens but were met with difficulty obtaining visas to conduct them safely beyond Russia.
The reports of the persecution were met with a variety of reactions worldwide. The Head of the Chechen Republic Ramzan Kadyrov denied not only the occurrence of any persecution but also the existence of gay men in Chechnya, adding that such people would be killed by their own families. Officials in Moscow were sceptical, although in late May the Russian government reportedly agreed to send an investigative team to Chechnya. Numerous national leaders and other public figures in the West condemned Chechnya's actions, and protests were held in Russia and elsewhere. A report released in December 2018 by the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE) confirmed claims that persecution of LGBT persons had taken place and was ignored by authorities.
On 11 January 2019, it was reported that another 'gay purge' had begun in the country in December 2018, with several gay men and women being detained. The Russian LGBT Network believes that around 40 persons were detained and two killed.
In March 2021, Reuters reported that the European Union imposed economic sanctions on two Chechen officials accused of persecuting LGBT people in Chechnya.
Public opinion
Russia has traditionally been socially conservative on LGBT rights, with 2013 polls indicating a large majority of Russians oppose legal recognition of same-sex marriage, and support for laws restricting the distribution of "propaganda" that promotes non-traditional sexual relationships.
In 2019, a survey showed that 47% of Russian respondents agreed that "gays and lesbians should enjoy the same rights as other citizens," while 43 percent disagreed, a rise from 39% in 2013. This marks the highest level of support in 14 years.
In 2019, a poll showed that only 2% would show interest and a willingness to communicate if the neighbour was a homosexual couple or a member of a religious sect, the last of the category of people presented.
According to a 2019 poll carried out by the Russian Public Opinion Foundation (FOM), 7% of Russians agreed that same-sex marriages should be allowed in Russia, while 87% opposed the idea.
Employment discrimination
Anton Krasovsky, a television news anchor at government-run KontrTV, was immediately fired from his job in January 2013 when he announced during a live broadcast that he is gay and disgusted by the national anti-gay propaganda legislation that had been proposed although had not yet passed.
In September 2013, a Khabarovsk teacher and gay rights activist, Alexander Yermoshkin, was fired from his two jobs as school teacher and university researcher. A week earlier, he had been attacked by members of a local neo-Nazi group "Shtolz Khabarovsk". An activist group called "Movement against the propaganda of sexual perversions" had campaigned for his dismissal.
Viewpoints of political parties
The federal law banning LGBT propaganda among minors was passed unanimously by the Russian Duma; as the bill amended an existing child protection law, it is difficult to know whether or not all of the MPs, and their respective political parties, supported every aspect of the bill or not. A few political parties without members in the Duma have expressed some limited support for LGBT rights.
Yabloko is a member of the Liberal International, and has organized public demonstrations against intolerance under the banner of building a "Russia without pogroms".
The Libertarian Party of Russia, formed in 2007, has objected to the government ban on "gay propaganda" as a violation of people's right to freedom of speech.
In 2016, two openly gay men ran for seats in the Russian duma. While they admit that they probably will not win a seat, they were supported by a liberal coalition. They are also probably the first openly gay candidates to run for seats in the Russian parliament.
The LGBT rights organisation Gayrussia.ru has been monitoring homophobic political parties since 2011. In the middle of 2013 their list included: United Russia, Communist Party of Russian Federation, Narodnaya Volya, National Bolshevik Party, National Bolshevik Front, Patriots of Russia, Eurasian Youth Union and Fair Russia.
President Vladimir Putin has used the existence of transgender rights in other countries as justification for the potential deployment of nuclear weapons against Ukraine. In a speech given on September 30, 2022, Putin said "Do we want things that lead to degradation and extinction to be imposed on children from elementary school? Do we want them to be taught that instead of men and women, there are supposedly some other genders and to be offered sex-change surgeries? This is unacceptable to us." before following up by stating that Russia would be willing to use "all means at our disposal" against Ukraine, and saying that the United States "created a precedent" when it used nuclear weapons against Japan in 1945, mirroring comments by other Russian officials that nuclear weapons were on the table.
Hate crimes
On 20 January 2013, six demonstrating LGBT activists in the provincial capital of Voronezh were attacked by over 500 people. The protest by these agitators, who appeared with Hitler salutes and hate slogans and threw snowballs, bottles and other objects at the demonstrators and then beat them up, was not registered. The police assigned 10 officers to this event. The employees of the nearby Adidas sports shop staged its mannequins with Hitler salutes in solidarity with the beating. At least three LGBT activists, including women, were injured and hospitalized during the resistance. On the same day, the author of the Petersburg law against 'homosexual propaganda', Vitaly Milonov, posted on his Twitter that "Voronezh is great".
Unlike in many western nations, LGBT persons in Russia are not protected by specific legal protections. Violent criminal acts carried out against LGBT people are prosecuted as criminal offences under Russian law, but the fact that these crimes are motivated by the sexual orientation or gender identity of the victim is not considered an aggravating factor when the court determines the sentence. Among the more vicious crimes that would qualify as hate crimes outside of Russia and are reported in the press would include the following;
On 9 May 2013, after Victory Day parades in Volgograd, the body of a 23-year-old man was found tortured and murdered by three males who stated anti-homosexual motivations, even though family and friends state the victim had no behavior inclination.
On 29 May 2013, the body of 38-year-old deputy director of Kamchatka airport Oleg Serdyuk (rus: Олег Сердюк) was found in his burned-out car, having been beaten and stabbed the previous day. Local authorities said the murder was motivated by homophobia. Three suspects (who were local residents) were tried and sentenced to prison terms of 9 to 12 years.
From October 2013 – February 2014, anti-gay attacks targeting the LGBT community in Moscow were reported at Russia's largest gay nightclub Central Station, including gunfire and gas attacks. Several attacks and victim responses were documented in an ABC News Nightline special "Moscow is Burning". Several employees of the club subsequently left the country.
Transgender issues
Current situation
In July 2023, Russia enacted the , which includes the following provisions:
doctors are prevented from offering gender-affirming healthcare and sexual reassignment surgery to any individual, regardless of age.
changing gender markers on official documents is not allowed.
people suffering from gender dysphoria have been deprived of the right to adopt children.
a marriage by a trans individual with a person who shares the same birth sex as them is deemed null.
History
In Tsarist Russia, young women would sometimes pose as men or act like tomboys. This was often tolerated among the educated middle classes, with the assumption that such behavior was asexual and would stop when the girl married. However, cross-dressing was widely seen as sexually immoral behavior, punishable by God promoted through the Church and later criminalized by the government.
In Soviet Russia, sex reassignment surgeries were first tried during the 1920s but became prohibited until the 1960s. Later they were performed by Irina Golubeva, an endocrinologist, authorized by psychiatrist Aron Belkin, who was the strongest Soviet advocate for transgender people until his death in 2003.
On 29 December 2014, Russia passed a road safety law, allowing the government to deny driver's licenses to people with several classes of mental disorders according to ICD-10. Class "F60-69 Disorders of adult personality and behaviour" includes "F64 Transsexualism" Russian and foreign critics perceived the law as a ban on transgender drivers: journalist Yelena Masyuk questioned the relevance of a person's transgender identity in regards to their ability to drive. On 14 January 2015, Russia's Health Ministry clarified the law, stating that it would only deny licenses to those with disorders that would impair their ability to drive safely, and explicitly stated that one's sexual orientation would not be considered a factor under the law, as it is not considered a psychiatric disorder.
In 2018, the Ministry of Health of the Russian Federation developed a draft medical certificate that will help transgender people with confirming their gender identity on their legal documents. The Ministry of Justice approved this document on January 19, 2018. Up to this point, changes related to the gender change could only be made to the documents on the basis of a court decision. The Ministry of Health explained that, in accordance with the legislation, the registry offices make changes to the birth certificate if a mentioned certificate is submitted.
A certificate of gender change required to change person's gender in documents such as a birth certificate and passport, and can be obtained on the basis of a medical commission consisting of a psychiatrist, a sexologist and a medical psychologist. Neither sex-affirmative surgery nor hormone replacement therapy required. The minimum duration of psychiatric observation is not specified in the final document of the Ministry of Health. On average, the commission lasts from 2 days to 1 month.
On May 31, 2023, a bill to legally ban individuals having any sex change and reassignments within Russia, annulling marriages with partners that have changed gender and banning said individuals from adopting children was introduced in the State Duma. On 19 July, the bill unanimously passed its three required readings in the State Duma (lower house of parliament).
On July 19, the upper house of parliament unanimously approved the bill as well.
On 24 July, the bill was signed into law by Russian president Vladimir Putin. State Duma Speaker Vyacheslav Volodin said the number of gender reassignment surgeries in the U.S. has increased by 50 times over the past 10 years, and around 1.4% of all US teenagers aged between 13 and 17 identified themselves as transgender in 2022. He said “This is the path leading to the degradation of a nation”, stating that the newly adopted law was designed to avoid such a scenario
Propaganda bans
Regional laws
Between 2006 and 2013, ten regions enacted a ban on "propaganda of homosexualism" among minors. The laws of nine of them prescribe punishments of administrative sanctions and/or fines. The laws in some of the regions also forbid so-called "propaganda of bisexualism and transgenderism" to minors. As of May 2013 the regions that had enacted these various laws, and the years in which they had passed the laws, included: Ryazan Oblast (2006), Arkhangelsk Oblast (2011), Saint Petersburg (2012), Kostroma Oblast (2012), Magadan Oblast (2012), Novosibirsk Oblast (2012), Krasnodar Krai (2012), Samara Oblast (2012), Bashkortostan (2012), and Kaliningrad Oblast (February 2013). Then, Arkhangelsk (2013) and Saint Petersburg (2014) removed the law.
In 2019, Russia cut and censored gay sex scenes in the movie musical Rocketman based on the life of British singer Elton John, a decision he criticized, saying it is "cruelly unaccepting of the love between two people."
National laws
Federal laws passed on 29 June 2013 ban the distribution of "propaganda of non-traditional sexual relationships" among minors. Critics contend the law makes illegal holding any sort of public demonstration in favour of gay rights, speak in defence of LGBT rights, and distribute material related to LGBT culture, or to state that same-sex relationships are equal to heterosexual relationships. Additionally the laws have received international condemnation from human rights campaigners, and media outlets that even display of LGBT symbols, such as the rainbow flag, have resulted in arrests, and incited homophobic violence.
The law subjects Russian citizens found guilty to fines of up to 5,000 roubles and public officials to fines of up to 50,000 roubles. Organizations or businesses will be fined up to 1 million roubles and be forced to cease operations for up to 90 days. Foreigners may be arrested and detained for up to 15 days then deported, as well as fined up to 100,000 roubles. Russian citizens who have used the Internet or media to promote "non-traditional relations" will be fined up to 100,000 roubles.
The statute amended a law that is said to protect children from pornography and other "harmful information". One of the authors of the statute, Yelena Mizulina, who is the chair of the Duma's Committee on Family, Women, and Children and who has been described by some as a moral crusader, told lawmakers as the bill was being considered, "Traditional sexual relations are relations between a man and a woman.... These relations need special protection". Mizulina argued that a recent poll had shown 88% of the public were in support of the bill.
Commenting on the bill prior to its passage, President Putin said, during a visit to Amsterdam in April 2013, "I want everyone to understand that in Russia there are no infringements on sexual minorities' rights. They're people, just like everyone else, and they enjoy full rights and freedoms". He went on to say that he fully intended to sign the bill because the Russian people demanded it. As he put it, "Can you imagine an organization promoting pedophilia in Russia? I think people in many Russian regions would have started to take up arms.... The same is true for sexual minorities: I can hardly imagine same-sex marriages being allowed in Chechnya. Can you imagine it? It would have resulted in human casualties." Putin also mentioned that he was concerned about Russia's low birth-rate and that same-sex relationships do not produce children.
Critics say that the statute is written so broadly that it is in effect a complete ban on the gay rights movement and any public expression of LGBT culture.
In July 2013, four Dutch tourists were arrested for allegedly discussing gay rights with Russian youths. The four were arrested for allegedly spreading "propaganda of nontraditional relationships among the under-aged" after talking to teens at a camp in the northern city of Murmansk.
In March 2018 the Russian authorities forbade the biggest gay website Gay.ru because of "propaganda of nontraditional sexual relationships".
In December 2022, an amendment to the propaganda law was signed into law by Putin, extending it to all age groups. It also prohibits the distribution of materials that promote "pedophilia", or give minors a "desire to change their sex".
In February 2023, the Russian government introduced the AI program Oculus to scan the internet for illegal content, including “LGBT propaganda”.
Domestic reactions
According to a survey conducted in June 2013 by the Russian Public Opinion Research Center (VTsIOM), at least 90% of those surveyed were in favor of the law.
Russian historian and human rights activist Lyudmila Alexeyeva has called it "a step toward the Middle Ages".
In January 2016, the State Duma rejected a proposal by the Communist Party to punish people who publicly express their homosexuality with fines and arrests.
International reactions and boycott
International human rights organisations and the governments of developed democracies around the world have strongly condemned this Russian law. The Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights has condemned this Russian statute and another similar one in Moldova (which was later repealed) as discriminatory and has made clear that the Russian statute in question is a violation of international human rights law, including the right of gay children to receive proper information. The European Parliament has condemned Russia for homophobic discrimination and censorship and the Council of Europe has called on Russia to protect LGBT rights properly. The European Court of Human Rights had previously fined Russia for other infringements of LGBT rights. In 2012 the UN Human Rights Committee ruled that a similar statute in the Russia's Ryazan Region was discriminatory, infringed on freedom of expression, and was inadmissible under international law – a Russian court in Ryazan later agreed and struck it down. Some members of the gay community commenced a boycott of Russian goods, particularly Russian vodka.
Many Western celebrities and activists are openly opposed to the law and have encouraged a boycott of Russian products – notably Russian vodka – as well as a boycott of the 2014 Winter Olympic Games, which were scheduled to be held in Sochi, unless the Games were relocated out of Russia.
Political figures
United States President Barack Obama said that while he did not favour boycotting the Sochi Olympics over the law, "Nobody's more offended than me about some of the anti-gay and lesbian legislation that you've been seeing in Russia". Obama subsequently, in September 2013, met with Russian gay rights activists during a visit to St. Petersburg to attend a meeting of the G-20 nations' leaders. Obama said that he was proud of the work the activists were doing. His aides had said that Obama's opposition to the anti-gay propaganda law was one reason Obama had canceled a meeting previously planned to have been held with Russian President Putin during the trip.
The law was also condemned by German Chancellor Angela Merkel and German cabinet secretaries, British Prime Minister David Cameron, Australian Foreign Minister Bob Carr, as well as Canadian Prime Minister Stephen Harper and Foreign Affairs Minister John Baird.
Summary table
See also
Human rights in Russia
LGBT rights in Asia
LGBT rights in Europe
LGBT culture in Russia
LGBT history in Russia
LGBT rights in Chechnya
LGBT Human Rights Project Gayrussia.ru
Moscow Helsinki Watch Group
Nikolay Alexeyev
Recognition of same-sex unions in Russia
Think of the children
Vitaly Milonov
Russian LGBT Network
Notes
References
Sources
Further reading
Clark, F. (2014). "Discrimination against LGBT people triggers health concerns." Lancet, 383(9916), 500–502.
External links
LGBT Human Rights Project GayRussia.Ru (en)(ru)
Russian National Gay, Lesbian, Bisexual, Transsexual Website (ru)
Is HOMO what OMON sees in the mirror? – The eXile (en)
LGBT History: Russia (en)
State Duma rejected "sexual hatred" to be the reason for criminal prosecution 14 February 2004 (en)
Bashkortostan Parliament's deputy proposes legitimating homosexual marriages 22 May 2004 (en)
Gay and lesbian parents afraid to send kids to school in Russia, Xtra Magazine, 14 June 2014 (en)
Law of Russia
Discrimination against transgender people |
4091662 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ward%20Churchill | Ward Churchill | Ward LeRoy Churchill (born October 2, 1947) is an American author and political activist. He was a professor of ethnic studies at the University of Colorado Boulder from 1990 until 2007. The primary focus of his work is on the historical treatment of political dissenters and Native Americans by the United States government. His work features controversial views, written in a direct, often confrontational style. While Churchill has claimed Native American ancestry, genealogical research has failed to unearth such ancestry and he is not a member of a tribe.
In January 2005, Churchill's 2001 essay "On the Justice of Roosting Chickens" gained attention. In the work, he argued the September 11 attacks were a natural and unavoidable consequence of unlawful U.S. foreign policy over the latter half of the 20th century; the essay is known for Churchill's use of the phrase "little Eichmanns" to describe the "technocratic corps" working in the World Trade Center.
In March 2005, the University of Colorado began investigating allegations that Churchill had engaged in research misconduct. Churchill was fired on July 24, 2007. Churchill filed a lawsuit against the University of Colorado for unlawful termination of employment. In April 2009 a Denver jury found that Churchill was unjustly fired, awarding him $1 in damages. In July 2009, however, a District Court judge vacated the monetary award and declined Churchill's request to order his reinstatement, holding that the university had "quasi-judicial immunity". Churchill's appeals of this decision were unsuccessful.
Early life and education
Churchill was born in Urbana, Illinois, to Jack LeRoy Churchill and Maralyn Lucretia Allen. His parents divorced before he was two, and he grew up in Elmwood, where he attended local schools.
In 1966, he was drafted into the United States Army. On his 1980 resume, he claimed to have served as a public-information specialist who "wrote and edited the battalion newsletter and wrote news releases." In a 1987 profile in the Denver Post, Churchill claimed to have attended paratrooper school, and volunteered for a 10-month stint on Long Range Reconnaissance Patrol in Vietnam. Churchill also claimed to have spent time at the Chicago office of the Students for a Democratic Society (SDS), and provided firearms and explosives training to members of the Weather Underground.
In 2005, the Denver Post reported on fabrications in Churchill's service record. Department of Defense personnel files showed that Churchill was trained as a film projectionist and light truck driver, but they do not reflect paratrooper school or LRRP training.
Churchill received his B.A. in technological communications in 1974 and M.A. in communications theory in 1975, both from Sangamon State University (now the University of Illinois at Springfield).
Career
Teaching
In 1978, Churchill began working at the University of Colorado Boulder as an affirmative action officer in the university administration. He also lectured on issues relating to Native Americans in the United States in the ethnic studies program. In 1990, the University of Colorado hired him as an associate professor, although he did not possess the academic doctorate usually required for the position. The following year he was granted tenure in the Communications department, without the usual six-year probationary period, after having been declined by the Sociology and Political Science departments.
Churchill has long been interested in issues associated with the Dawes Act, which broke up the communal reservation lands and assigned plots to individual households. Connected with that was the federal government's first use of "blood quantum" to define individual membership in tribes, for what became known as the Dawes Rolls. Since re-establishing self-governments, federally recognized tribes have established their own criteria for enrollment as members, often related to descent from recognized historical lists, but less often requiring proofs of blood quantum. Some of his published works address these issues, which he has interpreted as part of the federal government's policy of genocide against Native Americans.
In 1994, then CU-Boulder Chancellor James Corbridge refused to take action on allegations that Churchill was fraudulently claiming to be an Indian, saying "it has always been university policy that a person's race or ethnicity is self-proving."
In 1996, Churchill moved to the new Ethnic Studies Department of the University of Colorado. In 1997, he was promoted to full professor. He was selected as chairman of the department in June 2002. Documents in Churchill's university personnel file show that Churchill was granted tenure in a "special opportunity position".
In January 2005, during the controversy over his 9/11 remarks, Churchill resigned as chairman of the ethnic studies department at the University of Colorado — his term as chair was scheduled to expire in June of that year.
In 2005, the University of Colorado's Research Misconduct Committee conducted a preliminary investigation into whether Churchill misrepresented his ethnicity to "add credibility and public acceptance to his scholarship". The committee concluded that the allegation was not "appropriate for further investigation under the definition of research misconduct". The university has said that it does not hire on the basis of ethnicity.
On May 16, 2006, the Investigative Committee of the Standing Committee on Research Misconduct at the University of Colorado concluded that Churchill had committed multiple counts of academic misconduct, specifically plagiarism, fabrication, and falsification. On July 24, 2007, Churchill was fired for academic misconduct in an eight to one vote by the University of Colorado's Board of Regents.
Research misconduct investigation
The controversy attracted increased academic scrutiny of Churchill's research, the quality of which had already been seriously questioned by the legal scholar John LaVelle and historian Guenter Lewy. Additional critics were the sociologist Thomas Brown, who had been preparing an article on Churchill's work, and the historians R. G. Robertson and Russell Thornton, who said that Churchill had misrepresented their work. In 2005, University of Colorado Boulder administrators ordered an investigation into seven allegations of research misconduct, including three allegations of plagiarism, and four allegations of fabrication or falsification regarding the history of the Dawes Act, the Indian Arts and Crafts Act of 1990, and repeated claims that smallpox was intentionally spread to Native Americans by John Smith in 1614 and by the United States Army at Fort Clark in 1837.
On May 16, 2006, the university released its findings; the Investigative Committee unanimously concluded that Churchill had engaged in "serious research misconduct", including falsification, fabrication, and two of the three allegations of plagiarism. The committee was divided on the appropriate level of sanctions. The Standing Committee on Research Misconduct accepted the findings of the Investigative Committee but also disagreed on what sanctions should be imposed. Churchill's appeal against his proposed dismissal was considered by a panel of the university's Privilege and Tenure Committee, which found that two of the seven findings of misconduct did not constitute dismissible offenses. Three members recommended that the penalty should be demotion and one year's suspension without pay, while two favored dismissal.
On July 24, 2007, the university regents voted seven to two to uphold all seven of the findings of research misconduct, overruling the recommendation of Privilege and Tenure panel that two be dismissed. The regents voted eight to one to fire Churchill.
The next day, Churchill filed a lawsuit in state court claiming that the firing was retribution for his expressing politically unpopular views. The jury in Churchill's suit for reinstatement weighed the university's claims of academic misconduct per jury instructions it received in the case. On April 1, 2009, the jury found that Churchill had been wrongly fired, and awarded $1 in damages.
On July 7, 2009, Judge Naves found that the defendants (university) were entitled to quasi-judicial immunity as a matter of law, vacated the jury verdict and determined that the university did not owe Churchill any financial compensation. Churchill appealed, but Judge Naves's decision was upheld by a three-judge panel of the Colorado Court of Appeals and by the Colorado Supreme Court.
On April 1, 2013, the United States Supreme Court declined to hear Churchill's case.
A report by the Colorado Committee to Protect Faculty Rights of the Colorado Conference of the American Association of University Professors investigating academic freedom at the University of Colorado - Boulder determined that Ward Churchill's termination was unjustified.
Writing
Churchill has written on American Indian history and culture, and the genocide inflicted on the indigenous people of the Americas by European-American settlers and the ongoing repression of native peoples.
According to the University of Colorado investigation, Churchill's academic publications "are nearly all works of synthesis and reinterpretation, drawing upon studies by other scholars, not monographs describing new research based on primary sources." The investigation also noted that "he has decided to publish largely in alternative presses or journals, not in the university presses or mainstream peer-reviewed journals often favored by more conventional academics." Historian Gavriel Rosenfeld criticized Churchill for "numerous errors reflecting sloppy or hasty scholarship".
In 1986, Churchill wrote the essay "Pacifism as Pathology: Notes on an American Pseudopraxis" criticizing pacifist politics within the U.S. left as being hypocritical, de facto racist and ineffectual. In 1998, Arbeiter Ring Publishing published the essay in a book entitled Pacifism as Pathology: Reflections on the Role of Armed Struggle in North America, listing Ward Churchill as the author. The book included a preface by Ed Mead (of the George Jackson Brigade), a new introduction to the essay by Churchill and a commentary by Michael Ryan. The book sparked much debate in leftist circles and inspired more aggressive tactics within the anti-globalization movement in the following few years. George Lakey, a co-founder of the pacifist Movement for a New Society, published a detailed response in 2001 titled "Nonviolent Action as the Sword that Heals: Challenging Ward Churchill's 'Pacifism As Pathology. The 2007 edition published by AK Press includes a preface by Derrick Jensen. A third edition was published in 2017 by PM Press with updates by Churchill and Ryan, and a foreword by Dylan Rodríguez.
Agents of Repression (1988), co-authored by Jim Vander Wall, describes what the authors said was a secret war against the Black Panther Party and American Indian Movement carried out during the late 1960s and '70s by the FBI under the COINTELPRO program. The COINTELPRO Papers (1990; reissued 2002), also co-authored with Vander Wall, examines a series of original FBI memos that detail the Bureau's activities against various leftist groups, from the U.S. Communist Party in the 1950s to activists concerned with Central American issues in the 1980s.
In Fantasies of the Master Race (1992), Churchill examines the portrayal of American Indians and the use of American Indian symbols in popular American culture. He focuses on such phenomena as Tony Hillerman's mystery novels, the film Dances with Wolves (1990), and the New Age movement, finding examples of cultural imperialism and exploitation. Churchill calls author Carlos Castaneda's claims of revealing the teachings of a Yaqui Indian shaman, the "greatest hoax since Piltdown Man".
Struggle for the Land (1993; reissued 2002) is a collection of essays in which Churchill chronicles what he describes as the U.S. government's systematic exploitation of Native lands and the killing or displacement of American Indians. He details Native American efforts in the 19th and 20th centuries to prevent deforestation and industrial practices such as surface mining.
Churchill's Indians Are Us? (1994), a sequel to Fantasies of the Master Race, further explores Native American issues in popular culture and politics. He examines the movie Black Robe, the Pine Ridge Indian Reservation killings, the prosecution of Leonard Peltier, sports mascots, the Indian Arts and Crafts Act of 1990, and blood quantum laws, calling them tools of genocide. Churchill is particularly outspoken about New Age exploitations of shamanism and American Indian sacred traditions, and the "do-it-yourself Indianism" of certain contemporary authors. John P. LaVelle of the University of New Mexico School of Law published a review of Indians Are Us? in The American Indian Quarterly. Professor LaVelle, an enrolled member of the Santee Sioux Nation, states that Indians Are Us? twists historical facts and is hostile toward Indian tribes. It was in this book that Churchill first made the assertion that the United States distributed "smallpox-infested blankets" to Indian tribes, an assertion which he repeated several times over the next decade. The assertion has been criticized as a falsification.
From a Native Son: Selected Essays on Indigenism, 1985–1995 (1996) is a collection of 23 previously published essays on Native American history, culture, and political activism. In his introduction to this book, Howard Zinn lauds "the emergence of a new generation of Native-American scholars" and describes Churchill's writing as "powerful, eloquent, unsparing of cant and deception".
Churchill's A Little Matter of Genocide (1997) is a survey of ethnic cleansing in the Americas from 1492 to the present. He compares the treatment of North American Indians to historical instances of genocide by the Khmer Rouge in Cambodia, the Turks against Armenians, and Europeans against the Gypsies, as well as Nazis against the Poles and the Jews.
In Perversions of Justice (2002), Churchill argues that the U.S.'s legal system was adapted to gain control over Native American people. Tracing the evolution of federal Indian law, Churchill argues that the principles set forth were not only applied to non-Indians in the U.S., but later adapted for application abroad. He concludes that this demonstrates the development of the U.S.'s "imperial logic", which depends on a "corrupt form of legalism" to establish colonial control and empire.
Churchill's controversial essay on 9/11 was expanded into a book-length manuscript, published as On the Justice of Roosting Chickens: Reflections on the Consequences of U.S. Imperial Arrogance and Criminality (2003) by AK Press. The book features two other chapters, one listing US military interventions, another listing what Churchill believes to be US violations of international law. The original essay takes the "roosting chickens" of the title from a 1963 Malcolm X speech, in which Malcolm X linked the assassination of U.S. president John F. Kennedy to the violence which Kennedy perpetuated as "merely a case of chickens coming home to roost". Churchill's essays in this book address the worldwide forms of resistance that he posits were and continue to be provoked by U.S. imperialism of the 20th and 21st centuries.
In Kill the Indian, Save the Man: The Genocidal Impact of American Indian Residential Schools (2004), Churchill traces the history of removing American Indian children from their homes to residential schools (in Canada) or Indian boarding schools (in the USA) as part of government policies (1880s–1980s) which he regards as genocidal.
Activism
Churchill has been active since at least 1984 as the co-director of the Denver-based American Indian Movement of Colorado, now an autonomous chapter of the American Indian Movement. In 1993, he and other local AIM leaders, including Russell Means, Glenn T. Morris, Robert Robideau, and David Hill, broke with the national AIM leadership, including Dennis Banks and the brothers Vernon and Clyde Bellecourt, claiming that all AIM chapters are autonomous. The AIM Grand Governing Council is based in Minneapolis and retains the name of the national group. It says that the schism arose when Means, Churchill, Glenn T. Morris and others openly supported the Miskito Indian group Misurasata, who were allied with the anti-revolutionary, CIA-backed Contras.
Journalists such as Harlan McKosato attributed the split to Means and other AIM members dividing over opposition to the Bellecourt brothers because of their alleged involvement in the execution of Anna Mae Aquash in December 1975, who was then the highest-ranking woman in AIM but had been suspected of being an informant. It was a year in which other FBI informants had been discovered in AIM. On November 3, 1999, Means held a press conference in Denver, Colorado in which he accused the Bellecourt brothers of complicity in Aquash's death, and named three lower-level AIM members involved in her death: Arlo Looking Cloud, John Graham, and Theda Nelson Clarke. This was the first time that an AIM leader active at the time of the Aquash murder had publicly accused AIM of having been involved.
Looking Cloud and Graham were convicted of Aquash's murder in 2004 and 2010, by federal and South Dakota state juries, respectively. By then Clark was being cared for in a nursing home and was not indicted. Means attributed the split in AIM to divisions in the aftermath of Aquash's murder. The journalist Harlan McKosato said in 1999, "...her [Aquash's] death has divided the American Indian Movement..."
The schism continued, with the national AIM leadership claiming that the local AIM leaders, such as Churchill, are tools of the U.S. government used against other American Indians. The leaders of the national AIM organization, now called AIM Grand Governing Council, claim that Churchill has worked in the past as an underground counter-intelligence source for the U.S. government, for example the FBI, and local, non-Indian, police forces, to subvert the national AIM organization. Specifically, they refer to a 1993 Boulder, Colorado interview with Jodi Rave, a former columnist for the Denver Post, in which Churchill stated that he "was teaching the Rapid City Police Department about the American Indian Movement." In addition, Vernon Bellecourt accused Churchill of having 'fraudulently represented himself as an Indian' to bolster his credentials. Bellecourt said he complained to the University of Colorado about this as early as 1986.
Churchill has been a leader of Colorado AIM's annual protests in Denver against the Columbus Day holiday and its associated parade. Colorado AIM's leadership has come into conflict with some leaders in the Denver Italian-American community, the main supporters of the parade.
9/11 essay controversy
Churchill wrote an essay in September 2001 entitled On the Justice of Roosting Chickens. In it, he argued that the September 11 attacks were provoked by U.S. foreign policy. He described the role of financial workers at the World Trade Center as an "ongoing genocidal American imperialism" comparable to the role played by Adolf Eichmann in organizing the Holocaust. In 2005, this essay drew attention after Hamilton College invited Churchill to speak. This led to both condemnations of Churchill and counter-accusations of McCarthyism by Churchill and his supporters. Following the controversy, the University of Colorado interim Chancellor Phil DiStefano said, "While Professor Churchill has the constitutional right to express his political views, his essay on 9/11 has outraged and appalled us and the general public."
A documentary called Shouting Fire: Stories from the Edge of Free Speech, broadcast on HBO, prominently features Churchill's case in addressing the issues of free speech and First Amendment rights.
Honors
Honorary Doctorate of Humane Letters, Alfred University, 1992.
Art
Churchill's subjects are often American Indian figures and other themes associated with Native American Culture. He uses historical photographs as source material for works. In the early 1990s at Santa Fe Indian Market, Churchill protested the passage of the 1990 Indian Arts and Crafts Act. It requires that, to identify and exhibit works as being by a Native American, artists and craftsmen must be enrolled in a Native American tribe or designated by a tribe as an artisan.
Some of Churchill's pieces may infringe copyrights. For example, his 1981 serigraph Winter Attack was, according to Churchill and others, based on a 1972 drawing by the artist Thomas E. Mails. Churchill printed 150 copies of Winter Attack and sold at least one of them. Other copies are available online for purchase. Churchill says that, when he produced Winter Attack, he publicly acknowledged that it was based on Mails's work. The online journal Artnet mentions Churchill's artwork and the controversy surrounding its originality.
Personal life
In 1977, Churchill began living with Dora-Lee Larson. The relationship was later described in divorce documents as a common-law marriage. Larson filed for divorce in 1984 and asked to have her address kept secret because of “past violence and threats” from Churchill.
Churchill later married Marie Annette Jaimes, who also worked at the University of Colorado. Their marriage ended in 1995.
Churchill's third wife was Leah Kelly. On May 31, 2000, the 25-year-old Kelly was hit by a car and killed. Churchill has written that Kelly's death left a "crater" in his soul.
As of 2005, Churchill was married to Natsu Saito, a professor of ethnic studies.
Genealogy
In 2003, Churchill stated, "I am myself of Muscogee and Creek descent on my father's side, Cherokee on my mother's, and am an enrolled member of the United Keetoowah Band of Cherokee Indians." In 1992, Churchill wrote elsewhere that he is one-eighth Creek and one-sixteenth Cherokee.
In 1993, Churchill told the Colorado Daily that "he was one-sixteenth Creek and Cherokee." Churchill told the Denver Post in February 2005 that he is three-sixteenths Cherokee.
In a statement dated May 9, 2005, and posted on its website, the United Keetoowah Band said: "The United Keetoowah Band would like to make it clear that Mr. Churchill is not a member of the Keetoowah Band and was only given an honorary 'associate membership' in the early 1990s because he could not prove any Cherokee ancestry". The Band added that Churchill's claims of Keetoowah enrollment were deemed fraudulent by the United Keetoowah Band.
Two days later, the United Keetoowah Band replaced its earlier statement with the following: "Because Mr. Churchill had genealogical information regarding his alleged ancestry", and because he was willing "to assist the UKB in promoting the tribe and its causes, he was awarded an 'Associate Membership' as an honor". The Band clarified that Churchill "was not eligible for tribal membership due to the fact that he does not possess a 'Certificate of Degree of Indian Blood (CDIB)", and added that associate membership did not entitle an individual to voting rights or enrollment in the tribe. The Band's spokesperson, Lisa Stopp, stated the tribe enrolls only members with certified one-quarter American Indian blood. While the United Keetoowah Band voted to stop awarding associate memberships in 1994, the Band indicated in 2005 that Churchill still held an associate membership. In a separate interview, Ernestine Berry, a member of the tribe's council and a former member of its enrollment committee, said that Churchill had never fulfilled a promise to help the tribe.
Churchill has never asked for CDIB certification, and has said that he finds the idea of being "vetted" by the US government offensive.
In June 2005, the Rocky Mountain News published an article about Churchill's genealogy and family history. The newspaper's research "turned up no evidence of a single Indian ancestor" among 142 direct ancestors [of Churchill's] identified from records. The News reported that both Churchill's birth parents were listed as white on the 1930 census, as were all but two of his great-great-grandparents listed on previous census and other official documents. The News found that some of Churchill's accounts of where his ancestors had lived did not agree with documented records. Nevertheless, numerous members of Churchill's extended family have longstanding family legends of Indian ancestry among ancestors.
Some of Churchill's Native American critics, such as Vernon Bellecourt (White Earth Ojibwe) and Suzan Shown Harjo (Southern Cheyenne-Muscogee Creek), argue that without proof, his assertion of Native American ancestry might constitute misrepresentation and grounds for termination.
In a 2005 interview in The Rocky Mountain News, Churchill said, "I have never been confirmed as having one-quarter blood, and never said I was. And even if [the critics] are absolutely right, what does that have to do with this issue? I have never claimed to be goddamned Sitting Bull."
Blood quantum
Churchill has responded to requests for verification of his asserted Indian heritage in various ways, including attacking the blood quantum upon which some Native American tribes establish their membership requirements. Churchill argues that the United States instituted blood quantum laws based upon rules of descendancy in order to further goals of personal enrichment and political expediency.
In 1995, Churchill discussed his views on the blood quantum with David Barsamian in an interview:
For decades in his writings, Churchill has argued that blood quantum laws have an inherent genocidal purpose. He says:
Churchill's assertions have been raised as one of the several research-misconduct allegations that were brought against him in 2005 . He has been accused of using his interpretation of the Dawes Act to attack tribal governments that would not recognize him as a member.
Works
Books, as editor
Re-released as
Books, as author and co-author
Re-released as
Revised and expanded edition:
Articles
First published as "Crimes Against Humanity" in Also published under the titles "The Indian Chant and the Tomahawk Chop" and "Using Indian Names as Mascots Harms Native Americans".
Audio and video
Doing Time: The Politics of Imprisonment, audio CD of a lecture, recorded at the Doing Time Conference at the University of Winnipeg, September 2000 (AK Press, 2001, )
Life in Occupied America (AK Press, 2003, )
In a Pig's Eye: Reflections on the Police State, Repression, and Native America (AK Press, 2002, )
US Off the Planet!: An Evening In Eugene With Ward Churchill And Chellis Glendinning, VHS video recorded July 17, 2001 (Cascadia Media Collective, 2002)
Pacifism and Pathology in the American Left, 2003 audio CD recorded at an AK Press warehouse in Oakland (AK Press Audio)
Z Mag Ward Churchill Audio August 10, 2003 and earlier
Churchill Speaks About Academic Freedom – Free Speech Radio News February 9, 2005
Ward Churchill Under Fire – Free Speech Radio News, February 3, 2005.
The Justice of Roosting Chickens: Ward Churchill Speaks The Pacifica Network Show, Democracy Now! from February 18, 2005, features extended Audio/Video exclusive interview with Churchill.
"A Little Matter of Genocide: Linking U.S. Aggression Abroad to the Domestic Repression of Indigenous Peoples", recorded in North Battleford, Saskatchewan, on March 19, 2005
Debate with David Horowitz and Ward Churchill at George Washington University April 6, 2006
Video and audio (excerpt)
See also
List of scientific misconduct incidents
Pretendian
References
Further reading
Brown, Thomas. "Did the U.S. Army Distribute Smallpox Blankets to Indians? Fabrication and Falsification in Ward Churchill's Genocide Rhetoric" University of Michigan, 2006. (PDF version also available.)
Chapman, Roger. Culture Wars: An Encyclopedia of Issues, Viewpoints, and Voices, Volume 1. Armonk, New York: M. E. Sharpe, 2010. .
Croteau, Susan Ann. "But it doesn't look Indian": Objects, archetypes and objectified others in Native American art, culture, and identity. University of California, Los Angeles, 2008.
1947 births
Living people
20th-century American non-fiction writers
21st-century American non-fiction writers
Alternative Tentacles artists
Activists from Illinois
American male essayists
American non-fiction environmental writers
American political writers
G7 Welcoming Committee Records artists
American people who self-identify as being of Cherokee descent
Members of the American Indian Movement
People from Elmwood, Illinois
People involved in plagiarism controversies
Scholars of Marxism
University of Colorado Boulder faculty
University of Illinois at Springfield alumni
Writers from Urbana, Illinois
21st-century American male writers
American people who self-identify as being of Muscogee descent
Academic scandals |
4091855 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mo%20Awards | Mo Awards | The Australian Entertainment Mo Awards (commonly known informally as the Mo Awards) were an annual Australian entertainment industry award, that where established in 1975, to recognise achievements in live entertainment in Australia. They were last awarded in 2016.
Lucky Grills, actor and comedian came up with the idea to create an awards show to celebrate Australian Variety, during a meeting in 1975.
The Mo Awards, initially were founded as the Star Awards and were a state honour in New South Wales only, local entertainers started the awards to promote the live entertainment industry in New South Wales.
Johnny O'Keefe became chairman in 1976, and decided the awards should become an Australia-wide national awards program. Entertainer Don Lane then proposed the awards be renamed the Mo Awards in honour of Australian comedian and vaudevillian Roy Rene, who was famous for the character "Mo McCackie."
Categories
The award categories were reviewed annually and adapted to new trends in the Australian entertainment sector; categories included awards in: musical theatre, opera, Classical music, dance, comedy, rock music, jazz, country music, plays and variety shows.
Award winners
The Award winners are listed below.
1975: NSW Star Awards
The NSW Star Awards took place on 10 November 1975 at South Sydney Seniors Leagues Club – Redfern. It was compered by Frank Newall.
AGENT OF THE YEAR: Brian Fogarty
BEST BALLET: Marrickville RSL (Greg Radford)
RESIDENT BAND UP TO 4 MEMBERS: Bob Taylor
RESIDENT BAND 5 OR MORE: Billy Burton
CLUB OF THE YEAR: Central Coast Leagues Club
MOST IMPROVED ACT: Llynda Nairn
ENCOURAGEMENT AWARD: Llynda Nairn
VOCAL DUO: Bill and Boyd
VOCAL GROUP: The Four Kinsmen
INSTRUMENTAL ACT: Mal Cunningham
SPECIALTY ACT: The Allisons
VERSATILE VARIETY ACT: Erris and Kevin
COMEDY ACT: Johnny Pace and Harriet
COMEDIAN: Slim De Grey
MALE VOCAL: Tony Pantano
FEMALE VOCAL: Jenifer Green
SPECIAL CONTRIBUTION AWARD: John Campbell
ACT OF THE YEAR: Don Lane and The Four Kinsmen (tie)
1976: 1st Mo Awards
The first MO Awards took place on 13 October 1976 at Revesby, New South Wales Revesby Workers Club. It was compered by Don Lane. This year the ceremony was telecast by the Nine Network.
BEST RESIDENT BAND: Billy Burton Orchestra
BEST BALLET: Joanne Ansell Dancers
BEST CLUB: Central Coast Leagues Club
MOST IMPROVED ACT: Mario D'Andrea
BEST VOCAL DUO: Bill and Boyd
BEST VOCAL GROUP: The Four Kinsmen
BEST SIGHT ACT: Ken Littlewood & Toshi
BEST INSTRUMENTALIST: The Toppanos
MOST VERSATILE ACT: Frankie Davidson
BEST COMEDY ACT: Johnny Pace and Harriet
COMEDIAN/COMEDIENNE: Slim De Grey
BEST MALE VOCAL: Barry Crocker
BEST FEMALE VOCAL: Julie Anthony
SPECIAL CONTRIBUTION AWARD: Johnny O'Keefe
ENTERTAINER OF THE YEAR: Barry Crocker
1977: 2nd Mo Awards
The second MO Awards took place on 16 November 1977 at Revesby, New South Wales Revesby Workers Club.
BEST RESIDENT BAND (5 OR LESS): Bob Taylor Quartet
BEST RESIDENT BAND (6 0R MORE): Billy Burton Orchestra
BEST RESIDENT or CASUAL BALLET: Joanne Ansell Dancers
CLUB PROVIDING BEST FACILITIES FOR PRESENTATION OF ENTERTAINMENT: Central Coast Leagues Club
MOST IMPROVED OR NEW ACT OF THE YEAR: Nairn Goby Duo
VARIETY PRODUCTION SHOW: Simone and Monique's Playgirls Revue
VOCAL DUO: Bill and Boyd
VOCAL GROUP (3 OR MORE): The Four Kinsmen
BEST SIGHT or SPECIALITY ACT: Ken Littlewood and Toshi & Barry Krause (Tie)
BEST INSTRUMENTAL ACT: The Toppanos
MOST VERSATILE ACT: Ross and Robyn
COMEDY ACT (2 OR MORE): The Rhythmaires
COMEDIAN/COMEDIENNE: Jan Adele
MALE VOCAL: Barry Crocker
FEMALE VOCAL: Julie Anthony
MO FELLOWSHIP AWARD: Bobby Le Brun
ENTERTAINER OF THE YEAR: Julie Anthony
1978: 3rd Mo Awards
The third MO Awards took place on 14 February 1979 at Revesby, New South Wales Revesby Workers Club. It was compered by Jimmy Hannan.
BEST RESIDENT BAND (5 OR LESS): Bob Taylor Quartet
BEST RESIDENT BAND (6 0R MORE): Billy Burton Orchestra
RESIDENT or CASUAL BALLET: Diane Heaton Dancers
CLUB PROVIDING BEST FACILITIES & SUPPORTING LOCAL ENTERTAINMENT: Epping RSL Club
VARIETY PRODUCTION SHOW: Simone and Monique's Playgirls Revue
INSTRUMENTAL/VOCAL SHOWGROUP: The Fugitives
VOCAL GROUP (2 OR MORE): The Four Kinsmen
INSTRUMENTALIST: Mal Cunningham
SPECIALITY ACT: Steve Bor
VERSATILE VARIETY ACT: Ross and Robyn
COMEDY ACT (2 OR MORE): The Rhythmaires
COMEDIAN/COMEDIENNE: Slim De Grey
MALE VOCAL: Johnny Farnham
FEMALE VOCAL: Julie Anthony
JOHNNY O'KEEFE ENCOURAGEMENT AWARD: Keith Scott
ENTERTAINER OF THE YEAR: Julie Anthony
1979: 4th Mo Awards
The fourth MO Awards took place on 13 February 1980 at Revesby Workers Club. It was compered by Barry Crocker.
ACCOMPANYING BAND (5 OR LESS): Bob Taylor Quintet & Jack Thorpe's Showband (tie)
ACCOMPANYING BAND (6 OR MORE): Sounds United
RESIDENT or CASUAL BALLET: Diane Heaton Dancers
CLUB PROVIDING BEST FACILITIES & SUPPORTING LOCAL ENTERTAINMENT: Epping RSL Club
COUNTRY SHOWGROUP: Men of Country
COUNTRY MALE ENTERTAINER: Johnny Ashcroft
COUNTRY FEMALE ENTERTAINER: Allison Durbin
VARIETY PRODUCTION SHOW: Simone and Monique's Playgirls Revue
VOCAL GROUP: The Flanagans
INSTRUMENTAL/VOCAL SHOWGROUP: The Fugitives
INSTRUMENTALIST: Mal Cunningham
SPECIALITY ACT: Steve Bor
VERSATILE VARIETY ACT: Carter Edwards
COMEDY ACT (2 OR MORE): The Rhythmaires
COMEDIAN/COMEDIENNE: Brian Doyle
MALE VOCAL: John Farnham
FEMALE VOCAL: Kirri Adams
JOHN CAMPBELL FELLOWSHIP AWARD: Jack Griffiths
DAILY TELEGRAPH READERS AWARD: Don Lane
JOHNNY O'KEEFE ENCOURAGEMENT AWARD: Family Affair
ENTERTAINER OF THE YEAR: Ricky May
5th Mo Awards
Technically, there was no 5th awards. Following the 1979 awards in 1980, the organisation updated the numbering to reflect the 1975 Star Awards were the 1st, thus renumbering following ceremonies.
1980: 6th Mo Awards
The sixth MO Awards took place on 23 February 1981 at Regent Theatre (Sydney). It was compered by Barry Crocker.
ACCOMPANYING BAND (5 OR LESS): Bob Taylor Quintet
ACCOMPANYING BAND (6 OR MORE): Sound Unlimited
RESIDENT or CASUAL BALLET: Diane Heaton Dancers (Epping RSL Club Troupe)
RESIDENT COMPERE: Jeff Parker
CLUB OF THE YEAR: Rooty Hill RSL Club
COUNTRY GROUP: Roadapple
COUNTRY MALE: Greg Anderson
COUNTRY FEMALE: Allison Durbin
VARIETY PRODUCTION SHOW: Toppano Family Show
SHOWGROUP: The Fugitives
VOCAL GROUP: Family Affair
VOCAL DUO: Bill and Boyd
INSTRUMENTALIST (SOLO or DUO): Mal Cunningham
VOCAL/INSTRUMENTAL (SOLO or DUO): Greg Bonham
SPECIALTY ACT: Steve Bor
VERSATILE VARIETY ACT: Ross and Robyn
COMEDY ACT (2 OR MORE): The Rhythmaires
COMEDIAN/COMEDIENNE: Brian Doyle
MALE VOCAL: John Farnham
FEMALE VOCAL: Julie Anthony
JOHN CAMPBELL FELLOWSHIP AWARD: Col Joye
DAILY TELEGRAPH READERS AWARD: Don Lane
JOHNNY O'KEEFE ENCOURAGEMENT AWARD: Simon Gallaher
ENTERTAINER OF THE YEAR: John Farnham
1981: 7th Mo Awards
The seventh MO Awards took place on 17 March 1982 at Bankstown Town Hall. It was compered by Toni Stevens & Steve Raymond
ACCOMPANYING BAND (5 OR LESS): Dave Bridge Band
ACCOMPANYING BAND (6 0R MORE): Norm Faber Orchestra
RESIDENT or CASUAL BALLET: Diane Heaton Dancers
RESIDENT COMPERE: Rickie Hilder
CLUB OF THE YEAR: Rooty Hill RSL Club
COUNTRY GROUP: Men Of Country
COUNTRY MALE: Greg Anderson
COUNTRY FEMALE: Judy Stone
VARIETY PRODUCTION SHOW: Simone and Monique's Playgirls Revue
VOCAL GROUP: The Four Kinsmen
VOCAL DUO: Bill and Boyd
INSTRUMENTAL/VOCAL SHOWGROUP: Daly Wilson Big Band
INSTRUMENTALIST (SOLO or DUO): Peta Lowe
VOCAL/INSTRUMENTAL (SOLO or DUO): Simon Gallaher
SPECIALITY ACT: Steve Bor
VERSATILE VARIETY: Carter Edwards
COMEDY ACT (2 OR MORE): The Rhythmaires
COMEDIAN/COMEDIENNE: Johnny Garfield
MALE VOCAL: John Farnham
FEMALE VOCAL: Lynn Rogers
JOHN CAMPBELL FELLOWSHIP AWARD: Jenny Howard
DAILY TELEGRAPH READERS AWARD: Don Lane
JOHNNY O'KEEFE ENCOURAGEMENT AWARD: Jackie Love
ENTERTAINER OF THE YEAR: Barry Crocker
1982: 8th Mo Awards
The eighth MO Awards took place on 16 March 1983 at Regent Theatre (Sydney). It was compered by Barry Crocker
ACCOMPANYING BAND (5 OR LESS): Dave Bridge Band
ACCOMPANYING BAND (6 0R MORE): Impax
RESIDENT or CASUAL BALLET: Diane Heaton Dancers
RESIDENT COMPERE: Jeff Parker
VENUE OF THE YEAR: Bankstown Sports Club
COUNTRY SHOWGROUP: Buckskin
COUNTRY MALE: Digby Richards
COUNTRY FEMALE: Judy Stone
VARIETY PRODUCTION SHOW: Jan Adele and Lucky Grills – Fun Follies
SHOWGROUP: Daly Wilson Big Band
VOCAL GROUP: The Delltones
VOCAL DUO: Bill and Boyd
INSTRUMENTALIST (SOLO or DUO): Peta Lowe
VOCAL/INSTRUMENTAL ACT: Simon Gallaher
SPECIALITY ACT: Steve Bor
VERSATILE VARIETY ACT: Marty Morton
COMEDY ACT (2 OR MORE): The Rhythmaires
COMEDIAN/COMEDIENNE: Paul Martell
MALE VOCAL: John Farnham
FEMALE VOCAL: Julie Anthony
JOHN CAMPBELL FELLOWSHIP AWARD: Dorothy Barry
DAILY TELEGRAPH READERS AWARD: Kamahl
JOHNNY O'KEEFE ENCOURAGEMENT AWARD: Karen Beckett
ENTERTAINER OF THE YEAR: Julie Anthony
1983: 9th Mo Awards
The ninth MO Awards took place on 21 March 1984 at Sydney Town Hall.
ACCOMPANYING BAND (5 OR LESS): Bob Taylor Quintet
ACCOMPANYING BAND (6 OR MORE): Impax
RESIDENT or CASUAL BALLET: Diane Heaton Dancers
RESIDENT COMPERE: Rickie Hilder
VENUE OF THE YEAR: Rooty Hill RSL Club
COUNTRY SHOWGROUP: The Bushwackers
COUNTRY MALE: Greg Anderson
COUNTRY FEMALE: Judy Stone
PRODUCTION SHOW: Eddie Youngblood's "Golden Years of Elvis"
VOCAL GROUP: The Delltones
VOCAL DUO: Bill and Boyd
INSTRUMENTAL/VOCAL SHOWGROUP: Wickety Wak Showband
INSTRUMENTALIST (SOLO OR DUO): Peta Lowe
SPECIALITY ACT: Ken Littlewood and Toshi
VOCAL/INSTRUMENTAL ACT: Mary Schneider
VERSATILE VARIETY: Marty Morton
COMEDY ACT (2 OR MORE): Thomas and Moore
COMEDIAN/COMEDIENNE: Paul Martell
MALE VOCAL: Tony Pantano
FEMALE VOCAL: Jackie Love
INTERNATIONAL ACT OF THE YEAR: Peter Allen
JOHN CAMPBELL FELLOWSHIP AWARD: Buster Noble
DAILY TELEGRAPH READERS AWARD: Kamahl
JOHNNY O'KEEFE ENCOURAGEMENT AWARD: Jenny Andrews & Tina Cross (tie)
ENTERTAINER OF THE YEAR: Jon English
1984: 10th Mo Awards
The tenth MO Awards took place on 1 May 1985 at the Sydney Opera House.
ACCOMPANYING BAND (5 OR LESS): Dave Bridge Band
ACCOMPANYING BAND (6 OR MORE): Impax - Fairfield RSL Club
RESIDENT or CASUAL BALLET: Diane Heaton Dancers
RESIDENT COMPERE: Jeff Parker
VENUE OF THE YEAR: Seagulls Rugby League Football Club
COUNTRY SHOWGROUP: Redgum
MALE COUNTRY ENTERTAINER: Wayne Horsburgh
FEMALE COUNTRY ENTERTAINER: Judy Stone
PRODUCTION SHOW: Eddie Youngblood's "Golden Years of Elvis"
INSTRUMENTAL/VOCAL SHOWGROUP: Wickety Wak Showband
VOCAL GROUP (3 OR MORE): The Ritz Company
VOCAL DUO: Bill and Boyd
INSTRUMENTALIST: Martin Lass
VOCAL/INSTRUMENTAL ACT: Mary Schneider
SPECIALITY ACT: Ken Littlewood and Toshi
VERSATILE VARIETY ACT: David Gilchrist
COMEDY ACT (2 OR MORE): Gallagher and Brown
COMEDIAN/COMEDIENNE: Paul Martell
SPECIAL CONTRIBUTION AWARDS: Paul Flanagan & Robyn Selwyn
MALE VOCAL ENTERTAINER: Tony Pantano
FEMALE VOCAL ENTERTAINER: Lynn Rogers
INTERNATIONAL ACT OF THE YEAR: Peter Allen
JOHN CAMPBELL FELLOWSHIP AWARD: Tommy Tycho
DAILY TELEGRAPH READERS AWARD: Kamahl
JOHNNY O'KEEFE ENCOURAGEMENT AWARD: Donna Lee
ENTERTAINER OF THE YEAR: Jon English
1985: 11th Mo Awards
The eleventh MO Awards took place on 30 April 1986 at the South Sydney Junior Leagues Club. The show was directed by Ian Tasker.
ACCOMPANYING BAND (4 OR LESS): Trojans
ACCOMPANYING BAND (5 OR MORE): Impax - Fairfield RSL Club
RESIDENT or CASUAL BALLET: Michelle Day Dancers
RESIDENT COMPERE: Rickie Hilder
VENUE OF THE YEAR: Rooty Hill RSL Club
COUNTRY SHOWGROUP: Grand Junction
MALE COUNTRY ENTERTAINER: Slim Dusty
FEMALE COUNTRY ENTERTAINER: Judy Stone
PRODUCTION SHOW: The Fifty's
ROCK GROUP: Little River Band
SHOWGROUP: The Delltones
VOCAL GROUP (2 OR MORE): The Four Kinsmen
INSTRUMENTALIST: Martin Lass
VOCAL/INSTRUMENTAL ACT: Mary Schneider
SPECIALITY ACT: Max Gillies
VERSATILE VARIETY ACT: Donna Lee
COMEDY ACT: Rodney Rude
MALE VOCAL ENTERTAINER: Jon English
FEMALE VOCAL ENTERTAINER: Debbie Byrne
JOHN CAMPBELL FELLOWSHIP AWARD: Billy Kearns
JOHNNY O'KEEFE ENCOURAGEMENT AWARD: Rikki Organ
ENTERTAINER OF THE YEAR: Jon English
1986: 12th Mo Awards
The twelfth MO Awards took place on 25 March 1987 at Bankstown Sports Club. The show was directed by Bruce Henries.
ACCOMPANYING BAND (4 OR LESS): Trojans
ACCOMPANYING BAND (5 OR MORE): Woomera – Mt Pritchard Community Club
RESIDENT or CASUAL BALLET: Dianne Heaton Dancers
RESIDENT COMPERE: Rickie Hilder
VENUE OF THE YEAR: Petersham RSL Club
COUNTRY SHOWGROUP: The Bushwackers
MALE COUNTRY ENTERTAINER: John Williamson
FEMALE COUNTRY ENTERTAINER: Judy Stone
ROCK GROUP: INXS
PRODUCTION SHOW: The Fifty's
SHOWGROUP: Wickety Wak
VOCAL GROUP (2 OR MORE): The Four Kinsmen
INSTRUMENTALIST: Martin Lass
VOCAL/INSTRUMENTAL ACT: Mary Schneider
SPECIALITY ACT: Marty Coffee
VERSATILE VARIETY ACT: Marty Morton
COMEDY ACT: Paul Martell
DAILY TELEGRAPH READERS AWARD – GROUP: The Four Kinsmen
DAILY TELEGRAPH READERS AWARD – FEMALE: Jackie Love
DAILY TELEGRAPH READERS AWARD – MALE: John Farnham
MALE VOCAL ENTERTAINER: Tony Pantano
FEMALE VOCAL ENTERTAINER: Jackie Love & Julie Anthony
JOHNNY O'KEEFE ENCOURAGEMENT AWARD: Dannielle Gaha
ENTERTAINER OF THE YEAR: John Farnham
1987: 13th Mo Awards
The thirteenth MO Awards took place on 13 April 1988 at Rooty Hill RSL Club.
ACCOMPANYING BAND (4 OR LESS): Trojans
ACCOMPANYING BAND (5 OR MORE): Woomera – Mt Pritchard Community Club
RESIDENT or CASUAL BALLET: Dianne Heaton Dancers
RESIDENT COMPERE: Rickie Hilder
VENUE OF THE YEAR: Petersham RSL Club
COUNTRY SHOWGROUP: Redgum
MALE COUNTRY ENTERTAINER: John Williamson
FEMALE COUNTRY ENTERTAINER: Judy Stone
ROCK GROUP: Icehouse
PRODUCTION SHOW: The Fifty's
VOCAL GROUP (2 OR MORE): The Four Kinsmen
INSTRUMENTALIST: Martin Lass
VOCAL/INSTRUMENTAL ACT: Mary Schneider
SPECIALITY ACT: Ken Littlewood & Toshi
MOST OUTSTANDING VARIETY ACT: Wickety Wak
VERSATILE VARIETY ACT: Mark Loyd with Pleasure
COMEDY ACT: Brian Doyle
DAILY TELEGRAPH READERS AWARD – GROUP: Sophisticated Country
DAILY TELEGRAPH READERS AWARD – FEMALE: Jane Scali
DAILY TELEGRAPH READERS AWARD – MALE: John Farnham
MALE VOCAL ENTERTAINER: John Farnham
FEMALE VOCAL ENTERTAINER: Jackie Love
JOHN CAMPBELL FELLOWSHIP AWARD: Doug Burgess
JOHNNY O'KEEFE ENCOURAGEMENT AWARD: Syd Heylen Jnr
ENTERTAINER OF THE YEAR: John Farnham
1988: 14th Mo Awards
The fourteenth MO Awards took place on 22 February 1989 at AJC Royal Randwick. It was compered by Kerri-Anne Kennerley.
ACCOMPANYING BAND: Trojans
CHOREOGRAPHER OF THE YEAR: Ross Coleman
VENUE OF THE YEAR: Petersham RSL Club
COUNTRY SHOWGROUP: The Bushwackers
MALE COUNTRY ENTERTAINER: John Williamson
FEMALE COUNTRY ENTERTAINER: Judy Stone
ROCK GROUP: INXS
MUSICAL THEATRE PERFORMER FEMALE: Geraldine Turner and Debra Byrne (tie)
MUSICAL THEATRE PERFORMER MALE: Philip Quast
JAZZ PERFORMER OF THE YEAR: James Morrison
PRODUCTION SHOW: The Fifty's
VOCAL GROUP (2 OR MORE): The Rhythmaires
BEST GROUP: The Four Kinsmen
INSTRUMENTALIST/VOCAL/INSTRUMENTAL ACT: Martin Lass
SPECIALITY ACT: The Allisons (Rick & Debbie)
VERSATILE VARIETY ACT: David Gilchrist and Mark Loyd with Pleasure
COMEDY ACT: Thomas & Moore
DAILY TELEGRAPH READERS AWARD – GROUP: Sophisticated Country
DAILY TELEGRAPH READERS AWARD – FEMALE: Julie Anthony
DAILY TELEGRAPH READERS AWARD – MALE: John Farnham
MALE VOCAL ENTERTAINER: John Farnham
FEMALE VOCAL ENTERTAINER: Julie Anthony
MOST OUTSTANDING CLUB ACT: Col Joye
AUSTRALIAN SHOWBUSINESS AMBASSADOR – Paul Hogan
JOHN CAMPBELL FELLOWSHIP AWARD: Ricky May
JOHNNY O'KEEFE ENCOURAGEMENT AWARD: Tête à Tête
ENTERTAINER OF THE YEAR: Ricky May
1989: 15th Mo Awards
The fifteenth MO Awards took place on 21 February 1990 at AJC Royal Randwick. It was compered by Ray Martin.
ACCOMPANYING BAND: Trojans
COMPERE OF THE YEAR: Norm Erskine
VENUE OF THE YEAR: Blacktown Workers Club
CIRCUS PERFORMER OF THE YEAR: The Flying Fruit Fly Circus
CLASSICAL PERFORMANCE OF THE YEAR: Sydney Symphony Orchestra
CONTEMPORARY CONCERT PERFORMER OF THE YEAR: Kate Ceberano
DANCE PERFORMANCE OF THE YEAR: Sydney Dance Company
OPERATIC PERFORMANCE OF THE YEAR: Robert Gard
FOLK PERFORMER OF THE YEAR:Judy Small
COUNTRY SHOWGROUP: The Happening Thang
MALE COUNTRY ENTERTAINER: James Blundell
FEMALE COUNTRY ENTERTAINER: Deniese Morrison
COUNTRY PERFORMER OF THE YEAR: Wayne Horsburgh
ROCK PERFORMER MALE: Paul Kelly
ROCK PERFORMER FEMALE: Kate Ceberano
ROCK GROUP: Paul Kelly and the Messengers
ROCK PERFORMER OF THE YEAR: Kate Ceberano
MUSICAL THEATRE PRODUCTION: 42nd Street
SUPPORTING MUSICAL THEATRE PERFORMER FEMALE: Toni Lamond
SUPPORTING MUSICAL THEATRE PERFORMER MALE: John Bell
MUSICAL THEATRE PERFORMER FEMALE: Debra Byrne
MUSICAL THEATRE PERFORMER MALE: Cameron Daddo
JAZZ PERFORMER OF THE YEAR MALE: James Morrison
JAZZ PERFORMER OF THE YEAR FEMALE: Kerrie Biddell
JAZZ GROUP: Ten Part Invention
JAZZ PERFORMER OF THE YEAR: James Morrison
CABARET PRODUCTION SHOW: The Fifty's
CABARET DUO/TRIO: Triple Treat
CABARET GROUP: The Four Kinsmen
INSTRUMENTALIST/VOCAL/INSTRUMENTAL ACT: Martin Lass
SPECIALITY ACT: The Allisons
VERSATILE CABARET PERFORMANCE: Mark Loyd with Pleasure
COMEDY GROUP: Wickety Wak
COMEDY PERFORMER MALE: Bobby Dennis
COMEDY PERFORMER FEMALE: Geraldine Doyle
MALE VOCAL CABARET ENTERTAINER: Tony Pantano
FEMALE VOCAL CABARET ENTERTAINER: Jackie Love
CABARET PERFORMER OF THE YEAR: Tony Pantano
AUSTRALIAN SHOWBUSINESS AMBASSADOR: Kylie Minogue
JOHN CAMPBELL FELLOWSHIP AWARD: Maurie Rooklyn
JOHNNY O'KEEFE ENCOURAGEMENT AWARD: Mark Kristian
AUSTRALIAN PERFORMER OF THE YEAR: James Morrison
1990: 16th Mo Awards
The sixteenth MO Awards took place on 17 February 1991 at State Theatre (Sydney). It was compered by Ray Martin, Maggie Kirkpatrick, Brian Doyle and Steve Vizard.
ACCOMPANYING BAND: Trojans
COMPERE OF THE YEAR: Rickie Hilder
VENUE OF THE YEAR: Petersham RSL
CIRCUS PERFORMER OF THE YEAR: Circus Oz
CLASSICAL PERFORMANCE OF THE YEAR: Stuart Challender
CONTEMPORARY CONCERT PERFORMER OF THE YEAR: John Farnham
DANCE PERFORMANCE OF THE YEAR: Sydney Dance Company - King Roger
OPERATIC PERFORMANCE OF THE YEAR: Australian Opera – La boheme
FOLK PERFORMER OF THE YEAR: Eric Bogle
COUNTRY SHOWGROUP: The Happening Thang
MALE COUNTRY ENTERTAINER: Wayne Horsburgh
FEMALE COUNTRY ENTERTAINER: Jean Stafford
COUNTRY PERFORMER OF THE YEAR: James Morrison
ROCK PERFORMER MALE: Joe Camilleri
ROCK PERFORMER FEMALE: Wendy Matthews
ROCK GROUP: Midnight Oil
ROCK PERFORMER OF THE YEAR: Midnight Oil
MUSICAL THEATRE PRODUCTION: The Phantom of the Opera
SUPPORTING MUSICAL THEATRE PERFORMER FEMALE: Christa Leahman
SUPPORTING MUSICAL THEATRE PERFORMER MALE: Jonathan Biggins
MUSICAL THEATRE PERFORMER FEMALE: Marina Prior
MUSICAL THEATRE PERFORMER MALE: Anthony Warlow
MUSICAL THEATRE PERFORMER OF THE YEAR: Anthony Warlow
JAZZ PERFORMER OF THE YEAR MALE: James Morrison
JAZZ PERFORMER OF THE YEAR FEMALE: Kate Ceberano
JAZZ GROUP: Mike Nock Quartet
JAZZ PERFORMER OF THE YEAR: James Morrison
CABARET PRODUCTION SHOW: Greg Anderson's Electric Spectacular
CABARET DUO/TRIO: Mark Loyd With Pleasure
CABARET GROUP: Black Tie
INSTRUMENTAL ACT: Martin Lass
SPECIALITY ACT: Leaping Loonies
VERSATILE CABARET PERFORMANCE: Tony Field and Flame
COMEDY GROUP: Lester and Smart
COMEDY PERFORMER MALE: Brian Doyle
COMEDY PERFORMER FEMALE: Geraldine Doyle
MALE VOCAL CABARET PERFORMER: Tony Pantano
FEMALE VOCAL CABARET PERFORMER: Jane Scali
CABARET PERFORMER OF THE YEAR: Tony Pantano
AUSTRALIAN SHOWBUSINESS AMBASSADOR: Dame Joan Sutherland
JOHN CAMPBELL FELLOWSHIP AWARD: Norman Kermond
JOHNNY O'KEEFE ENCOURAGEMENT AWARD: John Bowles
AUSTRALIAN PERFORMER OF THE YEAR: Dame Joan Sutherland
1991: 17th Mo Awards
The seventeenth MO Awards took place on 4 June 1992 at Sydney Convention and Exhibition Centre. It was compered by Geraldine Doyle, Terry Willesee and Larry Emdur.
1 & 2 MAN BAND: Bill and Boyd
ACCOMPANYING BAND: Trojans
RESIDENT TECHNICAL SUPPORT: Damon Hartley
COMPERE OF THE YEAR: Stephen 'Spud' Murphy
VENUE OF THE YEAR: Petersham RSL
CLASSICAL PERFORMANCE OF THE YEAR: Stuart Challender
DANCE PERFORMANCE OF THE YEAR: Miranda Coney and Greg Horsman
OPERATIC PERFORMANCE OF THE YEAR: OperaAustralia - Rigoletto
FOLK PERFORMER OF THE YEAR: Archie Roach
COUNTRY SHOWGROUP: The Happening Thang
MALE COUNTRY ENTERTAINER: John Williamson
FEMALE COUNTRY ENTERTAINER: Anne Kirkpatrick
COUNTRY PERFORMER OF THE YEAR: John Williamson
ROCK PERFORMER OF THE YEAR: Crowded House
MUSICAL THEATRE PRODUCTION: The Phantom of the Opera
SUPPORTING MUSICAL THEATRE PERFORMER FEMALE: Maria Mercedes
SUPPORTING MUSICAL THEATRE PERFORMER MALE: William Zappa
MUSICAL THEATRE PERFORMER FEMALE: Judi Connelli
MUSICAL THEATRE PERFORMER MALE: Anthony Warlow
MUSICAL THEATRE PERFORMER OF THE YEAR: Anthony Warlow
OUTSTANDING CONTRIBUTION TO MUSICAL THEATRE: David Atkins
JAZZ PERFORMER OF THE YEAR MALE: Dale Barlow
JAZZ PERFORMER OF THE YEAR FEMALE: Judy Bailey
JAZZ GROUP: Free Spirits
JAZZ PERFORMER OF THE YEAR: Dale Barlow
VARIETY PRODUCTION SHOW: Licensed to Thrill
VARIETY DUO/TRIO: Tony Field and Flame
VARIETY GROUP: The Four Kinsmen
INSTRUMENTAL ACT: Wayne King
SPECIALITY ACT: Phil Cass
VERSATILE VARIETY PERFORMANCE: David Gilchrist
COMEDY GROUP: Thomas and Moore
COMEDY PERFORMER MALE: Brian Doyle
COMEDY PERFORMER FEMALE: Geraldine Doyle
COMEDY PERFORMER OF THE YEAR: Paul Martell
MALE VOCAL VARIETY PERFORMER: Tony Pantano
FEMALE VOCAL VARIETY PERFORMER: Jane Scali
VARIETY PERFORMER OF THE YEAR: The Four Kinsmen
AUSTRALIAN SHOWBUSINESS AMBASSADOR: Jason Donovan
JOHN CAMPBELL FELLOWSHIP AWARD: June Evans
MOST SUCCESS ATTRACTION OF THE YEAR: John Williamson
JOHNNY O'KEEFE ENCOURAGEMENT AWARD: Jenni and Michael
AUSTRALIAN PERFORMER OF THE YEAR: Stuart Challender
1992: 18th Mo Awards
The eighteenth MO Awards took place on 9 June 1993 at Sydney Convention and Exhibition Centre. It was compered by David Reyne and Marty Rhone.
1 & 2 MAN BAND: Take Two
ACCOMPANYING BAND: Trojans
RESIDENT TECHNICAL SUPPORT: Damon Hartley
COMPERE OF THE YEAR: Frank Garaty
VENUE OF THE YEAR: Petersham RSL
CLASSICAL PERFORMANCE OF THE YEAR: Richard Tognetti
DANCE PERFORMANCE OF THE YEAR: Paul Mercurio
OPERATIC PERFORMANCE OF THE YEAR: Suzanne Johnston
FOLK PERFORMER OF THE YEAR: Archie Roach
COUNTRY GROUP: The Fargone Beauties
MALE COUNTRY ENTERTAINER: Lee Kernaghan
FEMALE COUNTRY ENTERTAINER: Anne Kirkpatrick
COUNTRY PERFORMER OF THE YEAR: Lee Kernaghan
ROCK PERFORMER OF THE YEAR: Yothu Yindi
MUSICAL THEATRE PRODUCTION: The Phantom of the Opera
SUPPORTING MUSICAL THEATRE PERFORMER FEMALE: Nancye Hayes
SUPPORTING MUSICAL THEATRE PERFORMER MALE: Peter Carroll
MUSICAL THEATRE PERFORMER FEMALE: Delia Hannah
MUSICAL THEATRE PERFORMER MALE: David Atkins
MUSICAL THEATRE PERFORMER OF THE YEAR: David Atkins
OUTSTANDING CONTRIBUTION TO MUSICAL THEATRE: Gale Edwards
JAZZ PERFORMER OF THE YEAR MALE: Dale Barlow
JAZZ PERFORMER OF THE YEAR FEMALE: Sandy Evans
JAZZ GROUP: Bernie McGann Trio
JAZZ PERFORMER OF THE YEAR: Bob Barnard
VARIETY PRODUCTION SHOW: Licensed to Thrill
VARIETY DUO/TRIO: Mark Loyd With Pleasure
VARIETY GROUP: The Four Kinsmen
INSTRUMENTAL ACT: James Edward
SPECIALITY ACT: Phil Cass
VERSATILE VARIETY PERFORMANCE: Peter Kaye
COMEDY GROUP: Thomas and Moore
COMEDY PERFORMER MALE: Paul Martell
COMEDY PERFORMER FEMALE: Wendy Harmer
COMEDY PERFORMER OF THE YEAR: Paul Martell
MALE VOCAL VARIETY PERFORMER: Tony Pantano
FEMALE VOCAL VARIETY PERFORMER: Jane Scali
VARIETY PERFORMER OF THE YEAR: The Four Kinsmen
AUSTRALIAN SHOWBUSINESS AMBASSADOR: Yothu Yindi
JOHN CAMPBELL FELLOWSHIP AWARD: Don Burrows
MOST SUCCESS ATTRACTION OF THE YEAR: John Williamson
JOHNNY O'KEEFE ENCOURAGEMENT AWARD: The 4 Trax
AUSTRALIAN PERFORMER OF THE YEAR: Yothu Yindi
1993: 19th Mo Awards
The nineteenth MO Awards took place on 14 June 1994 at Her Majesty's Theatre, Sydney It was compered by John Mangos.
1 & 2 MAN BAND: Twin Set
ACCOMPANYING BAND: The Lionel Huntington Orchestra
RESIDENT TECHNICAL SUPPORT: John Adams
COMPERE OF THE YEAR: Dee Donovan
VENUE OF THE YEAR: Blacktown Workers Club
CLASSICAL PERFORMANCE OF THE YEAR: Richard Tognetti
DANCE PERFORMANCE OF THE YEAR: Stephen Page
OPERATIC PERFORMANCE OF THE YEAR: David Hobson
FOLK PERFORMER OF THE YEAR: Kev Carmody
COUNTRY GROUP: Fargone Beauties
MALE COUNTRY ENTERTAINER: Lee Kernaghan
FEMALE COUNTRY ENTERTAINER: Gina Jeffreys
COUNTRY PERFORMER OF THE YEAR: Lee Kernaghan
ROCK PERFORMER OF THE YEAR: Crowded House
MUSICAL THEATRE PRODUCTION: Into The Woods
SUPPORTING MUSICAL THEATRICAL PERFORMER: Sharon Millerchip
MUSICAL THEATRE PERFORMER FEMALE: Judi Connelli
MUSICAL THEATRE PERFORMER MALE: Philip Quast
MUSICAL THEATRE PERFORMER OF THE YEAR: Philip Quast
OUTSTANDING CONTRIBUTION TO MUSICAL THEATRE: Brian Thomson
JAZZ INSTRUMENTAL PERFORMER OF THE YEAR: Dale Barlow
JAZZ VOCAL PERFORMER OF THE YEAR: Kerrie Biddell
JAZZ GROUP: Bobby Gebert Trio
JAZZ PERFORMER OF THE YEAR: Bobby Gebert
VARIETY PRODUCTION SHOW: Licensed to Thrill
VARIETY DUO/TRIO: Triple Treat
VARIETY GROUP: The Four Kinsmen
INSTRUMENTAL ACT: Igor Cavdarski
SPECIALITY ACT: Phil Cass
VERSATILE VARIETY PERFORMANCE: Peter Kaye
COMEDY GROUP: The Umbilical Brothers
VARIETY COMEDY PERFORMER: Geraldine Doyle
NEW WAVE COMEDY PERFORMER: Steady Eddy
COMEDY PERFORMER OF THE YEAR: Steady Eddy
MALE VOCAL VARIETY PERFORMER: Wayne Cornell
FEMALE VOCAL VARIETY PERFORMER: Julie Anthony
VARIETY PERFORMER OF THE YEAR: The Four Kinsmen
AUSTRALIAN SHOWBUSINESS AMBASSADOR: Barry Humphries
JOHN CAMPBELL FELLOWSHIP AWARD: Colleen Clifford
JOHNNY O'KEEFE ENCOURAGEMENT AWARD: Igor Cavdarski
AUSTRALIAN PERFORMER OF THE YEAR: Anthony Warlow
1994: 20th Mo Awards
The twentieth MO Awards took place on 28 June 1995 at Regent Hotel, Sydney. It was compered by Alan Jones.
1 & 2 MAN BAND: Twin Set
ACCOMPANYING BAND: The Lionel Huntington Orchestra
RESIDENT TECHNICAL SUPPORT: Toni Venditti
COMPERE OF THE YEAR: Dee Donovan
VENUE OF THE YEAR: Blacktown Workers Club
CLASSICAL PERFORMANCE OF THE YEAR: Richard Tognetti
DANCE PERFORMANCE OF THE YEAR: Steven Heathcote
OPERATIC PERFORMANCE OF THE YEAR: Yvonne Kenny
COUNTRY GROUP: Fargone Beauties
MALE COUNTRY ENTERTAINER: Lee Kernaghan and Graeme Connors (tie)
FEMALE COUNTRY ENTERTAINER: Gina Jeffreys
ROCK PERFORMER OF THE YEAR: The Cruel Sea
MUSICAL THEATRE PRODUCTION: West Side Story
SUPPORTING MUSICAL THEATRICAL PERFORMER: Caroline O'Connor
MUSICAL THEATRE PERFORMER FEMALE: Marina Prior
MUSICAL THEATRE PERFORMER MALE: David Atkins
OUTSTANDING CONTRIBUTION TO MUSICAL THEATRE: Brian Thomson
JAZZ INSTRUMENTAL PERFORMER OF THE YEAR: Bernie McGann
JAZZ VOCAL PERFORMER OF THE YEAR: Marie Wilson
JAZZ GROUP: The Catholics
VARIETY PRODUCTION SHOW: Licensed to Thrill
VARIETY DUO/TRIO: The Flanagans
VARIETY GROUP: The 4 Trax
VOCAL/INSTRUMENTAL PERFORMER: Joey Fimmano
INSTRUMENTAL PERFORMER: Ross Maio
SPECIALITY ACT: Richard Scholes
VERSATILE VARIETY PERFORMANCE: Peter Kaye
COMEDY GROUP: The Umbilical Brothers
VARIETY COMEDY PERFORMER: Paul Martell
NEW WAVE COMEDY PERFORMER: Steady Eddy and Vince Sorrenti
MALE VOCAL VARIETY PERFORMER: Wayne Cornell
FEMALE VOCAL VARIETY PERFORMER: Jenifer Green
VARIETY PERFORMER OF THE YEAR: The 4 Trax
AUSTRALIAN SHOWBUSINESS AMBASSADOR: David Atkins
20TH ANNIVERSARY YOUTH ACHIEVEMENT: Lucinda Bryant
JOHN CAMPBELL FELLOWSHIP AWARD: Jack Neary and Geoff Mack
JOHNNY O'KEEFE ENCOURAGEMENT AWARD: Melinda Schneider
AUSTRALIAN PERFORMER OF THE YEAR: Tommy Emmanuel
1995: 21st Mo Awards
The twenty-first MO Awards took place on 18 June 1996 at the Sydney Entertainment Centre. It was compered by Kerri-Anne Kennerley.
1 & 2 MAN BAND: Brian King and Darren Williams (tie)
ACCOMPANYING BAND: Western Front
RESIDENT TECHNICAL SUPPORT: B Lloyd/J Dwyer/D Williams/P Walker/J Adler
COMPERE OF THE YEAR: Neil Hanson
VENUE OF THE YEAR: Wentworthville Leagues Club
CLASSICAL PERFORMANCE OF THE YEAR: Simone Young
MALE DANCE PERFORMANCE OF THE YEAR: Dein Perry
FEMALE DANCE PERFORMANCE OF THE YEAR: Rosalind Crisp
OPERATIC PERFORMANCE OF THE YEAR: Graham Pushee
COUNTRY GROUP: The Dead Ringer Band
MALE COUNTRY ENTERTAINER: Wayne Horsburgh
FEMALE COUNTRY ENTERTAINER: Felicity Urquhart
ROCK PERFORMER OF THE YEAR: Tina Arena
MUSICAL THEATRE PRODUCTION: Hello Dolly
SUPPORTING MUSICAL THEATRICAL PERFORMER: Bert Newton
MUSICAL THEATRE PERFORMER FEMALE: Jill Perryman
MUSICAL THEATRE PERFORMER MALE: Anthony Warlow
OUTSTANDING CONTRIBUTION TO MUSICAL THEATRE: David Atkins
JAZZ INSTRUMENTAL PERFORMER OF THE YEAR: Sandy Evans
JAZZ VOCAL PERFORMER OF THE YEAR: Kerrie Biddell
JAZZ GROUP: Ten Part Invention
VARIETY PRODUCTION SHOW: Licensed to Thrill
VARIETY DUO/TRIO: Triple Treat
VARIETY GROUP: The Four Kinsmen
VOCAL/INSTRUMENTAL PERFORMER: Joey Fimmano
INSTRUMENTAL PERFORMER: Bernard Walz
SPECIALITY ACT: Murray Raine
VERSATILE VARIETY PERFORMANCE: Phil Cass
COMEDY GROUP: The Umbilical Brothers
VARIETY COMEDY PERFORMER: Col Elliott
NEW WAVE COMEDY PERFORMER: Steady Eddy
MALE VOCAL VARIETY PERFORMER: Stephen Fisher-King
FEMALE VOCAL VARIETY PERFORMER: Julie Anthony
VARIETY PERFORMER OF THE YEAR: The Four Kinsmen
AUSTRALIAN SHOWBUSINESS AMBASSADOR: David Atkins
JOHN CAMPBELL FELLOWSHIP AWARD: Angry Anderson
JOHNNY O'KEEFE ENCOURAGEMENT AWARD: Davidia Coombes
AUSTRALIAN PERFORMER OF THE YEAR: Tina Arena
1996: 22nd Mo Awards
The twenty-second MO Awards took place on 18 June 1997 at the Sydney Entertainment Centre. It was compered by Susie Elelman.
1 & 2 MAN BAND: Darren Williams
ACCOMPANYING BAND: Ron Hearne Band
RESIDENT TECHNICAL SUPPORT: Toni Venditti
COMPERE OF THE YEAR: Mark Kristian
VENUE OF THE YEAR: Petersham RSL Club
CLASSICAL PERFORMANCE OF THE YEAR: Michael Kieran Harvey
MALE DANCE PERFORMANCE OF THE YEAR: Dein Perry
FEMALE DANCE PERFORMANCE OF THE YEAR: Vicki Attard
OPERATIC PERFORMANCE OF THE YEAR: Elizabeth Whitehouse
COUNTRY GROUP: Dead Ringer Band
MALE COUNTRY ENTERTAINER: Graeme Connors
FEMALE COUNTRY ENTERTAINER: Gina Jeffreys
ROCK PERFORMER OF THE YEAR: You Am I
MUSICAL THEATRE PRODUCTION: Beauty and the Beast
SUPPORTING MUSICAL THEATRICAL PERFORMER: Caroline O’Connor
MUSICAL THEATRE PERFORMER FEMALE: Sharon Millerchip
MUSICAL THEATRE PERFORMER MALE: Hugh Jackman and Michael Cormick (Tie)
OUTSTANDING CONTRIBUTION TO MUSICAL THEATRE: Greg Crease
JAZZ INSTRUMENTAL PERFORMER OF THE YEAR: Bob Barnard
JAZZ VOCAL PERFORMER OF THE YEAR: Vince Jones
JAZZ GROUP: Directions In Groove
VARIETY PRODUCTION SHOW: Licensed to Thrill
VARIETY DUO/TRIO: Andrews Sisters
VARIETY GROUP: The Four Kinsmen
VOCAL/INSTRUMENTAL PERFORMER: Joey Fimmano
INSTRUMENTAL PERFORMER: Bernard Walz
SPECIALITY ACT: Phil Cass
VERSATILE VARIETY PERFORMANCE: Liz Taylor
COMEDY GROUP: The Umbilical Brothers
VARIETY COMEDY PERFORMER: Col Elliott
NEW WAVE COMEDY PERFORMER: Vince Sorrenti
MALE VOCAL VARIETY PERFORMER: Stephen Fisher-King
FEMALE VOCAL VARIETY PERFORMER: Jane Scali
VARIETY PERFORMER OF THE YEAR: Stephen Fisher-King
AUSTRALIAN SHOWBUSINESS AMBASSADOR: David Helfgott
JOHN CAMPBELL FELLOWSHIP AWARD: Jimmy Little
JOHNNY O'KEEFE ENCOURAGEMENT AWARD: David Harris
AUSTRALIAN PERFORMER OF THE YEAR: Tommy Emmanuel
1997: 23rd Mo Awards
The twenty-third MO Awards took place on 23 June 1998 at the Sydney Entertainment Centre. It was compered by Don Lane.
1 & 2 MAN BAND: Darren Williams
ACCOMPANYING BAND: Lionel Huntington Orchestra
RESIDENT TECHNICAL SUPPORT: K Lennis, M Pepper, G Harbour
COMPERE OF THE YEAR: Mark Kristian
VENUE OF THE YEAR: Canterbury-Hurlstone Park RSL Club
CLASSICAL PERFORMANCE OF THE YEAR: Michael Kieran Harvey
MALE DANCE PERFORMANCE OF THE YEAR: Dein Perry
FEMALE DANCE PERFORMANCE OF THE YEAR: Lisa Bolte
OPERATIC PERFORMANCE OF THE YEAR: Cheryl Barker
COUNTRY GROUP: Dead Ringer Band
MALE COUNTRY ENTERTAINER: Troy Cassar-Daley
FEMALE COUNTRY ENTERTAINER: Felicity Urquhart
ROCK PERFORMER OF THE YEAR: The Whitlams
MUSICAL THEATRE PRODUCTION: Cabaret
SUPPORTING MUSICAL THEATRICAL PERFORMER: David Campbell
MUSICAL THEATRE PERFORMER FEMALE: Kelley Abbey
MUSICAL THEATRE PERFORMER MALE: Hugh Jackman
OUTSTANDING CONTRIBUTION TO MUSICAL THEATRE: David Atkins
JAZZ INSTRUMENTAL PERFORMER OF THE YEAR: James Morrison
JAZZ VOCAL PERFORMER OF THE YEAR: Shelley Scown
JAZZ GROUP: Bernie McGann Trio
VARIETY PRODUCTION SHOW: Ladies, Laughs and Larrikins
VARIETY DUO/TRIO: Triple Treat
VARIETY GROUP: The Four Kinsmen
VOCAL/INSTRUMENTAL PERFORMER: Shelly White
INSTRUMENTAL PERFORMER: Bernard Walz
SPECIALITY ACT: Phil Cass
VERSATILE VARIETY PERFORMANCE: Maggie Scott
COMEDY GROUP: The Umbilical Brothers
VARIETY COMEDY PERFORMER: Brian Doyle
NEW WAVE COMEDY PERFORMER: Nick Giannopoulos
MALE VOCAL VARIETY PERFORMER: Stephen Fisher-King
FEMALE VOCAL VARIETY PERFORMER: Jane Scali
VARIETY PERFORMER OF THE YEAR: Stephen Fisher-King
AUSTRALIAN SHOWBUSINESS AMBASSADOR: Tap Dogs
JOHN CAMPBELL FELLOWSHIP AWARD: Toni Stevens
JOHNNY O'KEEFE ENCOURAGEMENT AWARD: Nathan Foley
AUSTRALIAN PERFORMER OF THE YEAR: Human Nature
1998: 24th Mo Awards
The twenty-fourth MO Awards took place on 22 June 1999 at the Sydney Entertainment Centre. It was compered by Neil Hanson, Liz Taylor and Chris De Havilland.
1 & 2 MAN BAND: Talisman
ACCOMPANYING BAND: Marconi Dance Band
RESIDENT TECHNICAL SUPPORT: Miles Harris
COMPERE OF THE YEAR: Billy Roy
VENUE OF THE YEAR: Panthers World of Entertainment
CLASSICAL PERFORMANCE: Michael Kieran Harvey & Bernadette Balkus (tie)
MALE DANCE PERFORMANCE OF THE YEAR: Gideon Obarzanek
FEMALE DANCE PERFORMANCE OF THE YEAR: Kate Champion
OPERATIC PERFORMANCE OF THE YEAR: John Wegner
COUNTRY GROUP: Dead Ringer Band
MALE COUNTRY ENTERTAINER: Troy Cassar-Daley
FEMALE COUNTRY ENTERTAINER: Gina Jeffreys
ROCK PERFORMER OF THE YEAR: Natalie Imbruglia
MUSICAL THEATRE PRODUCTION: The Boy from Oz
SUPPORTING MUSICAL THEATRICAL PERFORMER: Pamela Rabe
MUSICAL THEATRE PERFORMER FEMALE: Caroline O’Connor)
MUSICAL THEATRE PERFORMER MALE: Todd McKenney
OUTSTANDING CONTRIBUTION TO MUSICAL THEATRE: David Atkins
JAZZ INSTRUMENTAL PERFORMER OF THE YEAR: Kevin Hunt
JAZZ VOCAL PERFORMER OF THE YEAR: Marie Wilson
JAZZ GROUP: Trevor Griffin Sextet
VARIETY PRODUCTION SHOW: Ladies, Laughs and Larrikins
VARIETY DUO/TRIO: Aubrey and Martin
VARIETY GROUP: The Four Kinsmen
VOCAL/INSTRUMENTAL PERFORMER: Danny Elliott
INSTRUMENTAL PERFORMER: Ian Cooper
SPECIALITY ACT: Phil Cass
VERSATILE VARIETY PERFORMANCE: Maggie Scott
COMEDY GROUP: Thomas and Moore
VARIETY COMEDY PERFORMER: Kenny Graham
NEW WAVE COMEDY PERFORMER: Vince Sorrenti
MALE VOCAL VARIETY PERFORMER: Stephen Fisher-King
FEMALE VOCAL VARIETY PERFORMER: Jane Scali
VARIETY PERFORMER OF THE YEAR: Maggie Scott
AUSTRALIAN SHOWBUSINESS AMBASSADOR: Natalie Imbruglia
ARENA PERFORMER OF THE YEAR: Anthony Warlow
JOHN CAMPBELL FELLOWSHIP AWARD: John Laws
JOHNNY O'KEEFE ENCOURAGEMENT AWARD: Adam Brand and Tim Draxl (Tie)
AUSTRALIAN PERFORMER OF THE YEAR: The Main Event (Anthony Warlow, John Farnham and Olivia Newton-John)
1999: 25th Mo Awards
The twenty-fifth MO Awards took place on 20 June 2000 at the Sydney Entertainment Centre. It was compered by Don Lane.
1 & 2 MAN BAND: Twin Set
ACCOMPANYING BAND: Patchwork
RESIDENT TECHNICAL SUPPORT: John Adams
COMPERE OF THE YEAR: Mark Kristian
VENUE OF THE YEAR: Canterbury Hurlstone Park RSL Club
CLASSICAL PERFORMER OF THE YEAR: Michael Kieran Harvey
MALE DANCE PERFORMER/CHOREOGRAPHER OF YEAR: Graeme Murphy
FEMALE DANCE PERFORMER/CHOREOGRAPHER OF YEAR: Kelley Abbey
OPERATIC PERFORMANCE OF THE YEAR: Peter Coleman-Wright
COUNTRY GROUP: Dead Ringer Band
MALE COUNTRY ENTERTAINER: Troy Cassar-Daley
FEMALE COUNTRY ENTERTAINER: Kasey Chambers
ROCK PERFORMER OF THE YEAR: Powderfinger
MUSICAL THEATRE PRODUCTION: The Boy from Oz
SUPPORTING MUSICAL THEATRICAL PERFORMER: Angela Toohey
MUSICAL THEATRE PERFORMER FEMALE: Caroline O'Connor
MUSICAL THEATRE PERFORMER MALE: Todd McKenney
OUTSTANDING CONTRIBUTION TO MUSICAL THEATRE: Gale Edwards
JAZZ INSTRUMENTAL PERFORMER OF THE YEAR: James Morrison
JAZZ VOCAL PERFORMER OF THE YEAR: Shelley Scown
JAZZ GROUP: Ten Part Invention
VARIETY PRODUCTION SHOW: Ladies, Laughs and Larrikins
VARIETY DUO/TRIO: Aubrey and Martin
VARIETY GROUP: The Zips
VOCAL/INSTRUMENTAL PERFORMER: Danny Elliott
INSTRUMENTAL PERFORMER: Ian Cooper
SPECIALITY ACT: Murray Raine Puppets
VERSATILE VARIETY PERFORMANCE: Maggie Scott
COMEDY GROUP: The Scared Weird Little Guys
VARIETY COMEDY PERFORMER: Kenny Graham
NEW WAVE COMEDY PERFORMER: Nick Giannopoulos
MALE VOCAL VARIETY PERFORMER: Stephen Fisher-King
FEMALE VOCAL VARIETY PERFORMER: Rhonda Burchmore
VARIETY PERFORMER OF THE YEAR: Maggie Scott
AUSTRALIAN SHOWBUSINESS AMBASSADOR: Savage Garden
ARENA PERFORMER OF THE YEAR: John Farnham
JOHN CAMPBELL FELLOWSHIP AWARD: Daryl Somers
JOHNNY O'KEEFE ENCOURAGEMENT AWARD: String Fever
AUSTRALIAN PERFORMER OF THE YEAR: Savage Garden
2000: 26th Mo Awards
The twenty-sixth MO Awards took place on 9 July 2001 at the Sydney Town Hall. It was compered by Vince Sorrenti.
1 & 2 MAN BAND: Twin Set
ACCOMPANYING BAND: The Marconi Dance Band
RESIDENT TECHNICAL SUPPORT: Shane Newham
COMPERE OF THE YEAR: Mark Kristian
VENUE OF THE YEAR: South Sydney Juniors RLFC
FEMALE ACTOR IN A PLAY: Maggie Kirkpatrick
MALE ACTOR IN A PLAY: Bille Brown
THEATRE PRODUCTION OF THE YEAR: The Secret Room
CLASSICAL/OPERA PERFORMER OF THE YEAR: Diana Doherty
DANCE PERFORMER/CHOREOGRAPHER OF THE YEAR: Miranda Coney
COUNTRY GROUP: Feral Swing Cats
MALE COUNTRY ENTERTAINER: Adam Brand
FEMALE COUNTRY ENTERTAINER: Melinda Schneider
CONTEMPORARY ROCK PERFORMER OF THE YEAR: Powderfinger
CLASSIC ROCK PERFORMER OF THE YEAR: Doug Parkinson
MUSICAL THEATRE PRODUCTION: Shout!
SUPPORTING MUSICAL THEATRICAL PERFORMER: Chrissie Amphlett
MUSICAL THEATRE PERFORMER FEMALE: Caroline O'Connor
MUSICAL THEATRE PERFORMER MALE: David Campbell
JAZZ INSTRUMENTAL PERFORMER OF THE YEAR: James Muller
JAZZ VOCAL PERFORMER OF THE YEAR: Michelle Nicolle
JAZZ GROUP: James Muller Trio
VARIETY PRODUCTION SHOW: Forever Diamond
VARIETY DUO/TRIO: The Robertson Brothers
VARIETY GROUP: Phoenix
VOCAL/INSTRUMENTAL PERFORMER: Shelly White
INSTRUMENTAL PERFORMER: Slava Grigoryan
SPECIALITY ACT: Brendan Montana
VERSATILE VARIETY PERFORMANCE: Greg Doolan
COMEDY GROUP: Lano and Woodley
MALE COMEDY PERFORMER OF THE YEAR: Jonathan Biggins
FEMALE COMEDY PERFORMER OF THE YEAR: Gretel Killeen
MALE VOCAL VARIETY PERFORMER: John Bowles
FEMALE VOCAL VARIETY PERFORMER: Annie Frances
VARIETY PERFORMER OF THE YEAR: Annie Frances
AUSTRALIAN SHOWBUSINESS AMBASSADOR: Keith Urban
SPECIAL EVENT OF THE YEAR: 2000 Summer Olympics opening ceremony
JOHN CAMPBELL FELLOWSHIP AWARD: Maria Venuti
JOHNNY O'KEEFE ENCOURAGEMENT AWARD: Nikki Webster
AUSTRALIAN PERFORMER OF THE YEAR: Kylie Minogue
2001: 27th Mo Awards
The twenty-seventh MO Awards took place on 24 June 2002 at the Tumbalong Park Ballroom. It was compered by Liz Taylor and Peter Cousens.
1 & 2 MAN BAND: Take Two
ACCOMPANYING BAND: Lionel Huntington Orchestra
RESIDENT TECHNICAL SUPPORT: Paul Kelleners
COMPERE OF THE YEAR: Neil Hanson
VENUE OF THE YEAR: Canterbury-Hurlstone Park RSL Club
LIVE RADIO PERFORMER OF THE YEAR: John Bleby
FEMALE ACTOR IN A PLAY: Jacki Weaver
MALE ACTOR IN A PLAY: Peter Carroll
THEATRE PRODUCTION OF THE YEAR: Cloudstreet
CLASSICAL/OPERA PERFORMER OF THE YEAR: Peter Coleman-Wright
DANCE PERFORMER/CHOREOGRAPHER OF THE YEAR: Tracey Carrodus
COUNTRY GROUP: The Wolverines
MALE COUNTRY ENTERTAINER: Adam Brand
FEMALE COUNTRY ENTERTAINER: Kasey Chambers
CONTEMPORARY ROCK PERFORMER OF THE YEAR: Human Nature
CLASSIC ROCK PERFORMER OF THE YEAR: Doug Parkinson
MUSICAL THEATRE PRODUCTION: Sweeney Todd
SUPPORTING MUSICAL THEATRICAL PERFORMER: Jackie Love
MUSICAL THEATRE PERFORMER FEMALE: Judi Connelli
MUSICAL THEATRE PERFORMER MALE: Wayne Scott Kermond
JAZZ INSTRUMENTAL PERFORMER OF THE YEAR: Joe Chindamo
JAZZ VOCAL PERFORMER OF THE YEAR: Marie Wilson
JAZZ GROUP: Sydney All Star Big Band
VARIETY PRODUCTION SHOW: Forever Diamond
VARIETY DUO/TRIO: The Robertson Brothers
VARIETY GROUP: The Delltones
VOCAL/INSTRUMENTAL PERFORMER: Shelly White
INSTRUMENTAL PERFORMER: String Fever
SPECIALITY ACT: Darren Carr
VERSATILE VARIETY PERFORMANCE: Peter Kay
COMEDY GROUP: The Umbilical Brothers
MALE COMEDY PERFORMER OF THE YEAR: Paul Martell
FEMALE COMEDY PERFORMER OF THE YEAR: Geraldine Doyle
MALE VOCAL VARIETY PERFORMER: Stephen Fisher-King
FEMALE VOCAL VARIETY PERFORMER: Seamus Earley
VARIETY PERFORMER OF THE YEAR: String Fever
AUSTRALIAN SHOWBUSINESS AMBASSADOR: Kylie Minogue
JOHN CAMPBELL FELLOWSHIP AWARD: Reg Lindsay
JOHNNY O'KEEFE ENCOURAGEMENT AWARD: Lisa Crouch
AUSTRALIAN PERFORMER OF THE YEAR: Kylie Minogue
2002: 28th Mo Awards
The twenty-eighth MO Awards took place on 16 June 2003 at the Sydney Entertainment Centre. It was compered by Frankie J Holden.
1 & 2 PERFORMER BAND: Mike Mathieson
ACCOMPANYING BAND: Patchwork
RESIDENT TECHNICAL SUPPORT: Paul Kelleners - Twin Towns
COMPERE OF THE YEAR: Mark Kristian
VENUE OF THE YEAR: Canterbury-Hurlstone Park RSL Club
LIVE RADIO PERFORMER: Toni Tenaglia (SAFM - Morning)
LIVE RADIO TEAM: The Amanda Blair Team (SAFM Adelaide - Breakfast)
FEMALE ACTOR IN A PLAY: Miranda Otto
MALE ACTOR IN A PLAY: Colin Friels
THEATRE PRODUCTION OF THE YEAR: Copenhagen
CLASSICAL/OPERA PERFORMER OF THE YEAR: Elizabeth Whitehouse
DANCE PERFORMER/CHOREOGRAPHER OF THE YEAR: Steven Heathcote
COUNTRY GROUP: The Wolverines
MALE COUNTRY ENTERTAINER: Troy Cassar-Daley
FEMALE COUNTRY ENTERTAINER: Melinda Schneider
CONTEMPORARY ROCK PERFORMER OF THE YEAR: Human Nature
CLASSIC ROCK PERFORMER OF THE YEAR: Doug Parkinson
MUSICAL THEATRE PRODUCTION: Cabaret
SUPPORTING MUSICAL THEATRICAL PERFORMER: Judi Connelli
MUSICAL THEATRE PERFORMER FEMALE: Tamsin Carroll
MUSICAL THEATRE PERFORMER MALE: Toby Allen
JAZZ INSTRUMENTAL PERFORMER OF THE YEAR: James Morrison
JAZZ VOCAL PERFORMER OF THE YEAR: Michelle Nicolle
JAZZ GROUP: Sydney All Star Big Band
VARIETY PRODUCTION SHOW: Forever Diamond
VARIETY DUO/TRIO: The Robertson Brothers
VARIETY GROUP: The Zips
VOCAL/INSTRUMENTAL PERFORMER: Shelly White
INSTRUMENTAL PERFORMER: String Fever
SPECIALITY ACT: Brendan Mon Tanner
VERSATILE VARIETY PERFORMANCE: Liz Taylor
COMEDY GROUP: The Umbilical Brothers
MALE COMEDY PERFORMER OF THE YEAR: Paul Martell
FEMALE COMEDY PERFORMER OF THE YEAR: Maggie Scott
MALE VOCAL VARIETY PERFORMER: Darren Williams
FEMALE VOCAL VARIETY PERFORMER: Seamus Earley
VARIETY PERFORMER OF THE YEAR: Darren Williams
AUSTRALIAN SHOWBUSINESS AMBASSADOR: Kylie Minogue
JOHN CAMPBELL FELLOWSHIP AWARD: Reg Lindsay
JOHNNY O'KEEFE ENCOURAGEMENT AWARD: Adam Scicluna
AUSTRALIAN PERFORMER OF THE YEAR: Kylie Minogue
2003: 29th Mo Awards
The twenty-ninth MO Awards took place on 28 June 2004 at the Sydney Entertainment Centre. It was compered by Jean Kittson.
1 & 2 PERFORMER BAND: Take Two
ACCOMPANYING BAND: Patchwork
RESIDENT TECHNICAL SUPPORT: Paul Kelleners & Michael Pepper/ Simon Wade (Tie)
COMPERE OF THE YEAR: Neil Hanson & Mark Kristian (Tie)
VENUE OF THE YEAR: Canterbury-Hurlstone Park RSL Club
FEMALE ACTOR IN A PLAY: Sigrid Thornton
MALE ACTOR IN A PLAY: Marcus Graham
THEATRE PRODUCTION OF THE YEAR: The Blue Room
CLASSICAL/OPERA PERFORMER OF THE YEAR: Emma Matthews
DANCE PERFORMER/CHOREOGRAPHER OF THE YEAR: Bradley Chatfield
COUNTRY GROUP: The Wolverines
MALE COUNTRY ENTERTAINER: Troy Cassar-Daley
FEMALE COUNTRY ENTERTAINER: Melinda Schneider
CONTEMPORARY ROCK PERFORMER OF THE YEAR: Doug Parkinson
CLASSIC ROCK PERFORMER OF THE YEAR: Birtles Shorrock Goble and Jimmy Little (Tie)
MUSICAL THEATRE PRODUCTION: The Lion King
SUPPORTING MUSICAL THEATRICAL PERFORMER: Terry Bader
MUSICAL THEATRE PERFORMER FEMALE: Buyisile Zama
MUSICAL THEATRE PERFORMER MALE: Toby Allen
JAZZ INSTRUMENTAL PERFORMER OF THE YEAR: Joe Chindamo
JAZZ VOCAL PERFORMER OF THE YEAR: Michelle Nicolle
JAZZ GROUP: The Sydney All Star Big Band
VARIETY PRODUCTION SHOW: Forever Diamond
VARIETY DUO/TRIO: The Robertson Brothers
VARIETY GROUP: The Ten Tenors
VOCAL/INSTRUMENTAL PERFORMER: Shelly White
INSTRUMENTAL PERFORMER: String Fever
SPECIALITY ACT: Darren Carr
VERSATILE VARIETY PERFORMANCE: Greg Doolan
COMEDY GROUP: Thomas and Moore
MALE COMEDY PERFORMER OF THE YEAR: Paul Martell and Calvin De Grey (Tie)
FEMALE COMEDY PERFORMER OF THE YEAR: Geraldine Doyle
MALE VOCAL VARIETY PERFORMER: Stephen Fisher-King
FEMALE VOCAL VARIETY PERFORMER: Lisa Crouch and Seamus Earley (Tie)
VARIETY PERFORMER OF THE YEAR: Lisa Crouch
AUSTRALIAN SHOWBUSINESS AMBASSADOR: Hugh Jackman
JOHNNY O'KEEFE ENCOURAGEMENT AWARD: David Stephens
AUSTRALIAN PERFORMER OF THE YEAR: Delta Goodrem
2004: 30th Mo Awards
The thirtieth MO Awards took place on 28 April 2006 at the Sydney Entertainment Centre. It was presented by Ken Laing, Tommy Tycho and Geoff Harvey.
1 & 2 PERFORMER BAND: Just Jammin'
ACCOMPANYING BAND: Steve Isoardi Band
RESIDENT TECHNICAL SUPPORT: Gabby Venditti
COMPERE OF THE YEAR: Rikki Organ
VENUE OF THE YEAR: Star City Casino
FEMALE ACTOR IN A PLAY: Cate Blanchett
MALE ACTOR IN A PLAY: Garry McDonald
THEATRE PRODUCTION OF THE YEAR: Hedda Gabler
CLASSICAL/OPERA PERFORMER OF THE YEAR: Teddy Tahu Rhodes
DANCE PERFORMER/CHOREOGRAPHER OF THE YEAR: Benjamin Nicholls
COUNTRY GROUP: The Flood
MALE COUNTRY ENTERTAINER: John Stephan
FEMALE COUNTRY ENTERTAINER: Melinda Schneider
CONTEMPORARY ROCK PERFORMER OF THE YEAR: Anthony Callea
CLASSIC ROCK PERFORMER OF THE YEAR: Marcia Hines
MUSICAL THEATRE PRODUCTION: Dirty Dancing
SUPPORTING MUSICAL THEATRICAL PERFORMER: Tony Sheldon
MUSICAL THEATRE PERFORMER FEMALE: Chloe Dallimore
MUSICAL THEATRE PERFORMER MALE: Reg Livermore
JAZZ INSTRUMENTAL PERFORMER OF THE YEAR: Andy Firth
JAZZ VOCAL PERFORMER OF THE YEAR: Emma Pask
JAZZ GROUP: The Sydney All Star Big Band
CHILDREN'S SHOW: The Wiggles
VARIETY PRODUCTION SHOW: Björn Again
VARIETY DUO/TRIO: Bella
VARIETY GROUP: The Shy Guys
VOCAL/INSTRUMENTAL PERFORMER: Bob Howe
INSTRUMENTAL PERFORMER: Slava Grigoryan
SPECIALITY ACT: Darren Carr
VERSATILE VARIETY PERFORMANCE: Todd McKenney
COMEDY GROUP: The Kransky Sisters
MALE COMEDY PERFORMER OF THE YEAR: Gerry Connolly
FEMALE COMEDY PERFORMER OF THE YEAR: Magda Szubanski
MALE VOCAL VARIETY PERFORMER: Adam Scicluna
FEMALE VOCAL VARIETY PERFORMER: Karen Beckett
VARIETY PERFORMER OF THE YEAR: Wayne Scott Kermond
AUSTRALIAN SHOWBUSINESS AMBASSADOR: Hugh Jackman
JOHNNY O'KEEFE ENCOURAGEMENT AWARD: The Baileys
AUSTRALIAN PERFORMER OF THE YEAR: Anthony Warlow
2005
There were no awards for 2005.
2006: 31st Mo Awards
The thirtieth-first MO Awards took place on 28 August 2007 at the Bankstown Sports Club. It was presented by Rodney Marks, Darren Carr, Liz Layton, Kenny Graham and Johnny Pace.
THREE OR MORE PERFORMER BAND: The Williams Brothers
COMPERE OF THE YEAR: Rikki Organ
INSTRUMENTAL or VOCAL INSTRUMENTAL PERFORMER: Joey Fimmano
CLASSICAL/OPERA PERFORMER: Helen Zerefos
DANCE PERFORMER: Wayne Scott Kermond
RICKY MAY JAZZ PERFORMER: James Morrison
VARIETY DUO OR TRIO PERFORMER: Triple Treat
RESIDENT TECHNICAL SUPPORT: Blacktown Workers
TWO PERFORMER BAND: Take Two
TRIBUTE SHOW: Tom Jones Experience - Jacques Renay
BRIAN STACEY MUSICAL THEATRE PERFORMER: Tony Sheldon
KEN LITTLEWOOD AND TOSHI SPECIALTY ACT: Darren Carr
ACCOMPANYING BAND: Western Front
BEST VENUE: Blacktown Workers
FEMALE VOCAL PERFORMER: Karen Beckett
ONE PERFORMER BAND: Ziggy Zapata
MALE VOCAL PERFORMER: Tony Pantano
ACTOR IN PLAY: Geoffrey Rush
SHOWBAND: Frogs on Toast and The Zips (Tie)
THE FOUR KINSMEN PRODUCTION SHOW: The Great Pretenders
ROCK PERFORMER: Billy Thorpe (Posthumous Award)
VERSATILE PERFORMER: Darren Carr
COMEDY PERFORMER: Paul Martell
SLIM DUSTY COUNTRY PERFORMER: Melinda Schneider
PETER ALLEN VARIETY PERFORMER: Danny Elliott
JOHNNY O'KEEFE ENCOURAGEMENT AWARD: Nicole Venditti
AUSTRALIAN PERFORMER OF THE YEAR: Hugh Jackman
OUTSTANDING CONTRIBUTION TO AUSTRALIAN COMEDY: Rodney Rude
OUTSTANDING CONTRIBUTION TO AUSTRALIAN MUSIC: Aaron McMillan
JOHN CAMPBELL FELLOWSHIP AWARD: Jonathon Welch
HALL OF FAME: Slim De Grey
2007: 32nd Mo Awards
The thirtieth-second MO Awards took place on 17 June 2008 at the Bankstown Sports Club. It was compered by Donnie Sutherland;.
ONE PERFORMER BAND: Roland Storm
TWO PERFORMER BAND: The Williams Brothers
THREE OR MORE PERFORMER BAND: The Williams Brothers
VERSATILE PERFORMER: Darren Carr
RESIDENTIAL TECHNICAL SUPPORT: Blacktown Workers Club
CLASSICAL/OPERA PERFORMER: Anthony Warlow
CHILDREN'S ENTERTAINMENT: Marty & Emu Crazy Kids Show
BRAIN STACEY MALE MUSICAL THEATRE PERFORMER: Wayne Scott Kermond
FEMALE VOCAL PERFORMER: Karen Beckett
SHOWBAND: The Zips
COMPERE OF THE YEAR: Bobby Bradford
BRIAN STACEY FEMALE MUSICAL THEATRE PERFORMER: Lola Nixon
BEST VENUE: Blacktown Workers Club
THE FOUR KINSMEN PRODUCTION SHOW: Frogs on Toast
SLIM DUSTY COUNTRY MALE VOCAL PERFORMER: Wayne Horsburgh
ACCOMPANYING BAND: Western Front
VARIETY DUO OR TRIO: Robertson Bros & The Williams Brothers (Tie)
COUNTRY FEMALE VOCAL PERFORMER: Melinda Schneider
COUNTRY GROUP: The Wolverines
INSTRUMENTAL/ VOCAL PERFORMER: Ziggy Zapata
DANCE PERFORMER: Lucinda Dunn
RICKY MAY MALE VOCAL PERFORMER: Adam Scicluna
KEN LITTLEWOOD & TOSHI SPECIALTY PERFORMER: Darren Carr
INSTRUMENTAL or VOCAL/INSTRUMENTAL PERFORMER: Joey Fimmano
TRIBUTE SHOW: Tom Jones Experience - Jacques Renay
MATS UNDER 18'S JUNIOR PERFORMER OF THE YEAR: Mark Vincent
JOHN CAMPBELL FELLOWSHIP AWARD: Liz Taylor
COMEDY PERFORMER: Kenny Graham
JOHNNY O'KEEFE ENCOURAGEMENT AWARD: Robert Jeffery
OUTSTANDING CONTRIBUTION TO COUNTRY MUSIC: Smoky Dawson
HALL OF FAME AWARD: Judy Stone
PETER ALLEN AUSTRALIAN PERFORMER OF THE YEAR: Darren Carr
2008: 33rd Mo Awards
The thirty-third MO Awards took place on 15 June 2009 at the Bankstown Sports Club. It was compered by Donnie Sutherland.
ONE PERFORMER BAND: Ziggy Zapata
TWO PERFORMER BAND: The Williams Brothers
THREE OR MORE PERFORMER BAND: Rikki Organ and The Organ Grinders
SHOWBAND: Frogs On Toast
INSTRUMENTAL or VOCAL/INSTRUMENTAL PERFORMER: Joey Fimmano
RESIDENT TECHNICAL SUPPORT: Bankstown Sports Club
SLIM DUSTY MALE COUNTRY VOCAL PERFORMER: Troy Cassar-Daly
INTERNATIONAL THEME PERFORMER: Aznavour From Today
TRIBUTE SHOW: Tonite's The Night
BRIAN STACEY MALE MUSICAL THEATRE PERFORMER: Wayne Scott Kermond
CHILDREN'S SHOW: Marty and Emu's Crazy Kids Show
COUNTRY GROUP: The McClymonts
MATS UNDER 18'S JUNIOR PERFORMER OF THE YEAR: Blake Giles
VOCAL GROUP: The Robertson Brothers
KEN LITTLEWOOD AND TOSHI SPECIALTY PERFORMER: Darren Carr
FEMALE VOCAL PERFORMER: Lisa Crouch
BEST VENUE: Bankstown Sports Club
JOHNNY O'KEEFE ENCOURAGEMENT AWARD: Mark Vincent
BRIAN STACEY FEMALE MUSICAL THEATRE PERFORMER: Marina Prior
COMPERE OF THE YEAR: Bobby Bradford
VERSATILE PERFORMER: Wayne Scott Kermond
CLASSICAL/OPERA PERFORMER: Anthony Warlow
FEMALE COUNTRY VOCAL PERFORMER: Melinda Schneider
ACCOMPANYING BAND: Western Front
JOHN CAMPBELL FELLOWSHIP AWARD: Helen Zerefos
THE FOUR KINSMEN PRODUCTION SHOW: The Great Pretenders
RICKY MAY MALE VOCAL PERFORMER: Tony Pantano
COMEDY PERFORMER: Paul Martell
VARIETY DUO OR TRIO PERFORMERS: The Rhythmaires
OUTSTANDING CONTRIBUTION TO VARIETY ENTERTAINMENT: Wayne Scott Kermond
PETER ALLEN AUSTRALIAN PERFORMER OF THE YEAR: Darren Carr
HALL OF FAME: Lucky Starr
2009: 34th Mo Awards
The thirty-fourth MO Awards took place on 11 May 2010 at the Bankstown Sports Club. It was compered by Donnie Sutherland.
ONE PERFORMER BAND: Fallon
TWO PERFORMER BAND: Just Jammin'
THREE OR MORE PERFORMER BAND: Rikki Organ and The Organ Grinders
ACCOMPANYING BAND: Vince Lombardo Band
INSTRUMENTAL/ VOCAL INSTRUMENTAL PERFORMER: Bob Howe
SHOWBAND: The Kamis
RESIDENT TECHNICAL SUPPORT: Bankstown Sports Club
BEST VENUE: Bankstown Sports Club and South Sydney Juniors Leagues Club (Tie)
CHILDREN'S SHOW: Brendan Mon Tanner
COMEDIAN OF THE YEAR: Kenny Graham
VOCAL GROUP: The Robertson Brothers
KEN LITTLEWOOD & TOSHI SPECIALTY PERFORMER: Darren Carr
MATS WINNER FOR 2009: Rhian Saunders
TRIBUTE SHOW: Strictly Bassey
INTERNATIONAL THEME PERFORMER: Euro Latino
SLIM DUSTY COUNTRY PERFORMER OR BAND: The McClymonts
VARIETY DUO OR TRIO PERFORMER: Thomas & Moore
JOHNNY O'KEEFE ENCOURAGEMENT AWARD: Chris Gable
COMPERE OF THE YEAR: Rikki Organ
THE FOUR KINSMEN PRODUCTION SHOW: Back To The Tivoli
FEMALE VOCAL PERFORMER: Jenifer Green
RICKY MAY MALE VOCAL PERFORMER: Tony Pantano
ROCK PERFORMER OR BAND: Brian Cadd
JOHN CAMPBELL FELLOWSHIP AWARD: Lorrae Desmond, Lynne Fletcher, Dinah Lee,Little Pattie, Jacqui De Paul, Sylvia Raye
PETER ALLEN AUSTRALIAN PERFORMER OF THE YEAR: Jenifer Green
HALL OF FAME AWARD: Frank Ifield
2010: 35th Mo Awards
The thirty-fifth MO Awards took place on 24 May 2011 at the Bankstown Sports Club. It was compered by Donnie Sutherland, Susie Elelman, John Mangos and Barry Crocker.
SOLO BAND PERFORMER: Chris Connolly
TWO MAN PERFORMER BAND: The Williams Brothers
DANCE BAND: Rikki Organ and the Organ Grinders
SHOWBAND: The Kamis and The Zips (Tie)
TRIBUTE SHOW: Strictly Bassey
INTERNATIONAL THEME PERFORMER: Italian Delight
JOHN CAMPBELL FELLOWSHIP AWARD: Marty Rhone
THE FOUR KINSMEN PRODUCTION/PACKAGE SHOW: Back To The Tivoli
INSTRUMENTAL or VOCAL/INSTRUMENTAL PERFORMER: Bob Howe
JOHNNY O'KEEFE ENCOURAGEMENT AWARD: The Seltic Sirens
BEST SPECIALTY ACT: Darren Carr
VARIETY DUO OR MORE PERFORMERS: Thomas & Moore
COMPERE OF THE YEAR: Rikki Organ
HALL OF FAME: Ian Turpie
SLIM DUSTY COUNTRY PERFORMER: Nicki Gillis & Kel-Anne Brandt
BEST CHILDREN'S SHOW: Brendan Mon Tanner
ROCK PERFORMER OR BAND: Guy Sebastian
ACCOMPANYING BAND: Trojans and Vince Lombardo Band (Tie)
RESIDENT TECHNICAL SUPPORT: Petersham RSL Club
FEMALE VOCAL PERFORMER: Jenifer Green
BEST VENUE: Bankstown Sports Club and Blacktown Workers Club (Tie)
COMEDIAN OF THE YEAR: Keith Scott
RODNEY RUDE STAND-UP PERFORMER: Vince Sorrenti
RICKY MAY MALE PERFORMER: Adam Scicluna
PETER ALLEN AUSTRALIAN PERFORMER OF THE YEAR: Jenifer Green
2011: 36th Mo Awards
The thirty-sixth MO Awards took place on 29 May 2012 at the Bankstown Sports Club. It was compered by Donnie Sutherland, Susie Elelman, John Mangos and Vince Sorrenti.
BEST SOLO BAND PERFORMER: Chris Connolly
BEST DUO BAND: Mike Mathieson Duo
BEST DANCE BAND: Rikki Organ & The Organ Grinders
BEST VARIETY SHOWBAND: Frogs on Toast
BEST TRIBUTE SHOW: Desperado – The Eagles Show
BEST CHILDREN'S SHOW: Franky Valentyn
BEST SPECIALTY ACT: Darren Carr
BEST VERSATILE VARIETY ACT: The Burlesque Spectacular
BEST INTERNATIONAL THEME SHOW: The Seltic Sirens
MO COMEDY ACT OF THE YEAR: Keith Scott
HALL OF FAME AWARD: Russell Morris
MC / COMPERE OF THE YEAR: Bobby Bradford
BEST STAND UP COMEDY PERFORMER: Vince Sorrenti
SLIM DUSTY COUNTRY ACT: Melinda Schneider
JOHNNY O'KEEFE ENCOURAGEMENT AWARD: Betty Dargie and Susan Jon Rose (Tie)
BEST ACCOMPANYING BAND: Joe Macri Band
THE FOUR KINSMEN PRODUCTION/PACKAGE SHOW: Back To The Tivoli
BEST TECHNICAL SUPPORT: South Sydney Juniors Rugby League Club
JOHN CAMPBELL FELLOWSHIP AWARD: Ronnie Burns
SPECIAL ACKNOWLEDGEMENT AWARD: The Artistes Answering Centre
SPECIAL ACKNOWLEDGEMENT AWARD: Helmut Fisher - Creator of the 'MO' Statuette
BEST VENUE: South Sydney Juniors Rugby League Club
BEST ROCK BAND OR PERFORMER: Jon English – The Rock Show
RICKY MAY MALE VOCAL PERFORMER: Adam Scicluna
FEMALE VOCAL PERFORMER: Melinda Schneider
PETER ALLEN PERFORMER OF THE YEAR: Adam Scicluna
2012: 37th Mo Awards
The thirty-seventh MO Awards took place on 28 May 2013 at the Bankstown Sports Club. It was compered by Bobby Bradford, Adam Scicluna and Neil Hanson.
BEST SOLO BAND PERFORMER: Chris Conolly
BEST DUO: Williams Brothers
BEST CHILDREN'S SHOW: Franky Valentyn
BEST HARMONY VOCAL GROUP: The Robertson Brothers
JOHNNY O'KEEFE ENCOURAGEMENT AWARD: Liam Burrows
BEST SPECIALTY ACT: Darren Carr
BEST VERSATILE VARIETY ACT: Danny Elliott
INTERNATIONAL THEME SHOW / PERFORMER: Joey Fimmano
BEST VARIETY SHOWBAND: The Zips
BEST TRIBUTE SHOW: Desperado and Strictly Bassey (Tie)
BEST DANCE BAND: Rikki Organ & The Organ Grinders
SLIM DUSTY COUNTRY ACT OF THE YEAR: Wayne Horsburgh
THE FOUR KINSMEN VARIETY PRODUCTION SHOW: Back To The Tivoli
MC / COMPERE OF THE YEAR: Elizabeth Star
RODNEY RUDE STAND UP COMEDIAN OF THE YEAR: Anh Do
BEST ROCK ACT OF THE YEAR: The Jon English Band
JOHN CAMPBELL FELLOWSHIP AWARD: Peter Paki
BEST TECHNICAL SUPPORT: Twin Towns Services Club
BEST VENUE: Twin Town Services Club
MO COMEDY ACT OF THE YEAR: Kenny Graham
TOMMY TYCHO ACCOMPANYING BAND: The Joe Macri Band
HALL OF FAME: Geoff Mack
FEMALE VOCAL PERFORMER OF THE YEAR: Alisa Gray
RICKY MAY MALE VOCAL PERFORMER OF THE YEAR: Tony Pantano
PETER ALLEN PERFORMER OF THE YEAR: Adam Scicluna
2013: 38th Mo Awards
The thirty-eighth MO Awards took place on 27 May 2014 at the Bankstown Sports Club. It was compered by Andrew O'Keefe, John Mangos, Judy Stone and Marcia Hines.
BEST SOLO BAND PERFORMER: Snowy Robson
BEST DUO: Take Two
BEST DANCE/SHOWBAND: The Frocks
TOMMY TYCHO ACCOMPANYING BAND: Funky Do Da's
BEST SPECIALTY ACT: Phil Cass
BEST TRIBUTE SHOW: Roy Orbison Reborn
BEST VERSATILE VARIETY ACT: Wayne Rogers
JOHNNY O'KEEFE ENCOURAGEMENT AWARD: Anja Nissen and Rachel Fahim (Tie)
THE FOUR KINSMEN VARIETY PRODUCTION SHOW: Supreme Motown
BEST CHILDREN'S SHOW: Brendan Mon Tanner
BEST VARIETY VOCAL GROUP: Double Exposure
BEST ROCK BAND/PERFORMER: The Radiators
INTERNATIONAL THEME SHOW: Peter Paki and The Rhythms of Polynesia
BEST TECHNICAL SUPPORT: Burwood RSL
DON LANE COMPERE OF THE YEAR: Terry Mac
JOHN CAMPBELL FELLOWSHIP AWARD: Carter Edwards
SLIM DUSTY COUNTRY ACT OF THE YEAR: Benn Gunn
RODNEY RUDE STAND-UP COMEDIAN OF THE YEAR: Al Showman
COMEDY ACT OF THE YEAR: Harriet Littlesmith
BEST VENUE: Campsie RSL
HALL OF FAME AWARD: Barry Crocker
JULIE ANTHONY FEMALE VOCAL PERFORMER OF THE YEAR: Kel-Anne Brandt
RICKY MAY MALE VOCAL PERFORMER OF THE YEAR: Larry Stellar
PETER ALLEN PERFORMER OF THE YEAR: Phil Cass
2014: 39th Mo Awards
The thirty-ninth MO Awards took place on 28 July 2015 at the Canterbury-Hurlstone Park RSL Club. It was compered by Darren Carr, Maria Venuti, Craig Bennet, Helen Zerefos and Vince Sorrenti.
BEST SOLO PERFORMER: Chris Connolly
BEST DUO BAND: Aubrey & Martin and Take Two (Tie)
BEST VARIETY/VOCAL GROUP: Chris Drummond Duo
BEST DANCE SHOWBAND: Mr James Band
BEST TRIBUTE SHOW: Tonite's the Night and Sincerely Elvis (Tie)
JOHNNY O'KEEFE ENCOURAGEMENT AWARD: Brian Lorenz
BEST CHILDREN'S SHOW: Franky Valentyn and The Party Bears (Tie)
BEST SPECIALTY ACT: Darren Carr
BEST VERSATILE VARIETY ACT: Thomas & Moore and Wayne Rogers (Tie)
BEST INTERNATIONAL THEME SHOW: Peter Paki & The Rhythms of Polynesia
THE FOUR KINSMEN VARIETY PRODUCTION SHOW: Damn Good Diva's
DON LANE COMPERE OF THE YEAR: Tony Hogan
TOMMY TYCHO ACCOMPANYING BAND: Dave Hallard Band
SLIM DUSTY COUNTRY ACT OF THE YEAR: Melinda Schneider
JOHN CAMPBELL FELLOWSHIP AWARD: Larry Stellar
BEST ROCK ACT OF YEAR: Mental As Anything
BEST VISUAL & AUDIO TECHNICAL SUPPORT: Canterbury-Hurlstone Park RSL
BEST VENUE: Cabra-Vale Diggers
RODNEY RUDE BEST STAND-UP COMEDIAN: Gary Who
MO COMEDY ACT OF THE YEAR: Paul Martell & Darren Carr (Tie)
HALL OF FAME: Reg Lindsay
BEST FEMALE VOCAL PERFORMER OF THE YEAR: Lisa Crouch
RICKY MAY MALE VOCAL PERFORMER OF THE YEAR: Roy Cooper
PETER ALLEN PERFORMER OF THE YEAR: Darren Carr
2015: 40th Mo Awards
The fortieth MO Awards took place on 17 August 2016 at the Canterbury-Hurlstone Park RSL Club. It was compered by Darren Sanders and Darren Carr.
ACCOMPANYING BAND: Greg Hooper Band
COMPERE OF THE YEAR: Terry Kaff
VENUE OF THE YEAR: Hope Estate Hunter Valley
DANCE SHOW BAND: Mr James Band and Pink Cadillac (Tie)
JUNIOR AWARD: Bobby Harrison
JOHNNY O'KEEFE ENCOURAGEMENT AWARD: Sara Mazzurco
CHILDREN SHOW: The Gigalees Crazy Comedy Show
VERSATILE VARIETY OR HARMONY ACT: Toni Stevens
SPECIAL LIFETIME ACHIEVEMENT AWARD: Slim Dusty
TRIBUTE SHOW: Sincerely Elvis
DUO ACT: The Happy Hippies
VARIETY PRODUCTION SHOW: The 3 Gen Show – Warren, Wayne Scott and Alexander (Zan) Kermond
INTERNATIONAL THEME SHOW: Roddy Montez Show
COUNTRY FEMALE ACT OF THE YEAR: Jean Stafford
COUNTRY BAND /GROUP OF THE YEAR: Roadhouse
COUNTRY MALE ACT OF THE YEAR: Chad Morgan and Col Hardy (Tie)
SOLO PERFORMER: Chris Bond
SIGHT ACT OF THE YEAR: HotPot and Aunty Judy
JOHN CAMPBELL FELLOWSHIP AWARD: Johnny Nicol
ROCK ACT OF YEAR: The Radiators
TECHNICAL SUPPORT: Laycock Street Theatre
RODNEY RUDE BEST STAND-UP COMEDIAN: Jackie Loeb
MO COMEDY ACT OF THE YEAR: Harriet Littlesmith
HALL OF FAME: Glenn Shorrock
FEMALE VOCAL PERFORMER OF THE YEAR: Helen Zerefos
MALE VOCAL PERFORMER OF THE YEAR: Roy Cooper
ENTERTAINER OF THE YEAR: The 3 Gen Show
2016: 41st Mo Awards
The forty-first MO Awards took place on 20 March 2018 at the Liverpool Catholic Club. It was compered by John Kerr.
VARIETY ACT OF THE YEAR: Drags to Bitches
JUNIOR AWARD: Finnian Johnson
THE MO'S ENCOURAGEMENT AWARDS: Platinum Harmony
CHILDREN'S SHOW AWARDS: Marty & Emu
MUSICAL GROUP OF THE YEAR: The Frocks
COMPERE OF THE YEAR: Roy Cooper
VENUE OF THE YEAR: Burwood RSL
SELF CONTAINED ACT OF THE YEAR: Chris Connolly
HALL OF FAME: The Flanagans
COMEDY ACT OF THE YEAR: Darren Carr
PRODUCTION SHOW OF THE YEAR: Wayne Rogers
COUNTRY SOLO/GROUP/BAND OF THE YEAR: Wayne Horsburgh
TECHNICAL SUPPORT OF THE YEAR: Burwood RSL
TRIBUTE SHOW OF THE YEAR: Peter Byrne
VOCALIST OF THE YEAR: Mark Vincent
ENTERTAINER OF THE YEAR: Wayne Horsburgh
References
External links
Australian theatre awards
Awards established in 1975
Awards disestablished in 2016 |
4092036 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/One%20Astor%20Plaza | One Astor Plaza | One Astor Plaza, also known as 1515 Broadway and formerly the W. T. Grant Building, is a 54-story office building on Times Square in the Theater District of Midtown Manhattan in New York City. Designed by Der Scutt of Ely J. Kahn & Jacobs, the building was developed by Sam Minskoff and Sons. One Astor Plaza occupies a site bounded by Broadway to the east, 45th Street to the north, Shubert Alley to the west, and 44th Street to the south. The building is named for the Hotel Astor, which had occupied the site from 1904 to 1967. SL Green Realty and Allianz own One Astor Plaza, which serves as the headquarters for Paramount Global (previously ViacomCBS).
The building consists of a low base that occupies most of the site, as well as a tower section with smaller floor areas. The facade is designed in glass and stone, with large signs. The upper stories have dark glass windows, with stone mechanical shafts on all sides of the tower. The lower stories contain a public passageway and retail at ground level, as well as a lobby and Paramount Global's Studio 1515 at the second story. The building was constructed with two theaters: a Broadway house called the Minskoff Theatre on the third floor, as well as a cinema in the basement (now an event venue called Palladium Times Square).
Sam Minskoff and Sons bought the Hotel Astor site in 1966 and initially proposed a 50-story tower without any theaters. Following a series of discussions, the Minskoff Theatre was included in exchange for additional floor area. Construction began on October 10, 1968, and the first tenants moved into the building in May 1971, with the building being completed the next year. One Astor Plaza was originally named for its anchor tenant, the W. T. Grant retail chain, which only occupied the space until 1976. Tishman Speyer and the Equitable Life Assurance Society bought One Astor Plaza in 1984. Tishman Speyer sold its ownership stake in 1990, just before Equitable filed a bankruptcy proceeding against the building, which was withdrawn after a lawsuit. Viacom leased space at One Astor Plaza starting in 1990, and its successors gradually came to occupy most of the building. SL Green Realty has owned or co-owned the building in some capacity since 2003.
Site
One Astor Plaza is at 1515 Broadway, along Times Square, in the Midtown Manhattan neighborhood of New York City. While the building carries a Broadway address, it is actually on the west side of Seventh Avenue. The section of Broadway and Seventh Avenue between 43rd and 45th Streets is officially listed on city maps as "Times Square", but the adjoining section of Broadway was converted into a permanent pedestrian plaza in the 2010s. One Astor Plaza's rectangular land lot is bounded by Times Square to the east, 45th Street to the north, Shubert Alley to the west, and 44th Street to the south. The lot spans , with a frontage of on Times Square and on 44th and 45th Streets. Shubert Alley, which covers of the land lot, is a private passageway shared with the Shubert Organization. The intersection of Times Square and 44th Street, directly outside One Astor Plaza, was renamed after Viacom founder Sumner Redstone in 2021.
The surrounding area is part of Manhattan's Theater District and contains many Broadway theatres. 1515 Broadway shares the block with seven theaters to the west: the Shubert, Broadhurst, and Majestic on 44th Street and the Booth, Gerald Schoenfeld, Bernard B. Jacobs, and John Golden theaters on 45th Street. The Music Box Theatre, Imperial Theatre, and Richard Rodgers Theatre are across 45th Street to the northwest, and the New York Marriott Marquis hotel is to the north. Across Times Square are 1540 Broadway to the northeast, 1530 Broadway and the Millennium Times Square New York to the east, and 1500 Broadway to the southeast. One Astor Plaza is also close to 1501 Broadway to the south and 229 West 43rd Street, the Hayes Theater, and the St. James Theatre to the southwest.
Prior to the development of One Astor Plaza, the site had been owned by the Astor family. The site had contained the eleven-story Hotel Astor, which had been designed by Clinton & Russell in a Beaux-Arts style and opened in 1904 with 1,000 guest rooms. The hotel had contained a red-brick facade, a mansard roof, and a lobby with a 22-foot-high colonnade. According to architecture writer Robert A. M. Stern, the Astor inspired "a new species of popular hotels that soon clustered around Times Square, vast amusement palaces that catered to crowds with scenographic interiors that mirrored the theatricality of the Great White Way."
Architecture
One Astor Plaza was developed by the Sam Minskoff and Sons company and designed by Kahn and Jacobs, with Der Scutt as the principal architect. In addition, Ben Schlanger was hired as a consultant for the design of two theaters in the building: the Minskoff Theatre, a Broadway house on the third floor, and the Loews Astor Plaza (now the Palladium Times Square), originally a movie house in the basement. The building engineers are Shmerykowsky Consulting Engineers.
The building has 54 stories and measures to its pinnacle. According to Emporis, the building is tall to its main roof. Internally, One Astor Plaza is served by 36 elevators. The New York City Department of City Planning cites the building as having a Gross Floor Area of , while The Skyscraper Center gives a floor area of . Underneath the building is a parking lot for 225 cars.
Form and facade
One Astor Plaza consists of a 54-story office tower above a low base. The tower stories are set back from Broadway. Under normal zoning regulations, the maximum floor area ratio (FAR) for any building on the tower's site was 15, but the developers received two bonuses of 20 percent each, bringing the FAR to 21.6. The developers had to include privately owned public space at the building's base for the first bonus, and they built a new theater for the second bonus. The Minskoff Theatre was among the first theaters built under a 1968 regulation that allowed office buildings to include a legitimate theater in exchange for additional floor area. The bonus applied only to Broadway theaters; the movie theater in the basement did not provide any FAR bonus for the building. The building has two privately operated public spaces: the open-air Shubert Alley, as well as a ground-floor arcade beneath the center of the tower.
At the base of the tower, the facade's Broadway elevation contains a glass front. The second-floor studios contain full-height windows facing Times Square. A rooftop restaurant was originally planned for the setback above the Minskoff Theatre on the third floor, but it was never built. During a 2008 renovation by Kohn Pedersen Fox (KPF), the glass facade of the studios and theater was extended upward by . Two pairs of three-story-high LED signs are installed along the base's northeast and southeast corners. Each pair of signs consists of a primary display facing each intersection, used for advertising, and a smaller display facing Times Square's western sidewalk, used for displaying show information for Minskoff Theatre. The primary displays measure high by wide, while the smaller displays are 48 feet high by wide.
The tower's facade is largely made of dark glass. Vertically aligned, stone-clad mechanical ducts are placed on each side, separating the leftmost quarter from the rightmost three-quarters of the facade. These mechanical shafts rise above the roof, terminating in pointed pinnacles at each corner of the roof. The shafts were overlaid by aluminum panels during KPF's 2008 renovation. A stone band also runs at the top of the roof. The use of pinnacles and stonework was a departure from previous International Style buildings with flat roofs. Initially, the top of the building contained signs on all four sides, spelling out the name W. T. Grant, the original anchor tenant. The signs consisted of illuminated letters. They were removed in 1976 when W. T. Grant went bankrupt.
Structural features
One Astor Plaza's superstructure is made of steel floor spans around a concrete core. The superstructure contains some uncommon features due to the presence of the Minskoff Theatre at the base. In typical skyscrapers, the columns of the superstructure could extend directly to the underlying bedrock, but One Astor Plaza's eastern section was directly above the theater and had to be supported entirely by the theater's roof. The steel was provided by Bethlehem Steel; its supervising engineer Thomas Connolly said One Astor Plaza's superstructure "would have been a snap from an engineering point of view", but the theater's presence made for "a humdinger of an engineering feat". The theater roof consists of a Vierendeel truss that rests on two girders, one weighing and the other weighing . These girders were the heaviest in any building at the time, and they had to be delivered in several pieces from the factory, itself an intricate operation.
Interior
Palladium Times Square
The Loews Astor Plaza movie theater originally occupied the building's public space below street level, accessible from 44th Street. It opened on June 26, 1974, and was the city's largest capacity cinema at 1,440 or 1,500 seats. The single-screen theater was designed with a steeply raked stadium seating layout and was intended to show the first runs of major films. There were 42 rows of seats facing the screen, which was wide. After an unsuccessful attempt to divide the theater into six screens in 1993, the theater closed in July 2004. After a $21 million renovation, the space reopened in 2005 as a music venue under the ownership of Anschutz Entertainment Group. The venue was originally sponsored by Nokia, then by Best Buy in 2010 and PlayStation in 2015. The PlayStation Theater closed on December 31, 2019, and it reopened as the Palladium Times Square event venue in 2020.
Ground level and lobby
The building's main entrances are at the southeast and northeast corners, facing Times Square. Inside the entrances, escalators lead to the office lobby, which is on the second floor. The lobby contains the artwork Alight Embrace by Chris Cosma, which was installed in 2010. The artwork consists of a section of wall between the two entrances, weighing , and is made up of 1,100 glass panels measuring .
At the first floor, there is a covered arcade under the center of the building, connecting 44th and 45th Streets. This passageway is also unofficially known as Minskoff Alley. The space covers . The arcade provides an entrance to the Minskoff Theatre, which is accessed primarily by escalators. From 1982 to 1986, the arcade also contained a museum dedicated to the history of Broadway theatre, including photographs and memorabilia. The ground level also contains retailers. During the 2000s and 2010s, these included a Bank of America branch with three floor-to-ceiling stock ticker signs; a Aeropostale clothing store; an Oakley, Inc. sports accessories store; and a Swatch watch store. Facing Shubert Alley was an Italian restaurant called Cucina and a Junior's restaurant. , Oakley, Kiko Milano, and Swatch were among the retail tenants.
Second-floor studios
Originally, the second floor was occupied by a branch of the Bankers Trust bank. The branch adjoined the building's main lobby and contained a domed ceiling, as well as design features reminiscent of early-20th-century banks. The bank's office also contained a glass enclosure with an escalator between the lobby and the Minskoff Theatre, as well as a vault. By the 1990s, this level served as offices for Viacom's human-resources department.
Viacom repurposed the space as a television studio for MTV Networks, launching operations in 1997. According to MTV president Judy McGrath, the studio had full-height windows on Times Square because "We want to get people to feel what it's like to be in New York, to be part of that incredible playground down there". The MTV broadcasting complex initially consisted of three studios. The largest was the Uptown Studio, which had the full-height windows on Times Square and was used by Total Request Live. Two smaller studios, the Midtown Studio and the Downtown Studio, were used for MTV News and smaller programs.
Despite reports that MTV planned to completely vacate its studio space, Viacom renewed its lease for a smaller portion of the space in late 2010. The remaining portion was leased to Aeropostale, which operated in the space from 2010 until 2016. Viacom re-leased the Aeropostale space in 2017 in preparation for its relaunch of TRL.
In 2020, after CBS Corporation and Viacom merged again, CBS News used part of the MTV Studios space for its coverage of the 2020 presidential election; the windows were blanked out for security reasons. In September 2021, CBS's new morning show CBS Mornings premiered in a portion of the MTV Studios space (replacing CBS This Morning, which aired from the CBS Broadcast Center), using a modified version of the election set. The studio was christened "Studio 1515" in reference to the building's address. MTV retains a portion of studio space in the southern end of the building (which formerly comprised the Downtown Studio) for its weekly Fresh Out Live program. Comedy Central's The Daily Show with Trevor Noah was temporarily housed in One Astor Plaza from September 2021 to March 2022.
Third floor
One Astor Plaza's Broadway theater, Minskoff Theatre, was named after the building's developers and is on the building's third floor. Der Scutt designed the Minskoff, with Ben Schlanger as a consulting architect. Jo Mielziner was the consultant for the theater's original operator, Albert Selden. The Minskoff, Gershwin, Circle in the Square, and American Place theaters were all constructed under the Special Theater District amendment of 1967 as a way to give their respective developers additional floor area. The escalators from the building's ground-story arcade lead to the third-floor grand foyer, where additional escalators lead to the auditorium seating. The Minskoff Theatre has 1,621 seats across two levels: a steeply raked orchestra and a smaller mezzanine. The Nederlander Organization operates the theater.
Formerly, the third floor also contained the Minskoff Recording Studios, which opened in 1976. Originally, the studios ranged in size from to . Each studio was soundproofed, enabling numerous tenants to use the studios simultaneously. These studios hosted rehearsals for many large Broadway musicals, as they were the only studios in the area that could accommodate large Broadway productions. By the late 1980s, the studio sizes ranged from for studio 7 to for studio 3. Rental rates for the studios varied depending on the studios' sizes, with studio 7 charging $10 an hour and studio 3 charging $5 per hour, although discounted rates were charged for eight-hour and week-long rentals. Despite the studios' popularity, they closed in 1989 due to rising rents.
History
After World War II, development of theaters around Times Square stalled, and the area began to evolve into a business district. The first proposal to convert the Astor Hotel site to offices had been put forth in 1947, when Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer had unsuccessfully proposed leasing the entire hotel for its own offices. When real estate developers Webb and Knapp leased the hotel in 1954, they pledged to keep the hotel operating. Astor Associates bought the hotel in 1958 and took over operation after Webb and Knapp went bankrupt in 1965. Webb and Knapp's former president William Zeckendorf formed Place de L'Etoile Inc. in December 1965, seeking to buy the Astor Hotel, but this was unsuccessful. The New York Times attributed the hotel's decline to the fact that, because of the growing popularity of automobiles, visitors could stay in a suburb rather than the city's center.
Planning
Initial plans
In January 1966, Sam Minskoff and Sons paid $10.5 million for the Hotel Astor and the eastern section of Shubert Alley, with plans to erect a 40-story office building on the site. At the time, a tax assessment valued the land at $8.4 million. Within a week of the sale being announced, Minskoff & Sons president Henry Minskoff said several companies had expressed interest in leasing large amounts of space in the new skyscraper. The Minskoffs hired Kahn and Jacobs as the architects in May 1966, and the hotel was closed on June 30, 1966, the day before Minskoff & Sons took title to the site. The old hotel's furnishings were sold off in October 1966. The Minskoffs demolished the rear of the hotel first because there was a restaurant at the front of the hotel, whose lease did not expire until 1967. The Hercules Wrecking Corporation began demolishing the hotel in January 1967, anticipating to complete the job within five months. However, the demolition was delayed because of the hotel's structural durability (the hotel had contained walls and heavy-gauge structural steel) and city regulations that required all wood to be removed from the building. The hotel was not completely demolished until February 1968.
In January 1967, Kahn and Jacobs announced that Minskoff's tower, One Astor Plaza, would be 50 stories tall with a facade of stone and tinted glass. There would be a plaza along Broadway, as well as plazas along the sides and rear, to comply with the 1961 Zoning Resolution. The Minskoffs requested zoning amendments to allow the construction of an office building, as well as a modification of the site's sky exposure plane to maximize the amount of office space that faced Broadway. At the time, city officials were encouraging the westward expansion of office towers in Manhattan. There were few efforts to preserve existing Broadway theaters, since theatrical experts believed the existing theaters (all built before World War II) were functionally obsolete. Consequently, the plans for One Astor Plaza initially did not include a theater. The Minskoffs' application for zoning amendments would have been a routine matter, but a member of the New York City Planning Commission (CPC) notified the Urban Design Group (UDG) about the application. This brought the attention of New York City mayor John Lindsay, a fan of Broadway theater.
Theater efforts
The UDG proposed that One Astor Plaza include a theater, a suggestion that the Minskoffs initially opposed. The family brought their concerns to CPC chairman Donald H. Elliott, who supported the theater, then to mayor Lindsay, who not only endorsed the CPC and UDG but convinced the Minskoffs to include a theater in their tower. The Minskoffs then submitted several alternative plans for a tower on the Astor site. The first such plan called for a tower that had twice the site's maximum floor area ratio, with a theater in the back. A second plan called for a tower, which Richard Weinstein of the UDG subsequently recalled as "a mindless, ominous, faceless structure, legal under existing zoning, with two low, clawlike appendages [...] pinching a small plaza between them". Though Weinstein said he initially remembered "feeling very depressed" at the Minskoffs' tower-with-theater plans, Elliott was "elated", saying: "I think you guys have got your theater". When Weinstein expressed his doubts about the building's floor area, Elliott responded: "Oh, that. That just shows they're ready to negotiate."
In October 1967, the CPC proposed the Special Theater District Zoning Amendment, which gave zoning bonuses to office-building developers who included theaters. The proposed legislation would directly allow theaters in One Astor Plaza and the Uris Building, which would be the first completely new Broadway theaters since the Mark Hellinger Theatre was completed in 1930. The Minskoffs were allowed to build 47 stories as-of-right, or without any zoning bonuses, but the Minskoffs could add in exchange for building a Broadway theater. The CPC approved the theater amendment that November, and the New York City Board of Estimate gave final approval to the proposal the next month. As planning progressed, members of the Broadway-theatre industry expressed concerns that theatrical experts had not been consulted in the design of One Astor Plaza's theater.
The Lehman Brothers became partners in One Astor Plaza in March 1968. At the time, the vacant site was being used for parking, since the Minskoffs were requesting city approval for another modification that would allow a movie theater to be built in the basement. The next month, the CPC scheduled a public hearing to determine whether the Astor and Uris theater permits should be approved, including a second theater in the Uris Building. Six parties testified in favor; the Shubert Organization, the largest operator of Broadway theaters, was the only dissenting speaker. The CPC approved the theater over the Shuberts' objections, as did the Board of Estimate. In the meantime, the vacant lot was used in September 1968 for a benefit for the film Funny Girl, hosted by Barbra Streisand. Albert W. Selden had tentatively agreed to lease the Broadway theater in One Astor Plaza. The building was to contain across 54 floors, including three restaurants and the two theaters.
Construction
Mayor Lindsay attended the groundbreaking ceremony for One Astor Plaza on October 10, 1968. One Astor Plaza was one of 23 major office projects underway in New York City at the time. During excavation, the contractors bored holes up to deep, then placed dynamite sticks in the holes, covering the openings with blasting mats before detonating the dynamite. As part of an agreement with the Shubert Organization, the blasts did not occur when there were matinee performances at the Shubert Theatre and other nearby theaters. The 1,562-seat movie theater was leased in January 1969 by Walter Reade, who also planned to operate the fourth through ninth floors of offices. Fawcett Publications signed a long-term lease for three floors in One Astor Plaza that February, followed the next month by Quality Bakers of America's lease of two floors. Work on One Astor Plaza temporarily stopped in July 1969 due to a labor strike.
The project faced some delays due to the inclusion of the Broadway theater at the building's base, as well as rising costs and decreasing demand for office space. Although Minskoff & Sons president Jerome Minskoff had agreed to the theater as "our way of paying the city back", he said this had increased costs by up to 30 percent, from $55 to $70 million. Furthermore, Selden insisted that a modern technical system be installed in the new theater, which would add $400,000 to the cost. A fire broke out on the upper stories in August 1970, and glass fell from the building during two separate incidents that November, when facade installation was progressing on the lower stories. Several glass panes fell on November 5, and a worker was injured on November 29 when glass panes fell during a heavy wind. The two incidents prompted an investigation, but the city's acting buildings commissioner could not find a clear cause for the falling glass.
By 1970, a combined of office space was being developed along Broadway in Midtown, much of which stood vacant due to a slowdown in office leasing. W. T. Grant became the building's largest tenant in December 1970, leasing , including the entire 40th through 53rd floors. In exchange, One Astor Plaza would be formally known as the W. T. Grant Building, and the company's name would be placed in large letters atop the building. Simultaneously, the Minskoffs agreed to pay off the lease on W. T. Grant's existing office space at 1441 Broadway. The next month, the Walter Reade Organization sought to sublet all six floors of its own space. Bankers Trust leased a bank branch on the second story in March 1971. An internal newsletter in October 1971 described the tower as being "80 percent leased"; that rate had increased to 87 percent by the next month.
Completion and early years
Fawcett Publications was the first tenant at the building, moving into the 12th through 16th floors on May 26, 1971. One Astor Plaza was still incomplete at the time, but Fawcett's lease at its previous location had already expired, forcing the company to move into the building. The building was planned to be formally renamed that November when W. T. Grant moved in, but the company's relocation into the building was then delayed to mid-1972. The movie theater in the basement was supposed to open in December 1971, but the opening was delayed indefinitely because of what Reade said were "construction difficulties beyond our control". Among these issues was Reade's concern that the auditorium needed to be insulated from the adjacent subway tunnels. Shortly after the building was completed, a window-washing scaffold fell from One Astor Plaza's facade in March 1972, killing two workers. The building's parking garage and three retail stores were leased in early 1972. Other tenants included the Bureau of Labor Statistics; Billboard Publications, which leased one floor; and accounting firm Clarence Rainess & Co., which leased one and a half floors.
By January 1973, the Minskoff was ready to open, but the basement cinema had not even been furnished yet because of continuing disputes over subway soundproofing. The Minskoff Theatre officially opened on March 13, 1973. Reade ended his lease of the basement movie theater the next month, citing financial difficulties. Further issues concerned the building's valuation, which had been reduced from $45.3 to $40.8 million during 1971–1972; the reduction had been granted because the Minskoffs falsely stated that One Astor Plaza was mostly vacant. The building's name also caused problems, as mail addressed to "1 Astor Pl." could be meant either for the building in Times Square or a car-rental agency on Astor Place several miles south.
The Loews movie chain leased the basement movie theater in April 1974, and the Loews Astor Plaza movie theater opened on June 25, 1974. That December, Ted Bates & Co. subleased some of its space to W. R. Grace and Company, Gralla Publications, and Nathan's Famous. One Astor Plaza's anchor tenant W. T. Grant had gone bankrupt by late 1975 and initially planned to downsize to four and a half floors. However, W. T. Grant subsequently decided to leave the building altogether, so the company's signage was removed from One Astor Plaza in March 1976. This created about of vacant space, about a quarter of the whole building. The third floor was also reconstructed in 1976 to accommodate the Minskoff Recording Studios.
Research firm Frederick Atkins Inc. leased four floors of the former W. T. Grant space in March 1977. The New York Telephone Company took another four floors in May 1979. By then, most of the building's vacant space had been filled; the other tenants included CBS and the New York State Urban Development Corporation (UDC). Also in 1979, the architectural firm of Battaglia, Seckler completed a three-story complex for the Alvin Ailey American Dance Theater within One Astor Plaza. The complex included a reception room, a lounge, changing rooms, and four studios overlooking 45th Street. In addition, the Alvin Ailey dance school operated within a space off the Minskoff Arcade. A theater museum was also being planned for the arcade at the time. One Astor Plaza was fully rented by 1980. Two years later, the Museum of the City of New York opened a museum in the ground-story arcade, dedicated to the history of Broadway theater.
Equitable ownership
Acquisition and increased rents
One Astor Plaza was sold in July 1984 to Tishman Speyer and the Equitable Life Assurance Society. The price was variously cited as $190 million, $200 million, $202 million, or $210 million. The sale included a contract between the Minskoffs and a joint venture of The Related Companies and Shearson/American Express, which in turn sold its contract to Tishman Speyer and Equitable. According to Jerry Speyer of Tishman Speyer, he had decided to buy the building after coming across Related president Stephen M. Ross during a morning jog. At the time, the real estate market in New York City was growing, and Equitable had projected that the building would generate $40 million in gross income by 1991. In 1985, Tishman Speyer formed a limited partnership, 1515 Broadway Associates LP, to assume ownership of the building; the partnership's only asset was One Astor Plaza. The 25 limited partners, who gave a combined $77 million, were primarily executives at Bear Stearns. In exchange for a 30 percent stake in the building, Equitable agreed to be the general partner and guarantee 10 percent of the building's mortgage loan.
One Astor Plaza needed to be renovated to comply with modern building codes, including the addition of fire sprinklers and the removal of asbestos. The average rent for offices at One Astor Plaza was , far below the market rate, but Tishman Speyer and Equitable had planned to upgrade the building and raise rents. Consequently, the Minskoff Recording Studios were nearly evicted in October 1984, but the studio's operators negotiated a concession in which the studio would pay . The Alvin Ailey American Dance Theatre was also nearly forced out because of the increasing rents. The theater museum in the ground-story arcade was closed in 1986 due to low attendance. Despite the success of the third-floor Minskoff Studios, they were in danger of eviction by 1988, and they ultimately closed the next year. The building's rising rents also displaced the Bureau of Labor Statistics in 1986 and the Alvin Ailey American Dance Theater in 1989.
Bankruptcy and improvements
Tishman Speyer then renovated the lobby and elevators in 1989. The same year, Viacom International Inc. negotiated to lease several stories in One Astor Plaza for 20 years. The company planned to occupy initially, with an option to expand by another . Though the building's owners hoped to gain additional large tenants, they did not sign another lease for 14 months after the Viacom lease. Furthermore, several existing tenants including Diamandis Communications and Ted Bates Worldwide were moving out, leaving the owners without enough income to make further improvements to the building. Nonetheless, Viacom moved into One Astor Plaza in 1990 and was one of several companies to take up large amounts of space in Times Square.
1515 Broadway Associates LP filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection in October 1990, shortly after Tishman Speyer gave up its general-partnership interest. The main reason for the Chapter 11 filing was so Equitable could renegotiate the 13.6 percent interest rate on the building's mortgage. An Equitable official said at the time that the partnership had lost $30 million a year for the past several years, and the rental income could not cover the mortgage payments. As a result of the Chapter 11 proceeding, ownership of One Astor Plaza reverted to Manufacturers Hanover Trust, one of several banks that had collectively lent $300 million to the partnership. Shortly afterward, Manufacturers Hanover sued Equitable for $600 million, claiming that Equitable had backtracked on an agreement to cover the partners' cash deficit. Manufacturers Hanover also claimed that Tishman Speyer's chief executive, Gerald Speyer, had opposed a bankruptcy proceeding. At a court hearing in March 1991, an Equitable official testified that he had misled the limited partners so they did not know about Equitable's intention to file for bankruptcy protection until it had already happened.
Shortly after the court hearing, Manufacturers Hanover and Equitable agreed to a tentative settlement in which Equitable would extend a $95 million line of credit to the limited partners. In exchange, Manufacturers Hanover's lawsuit and Equitable's Chapter 11 filing would be withdrawn. The bankruptcy filing was thus dropped in December 1991. Throughout these legal disputes, Equitable continued to maintain the building's services and attempted to not only retain existing occupants but also attract new tenants by providing favorable concessions. For example, a new advertising tenant received a non-disturbance agreement and a low rental rate, and an existing merchandising tenant expanded its space in the building at a lower rental rate. Additionally, Equitable covered the brokers' fees and tenant-improvement charges for new tenants for several years. Equitable's success in leasing One Astor Plaza was also influenced by the lack of tenants at two newer developments nearby, 1540 and 1585 Broadway, during the early 1990s.
Viacom takeover
After an acquisition of Paramount Communications by Viacom was proposed in 1993, deputy mayor Barry F. Sullivan said the move had "exciting potential for Times Square" because the company might move into One Astor Plaza. Following Viacom's acquisition, Paramount relocated from 15 Columbus Circle to One Astor Plaza, and the expanded Viacom took up 25 floors, housing subsidiaries such as Nickelodeon and MTV in the building. Viacom thus became the tower's largest tenant, occupying , with options to take other floors as existing tenants' leases expired. Equitable had been able to remove the asbestos and rent nearly all the space at rates of around . Viacom received a tax incentive of $15 million to retain its offices at One Astor Plaza and three other buildings. The state UDC, which had occupied nine floors, left the building in the following years as Viacom continued to expand.
In September 1997, MTV opened studios at One Astor Plaza's second floor after an $8 million renovation. By then, Viacom was one of several major media companies on Times Square, and ABC and CBS were also contemplating studios on Times Square. CBS and Viacom announced in 1999 that they would merge, and Viacom renewed its lease at One Astor Plaza, though the company planned to sell CBS's nearby headquarters, the CBS Building. By early 2001, Viacom had planned to buy One Astor Plaza in conjunction with its sale of the CBS Building. That August, Equitable hired Goldman Sachs to market One Astor Plaza; Equitable had rejected an offer to swap One Astor Plaza for the CBS Building directly because the latter building was worth much less. The transaction was ultimately canceled in November 2001. This was attributed in part to Viacom's demand that any buyer first acquire One Astor Plaza and then swap that for the CBS Building and cash; such a transaction would enable Viacom to avoid paying estate transfer taxes on the transaction.
SL Green ownership
2000s
In March 2002, a joint venture led by SL Green Realty acquired One Astor Plaza for approximately $480 million, the city's largest real-estate transaction since the September 11 attacks. SL Green had a 55 percent ownership stake while its partner SITQ Immobilier (a subsidiary of Canadian pension fund CDPQ), had the remaining 45 percent. SL Green was required to have terrorism insurance on the building, and the sale demonstrated that large buildings such as One Astor Plaza could obtain such insurance. SL Green chairman Stephen L. Green considered One Astor Plaza a "core building" to his portfolio but, according to Crain's New York magazine, those in the real estate industry believed that Green had overvalued the building. Alliance Building Service, operated by Green's son Gary, was hired to provide cleaning and security services for the building. After acquiring the building, SL Green sought to replace five storefronts on Broadway with one large retailer. SL Green also bought out the lease of the Loews Astor Plaza movie theater and closed it in 2004; reopening it the next year as an event venue operated by AEG Live. CBS and Viacom ultimately split in 2005.
By 2008, the downsized Viacom was still the largest office tenant of One Astor Plaza, occupying ; the building only had available for lease. Viacom's leases were scheduled to expire within two years, and the company was moving some divisions elsewhere, including Comedy Central. Viacom renewed its lease in December 2008, extending it by five years. The same year, SL Green also hired KPF to renovate the lobby and facade to make the building compliant with LEED Silver green building standards. The work was completed in 2009 for $40 million. Though other tenants continued to occupy the building, including law firms, Times Square was no longer appealing to small tenants by then because of the high rents.
2010s to present
In May 2010, a terrorist car bombing attempt occurred outside the building, although the bomb was defused before it could be detonated. SL Green refinanced 1515 Broadway for $475 million in 2010, and CDPQ sold its stake in the tower to SL Green the next year. In April 2012, Viacom signed a lease to take over all at 1515 Broadway through 2031, taking the remaining space as other tenants' leases expired. This was the fourth-largest lease in New York City history and the largest that was not a sale and lease back by a building's previous owner. In conjunction with this lease, the Bank of China gave SL Green a $775 million, seven-year first mortgage for the building. At the time, Viacom provided the bulk of the building's rental income, paying $78 million a year. SL Green also agreed to upgrade 1515 Broadway for Viacom and installed three-story-tall advertising screens on the Times Square facade in 2013; the building was refinanced that year for $900 million.
SL Green was looking to sell a minority stake in the building by 2017, and the China Investment Corporation reportedly expressed interest. That November, Allianz bought a 43 percent ownership stake and some of the debt in a deal that valued 1515 Broadway at $1.95 billion. At the time, Viacom occupied 85 percent of the building. SL Green used the proceeds from the ownership stake's sale to buy back some of its stock. After Viacom merged back into CBS Corporation in 2019, ViacomCBS (later Paramount Global) retained offices at One Astor Plaza. CBS News converted part of the MTV Studios space into a studio.
New York state officials announced in April 2022 that they would issue three casino licenses in Downstate New York. Following this announcement, SL Green proposed constructing a casino at 1515 Broadway to attract tourists. In October 2022, SL Green and casino operator Caesars Entertainment jointly submitted a formal proposal for a casino in the building. The bid was also sponsored by Roc Nation and mayor Eric Adams's former chief of staff Frank Carone. The proposal was controversial; Broadway theatrical trade association The Broadway League expressed opposition to the casino, while trade union Actors' Equity Association supported the plan.
Reception
One Astor Plaza's construction had spurred developers to acquire several buildings around Times Square. When One Astor Plaza was completed, city officials had expressed hope that the building would precipitate the transformation of Times Square into an entertainment hub. This did not happen immediately, leading architectural writer Robert A. M. Stern to write that "Times Square somehow seemed all the more tawdry for its overscaled, underembellished corporate guest", One Astor Plaza. In 1985, New York Times architectural critic Paul Goldberger wrote that the under-construction Marriott Marquis hotel, One Astor Plaza, Paramount Plaza, and four planned towers at Times Square's south end were "actively destroy[ing] something that is turning out to be far more fragile than we had once believed—that rough-and-tumble honky-tonk that is the physical essence of Times Square". After Caesars Entertainment's casino bid was announced, Karrie Jacobs of Curbed wrote in 2023: "It's fitting that 1515 Broadway, designed by architect Der Scutt (who later designed Trump Tower), was the leading edge of a '60s push to reinvent Times Square."
At an exhibition of New York City buildings in 1999, New York Times critic Herbert Muschamp said: "No one needs additional reason to dislike 1515 Broadway, the fin-topped office building between 44th and 45th Streets that replaced the legendary Astor Hotel." According to C. Ray Smith, the asymmetrical shafts of the facade were characteristic of "the new design" character of the 1970s, contrasting with previous symmetrical designs. Jo Mielziner said the large trusses above the Minskoff's roof provided "a clear example of what expense a builder is willing to go to get that extra rentable space".
See also
List of tallest buildings in New York City
List of tallest buildings in the United States
References
Notes
Citations
Sources
External links
1972 establishments in New York City
Broadway (Manhattan)
Mass media company headquarters in the United States
Office buildings completed in 1972
Skyscraper office buildings in Manhattan
Times Square buildings
Paramount Global |
4092442 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Santa%20Maria%20Antiqua | Santa Maria Antiqua | Santa Maria Antiqua () is a Roman Catholic Marian church in Rome, Italy, built in the 5th century in the Forum Romanum, and for a long time the monumental access to the Palatine imperial palaces.
Located at the foot of the Palatine Hill, Santa Maria Antiqua is the oldest Christian monument in the Roman Forum. The church contains the earliest Roman depiction of Santa Maria Regina, the Virgin Mary as a Queen, from the 6th century.
History
Built in the middle of the 5th century on the north-western slope of the Palatine Hill, Santa Maria Antiqua is the earliest and most significant Christian monument within the Roman Forum. The church contains a unique collection of wall paintings from the 6th to late 8th century. The discovery of these paintings have given many theories on the development of early medieval art and given distinctive beliefs in archaeology. The church was abandoned in the 9th century after an earthquake buried the buildings; it remained sealed for over 1000 years until its rediscovery in the early 20th century. Therefore, Santa Maria Antiqua represents a key element for the understanding of the cultural and urban development of the Roman Forum from Antiquity into the first centuries of the Christian period. From 1980 to 2012 the monument was closed to the general public and limited to scholars who applied for a special visit. Following a conservation program carried out by the Soprintendenza per il Patrimonio Storico in partnership with World Monuments Fund, the church is now open for tours.
Santa Maria Antiqua is a ruined church in the Roman Forum, and is part of the Foro Romano e Palatino archaeological site which requires a ticket purchase in order to get access inside. The church itself is not always open to the public, owing to ongoing excavations which began 2004 under the aegis of the World Monuments Fund. Thanks to centuries of sealing off, its walls showcase a cycle of beautiful colourful frescoes depicting the Virgin Mary and Infant Jesus, popes, saints, and martyrs, thus forming one of the largest and most important collections of pre-iconoclastic Roman and Byzantine art in the world. These frescoes date to a period of iconoclasm when in the East, figures in churches were destroyed.
Pope John VII used this church in the early 8th century as the seat of the bishop of Rome.
The church was partially destroyed in 847, when an earthquake caused parts of the imperial palaces to collapse and cover the church. For this reason, a new church called Santa Maria Nova (New St Mary, now Santa Francesca Romana) was erected nearby by Pope Leo IV, on a portion of the ruined temple of Temple of Venus and Roma, where once stood a chapel commemorating the fall of Simon Magus. Santa Maria Antiqua suffered further damages during the Norman Sack of Rome (1084).
Prior to the present structures, the church of San Salvatore in Lacu, occupied by Benedictines, was located at this site, named because of its proximity to a site called the Lago di Gioturna. The church was assigned in 1550 by Pope Julius III to the Oblates of St Frances of Rome from the nearby Monastery of Tor de' Specchi. The church of Santa Maria Liberatrice (Sancta Maria libera nos a poenis inferni) was built in 1617 on its ruins of Santa Maria Antiqua. This refurbishment was patronized by Cardinal Marcello Lante della Rovere and utilized the architect Onorio Longhi. The church was decorated by the painters Stefano Parrocel, Gramiccia (Lorenzo?), Francesco Ferrari, and Sebastiano Ceccarini. The church of Maria Liberatrice, however, was demolished in 1900 to bring the remains of the old church to light.
Santa Maria Antiqua was closed for restoration from 1980 to 2016.
Byzantine frescoes
The heavily layered walls of Santa Maria Antiqua host numerous frescoes of varying artistic style and adaption during its time of intense decoration from the sixth to the ninth century. Each alcove, wall and altar can be attributed to different times and trends of style representative of its artists and patrons, including the Popes Martin I (649-653), John VII (705-707), Zachary (741-752) and Paul I (757-767). The amount of erosion and destruction makes obtaining an accurate record of the styles difficult. Using the fragments of the frescoes, archaeologists and historians have assembled a rough chronology of the decorations. Historians who study Santa Maria Antiqua often rely on contemporary churches to help create a chronology of styles and influences: in the case of Santa Maria Antiqua, this is less successful due to the fact that no other church from Late Antiquity has quite the same collection and evolution of styles through this time. The change of style at Santa Maria Antiqua is recognized through its layering of trends and styles.
Rome changed hands multiple times during Santa Maria Antiqua's use. The defeat of the Western Roman Empire by the Goths in the fifth century gave way to Byzantine and Lombard influence in the late fifth to mid eighth centuries. Artists from the Greek community surrounding the church had local influence, but there was also a Byzantine administration operating atop the Palatine Hill, at the base of which is Santa Maria Antiqua. This continual change in influences is thought to be a determining factor in the different styles in this church. Influences can also be traced through remaining inscriptions: Greek in Pope Martin I's (649-653) decorations, Greek and Latin in Pope John VII's (705-707) and completely Latin in Pope Paul I's.
The Palimpsest Wall, located in the sanctuary (number two on map) has at least six layers of decoration, representing different styles, dates and influences. The first two layers from the fourth to sixth century are of Ancient Roman Pagan mosaics, which quickly were replaced by the earliest frescoes of Santa Maria Antiqua. About two percent of these mosaics survive because they were overpainted with fresco. The third layer, c. 500-550, contains remnants of Queen of Heaven, the earliest association of this title with the Virgin Mary and the Pompeian Angel. It is on this layer that archaeologists note the turn toward Hellenistic or Byzantine styles and away from a traditional linear Roman style. Layers four and five, c. 570-655 see the complete take over of Hellenistic style from earlier Roman styles, asserting Byzantine influence in Rome. Layer six belongs to Pope John VII (705-707) who is responsible for the extensive repairs and decorations that currently survive.
Hellenistic style is notable for white highlighting and shadowing of hair and robes along with placing figures is stances of motion. Although many of the surviving frescoes at Santa Maria Antiqua are Hellenistic, they lack classical Hellenistic backgrounds of villas and columns. Instead, the backgrounds are more detached and neutral looking. Early examples often have the blackened pupils staring straight ahead with contour details on the face. The first stage of each frescoes involved penciling in outlines, then the darker colours would be added as clothing while the finer details were finished last. Hellenism began to manifest itself during the time the Pompeian Angel was painted and eclipsed the more Pagan styles by AD 650.
The eras of Popes Martin I (649-653), John VII (705-707) and Paul I (757-767) provide clear examples of the stylistic trends through their surviving decorations. The surviving frescoes exemplify the ability of the artists to incorporate different techniques and styles; consequently, these styles soon became unique as generations of artists formed specific skill sets for Santa Maria Antiqua to continue or discontinue trends seemingly at random.
The Martin I (649-653) frescoes are few but reasonably preserved. These in Hellenistic style as it had fully eclipsed the traditional Roman style by the time he entered office, which was after the Byzantines had taken over. Roman style was much less detailed: no contour lines or shading and very subdued backgrounds. The earliest Martin I decorations are the Church Fathers AD 649 who are expressing movement by having a leg lifted in the walking motion while their robes are draped and highlighted to exaggerate this effect. The Church Fathers are exemplifying more fluidity with their tunics swirling than compared to later frescoes but their faces are much stiffer, also compared to later frescoes. The precise date is referenced by a Greek inscription below as pertaining to the Lateran Council of 649 that condemned Monothelitism. Martin I was ultimately exiled for his condemnation of Monothelitism but John VII commissioned his image to be painted in the Presbytery (see map) with other images of popes in Santa Maria Antiqua. Martin I is depicted in Hellenistic fashion by white brush strokes shading his brown facial hair that is painted on a heavily contoured, emaciated jaw and he carries a jewelled book. He wears an ecclesiastical hairstyle that is balding, short and has a central lock of hair around the forehead. Martin I's eyes are not staring straight ahead with jet-black pupils as was typical of contemporaries, instead they are gazing downward and individualized. Most notably is that Martin I and John VII's images are clothed in the same colour paenula of light yellow with green underlay showing through, suggesting a sort of solidarity among the popes against the Byzantines, using art to convey political messages that the Byzantine decision to exile Martin I was wrong.
The period of Pope John VII (705-707) has the most surviving decorations. These provide examples of techniques used during Santa Maria Antiqua's extensive repairs and redecorations of the Presbytery, Chapel of Physicians (or Chapel of Medical Saints) and the Oratory of Forty Martyrs. John VII's ambitious projects can be partially blamed for the removal and destruction of existing frescoes as his artists often re-plastered the areas approximately 4.5 meters and up. Holes drilled into the walls at even intervals and levels remain to provide details of how this was accomplished in such small, cramped spaces. The artists would drill holes into the walls 9.3 meters above the floor to hold their scaffolding then spread intonaco(plaster) to reinforce and secure layers below the current working surface. Painting took place immediately after the intonaco was spread in order to allow the paint to seep into the plaster for a deeper effect. The same holes would then be drilled lower, 7.98 meters above the floor and the process repeated. Thus the majority of surviving frescoes in Santa Maria Antiqua were painted top-to-bottom instead of side-to-side or at once. Complex, detailed frescoes were needed where intonaco was spread because it would overlap with existing frescoes causing lines, easily shown in the details of Hellenistic styled frescoes. The new complex designs would help hide the lines and cracks that was caused by the intonaco.
The John VII decorations feature Hellenistic styles fused with earlier Roman linear styles. Although John VII's frescoes are adorned with breezy tunics, toned contours of flesh and animated expressions that individualized the saints, they are considered by archaeologists and historians to be strained in their movement. The artists posed them in conversation with quick hands and turned heads but their backs are "flat" against the background instead of turning inwards toward the conversation. An example of this detail comes in the form of Saint Hermolaus of Macedon in the Chapel of Physicians who is pictured with high, strongly contoured cheekbones, asymmetrical eyes, arching eyebrows with highlighted long, dark hair and a flowing beard. There are no known contemporary parallels to Santa Maria Antiqua's use of white highlighting that is common here. John VII's artists were very influenced by the Byzantines as they combine the transparency of Hellenism with denser, layered colours.
The most controversial figure from the period of John VII, Christ in the Adoration of the Cross/Crucified, located in the Triumphal Arch. This figure is approximately 2.5 meters high and poorly preserved: Christ's head, abdomen and left arm survive. Flanking Christ on the cross are angels, Saint John's head with halo and there is a crown of adoring followers dressed in different coloured robes at the foot of a cliff (believed to be Golgotha, from Matthew 27: 33). Christ's image does not conform to contemporary images or other portrayals of Christ by John VII: in Santa Maria Antiqua he is seen as having curly, short hair, lightly thatched facial hair and wearing a loincloth. Contemporary images show Christ having long hair with a long beard and wearing a colobium(a linen shift). The origin of this new portrayal is thought to have come from the coins issued by Justinian II after he reasserted Byzantine rule in Italy in AD 705. The coins were minted in Italy, and like the fresco, they depict Christ with short hair and a barely-there beard, following Byzantine fashion. Possible influence of the coins appears in Christ's eyes: like on the coin, they are wide open, staring straight ahead instead of shut or downcast. The existence of the loincloth was established by close examination of the fresco, which revealed a heavily contoured or muscled abdomen that would not have been consistent with fabric patterns of a colobium. From the two different images of Christ in circulation at this time, from the west and from the east, it is possible to suggest that the Byzantine artist community living on Palatine Hill by Santa Maria Antiqua held influence in the painting of the Adoration of the Cross/Crucified.
The 'Chapel of Physicians' or 'Chapel of Medical Saints' is another of John VII's works that survives, although poorly in comparison to his others. The chapel hosts numerous, life-sized saints with their common appearance of brown tunics, long, dark hair, long beards, wide open eyes, animated eyebrows and sandals, each saint is holding a scroll in their right hand and varying styles of surgeon boxes with black straps. These details are gleaned from the pieces of individual saints in the chapel, as no individual saint survives intact. There is no contemporary example of this chapel or a collection this diverse of medical saints. Originating around the mid seventh century, medical saints are believed to have encouraged people to stop seeking pagan cures for illness and turn to Christian prayers by identifying themselves with a particular saint. This would have been easily accomplished at Santa Maria Antiqua due to the diverse community surrounding the church and the diversity of medical saints, thus making religion accessible, relatable and understandable. Included in the collection of saints are: Saint Dometius of Persia, a hermit known for miracles, Saints Cosmas and Damian, physicians claimed to appear to the ill who prayed to them, Nazarius and Celsus, martyrs from Gaul. These icons are reproductions made for the easiest access to the Byzantine influenced practice of incubation (the notion that while sleeping in a church, one could see a saint or be cured of disease) that was popular in the early eighth century. The ease in accessibility of these medical saints of all different origins encouraged people to recover from illness in a Christian way, replacing any traces that Santa Maria Antiqua was associated with pagans but still continuing its reputation for being a place of healing.
The saints in Martin I's era were all in frames and sequences of movement with flowing designs, light colours and patterned backgrounds, John VII's era were still in frames of motion but they were more detailed: his designs were slightly linear in the old Roman style and his backgrounds were nondescript. Even though John VII's decorations conform to the Hellenistic style, they are showing a slow shift back to the old Roman traditions that are dominant in the decorations from the era of Paul I.
Paul I's (757-767) Saint Abbakyros in the atrium was created after the Lombards succeeded in destroying the Byzantine government in Italy and during the Iconoclasm period in the east. Saint Abbakyros is well preserved with hard, stiff brush strokes. His face has asymmetrical eyes with arching eyebrows, a wrinkled forehead and a beard. The finer details of eyelashes are indistinguishable from shadows, no highlights accenting his hair or beard and a stiff pose represent Roman bulkiness with this lack of detail. His mouth is a series of lines due to the lack of shading and detailing; Paul I's Saint Abbakyros clearly lacks the finder details of the earlier frescoes. The Hellenistic trend and Byzantine influence on art had seemingly wanted by this time, returning to a more Roman style. By simplifying the style, Paul I appeased those of Byzantine origin left in Rome who were in the throes of Iconoclastic debates.
The progression of styles at Santa Maria Antiqua started as pagan mosaics, turned into a classical revival of Hellenistic styles with fluidity, light, colours and motion that evolved into deeper colours and finer detail, finally morphing into less detailed and rigid: an almost backwards evolution. The shift in trends can correspond to Byzantine influences and tensions within Italy from the fifth to ninth centuries. Difficulties in establishing chronologies are the result of poor preservation, changes in style and the partial decoration or redecoration during each phase. Ultimately it was the Byzantine-influenced popes and artists at Santa Maria Antiqua who were most important; however, it is the artists' adaption of technique that survives as a tribute to their skill. Santa Maria Antiqua hosts a collection of frescoes in fragments that clearly make it one of a kind in Late Antiquity by its inclusion of all styles, techniques and influences or lack of influence as it does not quite fit with contemporaries.
See also
Roman Catholic Marian churches
Elisabetta Povoledo, "Early Christian Church in Rome Reopens to Public" New York Times, March 17, 2016. Retrieved: 2016-03-20.
References
Sources
Further reading
5th-century churches
Deconsecrated Roman Catholic churches in Rome
Churches of Rome (rione Campitelli) |
4092733 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dust%20collector | Dust collector | A dust collector is a system used to enhance the quality of air released from industrial and commercial processes by collecting dust and other impurities from air or gas. Designed to handle high-volume dust loads, a dust collector system consists of a blower, dust filter, a filter-cleaning system, and a dust receptacle or dust removal system. It is distinguished from air purifiers, which use disposable filters to remove dust.
History
The father of the dust collector was Wilhelm Beth from Lübeck. In 1921, he patented three filter designs that he had pioneered to remove dust from air.
Uses
Dust collectors are used in many processes to either recover valuable granular solid or powder from process streams, or to remove granular solid pollutants from exhaust gases prior to venting to the atmosphere. Dust collection is an online process for collecting any process-generated dust from the source point on a continuous basis. Dust collectors may be of single unit construction, or a collection of devices used to separate particulate matter from the process air. They are often used as an air pollution control device to maintain or improve air quality.
Mist collectors remove particulate matter in the form of fine liquid droplets from the air. They are often used for the collection of metal working fluids, and coolant or oil mists. Mist collectors are often used to improve or maintain the quality of air in the workplace environment.
Fume and smoke collectors are used to remove sub-micrometer-size particulates from the air. They effectively reduce or eliminate particulate matter and gas streams from many industrial processes such as welding, rubber and plastic processing, high speed machining with coolants, tempering, and quenching.
Types
Five main types of industrial dust collectors are:
Inertial separators
Fabric filters
Wet scrubbers
Unit collector
Electrostatic precipitators
Inertial separators
Inertial separators separate dust from gas streams using a combination of forces, such as centrifugal, gravitational, and inertial. These forces move the dust to an area where the forces exerted by the gas stream are minimal. The separated dust is moved by gravity into a hopper, where it is temporarily stored.
The three primary types of inertial separators are:
Settling chambers
Baffle chambers
Centrifugal collectors
Neither settling chambers nor baffle chambers are commonly used in the minerals processing industry. However, their principles of operation are often incorporated into the design of more efficient dust collectors.
Settling chamber
A settling chamber (or stiveroom) consists of a large box installed in the ductwork. The increase of cross section area at the chamber reduces the speed of the dust-filled airstream and heavier particles settle out.
Settling chambers are simple in design and can be manufactured from almost any material. However, they are seldom used as primary dust collectors because of their large space requirements and low efficiency. A practical use is as precleaners for more efficient collect.
Advantages: 1) simple construction and low cost 2) maintenance free 3) collects particles without need of water. Disadvantages: 1) low efficiency 2) large space required.
Baffle chamber
Baffle chambers use a fixed baffle plate that causes the conveying gas stream to make a sudden change of direction. Large-diameter particles do not follow the gas stream but continue into a dead air space and settle. Baffle chambers are used as precleaners
Centrifugal collectors
Centrifugal collectors use cyclonic action to separate dust particles from the gas stream. In a typical cyclone, the dust gas stream enters at an angle and is spun rapidly. The centrifugal force created by the circular flow throws the dust particles toward the wall of the cyclone. After striking the wall, these particles fall into a hopper located underneath.
The most common types of centrifugal, or inertial, collectors in use today are:
Single-cyclone separators
Single-cyclone separators create a dual vortex to separate coarse from fine dust. The main vortex spirals downward and carries most of the coarser dust particles. The inner vortex, created near the bottom of the cyclone, spirals upward and carries finer dust particles.
Multiple-cyclone separators
Multiple-cyclone separators consist of a number of small-diameter cyclones, operating in parallel and having a common gas inlet and outlet, as shown in the figure, and operate on the same principle as single cyclone separators—creating an outer downward vortex and an ascending inner vortex.
Multiple-cyclone separators remove more dust than single cyclone separators because the individual cyclones have a greater length and smaller diameter. The longer length provides longer residence time while the smaller diameter creates greater centrifugal force. These two factors result in better separation of dust particulates. The pressure drop of multiple-cyclone separators collectors is higher than that of single-cyclone separators, requiring more energy to clean the same amount of air. A single-chamber cyclone separator of the same volume is more economical, but doesn't remove as much dust.
Cyclone separators are found in all types of power and industrial applications, including pulp and paper plants, cement plants, steel mills, petroleum coke plants, metallurgical plants, saw mills and other kinds of facilities that process dust.
Secondary-air-flow separators
This type of cyclone uses a secondary air flow, injected into the cyclone to accomplish several things. The secondary air flow increases the speed of the cyclonic action making the separator more efficient; it intercepts the particulate before it reaches the interior walls of the unit; and it forces the separated particulate toward the collection area. The secondary air flow protects the separator from particulate abrasion and allows the separator to be installed horizontally because gravity is not depended upon to move the separated particulate downward.
Fabric filters
Commonly known as baghouses, fabric collectors use filtration to separate dust particulates from dusty gases. They are one of the most efficient and cost-effective types of dust collectors available, and can achieve a collection efficiency of more than 99% for very fine particulates.
Dust-laden gases enter the baghouse and pass through fabric bags that act as filters. The bags can be of woven or felted cotton, synthetic, or glass-fiber material in either a tube or envelope shape.
Pre-coating
To ensure the filter bags have a long lifespan they are commonly coated with a filter enhancer (pre-coat). The use of chemically inert limestone (calcium carbonate) is most common as it increases efficiency of dust collection (including fly ash) via formation of what is called a dustcake or coating on the surface of the filter media. This traps fine particulates but also provides protection for the bag itself from moisture, and oily or sticky particulates which can bind the filter media. Without a pre-coat the filter bag allows fine particulates to bleed through the bag filter system, especially during start-up, as the bag can only do part of the filtration leaving the finer parts to the filter enhancer dustcake.
Parts
Fabric filters generally have the following parts:
Clean plenum
Dusty plenum
Bag, cage, venturi assembly
Tubeplate
RAV/SCREW
Compressed air header
Blow pipe
Housing and hopper
Types of bag cleaning
Baghouses are characterized by their cleaning method.
Shaking
A rod connecting to the bag is powered by a motor. This provides motion to remove caked-on particles. The speed and motion of the shaking depends on the design of the bag and composition of the particulate matter. Generally shaking is horizontal. The top of the bag is closed and the bottom is open. When shaken, the dust collected on the inside of the bag is freed. No dirty gas flows through a bag while it is being cleaned. This redirection of air flow illustrates why baghouses must be compartmentalized.
Reverse air
Air flow gives the bag structure. Dirty air flows through the bag from the inside, allowing dust to collect on the interior surface. During cleaning, gas flow is restricted from a specific compartment. Without the flowing air, the bags relax. The cylindrical bag contains rings that prevent it from completely collapsing under the pressure of the air. A fan blows clean air in the reverse direction. The relaxation and reverse air flow cause the dust cake to crumble and release into the hopper. Upon the completion of the cleaning process, dirty air flow continues and the bag regains its shape.
Pulse jet
This type of baghouse cleaning (also known as pressure-jet cleaning) is the most common. It was invented and patented by MikroPul in 1956. A high pressure blast of air is used to remove dust from the bag. The blast enters the top of the bag tube, temporarily ceasing the flow of dirty air. The shock of air causes a wave of expansion to travel down the fabric. The flexing of the bag shatters and discharges the dust cake.
The air burst is about 0.1 second and it takes about 0.5 seconds for the shock wave to travel down the length of the bag. Due to its rapid release, the blast of air does not interfere with contaminated gas flow. Therefore, pulse-jet baghouses can operate continuously and are not usually compartmentalized.
The blast of compressed air must be powerful enough to ensure that the shock wave will travel the entire length of the bag and fracture the dust cake.
The efficiency of the cleaning system allows the unit to have a much higher gas to cloth ratio (or volumetric throughput of gas per unit area of filter) than shaking and reverse air bag filters. This kind of filter thus requires a smaller area to admit the same volume of air.
Sonic
The least common type of cleaning method is sonic. Shaking is achieved by sonic vibration. A sound generator produces a low frequency sound that causes the bags to vibrate. Sonic cleaning is commonly combined with another method of cleaning to ensure thorough cleaning.
Rotating cage
Although the principles of this method are basic, the rotating mechanical cage cleaning method is relatively new to the international market. This method can be visualized by reminding users of putting a floor covering rug on a clothes line and beating the dust out of it. The rotating cage consists of a cage with fixed position holding the filter bag. Nested inside the cage holding the bag is a secondary cage that is allowed to rotate 90 degrees. This rotating action can be as adjusted to meet desired whipping effect on the inside of the bag.
Cartridge collectors
Cartridge collectors use perforated metal cartridges that contain a pleated, nonwoven filtering media, as opposed to woven or felt bags used in baghouses. The pleated design allows for a greater total filtering surface area than in a conventional bag of the same diameter, The greater filtering area results in a reduced air to media ratio, pressure drop, and overall collector size.
Cartridge collectors are available in single use or continuous duty designs. In single-use collectors, the dirty cartridges are changed and collected dirt is removed while the collector is off. In the continuous duty design, the cartridges are cleaned by the conventional pulse-jet cleaning system.
Wet scrubbers
Dust collectors that use liquid are known as wet scrubbers. In these systems, the scrubbing liquid (usually water) comes into contact with a gas stream containing dust particles. Greater contact of the gas and liquid streams yields higher dust removal efficiency.
There is a large variety of wet scrubbers; however, all have one of three basic configurations:
1. Gas-humidification - The gas-humidification process agglomerates fine particles, increasing the bulk, making collection easier.
2. Gas-liquid contact - This is one of the most important factors affecting collection efficiency. The particle and droplet come into contact by four primary mechanisms:
a) Inertial impaction - When water droplets placed in the path of a dust-laden gas stream, the stream separates and flows around them. Due to inertia, the larger dust particles will continue on in a straight path, hit the droplets, and become encapsulated.
b) Interception - Finer particles moving within a gas stream do not hit droplets directly but brush against and adhere to them.
c) Diffusion - When liquid droplets are scattered among dust particles, the particles are deposited on the droplet surfaces by Brownian movement, or diffusion. This is the principal mechanism in the collection of submicrometre dust particles.
d) Condensation nucleation - If a gas passing through a scrubber is cooled below the dewpoint, condensation of moisture occurs on the dust particles. This increase in particle size makes collection easier.
3. Gas-liquid separation - Regardless of the contact mechanism used, as much liquid and dust as possible must be removed. Once contact is made, dust particulates and water droplets combine to form agglomerates. As the agglomerates grow larger, they settle into a collector.
The "cleaned" gases are normally passed through a mist eliminator (demister pads) to remove water droplets from the gas stream. The dirty water from the scrubber system is either cleaned and discharged or recycled to the scrubber. Dust is removed from the scrubber in a clarification unit or a drag chain tank. In both systems solid material settles on the bottom of the tank. A drag chain conveyor system removes the sludge and deposits in into a dumpster or stockpile.
Types of scrubbers
Spray-tower scrubber wet scrubbers may be categorized by pressure drop as follows:
Low-energy scrubbers (0.5 to 2.5 inches water gauge - 124.4 to 621.9 Pa)
Low- to medium-energy scrubbers (2.5 to 6 inches water gauge - 0.622 to 1.493 kPa)
Medium- to high-energy scrubbers (6 to 15 inches water gauge - 1.493 to 3.731 kPa)
High-energy scrubbers (greater than 15 inches water gauge - greater than 3.731 kPa)
Due to the large number of commercial scrubbers available, it is not possible to describe each individual type here. However, the following sections provide examples of typical scrubbers in each category.
Low-energy scrubbers
In the simple, gravity-spray-tower scrubber, liquid droplets formed by liquid atomized in spray nozzles fall through rising exhaust gases. Dirty water is drained at the bottom.
These scrubbers operated at pressure drops of 1 to 2 in. water gauge (¼ to ½ kPa) and are approximately 70% efficient on 10 µm particles. Their efficiency is poor below 10 µm. However, they are capable of treating relatively high dust concentrations without becoming plugged.
Low- to medium-energy scrubbers
Wet cyclones use centrifugal force to spin the dust particles (similar to a cyclone), and throw the particulates upon the collector's wetted walls. Water introduced from the top to wet the cyclone walls carries these particles away. The wetted walls also prevent dust reentrainment.
Pressure drops for these collectors range from 2 to 8 in. water (½ to 2 kPa), and the collection efficiency is good for 5 μm particles and above.
High-energy scrubbers co-current-flow scrubber
Packed-bed scrubbers consist of beds of packing elements, such as coke, broken rock, rings, saddles, or other manufactured elements. The packing breaks down the liquid flow into a high-surface-area film so that the dusty gas streams passing through the bed achieve maximum contact with the liquid film and become deposited on the surfaces of the packing elements. These scrubbers have a good collection efficiency for respirable dust.
Three types of packed-bed scrubbers are:
Cross-flow scrubbers
Co-current flow scrubbers
Counter-current flow scrubbers
Efficiency can be greatly increased by minimizing target size, i.e., using 0.003 in. (0.076 mm) diameter stainless steel wire and increasing gas velocity to more than 1,800 ft/min (9.14 m/s).
High-energy scrubbers
Venturi scrubbers consist of a venturi-shaped inlet and separator. The dust-laden gases venturi scrubber enter through the venturi and are accelerated to speeds between 12,000 and 36,000 ft/min (60.97-182.83 m/s). These high-gas velocities immediately atomize the coarse water spray, which is injected radially into the venturi throat, into fine droplets. High energy and extreme turbulence promote collision between water droplets and dust particulates in the throat. The agglomeration process between particle and droplet continues in the diverging section of the venturi. The large agglomerates formed in the venturi are then removed by an inertial separator.
Venturi scrubbers achieve very high collection efficiencies for respirable dust. Since efficiency of a venturi scrubber depends on pressure drop, some manufacturers supply a variable-throat venturi to maintain pressure drop with varying gas flows.
Electrostatic precipitators (ESP)
Electrostatic precipitators use electrostatic forces to separate dust particles from exhaust gases. A number of high-voltage, direct-current discharge electrodes are placed between grounded collecting electrodes. The contaminated gases flow through the passage formed by the discharge and collecting electrodes. Electrostatic precipitators operate on the same principle as home "Ionic" air purifiers.
The airborne particles receive a negative charge as they pass through the ionized field between the electrodes. These charged particles are then attracted to a grounded or positively charged electrode and adhere to it.
The collected material on the electrodes is removed by rapping or vibrating the collecting electrodes either continuously or at a predetermined interval. Cleaning a precipitator can usually be done without interrupting the airflow.
The four main components of all electrostatic precipitators are:
Power supply unit, to provide high-voltage DC power
Ionizing section, to impart a charge to particulates in the gas stream
A means of removing the collected particulates
A housing to enclose the precipitator zone
The following factors affect the efficiency of electrostatic precipitators:
Larger collection-surface areas and lower gas-flow rates increase efficiency because of the increased time available for electrical activity to treat the dust particles.
An increase in the dust-particle migration velocity to the collecting electrodes increases efficiency. The migration velocity can be increased by:
Decreasing the gas viscosity
Increasing the gas temperature
Increasing the voltage field
Types of precipitators
There are two main types of precipitators:
High-voltage, single-stage - Single-stage precipitators combine an ionization and a collection step. They are commonly referred to as Cottrell precipitators.
Low-voltage, two-stage - Two-stage precipitators use a similar principle; however, the ionizing section is followed by collection plates.
Described below is the high-voltage, single-stage precipitator, which is widely used in minerals processing operations. The low-voltage, two-stage precipitator is generally used for filtration in air-conditioning systems.
Plate precipitators
The majority of electrostatic precipitators installed are the plate type. Particles are collected on flat, parallel surfaces that are 8 to 12 in. (20 to 30 cm) apart, with a series of discharge electrodes spaced along the centerline of two adjacent plates. The contaminated gases pass through the passage between the plates, and the particles become charged and adhere to the collection plates. Collected particles are usually removed by rapping the plates and deposited in bins or hoppers at the base of the precipitator.
Tubular precipitators
Tubular precipitators consist of cylindrical collection electrodes with discharge electrodes located on the axis of the cylinder. The contaminated gases flow around the discharge electrode and up through the inside of the cylinders. The charged particles are collected on the grounded walls of the cylinder. The collected dust is removed from the bottom of the cylinder.
Tubular precipitators are often used for mist or fog collection or for adhesive, sticky, radioactive, or extremely toxic materials.
Unit collectors
Unlike central collectors, unit collectors control contamination at its source. They are small and self-contained, consisting of a fan and some form of dust collector. They are suitable for isolated, portable, or frequently moved dust-producing operations, such as bins and silos or remote belt-conveyor transfer points. Advantages of unit collectors include small space requirements, the return of collected dust to main material flow, and low initial cost. However, their dust-holding and storage capacities, servicing facilities, and maintenance periods have been sacrificed.
A number of designs are available, with capacities ranging from 200 to 2,000 ft³/min (90 to 900 L/s). There are two main types of unit collectors:
Fabric collectors, with manual shaking or pulse-jet cleaning - normally used for fine dust
Cyclone collectors - normally used for coarse dust
Fabric collectors are frequently used in minerals processing operations because they provide high collection efficiency and uninterrupted exhaust airflow between cleaning cycles. Cyclone collectors are used when coarser dust is generated, as in woodworking, metal grinding, or machining.
The following points should be considered when selecting a unit collector:
Cleaning efficiency must comply with all applicable regulations.
The unit maintains its rated capacity while accumulating large amounts of dust between cleanings.
Simple cleaning operations do not increase the surrounding dust concentration.
Has the ability to operate unattended for extended periods of time (for example, 8 hours).
Automatic discharge or sufficient dust storage space to hold at least one week's accumulation.
If renewable filters are used, they should not have to be replaced more than once a month.
Durable
Quiet
Use of unit collectors may not be appropriate if the dust-producing operations are located in an area where central exhaust systems would be practical. Dust removal and servicing requirements are expensive for many unit collectors and are more likely to be neglected than those for a single, large collector.
Selecting a dust collector
Dust collectors vary widely in design, operation, effectiveness, space requirements, construction, and capital, operating, and maintenance costs. Each type has advantages and disadvantages. However, the selection of a dust collector should be based on the following general factors:
Dust concentration and particle size – For minerals processing operations, the dust concentration can range from 0.1 to of dust per cubic foot of air (0.23 to 11.44 grams per cubic meter), and the particle size can vary from 0.5 to 100 micrometres (µm) in diameter.
Degree of dust collection required – The degree of dust collection required depends on its potential as a health hazard or public nuisance, the plant location, the allowable emission rate, the nature of the dust, its salvage value, and so forth. The selection of a collector should be based on the efficiency required and should consider the need for high-efficiency, high-cost equipment, such as electrostatic precipitators; high-efficiency, moderate-cost equipment, such as baghouses or wet scrubbers; or lower cost, primary units, such as dry centrifugal collectors.
Characteristics of airstream – The characteristics of the airstream can have a significant impact on collector selection. For example, cotton fabric filters cannot be used where air temperatures exceed 180 °F (82 °C). Also, condensation of steam or water vapor can blind bags. Various chemicals can attack fabric or metal and cause corrosion in wet scrubbers.
Characteristics of dust – Moderate to heavy concentrations of many dusts (such as dust from silica sand or metal ores) can be abrasive to dry centrifugal collectors. Hygroscopic material can blind bag collectors. Sticky material can adhere to collector elements and plug passages. Some particle sizes and shapes may rule out certain types of fabric collectors. The combustible nature of many fine materials rules out the use of electrostatic precipitators.
Methods of disposal – Methods of dust removal and disposal vary with the material, plant process, volume, and type of collector used. Collectors can unload continuously or in batches. Dry materials can create secondary dust problems during unloading and disposal that do not occur with wet collectors. Disposal of wet slurry or sludge can be an additional material-handling problem; sewer or water pollution problems can result if wastewater is not treated properly.
Choosing the right size dust collector depends on airflow volume and air-to-cloth ratio that determine the efficiency of a system. Optimal dust collecting equipment increases employee retention and preserves equipment that helps lower maintenance and replacement costs.
Choosing a too-large, undersized, or incapable dust collector can cause plenty of issues that impact performance and maintenance costs. Hence, the dust collector should be chosen in such a way that suits the company’s specific workplace.
It must provide a safe and healthy work environment for the employees. Moreover, employee efficiency and production should not ignore.
Fan and motor
The fan and motor system supplies mechanical energy to move contaminated air from the dust-producing source to a dust collector.
Types of fans
There are two main kinds of industrial fans:
Centrifugal fans
Axial-flow fans
Centrifugal fans
Centrifugal fans consist of a wheel or a rotor mounted on a shaft that rotates in a scroll-shaped housing. Air enters at the eye of the rotor, makes a right-angle turn, and is forced through the blades of the rotor by centrifugal force into the scroll-shaped housing. The centrifugal force imparts static pressure to the air. The diverging shape of the scroll also converts a portion of the velocity pressure into static pressure.
There are three main types of centrifugal fans:
Radial-blade fans - Radial-blade fans are used for heavy dust loads. Their straight, radial blades do not get clogged with material, and they withstand considerable abrasion. These fans have medium tip speeds and medium noise factors.
Backward-blade fans - Backward-blade fans operate at higher tip speeds and thus are more efficient. Since material may build up on the blades, these fans should be used after a dust collector. Although they are noisier than radial-blade fans, backward-blade fans are commonly used for large-volume dust collection systems because of their higher efficiency.
Forward-curved-blade fans - These fans have curved blades that are tipped in the direction of rotation. They have low space requirements, low tip speeds, and a low noise factor. They are usually used against low to moderate static pressures.
Axial-flow fans
Axial-flow fans are used in systems that have low resistance levels. These fans move the air parallel to the fan's axis of rotation. The screw-like action of the propellers moves the air in a straight-through parallel path, causing a helical flow pattern.
The three main kinds of axial fans are:
Propeller fans - These fans are used to move large quantities of air against very low static pressures. They are usually used for general ventilation or dilution ventilation and are good in developing up to 0.5 in. wg (124.4 Pa).
Tube-axial fans - Tube-axial fans are similar to propeller fans except they are mounted in a tube or cylinder. Therefore, they are more efficient than propeller fans and can develop up to 3 to 4 in. wg (743.3 to 995 Pa). They are best suited for moving air containing substances such as condensible fumes or pigments.
Vane-axial fans - Vane-axial fans are similar to tube-axial fans except air-straightening vanes are installed on the suction or discharge side of the rotor. They are easily adapted to multistaging and can develop static pressures as high as 14 to 16 in. wg (3.483 to 3.98 kPa). They are normally used for clean air only.
Electric motors
Electric motors are used to supply the necessary energy to drive the fan.
Motors are selected to provide sufficient power to operate fans over the full range of process conditions (temperature and flow rate).
Configurations
Dust collectors can be configured into one of five common types:
Ambient units - Ambient units are free-hanging systems for use when applications limit the use of source-capture arms or ductwork.
Collection booths - Collector booths require no ductwork, and allow the worker greater freedom of movement. They are often portable.
Downdraft tables - A downdraft table is a self-contained portable filtration system that removes harmful particulates and returns filtered air back into the facility with no external ventilation required.
Source collector or Portable units - Portable units are for collecting dust, mist, fumes, or smoke at the source.
Stationary units - An example of a stationary collector is a baghouse.
Parameters involved in specifying dust collectors
Important parameters in specifying dust collectors include airflow the velocity of the air stream created by the vacuum producer; system power, the power of the system motor, usually specified in horsepower; storage capacity for dust and particles, and minimum particle size filtered by the unit. Other considerations when choosing a dust collection system include the temperature, moisture content, and the possibility of combustion of the dust being collected.
Systems for fine removal may only contain a single filtration system (such as a filter bag or cartridge). However, most units utilize a primary and secondary separation/filtration system. In many cases the heat or moisture content of dust can negatively affect the filter media of a baghouse or cartridge dust collector. A cyclone separator or dryer may be placed before these units to reduce heat or moisture content before reaching the filters. Furthermore, some units may have third and fourth stage filtration. All separation and filtration systems used within the unit should be specified.
A baghouse is an air pollution abatement device used to trap particulate by filtering gas streams through large fabric bags. They are typically made of glass fibers or fabric.
A cyclone separator is an apparatus for the separation, by centrifugal means, of fine particles suspended in air or gas.
Electrostatic precipitators are a type of air cleaner, which charges particles of dust by passing dust-laden air through a strong (50-100 kV) electrostatic field. This causes the particles to be attracted to oppositely charged plates so that they can be removed from the air stream.
An impinger system is a device in which particles are removed by impacting the aerosol particles into a liquid. Modular media type units combine a variety of specific filter modules in one unit. These systems can provide solutions to many air contaminant problems. A typical system incorporates a series of disposable or cleanable pre-filters, a disposable vee-bag or cartridge filter. HEPA or carbon final filter modules can also be added. Various models are available, including free-hanging or ducted installations, vertical or horizontal mounting, and fixed or portable configurations. Filter cartridges are made out of a variety of synthetic fibers and are capable of collecting sub-micrometre particles without creating an excessive pressure drop in the system. Filter cartridges require periodic cleaning.
A wet scrubber, or venturi scrubber, is similar to a cyclone but it has an orifice unit that sprays water into the vortex in the cyclone section, collecting all of the dust in a slurry system. The water media can be recirculated and reused to continue to filter the air. Eventually the solids must be removed from the water stream and disposed of.
Filter cleaning methods
Online cleaning – automatically timed filter cleaning which allows for continuous, uninterrupted dust collector operation for heavy dust operations.
Offline cleaning – filter cleaning accomplished during dust collector shut down. Practical whenever the dust loading in each dust collector cycle does not exceed the filter capacity. Allows for maximum effectiveness in dislodging and disposing of dust.
On-demand cleaning – filter cleaning initiated automatically when the filter is fully loaded, as determined by a specified drop in pressure across the media surface.
Reverse-pulse/Reverse-jet cleaning – Filter cleaning method which delivers blasts of compressed air from the clean side of the filter to dislodge the accumulated dust cake.
Impact/Rapper cleaning – Filter cleaning method in which high-velocity compressed air forced through a flexible tube results in an arbitrary rapping of the filter to dislodge the dust cake. Especially effective when the dust is extremely fine or sticky.
See also
Axial fan design
References
External links
EPA Air Pollutants and Control Techniques Additional information on various wet scrubber topologies and techniques
Dust
Air filters
Particulate control
Solid-gas separation |
4092858 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation%20Moduler | Operation Moduler | Operation Moduler (sometimes incorrectly called "Modular") was a military operation by the South African Defence Force (SADF) during the South African Border War. It formed part of what has come to be called the Battle of Cuito Cuanavale. The Angolan objective was to advance south-east to attack the UNITA (National Union for the Total Independence of Angola) at Mavinga. The SADF objective was to protect UNITA by stopping that advance. The advance was halted with heavy Angolan casualties. The South African forces and its UNITA allies then began offensive operations against the Angolan forces, who had retreated back to a defensive line east of the Cuito River with the objective of destroying them once and for all.
Background
During January 1987, the Angolans began to increase their air defence network in the Cuito Cuanavale region and by April they had begun to assemble a large force of tanks, APCs, trucks and a large number of helicopters and fighter and strike aircraft at the town which indicated the build-up of a new offensive on UNITA. By May UNITA was discussing the situation with the South Africans and by June, SADF military intelligence teams were operating with UNITA teams to monitor the Angolan build up. On 2 June 1987, four brigades of the Soviet-backed People's Armed Forces for the Liberation of Angola (FAPLA) (the 47th, 59th, 16th and 21st brigades), departed from the Angolan town of Cuito Cuanavale to capture the UNITA stronghold at Mavinga, which was the gateway to UNITA's capital of Jamba. By 15 June a plan was formulated to deploy units of 32 Battalion and Valkiri MRLs, for a covert operation similar to Operation Wallpaper, and have the remaining units of 32 Battalion and 61 Mechanised Battalion on standby for an attack on the Angolan brigades. On 22 June, Operation Moduler came into operation with Colonel Jock Harris of 32 Battalion in command but the forces would not be directly involved in the combat and by mid-July, more of 32 Battalion units were ordered to Mavinga with his complete force in place by early August.
Order of battle
South African and South West Africa Territorial Forces from August 1987
32 Battalion - five companies - Colonel Jock Harris
three reconnaissance teams
one battery MRL
one battery mortars
two mobile anti-aircraft units.
South African and South West Africa Territorial Forces from 5 September 1987
20 Brigade - Colonel Deon Ferreira
Battle Group Alpha - Commandant Kobus Smit
one mechanised company - 61 Mech
one motorized company - 32 Battalion
one armoured car squadron - Ratel-90
one 81mm mortar platoon - 4 Ratels
one 20mm mobile anti-aircraft unit
Battle Group Bravo - Commandant Robbie Hartslief
one motorized company - 32 Battalion
two motorized company - 101 Battalion
one motorized platoon - 32 Battalion
one armoured car squadron - Ratel-90
one 81mm mortar platoon - 4 Ratels
Battle Group Charlie - Major Dawid Lotter
one mechanised company - 61 Mech
one anti-tank platoon
one 81mm mortar platoon - 4 Ratels
20 Artillery Regiment
Q Battery - G5 155mm howitzers, 4 Stinger teams UNITA, two SA-7 AA teams, 8 14.5mm AA guns, two platoons 32 Battalion
P Battery - MRLs plus, one company 32 Battalion, 20mm AA troop, 2 Stinger teams UNITA, two SA-7 AA teams
S Battery - 120mm mortars plus one platoon 32 Battalion
South African and South West Africa Territorial Forces from 23 October 1987
Brigadier Fido Smit – Overall Commander
Task Force 10 – Colonel Deon Ferreira
Combat Group Alpha – Commandant Mike Muller
2 x Mechanised Infantry Companies – 61 Mech
1 x Ratel 90 squadron
1 x 81mm Mortar platoon
1 x AA platoon
1 x Engineer Troop
1 x Assault Pioneer Platoon
1 x UNITA Battalion
Combat Group Charlie – Commandant Leon Marias.
2 x Mechanised Infantry Companies – 4SAI 62 mech
2 x Motorised Infantry Companies – 32 Battalion
1 x Ratel 90 squadron
1 x 81mm Mortar platoon
1 x 120mm Mortar battery
1 x Tank Squadron (13 Olifant tanks)
1 x UNITA Battalion
1 x 20mm mobile anti-aircraft unit
UNITA Liaison Team – Colonel Fred Oelshig
Mobile Air Operations Team – Major Brian Daniel (SAAF 89 Combat Flying School)
20 Medical Task Team – Commandant Coen van den Berg
20 Artillery Regiment – Colonel Jean Lausberg
Q Battery - 8 G5s
S Battery - 8 G5s and 8 120mm mortars
J Troop - 3 G6s
P Battery - 8 MRLs
I troop - 4 MRLs
Combat Group Bravo – Commandant Robbie Hartslief
2 x Mechanised Infantry Companies – 32 Battalion
2 x Motorised Infantry Companies – 101 Battalion
1 x Anti-Tank Squadron
1 x UNITA Battalion
1 x Company 701Bn
UNITA
three Regular Battalions
four Semi-regular Battalions
FAPLA/Cuban forces
16 Brigade
21 Brigade
47 Brigade
59 Brigade
Reserve
two brigades - West of Cuito & guarding Menongue road and convoys
one brigade - Cuito Cuanavale
one brigade - East of Cuito at Tumpo
SADF begins its defensive operations
The South Africans began Operation Moduler on 13 August with Sierra Battery unleashing 120mm mortar fire on the 47 and 59 Brigades halting their advance at Catato Woods. On 16 August the South African forces were given permission to release their G5 battery and a Ratel-90 anti-tank squadron for operations on the Lomba River. On the early morning of 20 August, South African Valkiri MRLs opened fire on FAPLA forces at Catato Woods alerting the Angolans for the first time that the South African were assisting UNITA. This rocket firing would continue for the next five days on the FAPLA brigades. During this period the Ratel-90 anti-tank squadron was advancing north to Mavinga while between 26 and 28 August, SAAF C-130s flew in the eight G5 battery and their support equipment for deployment to the Lomba River region.
Between 24–28 August, a special forces team from 4 Reconnaissance Regiment were sent on a mission called Operation Coolidge. Its objective was the destruction of the bridge over the Cuito River that was used to move FAPLA logistics from Cuito Cuanavale to the brigades to the south-west on the Lomba River. The special forces were dropped off by helicopters 40 km north of the bridge and rowed down the Cuito to the bridge in canoes. After partially setting their demolition charges the team was discovered but managed to escape leaving the bridge partially damaged and unable to be used by vehicles. The team were chased back to their rendezvous point by Angolan troops leap-frogging ahead by helicopters. Despite faulty helicopters, bad weather and Angolan troops, the team was eventually picked up and returned to Rundu. For the first time on 26 August, a SADF forward observer was able to see 47 and 59 Brigade's positions and see the effect of the Valkiri MRL fire on them. The artillery fire was slowing but not halting their advance and this meant the South African MRLs and their protection force eventually had to be moved south of the Lomba River to ensure they weren't cut off.
On 28 and 29 August, SADF planners met at Rundu and a decision was made to send 61 Mechanised Battalion to assist 32 Battalion, released two companies from 101 Battalion and allocated the resources of the SAAF to the operation. With UNITA unable or unwilling to slow the advance of the FAPLA brigades, the Angolans began a fast advance to the Lomba on 29 August which saw them move 40 km in two days. Two kilometres east of the Cunzumbia/Lomba confluence lay a bridge which 21 Brigade would need to cross the Lomba River and they came within 9 km north-west of the objective. 59 Brigade crossed eastwards over the Cuzizi River using Russian bridging equipment and stopped 6 km north of the Cunzumbia/Lomba confluence while 47 Brigade had moved westward to the source of the Lomba River. 32 Battalion and it's Valkiri MRLs moved to the southeast of Lomba/Cuzizi confluence to engage 47 Brigade while its Ratel-90 anti-tank squadron and mortars moved to within 5 km of the same area with the G5s positioned 18 km southeast of the Cunzumbia/Lomba confluence to engage 21 Brigade. On 31 August the South African forces engaged the FAPLA brigades with Valkiri MRLs rockets fired at 47 Brigade halting its advance while later that evening the G5s fired on 21 Brigade halting their advance. 61 Mechanised Battalion's commander Commandant Bok Smit met 32 Battalion's Colonel Jock Harris on 2 September and they would plan the arrival and positioning of 61 Mech forces in the coming days.
A 32 Battalion reconnaissance team was sent behind enemy lines with a forward artillery observer to direct the South African G5 artillery fire and were in position by 2 September while another team had located 16 and 47 Brigade exact position by 4 September. Flying an artillery observation officer on the night of 3 September, a SAAF Bosbok light aircraft was intercepted and shot down by a SA-8 south of the Lomba River killing the two occupants. With the South African force now called 20 Brigade, Colonel Deon Ferreira took command on 5 September with the force divided into Battle Groups Alpha, Bravo and Charlie with units from 20 Artillery Regiment divided between them as necessary. By 7 September, 61 Mechanised Battalion had now reached an area 25 km south-west of Mavinga.
UNITA scouts reported that FAPLA's 21 Brigade was attempting a crossing of the Lomba/Gomba River 12 km east of Cunzumbia on 9 September. Combat Group Bravo sent its Ratel 90 anti-tank squadron forward with a company from 101 Battalion and they encountered a fording BTR-60 that they destroyed but FAPLA artillery counter-attack and it forced the South African units to withdraw 6 km away.
The detached unit of Combat Group Bravo returned on 10 September to the fording site on the Lomba River and again attacked elements of 21 Brigade, but the Angolans' counter-attacked sending in three tanks. The Ratel-90s failed to stop the tanks' advance, so the new Ratel ZT3s were brought into the battle, firing seven missiles with four successful strikes on the tanks. MiG aircraft then arrived over the battle site and forced the South African units to withdraw but they had stopped 21 Brigade's advance.
47 Brigade, based at the source of the Lomba River, moved two battalions with three tanks eastwards to try to make contact with 59 Brigade. On 13 September, the SADF countered this advance by sending two companies from 101 Battalion, eight Ratel-90s and four Ratel ZT3s westwards to meet the FAPLA battalions. Artillery attacked the FAPLA positions first before the small SADF unit attacked and stopped the advance with FAPLA battalions losing 200 dead or wounded but the Angolan tanks led a counter-attack on the Ratels, killing seven SADF soldiers before losing five of their own tanks. The small SADF unit called in their reserve, Combat Group Charlie, and heavy fighting continued for several more hours before a withdrawal was called when further FAPLA tanks were summoned and 101 Battalion company's cohesion broke down and some fled the battle. 47 members of the unit would later be discharged from the army after that event because they were concerned about their deployment against tanks and use as UNITA's "mercenaries". The same SADF unit would again encounter the FAPLA tanks around midnight and destroyed two tanks before withdrawing again.
On 16 September, Combat Group Alpha (61 Mech) began its attack in the early morning but its movement was slowed by dense bush and only encountered elements of 47 Brigade who by this time knew the South Africans were coming so by later afternoon Alpha withdrew with no success losing one killed and three wounded. The SAAF kept up the pressure on 47 Brigade with three attacks on 21 September by four Buccaneers around 08h50, four Mirages around 13h00 and four Buccaneers around 17h50. The SAAF conducted a strike against 21 Brigade on 25 September but they missed the target by 200 m but SADF artillery continued their bombardment and the FAPLA brigade took heavy losses. The SAAF sent six Mirage F1CZs to attempt to intercept Angolan MiG-23s on 27 September with one Mirage suffering tail damage from an Angolan air-to-air missile. It returned to SWA-Namibia but crash-landed at the airfield.
47 Brigade received orders on 28 September to cross the Lomba River and meet up with 59 Brigade and then move eastwards crossing the Cunzumbia River and link up with 21 Brigade but the orders were changed later and 21 Brigade was ordered to withdraw north-eastwards. Later that night, President PW Botha, Defence Minister Magnus Malan and the generals flew into Mavinga and met Deon Ferreira and his officers the following day for a briefing. President Botha decided on a more offensive operation and the release of any SADF forces required to destroy the remaining FAPLA brigades east of Cuito Cuanavale.
On 30 September, 47 Brigade attempted to link up with 59 Brigade but their advance was forced back by a SADF artillery bombardment. Plans had been made to attack 47 Brigade on 5 October but radio intercepts reported that FAPLA was about to move from their position, so on 3 October, Combat Group Charlie was ordered to attack with air and artillery support, four UNITA battalions and a 32 Battalion company in reserve. Around 10h17, the Ratel-90s caught the Angolan soldiers crossing the river while the South Africans were attacked by tanks and ZU-23 anti-aircraft guns and the Angolan MiGs flying in support of the ground troops but failed in destroying any SADF vehicles. The South Africans withdrew to resupply around 12h00 and resumed their attack from 14h00 with the Angolans now attempting to retreat across the river taking even more casualties but the battle was over by 17h00. SAAF aircraft attacked 59 Brigade during the day preventing the brigade from coming to the aid of 47 Brigade.
The FAPLA casualties were around 600 killed, the loss of a dozen tanks and vehicles and 47 Brigade no longer a cohesive unit while the SADF lost one soldier killed and a Ratel destroyed and captured a highly sophisticated SA-8 anti-aircraft missile system – the first time the weapon had fallen into western hands. The same day saw plans formulated for 32 Battalion to send units to attack and disrupt the FAPLA supply lines between Menongue and Cuito Cuanavale.
FAPLA retreats from the Lomba River region
FAPLA's remaining forces were given orders to retreat on 5 October and began their movement northwards from the Lomba River region. After the end of this phase of fighting, FAPLA had lost 61 tanks, 53 BTR-60s, 7 BMP-1s, 23 BRDM-2s, 20 BM-21s, 1059 soldiers dead and 2118 wounded. The SADF lost 3 Ratels, 2 Casspirs, 1 Bosbok, 1 UAV, 17 soldiers killed and 41 wounded. UNITA casualties are unknown.
10 October saw the remnants of 47 Brigade retreat north-west to the source of the Cunzumbia River and were joined by 16 and 21 Brigade. Angolan MiGs patrolled the skies above the South African units on 11 October and launched sporadic attacks but no damage or casualties are recorded. Cuito Cuanavale was subject of a SADF artillery attack on 14 October and in response 59 Brigade was sent to find and attack the battery and the South Africans responded to that threat by sending Battle Group Alpha to intercept the FAPLA brigade. At the same time, Task Force Delta was positioned on the Vimposto high ground to prevent 16 or 66 FAPLA Brigades from coming to 59 Brigades aid.
18 October saw a command change in the SADF with Brigadier Fido Smit of 7 SA Division taking overall command of the operation while Commandant Deon Ferreira stayed in tactical command of 20 Brigade with Task Force Delta disbanded and their 32 Battalion units merged into Combat Group Bravo. 4 SAI arrived at Rundu from Middleberg on 20 October. The same day saw the SADF artillery in position south of the Mianei River and would begin to shell Cuito Cuanavale for several weeks and the airfield outside the town and would eventually abandon all flights of aircraft. 20 Brigade is renamed Task Force 10 on 23 September with Ferreira remaining in command of the newly named unit comprising Combat Groups Alpha and Charlie. After a ten-day journey from Rundu, 4 SAI under Commandant Leon Marais arrived outside Mavinga on 30 October with thirteen Olifant tanks and became part of Combat Group Charlie.
FAPLA now positioned its brigades in a defence line east of the Cuito River stretching north to the south. In the north, 16 Brigade was positioned at the source of the Chambinga River, 66 Brigade guarding the bridge over the Chambinga River, 59 Brigade at the source of Vimpulo River, a 66 Brigade battalion at a position were the Mianei River joins the Cuito, a 25 Brigade battalion at the source of Mianei River, and to west along the same river lay 21 Brigade.
Second phase begins - SADF on the offensive
59 Brigade between the Vimpulo and Mianei Rivers, sent out two armoured columns to find the location of the SADF's G5 artillery position on 1 November. The artillery battery moved to get away from the threat but became stuck in sand and called for assistance. Combat Group Bravo, who was close by, was sent forward as was a 61 Mechanised Battle Team from Mavinga that consisted of a mechanized infantry company and a Ratel-90 platoon under Major Dawid Lotter and they found the enemy within 2 km of the stuck guns. The battle started around 20h00 and soon ended with FAPLA withdrawing with heavy casualties and the guns dug out and moved. The SAAF retaliated with a Mirage attack on the positions of 59 Brigade on 2 November, the group responsible for previous nights attack.
In the days leading up to 9 November attack, the SAAF conducted sorties against 16 Brigade positions with Mirages and Buccaneers to keep the FAPLA unit in place. The planned attack called for three attacks. The first attack would be against 16 Brigade that was in position around the source of the Chambinga River by Combat Group Charlie (4SAI) and their tanks with Combat Group Alpha (61 Mech) leading a diversionary attack. In the south, 21 Brigade based around the north of the Mianei River would be the target of diversionary attack by Combat Group Bravo (32 Battalion). A third attack would take place on the airfield at Menongue and would be conducted by UNITA, its aim to disrupt FAPLA air attacks against the attack on 16 Brigade.
The 7 November saw the SADF Tactical HQ moved up from Mavinga to Combat Group Charlie's position that was 45 km east of 21 Brigade and the Task Force 10 commander and his officers finalised the plan and its coordination. All other Groups were at their start-up positions on this day. November 8 saw the SADF units complete their last-minute repairs and replenishment while the Tactical HQ moved later that evening south and then to the west close to the positions of Combat Group Alpha.
SADF attack on 16 Brigade
The attack began at 01h00 on 9 November with Combat Group Alpha moving to position themselves to the south of 16 Brigade, while Combat Group Charlie started to move to its positions north at 04h00. SADF mortar and artillery began to shell the enemy while a 06h30 bombing by SAAF Mirages kept the pressure on FAPLA. The main attack unit, Combat Group Charlie, was 4 km northeast from 16 Brigade around 06h00. At 07h00 Combat Group Alpha began its diversionary attack on 16 Brigade from the south, with the brigade responding by preparing their tanks to attack the group. Combat Group Alpha withdrew and became the task force reserve. Combat Group Charlie's attack was led by a company from 32 Battalion with UNITA troops and became pinned down by machine gun and 23mm anti-aircraft guns, followed too far behind by 4SAI and UNITA troops who were moving too slowly due to dense bush and trees. Meanwhile, FAPLA prepared an ambush for 4SAI's left flank consisting of 3 tanks, various AA guns and APCs, but 4SAI was receiving confusing intelligence by UNITA about the preparations but the SADF recces sorted out the confusion, allowing 4SAI to prepare a counter-ambush when it released its tank squadron and a mechanized company. During this battle, FAPLA would lose 2 tanks and various AA guns and MRLS as the attack is beaten off with the help of the SADF G5s and G6 artillery. This attack ended around 09h00 with 22 FAPLA dead and 2 prisoners with valuable intelligence gained from captured maps. Combat Group Charlie resumed its attack at 10h00 against two FAPLA battalions with ten tanks and various AA guns but they were pinned down when they received accurate enemy artillery fire and would lose two 4SAI soldiers and one from 32 Battalion. The SADF companies were unpinned when their artillery responded to the enemy attack but a Ratel-20 company became entangled with two tanks. One was destroyed by the Ratel, which in turn was destroyed by the second tank. Two soldiers were killed in the Ratel with a further two killed from wounds inflicted during the engagement. The second tank itself was destroyed by a SADF tank. The 32 Battalion company came under a threat on their right flank from FAPLA tanks so 4SAI's tanks flanked to the right and engaged the enemy. At 11h00 Combat Group Charlie came under attack by Mig-23 attack aircraft. 4SAI companies began to clear the bunkers and trenches and FAPLA forces started to flee and by 12h30 the main battle was over. At this point the commander of Combat Group Charlie ordered a withdrawal to the deployment point as they were short of ammunition and needed resupply, a decision the SADF Tactical HQ was not happy with and allowed 16 Brigade to reorganize themselves and to get away from the South African forces. Casualties for FAPLA at the end of battle were 75 killed and 6 prisoners, the loss of 10 tanks and various equipment with 14 SA-7 and SA-14 weapons captured while the SADF lost 7 killed and 9 wounded.
Around 18h00, two battalions of 21 Brigade and the one battalion 59 Brigade aided by tanks left their positions and attacked Combat Group Bravo who had attacked these units earlier in the day in a diversionary attack, but the SADF group withdrew from a fight under instructions to avoid the tanks.
Attacks resume against 16 Brigade
10 November saw Combat Group Charlie resting in a position 15 km east of the Cunzumbia River. Around 15h00, Combat Group Charlie resumed its attack on 16 Brigade but at last light was unsuccessful after being slowed by MiG bombing attacks, observation of their attack by FAPLA reconnaissance and a shooting incident within the unit. The SADF Tactical HQ now moved to Catato Bush on the night of 10/11 November and would be subject to a Mig-23 bombing during the day. The same evening 59 Brigade had begun its withdrawal from its position between the Humbe and Vimpulo rivers across the Chambinga crossing while 16 Brigade was reinforced with tanks.
The next attack would be the following day, 11 November. The plan called for three attacks. Combat Group Bravo would keep 21 and 59 Brigades engaged while Combat Group Alpha would engage 16 Brigade positions from the north-east, drawing the tanks away in a diversionary move. It would then become the SADF reserve and Charlie would lead the main attack from the south.
The attack began at 06h00 with SADF artillery attacking the northern units of 16 Brigade giving them the impression that it was the target and this impression was followed up by SAAF Mirage bombing on the same positions at 07h00. Charlie's attack resumed around 10h00 as it had again been held up by poor navigation through thick bush and MiG bombing runs taking one wounded and this allowed FAPLA to withdraw some of its units in the south. They soon come up against two battalions, ten tanks and artillery. After resting Charlie regained the momentum around 12h25 when six Mirages bomb 16 Brigade positions but are then counter-attacked by the enemy infantry and artillery but is eventually beaten back with the loss of 2 killed and eight wounded. Charlie resumes the attack supplemented with Ratel-90 and tanks and drew heavy enemy artillery and MRLs before getting stuck in minefields. Charlie was then ordered to withdraw around 15h30 being short of ammunition so Combat Group Alpha resumed the attack but is not successful and the battle ends around 18h00 when both parties withdraw. Early morning of the same day, saw an accidental explosion of an artillery round in a G5 gun which killed 2 SADF gunners and badly wounded another eight.
Casualties at the end of this day are recorded as FAPLA 394 dead and 14 tanks destroyed while the SADF saw 5 dead and 19 wounded. The recovery, under fire and in a minefield, of a crippled tank and the subsequent re-entry into a minefield to rescue a wounded soldier, earned Captain Petrus van Zyl and Lieutenant De Villers de Vos of 32 Battalion both Honoris Crux decorations. Combat Group Bravo to the south attacked 59 Brigade to prevent its northward retreat but when 21 Brigade comes to its aid, both brigades are able to withdraw. Radio intercepts around 14/15 November reported that 16 Brigade no longer existed as a cohesive unit as the soldiers had deserted to Cuito Cuanavale.
21 Brigade withdraws
12 November had the SADF and UNITA soldiers resting and replenishing, with the South Africans now becoming short of mechanical spares and consumables. The SADF logistics network was hindered by the distance between South Africa and the battle sites, the inability to stockpile close to the battles due to the SADF units perpetual movement and insufficient logistics vehicles to move the supplies. MiG bombing attacks continued on the units throughout the day but were not successful and the SADF artillery continued to target the Mianei and Chambinga crossings but they to were subject wear and tear of continuous fire and so slowing fire.
By the afternoon of 13 November, FAPLA caught the South Africans by surprise when their recces spotted the rapid and controlled retreat of 21 Brigade with the single battalion of 25 Brigade from their positions north of the Mianei River and moved northwards to the Sandumba ford over the Vimpulo River. On the same day, three SADF G6 self-propelled artillery moved onto the Chambinga high ground and caught FAPLA by surprise when they began to shell Cuito Cuanavale but would only do so for two days before technical issues with the equipment began to hinder them.
By 14 November Combat Group Charlie is ordered to move rapidly 20 km south-west to trap and prevent the two FAPLA units from crossing the Vimpulo into the ground between the Vimpulo and Humbe Rivers. Joined by Alpha, the two units catch 21 Brigade, slowed by G5 artillery, around 16h00 but FAPLA evades them. Combat Group Charlie is now ordered to move into within 2 km of the crossing point to ambush 21 Brigade but due to some issue ends up 6 km away and the FAPLA brigade slips past the SADF unit and by the morning of 15 November had crossed the river, while Alpha patrolled the ground between the Mianei and Vimpulo rivers left behind by 21 Brigade for any stragglers.
FAPLA's race for the Chambinga Bridge
The night of 15 November saw 21 and 25 Brigades attempt to cross the Hube river as a shortcut to the Chambinga crossing point but the ground was too marshy. The brigades could not find a crossable point over the Hube so it was decided to follow to the river through the Viposto high ground to the Hube source in the east and round it and back westward to the high grounds south of the Chambinga river crossing. Combat Team Charlie's plan was to intercept 21 Brigade as it rounded the Hube on 16 November and so left its position at Vimpulo river and rounded its source and headed for the area of Hube river's source. Combat Team Bravo would be its reserve.
Instead of an interception, Charlie met them head-on between and 10h00 10h30, after failing to deploy properly. In the first ninety minute battle the SADF forces lost three soldiers and two vehicles. Ratel-20 infantrymen from 4SAI, Ratel-90s, Olifant tanks and Unita troops engaged the enemy who countered with mortar, BM-21 Stalin Organs and tanks as the SADF tried to force the enemy out of the tick bush and trees into the floodplains.
The battle lasted until 16h30 with Combat Team Bravo joining Charlie after engaging further tanks before withdrawing twelve kilometres when they ran short of ammunition and fuel. Using SADF artillery to keep 21/25 Brigade in place, SADF reconnaissance units saw them begin preparing defensive positions but the brigades organised themselves and were able to round the Hube during the replenishment and hidden by a thunderstorm. FAPLA lost 131 soldiers, seven tanks and various vehicles while the SADF lost 6 soldiers with 19 wounded, and two Ratels and two other vehicles. UNITA itself took terrible casualties.
FAPLA's plan for the 17 November had the 21/25 Brigades dug into the high ground between the sources of the Chambinga and Hube rivers defending the approach to the bridge crossing, allowing 16 Brigade to cross the river with 59 Brigade managing the crossing. The SADF plan had the G5 artillery trapping FAPLA at the bridge while an attack would be made by Combat Group Alpha and elements of tanks and two 32 Battalion companies from Combat Group Charlie. The landscape around the southern Chambinga river crossing consisted of a one kilometre floodplain called an anhara with forest to the south were the FAPLA forces hid while the bridge crossing itself consisted of a TMM mobile bridge with log laid approach roads over the marshy ground.
17 November saw the SADF again advance westwards to the Chambinga crossing point with Combat Group Alpha leading the attack, Combat Group Bravo south-east at the source of the Humbe River and Charlie replenishing and in reserve. SADF artillery units targeting the bridge crossing consisted of G-5s, MRl and 120mm mortars while a SADF forward artillery observer, Lieutenant Koos Breytenbach, watched, protected by UNITA troops. The artillery began to engage the enemy with fragmentation shells as it moved to cross the anhara in the early morning.
Alpha stepped off at 08h30 but its progress was hindered by UNITA's faulty intelligence concerning a minefield which slowed it down to a halt while the ground ahead was inspected. Alpha was hindered as it approached its attack on 21 and 25 Brigades as the bush was extremely thick and the armoured vehicles were unable to move fast. 21 and 25 Brigades on hearing their approach began to retreat and combined with MiG air patrols stopped the SADF artillery firing and the combat units approach which allowed 21 Brigade to retreat to the bridge and fords, with only Bravo engaging small elements of the brigade's rearguard three kilometres from the bridge. Combat Group Alpha arrived at the bridge by 17h00 but 21 Brigade had escaped.
59 Brigade held its nerve and had succeeded in managing the passage of the remains of 21 Brigade across the Chambinga bridge and the three fords despite constant attacks from the G-5 artillery. At the end of the day, Task Force 10 had retreated back to the east, resting, safe from MiG attacks the SADF thought would happen at the battle site the next day. SADF artillery continued to engage targets identified while UNITA forces patrolled the controlled areas. That evening FAPLA would recross the bridge and began retrieving damaged and stranded vehicles.
Further plans discussed
On 18 November in Pretoria, General Jannie Geldenhuys, General Koos Liebenberg and Admiral Dries Putter gathered to discuss the options for the next course of action. Liebenberg placed three options on the table. One, withdraw the SADF forces and end Operation Moduler or secondly attack and take the bridge over the Cuito or lastly attack Cuito Cuanavale from the west as opposed to operations taking place currently to the east of the town. The third option had been discussed by the generals on 2 November, but would require another brigade on the western side of the river that would have to be made up of Citizen Force units who could only be ready for operations by the earliest 20 December. The 18 November meeting resolved nothing and on 22 November General Geldenhuys flew into Task Force 10's Angolan headquarters where a decision was made for a plan to attack the FAPLA forces at Chambinga. While the SADF forces rested, repaired and resupplied, FAPLA began to resupply and dug in to defend their positions.
Attack on Chambinga Heights
With the demobilisation date of the SADF national servicemen fast approaching on 15 December, a plan was hatched for one last attack on the remains of the FAPLA forces situated on the Chambinga Heights with the intention of forcing them to flee west across the Cuito river to Cuito Cuanavale. General Jannie Geldenhuys and other senior officers flew to the Tactical Headquarters on 22 November and a plan was finalized for an attack. The plan called for the Task Force 10 to begin the attack with Battle Group Alpha attacking from the north with intention of fooling the enemy into believing it was the main attack, while two regular UNITA battalion, the 3rd and 5th, were the main attack moving in a westerly direction along the river followed up by Battle Group Bravo with E squadrons tanks and Battle Group Charlie in reserve to take the Cuito bridge. FAPLA forces were made up of the remains of five brigades of 4000 to 5000 soldiers and forty tanks while the SADF forces consisted of around 3000 soldiers and 13 tanks. The heights favoured a defence plan aided by thick vegetation and sand so FAPLA forces dug in with their morale raised with the arrival of 300 Cuban soldiers. The battle took place on 25 November and did not go well for the South African forces. The attack was to begin at 06h30 but was delayed when UNITA failed to turn up on time. Due to heavy bush and trees, the SADF armoured vehicles found it difficult to turn their turrets and the vegetation hindered proper navigation. UNITA forces took heavy casualties by the afternoon as they pushed the FAPLA forces back into alternative positions. Battle Group Bravo's advance was slowed by minefields and MiG fighter-bombers overhead and by 15h00 had only moved 800 m in four hours but by 17h00 was finally able to start its attack only to be stopped by heavy FAPLA artillery fire and due to the lateness of the hour retreated until the next day. The 26 November saw Battle Group Charlie reattached their tanks and led the attack with 4th UNITA Regular Battalion and Battle Group Bravo in reserve. Charlie's attack was again held up by minefields and dense vegetation, FAPLA re-enforcements of 10 tanks, further MiG bombing attempts and heavy FAPLA artillery fire while UNITA's attack petered out due to the latter's fire and so a decision was made to end the attack and withdrew to the east and with it the close of Operation Moduler. By 30 November, Task Force 10 began its withdrawal back to Rundu via Mavinga with its Tactical Headquarters back at Mavinga by 5 December.
Casualties
At the conclusion of the final phase of Operation Moduler, FAPLA casualties were estimated at 525 killed with the loss of 28 tanks, 10 BTR-60s, 85 other vehicles and 3 SA-13 anti-aircraft missile systems while the SADF was said to have lost 16 soldiers with 41 wounded.
Aftermath
Operation Moduler achieved the objective of halting the FAPLA advance against UNITA at Mavinga and inflicted heavy losses on FAPLA. After the FAPLA offensive had been stopped, the South African/UNITA force went on the offensive but failed to push them across the Cuito River before 30 November deadline, thus ending Operation Moduler and beginning Operation Hooper. FAPLA forces would later withdraw westward from the Chambinga heights taking up positions around Tumpo.
See also
32 Battalion (South Africa)
Angolan Civil War
List of operations of the South African Border War
United Nations Security Council Resolution 602
United Nations Security Council Resolution 606
References
Bibliography
Further reading
1987 in Angola
1987 in South Africa
Battle of Cuito Cuanavale
Battles and operations of the South African Border War
Conflicts in 1987
Cross-border operations of South Africa
Military history of Angola
Military operations of the Angolan Civil War
Operations involving South African special forces |
4093188 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frontier%20Force%20Regiment | Frontier Force Regiment | The Frontier Force Regiment is one of the six infantry regiments of the Pakistan Army. They are popularly known as the Piffers in reference to their military history as the PIF (Punjab Irregular Force) of the British Indian Army, or as the FF (Frontier Force). The regiment takes its name from the historic North-West Frontier, a former province of British India and later Pakistan (present-day Khyber Pakhtunkhwa).
Most of the regiment's ancestral military formations were units composed of infantry of either Punjabi or Pathan origin. However, the oldest unit of the regiment is the Scinde Camel Corps, raised in 1843 under Company rule in India. Another ancestral unit was the infantry component of the British Indian Army Corps of Guides (partial cavalry unit). Despite being a Pakistani regiment, the Frontier Force Regiment is also the successor to several Sikh regiments due to their widespread deployments in the North-West Frontier during the British Raj.
Presently, the regiment consists of 52 battalions, with its regimental centre located in Abbottabad, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa. Due to this regiment's presence, Abbottabad is also locally known as the "Home of the Piffers". In its current form, the Frontier Force Regiment consists of both mechanized and motorized infantry battalions; there are also some armoured and artillery battalions which were raised from the ranks of the Frontier Force or one of its predecessor regiments.
The modern Frontier Force is Pakistan's third-oldest military regiment in terms of the date of most recent amalgamation, behind the Punjab and Baloch regiments. The regiment was raised in its current form in 1957, through the amalgamation of two (with a later third component) former British Indian Army regiments: the 12th Frontier Force Regiment and the 13th Frontier Force Rifles. The third component, the Pathan Regiment, had been raised from the elements of the former two. The regiments' merger took place when a major formation reorganization was carried out in the Pakistan Army.
Battalions of the Frontier Force Regiment have seen extensive wartime combat with neighbouring India during all of the Indo-Pakistani wars that have occurred since the Partition of India in 1947. Outside of the subcontinent, the regiment's elements have also served overseas, having been deployed to Saudi Arabia in the Middle East and to Somalia in Eastern Africa as part of the 1990s United Nations humanitarian peacekeeping force in Somalia. In the latter deployment, Frontier Force battalions participated in the Battle of Mogadishu in 1993.
The battalions are divided under independent formations and are commanded by their formation commander. Training and record-keeping is undertaken by the regimental depot, which is usually directed by a brigadier. The regiment's highest-ranking officer is given the honorary title of Colonel-Commandant (usually for Lieutenant-Generals) or "Colonel-in-Chief" (for the Chief of Army Staff or Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff Committee).
Origins
The Frontier Force Regiment came into being in 1957 with the amalgamation of the Frontier Force Regiment, the Frontier Force Rifles and the Pathan Regiment, all of which had their origins in the British Indian Army. During the 1840s, after the first and second Anglo-Sikh Wars, Colonel Sir Henry Lawrence, the Honourable East India Company's agent to the Lahore Durbar (brother of the later Lieutenant-Governor of the Punjab Sir John Lawrence, 1st Baron Lawrence) sanctioned the raising of the Corps of Guides and a number of infantry regiments by incorporating veterans from the disbanded Sikh Khalsa army. During the early 1850s some of Lawrence's Sikh regiments were designated the "Punjab Irregular Force", giving rise to the "Piffer" nickname which the Regiment carries to the present day, and through a series of reorganisations that culminated in 1922, these units would eventually become the 12th Frontier Force Regiment and 13th Frontier Force Rifles. The use of the pre-fixing regimental numbers was discontinued in 1945, the two regiments becoming the Frontier Force Regiment and the Frontier Force Rifles, and both regiments were transferred to Pakistan by the United Kingdom in 1947, on the independence to British India.
The Pathan Regiment was raised after independence from the 4th Battalion of the Frontier Force Regiment and the 4th and 15th Battalions of the Frontier Force Rifles. Initially the regimental depot was at Dera Ismail Khan but it relocated to Kohat in 1949 and was later merged into the Frontier Force Regiment with its regimental depot at Abbottabad. Fifteen of the modern Frontier Force Regiment's 52 battalions trace their origins back to British Indian Army units, as tabulated below.
Composition
At present, the Frontier Force Regiment musters 67 infantry battalions, some of which are mechanised or motorised with the remainder known colloquially as "foot infantry". Each battalion is subdivided into four companies, normally named Alpha, Bravo, Charlie, and Delta. The regiment also includes armoured and artillery units, established from among its strength. All Piffer battalions serve alongside other Pakistan Army units in mixed formations; operational control resides with the appropriate brigade, whereas administrative control remains with the Frontier Force regimental depot. The regiment recruits mostly from the Pashtun tribes of Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa, although officers and other ranks from all over Pakistan have served and continue to serve in the regiment. Prior to 2000, the Piffers had been standardised to include equal numbers of Pashtuns and Punjabis in its non-officer ranks, but in 2000, this composition was amended to include 10% Sindhis and 5% Balochis, reducing the quota of Punjabis to 35%. This measure was intended to diminish segregation within the Army.
Headquarters
The regiment is currently based in Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa's city of Abbottabad, which also houses the depots of the Baloch Regiment and the Army Medical Corps. The city was originally the headquarters of the Frontier Force Rifles prior to their merger with the Frontier Force Regiment and the Pathan Regiment (then based at Sialkot and Kohat respectively). The Abbottabad depot is responsible for the regiment's basic recruit training. Initially recruits are trained for a period of 36 weeks. Since 1981 has housed the Piffer Museum, which records the Piffer's regimental history. The museum's collection includes medals, weapons, dress and insignia, portraits and flags, history books, albums, paintings, cutlery and musical instruments. Abbottabad is also home to the Piffer Memorial, a tall obelisk built of sandstone known as Yadgar-e-Shuhada. This was originally erected at Kohat by Field Marshal William Birdwood on 23 October 1924 in the memory of those killed in World War I, but in 1964 on the orders of the then Commander-in-Chief General Muhammad Musa, it was moved to Abbottabad. It was unveiled in Abbottabad in April 1965. A Roll of Honour is displayed around the memorial on plates, and wreath-laying ceremonies are held on important national days and by visitors. Later a replica of the memorial was built at its original location at Kohat in 2001.
Kashmir dispute
Since independence in 1947, India and Pakistan have fought three major wars and one minor war, and have been involved in an ongoing conflict since 1984. The casus belli for most of these is the dispute between the two countries over the status of the state of Kashmir. Piffers participated in each of these conflicts with the participation in the war of 1947 by its founding formations.
Indo-Pakistani War of 1965
Concerned by what it saw as Indian attempts to absorb the disputed region of Kashmir, in 1965 Pakistan launched Operation Gibraltar to foment a popular uprising against Indian control in Jammu and Kashmir. However, the operation did not produce the hoped-for results, and following a period of escalating clashes between Indian and Pakistani troops and irregulars from April to September, the Indo-Pakistani War of 1965 began. Also known as the Second Kashmir War (the first having been fought in 1947), the five-week conflict led to territorial gains and losses, and caused thousands of casualties, on both sides, before ending in a United Nations mandated ceasefire followed by Russian mediation.
The Frontier Force Regiment's units participated in the war in all active sectors along the Indo-Pakistani border, including Kashmir, Chhamb, Sialkot, Lahore, Khemkaran and Rajasthan. The 6th and 12th FF were involved in the advance on the Chhamb–Jaurian–Akhnur axis, and the 6th FF also fought in the Badiana-Chawinda-Pasrur axis, along with the Guides Cavalry, the 11th Cavalry, 1st SP Artillery and the 3rd, 4th, 9th, 13th and 14th FF, where the largest tank battle at that time since World War II was fought. The 3rd FF Battalion, while defending the border opposite Maharajke, was run over by the Indian Army's armoured division. The 7th, 11th, 15th and 16th FF took part in the defence of Lahore; the 1st, 2nd, 5th and 10th FF took part in the capture of Khem Karan in the Kasur Sector, and the 8th and 18th FF made significant gains in the Rajhistan Sector. Some fighting continued after the ceasefire, and two months later in the Rajhistan Sector, the 23rd FF re-captured the Sadhewala Post. The three Piffer armoured regiments successfully repulsed the Indian offensive in the Sialkot sector, while the Guides Cavalry turned back repeated assaults from India's 1st Armoured Division. Another armoured regiment (the 11th Cavalry) also fought at Chhamb as part of the newly raised 6th Armoured Division. The 1st SP Field Artillery, while providing fire support in the battle of Chawinda, lost their commanding officer Lieutenant Colonel Abdul Rehman. Recognizing their combat performance, the unit was authorised to wear red piping on their collars.
Indo-Pakistani War of 1971
In 1971, following a divisive election result, civil war broke out in the former East Pakistan (now Bangladesh) between the West Pakistani administrative authorities and the majority local population. India, to where many of East Pakistan's exiled political leaders and refugees from the fighting had fled, provided support for the dissidents including arming and training a Bangladeshi irregular force (the Mukti Bahini). To relieve pressure on their forces in the east, in December 1971 Pakistani forces launched a pre-emptive attack on India from the west, which was only partially successful and met with massive retaliation. Fighting on two fronts, Pakistan agreed to a ceasefire after the surrender of her forces in the east and territorial losses in the west (later ceded back to Pakistan following the 1972 Simla Agreement).
Piffer units fought in both east and west. The 31st FF, Pakistan's first national service battalion, raised in November 1971 just before the war, was deployed at Lahore and in the Khemkaran Sector. In East Pakistan, the 4th and 13th FF were present at the Battle of Hilli, where 4th FF held its position until ordered out. Major Muhammad Akram of the 4th FF was posthumously awarded Pakistan's highest award for gallantry, the Nishan-e-Haider. Other units which operated from East Pakistan were the 12th, 15th, 22nd, 24th, 25th, 26th, 30th and 38th FF. They became prisoners of war once Dhaka fell to the Indian army in December 1971.
In West Pakistan, the 11th Cavalry saw heavy fighting in the Chhamb sector. The 2nd FF Battalion, while defending Shisabladi post at Kashmir sector, drove back an Indian brigade. Along with 2nd FF 3rd, 5th, 17th and 33rd FF also operated in the Kashmir sector. In the Sialkot sector, the 19th, 23rd, 27th, 29th, 35th and 37th FF took part in fighting. The 35th FF Battalion suffered heavy casualties in an offensive at Jarpal, the area captured a day before. An Indian commander, Lieutenant-Colonel V P Airy, of the 3rd Grenadier Guards who fought against 35th FF said: "35 FF's immortal attack won their commanding officer, Lieutenant-Colonel Akram Raja, a posthumous Hilal-i-Jur'at, with the highest compliment a gallant soldier could receive".
The 8th and 18th FF fought on the Lahore front. In the Sulemanki sector, the 6th FF gained fame when it captured the Beriwala Bridge on Sabuna Drain on 3 December and repulsed five attempts by opposition forces to retake it. Major Shabbir Sharif, a holder of the Sitara-e-Jurat from the 1965 conflict, was awarded a posthumous Nishan-e-Haider. The 36th FF also fought in the Sulemanki sector, and the 20th, 21st, and 39th FF saw action in the Rajhisthan sector. After enemy offensive the 21st and 39th FF withdrew from Parbat Ali, a stronghold in that sector.
Siachen conflict
As a result of a vague demarcation of territory in the 1972 Simla Accord, both Pakistan and India lay claim to the Siachen Glacier, which lies in the eastern Karakorum mountain range at altitudes of up to . Following a period of tension, in April 1984 the Indian Army launched Operation Meghdoot with the aim of capturing the glacier. Pakistan responded in kind, but Indian troops had already occupied the major mountain passes west of the glacier and captured many strategic points. Both countries established military posts, and from 1984 until 2003, intermittent fighting took place. The conflict is remarkable for the harsh conditions under which it was fought—on average, one Pakistani soldier died every fourth day, with most of the casualties caused by the severe climate.
A number of Piffer units were deployed to the world's highest battleground, including the 3rd, 4th, 8th, 24th, 26th, 28th, 31st, 36th, 38th, 39th and 47th FF. In addition, some Northern Light Infantry Battalions, who were the first to arrive, were led by Piffer officers. Frontier Force casualties in the conflict include three officers, two junior commissioned officers, and 81 other ranks killed in action.
Kargil War
The town and district of Kargil in Jammu and Kashmir lies on the Line of Control (LOC), the de facto border between Pakistan and India in the Kashmir region. In May 1999 elements in the Pakistan Armed Forces covertly trained and sent troops and paramilitary forces into Indian territory. The aim was to sever the link between Kashmir and Ladakh, and cause Indian forces to withdraw from the Siachen Glacier, thus forcing India to negotiate a settlement of the broader Kashmir dispute. The Kargil Conflict was triggered when Pakistan occupied around 130 Indian observation posts on the Indian side of the LOC. As India responded, regular Pakistan army units were called up.
The 19th, 33rd, 38th and 44th FF Battalions, and some Piffer officers serving in Northern Light Infantry battalions, participated in the conflict. In total four officers and twenty four other ranks were killed in action. The war ended after the then Prime Minister of Pakistan, Nawaz Sharif, agreed to call the troops back on 4 July 1999, after meeting with U.S President Bill Clinton.
International duty
Operations
The Frontier Force Regiment has served outside Pakistan in various multinational and peacekeeping roles. From 1981 to 1988, the Piffer's mechanised infantry battalions were stationed at Tabuk, Saudi Arabia, as part of a Pakistani armoured brigade allocated for the defence of the Islamic holy land. However, the brigade was withdrawn after the Government of Pakistan was unable to accede to a Saudi request that only Sunnis be included in the troops sent to their land. Then President of Pakistan, General Zia-ul-Haq said, there was no discrimination in the Pakistan Armed Forces.
Pakistan formed part of the multinational coalition force that participated in the 1991 Gulf War. Deploying up to 5,500 troops in a strictly defensive role, the Pakistani contingent included the 63rd FF Battalion, which was stationed at Tabuk and Arar until the cessation of hostilities. The early 1990s also saw Pakistan's increased participation in UN peacekeeping operations. In 1992, the 7th FF Battalion spearheaded the UN military mission to Somalia. The US Marine landing on Mogadishu beach was in an area secured by the 7th FF, and the 5th, 8th and 15th FF were also deployed to the region. On 3 October 1993, the 15th FF's Quick Reaction Force participated in the Pakistani-led rescue operation of a force of US Rangers that had become pinned down in Mogadishu; contrary to the fictionalised depiction of events in the movie Black Hawk Down, a number of Rangers were taken to safety in the 15th's armoured personnel carriers.
Following the operation the United Nations Secretary General's Special Representative, Admiral Jonathan Howe and UNOSOM Force Commander, Lieutenant General Çevik Bir appreciated Pakistani troops' efforts and thanked them for helping the US troops. Major General Thomas M. Montgomery, Deputy Commander of the United Nations Forces in Somalia while praising Pakistani forces' said in a television interview, "Many of the soldiers are alive today because of the willingness and skill of the Pakistani soldiers who worked jointly in a rescue operation with Malaysian and American soldiers in most difficult and dangerous combat circumstances. Such splendid soldiers to Somalia who we feel proud to serve with. Pakistani soldiers have been completely dependable even in the most difficult circumstances. They have shouldered a huge and dangerous load for UNOSOM and the Somali people."
Exercises
The 35th FF Battalion participated in Cambrian Patrol and won Gold medal in 2010. Cambrian Patrol is a three-day military exercise organized by 160th (Wales) Brigade (part of 5th Infantry Division) of the British Army in Wales. The exercise involves various military drills including: Battle Procedure, Orders, Infiltration, Target Reconnaissance, Support to Friendly Forces, Battlefield Drills, Exfiltration, and Debriefing. The other participant countries include USA, Canada, Germany, France, India.
Commanders
Colonels in Chief
The officers of the regiment who are promoted to the designation of Chief of Army Staff are known as Colonels in Chief. It is an honorary appointment. The FF regiment has only the following Colonels in Chief since its formation.
King George VI, 1937-1952
General Muhammad Musa HJ, HPk, HQA, MBE
General Abdul Waheed Kakar, HI (M), SBt. 18 May 1993 – 17 May 1997
General Raheel Sharif, NI (M) 29 November 2013 – 29 November 2016
General Syed Asim Munir Ahmad Shah, HI (M), 29th November 2023-present
Colonel Commandants
The Colonel Commandant is an honorary designation given to the highest-ranked officer in service of the regiment. The Colonel Commandants since the creation of the regiment are listed below:
Battle honours
Piffers have won many honours for their gallantry deeds in each battle. They were also awarded foreign medals before the independence of Pakistan, including Victoria Cross. The Pakistani medals and honours bestowed upon Piffers are listed here:
Nishan-e-Haider recipients
Nishan-e-Haider is the highest military award given posthumously for valour, in Pakistan. The recipients of Nishan-e-Haider from the Frontier Force Regiment are:
Major Muhammad Akram (4th FF)
When the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971 broke out, Major Muhammad Akram was commanding a company of 4th FF Battalion. His company was involved in the Battle of Hilli. On the opposite side India had an Infantry brigade with the support of a tank squadron which were making way for the 20th Mountain Division. Major Akram and his men fought for a whole fortnight against enemy who was superior both in number and fire power. Hilli was the only battle sector where the fight continued even after the Fall of Dhaka on 16 December 1971. Major Akram died in action while defending in an epic manner after defying surrender. For his sacrifice he was posthumously awarded Nishan-e-Haider.
Major Shabbir Sharif (6th FF)
On 3 December 1971, Major Shabbir Sharif who was commanding a company of 6th FF Regiment near Sulemanki headworks, was assigned the task of capturing the high ground overlooking the Gurmukh Khera and Beriwala villages in the Sulemanki sector. On the opposite side India had more than a company of the Assam Regiment which was supported by a squadron of tanks.
Also among the hurdles were an enemy minefield and a defensive canal, wide and deep. Shabbir Sharif succeeded in capturing the area by early evening on 3 December. In this fight 43 Indian soldiers were killed, 28 were taken prisoner and four tanks were destroyed.
Shabbir Sharif repelled repeated counterattacks by the opposing forces for the next three days and nights and kept strategically better position, holding two Indian battalions at bay. On the night of 5 December/ 6, during one of the enemy attacks, Sharif hopped out of his trench, killed the enemy Company Commander of 4th Jat Regiment and recovered important documents from his possession. In another attack on the morning of 6 December, Shabbir Sharif took over an anti-tank gun from his gunner, and while engaging enemy tanks, he was killed in action by a direct hit from a tank. Major Shabbir Sharif already a recipient of Sitara-e-Jurat, was posthumously awarded Nishan-e-Haider for his sacrifice.
Hilal-i-Jur'at recipients
Hilal-i-Jur'at is the second highest military award given for valour to Armed forces personnel of Pakistan. Piffers who received Hilal-i-Jur'at are:
Major General Mian Hayaud Din
General Muhammad Musa
Lieutenant Colonel Muhammad Akram Raja (Shaheed)
Sitara-e-Jurat recipients
Sitara-e-Jurat is the third highest military award given for valour to Armed forces personnel of Pakistan. Piffers who received Sitara-e-Jurat are:
Major Muhammad Akbar Khan for Taitwal Sector 1948 (First recipient of SJ of Pakistan)
Second Lieutenant Shabbir Sharif of 6th FF (for Chhamb Sector 1965)
Captain Abdul Jalil (Shaheed) of 12th FF (for Sector 4 Kalidhar 1965)
Brig Mir Ijaz Mehmood (Tony) of
23rd FF
(for Rajistan Sadehwala sector 1965)
Brigadier Muhammad Yamin Khokhar of 13th FF & 23rd FF (1971 war)
Lt Col Samin Jan Babar of 23rd FF
(SJ & Bar) (1965&1971)
Captain Mujeeb Faqrullah Khan of 25th FFR (for Chamb-Jorian Sector 1971)
Lt. Col. Khalid Nazir, 40th FF/12 NLI/SSG (Kargil Sector 1999)
Capt Ammar Hussain Shaheed, 63rd FF- SSG (Kargil Sector 1999)
Col Amir Nawaz Khan of 13th FF (1971 war)
VC recipients
The Victoria Cross is the highest battle order of Britain, awarded for valour. As the Frontier Force regiment still maintains the lineage of its predecessor regiments, so this award was received by following Piffers:
General John Watson (1st Punjab Cavalry)
General Dighton Probyn (2nd Punjab Cavalry)
Captain Henry William Pitcher (1st Punjab Infantry (P.I.F))
Lieutenant Walter Hamilton (Corps of Guides)
Major General William John Vousden (5th Punjab Cavalry)
Lieutenant Hector Lachlan Stewart MacLean (Guides)
Lieutenant William Bruce (59th Scinde Rifles)
Captain Eustace Jotham (51st Sikhs)
Subadar Mir Dast (55th Coke's Rifles)
Captain Godfrey Meynell (Guides)
Lieutenant Colonel Arthur Edward Cumming (2nd bn 12th Frontier Force Regiment)
Jemadar Prakash Singh Chib (14/13 Frontier Force Rifles)
Havildar Ali Haidar (6th Royal bn 13th Frontier Force Rifles) later 1stFF
MC recipients
The Military Cross is the third highest battle honour of Britain, awarded for valour. The Frontier Force regiment still maintains the lineage of its predecessor regiments so this award was received by following Piffers:
Major Amar Singh (1/12 Frontier Force Regiment)
Major Himmat Singh Sandhu (1/12 Frontier Force Regiment)
Jemadar Nurab Shah (1/12 Frontier Force Regiment)
Major T. L. R. G. Dodwell (1/12 Frontier Force Regiment)
Subadar Mansabdar Khan (1/12 Frontier Force Regiment)
Captain Atta Ullah (1/12 Frontier Force Regiment)
Jemadar Dhanna Singh (1/12 Frontier Force Regiment)
Lieutenant Harbans Singh, I.A.M.C (1/12 Frontier Force Regiment)
Major D. A. T. Wilson (1/12 Frontier Force Regiment)
Jemadar Feroze Khan (1/12 Frontier Force Regiment)
Major D. E. Redsull (1/12 Frontier Force Regiment)
Subedar Sadhu Singh Malhi (1/12 Frontier Force Regiment)
Major D. Monckton (1/12 Frontier Force Regiment)
Jemadar Mohinder Singh (1/12 Frontier Force Regiment)
Subadar Mian Gul (1/12 Frontier Force Regiment)
Jemadar Amir Shah (1/12 Frontier Force Regiment)
Major G. J. Hawkins (2/12 Frontier Force Regiment)
Subedar-Major Rai Singh (2/12 Frontier Force Regiment)
Captain J. M. Ricketts (2/12 Frontier Force Regiment)
Jemadar Ram Singh (2/12 Frontier Force Regiment)
Captain S. H. Raw (3/12 Frontier Force Regiment)
Jemadar Neuroze Khan (3/12 Frontier Force Regiment)
Captain D. C. R. Stewart (3/12 Frontier Force Regiment)
Major N. O. Finnis (3/12 Frontier Force Regiment)
Captain E. G. D. Heard (3/12 Frontier Force Regiment)
Captain Buta Singh (3/12 Frontier Force Regiment)
Captain L. B. H. Reford (3/12 Frontier Force Regiment)
Jemadar Santa Singh (3/12 Frontier Force Regiment)
Subedar Pahlwan Khan (3/12 Frontier Force Regiment)
Field Marshal Sam Manekshaw (then Captain) (4/12 Frontier Force Regiment)
Lieutenant G. F. Bond (4/12 Frontier Force Regiment)
Major P. C. Gupta (4/12 Frontier Force Regiment)
Major J. W. Peyton (4/12 Frontier Force Regiment)
Jemadar Qaim Shah, I.D.S.M (4/12 Frontier Force Regiment)
Jemadar Udham Singh (4/12 Frontier Force Regiment)
Jemadar Gul Mohd (4/12 Frontier Force Regiment)
Subadar Bakhtawar Singh (4/12 Frontier Force Regiment)
Captain P. Stewart (4/12 Frontier Force Regiment)
Lieutenant General Attiqur Rahman (then Major) (4/12 Frontier Force Regiment)
Jemadar Narain Singh (4/12 Frontier Force Regiment)
Jemadar Phagga Singh (4/12 Frontier Force Regiment)
Subadar Sultan Ali (4/12 Frontier Force Regiment)
Subadar Bika Ram (4/12 Frontier Force Regiment)
Subadar Mada Mir (4/12 Frontier Force Regiment)
Major Amrik Singh (4/12 Frontier Force Regiment)
Jemadar Nur Khan (5/12 Frontier Force Regiment)
Jemadar Bakhtawar Singh (8/12 Frontier Force Regiment)
Major D. D. Slattery (8/12 Frontier Force Regiment)
Captain P. H. Meadows (8/12 Frontier Force Regiment)
Lieutenant T. R. Walton (9/12 Frontier Force Regiment)
Subadar Tarlochan Chand (9/12 Frontier Force Regiment)
Captain A. M. Khan (9/12 Frontier Force Regiment)
Captain J. D. Gosling (9/12 Frontier Force Regiment)
Major General Mian Hayaud Din(9/12 Frontier Force Regiment)
Jemadar Sultan Ahmed Khan (9/12 Frontier Force Regiment)
Subadar Kartar Singh (9/12 Frontier Force Regiment)
Major N. C. Rawlley (9/12 Frontier Force Regiment)
Jemadar Ram Singh (9/12 Frontier Force Regiment)
Captain Kehar Singh Rai (9/12 Frontier Force Regiment)
Captain M. J. Moynihan (9/12 Frontier Force Regiment)
Major D. G. Butterworth (9/12 Frontier Force Regiment)
Jemadar Kishen Singh (9/12 Frontier Force Regiment)
Major C. G. Ferguson (9/12 Frontier Force Regiment)
Major J. W. Hodges (Machine-gun Battalion/12 Frontier Force Regiment)
Captain R. H. Plant( Machine-gun Battalion/12 Frontier Force Regiment)
Subadar Karam Singh (Machine-gun Battalion/12 Frontier Force Regiment)
Major General Adam Khan
Lieutenant General Rakhman Gul (then Major) ((2/13 Frontier Force Rifles))
Lieutenant General Bakhtiar Rana (then Major) (6/13 Frontier Force Rifles)
Legion d'Honneur recipients
Commandeur of the Légion d'honneur, the third of the five classes of the Légion d'honneur was awarded by the Republic of France for securing areas of Indo-China in 1946. The only Piffer to have received this distinction:
Major General Mian Hayaud Din
Legion of Merit recipients
This is the highest military decoration that may be bestowed by the US Government upon a foreign national. Piffers who received the Legion of Merit are:
Major General Mian Hayaud Din
Major General Mian Ghulam Jilani
Lieutenant General Raheel Sharif
Member of the Order of the British Empire (M.B.E.) – Military
This is the fourth class of the Order of the British Empire. Piffers who received the military division of the MBE are:
Major General Mian Hayaud Din
Lieutenant General Altaf Qadir
General Muhammad Musa
Motto and colours
The motto of the regiment is Labbaik, an Arabic word, which means Here I Come. It is commonly used as an invocation to respond to Allah's call for pilgrimage during Hajj, the annual Muslims pilgrimage. Before 1970, each Piffer unit had its own motto but on the whole the regiment had no motto, so it was decided at the Piffer Conference in 1970 to adopt Labbaik as the regimental motto. The official meaning of this motto is:
—making all preparations required for going to battle, and putting ones heart and soul into the endeavour, aimed at achieving the assigned mission.
Piffers wear the same basic khaki uniform as in other regiments in the Pakistan Army, although the rank colour differs with Piffer personnel wearing rank insignia that are black with a red background. They also wear a badge on the shoulder strap of the uniform with "FF Regiment" written of it that uses the same colour combination. The colour of the Piffers' beret is rifle green with the insignia of the regiment at front. The Sam Browne belt worn by members of the regiment, which was designed by General Sir Sam Browne, is black in colour. The battle dress uniform worn by the regiment is camouflage without any distinctions since inception of new CCD.
Alliances
– Argyll and Sutherland Highlanders; 1st Bn
– The Duke of Lancaster's Regiment (King's Lancashire and Border); 1st and 15th Bn
– The Argyll and Sutherland Highlanders of Canada (Princess Louise's); 1st Bn
– The Rifles; 2nd and 13th Bn
– The Royal Welsh; 3rd Bn
– Royal Anglian Regiment; 5th Bn
– Royal Irish Regiment (27th (Inniskilling) 83rd, 87th and Ulster Defence Regiment); 9th Bn
– The King's Own Calgary Regiment; 15th Bn
See also
Punjab Regiment
Baloch Regiment
Azad Kashmir Regiment
Sind Regiment
Northern Light Infantry Regiment
Mujahid Force
Footnotes
References
Bibliography
External links
The Frontier Force, before the independence of Pakistan.
Land Forces of Britain, the Empire and Commonwealth: The Frontier Force Regiment
Land Forces of Britain, the Empire and Commonwealth: 12th Frontier Force Regiment
Land Forces of Britain, the Empire and Commonwealth: 13th Frontier Force Rifles
Land Forces of Britain, the Empire and Commonwealth: The Pathan Regiment
[ Land Forces of Britain, the Empire and Commonwealth: Queen Victoria's Own Corps of Guides (Frontier Force) (Lumsden's)]
President Musharraf praises FF
Nishan-e-Haider Recipients of FF Regiment
British Indian Army infantry regiments
Infantry regiments of Pakistan
Military in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa |
4093421 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Who%27s%20That%20Girl%20World%20Tour | Who's That Girl World Tour | The Who's That Girl World Tour (billed as Who's That Girl World Tour 1987) was the second concert tour by American singer and songwriter Madonna. The tour supported her 1986 third studio album True Blue, as well as the 1987 soundtrack Who's That Girl. It was Madonna's first world tour and marked her first visits to Japan and Europe. Musically and technically superior to her previous Virgin Tour, Who's That Girl incorporated multimedia components to make the show more appealing.
Madonna trained physically doing aerobics, jogging and weight-lifting, to cope with the choreography and the dance routines. For the costumes, she collaborated with designer Marlene Stewart, expanding on the idea of bringing her popular video characters to life onstage, reworking scenes from her music videos. The stage had four video screens, multimedia projectors and a flight of stairs in the middle. Patrick Leonard, who was the music director, encouraged Madonna to go with the idea of remixing and presenting her older songs for the show.
The show consisted of seven costume changes, with song-and-dance routines, theatrics and addressing social causes. The tour was critically appreciated, with reviewers commending the extravagant nature of the concert and Madonna as a performer. It was a commercial success, grossing in total of US$25 million by playing in front of 1.5 million audience. According to Pollstar, it was the second highest-grossing female concert tour of 1987, behind Tina Turner's Break Every Rule Tour.
Who's That Girl was broadcast in a number of international television channels and was released on VHS titled Ciao Italia: Live from Italy. Biographer J. Randy Taraborrelli commented that "Many female artists behave like a diva for a period when they reach superstar status, and the 'Who's That Girl?' tour marked the beginning of Madonna's." It is also noted for giving rise to the term "new Madonna", a stronger and more intelligent sexual image of her former self which had given rise to the term Madonna wannabe. It was proposed to build a statue of the Madonna in the city of her paternal grandparents in Pacentro, Italy, but the idea was rejected by the local city hall.
Background
Madonna's 1987 film Who's That Girl was a box office failure, however the soundtrack of the film proved to be a big success. The album consisted of four Madonna songs, along with tracks by Warner Bros. Records' acts including Club Nouveau, Scritti Politti and Michael Davidson. Three of Madonna's songs were released as singles, namely: "Who's That Girl", "Causing a Commotion" and "The Look of Love"; all of them were critically and commercially successful.
The album sold a million copies in the United States, and five million worldwide. Taraborrelli felt that at that moment, riding on Madonna's coattails proved profitable for everyone involved, including Warner Bros. Records, which notched up big sales with a compilation soundtrack album that was basically a showcase for its marginal artists. But still they wanted to "milk-in" the success of Madonna, a view shared by Peter Guber and Jon Peters, executive producers of the film. Hence they felt a worldwide concert tour was the appropriate thing to do, since it would promote both the soundtrack and the film, as well as Madonna's successful third studio album True Blue, released the year before. As Madonna's first world tour, Who's That Girl ended up being a resounding success, although by its end, Madonna declared that she did not want to hear any of her songs again and she did not know whether she would ever write another one. "I returned feeling so burned out and I was convinced that I wouldn't go near music for quite a while", she said.
Development
The Who's That Girl World Tour was musically and technically superior to Madonna's Virgin Tour, because she incorporated multimedia components to make the show more compelling. As the tour was confirmed, Madonna and her team started planning for it. Madonna wanted a show which consisted of theatrics, drama, dance and choreography in "full-force". Her publicist Liz Rosenberg commented, "She wants a visual impact that would knock people out. She was very determined about this. And she's the type that makes decisions quickly; If something doesn't work, she starts over. You'll see a different look this year, but it's still Madonna, still bigger than life." In order to engage herself completely and handle the grueling dance routines, she started attending aerobics classes at Hollywood health centre The Sports Connection. By the time the tour drew nearer, she hired a personal trainer, and her daily routine involved jogging, weight-lifting, dancing, gymnastics, trampoline, swimming and cycling. She started eating vegetarian food with plenty of protein and carbohydrate and avoided the sun. British funk band Level 42 was the supporting act of the tour. Madonna's image was that of a blond girl with soft curls, making a striking contrast with the firm, almost hard lines of her eye make-up and lipstick; the idea of her friend actress Debi Mazar.
For the costumes, Madonna collaborated with designer Marlene Stewart. She expanded on the idea of bringing her popular video characters to life onstage, reworking scenes from "True Blue", "Open Your Heart", "Papa Don't Preach" and "La Isla Bonita". For "Open Your Heart", Madonna reused the Stewart designed black bustier worn by her in the video, complete with tassels, golden tips and ribbing with fishnets on leg. Stewart's other designs included a Flamenco style dress for "La Isla Bonita" and a gold lamé jacket for the "White Heat" sequence. On the medley sequence, Madonna used a dress that was visually amusing and, according to Madonna, was for "anyone that takes me too seriously, or imagined and I take myself too seriously." Inspired by Dame Edna Everage, the dress consisted of a hat strewn with fake fruits, flowers and feathers, jeweled batwing spectacles with heavy, black frames, a ruffled skirt and a bodice covered with objects such as watches and dolls and fishnets. The knickers were inscribed with the word "Kiss". Continuing her tradition of message clothes, she spelt out the phrase "You Can Dance" on her jacket, using the letter U, a can of soup and the word "dance" at the back.
Calling the show a "theatrical multimedia spectacular", Madonna wanted a huge stage with a central platform from which a flight of stairs descended. The central platform was flanked by two lower platforms, which housed the band and the musicians. A large video screen was suspended above the stairs, which descended during the show. Two projectors were situated at the front of the stage, which projected images of The Pope and President Ronald Reagan during the show. Patrick Leonard, who had produced True Blue, joined as the musical director for the shows. Instead of following every note on the records, Leonard encouraged the musicians to come up with new ideas for the songs. Hence a number of the old songs were rearranged, including introducing a medley of "Dress You Up", "Material Girl" and "Like a Virgin"—which contained a sample from the Four Tops song "I Can't Help Myself (Sugar Pie Honey Bunch)". American choreographer Shabba Doo was signed to choreograph the show. 13-year-old Christopher Finch was signed to play the part of the small boy from the "Open Your Heart" video, since Felix Howard, who played the original part, did not get a working license, and hence could not join the tour. Madonna wanted three backup singers, a team of male dancers and a succession of costume changes. She took inputs from her then husband, actor Sean Penn saying, "I really respect Sean's opinion. He has great taste and is a very brilliant man. When I was putting my tour together, it was always in the back of my mind: 'I wonder what Sean will think of this?' He's extremely opinionated and has really high standards, and that sometimes pushed me into making decisions I wouldn't have otherwise made." Madonna explained that the title of the tour came from her playing many characters, commenting:
"That's why I call the tour 'Who's That Girl?'; because I play a lot of characters, and every time I do a video or a song, people go, 'Oh, that's what she's like.' And I'm not like any of them. I'm all of them. I'm none of them. You know what I mean.?"
Concert synopsis
The show started with a performance by Level 42. As their performance ended, the lights started blinking all around the stadium and Finch appears on stage, looking for Madonna. He is followed by two other dancers, who jump around the stage and disappear. Then Madonna's silhouette is visible behind a screen which has paintings by Tamara de Lempicka on it. She performs dance moves behind the screen, which starts going up slowly. She wore a custom-made black pointy corset by Trashy Lingerie and fishnets like the costume in the music video of "Open Your Heart". After dancing on the stairs, using a chair as a prop, Madonna descends and starts singing the song. Later Finch joins her again and they dance together till the song ends. This was followed by the performance of "Lucky Star" during which a disco ball spun above the stage; as Madonna and her dancers moved around it, the light from the ball flickered on them like a star. For "True Blue", Madonna came up on the stage wearing a blue, silk taffeta dress over her corset and a blue scarf hidden in her bosom. The stage had a similar blue setting like the original music video. Madonna is backed up by her singers who play her girlfriends. At the end of the song Madonna is asked to dance again by the dancer playing her man in the performance. During "Papa Don't Preach" Madonna wore a black leather jacket over her dress and walked around the stage while singing. The screen in the background showed portraits of Pope John Paul II and then-President of the U.S. Ronald Reagan, along with scenes of John Perry III's short film, The Nightmare, ending with the words "Safe Sex", as Madonna finished the song. She dedicated the song to the Pope, marking her first conflict with the Vatican, as Pope John Paul II urged Italian fans to boycott her concerts.
During "White Heat"—which featured dialogues from the 1949 James Cagney film of the same name—a video screen displayed a scene from the film, with Cagney saying the dialogue: "A copper ... a copper fellas". The video screen moves up and Madonna appears, wearing a lamé jacket and holding a plastic gun in her right hand. A large cut out of Cagney appears in the middle and Madonna finishes singing the song, while pointing the revolver towards her dancers and pretending to fire at them, as sounds of gunshots are heard. She followed it with "Causing a Commotion" which ended with Madonna pointing to her dancers and musicians across stage and uttering the line "He/She's got the moves baby" numerous times. For "The Look of Love" the spotlight was focused on her. The introductory music of the song started and Madonna roamed around the stage, pretending that she was lost. She wanted to portray her Who's That Girl film character Nikki, when she was lost in a similar sequence in the film. After she finished singing the song, Madonna pretended to walk forward by pushing through the air, as the conveyor belt took her backwards, ultimately taking her away from the stage. Then a red phone booth appears on the stage, in which Madonna's silhouette appears to be changing costume. She emerges from the booth wearing the Edna Everage inspired costume and starts singing "Dress You Up". Then she sang "Material Girl", while stretching her legs on stage and showing her underwear and followed by "Like a Virgin", during which she took off her outfit piece by piece, until she was standing in the same outfit from the beginning of the show, and ended the performance while flirting with a young male dancer who played her bridegroom.
A backdrop then started showing the newspaper reports on Madonna's 1985 Playboy nude picture release. The backdrop moves up as Madonna appears, wearing a loose-fitted black pant and top, with bejeweled glasses, for singing "Where's the Party". For "Into the Groove" Finch joins her on stage to dance alongside. Madonna then wore a pink bolero jacket which had the can of soup and the words "U" and "DANCE" flanking it. At the end she is joined by her backup singers and dancers. Together they take a bow to the audience and finish the performance. Next Madonna sang "La Isla Bonita" as a part of the encore, wearing the same red flamenco dress she had worn in the video. For "Who's That Girl", Madonna—flanked by Finch and a male dancer—strutted around the stage, asking the audience to join her on the chorus. Lastly, Madonna performed an energetic version of "Holiday", signaling the celebratory and wholesome nature of the song's theme. The song featured a new arrangement, with a guitar solo in the intermediate portion added by Leonard. She sang the final chorus twice, then asked the audience for a comb so that she could fix her hair and finished the performance, after taking a bow with her dancers to the audience.
Critical reception
The tour received rave reviews. Biographer Taraborrelli commented, "Madonna had more confidence in her stage presence, her music was showing a deeper maturity, her voice was fuller, and the show was expertly choreographed with complex numbers. J. D. Considine from The Baltimore Sun commented, "I've seen the Springsteen stadium tour, I've seen Dylan and the [Grateful] Dead, and I was at Live Aid. Out of all those shows, Madonna's is the only one I want to see again. You need a larger-than-life show if you want to come off in a stadium, and Madonna does. She's not that large physically, but she holds your attention." Ann Ayers, assistant entertainment editor of USA Today felt that the show was high on glitz and low on emotional quotient. "Madonna's going for a certain kind of show: a Broadway, show-biz, song-and-dance spectacle. In that context it's hard to make a connection with the audience, and I'd have to say that she didn't." Peter Goddard from Toronto Star reviewed the concert in CNE Stadium and said, "Madonna proved that she may be a lost girl in the roads of life, like her film, but she ain't lost when she is singing. Especially during songs like 'Papa Don't Preach', her vocal prowess was substantially notable." Scott A Zamost and Elizabeth Snead, writing for Chicago Tribune, felt that "For the most part, the premiere concert on Madonna's Who's That Girl tour was a success, an extravaganza of multiple videos, flashing lights and precision dancing. If the high-tech accoutrements and inferior sound system made it difficult to hear the singer, one hopes that will be refined as the tour continues across the United States. [...] As a dancer, Madonna is supreme on stage. Her trademark skip to a funky beat highlighted the constant acrobatics. One minute she was stage left, another minute stage right. She ran up a wide staircase center stage to party with her three back-up singers, then scooted down to the stage floor, swinging her hips, accompanied by other dancers."
Deborah Wilker from The Day commented that "Madonna's got an almost rabid energy about her, which she maintains for the duration of 90 minutes. In fact she rarely leaves the stage—preferring to change costumes in a phone booth instead. Boy can she change. One minute she's a 50's teenager in a party dress, next she's playing a speak-easy chanteuse. It's almost difficult to believe that a career as young as Madonna's could contain so much popular material that on stage the star can barely get to half of it." Don McCLeese from Chicago Sun-Times reviewed the performance at Soldier Field stadium said that "'Shine' seems like a dim possibility for her Soldier Field performance this month, because Madonna invariably takes the stage after dusk has turned to dark and brings back the sun again for the two hours that she played." In another review, McCleese commented: "[Madonna] proceeded to show Soldier Field a few moves that would gain Walter Payton some yardage, while putting a whole new twist on the term 'backfield in motion'. The girl really knows how to cause a commotion." Richard Harrington from The Washington Post felt that the tour "would have played better to a full house at the Capital Centre or Merriweather Post Pavilion. But to her credit, Madonna performed last night as if the house was full, and the show is splendid pop theater. Madonna has described it as 'Broadway in a stadium', and with her nonstop dancing, costume changes, mini-dramas and dynamic pacing, it is sort of a 'Liza With an M.'" Jon Pareles from The New York Times reviewed the concert at Madison Square Garden in New York and felt that "For all its effort and professionalism, the concert wasn't exactly moving; Madonna had to ask the audience to get up and dance twice. But as shallow, kitschy, pop entertainment—no big messages, no revelations, familiar sounds and images, plenty of catchy tunes—the show was easy to enjoy. [...] The tunes stick to her limited vocal range and usually use short phrases—the better to keep her from running out of breath as she dances across the stage. And her band knocked the songs out with solid precision, recreating the gleaming sound of her records. On their rankings of Madonna's tours, VH1's Christopher Rosa and The Odyssey's Rocco Papa both placed Who's That Girl in the fourth position; according to the former, it includes "some of M’s most effervescent performing" and a "setlist that rivals any Madonna tour to date", while the latter deemed it "much more simple compared to what we're used to seeing from Madonna" and pointed out "a certain spark and joy captured during this show which has never been duplicated" and how the singer "proved her ability to command an audience". From The Advocate, Gina Vivinetto placed it on the eight position of her ranking.
Commercial response
After the tour was announced, the first two shows at Wembley Stadium in London sold-out at a then record-breaking time of 18 hours and 9 minutes for 144,000 tickets. However around 10,000 concert tickets were still left unsold for her Leeds concert. Madonna's concert in Paris in front of 130,000 fans remains to this date, her biggest concert audience ever and largest crowd of any concert in French history. A concert was also planned in Basel, Switzerland for August 31, 1987, but negotiations between Madonna's management and local organizers failed due to the high fee of one million ($ million in dollars) that Madonna's camp demanded. As a result, Nice, France was booked in the itinerary. But when a local mayor threatened to cancel the concert, citing crowd problems, Jacques Chirac, then Mayor of Paris, stepped in to overrule him. Her first-ever Italian concert in Turin, was presented by the Italian state broadcaster RaiUno and broadcast around the world. Just in Italy, the show was watched by around 14 million households. The show at Turin was watched by 65,000 fans and was a record there.
In Japan, a thousand troops had to restrain a crowd of 25,000 fans seeking to greet Madonna at the airport. When severe storms forced the cancellation of her first shows, despondent fans nearly rioted, and Madonna was confronted with out-of-control teenagers soaking themselves in the rain outside the stadium. Promoters had no choice but to refund U.S. $7 million to ticket-buyers. Madonna's Madison Square Garden show in New York City was an AIDS benefit with all the proceeds from the show going to American Foundation for AIDS Research (AmFAR). She dedicated her performance of "Live to Tell" to her late friend Martin Burgoyne, the designer of her 1983 "Burning Up" single cover sleeve. Upon completion, the tour was the second top female concert tour of 1987, behind Tina Turner's Break Every Rule Tour, earning in total of US$25 million according to Pollstar and playing in front of 1.5 million audience all over the world.
Broadcasts and recordings
The concert at Korakuen Stadium, Tokyo was broadcast on June 22, 1987, in Japan only. It was later released on VHS and LaserDisc as Who's That Girl: Live In Japan. It was the first television broadcast using Dolby Surround Sound and was promoted by Mitsubishi, as Madonna had previously starred in television commercials for their video recorders. On September 4, 1987, Madonna's concert special, Madonna in Concerto, filmed at the Comunale Stadium in Turin, Italy was broadcast live on TV in Italy (RAI), France (TF1), Germany (SAT1), Austria (ORF) and Spain (TVE). Other countries including Australia and The Netherlands broadcast this show in 1987. The concert was released commercially in 1988 as Ciao Italia: Live from Italy and was later available on LaserDisc and DVD.
The video contains the full Who's That Girl show, produced using footage from three different shows: Tokyo on June 22, 1987, Turin on September 4, 1987, and Florence on September 6, 1987. Heather Phares from Allmusic said: "A much simpler, less choreographed performance than her later extravaganzas like The Girlie Show World Tour, Ciao Italia is still entertaining in its own right, and will definitely please fans nostalgic for some old-school Madonna hits." Mark Knopher from the Los Angeles Daily News commented that "Ciao Italia shows the glitz and the glamor that made this tour so remarkable." It charted at the top of the Billboard music DVD chart on for six weeks and ranked at two on the "1988 Year-end Top Ranked Tapes". Ciao Italia also charted at number three on the Finnish DVD chart in 2009.
Legacy
According to Taraborrelli, "Many female artists behave like a diva for a period when they reach superstar status, and the 'Who's That Girl?' tour marked the beginning of Madonna's." For instance, she would not allow crew members to talk directly to her; they had to talk to her representatives, lest they distract her from the business at hand. She also forbade her dancers from speaking to her and her musicians were not permitted to even look at her unless they were onstage with her. Moreover, when coming on and off the stage, Madonna demanded that road managers hold sheets around her in order to shield her from the eyes of "those who couldn't help but stare". DeMann commented: "She has a way of demanding that compels you to give her your undivided attention", to which Taraborrelli felt that such behavior actually was an indication of how successful and strong Madonna was. "You don't behave like a bitch until you are that successful. The tour sure helped cement her star status", he commented.
The tour was also notable for giving rise to the term "new Madonna", a stronger and more intelligent sexual image of her former self which had given rise to the term Madonna wannabe. Considine felt that "the important thing Madonna did on the tour was to demonstrate how female sexuality can be a source of strength. Traditionally in pop culture, there are two roles that a woman can play—the good girl and the bad girl, and the bad girl is never taken seriously. But Madonna shows up the trappings of a bad girl, and demanded to be taken up seriously because she just doesn't roll over. I got more sense of the strength and power that was under her image all along." Another important fact noted in the tour by scholars is the extensive use of multimedia technique to its maximum potential. Says Mark Bego, author of Madonna: Blonde Ambition, that "Madonna transformed the concept of a concert tour being focused on the songs. She turned her Who's That Girl? tour into a ubiquitous multimedia blitz technique by including songs, dancing, choreography, videos, big screens, backdrops—not to mention the subtle preaching and messages—that made singing a secondary quality for concert goers. Evident from the people that thronged to see the tour, they were there for the spectacle—and not see Madonna standing in front of the microphone and singing.
Publications also noted the fanaticism Madonna suscited in various of the countries she visited, especially Japan and the United Kingdom which prompted South China Morning Post to say it "demonstrates the unique position that she commands in the world of pop music". The merchandise also "enjoyed rocketing sales". While in Italy, Madonna met some of her relatives from Pacentro, the village in which her grandfather and grandmother, Gaetano and Michelina Ciccone had been married. However, it was not the glorious home coming that she had expected; some of her relatives made it very clear that they were scandalized by her appearance and behavior. One good thing came from the visit, there were talks of making her an honorary citizen of the town. Ultimately, a statue of Madonna, wearing conical bra was erected in her name, at the center of the town.
Set list
Set list and samples per Madonna's official website and the notes and track listing of Ciao Italia: Live from Italy.
"Open Your Heart"
"Lucky Star"
"True Blue"
"Papa Don't Preach"
"White Heat"
"Causing a Commotion"
"The Look of Love"
Medley: "Dress You Up" / "Material Girl" / "Like a Virgin"
"Where's the Party"
"Live to Tell"
"Into the Groove"
"La Isla Bonita"
"Who's That Girl"
"Holiday"
Shows
Personnel
Adapted from the Who's That Girl World Tour 1987 program.
Band
Madonna – creator, vocals
Niki Haris - vocals
Donna De Lory - vocals
Debra Parson - vocals
Patrick Leonard – keyboards
Jai Winding – keyboards
Jonathan Moffett – drums
David Williams – guitar
James Harrah – guitar, bass guitar
Kerry Hatch – synth bass
Luis Conte – percussion
Dancers and choreographers
Shabba Doo – choreographer, dancer
Angel Ferreira – dancer
Chris Finch – dancer
Wardrobe and crew
Marlene Stewart – designer
Eric Barnett – tour manager
Patrick Leonard - musical director
Jeffrey Hornaday – tour director, staging
Liz Rosenberg - publicity
Melissa Crow - assistant to Madonna
Michelle Johnson - assistant to Jeffrey Hornaday
Christopher Ciccone - wardrobe
Rob Saduski – wardrobe
Debi Mazar – make-up, stylist
Julie Chertow - masseuse
Robert Parr - trainer
Peter Chaplin - cook
Mario Ciccone - props, ambiance
Peter Morse – lights, strobe direction
John Perry III - producer and director of "Papa Don't Preach" video segment
John Coulter - tour book design
See also
List of highest-attended concerts
List of highest-grossing concert tours by women
Notes
References
Bibliography
External links
Madonna.com > Tours > Who's That Girl World Tour
Madonna concert tours
1987 concert tours
Concert tours of Japan
Concert tours of the United States
Concert tours of Canada
Concert tours of the United Kingdom
Concert tours of Germany
Concert tours of the Netherlands
Concert tours of France
Concert tours of Italy |
4093536 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul%20Hunt%20%28academic%29 | Paul Hunt (academic) | Paul Hunt, a New Zealand and British national, is a human rights expert who specialises in economic, social and cultural rights. In January 2019, he took up office as Chief Commissioner at the New Zealand Human Rights Commission.
Formerly a Senior Lecturer at the University of Waikato and a Professor of Law at the Human Rights Centre, University of Essex. He has held senior UN human rights appointments, including Member of the UN Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, UN Special Rapporteur on the right to the highest attainable standard of health and Senior Human Rights Advisor to the Assistant WHO Director-General, Flavia Bustreo.
Background
In 1979, he graduated from Cambridge University (UK) with a law degree. Between 1982-1985, he worked for Kingsley Napley (London) as a civil and criminal litigation solicitor, and assistant to the Senior Partner, Sir David Napley. In 1988, he married a New Zealander and in 1992 moved to New Zealand where he took up the position of Senior Lecturer at the University of Waikato. In 1995, he was awarded a Masters of Jurisprudence (1st Class Hons) by the University of Waikato (New Zealand). In 2000, he was appointed Professor of Law at the University of Essex (UK) and also became a Visiting Professor at the University of Waikato. Between 2000-2018, he was an annual visitor to, and speaker in, New Zealand. In 2018, he moved back to New Zealand to take up the position of Chief Commissioner in the New Zealand Human Rights Commission. In 2018, Nicola Sturgeon, First Minister of Scotland, appointed Hunt to her Advisory Group on Human Rights Leadership.
Human rights
In 1985, Hunt left private practice and became a human rights lawyer in Israel/Palestine working for Quaker Peace and Service (now Quaker Peace and Social Witness). Between 1985 and 1987, he lived in the West Bank and Gaza Strip and researched the Israeli Military Courts. Published in 1987, Justice? The Military Court System in the Israeli-Occupied Territories, examined the Military Courts through the "lens" of Israel's international human rights obligations.
On his return to the UK, Hunt worked with Sydney Bailey on an inter-denominational project about human rights in Britain and Ireland. This Quaker project included Mary Robinson, shortly to become the President of Ireland, and David Trimble, shortly to become leader of the Ulster Unionist Party and First Minister of Northern Ireland. The project led to Human Rights and Responsibilities in Britain and Ireland, edited by Bailey, and a shorter version, A Christian Perspective on Human Rights and Responsibilities: with Special Reference to Northern Ireland, edited by Hunt and was responsible for one of the earliest publications in favour of incorporation of the European Convention on Human Rights into UK law.
Between 1987–1990, Hunt worked for the National Council for Civil Liberties/Liberty (UK) as Legal Officer, Head of the Legal and Campaign Team and Acting general secretary. He conducted national and international human rights cases, including litigation in Strasbourg under the European Convention on Human Rights. In addition to prisoners' rights, he worked on the lawfulness of Northern Ireland's emergency laws. and was responsible for one of the earliest publications in favour of incorporation of the European Convention on Human Rights into UK law.
Between 1990–1992, Hunt was appointed Associate Director of the African Centre for Democracy and Human Rights Studies (Gambia), working under Raymond Sock (formerly Solicitor-General) and Hassan Jallow (then Minister of Justice). The Centre paralleled and monitored the new Gambian-based African Commission on Human and Peoples' Rights established under the African Charter on Human and Peoples' Rights. With Jallow, Hunt co-authored one of the first publications on HIV/AIDS and human rights in Africa, as well as research on African national human rights institutions, and children's rights in the Gambia.
Academic career
Between 1992–2000, Hunt was senior lecturer at the University of Waikato, New Zealand. The focus of his teaching and research was national and international public law, especially human rights. He began to specialise in economic, social and cultural rights and his study, Reclaiming Social Rights: International and Comparative Perspectives, was published in 1996. This was one of the first books published on social rights. Reviewing it in the Human Rights Quarterly, Barbara Stark remarked upon the book's ambition and concluded, "Hunt succeeds brilliantly" and that the study "dazzles".
At the University of Waikato, Hunt looked at human rights in New Zealand and the South Pacific, including the relationship between culture and rights, as well as the rights of indigenous peoples, which led to scholarship such as Culture, Rights and Cultural Rights: Perspectives from the South Pacific, co-edited with Margaret Wilson. Between 1996–97, he was a visiting fellow at the Harvard Law School Human Rights Program. In 2000, Hunt, Janet McLean, Bill Mansfield and Peter Cooper were commissioned by New Zealand's Attorney-General to prepare an independent report on the country's national human rights institutions. Many of their recommendations have been implemented by legislative and other reforms.
In 2000, Hunt was appointed Professor of Law at the Human Rights Centre, University of Essex (UK), a position he still holds. At Essex, his teaching and research focus is national and international human rights, with a particular emphasis on economic, social and cultural rights, as well as human rights and development. He has served as Director of the Human Rights Centre and Chair of the Democratic Audit. Presently, he leads the health-rights work stream of the University's Human Rights, Big Data and Technology Project, funded by the UK's Economic and Social Research Council.
UN Committees (1999–2002)
In 1998, the New Zealand Government nominated Hunt to serve as an independent expert on the United Nations Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights in Geneva, and he was duly elected by States. He served as the Committee's Rapporteur from 1999 to 2002. During this period, the Committee adopted several influential commentaries, known as General Comments, on economic, social and cultural rights, including on the right to adequate food, right to education, right to the highest attainable standard of health, and right to water. It also adopted some statements, including one on poverty and human rights, which broke new ground. These General Comments and statements have contributed to the growth of literature, and national and international initiatives, on economic, social and cultural rights since the turn of the century.
In light of the Committee's statement on poverty, Mary Robinson, UN High Commissioner for Human Rights, asked Hunt, Manfred Nowak and Siddiq Osmani to draft detailed and operational guidance on a human rights-based approach to poverty reduction. They responded by writing Human Rights and Poverty Reduction: A Conceptual Framework, followed by Draft Guidelines: A Human Rights Approach to Poverty Reduction Strategies, both of which were published by the UN Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR). After a period of consultation, OHCHR revised the Draft Guidelines and they were published as Principles and Guidelines for a Human Rights Approach to Poverty Reduction Strategies.
UN Special Rapporteur (2002–2008)
In 2002, Hunt stepped down from the UN Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights and was appointed the first UN Special Rapporteur on the right to the highest attainable standard of health ('right to health'). In this independent capacity, he reported, orally and in writing, to the UN General Assembly, UN Commission on Human Rights and UN Human Rights Council. He submitted thematic reports on a wide range of right to health issues, such as sexual and reproductive health, neglected diseases, mental disability, maternal mortality, and the health-rights responsibilities of pharmaceutical companies. He also visited, and wrote right to health reports on, countries, including India, Peru, Sweden, and Uganda. Hunt took the unorthodox step of undertaking visits to, and preparing right to health reports on, non-state actors, such as the World Trade Organization, World Bank and International Monetary Fund, and GlaxoSmithKline. Also, he prepared reports with other Rapporteurs on Guantanamo Bay, as well as the Lebanon/Israel conflict of 2006. Many people wrote to Hunt with alleged violations of their right to health and he took up some of these complaints and subsequently reported to the UN about them.
His reports have elicited a wide response, for example, in 2005, Cynthia Rothschild discussed the report on sexual and reproductive health, "Hunt's 2004 report is certainly one of the UN system's most far-reaching documents to incorporate a focus on sexual orientation and gender identity and health". Some commentators called the report “shocking” and Hunt was branded “unprofessional” in the UN Commission on Human Rights.
On maternal death and morbidity, Sandeep Prasad wrote, it "was [Hunt] who first started bringing the human rights dimensions of the issue of maternal mortality to the attention of the [UN Human Rights] Council as a global Health and Human Rights crisis." Following a press conference in Delhi at the end of his visit to India, during which he focussed on maternal mortality in Rajasthan and Maharashtra, the Indian Express devoted an editorial to the issue, reflected on Hunt's findings, and agreed with his conclusion that “the situation does not befit a country of India's stature and level of development.”
Following Hunt's report on Peru, Ariel Frisancho Arroyo remarked upon “[t]he key role" played by Hunt in "supporting the health authorities' interest on how to increase the realization of health-rights". Following his report on Sweden, scholars wrote, “Since Hunt's report and the resulting [Right to Health Care Initiative], most county councils have issued more generous guiding principles for the health care of local undocumented patients." In an editorial, The Lancet commended Hunt's thematic report on the health-rights responsibilities of pharmaceutical companies, as well as his twin report on GlaxoSmithKline. Hunt devoted three UN thematic reports to the methodological problem of how to measure the progressive realisation of the right to health and their influence is manifest in the key OHCHR publication Human Rights Indicators: A Guide to Measurement and Implementation. He drew on several of his UN reports to co-author a major study on health systems and the right to health which was described by The Lancet as a “landmark” report.
Human rights and the WHO
Hunt's reports, such as his studies on Peru and Uganda, demonstrate constructive engagement with the World Health Organization (WHO). In 2008, during his last oral report to the UN Human Rights Council as Special Rapporteur, Hunt acknowledged this co-operation but also emphasised its limits: “Over the last six years, I have enjoyed excellent cooperation with a number of WHO members of staff on a range of policy and operational issues. For this, I am extremely grateful. However, to the best of my knowledge, neither the World Health Assembly, nor the WHO Executive Board, have ever considered one of my reports. Despite requests, I have never met a WHO Director General since my appointment in 2002.”
However, between 2011–2013, Hunt was appointed as a part-time Senior Human Rights Advisor to the Assistant Director-General, WHO, Flavia Bustreo, and he directed a project which researched whether there was evidence of impact of a human rights approach to health. This interdisciplinary and multi-author research concluded that applying human rights to women's and children's health policies and other interventions “not only helps governments comply with their binding national and international obligations, but also contributes to improving the health of women and children.” In 2015, Hunt co-edited a Special Issue of Harvard's Health and Human Rights which deepened analysis of this topic.
In September 2010, Hunt co-organised an international roundtable in Geneva on maternal mortality, human rights and accountability, and the proceedings were subsequently published. In this roundtable, and in a paper he presented at an international conference in Delhi during November 2010, Hunt began to analyse accountability as having three components: monitoring, review and remedy. This analysis was novel because, in the context of global health, accountability was usually understood as monitoring and evaluation, without the components of either independent review or remedy.
In 2010–11, Hunt sat on a Working Group of the UN Commission on Information and Accountability on Women's and Children's Health (COIA). The Working Group refined Hunt's conception of accountability in its submission to COIA. In its final report, Keeping Promises, Measuring Results, COIA adopted this understanding of accountability. This conception of accountability shaped COIA's recommendations to the UN Secretary-General, Ban Ki-moon, and led to the Secretary-General establishing the independent Expert Review Group on Information and Accountability for Women's and Children's Health (iERG). The iERG sat from 2011 to 2015 and was succeeded by the Independent Accountability Panel which largely shares COIA's understanding of accountability. In 2015, Julian Schweitzer wrote on the British Medical Journal (BMJ) that the COIA's "definition of accountability – a cyclical process of monitoring, review, and action … – is now widely accepted in global health". Hunt was the main architect of this conception of accountability in global health.
After WHO
Hunt has recently turned his attention to social rights in the UK. In 2014–15, he sat on the statutory human rights inquiry into emergency health care established by the Northern Ireland Human Rights Commission. He has joined the Board of the National Health Service (NHS) England initiative, Sexual and Reproductive Health Rights, Inclusion and Empowerment (SHRINE). He has been appointed a Patron of Just Fair, a London-based think-tank on economic and social rights. With Ruth Lister, Baroness Lister of Burtersett he has written for the think-tank, Compass, on social rights in the UK. In 2017 the Centre for Welfare Reform published Hunt's Social Rights are Human Rights - but the UK System is Rigged. In 2018, Hunt was appointed by Nicola Sturgeon, First Minister of Scotland, to her Advisory Group on Human Rights Leadership. The Advisory Group is due to report in December 2018.
New Zealand Human Rights Commission
Appointment
On 2 October 2018, the New Zealand Minister of Justice Andrew Little announced Hunt's appointment as the Chief Human Rights Commissioner at the New Zealand Human Rights Commission. He took up the role of Chief Human Rights Commissioner on 14 January 2019.
2021 Mongrel Mob Meeting
On 1 May 2021, Hunt attended a gathering of the Mongrel Mob criminal gang, along with Green Party Co-leader Marama Davidson, Green MP Elizabeth Kerekere, and Anjum Rahman of the New Zealand Islamic Women's Council, focused on issues of supposed human rights, social justice, and racism. It was later revealed that Hunt had given a $200 dollar koha (donation) of taxpayer money to the gang according to figures obtained under the Official Information Act by news organisation Newstalk ZB. Hunt was a speaker at the event, discussing inclusion, building relationships, and the "stigmatising" idea of being tough on organised criminal gangs. This was highly controversial, especially in the wake of news implicating the Mongrel Mob in an international drug bust.
Hunt stated: "Human rights means that every voice is heard, including your voice, and that you also listen with respect."
Hunt and Davidson were widely criticised by the general public, as well as by politicians from the National and ACT parties. National Party police spokesperson, Simeon Brown opined that it is "astonishing" that the pair had accepted an invitation to speak at the gathering, stating that: "The Mongrel Mob peddles drugs, wields firearms and engages in violence, causing misery in communities across the country. They have no regard for their victims." The ACT Party also criticised Davidson and Hunt for attending, with justice spokesperson Nicole McKee saying it is a "kick in the guts" for victims of the Mongrel Mob. As a result of this, National Party leader Judith Collins called for the resignation of Hunt, while ACT Party leader David Seymour emphasised the need for the end of the Human Rights Commission in favour of creating a new more appropriate organisation. Collins spoke to various media organisations:
Seymour stated that under Paul Hunt, the Human Rights Commission had become highly politicised and biased towards left wing ideology, and that it was no longer fit for purpose in actually advocating for human rights.
In a statement to Newshub New Zealand, Hunt defended attending, speaking at the event, and using taxpayer money to provide a donation to the gang:
In June 2021, further information was revealed about the event. Leaked correspondence between the Human Rights Commission and the Waikato Mongrel Mob Kingdom reveal that significant organisation had occurred, with an agreement that no press releases were to be published prior to the event, news media were barred access, and members would be restricted in their use of social media during the event. Hunt's attendance came about after Waikato Mongrel Mob public relations liaison Louise Hutchinson approached the HRC in December, asking if it was possible for him to do a presentation in 2021.
2022 Parliament occupation protests
Hunt met with the protesters who were camped out in front of Parliament House in Wellington between February and March 2022, as part of the 2022 Wellington protests against vaccine mandates, saying speaking with the protesters was "fostering inclusion". Hunt met with protesters with the intention of using dialogue to resolve the protests and prevent further escalation of violence. The protest however ended violently when riot police cleared the camp.
Other
Hunt has provided expert testimony to the European Court of Human Rights, via the Centre for Reproductive Rights, and Inter-American Court of Human Rights. In 1999–2000, he sat on the Advisory Panel of the UNDP Human Development Report, Human Rights and Human Development. He was one of the drafters of, and signatories to, the Yokyakarta Principles on the Application of International Human Rights Law in relation to Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity in 2006. In 2008, he co-founded the International Initiative on Maternal Mortality and Human Rights. Between 2009–2011, he sat on UNFPA's External Advisory Panel. Hunt sits on the Editorial Boards of the Health and Human Rights and International Journal of Human Rights and Drug Policy.
In 2008 Hunt was awarded an honorary doctorate by the Nordic School of Public Health.
In 2014, he gave a TEDx talk, Equality – the Road Less Travelled. In this he argues that the realisation of social rights, such as those in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948), has a major contribution to make towards the enjoyment of substantive equality for all.
Main publications
Reclaiming Social Rights: International and Comparative Perspectives (Dartmouth, 1996)
with Margaret Wilson (eds.) Culture, Rights and Cultural Rights: Perspectives from the South Pacific (Huia, 2000)
with Willem van Genugten and Susan Mathews (eds.), World Bank, IMF and Human Rights: Including The Tilburg Guiding Principles on World Bank, IMF and human rights (Nijmegen, 2003)
with Tony Gray (eds.), Maternal Mortality, Human Rights and Accountability (Routledge, 2013)
with Flavia Bustreo et al., Women's and Children's Health: Evidence of Impact of Human Rights (World Health Organization, 2013)
Social Rights are Human Rights - but the UK System is Rigged (Centre for Welfare Reform, 2017)
References
Year of birth missing (living people)
Living people
United Nations special rapporteurs
Academics of the University of Essex
Academic staff of the University of Waikato
University of Waikato alumni
Human rights lawyers
New Zealand officials of the United Nations
British officials of the United Nations |
4093588 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Positive%20Christianity | Positive Christianity | Positive Christianity () was a religious movement within Nazi Germany which promoted the belief that the racial purity of the German people should be maintained by mixing racialistic Nazi ideology with either fundamental or significant elements of Nicene Christianity. Adolf Hitler used the term in point 24 of the 1920 Nazi Party Platform, stating: "the Party as such represents the viewpoint of Positive Christianity without binding itself to any particular denomination". The Nazi movement had been hostile to Germany's established churches. The new Nazi idea of Positive Christianity allayed the fears of Germany's Christian majority by implying that the Nazi movement was not anti-Christian. That said, in 1937, Hans Kerrl, the Reich Minister for Church Affairs, explained that "Positive Christianity" was not "dependent upon the Apostle's Creed", nor was it dependent on "faith in Christ as the son of God", upon which Christianity relied, rather, it was represented by the Nazi Party: "The Führer is the herald of a new revelation", he said. Hitler's public presentation of Positive Christianity as a traditional Christian faith differed. Despite Hitler's insistence on a unified peace with the Christian churches, to accord with Nazi antisemitism, Positive Christianity advocates also sought to distance themselves from the Jewish origins of Christ and the Christian Bible. Based on such elements, most of Positive Christianity separated itself from traditional Nicene Christianity and as a result, it is in general considered apostate by all mainstream Trinitarian Christian churches, regardless of whether they are Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, or Protestant.
Hitler consistently self-identified as a Christian in public, and even on occasion as a Catholic, specifically throughout his entire political career, despite criticizing biblical figures. He identified himself as a Christian in a 12 April 1922 speech. Hitler also identified himself as a Christian in Mein Kampf. However, historians, including Ian Kershaw and Laurence Rees, characterize his acceptance of the term "positive Christianity" and his political involvement in religious policy as being driven by opportunism, and a pragmatic recognition of the political importance of the Christian churches in Germany. Nevertheless, efforts by the regime to impose a Nazified "positive Christianity" on a state-controlled German Evangelical Church essentially failed, and it resulted in the formation of the dissident Confessing Church which saw great danger to Germany from the "new religion". The Catholic Church also denounced the creed's ideology that contained idolatry of race, people, the state in the 1937 papal encyclical Mit brennender Sorge. Hitler privately assured General Gerhard Engel in 1941 that "I am now as before a Catholic and will always remain so."
The official Nazi ideologist Alfred Rosenberg played an important role in the development of "positive Christianity", which he conceived in discord with both Rome and the Protestant churches, whose doctrines he called "negative Christianity". Peculiarly, Eastern Orthodoxy had not been criticized by Rosenberg, and Richard Steigmann-Gall questions whether or not this opposition to Western Christianity made Rosenberg a genuine anti-Christian. Rosenberg conceived of Positive Christianity as a transitional faith to bring Christianity toward Nazi antisemitism and amid the failure of the regime's efforts to control Protestantism through the agency of the pro-Nazi "German Christians", Rosenberg, along with fellow radicals Robert Ley and Baldur von Schirach backed the Neo-Pagan "German Faith Movement", which completely rejected traditional Judeo-Christian conceptions of God from Western thought. During the war, Rosenberg drafted a plan for the future of religion in Germany which would see a Positive Christian Reich influenced by Germanic paganism conduct the "expulsion of the foreign Christian religions", the replacement of the Bible as the supreme religious authority with Mein Kampf as the holy scripture of Positive Christianity, and the replacement of the Christian cross with the swastika as the universal symbol of European Christianity in Nazified Christian churches.
Theological and doctrinal aspects
Adherents of positive Christianity argued that traditional Christianity emphasized the passive rather than the active aspects of Christ's life, stressing his miraculous birth, his suffering, his sacrifice on the cross and other-worldly redemption. Although Hitler publicly affirmed such doctrines and did not deny them in Mein Kampf, his inner circle party intellectuals such as Alfred Rosenberg (who himself taught in his book that Christ followed an early form of (Messianic) Judaism) wanted to replace this doctrine of such emphasis on biblical traditionalism instead with a "positive" emphasis on Christ as an active preacher, organizer and fighter who opposed the Rabbinic Judaism of his day embodied by the Pharisees and Sadducees. At various points in the Nazi regime, attempts were made to replace conventional Christianity with its "positive" alternative.
Positive Christianity differed from traditional Nicene Christianity in that positive Christianity had these main tactical objectives:
A selective process of application regarding the Christian Bible where they rejected deemed impurities "invented by Jews" to "corrupt" the Christian faith from the "Jewish-written" parts of the Bible (among the most extreme adherents of this movement, this included the entire Old Testament)
Claimed racial "Aryanhood" and ethno-religious non-Jewishness for Christ who was instead known as a "Nordic Amorite"
Promoted the political objective of national unity, to overcome confessional differences, to establish "national Catholicism" and eliminate all Catholicism functioning in Germany outside the Nazi State, and unite Protestantism into a single unitary positive Christian state church nominally controlled directly by the "German Messiah" Adolf Hitler himself
Also encouraged followers to support the creation of an Aryan Homeland for all Germanic-related peoples
Under Hitler's regime, in the Reich Protestant churches the New Testament was also altered; by removing the genealogies of Jesus that showed his Davidic descent, Jewish names and places were removed, quotations from the Old Testament were removed unless they showed Jews in a bad light, references to fulfilled Old Testament prophecies were removed, and Jesus was reworked into a militaristic, heroic figure fighting the Jews using Nazified language.
Origins of the idea
Although positive Christianity is explicitly associated with the racial ideology of Nazi Germany, its theological underpinnings long predate the latter. The earliest form of Christianity that resembled positive Christianity was the 2nd-century Marcionite sect, which also declared the Old Testament non-canon and associated it with Judaism. However, this stemmed from a rejection of the Jewish religion in favor of Gnostic theology, rather than a racially-based hatred of the Jews as a people.
Steigmann-Gall traces the origins of positive Christianity to higher criticism of the nineteenth century, with its emphasis on the distinction between the historical Jesus, and the divine Jesus of theology. According to some schools of thought, the saviour-figure of orthodox Christianity was very different from the historical Galilean preacher. While many such scholars sought to place Jesus in the context of ancient Judaism, some writers reconstructed a historical Jesus who corresponded to racialist and antisemitic ideology. In the writings of such antisemites as Emile Burnouf, Houston Stewart Chamberlain, and Paul de Lagarde, Jesus was redefined as an Aryan hero who struggled against Jews and Judaism. Consistent with their origins in higher criticism, such writers often either rejected or minimized the miraculous aspects of Gospel narratives, reducing the crucifixion to a tragic coda to Jesus's life rather than its prefigured culmination. Both Burnouf and Chamberlain argued that the population of Galilee was racially distinct from that of Judea. Lagarde insisted that German Christianity must become "national" in character.
Various historians credit the origins of "positive Christianity" more to the political acumen and opportunism of the Nazi leadership. Leading Nazis like Himmler, Rosenberg, Bormann, and Goebbels, backed by Hitler, were hostile to Christianity and ultimately planned to de-Christianize Germany. However, Germany had been Christian for over a thousand years, and Hitler recognized the practical reality of the political significance of the Churches in Germany and determined that any moves against the churches must be made in stages. In the words of Paul Berben, positive Christianity therefore came to be advocated as a "term that could be overlaid with any interpretation required, depending on the circumstances" and the party declared itself for religious freedom provided this liberty did not "endanger the State or clash with the views of the 'Germanic Race'".
The historian Derek Hastings has written about the Catholic roots in the nationalistic and disaffected Catholic circles of Munich, of the explicit endorsement of 'positive Christianity' in the Nazi party program. This group helped to shape its tenets, suspicious as they were of both ultramontanism and political Catholicism.
In Mein Kampf, Hitler reassured his readers that both Christian denominations (Catholicism and Protestantism) were valid bases for the German people, provided the churches did not intervene in state affairs. In private it is documented that Hitler scorned Pauline Christianity to his friends such as Martin Bormann and played himself off as a type of Jesusist to him, but when out campaigning for power in Germany, he publicly made statements in favour of the religion. "The most persuasive explanation of these statements", wrote Laurence Rees,
Contrarily, this thesis proposing that Hitler did not consider himself some type of Christian is highly disputed by the historian Richard Stiegmann-Gall in his book 'The Holy Reich'.
Relationship with the Nazi Party
Positive Christianity was, by design, entirely reliant on the leadership and ideology of the Nazi movement; Nazi journals such as Der Stürmer and Völkischer Beobachter were major sources of the dissemination and promotion of positive Christian ideals, stressing the "Nordic" character of Jesus. Despite these radical divergences from preexisting doctrines, the party was careful to also stress the point that positive Christianity was not intended to be a third confession, nor was it supposed to contradict the traditional theologies of the established churches. As early as 1920, the Nazis proclaimed in their 25-point program that the "Party as such advocates the standpoint of a positive Christianity without binding itself confessionally to any one denomination. It combats the Jewish-materialistic spirit within and around us". Despite this proclamation, a number of Nazis openly challenged the established churches.
Alfred Rosenberg, editor of Völkischer Beobachter, wrote The Myth of the Twentieth Century, in which he argued that the Catholic and Protestant churches had distorted Christianity in such a way that the "heroic" and "Germanic" aspects of Jesus's life had been ignored. For Rosenberg, positive Christianity was a transitional ideology that would pave the way to build a new fully racialist faith from the Hitlerian Reich Church. Instead of the cross, its symbol was the orb of the sun in the form of a sun cross and in principle it was the elevation of the Nordic race, a rejection of Old Europe's traditional divine revelation dogmas, and the promotion of a German God. For Rosenberg the Aryan-Nordic race was divine, and god was in the blood and its culture was the kingdom of heaven, in contrast the Jewish race was evil and it was a satanic counter race against the divine Aryan-Nordic race. Adolf Hitler approved of the book's work in general and emphasized the desirability of positive Christianity, yet distanced himself from much of Rosenberg's more radical ideas sidelined to the lunatic fringe within his movement, wishing to retain the support of the conservative Christian electorate and social elite. Hitler's official brand of State-sanctioned Positive Christianity incorporated Protestant and Catholic variant denominations into the Reich Church.
As an aspect of Gleichschaltung, the regime planned to nazify the Protestant Church in Germany (Evangelical Church) by unifying the separate 28 state churches under a single national church that would be controlled by the German Christians faction. However, the subjugation of the Protestant churches proved to be more difficult than Hitler had envisaged. In 1933, the "German Christians" wanted Nazi doctrines on race and leadership to be applied to a Reich Church, but they only had around 3,000 of Germany's 17,000 pastors. In July, church leaders submitted a constitution for a Reich Church, which the Reichstag approved. The Church Federation proposed that the well qualified Pastor Friedrich von Bodelschwingh should be the new Reich Bishop, but Hitler proposed that his friend Ludwig Müller, a Nazi and a former naval chaplain, should serve as the new Reich Bishop. The Nazis terrorized supporters of Bodelschwingh, and they also dissolved various church organizations, ensuring the election of Müller as the new Reich Bishop. Müller's heretical views of St Paul and his arguments against the Semitic origins of Christ and the Bible quickly alienated sections of the Protestant church. Pastor Martin Niemöller responded by founding the Pastors' Emergency League, a Protestant denomination which re-affirmed the Bible. Some clergymen who opposed the Nazi regime joined the movement, and it grew into the Confessing Church.
Ludwig Müller was elected the first Reichsbischof of the new Reichskirche (the so-called German Evangelical Church) in September 1933. However, the German Christians' theological initiatives were met with resistance from many pastors, most notably Niemöller, whose Pastors' Emergency League was supported by nearly 40 per cent of the Evangelical pastors. Following this failure, Hitler backtracked on his attempts to directly nazify the churches and he eventually became disinterested in supporting the "German Christians".
The German Faith Movement which was founded by Jakob Wilhelm Hauer adopted a more thoroughly Aryanized form of the ideology, to support its claim that it represented the essence of the "Protestant" spirit, it mixed aspects of Christianity with ideas which were derived from "Aryan" religions such as Vedicism and "Aryo"-Persian religiosity (Manicheanism, etc.). It attempted to separate Nazi officials from church affiliations, banning nativity plays and calling for an end to daily prayers in schools.
By 1934, the Confessing Church had declared itself to be the legitimate Protestant Church of Germany. Despite his closeness to Hitler, Müller had failed to unite Protestantism in a single Nazi-dominated Church. In 1935, the Nazis arrested 700 Confessing pastors. Müller resigned. To instigate a new effort to coordinate the Protestant churches, Hitler appointed another friend, Hans Kerrl to the position of Minister for Church Affairs. A relative moderate, Kerrl initially had some success in this regard, but amidst continuing protests against Nazi policies by the Confessing Church, he accused churchmen of failing to appreciate the Nazi doctrine of "Race, blood and soil" and he also gave the following explanation for the Nazi conception of positive Christianity, telling a group of submissive clergy:
Demise
The Nazi policy of interference in Protestantism did not achieve its aims. The majority of German Protestants did not side with either the "German Christians", or the Confessing Church. Both groups also struggled with significant internal disagreements and divisions. Mary Fulbrook wrote in her history of Germany:
With the fall of the Nazi regime in 1945, Positive Christianity fell into obscurity as a movement.
See also
Antisemitism in Christianity
Catharism
Catholic Church and Nazi Germany
Christianity and Judaism
Christian Identity
Clerical fascism
Institute for the Study and Elimination of Jewish Influence on German Church Life
Kirchenkampf
Marcionism
Nazi persecution of the Catholic Church in Germany
Persecution of Jehovah's Witnesses in Nazi Germany
Pope Pius XII and the Holocaust
Race and appearance of Jesus
Religion in Nazi Germany
Religious aspects of Nazism
Religious views of Adolf Hitler
State Shintoism
The Foundations of the Nineteenth Century
Notes
References
Footnotes
Bibliography
Further reading
Nazi Germany and Christianity
Christian new religious movements
Former Christian denominations
Nondenominational Christianity
1920 in Christianity
Christianity and antisemitism
Christianity and race
Christian mysticism |
4093795 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20naval%20ship%20classes%20in%20service | List of naval ship classes in service | The list of naval ship classes in service includes all combatant surface classes in service currently with navies or armed forces and auxiliaries in the world. Ships are grouped by type, and listed alphabetically within.
For other vessels, see also:
List of submarine classes in service
List of auxiliary ship classes in service
Aircraft carriers
-class (Project 1143.5) aircraft carrier
Builders: (Black Sea Shipyard in Mykolaiv, present-day Ukraine)
Displacement: 57,700 tons
Aircraft: 17 fixed-wing aircraft and 24 helicopters
Armament: 12 × P-700 Granit SSM; 192 × Tor SAM; 8 × CADS-1 CIWS; 8 × AK-630; 2 × RBU-12000
Powerplant: 8 boilers, 4 steam turbines (200,000 shp)
Speed: 32 knots
Range: 3,850 nmi at 32 knots
Ships in class: 3
Operator: ,
Commissioned: 1995
Status: 2 in service in China, 1 more in long-term refit in Russia
-class aircraft carrier
Builders:
Type: Aircraft carrier
Displacement: 27,910 tons
Aircraft: 8 AV-8B Harrier II Plus, 12 EH101 helicopters
Armament: 4 × A43 SYLVER VLS for 32 Aster 15 SAM, 2 × Otobreda 76 mm gun Davide Strales, 3 × Oerlikon Contraves 25/80 mm Anti-asymmetric attack warfare gun
Powerplant: 4 × General Electric/Avio LM2500+ gas turbines, 2 shafts, 88.000 KW, 6 × Diesel generators (13.200 KW)
Speed 29+ knots
Ships in class: 1
Operator:
Commissioned: 2008
Status: In service
-class aircraft carrier
Builders:
Displacement: 11,486 tons
Aircraft: 6 AV-8 Harrier II aircraft and 4 S-70B Seahawk helicopter
Armament: 2 × hex Sadral Mistral SAM launchers, 2x12.7 mm MG
Powerplant: 2 diesels, 2 gas turbines, 2 shafts, 44,250 hp
Speed: 26 knots
Ships in class: 1
Operator:
Commissioned: 10 August 1997
Status: In service
-class nuclear-powered aircraft carrier
Builders: (DCN at Brest, Bretagne)
Displacement: 40,500 tons
Aircraft: 40 fixed-wing aircraft (Super Étendard, Rafale M) and helicopter
Armament: 4 × SYLVER launchers (32 × Aster 15 SAM); 12 × Mistral SAM; 8 × 20 mm guns
Powerplant: 2 × pressurized water reactors
Speed: 27 knots
Ships in class: 1
Operator:
Commissioned: 18 May 2001
Status: In service
-class nuclear-powered aircraft carrier
Builders:
Displacement: 100,000 tons
Aircraft: 75+
Armament: 2 × RIM-162 ESSM launchers, 2 × RIM-116 RAM, 3 × Phalanx CIWS, 4 × M2 .50 Cal. (12.7 mm) machine guns
Powerplant: Two A1B nuclear reactors
Speed: 30 knots
Ships in class: 1
Operator:
Commissioned: 22 Jul 2017
Status: 1 in service, 2 under construction
-class aircraft carrier
Builders:
Type: Aircraft carrier
Displacement: 13,850 tons
Aircraft: 16 AV-8B Harrier, 18 Agusta helicopter
Armament: MBDA Otomat SSM, Albatros Mark II Aspide SAM, 3 × Oto Melara 40 mm/70 mm twin guns, 2 triple-tube torpedo launchers
Powerplant: 4 × General Electric/Avio LM2500 gas turbines, 2 shafts, 81,000 hp
Speed: 30 knots
Ships in class: 1
Operator:
Commissioned: 1985
Status: In service
Vikrant-class aircraft carrier
Builders: (Cochin Shipyard Limited)
Displacement: 45,000 tons
Aircraft: 30 × fighters and 6 × helicopters
Armament: Barak 8 SAM, AK-630 CIWS, 4 × Otobreda 76 mm
Propulsion: 4 × General Electric LM2500+ gas turbine, 2 × Elecon COGAG gearbox
Speed: in excess of 30 knots
Ships in class: 1
Operators:
Commissioned: 2 September 2022
Status: In service
Vikramaditya (modified Kiev)-class aircraft carrier
Builders: (Soviet "Baku" as Kiev-class aircraft carrier / Sevmash in Severodvinsk)
Displacement: 45,400 tons
Aircraft: 30 × fighters and 6 × helicopters
Armament: Barak 8 SAM, AK-630 CIWS
Propulsion: 8 turbopressurized boilers, 4 shafts, 4 geared steam turbines, 180,000 hp
Speed: in excess of 30 knots
Ships in class: 1
Operators:
Commissioned: 16 December 2013
Status: In service
-class nuclear-powered aircraft carrier
Builders: (Northrop Grumman Newport News, Newport News, Virginia)
Displacement: 97,000 tons
Aircraft: 85 fixed-wing aircraft and helicopter
Armament: 4 × Sea Sparrow SAM; 4 × Phalanx CIWS; 42 × RIM-116 Rolling Airframe Missile SAM
Powerplant: 2 × A4W reactors, 4 × steam turbines (260,000 shp)
Speed: 30+ knots
Ships in class: 10
Operator:
Commissioned: 3 May 1975
Status: 10 in service
-class aircraft carrier
Builders: (Aircraft Carrier Alliance)
Displacement: 70,600 tons
Aircraft: up to 40 aircraft (50 full load)
Armament: At least 3 × Phalanx CIWS; 30-mm DS30M Mk 2 guns; Miniguns
Powerplant: 2 × Rolls-Royce Marine Trent MT30 36 MW (48,000 hp) gas turbine engine;4 × Wärtsilä 38 marine diesel engines (4 × 16V38 11.6 MW or 15,600 hp)
Speed: 26 knots
Ships in class: 2
Operator:
Commissioned: 7 December 2017
Status: 2 in service
Cruisers
-class battlecruiser
Builders: / (Baltic Shipyard in Saint Petersburg)
Displacement: 25,860 tons
Aircraft: 3 × Kamov Ka-27 helicopters
Armament (Class leader): 20 × P-700 Granit SSM; 4 × 9K33 Osa SAM; 96 × SA-N-6 SAM; 2 × SS-N-14 ASWM; 10 × 533 mm torpedo tubes; 2 × 100 mm guns, 2 × 130 mm guns, AK-630 CIWS; RBU-6000 ASW rockets, 2 × RBU-1000 ASW rockets
Armament (Surviving units): 20 × P-700 Granit SSM; 4 × 9K33 Osa SAM; 96 × SA-N-6 SAM; 24 × octuple SA-N-9 Gauntlet SAM; 10x SS-N-15 ASWM; 10 × 533 mm torpedo tubes; 1 × 2 130 mm gun, 6 × CADS-N-1 Kashtan CIWS; 2 × RBU-12000 ASW rockets, 2 × RBU-1000 ASW rockets
Powerplant: 2 × KN-3 reactors, 2 × oil fired boilers, 2 × steam turbines (140,000 shp)
Speed: 32 knots
Range: 1000 nmi at 32 knots, unlimited at 20 knots on nuclear power
Ships in class: 5
Operator:
Commissioned: December 1980
Status: 1 in service, 2 awaiting disposal, 1 in long-term refit, 1 cancelled
-class (Project 1164 Atlant) missile cruiser
Builders: / (61 Kommunar in Mykolaiv, Ukraine)
Displacement: 11,490 tons
Aircraft: 1 helicopter
Armament: 16 × SS-N-12 SSM; 64 × SA-N-6 Grumble SAM; 2 × 130 mm guns; 6 × AK-630 cannon; 10 × 533 mm torpedo tubes
Powerplant: COGOG gas turbines (125,000 hp)
Speed: 34 knots
Range: 9,000 nmi at 15 knots
Ships in class: 4 (plus 2 cancelled)
Operator: (3 ships) / (1 incomplete)
Commissioned: 1982
Status: 2 in service, 1 sunk, 1 incomplete, 6 cancelled
-class guided-missile cruiser
Builders:
Displacement: 9,800 tons
Aircraft: 2 × Sikorsky SH-60 Seahawk
Armament: 2 × Mk 26 or Mk 41 launchers with up to 122 missiles (for Mk 41 VLS) or 88 (with Mk 26 twin-rail launchers) (ASROC, SM-2, Tomahawk); 2 × 127 mm DP guns; 2 × Phalanx CIWS, 8 Harpoon SSM
Powerplant: 4 × gas turbines (80,000 shp)
Speed: 32.5 knots
Range: 6,000 nmi at 20 knots
Ships in class: 27
Operator:
Commissioned: 22 January 1983
Status: 17 in service, 10 decommissioned
Destroyers
Type 051B destroyer (NATO codename Luhai)
Builders: (Dalian Shipyard in Dalian)
Type: Multi-role guided-missile destroyer
Displacement: 6,100 tons
Aircraft: 1 × Z-9C Haitun helicopter
Armament: After refit: 16 × YJ-12 SSM; 32-cell H/AJK16 VLS HQ-16; 1 × dual Type 79A 100 mm naval gun; 2 × Type 1130 CIWS
Powerplant: 2 × steam turbines; total power
Speed:
Range: at
Ships in class: 1
Operator:
Commissioned: 1999
Status: In active service
Type 051C destroyer (NATO codename Luzhou)
Builders: (Dalian Shipyard in Dalian)
Type: Air defense guided-missile destroyer
Displacement: 7,100 tons
Aircraft: 1 Kamov Ka-28 helicopter
Armament: 8 YJ-83, 48 vertically launched S-300FM (SA-N-20) SAM, 1 × 100 mm gun; 2 × 30 mm Type 730 CIWS; 4 × 18 barrel multiple rocket launcher, 2 triple 324 mm ASW torpedo tubes
Powerplant: 2 indigenous steam turbines
Speed: 30 knots
Ships in class: 2
Operator:
Commissioned: 2006
Status: In active service
Type 052 destroyer (NATO codename Luhu)
Builders: (Jiangnan Shipyard in Shanghai)
Type: Multi-role guided-missile destroyer
Displacement: 4,800 tons
Aircraft: 2 × Z-9 Haitun helicopters
Armament: 16 × C-802 SSM; 8 × HQ-7 SAM + reloads; 1 × dual-100 mm gun; 2 × 30mm Type 730 CIWS (after 2011 refit); 6 × 533 mm torpedo tubes
Powerplant: CODOG arrangement; 2 MTU diesels plus 2 LM2500 gas turbines; 2 shafts; 53,600 shp total power
Speed: 30 knots
Range: 5,000 nmi at 15 knots
Ships in class: 2
Operator:
Commissioned: 1993
Status: In active service
Type 052B destroyer (NATO codename Luyang I)
Builders: (Jiangnan Shipyard in Shanghai)
Type: Multi-role guided-missile destroyer
Displacement: 6,200 tons
Aircraft: 1 Kamov Ka-28 helicopter
Armament: 16 × YJ-83 SSM, 48 × SA-N-12 SAM, 1 × 100 mm gun, 2 × 30 mm Type 730 CIWS, 2 × Triple 324 mm ASW torpedo tubes, 2 × Type 75, 12-barrel 240 mm antisubmarine rocket launchers, 4 × 18-barrel multiple rocket launcher
Powerplant: 2 Ukraine DN80 gas-turbines and 2 MTU Friedrichshafen 12V 1163TB83 diesels
Speed: 30 knots
Ships in class: 2
Operator:
Commissioned: July 2004
Status: In active service
Type 052C destroyer (NATO codename Luyang II)
Builders: (Jiangnan Shipyard in Shanghai)
Type: Air defense guided-missile destroyer
Displacement: 7,000 tons
Aircraft: 1 -2 Kamov Ka-28 helicopter
Armament: 8 × large Anti-ship missile in 2 × quad cells, possibly YJ-62 (C-602), 48 × vertically launched HHQ-9 SAM, 1 × 100 mm gun; 2 × 30 mm Type 730 CIWS; 4 × 18 barrel Multiple rocket launcher, 2 × triple 324 mm ASW torpedo tubes
Powerplant: 2 Ukraine DN80 gas-turbines and 2 MTU Friedrichshafen 12V 1163TB83 diesels
Speed: 30 knots
Ships in class: 6
Operator:
Commissioned: July 2004
Status: In active service
Type 052D destroyer (NATO codename Luyang III)
Builders: (Jiangnan Shipyard in Shanghai)
Type: Air defense guided-missile destroyer
Displacement: 7,500 tons
Aircraft: 1 -2 Kamov Ka-28 helicopter
Armament: Anti-ship missiles, 64 × vertically launched SAM, 1 × 130 mm gun; 1 × Type 730 CIWS; 2 × triple ASW torpedo tubes
Powerplant: 2 gas-turbines and 2 MTU diesel engines
Speed: 30 knots
Ships in class: 25 planned
Operator:
Commissioned: March 2014
Status: 20 in active service
Type 055 destroyer (NATO codename Renhai)
Builders: (Jiangnan Shipyard in Shanghai, Dalian Shipyard in Dalian)
Type: Guided-missile destroyer
Displacement: 12–13,000 tons
Aircraft: 2 medium-lift helicopters
Armament: 1 × H/PJ-38 130 mm gun; 1 × H/PJ-11 CIWS; 1 × HHQ-10 short-range SAM 24-cell launcher; 112 VLS cells for: HHQ-9 surface-to-air missiles, YJ-18 anti-ship cruise missiles, CJ-10 land-attack cruise missiles, Missile-launched anti-submarine torpedoes; 2 × sets of 324 mm torpedo tubes, Yu-7 torpedoes
Powerplant: 6 × QD-50 turbine generators (5 MW (6,700 hp) each)
Speed: 30 knots
Ships in class: 16 planned
Operator:
Commissioned: January 2020
Status: 4 in active service, 4 fitting out
-class destroyer
Type: Guided-missile destroyer
Builder:
Displacement: 5,000 tons (empty); 6,800 tons (full load)
Operator: : 4 in service
-class destroyer (MEKO 360H2 type)
Builder:
Displacement: 2,900 tons (empty); 3,360 tons (full load)
Operator: : 4 in service
-class destroyer
Type: Large multi-role guided-missile destroyer
Builder: (Bath Iron Works in Bath, Maine, and Northrop Grumman Ship Systems in Pascagoula, Mississippi)
Displacement:
Flight I: 8,315 tons
Flight II: 8,400 tons
Flight IIA: 9,500 tons
Flight III: 9,700 tons
Aircraft: 2 SH-60 Seahawk helicopters (Flight IIA only)
Armament: 96 cell vertical launch system for SM-2, SM-3, SM-6, quad-packed ESSM, Tomahawk, or VL-Asroc; 1 × 5-inch DP gun; 6 × Mk 46 torpedo tubes
Propulsion: 4 × LM2500 gas turbines (100,000 shp)
Speed:
Ships in class: 70
21 Flight I
7 Flight II
2 Flight IIA (with 5"/54 gun)
4 Flight IIA (with 5"/62 guns)
28 Flight IIA (with 5"/62 guns), one 20mm CIWS variant
2 Flight IIA Restart (1 additional Ships planned)
Flight IIA Technology Insertion (10 planned)
Flight III (14 currently planned)
Operator:
Commissioned: 4 July 1991
Status: In active service
-class destroyer
Type: Multi-role destroyer
Builder: (IHI in Tokyo and others)
Displacement: 3,500 tons (empty); 5,200 tons (full load)
Armament: RGM-84 Harpoon SSM, Sea Sparrow, ASROC anti-submarine rocket, 1 × 76 mm 62cal rapid fire gun (OTO Melara 3), 2 × 20mm CIWS, 2 × Type 68 triple torpedo tubes
Propulsion: 4 gas turbines, two shafts (54,000 shaft horsepower)
Speed:
Ships in class: 8
Operator:
Commissioned: 17 March 1988
Status: In active service; 2 converted to training vessels
-class destroyer
Builder: (MHI)
Type: Large guided-missile destroyer
Displacement: 10,000 tons
Armament: 1 × 5-inch (127 mm/L62) Mk 45 Mod 4 naval gun in a stealth-shaped mount. (Made by Japan Steel Works licensed from its original manufacturer); 2 × missile canister up to 8 Type 90 (SSM-1B); 2 × 20 mm Phalanx CIWS; 2 × Type 68 triple torpedo tubes (6 × Mk 46 or Type 73 torpedoes); 96-cell Mk 41 VLS: (64 at the bow / 32 cells at the stern aft) for a mix of: SM-2MR Standard missile, SM-3 anti-ballistic missile and RUM-139 vertical launch ASROC (anti-submarine)
Powerplant: CODOG
Speed: 30 knots
Ships in class: 2
Operator:
Commissioned: 15 March 2007
Status: In active service
(KDX-II)-class destroyer
Builders:
Type: Guided-missile destroyer
Displacement: 6,520 tons
Armament: 1 32-cell Mk 41 VLS for SM-2 SM-2 Block IIIA SAM, 1 21-round RAM launcher, 1 30 mm Goalkeeper CIWS, 1 Mk 45 Mod4 127 mm gun, 8 Harpoon SSM, 2 triple 324 mm torpedo tubes
Powerplant: CODOG 2 MTU 20V 956 TB 82 diesel, 2 LM2500 gas turbines, 2 shafts
Speed: 30 knots
Ships in class: 6
Operator:
Commissioned: December 2003
Status: In active service
-class destroyer
Builders: (Mazgaon Dockyard in Mumbai)
Type: Guided-missile destroyer
Displacement: 6,200 tons
Aircraft: 2 Sea King helicopters
Armament: 16 × SS-N-25 Switchblade SSM; 2 × 3S-90 launchers fitted with Shtil SAM system; 1 × 100 mm AK-100; 4 × 30 mm AK-630; 5 × 533 mm PTA 533 quintuple torpedo tube launchers; 2 × RBU-6000 Anti-submarine rocket launchers
Powerplant: 2 cruise diesels and 2 AM-50 boost gas turbines, 60,000 shp total power
Speed: 32+ knots
Ships in class: 3 total
Operator:
Commissioned: 15 November 1997
Status: All in active service
-class destroyer
Builders:
Displacement: 5,560 tons
Armament: 1 Standard SAM launcher, 1 octuple Aspide SAM missile launcher, 8 Otomat SSM, 1 127 mm gun, 3 Otobreda 76 mm guns, 6 324 mm torpedo tubes
Powerplant: 2 LM-2500 gas turbines, 2 Diesels
Speed: 31.5 knots
Ships in class: 2
Operator:
Commissioned: 1993
Status: In active service
(KDX-1 Okpo)-class destroyer
Builders: (Daewoo in Geoje)
Type: Destroyer
Displacement: 3,900 tons
Armament: 2 × quadruple Harpoon missile canisters, 1 × Mk 48 Mod 2 VLS with 16 Sea Sparrow missiles, 1 × OTO Melara 127 mm (5 in)/54 gun, 2 × Signaal 30 mm Goalkeeper CIWS, 2 × triple Mark 46 torpedo tubes
Aircraft: 2 × Super Lynx helicopters
Powerplant: 2 General Electric LM2500-30 gas turbines and 2 SsangYong 20V 956 TB 82 diesel engines; two shafts
Speed: 30 knots
Ships in class: 3
Operator:
Commissioned: 24 July 1998
Status: In active service
-class destroyer
Builders: (Mitsubishi in Nagasaki)
Type: Guided-missile destroyer
Displacement:
Hatakaze: 6,096 tons
Shimakaze: 6,147 tons
Armament: RGM-84 Harpoon SSM, RIM-66B Standard SAM, ASROC anti-submarine rocket, 2 × 5-inch 54cal rapid fire gun (Mk 42), 2 × 20 mm CIWS, 2 × Type 68 triple torpedo tubes
Powerplant: 4 gas turbines (2 × Kawasaki Rolls-Royce Spey SM1A for cruising) (2 × Olympus TM3B x2 for high speed only); two shafts (72,000 shaft horsepower)
Speed: 30 knots
Ships in class: 2
Operator:
Commissioned: 27 March 1986
Status: In active service
-class destroyer
Builders:
Type: Multi-role destroyer
Displacement: 4,000 tons
Armament: Harpoon SSM, Sea Sparrow SSM, ASROC anti-submarine rocket, 1 × Otobreda 76 mm gun, 2 × 20 mm CIWS, 2 × Type 68 triple torpedo tubes
Powerplant: 4 gas turbines, two shafts (45,000 hp)
Speed: 30 knots
Ships in class: 12
Operator:
Commissioned: 23 March 1982
Status: In active service, 1 converted to training vessel
-class destroyer
Builders: (Navantia, in Ferrol)
Type: Air Warfare Destroyer
Displacement: 7,000 tons
Aircraft: MH-60 Seahawk
Armament: *48-cell Mark 41 Vertical Launch System, RIM-66 Standard 2 missile, RIM-162 Evolved Sea Sparrow missile, 2 × 4-canister Harpoon missile launchers, 1 × Mark 45 (Mod 4) 5-inch gun, 2 × Mark 32 Mod 9 two-tube torpedo launchers, Eurotorp MU90 torpedoes, 1 × Phalanx CIWS, 2 × 25mm M242 Bushmaster autocannons in Typhoon mounts
Powerplant: Combined diesel or gas (CODOG) arrangement, 2 × General Electric Marine model 7LM2500-SA-MLG38 gas turbines, 17,500 kilowatts (23,500 hp) each, 2 × Caterpillar Bravo 16 V Bravo diesel engines, 5,650 kilowatts (7,580 hp) each, 2 × controllable pitch propellers
Speed: Over
Range: Over at
Ships in class: 3
Operator:
Commissioned: 2017
Status: In active service
-class destroyer
Builders: ,
Type: Anti-air warfare frigate
Displacement: 5,290 tons (7,050 tons full load)
Aircraft: 1 NH90 or EH101
Armament: 8 × ExocetMM40 SSM (French version) or 8 × TESEO Mk 2/A SSM (Italian version), 2 × Otobreda 76 mm super rapid guns, 2 × 20 mm modèle F2 guns or 2 × KBA Oerlikon 25 mm/80, PAAMS (Principal Anti-Air Missile System): Sylver A50 vertical launchers with 32 Aster 30 and 16 Aster 15 missiles, 2 × MU90 Impact double torpedo tubes, 2 × SCLAR-H chaff, decoy and flares launchers, 2 × SLAT anti torpedo system
Powerplant: 2 × 31,280 hp GE/Avio General Electric LM2500 gas turbines, 2 × 5,875 hp SEMT Pielstick 12 PA6 STC diesels
Speed: 29 knots
Range: 7,000 nmi at 18 knots
Ships in class: 4
Operator: ,
Commissioned: 2007
Status: In active service
(Project 61M)-class destroyer
Builder:
Type: Surface warfare guided-missile destroyer
Displacement: 4,390 tons
Armament: 32 SA-N-1 SAM; 4 × 76 mm guns; 5 × 533 mm torpedo tubes; 4 RBU-6000
Powerplant: COGAG arrangement; 4 M8E gas turbines; 2 shafts; total power
Speed:
Range: at
Ships in class: 25 total: 14 Kashin, 6 Kashin Mod, and 5 class
Operators: , ,
Commissioned: 1960
Status: 2 Rajput in active service
Kee Lung (Kidd)-class destroyer
Builders:
Type: Guided-missile destroyer
Displacement: 9,783 tons
Armament: 2 × Mark 26 Standard missile launchers, 2 × Mark 141 quad launcher with 8 × RGM-84 Harpoon, 2 × Mark 15 20mm Phalanx CIWS, 2 × Mark 45 5in/54 caliber gun, 2 × Mark 32 triple tube mounts with 6 × Mark 46 torpedoes1 × Mark 112 ASROC launcher
Propulsion: 4 × General Electric LM2500-30 gas turbines, 80,000 shp total
Speed: 35 knots
Ships in class: 4
Operators:
Commissioned: 21 March 1981
Status: In active service
-class destroyer
Builders: (Mazagaon Dockyard)
Type: Guided-missile destroyer
Displacement: 7,400 tons
Aircraft: 2 Sea King or Dhruv helicopters
Armament: 16 × BrahMos SSM; 32 × Barak-8 SAM; 1 × 76 mm SRGM; 4 × 30 mm AK-630; 4 × 533 mm PTA 533 quintuple torpedo tube launchers; 2 × RBU-6000 Anti-submarine rocket launchers
Powerplant: 4 × gas turbines
Speed: in excess of 30 knots
Ships in class: 3 total
Operator:
Commissioned: 16 August 2014
Status: All in active service
-class destroyer
Builders: (Mitsubishi in Nagasaki, Ishihari in Tokyo)
Type: Large Air Defense guided-missile destroyer
Displacement: 9,485 tons
Armament: RGM-84 Harpoon SSM, RIM-66 Standard SAM, RUM-139 Vertical Launch ASROC, 1 × 5 inch (127 mm) / 54 caliber Oto-Breda Compact Gun, 2 × 20 mm Phalanx CIWS, 2 × Mark 32 triple torpedo tubes (6 × Mk-46 torpedoes)
Powerplant: 4 × Ishikawajima Harima/General Electric LM2500-30(100,000 shp)
Speed: 30 knots
Ships in class: 4
Operator:
Commissioned: 25 March 1993
Status: In active service
-class destroyer
Builder: (JMU)
Type: Large guided-missile destroyer
Displacement: 10,250 tons
Armament: 1 × 5-inch (127 mm)/62 Mk. 45 Mod 4 gun, 8 × Type 17 anti-ship missiles in quad canisters, 2 × 20 mm Phalanx CIWS, 2 × HOS-303 triple torpedo tubes (Mark 46, Type 97, or Type 12 torpedoes), 96-cell Mk. 41 Vertical Launching System (SM-2MR Standard Missile, SM-3 Anti-Ballistic Missile, SM-6 Standard Missile, Type 07 VL-ASROC, and RIM-162 Evolved Sea Sparrow)
Powerplant: COGLAG
Speed: 30 knots
Ships in class: 2
Operator:
Commissioned: 19 March 2020
Status: In active service
-class destroyer
Builders: (IHI in Tokyo and others)
Type: Multi-role destroyer
Displacement: 4,550 tons (6,200 tons full load)
Armament: SSM-1B SSM, Sea Sparrow SSM, ASROC anti-submarine rocket, 1 × 76 mm 62 cal rapid fire gun (OTO Melara 3), 2 × 20 mm CIWS, 2 × Type 68 triple torpedo tubes
Powerplant: 4 gas turbines, two shafts (60, 000 shaft horsepower)
Speed: 30 knots
Ships in class: 9
Operator:
Commissioned: 12 March 1996
Status: In active service
(KDX-III)-class destroyer
Builders: (Hyundai Heavy Industries)
Type: Guided-missile destroyer
Displacement: 10,600 tons
Armament: 1 × 5-inch (127 mm/L62) Mk-45 Mod 4 (lightweight gun), 1 × 30 mm Goalkeeper CIWS, 1 × RIM-116 Rolling Airframe Missile launcher, SM-2 Block IIIB in Mk. 41 80-cell Vertical Launching System, 4 × SSM-700K Hae Sung long-range anti-ship missile launchers with four missiles in each launcher, 32 × Hyunmoo IIIC land-attack cruise missiles + 16 × K-ASROC in 48-cell Vertical Launching System, 32 × K745 LW Cheong Sahng-uh torpedoes
Aircraft: 2 × Westland Lynx Mk.99 ASW helicopters with full accommodations including hangars
Powerplant: 4 General Electric LM2500 COGAG; two shafts, (100,000 total shaft horsepower (75 MW))
Speed: 30 knots
Ships in class: 3
Operator:
Commissioned: 25 May 2007
Status: In active service
(Project 956 Sarych)-class destroyer
Builders: / (Severnaya Verf 190 in St. Petersburg)
Type: Large surface-warfare guided-missile destroyer
Displacement: 8,480 tons
Aircraft: 1 Kamov Ka-27 Helix
Armament: 8 Moskit SSM; 48 SA-N-7 SAM; 4 × 130 mm guns; 4 AK-630 CIWS
Powerplant: 4 boilers; 2 steam turbines; 2 shafts; 99,500 shp total power
Speed: 32 knots
Ships in class: 25 total: 14 Project 956; 9 Project 956A; 2 Project 956ME
Operators: , ,
Commissioned: 25 December 1980
Status: 2 in service with Russia, 4 with People's Republic of China; 2 awaiting disposal; 4 cancelled before completion; 2 scrapped
-class destroyer
Builders:
Type: Multi-role destroyer
Displacement: 6,300 tons
Armament: Mitsubishi Type 90 SSM-1B SSM, Sea Sparrow SSM, ASROC anti-submarine rocket, 1 × Otobreda 127 mm/54 gun, 2 × 20 mm CIWS, 2 × Type 68 triple torpedo tubes
Powerplant: 4 gas turbines, two shafts (60,000 shaft horsepower)
Speed: 30 knots
Ships in class: 5
Operator:
Commissioned: 12 March 2003
Status: In active service
Type 42 destroyer
Builders:
Type: Guided-missile destroyer
Displacement:
Batch 1 & 2: 4350 tons
Batch 3: 5,350
Aircraft: 1 Westland Lynx helicopter
Armament: Early: GWS-30 Sea Dart anti-aircraft missile, 1 × Vickers 4.5-inch gun, 2 × 20 mm Oerlikon guns; Later: 2 × three tube STWS-1 launchers for (Mk 44 / 46, Stingray) torpedoes, 2 × 20 mm Phalanx CIWS, 4 × Oerlikon / BMARC 30 mm L/75 KCB guns in GCM-A03 twin mounts, 2 × Oerlikon / BMARC 20 mm BMARC L/70 KBA guns in GAM-B01 single mounts
Powerplant: 2 Rolls-Royce Olympus TM3B high-speed gas turbines and 2 Rolls-Royce Tyne RM1A cruise gas turbines
Speed: 30 knots
Ships in class: 16 total: 8 Batch I, 4 Batch II, 4 Batch 3
Operators: ,
Commissioned: 16 February 1975
Status: 1 in active service, 2 sunk, 12 scrapped, 1 decommissioned
Type 45 destroyer
Builders:
Type: Air defense destroyer
Displacement: 8,500 tons
Aircraft: 1 Westland Lynx HMA8 helicopter or 1 × Merlin HM1 helicopter
Armament: SYLVER missile launcher, 48 × MBDA Aster missiles (Aster 15 and Aster 30), 2 × 20 mm Phalanx CIWS close-in weapons systems (fitted for but not with), 1 × 4.5-inch (113 mm) Mk 8 mod 1 gun, 2 × Oerlikon 30 mm KCB guns on DS-30B mounts, NATO Seagnat countermeasures launchers, SSTDS underwater decoy
Powerplant: 2 Rolls-Royce WR-21 gas turbines (21.5 MW); 2 Converteam electric motors (20 MW)
Speed: 29+ knots
Ships in class: 6 total
Operators:
Commissioned: 23 July 2009
Status: 6 in active service
(Project 1155 Fregat)-class destroyer
Builders: / (Yantar Zavod 180 in Kaliningrad)
Type: Large anti-submarine guided-missile destroyer (Russian designation of 'large anti-submarine ship')
Displacement: 7,620 tons
Aircraft: 2 Kamov Ka-27 helicopters
Armament: 8 SS-N-14 or Moskit SSM; 8 SA-N-9 SAM; 2 × 100 mm guns; 4 × 30 mm guns; 2 RBU-6000
Powerplant: COGAG arrangement; 2 M8KF and 2 M62 gas turbines; 60,000 shp total power
Speed: 29 knots
Ships in class: 15 total: 12 Udaloy I and 3 Udaloy II
Operator: ,
Commissioned: 1980
Status: 6 Udaloy I in active service and 1 Udaloy II in refit; 2 burned; 2 stricken; 1 in overhaul; 2 Udaloy II cancelled before completion
-class destroyer
Builders: (Mazagaon Dockyard)
Type: Guided-missile destroyer
Displacement: 7,400 tons
Aircraft: 2 Sea King or Dhruv helicopters
Armament: 16 × BrahMos SSM; 32 × Barak-8 SAM; 1 × 76 mm SRGM; 4 × 30 mm AK-630; 4 × 533 mm PTA 533 quintuple torpedo tube launchers; 2 × RBU-6000 Anti-submarine rocket launchers
Powerplant: 4 × gas turbines
Speed: in excess of 30 knots
Ships in class: 4 total
Operator:
Commissioned: 21 November 2021
Status: 2 active service
-class destroyer
Type: Multi-mission stealth ships
Builder:
Displacement: 15,907 tons
Aircraft: 1 × SH-60 LAMPS or MH-60R helicopter, 3 × MQ-8 Fire Scout VT-UAVs
Armament: 80 VLS launch cells in 20 × Mk 57 VLS RIM-162 Evolved Sea Sparrow Missile (ESSM), 4 per cell, Tactical Tomahawk, 1 per cell, Vertical Launch Anti-Submarine Missile (ASROC), 1 per cell, 2 × 155 mm (6 in)/62 caliber Advanced Gun System; (unusable, no ammunition); 2 × 30 mm (1.2 in) Mk 46 Mod 2 Gun Weapon System
Propulsion: 2 × Rolls-Royce MT30 gas turbines (35.4 MW (47,500 hp) each) driving Curtiss-Wright electric generators, 2 × Rolls-Royce RR4500 turbine generators (3.8 MW (5,100 hp) each), 2 × propellers driven by electric motors, Total: 78 MW (105,000 shp)
Speed:
Ships in class: 3
Operator:
Commissioned: 15 October 2016
Status: 2 in active service, 1 under construction
Frigates
Type 053H, 053H1, 053H2, 053H1Q, 053H1G frigate (NATO codename Jianghu I, II, III, IV, V)
Builders: (Jiangnan Shipyard and Hudong Shipyard in Shanghai)
Type: Patrol frigate
Displacement: 1,800 tons
Armament: 2–8 × C-201 or C-801 SSM; 2 × 100 mm guns; 4–8 × 37 mm guns
Powerplant: 4 MTU diesel engines; 2 shafts; 26,500 hp total power
Speed: 28 knots
Range: 3,500 nmi at 18 knots
Ships in class: 39 total: 14 Jianghu I, 9 Jianghu II, 3 Jianghu III, 1 Jianghu IV, 6 Jianghu V, 6 export version
Operators: , , , ,
Commissioned: 1976
Status: Most in active service, 7 retired
Type 053H3 frigate (NATO codename Jiangwei II)
Builders: (Hudong Shipyard in Shanghai and Huangpo Shipyard in Guangzhou)
Type: Multi-role guided-missile frigate
Displacement: 2,250–2,393 tons
Aircraft: 1 Harbin Z-9 helicopter
Armament: 8 × YJ-83 SSM; 8 × HQ-7 SAM; 4 × dual-37 mm guns; 1 × dual-100 mm gun; 2 × 6-tube ASW rocket launchers; 6 × torpedo launchers; 2 × 15-barrel decoy rocket launchers; 2 × DC racks & launcher
Powerplant: 4 diesel engines; 2 shafts; 22,840 bhp total power
Speed: 28 knots
Range: 4,000 nmi at 18 knots
Ships in class: 14
Operator: , , (F-22P Zulfiquar class)
Commissioned: 1999
Status: In active service
Type 054 frigate (NATO codename Jiangkai I)
Builders: (Hudong Shipyard in Shanghai and Huangpu Shipyard in Guangzhou)
Type: Multi-role guided-missile frigate
Displacement: 3,000–4,300 tons (estimated)
Aircraft: 1 Z-9 or Kamov Ka-28 helicopter
Armament: 2 × 4 YJ-83 (C-803) SSM; 1 × HQ-7 8-cell SAM; 1 × 100 mm gun; 4 × AK-630 37 mm CIWS; 2 × triple 324mm YU-7 ASW torpedoes; 2 × rocket launchers, possibly ASW rockets or decoy rockets
Powerplant: 2 French SEMT Pielstick diesels, 21,000 hp, 2 MTU Friedrichshafen 20V 956TB92, 8,840 hp
Speed: 25–30 knots
Ships in class: 2: Ma'anshan (525), Wenzhou (526)
Operator:
Commissioned: February 2005
Status: In active service
Type 054A frigate (NATO codename Jiangkai II)
Builders: (Hudong Shipyard in Shanghai and Huangpu Shipyard in Guangzhou)
Type: Multi-role guided-missile frigate
Displacement: 3,600–4,053 tons (estimated)
Aircraft: 1 Z-9 or Kamov Ka-28 helicopter
Armament: 2 × 4 YJ-83 (C-803) SSM; 1 × HQ-16 32-cell VLS SAM; 1 × 76 mm dual purpose gun; 2 × Type 730 7-barrel 30 mm CIWS; 2 × triple 324mm YU-7 ASW torpedoes; 2 × 6 Type 87 240mm anti-submarine rocket launcher (36 rockets carried); 2 × Type 726-4 18-tube decoy rocket launchers
Powerplant: 4 Shaanxi/SEMT Pielstick diesels
Speed: 27 knots (estimated)
Ships in class: 31
Operator:
Commissioned: January 2008
Status: In active service
-class frigate
Type: Frigate
Builder:
Displacement: 4,500 tons
Aircraft: 2 × EH-101 or 2 MH-60R helicopters
Armament: 36 × RIM-162 ESSM SAM, 16 × Harpoon block II SSM, 1 × 5"/54 caliber Mark 45 gun, 4 × MU90 Impact torpedoes, 2 × Millennium 35mm CIWS, 7 × 12.7mm HMG
Propulsion: 2 × MTU 8000 M70 diesel engines, Two shafts - 22,300 bhp (16.6 MW)
Speed:
Ships in class: 2
Operator:
Commissioned: 19 October 2004
Status: In active service
-class destroyer escort
Type: Destroyer escort
Builder:
Displacement: 2,550 tons
Armament: 8 Harpoon Missiles SSM, ASROC octuple launcher, 1 Otobreda 76 mm, 1 Phalanx CIWS, 1 375 mm ASW rocket launcher, 2 triple 324 mm Mk 32 ASW torpedo tubes
Propulsion: 2 Spey SM1A gas turbines, 2 Mitsubishi, 2 shafts
Speed:
Ships in class: 6
Operator:
Commissioned: 12 December 1989
Status: In active service
Almirante Padilla-class Frigate
Type: Frigate
Builder:
Displacement: 2,100 tons
Armament: 8 × SSM-700K C-Stars SSM, 2 × SIMBAD SAM 1 × OTO Melara 76 mm/62 cal Strales Compact gun 1 × twin Breda 40 mm/70 guns 6 × 324 mm torpedo tubes
Propulsion: 2 TB92 diesel engines
Speed:
Ships in class: 4
Operator:
Commissioned: 31 October 1983
Status: In active service
(F100)-class frigate
Builders: (Navantia, in Ferrol)
Type: Air defense guided-missile frigate
Displacement: 6,250 tons
Aviation: 1 Sikorsky SH-60B LAMPS III Seahawk helicopter
Armament: 1 × 5-inch/54 Mk45 Mod 2 gun, 2 × CIWS FABA 20 mm/120 Meroka gun, 6 × Mk41 8-cell VLS (32 × Standard SM-2 Block IIIA, 64 × RIM-162 Evolved SeaSparrow Missile), 8 × RGM-84 Harpoon, 4 × 324 mm Mk32 Mod 9 triple Torpedo launchers with 12 Honeywell Mk46 mod 5 Torpedo
Powerplant: 2 × General Electric LM2500 gas turbines, 2 × Caterpillar 3600 diesel engines
Speed: 29+ knots
Ships in class: 5 + (3 under construction)
Operator: , (three built as destroyer)
Commissioned: 19 September 2002
Status: In active service
-class frigate
Type: Frigate
Builder: Tenix for ,
Displacement: 3,600 tons
Armament: 1 × 8-cell Mk 41 VLS, 8 × canister launched Harpoon missiles (Australian ships only), 1 × 5 in/54 (127 mm) Mk 45 Mod 2 gun, 6 × 324 mm (2 triple) Mk 32 Mod 5 torpedo tubes, 1 × Phalanx CIWS (NZ ships only), 6 × 50 calibre machine guns.
Propulsion: 1 × General Electric LM2500+ gas turbine and 2 × MTU 12V1163 TB83 diesel engines, 2 shafts
Speed:
Ships in class: 10
Operator: ,
Commissioned: 18 September 1996
Status: In active service
Artigliere-class patrol frigate
Type: Multi-role frigate
Builder:
Displacement: 2,400 tons
Armament: 8 missiles Teseo Otomat SSM, 16 Sea Sparrow SAMs, OTO Melara 127 mm/54 gun, 2 twin Breda 40 mm/70 AA
Propulsion: 2 gas turbines Fiat/GE LM 2500, 2 Diesel GMT Bl 230.20 M, 2 shafts
Speed:
Ships in class: 4
Operator:
Commissioned: 1994
Status: In active service
-class frigate
Builders: ,
Type: Guided-missile frigate
Displacement: 3,700 tons
Aircraft: 1 SH-60 Seahawk helicopter
Armament: 1 OTO Melara 76/62 Super Rapid, 2 30mm DS30M Mark 2, 2 M2 Browning .50 caliber, 1 Phalanx CIWS, 8 RGM-84L Block II Harpoon anti-ship missile, 8-cell Mk. 41 VLS
Propulsion: 2 × Diesel engine MTU 16V1163 M94, 1 × General Electric LM2500 gas turbine
Speed: 33.3 knots
Ships in class: 1
Operator:
Commissioned: 7 January 2019
Status: In active service
-class frigate
Builders:
Type: Guided-missile frigate
Displacement: 3,850 tons
Armament: 16 3M-24E (SS-N-25 Switchblade) SSMs, Barak 1 system, 1 Otobreda 76 mm gun, 1 AK-630 30 mm, 2 triple torpedo tubes with Whitehead A244S torpedoes
Propulsion: Two Bhopal turbines, two 550 psi boilers, 2 shafts
Speed: 30+ knots
Ships in class: 3
Operator:
Commissioned: 14 April 2000
Status: In active service
-class frigate
Builders:
Type: Anti-submarine guided-missile frigate
Displacement: 4,900 tons
Aircraft: 2 Sea Lynx Mk.88A or 2 NH90 helicopters
Armament: 1 VLS with 16 cells Sea Sparrow SAM; 2 RAM launchers (21 missiles each); 4 Exocet SSM; 1 Otobreda 76 mm gun; 2 MLG 27 autocannons; 4 324 mm torpedo tubes with Mk46 Mod 2 torpedoes
Powerplant: 2 MTU 20V 956 TB92 diesel-engines, 2 General Electric LM2500 gas turbines; 2 shafts
Speed: 29 knots
Ships in class: 4
Operator:
Commissioned: 1994–1996
Status: In active service
-class frigate
Builders:
Type: Multi purpose guided-missile frigate
Displacement: 3,680 tons
Aircraft: 2 Sea Lynx Mk.88A helicopters
Armament: 16 Sparrow SAM; 2 RAM launchers (21 missiles each); 2 quadruple Harpoon SSM launchers; 1 Otobreda 76 mm gun; 2 MLG 27 autocannons; 2 324 mm twin torpedo tubes with Mk46 Mod 2 torpedoes
Powerplant: 2 MTU 20V 956 TB92 diesel-engines, 2 General Electric LM2500 gas turbines; 2 shafts
Speed: 30 knots
Ships in class: 8
Operators:
Commissioned: 1982–1990
Status: Retired
-class frigate
Builders:
Type: Air defense guided-missile frigate
Displacement: 4,500 tons
Aircraft: 1 Eurocopter Panther helicopter
Armament: 40 Tartar SM1 SAM; 12 Sadral SAM; 8 Exocet MM38 SSM; 1 × 100 mm gun; 2 × 20 mm guns; 10 L5 torpedoes
Powerplant: 4 Pielstick diesel engines; 2 shafts; 42,300 bhp total power
Speed: 29 knots
Range: 8,000 nmi at 17 knots
Ships in class: 2
Operator:
Commissioned: 1988
Status: Retired
-class frigate
Builders: (Royal Schelde)
Type: Air-defense and command frigate
Displacement: 6,050 tons
Armament: 5 Mk41 VLS with 8 cells each containing 32 ESSM and 32 SM-2 IIIA, 1-2 Goalkeeper CIWS, 2 quadruple Harpoon SSM, 1 Oto Breda 127 mm/54 dual-purpose gun, 2 twin MK32 Mod 9 torpedo launchers with Raytheon MK46 Mod 5 torpedoes
Powerplant: 2 Stork Wärtsilä 16V26 diesel engines, 2 Rolls-Royce Spey SM1a gas turbines, 2shafts
Speed: 30 knots
Ships in class: 4
Operator:
Commissioned: 26 April 2002
Status: In active service
-class frigate
Builders:
Type: Patrol frigate (French designation Fregate de Surveillance)
Displacement: 2,750 tons
Aircraft: 1 Eurocopter Panther helicopter
Armament: 2 Exocet MM38 SSM; 1 × 100 mm gun; 2 × 20 mm guns
Powerplant: 4 Pielstick diesel engines; 2 shafts; 8,800 hp total power
Speed: 20 knots
Range: 10,000 nmi at 15 knots
Ships in class: 8
Operators: ,
Commissioned: 1991
Status: In active service
-class frigate
Builders: /
Type: Stealthy patrol frigate
Displacement:
Aircraft: 1 Sikorsky S-70B helicopter
Armament: Harpoon SSM; MBDA Aster SAM; Whitehead Alenia A.224S torpedoes; Otobreda 76 mm gun
Powerplant: MTU 20V 8000 diesel engines x4 at 8,200 kW each, two shafts
Speed:
Range:
Ships in class: 6
Operator:
Commissioned: 2004
Status: In active service
FREMM multipurpose frigate (multiple classes)
Builders: /
Type: Stealth Multipurpose frigate
Displacement: France ; Italy
Aircraft: 1 NH90 or 2 SH90 helicopters
Armament: Sylver VLS; MBDA Aster AAW and ASW; Exocet (France) and Teseo/Otomat Mk-2A Anti-ship missiles; MU90 torpedoes; OTO Melara 76 mm guns
Powerplant: CODLOG/CODLAG
Speed: France +; Italy +
Range: France , Italy
Ships in class: 16
Operators: : , 8 ships: Bergamini-class, 10 ships: Aquitaine-class (purchased from France), 3 ships: Mohammed VI (single ship class): , 15 ships planned
Commissioned: 2012–present
Status: In active service
-class frigate
Builders: (Navantia in Ferrol)
Type: ASW/multirole frigate
Displacement: 5,121 tons
Aircraft: 1 NHI NH90 helicopter
Armament: Mk41 VLS 32 × ESSM; 8 × Naval Strike Missile SSM; 1 × 76 mm OTO Melara(SR) gun; 4 machine guns; Depth charge; 4 × 12.75-inch torpedo tubes for Sting Ray torpedoes
Powerplant: 2 Two BAZAN BRAVO 12V 4.5 MW diesel engines
Speed: 26+ knots; One GE LM2500 21.5 MW gas turbine+2 Diesel 4.5 MW each; 2 shafts
Ships in class: 5
Operator:
Commissioned: 5 April 2006
Status: In active service
(Type F70)-class frigate
Builders:
Type: Anti-submarine warfare guided-missile frigate
Displacement: 4,500 tons
Aircraft: 2 Lynx WG13 Mk.4 helicopters
Armament: 4 Exocet MM38 SSM; 26 Crotale SAM; 4 Mistral SAM; 1 × 100 mm gun; 2 × 20 mm guns; 4 machine guns; 10 L5 torpedoes
Powerplant: CODOG arrangement; 2 Pielstick diesel engines plus 2 Rolls-Royce Olympus gas turbines; 2 shafts; 52,000 hp total power
Speed: 30 knots
Range: 10,000 nmi at 15 knots
Ships in class: 7
Operator:
Commissioned: 1979
Status: 1 In active service
-class frigate
Builders: (Saint John Shipbuilding, Saint John, NB & MIL Davie Shipbuilding, Lauzon, QC)
Type: Large multi-role guided-missile frigate with helicopter (Designated multi-role patrol frigate in the CF)
Displacement: 4,770 tons
Aircraft: 1 × CH-148 Cyclone helicopter
Armament: 8 × MK 141 RGM-84 Harpoon SSM; 16 × Sea Sparrow SAM/SSM; 1 × Bofors SAK 57 mm; 1 × Phalanx CIWS (Block 1); 8 × M2 Machine Guns; 4 × MK 32 torpedo launchers
Powerplant: CODOG – 2 shafts: 2 turbines (47,500 shp), 1 diesel (8,800 shp)
Speed: 29+ knots
Ships in class: 12
Operator:
Commissioned: 29 June 1992
Status: In active service
Hamilton–class cutter
Builders:
Type: High Endurance Cutter
Displacement: 3,250 metric tons
Armament:
1 × OTO Melara Mk 75 76 mm gun
2 × Mk 38 25 mm Machine Gun Systems
1 × Phalanx CIWS
6 × .50 cal machine guns
Speed: 29 knots
Ships in class: 12
Operators: , , , , ,
Commissioned: 27 September 1971
Status: In active service
-class frigate
Builders: ,
Type: Multi-purpose frigate
Displacement: 3,360 tons
Armament: 16 ESSM SAM; 8 Harpoon AShM; 1 × Mk 42 5 inch gun; 2 Phalanx CIWS; 2 triple torpedo tubes
Powerplant: CODOG, 2 shafts
Speed: 31 knots
Ships in class: 4
Operator:
Commissioned: 1992
Status: In active service
-class frigate
Builders:
Type: Coastal defense frigate
Displacement: 2,800 tons
Armament: 1 Mk 45 Mod 4 127mm gun, 1 20mm Phalanx CIWS, 1 RAM block 1, 16 SSM-700K Haeseong missiles, 2 triple torpedo tubes
Powerplant: CODOG 2 General Electric LM-2500 Gas turbine, 2 MTU 1163 TB83 diesel engine
Speed: 30 knots
Range: 8,000 at 18 knots
Ships in class: 6
Operator:
Commissioned: 17 January 2013
Status: In active service
-class frigate
Builders: (Odense Staalskibsværft)
Type: Air Defense Frigate
Displacement: 6,645 tons
Aircraft: 1 × Westland Lynx Mk 90B (or, from 2017, 1 × Seahawk MH-60R)
Armament: 2 × 76 mm OTO Melara guns; 1 × 35 mm CIWS gun; 4 × Mk 41 Vertical Launch Systems (VLS) with up to 32 SM-2 IIIA SAM surface-to-air missiles;
2 × Mk 56 VLS with up to 24 RIM-162 ESSM SAM surface-to-air missiles; 8-16 × Harpoon Block II SSM surface-to-surface missiles; 2 × dual MU90 Impact ASW torpedo launchers for anti-submarine torpedoes
Powerplant: MTU 8000 20V M70 diesel engines, 8,2 MW each. Two shafts, CODAD
Speed:
Range: at
Complement: 165 officers and sailors
Ships in class: 3 (HDMS Iver Huitfeldt (F361), HDMS Peter Willemoes (F362) and HDMS Niels Juel (F363))
Operator:
Commissioned: 2012
Status: In active service
-class frigate
Builders:
Type: Anti-aircraft warfare (AAW) frigate
Displacement: 3,750 tons
Armament: Goalkeeper CIWS 30 mm gun system, 2 × 20 mm guns, 4 tubes for Mark 46 torpedo's (2 quad mounts), 8 × RGM-84 Harpoon anti-ship missile launchers (2 quad mounts), 1 × RIM-66 Standard SAM from a Mk 13 Guided Missile Launch System (40 missiles total), 8 × RIM-7 Sea Sparrow SAM from a Mk 29 Guided Missile Launch System (8 missile in the launcher and 16 in the magazine)
Powerplant: 2 Rolls-Royce Tyne RM1C gas turbines, 4,900 shp (3,700 kW) each & 2 Rolls-Royce Olympus TM3B gas turbines, 25,700 shp (19,200 kW) each (boost)
Speed: 30 knots (max)
Ships in class: 2
Operators:
Commissioned: 15 January 1986
Status: In active service
-class frigate
Builders:
Type: Multi-purpose frigate
Displacement: 3,320 tons
Armament: Oto Melara 76 mm gun, Sea Sparrow VLS; Harpoon Missile; Goalkeeper CIWS; Mk 46 Torpedoes
Powerplant: 2 Rolls-Royce (Spey 1A) gas turbines (33.800 pk total), 2* Stork-Werkspoor diesel engines (9.790 pk total)
Speed: 29 knots
Ships in class: 8
Operators: , , ,
Commissioned: 31 May 1991
Status: In active service
-class frigate
Builders: (Blohm + Voss in Kiel)
Type: Light frigate
Displacement: 1,850 tons
Armament: 1 × Creusot Loire Compact 100 mm/55 DP gun, 1 × Bofors 57 mm/70 DP gun, 2 dual 30 mm Emerlec Mk 74 twin mountings AA gun, MANPADs SAM, 8 × MBDA Exocet MM40-Block 2, 1 × Bofors 375 mm twin barrel ASW
Powerplant: 4 × MTU 20V 1163 TB92 diesels, 21.460 hp, 2 shafts
Speed: 28 knots
Ships in class: 2 total:
Operator:
Commissioned: 15 August 1984
Status: In active service
-class frigate
Builders: ,
Type: Anti-submarine frigate
Displacement: 4,200 tons
Aviation: 1 helicopter
Armament: 8 ARSOC; 8 Harpoon SSM; 1 × Mk 42 5-inch/54 caliber gun; 1 Phalanx CIWS; 4 Mk 46 torpedo tubes
Powerplant: 2 – 1200 psi boilers; 1 geared turbine, 1 shaft; 35,000 hp
Speed: 27 knots
Ships in class: 51
Operators: , , , , ,
Commissioned: 12 April 1969
Status: Some in active service
(Project 1159)-class frigate
Builders: (Zelenodolsk Shipyard in Zelenodolsk, Tatarstan)
Type: Coastal anti-submarine warfare frigate
Displacement: 1,900 tons
Armament: 4 Styx SSM; 20 SA-N-4 SAM; 4 × 76 mm; 4 × 30 mm
Powerplant: CODAG arrangement; 2 diesel engines; 1 gas turbine; 35,000 shp total power
Speed: 27 knots
Ships in class: 14 total: 6 Koni I and 8 Koni II
Operator: , , , ,
Commissioned: 1976
Status: Most in active service
(Project 1135 Burevestnik)-class frigate
Builders: / / (Severnaya Verf 190 in St. Petersburg; Yantar Zavod in Kaliningrad; Zaliv Zavod in Kerch)
Type:
Project 1135 Anti-submarine frigate (Russian designation 'patrol ship')
Project 11351 Border Guard Service of Russia
Project 11356 Frigate
Displacement:
3,575 tons (1135)
3,830 tons (11351)
4,035 tons (11356)
Armament:
4 × SSM; 40 × SS-N-4 SAM; 2 × 100 mm or 4 × 76 mm gun; 2 RPU-6000; 8 × 533 mm torpedoes; 16 mines (1135)
1 х 100 mm gun, 2 х 6 30mm guns, 2 × 4 533 mm torpedo tubes, 2 × RBU-6000 Anti-Submarine rockets (11351)
1 × 100 mm gun, two Kashtan CIWS systems, eight-cell VLS for 3M-54E Klub and BrahMos missiles, one 3S-90 launcher for 9M317 (SA-N-12) SAMs, eight Igla-1E (SA-16) SAMs, 1 × RBU-6000 rocket launcher, two twin 533 mm torpedo tubes (11356)
Aircraft: 1 Kamov Ka-27 (11351 and 11356)
Powerplant:
COGAG arrangement; 2 M8K and 2 M62 gas turbines; 2 shafts; 48,000 hp total power (1135)
2 × DS-71 gas turbines and 2 × DT-59 boost turbines, driving two shafts (11356)
Speed:
30 knots (1135)
32 (11356)
Ships in class:
32 (1135)
8 (11351)
4 + 5 laid down (11356)
Operators:
: 2 (1135), 2 (11351), 3 (11356)
: 1 (11351), stricken
: 6 (11356)
Commissioned:
1970 (1135)
1984 (11351)
2002 (11356)
Status: total 13 in service
-class frigate
Builders:
Type: Patrol frigate
Displacement:
Aircraft: 1 Eurocopter Panther helicopter
Armament: 8 Exocet SSM; 8 Crotale SAM; 1 × 100 mm gun; 2 × 20 mm guns
Powerplant: 4 diesel engines; 2 shafts; total power
Speed:
Range: at economical speed,
Ships in class: 14
Operators: , ,
Commissioned: 1995
Status: In active service
-class frigate
Builders: , ,
Type: General-purpose frigate
Displacement: 2,860 tons (Batch 1 & 2), 3,000 tons (Batch 3)
Armament: Various configurations
Powerplant: 2 steam turbines, 2 shafts, 25,000 shp
Speed: 28 knots
Ships in class: 46
Operators: , , , , , , , ,
Commissioned: 27 March 1963
Status: 8 in active service, 15 sunk as reefs/targets, 16 scrapped, 7 decommissioned
Legend–class cutter
Builders: (Ingalls Shipbuilding in Pascagoula)
Type: National Security Cutter
Displacement: 4,600 tons
Armament:
1 × Bofors 57 mm gun
1 × 20 mm Phalanx CIWS
4 × crew served .50 cal Browning M2 Machine Guns
2 × crew served M240B 7.62 mm machine guns
Designed for, but not with:
Rim-115 Rolling Airframe Missile SeaRAM
Others
Speed: 28 knots
Ships in class: 8 active, 11 total planned
Operator:
Commissioned: 4 August 2008
Status: In active service
-class frigate
Builders: (Yarrow Shipbuilders in Glasgow)
Type: Frigate
Displacement: 2,270 tons
Armament: 16 Seawolf SHORADS SAM, 8 MM40 Blk II Exocet SSM, 2 × B515 triple 12.75-inch torpedo for launching Whitehead 324 mm tubes, 1 Bofors 57 mm/70 dual purpose guns, 2 MSI 30 mm AA guns,
Powerplant: 4 × diesels driving 2 shafts, 16,000 bhp
Speed: 28 knots
Ships in class: 2
Operator:
Commissioned: December 1994
Status: 2 in active service
-class frigate
Builders:
Type: Multi-role frigate
Displacement: 2,525 tons
Armament: 8 Otomat Mk 2 SSMs, • 8 Sea Sparrows SAMs, 1 OTO Melara 127/54 mm gun, 2 Breda-Bofors twin 40/70 mm guns, 2 Mark 32 triple torpedo tubes
Powerplant: 2 General Electric / Fiat LM2500 gas turbines,2 GMT A230-20 diesel engines,
Speed: 35 knots
Ships in class: 14
Operators: , ,
Commissioned: 1978
Status: In active service
- class frigate
Builders:
Type: Multi-role frigate
Displacement: 3,040 tons
Armament: 4 missile launchers Teseo Mk 2, 1 8-cells missile launcher Albatros/Aspide, 1 × 127 mm/54 gun, 4 × 40 mm/70 guns, 2 × 533 mm torpedo launchers, 6 × ASW 324 mm torpedo launchers
Powerplant: 2 × General Electric/Avio LM2500 gas turbines, 2 D Grandi Motori Trieste BL-230-20-DVM, 2 shafts
Speed: 32–33 knots
Ships in class: 8
Operator:
Commissioned: 1980
Status: In active service
-class frigate
Builders: (Yantar Baltic Shipbuilding in Kaliningrad)
Type: Anti-submarine warfare frigate
Displacement: 4,000 tons
Aircraft: 1 Kamov Ka-27 helicopter
Armament: 8 Kh-35 Uran SSM; 32 SA-N-9 SAM; 1 × 100 mm gun; 2 CIWS; 6 torpedo tubes
Powerplant: COGAG arrangement; 4 gas turbines; 2 shafts; 57,000 shp total power
Speed: 30 knots
Ships in class: 3
Operator:
Commissioned: 1998
Status: 2 in active service, 1 scrapped incomplete
-class frigate
Builders: ,
Type: Multi-role frigate
Displacement: 3,707 tons
Armament: MM-40 Exocet SSM; ASPIDE SAM; 1 Vickers gun 4.5-inch Mk 8, 2 Bofors SAK 40 mm/70 AA; 2 x3 torpedo tubes for Mk 46 torpedoes; anti-submarine rocket launcher
Powerplant: 2 Rolls-Royce Olympus gas turbines, 4 MTU Diesels
Speed: 30 knots
Ships in class: 6
Operator:
Commissioned: 20 November 1976
Status: In active service
-class frigate
Builders: (Bath Iron Works in Bath, Maine, Todd Pacific Shipyards in Seattle, Washington and San Pedro, California, , in Bazan, Ferrol and , AMECON Williamstown, Victoria
Type: Multi-role guided-missile frigate
Displacement: 4,100 tons
Aviation: 2 SH-60 Seahawk helicopters
Armament: 40 Harpoon SSM or SM-1MR SAM; 1 × 76 mm gun; 1 Phalanx CIWS; 6 torpedo tubes
Powerplant: 2 LM2500 gas turbines; 1 shaft; 41,000 shp total power
Speed: 30 knots
Ships in class: 71
Operators: , , , , , , ,
Commissioned: 17 December 1977
Status: 56 retired (2021)
-class frigate
Builders:
Type: Air defense guided-missile frigate
Displacement: 5,690 tons
Aircraft: 2 Sea Lynx Mk 88A or 2 NH90 helicopters
Armament: 1 VLS 32 ESSM and 24 SM-2 IIIA SAM, 2 RAM launchers with 21 SAM/CIWS-missiles each, 2 quadruple Harpoon SSM launcher, 1 Otobreda 76 mm dual-purpose gun, 2 Mauser MLG 27 27 mm autocannons, 2 triple torpedo launchers with EuroTorp MU90 Impact torpedoes
Powerplant: 2 MTU V20 diesel engines, 1 General Electric LM2500 gas turbine, 2 shafts
Speed: 29 knots
Ships in class: 3
Operator:
Commissioned: 2004–2006
Status: In active service
-class frigate
Builders: (Mazagon Dock Limited)
Type: Guided-missile stealth frigate
Displacement: 6,200 tons
Aircraft: 2 × HAL Dhruv or Sea King Mk 42B helicopters.
Armament: 1 × 3.0-inch Otobreda naval gun; 8 × VLS launched Klub anti-ship cruise missiles or 8 × VLS launched BrahMos anti-ship cruise missiles; 2 × 2 DTA-53-956 torpedo launchers; 2 × RBU-6000 (RPK-8) rocket launchers; Shtil-1 missile system with 24 short to medium range (30 km) missiles; Barak SAM-launcher CIWS; 2 × AK-630 CIWS
Powerplant: 2 × Pielstick 16 PA6 STC Diesel engines 2 × GE LM2500+ boost turbines in CODOG configuration
Speed: 32 knots (22 in diesel)
Ships in class: 3
Operator:
Commissioned: 2010
Status: In active service
-class ocean patrol vessels
Builders: (StanFlex)
Type: Multi-role ocean patrol vessel
Displacement: 3,500 tons
Aircraft: 1 Lynx helicopter
Armament: 1 × 76 mm gun; 1 × 20 mm gun; 2 depth charge racks; modular additional weapon options
Powerplant: 3 diesel engines; 1 shaft; 6,366 hp total power
Speed: 21 knots
Ships in class: 4
Operator:
Commissioned: 1991
Status: In active service
Note: Also known as StanFlex 3000 or IS86 class
Type 21 frigate
Builders:
Type: General-purpose frigate
Displacement: 2,860 tons
Armament: (Pakistani modifications) 1 × 4.5 in Vickers Mark 8 gun; 4 × 20 mm Oerlikon; Harpoon SSM; LY-60N SAM; 2 × 12.75" 3-tube STWS-1 torpedo tubes
Powerplant: 2 Tyne cruise turbines, 2 Olympus boost turbines, 2 shafts
Speed: 30 knots
Ships in class: 8
Operators:
Commissioned: 11 May 1974
Status: 6 In active service, 2 sunk
Type 22 frigate
Builders:
Type: Anti-submarine frigate
Displacement: Batch 1: 4,400 tons; Batch 2: 4,800 tons; Batch 3: 4,900 tons
Armament: (Batch 3) 2 quadruple Harpoon launchers, 2 GWS 25 Mod 3 Seawolf anti-missile missile systems, gun, 2 20 mm guns (after refit), Goalkeeper CIWS, 2 triple torpedo tubes
Powerplant: 2 Rolls-Royce Olympus TM3B high-speed gas turbines and 2 Rolls-Royce Tyne RM1A cruise gas turbines
Speed:
Ships in class: 14 total: 4 Batch I, 6 Batch II, 4 Batch 3
Operators: , ,
Commissioned: 2 May 1979
Status: 6 in active service, 8 disposed (2 sunk as targets, 6 scrapped)
Type 23 frigate
Builders:
Type: Multi-role frigate
Displacement: 4,900 tons
Armament: 2 × quadruple Harpoon, 32 × Sea Wolf SAM, 1 × 114 mm Vickers Mark 8 gun, 2 × Oerlikon 30 mm guns, 4 × fixed torpedo tubes, Marconi Sting Ray NATO Seagnat, Type 182 and DLF3 countermeasures launchers
Propulsion: CODLAG, 2 × Rolls-Royce gas turbines, 4 × diesel engines, 2 × GEC electric motors
Speed: 28 knots
Ships in class: 16
Operators: ,
Commissioned: 1 June 1990
Status: In active service – 13 , 3
-class frigate
Builders:
Type: Multi-purpose frigate
Displacement: 2,350 tons
Armament: 2 OTO Mellara (76mm)/62 compact, 4 Emerson Electric 30 mm (951–955), 3 Breda 40 mm/70(956-961), 8 RGM-84D Harpoon SSM, 1 Raytheon VLS – Mk 48 Mod 2, 5 triple torpedo tubes
Powerplant: CODOG 2 General Electric LM-2500 Diesel Engine, 2 MTU 538 TB 82
Speed: 34 knots
Range: 8,000 at 16 knots
Ships in class: 9 (3 in final weapons fitment)
Operators: ,
Commissioned: 1 January 1984
Status: In active service
(MEKO A-200)-class frigate
Builders: (Blohm + Voss in Hamburg)
Type: Air defense frigate
Displacement: 3,700 tons
Aircraft: 1 SuperLynx helicopter
Armament: 8 Exocet MM40 SSM; 16 Umkhonto SAM; 1 × 76 mm gun; 2 × 35 mm guns; 2 × 20 mm guns; 4 torpedo tubes
Powerplant: CODAG WARP arrangement; 1 LM2500 gas turbine, 2 MTU 16V 1163 TB93 diesels, 1 LIPS LJ210E waterjet; 42,922 hp total power
Speed: 27 knots
Range: 8,000 at 16 knots
Ships in class: 4
Operator:
Commissioned: 2006
Status: In active service
-class frigate
Builders:
Type: Multi-role frigate
Displacement: 3,200 tons
Armament: 100 mm Mod68 CADAM polyvalent artillery piece, 1 Phalanx CIWS, 2 × 3 12.75-inch Mk 32 torpedo tubes, 2 Mk 141 quad-pack Launcher for RGM-84 Harpoon, 1 Mk 21 Guided Missile Launching System for 8 RIM-7 Sea Sparrow
Powerplant: 2 General Electric LM2500 gas turbines
Speed: 32 knots
Ships in class: 3
Operator:
Commissioned: 19 January 1991
Status: In active service
-class frigate
Builders: (Boel in Temse and Cockerill in Antwerp)
Type: Anti-submarine warfare and escort frigate
Displacement: 2,200 tons
Armament: 4 Exocet SSM; 8 Sea Sparrow SAM; 1 × 100 mm gun; 6 anti-submarine rockets; 2 L5 torpedo tubes
Powerplant: CODOG arrangement; 2 Cockerill diesel engines; 1 Rolls-Royce Olympus gas turbine
Speed:
Range: at
Ships in class: 4
Operators:
Commissioned: 1978
Status: 1 stricken in 1993, 3 sold to Bulgaria in 2005 and in active Bulgarian service
Zagreb/Kotor-class frigate
Builders: / (Uljanik shipyard in Pula and Tito shipyard in Kraljevica)
Type: Light multi-role frigate (Yugoslav designation 'large patrol ship')
Displacement: 1,850 tons
Armament: 4 Styx SSM; 20 SA-N-4 SAM; 2 SA-N-5 SAM; 2 × 76 mm guns; 4 × 30 mm guns; 2 × 20 mm guns; 2 RBU-6000
Powerplant: 2 diesel engines; 1 gas turbine; 28,600 shp total power
Speed: 27 knots
Ships in class: 2
Operator:
Commissioned: 1987
Status: Withdrawn from service
-class frigate
Builders: (Damen Schelde Naval Shipbuilding), (PT PAL)
Types: Light multi-role frigate, guided-missile frigate, Long Range Patrol Vessel
Displacement: 2,075 tons – 2,575 tons
Armament: Guns: 1 × Oto Melara 76 mm (A position) and 2 × 20 mm Denel GI-2 (Licensed copy of GIAT M693/F2) (B position). Anti-air missile: 2 × quad (8) MBDA Mistral TETRAL, forward & aft. Anti-surface missile: 4 × MBDA Exocet MM40 Block II. Torpedoes: 2 × triple B515 launchers for EuroTorp 3A 244S Mode II/MU 90.
Powerplant: 2 × SEMT Pielstick 20PA6B STC rated at 8910 kW each driving a lightweight Geislinger coupling combination BE 72/20/125N + BF 110/50/2H (steel – composite coupling combination); 4 × Caterpillar 3406C TA generator rated at 350 kW each; Caterpillar 3304B emergency generator rated at 105 kW
Speed: 28 knots
Ships in class: 5
Operator: , ,
Commissioned: 2011
Status: In active service
Corvettes
Type 056 corvette (NATO codename Jiangdao)
Builders: (Hudong Shipyard in Shanghai and Huangpu Shipyard in Guangzhou)
Type: Stealth missile corvette
Displacement: 1,300–1,440 tons (estimated)
Aircraft: 1 Harbin Z-9
Armament: 2 × 2 YJ-83 (C-803) anti-ship missile; 1 × FL-3000N SAM; 1 × ATK-176 76 mm main gun; 2 × 30 mm remote weapon system; 6 × torpedo tubes
Powerplant: 2 diesels
Speed: 28 knots
Ships in class: 60 (PLAN)
Operator: , ,
Commissioned: February 2013
Status: 42 in active service; 18 under sea trial, fitting out, under construction or planned (PLAN)
-class corvette
Builders: Garden Reach Shipbuilders and Engineers
Type: Corvette
Displacement: Full load: 485 tonnes
Length: 58.5 metres
Beam: 10.2 metres
Draught: 3.3 metres
Speed: 32 knots
Range: 2,400 miles at 14 knots
Complement: 32 including 6 officers
Armament:
1 × AK-176 76 mm gun
2 × RBU-1000
4 × Strela-2M SAM MANPADS
4 × 533 mm torpedo tubes
Ships in class: 4
Commissioned: 1989–1991
Status: In active service
Ada-class corvette
Builders: (Istanbul Naval Shipyard)
Type: Corvette (Patrol and Anti-Submarine Warfare)
Displacement: 2400 tons
length: 99.56 meters
Beam: 14.40 meters
Draft: 3.90 meters
Propulsion: 1 gas turbine, 2 diesels, 2 shafts
Speed: 30 knots
Range: 3,500 nautical miles
Complement: 93 including aviation officers, with accommodation for up to 106
Armament: 1 × 76 mm (retractable for lower radar cross section, guidance by fire control radar and electro-optical systems), A position, 2 × 12.7 mm Aselsan STAMP Stabilized Machine Gun Platform (guidance by Laser/IR/TV and electro-optical systems, automatic and manual modes), B position, 8 Harpoon SSM, 21 × RAM (PDMS), 2 × 324 mm Mk 32 triple launchers for Mk 46 torpedoes
Ships in class: 4(4 planned)
Commissioned: 2011–present
Status: In service
Operators: : 4 in service, : 1(3) in commission, : 4 planned
-class corvette
Builder:
Displacement: 2,350 tons full load
length: 103.4 meters
Beam: 11.4 meters
Draft: 5.3 meters
Propulsion: CODOG arrangement: 1 gas turbine (27500shp), 2 diesels, 2 shafts
Speed: 27+ knots
Range: 4,000 nautical miles at 15 knots
Complement: 154
Armament: 1 × 4.5 in (113 mm) Vickers Mk 8 gun, 1 × 40 mm Bofors Trinity Mk 3 gun, 4 × MBDA Exocet MM40 Block 2/3, 2 × ARES SLT Mod 400 triple-tube (324 mm) launchers for Mk 46 Mod 5 ASW torpedoes
Ships in class: 1
Commissioned: 2008–present
Operator: : 1 in service
(Project 1239 Sivuch)-class corvette
Builder:
Displacement: 1,050 tons
Operator: : 2 in service
-class corvette
Builders:
Type: Corvette
Displacement: 1,840 tonnes
Propulsion: 2 diesel-engines, 7.4 MW each, driving 2 controllable pitch propellers
Speed: >
Range: approx. at
Aircraft: 2 Camcopter S-100 UAVs
Armament:
1 Otobreda 76 mm dual purpose gun
2 MLG 27 mm autocannons
2 × 21 cell RAM launcher
2 × 2 cell launcher with RBS-15 Mk3 surface-to-surface missiles with land-attack capability
mine laying capability
Countermeasures
TKWA/MASS (Multi Ammunition Softkill System)
UL 5000 K ECM suite
Ships in class: 5
Operator:
Commissioned: 2008–2009
Status: In active service
-class corvette
Builders:
Type: Corvette
Displacement: 1,940 tonnes
Propulsion: 4 diesel engine; 2 shaft; 30.2 MW total power
Speed:
Range: approx. at
Armament:
1 × OTO Melara 76 mm
2 × DS 30B REMSIG 30 mm guns
16 × Vertical launching system for MBDA (BAE Systems) MICA SAM launcher
2 × 4 Exocet MM40 Block II missile launchers
2 × triple BAE Systems Mark 32 Surface Vessel Torpedo Tubes
Ships in class: 3
Operator:
Commissioned: 2014
Status: In active service
-class corvette
Builders:
Type: Corvette
Displacement: 550 tonnes
Propulsion: 2 shaft CODAD
Speed:
Range: approx. at
Armament:
1 × Arsenal A-190 100 mm
2 × MTPU pedestal machine gun 14.5 mm
2 × AK-630M 30 mm
1 × 4 3M-47 Gibka a-a missile system of short-range
1 × 40 A-215 "Grad-M" 122 mm rocket launcher
Countermeasures
Fire control radar: «Pozitiv-M1.2» flat active phased array air/surface radar
Sonar: «Anapa-M»
Ships in class: 3
Operator:
Commissioned: 2006
Status: In active service
-class corvette
Builders: (Wuchang Shipyard), (Khulna Shipyard)
Type: Corvette
Displacement: 650 tonnes
Armament: 4 × C-704 AShM; 1 × H/PJ-26 76 mm main gun, forward; 2 × Type 730B 6-barrel 30 mm CIWS; 12 × Super Barricade chaff launchers; Torpedo launchers
Speed: 28 knots
Range: 2,500 nmi
Ships in class: 2
Operator:
Commissioned: 2012
Status: 2 in active service;
(Type A69)-class aviso
Builders:
Type: Aviso
Displacement: 1,250 tons
Armament: 2 Exocet MM38 SSM; 1 × 100 mm gun; 2 × 20 mm guns; 4 machineguns; 1 rocket launcher; 4 L5 torpedoes
Powerplant: 2 Pielstick diesel engines; 2 shafts; 12,000 shp total power
Speed: 24 knots
Range: 4,500 nmi at 15 knots
Ships in class: 20
Operator: , ,
Commissioned: 1979
Status: 18 in active service (9 with France, 6 with Turkey, and 3 with Argentina);
(Sigma 9113)-class corvette
Builders:
Type: Corvette
Displacement: 1,720 tonnes
Speed:
Range: approx. at
Ships in class: 4
Operator:
Commissioned: 2007
Status: In active service
(MEKO 140A16)-class corvette
Builder:
Displacement: 1,790 tons (full load)
Operator: : 6 in service
-class corvette
Builders:
Type: Corvette
Displacement: 1,450 tonnes
Propulsion: CODOG: 1 gas turbine, 2 diesel engine; 2 shaft
Speed:
Range: approx.
Armament:
1 × Bofors 120 mm gun model 1950
1 × Bofors 40 mm anti-aircraft gun
2 × 20 mm cannon
4 × Exocet MM 38 anti-ship missiles
1 × Bofors 375 mm twin anti-submarine rocket launcher
2 × Mk 32 launchers for 324 mm torpedoes
Ships in class: 3
Operator:
Commissioned: 1979
Status: In active service
-class littoral combat ship
Builder: Marinette Marine
Displacement: 3,500 tons (full load)
Armament:
1 × BAE Systems Mk 110 57 mm gun
1 × Mk 49 Launcher with 21 × RIM-116 Rolling Airframe Surface to Air Missiles
4 × .50 in machine guns
2 × 30 mm Mk 44 Bushmaster II guns (SUW Module)
24 × AGM-114 Hellfire missiles (SUW Module)
Operator: : 9 active
-class corvette
Builder: Kockums
Displacement: 400 tons
Operators: : 2 active, 2 decommissioned and 2 cancelled
-class littoral combat ship
Builder: Austal USA
Displacement: 3,104 tons (full load)
Armament:
1 × BAE Systems Mk 110 57 mm gun
1 × SeaRAM CIWS
4 × .50 cal guns
2 × 30 mm Mk 44 Bushmaster II guns (SUW Module)
24 × AGM-114 Hellfire missiles (SUW Module)
Operator: : 13 active
-class corvette
Builder:
Displacement: 1,970 tons (full load)
Operator: : 5 in service
-class corvette
Builders: Garden Reach Shipbuilders and Engineers
Type: Corvette
Displacement:
Full load: 3300 tonnes
Length: 109 metres
Beam: 13.7 metres
Propulsion: 4 × CODAD diesel engines
Speed: 25 knots
Range: 3,700 miles at 16 knots
Complement: 193 including 13 officers
Armament:
1 × 76mm SRGM
2 × AK-630M close-in weapon system
2 × RBU-6000 anti-submarine rocket launcher
4 × 533 mm torpedo tubes
Ships in class: 4
Operator:
Commissioned: 2014-19
Status: 4 in service
-class corvette
Builders: Mazagon Dock Limited, Garden Reach Shipbuilders and Engineers
Type: Corvette
Displacement: Full load: 1,350 tonnes
Length: 91.1 metres
Beam: 10.5 metres
Draught: 4.5 metres
Propulsion: 2 diesel engines, 14,400 hp each, 2 shafts and cp props
Speed: 25 knots
Range: 4,000 miles at 16 knots
Complement: 79 including 10 officers
Armament:
1 × AK-176 76 mm gun
16 × Kh-35
2 × Strela-2M SAM MANPADS
2 × AK-630 CIWS
Ships in class: 4
Operator: (2 ships), (1 ship)
Commissioned: 1989–1991
Status: 3 ships in service, 1 decommissioned
-class corvette
Builders: Garden Reach Shipbuilders and Engineers
Type: Corvette
Displacement:
Standard: 1350 tonnes
Full load: 1500 tonnes
Length: 91.1 metres
Beam: 10.5 metres
Draught: 4.5 metres
Propulsion: 2 diesel engines, 14,400 hp each, 2 shafts and cp props
Speed: 25 knots
Range: 4,000 miles at 16 knots
Complement: 79 including 10 officers
Armament:
1 × AK-176 76 mm gun
4 × P-20M missiles
2 × Strela-2M or Igla-1E MANPADS
2 × AK-630 CIWS
Ships in class: 4
Operator:
Commissioned: 1998–2004
Status: In service
-class corvette
Builder:
Displacement: 1285 tons
Operators: : 6 in service
(Project 1234)-class corvette
Builder:
Displacement: 730 tons
Operators: : 17 Nanuchka III in service plus 1 Nanuchka IV
-class corvette
Builders:
Ships in class: 24
Displacement: 1,350 tons
Speed: 32 knots
Basic Armament:
2 × OTO Melara 76 mm/62 compact cannon
2 × Nobong 40mm/70 twin cannons
2 × Mark 32 triple torpedo tubes (with 6× Blue Shark torpedoes)
12 × Mark 9 depth charges
Optional Armament:
4 × SSM (Exocet, Harpoon, 700K C-Star)
Mistral MANPADS
Operators:
: 7 active
: 1 active
1 active
: 2 active
: 1 active, 1 awaiting transfer
: 2 active
(Project 133)-class corvette
Builder:
Displacement: 935 tons
Ships in class: 28
Operator: : 14 in service, : 6 in service
-class corvette
Builder:
Displacement: 712 tons
Armament: : 1 × 76mm OTO Melara; 2 × 20mm; 2 × 12.7mm
Speed 25 knots (Sprint speed 30 knots)
Ships in class: 5
Commissioned: 1983–85
Operators:
: 2 delivered in 1988
: 3 delivered in 1997
(Eilat)-class corvette
Builders: (Ingalls Shipbuilding)
Type: Guided-missile corvette
Displacement: 1227 tons
Armament: 8 Harpoon SSM; ; 8 Gabriel SSM; 2 Barak 1 launchers; 20 mm Phalanx CIWS; 2 × Mk 32 torpedo launchers (6 tubes)
Powerplant: 1 General Electric LM-2500 gas turbine; 2 MTU type 12V1163 TB82 diesels; total SHP 30,000
Speed:
Range:
Ships in class: 3
Operator:
Commissioned: February 1993
Status: In active service
-class corvette
Builders:
Type: Corvette
Displacement: 1,950 tonnes
Propulsion: 2 shaft CODAD, 4 16D49 diesels 24.000 hp (17.9 MW), power supply AC 380/220V, 50 Hz, 4 × 630 kW diesel genset
Speed:
Range: approx. at
Aircraft: 1 Kamov Ka-27
Armament:
1 × Arsenal A-190 100 mm
2 × MTPU pedestal machine gun 14.5 mm
2 × AK-630M 30 mm
1 × Kashtan-M CADS
8 × Kh-35 missiles
4 × 400 mm torpedo tubes
Countermeasures
Fire control radar: Ratep 5P-10E Puma for A-190 HOT FLASH radar
Air search radar: Furke-E 3D, E/F band
Sonar: Zarya-ME suite, bow mounted. Vinyetka low frequency active/passive towed array
Ships in class: 3 + 3 Laid down
Operator:
Commissioned: 2007
Status: In active service
-class corvette
Builders: Mazagon Dock Limited; Garden Reach Shipbuilders and Engineers
Type: Corvette
Displacement: 455-477 tonnes
Length: 56.1 metres
Beam: 11.5 metres
Draught: 2.5 metres
Propulsion: 2 × COGAG gas turbines couples to two shafts
Speed: 36 knots
Range: 2,300 miles at 16 knots
Complement: 41 including 5 officers
Armament:
1 × 76mm SRGM
2 × AK-630M close-in weapon system
2 × RBU-6000 anti-submarine rocket launcher
4-16 × anti-ship missiles
4 × air defense missiles
Ships in class: 15
Commissioned: 1987-2002
Status: 13 completed, 2 cancelled, 8 active, 4 retired and 1 lost
-class corvette
Builders:
Type: Corvette
Displacement: 640 tonnes
Propulsion: CODOG, 2 × 125SII Kamewa Waterjets, 4 × Vericor TF50A gas turbines, total rating 16 MW[2], 2 × MTU Friedrichshafen 16 V 2000 N90 diesel engines, total rating 2.6 MW, 3 × generators of 270 kW each
Large patrol vessels
-class offshore patrol vessel
Builder: (Aalborg Værft a/s)
Type: Offshore patrol vessel
Displacement: 1,128 tons
Aircraft: 1 Ecureuil AS350B or Hughes 500C
Armament: 1 Bofors 40 mm gun; 12.7 mm Browning HMG; depth charges.
Powerplant: MAN 8L40/54 × 2, 3163 kW
Speed: 20 knots
Ships in class: 2
Operator:
Commissioned: 1968
Status: In active service
polar fisheries patrol ship
Displacement: 2,800 tons
Operator:
-class cutter
Builder:
Type: Medium endurance cutter
Displacement: 3,434 tons
Armament:
2 × 25 mm guns
2 × 0.5 in guns
Number in class: 1
Operator:
BAM () Maritime Action Vessel / offshore patrol vessel
Builder:
Displacement: 2,840 tons
Speed: 20.5 knots
Range: 3,500 nm
Armament: 1 × 76mm/62. 2 × 25mm. 2 × 12.7mm.
Aircraft: 1 × NH-90 or 1 × AB-212 or 1 × SH3D
Operator: : 6 in service
Status: In active service
-class offshore patrol vessel
Builder:
Displacement: 3,200 tons
Operator: : 2 in commission
-class offshore patrol vessel
Builder
Displacement: 1475 tons
Operator: 4 in service
-class offshore patrol vessel
Builder
Displacement: 1512 tons
Operator: 4 in service
/P20-class offshore patrol boat
Builder:
Displacement: 1,020 tons
Armament: 1 × 40mm 2 × 20mm
Ships in class: 4
Commissioned: 1972–1980
Active: 2 (1 scrapped, 1 decommissioned (Ireland))
Speed: 17knts
Range: 4000 nmi at 17 knots
Operator: ,
Previous operators: Ireland 4 (0 in commission)
-class helicopter patrol ship
Builder:
Displacement: 1,915 tons
Speed: 20+ knots
Range: 7000 nmi at 15 knots
Armament: 1 × Bofers 57mm/70 Mk 1 2 × 20mm Rheinmettal. 1 SA 365F Dauphin 2
Ships in class: 1
Commissioned: 1984
Operator: : 1
Status: In active service
Antarctic patrol ship
Builder:
Displacement 6,100 tons
Operator: 1 in commission
-class cutter
Builder:
Type: Medium Endurance Cutter
Displacement: 1,780 tons
Armament:
1 × OTO Melara Mk 75 76 mm naval gun
2 × .50 cal machine guns
Operator: : 13 in commission
-class offshore patrol vessel
Builder:
Displacement: 3,121 tons
Operator:
-class offshore patrol vessel
Builder: (Damen Schelde Naval Shipbuilding)
Type: Offshore patrol vessel
Displacement: 3,750 tons
Aircraft: 1 NH-90
Armament: 1 × 76 mm Oto Melara, 1 × 30 mm Oto Melara Marlin WS, 2 × 12.7 mm Oto Melara Hitrole NT, 6 × 7.62 mm FN MAG machine guns.
Powerplant: 2 diesel engines
Speed: 21.5 knots
Ships in class: 4
Operator:
Commissioned: 2012
Status: In active service.
-class patrol vessel
Builder:
Displacement: 970 tons
Operator: : 12 in commission
-class offshore patrol vessel
Builder: (Bergens mV A/S)
Type: Offshore patrol vessel
Displacement: 3,200 tons
Aircraft: 1 Westland Lynx helicopter; in future, 1 NHI NH90 helicopter
Armament: 1 Bofors 57 mm gun; 4 20 mm Rheinmetall guns; depth charges; in wartime provisions for carrying 2 Mk 32 torpedo tubes and 6 Penguin SSMs
Powerplant: 4 × Wichmann diesel; 2576 kW each
Speed:
Ships in class: 3
Operator:
Commissioned: 1981
Status: In active service
-class cutter
Builder:
Type: Medium Endurance Cutter
Displacement: 1,050 tons
Length: 64 meters
Range: 8,000 nautical miles
Crew: 75
Speed: 18 knots
Armament:
1 × Mk 38 25 mm Machine Gun System
2 × M2HB .50 caliber (12.7mm) machine guns
Operator:
: 14 in commission
: 1 in service
: 1 in service
-class patrol vessel
Builder: (Vosper Thornycroft)
Type: Offshore patrol vessel
Displacement: 1,677 tons
Armament: 1 British Manufacturing and Research Company (BMARC) KAA 20 mm Gun, 2 GPMG's
Powerplant: 2 × Ruston 12RK 270 diesel; 4125 kW
Speed:
Ships in class: 14
Operator:
Commissioned: 2003
Status: In active service
/P50-class offshore patrol boat
Builder:
Displacement: 1,500 tons
Speed: 23 knots
Armament: 1 × OTO 76mm, 2 × Rheinmettal 20mm
Ships in class: 2
Commissioned: 1999–2001
Operators:
: 2
Status: In active service
/P60-class offshore patrol boat
Builder:
Displacement: 1,933 tons
Speed: 23 knots
Armament: 1 × OTO 76mm, 2 × Rheinmettal 20mm
Ships in class: 4, 3 in service, 1 on order
Commissioned: 2014–
Operators:
: 3
Status: In active service
-class offshore patrol vessel
Builder:
Displacement: 2230 tons
Operator:
-class offshore patrol vessel
Builder
Displacement: 1518 tons
Operator: 2 in service
-class offshore patrol vessel
Builder:
Displacement: 6,500 tons
Operator:
-class patrol vessel
Builder: (Estaleiros Navais de Viana do Castelo (ENVC))
Type: Offshore patrol vessel
Displacement: 1,600 tons
Length: 83.10 m
Beam: 12.95 m
Draught: 3.69 m
Speed:
Complement: 35, accommodation for 32 more
Armament: 1 × 30 mm Oto Melara Marlin WS + 2 × General Purpose Machine Gun
Ships in class: 2
Operator:
Commissioned: 2011
-class offshore patrol vessel
Builder:
Displacement: 3,920 tons
Operator:
Minor surface combatants
Missile boats
Ambassador Mk III fast attack craft
Builders: (VT Halter-Marine)
Type: Fast attack craft
Displacement: 500 t
Propulsion: 4 × MTU diesels,[5] 30,000 hp (22 MW), 4 shafts
Speed:
Armament:
1 Super Rapid 76mm dual purpose gun
8 Harpoon anti-ship missiles
1 Mk 31 Mod 3 Rolling Airframe Missile launcher, 21 cells
2 7.62 mm M60 machine guns
1 20 mm Phalanx CIWS
Countermeasures:
4 × chaff/IR launchers (ESM/ECM)
Ships in class: 1(4–6 planned)
Operator:
Commissioned: 2013–present
Status: In active service
-class missile boat
Builders:
Type: Missile fast attack craft
Displacement: 250 tons
Armament: 1 × 30mm NG-18 CIWS; 2 × 20mm Denel Vektor GI-2; 2 × C-705 AShM
Powerplant: 3 × MAN V12; 1.800 hp total power
Speed:
Ships in class: 8
Operator:
Commissioned: 2011
Status: In active service
-class fast attack craft
Builders:
Type: Fast attack craft
Displacement: 391 t
Propulsion: 13.235 kW
Speed:
Armament:
1 Otobreda 76 mm dual purpose gun
4 MM38 Exocet anti-ship missiles
1 GDC Rolling Airframe Missile launcher, 21 cells
2 MG50-1 machine guns
Mine laying capability
Countermeasures:
Decoy launcher HOT DOG
Chaff launcher DAG 2200 Wolke
Ships in class: 10
Operator:
Commissioned: 1982–1984
Status: In active service
(Rauma 2000)-class missile boat
Builders: (Aker Finnyards in Turku)
Type: Guided-missile fast attack craft
Displacement: 250 tons
Armament: 4 RBS-15 Mk 3 SSM; 8 Umkhonto-IR SAM; 1 57 mm gun; 2 12.7 mm machineguns
Powerplant: 2 MTU diesel engines; 6,600 kW total power
Speed:
Range:
Ships in class: 4
Operator:
Commissioned: 24 August 1998
Status: In active service
-class missile boat
Builders: (Wärtsilä at Helsinki New Shipyard, Helsinki)
Type: Guided-missile fast attack craft
Displacement: 300 tons
Armament: 8 RBS-15 SSM; 2 23mm doublebarrel guns; 1 57 mm gun; 2 depth charge rails
Powerplant: 3 diesel engines; 3 shafts; 10,230 hp total power
Speed: 30 knots
Ships in class: 4
Operator:
Commissioned: 1 September 1981
Status: Two ships in Croatian service
Houjian (Type 37-II)-class large missile boat
Builders: (Huangpu Shipyard in Guangzhou)
Type: Large missile boat
Displacement: 542 tons
Armament: 6 C-801 SSM, 2 Type 69 dual-30mm, 1 Type 76A dual-30mm
Powerplant: 3 diesel engines; 3 shafts; 15,000 hp total power
Speed: 33.5 knots
Ships in class: 9 in service, 1 under construction
Operator: , (-class)
Commissioned: 1991
Status: In active service
-class missile boat
Builders:
Type: Missile fast attack craft
Displacement: 250 tons
Armament: 1 × Bofors 57mm/70; 1 × Bofors 40mm/70; 2 × Oerlikon 20mm/85; 4 × C-802 AShM
Powerplant: CODOG: 1 × GE-Fiat gas turbine, 2 × MTU 12V331TC81 diesels
Speed:
Ships in class: 4
Operator:
Commissioned: 1979
Status: 3 in active service
-class patrol boat
Builders: (Umoe Mandal)
Type: Guided-missile fast attack craft
Displacement: 274 tons
Armament: 8 NSM SSM; Mistral SAM; 1 × Otobreda 76 mm Super Rapid ; 12.7 mm machine gun
Powerplant: 4 P&W gas turbines, total power 12000 kW
Speed:
Range:
Ships in class: 1, 6 in construction
Operator:
Commissioned: April 17, 1999
Status: In active service
(Type 343M/Project 037-II)-class large missile boat
Builder:
Displacement: 478 tons
Operator: : 14 in service
(Type 240)-class missile boat
Builder: (Tito's Shipyard in Kraljevica)
Type: Fast attack craft
Displacement: 271 tons
Armament: 2 SS-N-2 Styx SSM; 2 Bofors 57 mm (2.2 in)/70 Mk1 gun
Speed:
Range:
Ships in class: 6
Operator: : 1 in service
Commissioned: April 1977
Status: In active service
-class missile boat
Builder: (Shipyard in Kraljevica)
Type: Fast attack craft
Displacement: 390 tons
Armament: 4–8 × RBS-15 SSM; 2 Bofors /70 Mk1 gun; 1 AK-630 CIWS
Powerplant: 3 M504-B2 diesel engines
Speed:
Range:
Ships in class: 2
Operator: : 2 in service
Commissioned: June 1992
Status: In active service
-class missile boat
Builder:
Displacement: 320 tons
Operators:
: 1 (of 4 delivered in the 1950s)
-class missile boat
Builder:
Displacement: 245 tons
Operators:
: 4 Osa II of a number delivered in service, limited operational use
: 38 Osa I and local Huangfeng version in service of 104 acquired
: 5 Huangfeng class made by China
: 4 Osa II in service as fast minelayers
: 1 Osa I of several remaining in service as a patrol boat
: 8 Osa II in service
-class missile boat
Builders: (Aker Finnyards in Rauma)
Type: Guided-missile fast attack craft
Displacement: 248 tons
Armament: 6 RBS-15 SSM; 6 Mistral SAM; 1 40 mm gun; 2 12.7 mm machineguns; 2 ASW mortar launchers;
Powerplant: 2 diesel engines; 2 water jets; total power
Speed:
Ships in class: 4
Operator:
Commissioned: 1990
Status: In active service
-class missile boat
Builders:
Type: Missile fast attack craft
Displacement: 460 tons
Speed:
Ships in class: 4 active, 2 under construction
Operator:
Commissioned: 2014
Status: In active service
(Project 1241.1 Molnaya)-class missile boat
Builder:
Displacement: 475 tons
Operators:
: 1 transferred in 1989 from the USSR
: 34 in service, including 1 Tarantul I, 5 Tarantul II, and 28 Tarantul III
: 1 transferred in 1997 from Russia
: 4 in service
Torpedo boats
Shanghai II-class torpedo patrol boat
Builder:
Displacement: 135 tons
Operators:
: 5 (of at least 6 delivered in the 1970s)
(Project 206 Shtorm)-class torpedo boat
Builder:
Displacement: 250 tons
Operator: : 2 in service of many built, plus one missile-armed variant Matka.
Patrol boats
-class fisheries patrol boat
Builder:
Displacement: 330 tons
Operator: : 3 in service for Greenland patrol
-class patrol boat
Builder:
Displacement: 49 tons
Operator: 16 in commission
-class patrol boat
Builder:
Displacement: 270 tonnes (aluminium construction)
Operator: : 14 in commission
(Project 1141.1 Sokol)-class patrol boat
Builder:
Displacement: 465 tons
Operator: : 1 in service, plus one modified variant Mukha
-class patrol boat
Builder:
Displacement: 155 tons
Operator: : 9 in service
Cyclone-class patrol boat
Builder:
Displacement: 350 tons
Armament:
2 × Mk 38 25 mm Machine Gun Systems
2 × .50 cal machine guns
2 × Mk 19 automatic grenade launchers
2 × 7.62 mm M240B machine guns
6 × FIM-92 Stinger SAMs
2 × Mk 60 quadruple BGM-176B Griffin B missile launchers
Operators:
: 13 in commission
: 1 in commission
-class patrol craft
Builders:
Type: Patrol Craft
Displacement: 246 tons
Armament: 2 × 12,7 mm Browning heavy machine guns
Powerplant: 2 × MTU 396 16V TB94 Diesel Engine @ 2.100 kW v/ 1.976 RPM with 2 × Propellers
Speed:
Range: at
Complement: 12-15 officers and sailors
Ships in class: 6 (HDMS Diana, HDMS Freja, HDMS Havfruen, HDMS Najaden, HDMS Nymfen and HDMS Rota)
Operator:
Commissioned: 2007–2009
Status: In active service
-class patrol boat
Builder:
Displacement: 393 tons
Operators:
Italian Coast Guard
Subclasses: Malta – P61 : Iraq – Saettia MK 4
Total ships planned = Italy: 5, Malta: 1, Iraq: 4
Espadon 50 patrol boat
Displacement: 410 tons
Operator: : 1 in service
-class fast patrol craft
Builders:
Type: Fast Patrol Craft
Displacement: 120 tons
Armament:
1 × Griffin Missile System with two (2) quad launchers
2 × SMASH 30mm Gun System (200 rds/min)
2 × Mk 93 .50 caliber mounts w/ Mk 16 tripod
Length: 35 meters
Range:
Speed:
Complement: 12 + S.O.F., 4 berth & 12 recl.
Ships in class: 2 RBNS Mashhoor (12) and RBNS Al-Areen (13)
Operator: Royal Bahrain Naval Force
Commissioned: 2 in 2021
(Standardflex 300 or SF300)-class patrol boat
Builder:
Displacement: 320 tons
Operators:
: 10 in service, 1 decommissioned in 2006
: as of 2008.11 1 in service, 1 on the way + 1 optional
-class fisheries patrol boat
Displacement: 680 tons
Operator:
Gumdoksuri-class patrol vessel
Builder:
Displacement: 570 tonnes
Operator: : 19 in commission
(Project 037)-class patrol boat
Builder:
Displacement: 430 tons
Operator: : Up to 100 in service, : Unknown number
(Project 037-I)-class patrol boat
Builder:
Displacement: 478 tons
Operator: : 20 in service plus more building
(Project 062-I)-class patrol boat
Builder:
Displacement: 170 tons
Operator: : 13 in service plus more building, : Unknown number
-class patrol boat
Builder:
Displacement: 160 tons
Armament:
1 × Mk 38 25 mm Machine Gun System
2 × M2 .50 cal MG
Number in service: 37
Operators: , , , ,
Marine Protector–class patrol boat
Builder:
Displacement: 91 tons
Armament:
2 × .50 cal M2 Browning machine guns
Sea Dragon, Sea Dog, Sea Devil and Sea Fox are additionally equipped with:
1 × remote control, gyrostabilized .50 cal M2 Browning machine gun
Number in service: 73
Operator:
(Type 171)-class patrol boat
Builder: (Shipyard in Kraljevica)
Type: Patrol boat
Displacement: 142 tons
Armament: 1 Bofors 40 mm (1.6 in) gun; 1 Hispano M-75 four-barreled 20 mm (0.79 in) gun; 1 MTU-4 9K32M Strela-2M; 2 double-barreled 128 mm (5.0 in) illuminator launchers
Powerplant: 2 SEMT Pielstick diesel engines
Speed:
Range:
Ships in class: 11
Operator: : 4 in service
Commissioned: 1980
Status: In active service
Omiš-class patrol boat
Builder: (Brodosplit, Split)
Type: Patrol boat
Displacement: 240 tons
Armament: Aselsan SMASH 30 mm SAM, 12.7 mm machine gun, MANPADS
Powerplant: 2 Caterpillar diesel engines
Speed:
Range:
Ships in class: 1 in service, 4 under construction
Operator: : 1 in service, 4 on order
Commissioned: December 2018
Status: In active service
OPV 54 patrol boat
Displacement: 375 tons
Operator: : 3 in service
-class patrol vessel
Builder:
Displacement: 375 tons
Operators:
: 10 in service as the L'Audacieuse class
-class patrol boat
Builder:
Displacement: 170 tons
Operators:
: 4 in service, : 3 in service, : 3 in service
: 2 in service, : 1 in service, : 1 in service
: 1 in service, : 1 in service, : 1 in service
: 1 in service, : 1 in service, : 3 in service
: 6 modified versions in service as the Protector class
-class patrol vessel
Builder:
Displacement: 350 tons
Operators:
: 5 in service
(Project 1241.2 Molnaya 2)-class patrol boat
Builder:
Displacement: 440 tons
Operators:
: 2 Pauk II in service, delivered in 1989 and 1990
: 4 Pauk I in service plus 1 Pauk II
: 1 "Pauk" in service
-class patrol boat
Builder:
Displacement: 545 tons
Operators:
: 4 of 6 delivered in the 1960s remain in service
-class patrol boat
Builder:
Displacement: 110 tons
Operators:
: 2 delivered in 1999
-class patrol boat
Builder:
Displacement: 24 tons
Operator:
-class patrol command boat
Builder:
Displacement: 450 tons
Operator: : 2 in service, built 1988
(Project 062)-class patrol boat
Builder:
Displacement: 135 tons
Operator:
: Up to 100 Shanghai II in service, including as many as 20 modified for minesweeping
: At least 8 in active service
Sentinel–class cutter
Type: Fast Response Cutter
Builder: United States
Displacement: 359 tons
Operator:
fisheries patrol boat
Displacement: 380 tons
Operator: : 1 in service
-class patrol boat
Builder:
Displacement: 125 tons
Operators:
: 4 delivered in 1995, all in service
: 3 delivered in 1994, all in service
Mine warfare vessels
Mine countermeasures vessels
-class mine countermeasures vessel
Builder:
Displacement: 1,400 tons
Armament: 4 × .50 cal machine guns
Operator: : 14 in commission
(Project 1266)-class mine countermeasures vessel
Builder: /
Displacement: 1,228 tons
Operator: : 2 in commission
-class mine countermeasures vessel
Builder:
Displacement: 762 tons
Operators:
: 9 in commission
: 2 in commission
: 2 in commission
Minehunters
-class minehunter
Builders:
Type: Minehunter
Displacement: 660 tons
Armament:
1 Bofors 40 mm/L70 dual purpose gun (currently upgrading to 1 MLG 27 27 mm autocannon)
Mine laying capabilities
Countermeasures
2 Barricade chaff and flare launcher
TKWA/MASS (Multi Ammunition Softkill System) (currently under procurement)
Powerplant:
2 MTU 16V 538 TB91 diesel-engines, 2040 kW
Ships in class: 10
Operators:
: 9 in commission
: 6 in commission
: 2 in commission
Commissioned: 1992–1998
Status: In active service
-class minehunter
Builders:
Type: Minehunter
Displacement: 635 tons
Armament: 2 Bofors 40mm/L70 dual-purpose guns (currently upgrading to 2 MLG 27 27 mm autocannons), 2 Fliegerfaust 2 surface-to-air missile (MANPADS) stands, Mine-laying capabilities
Countermeasures: TKWA/MASS (Multi Ammunition Softkill System) (currently under procurement)
Powerplant: 2 MTU 16V 538 TB91 diesel engines, 2240 kW
Speed:
Ships in class: 5
Operator:
Commissioned: 1990
Status: In active service
-class minehunter
Builders:
Type: Minehunter
Displacement: 426 tons
Armament:
1 × 23 mm ZU-23-2MR Wróbel II autocannons
2 × quadruple Strzała 2 AA rocket launchers
2 × depth charge launchers (optional)
Powerplant:
2 × Cegielski Works diesel-engines, each
Ships in class: 3
Operator:
Commissioned: 1999–2002
Status: In active service
-class minehunter
Builder:
Displacement: 620 tons, 697 tons
Operators:
: 1 in service, 2 on order.
: 6 Huon subclass in service.
: 3 Katanpää subclass in service.
: 2 Lerici class and 8 Gaeta subclass in service, 2 Lerici class in reserve.
: 4 Mahamiru subclass in service.
: 2 Ohue subclass in service.
: 2 Lat Ya subclass in service.
-class minehunter
The Osprey-class is a subclass of the
Builder:
Displacement: 900 tons
Operators:
: 2 in service.
: 2 in service.
: 2 in service.
: 2 in service.
-class minehunter
Builder
Displacement: 484 tons
Operators:
: 8 in service.
: 3 in service.
: 3 in service.
-class minehunter/sweeper
Builder:
Displacement: 440 tons
-class minehunter
Builder: , and
Displacement: 595 tons
Operators:
: 5 of 10 delivered from 1985 remain in service as the Aster class (3 sold to France, 1 to Bulgaria, 1 to Pakistan)
: 1 in service.
: 13 in service as the Eridan class.
: 2 in service as the Pulau Rengat class.
: 5 in service.
: 6 in service as the Alkmaar class.
: 3 in service as the Munsif class.
Status: In active service
Type 331 minehunter
Builder:
Displacement: 402 tons
Operators:
: 1 delivered in 2000
: 1 delivered in 1999
: 2 delivered in 1999
Type 394 inshore minehunter
Builder:
Displacement:
Operators:
: 2 delivered in 1997
Minesweepers
Agile-class minesweeper
Builder:
Displacement:
Operators:
: 4 in service as the Yung Yang class
Antares-class minesweeper
Builder:
Displacement: 340 tons
Operator: : 3 in service
Ensdorf-class minesweeper
Builders:
Type: Mine sweeper
Displacement: 650 tons
Armament:
1 Bofors 40 mm/L70 dual purpose gun (currently upgrading to 1 MLG 27 27 mm autocannon)
Fliegerfaust 2 surface-to-air missiles (MANPADS)
Mine-laying capabilities (60 mines)
Sensors:
Navigation radar
Hull-mounted DSQS-11 mine-detection sonar
Equipment:
Seefuchs mine hunting drones
GPS-Navstar navigation system
PALIS
digital data links
M 20/2 fire-control system
Powerplant: ** 2 MTU 16V 538 TB91 diesel-engines, 2040 kW
Ships in class: 5
Operator:
Commissioned: 1990–1992
Status: In active service
KMV-class minesweeper
Builder: and
Displacement: 644 tons
Operators:
: Planned acquisition of 4 remains in question
Kingston-class minesweeper (MM 700)
Builder:
Displacement: 970 tons
Operator: : 12 in commission
Kondor I-class minesweeper
Builder:
Displacement: 361 tons
Operators:
: 1 delivered in 1994 (former Meteor)
Kondor II-class minesweeper
Builder:
Displacement: 479 tons
Operators:
: 8 in active service
: 2 delivered in 1994 plus an additional parts ship
Lianyun-class coastal minesweeper
Builder:
Displacement: 400 tons
Operator: : Up to 60 in service
Natya-class minesweeper (Project 266 Akvamarine)
Builder: /
Displacement: 873 tons
Operator: : 6 Natya I as well as 1 Natya II for trials.
Seehund ROV (part of the TROIKA Plus system of the Ensdorf class mine sweepers)
Builders:
Type: Mine sweeping TROIKA Plus ROV (together with Ensdorf class minesweepers)
Length: 25m
Displacement: 99t
Propulsion: Schottel Z-drive
Max speed: 9-10 kn
Ships in class: 18
Operator:
Status: In active service
TROIKA PLUS: This system employs up to four remote controlled Seehund (sea dog or seal) drones which perform the sweep. The drones are small unmanned boats that can simulate the acoustic and magnetic signatures of bigger ships to trigger mines. Their small size and special construction let them survive the effects of exploding mines unharmed.
Seehund can be controlled remotely or manually by an onboard crew (usually 3) for maneuvering in harbours or in training (the Seehund is too large to be carried by Ensdorf class vessels). A life raft is carried for this reason.
Sonya-class minesweeper (Project 1265 Yakhont)
Builder:
Displacement: 450 tons
Operators:
: 4 delivered from 1981
: 19 in service
T-43 patrol minesweeper
Builder: /
Displacement: 569 tons
Operators:
: 1 delivered in 1960
: 40 in service, including locally built models, plus 3 modified as coastal survey ships
: At least 1 in active service
T-301 patrol minesweeper
Builder:
Displacement: 164 tons
Operators:
: 1 or 2 remaining
Vanya-class coastal minesweeper
Builder:
Displacement: 245 tons
Operators:
: 4 of many delivered from 1970
Minelayers
Hämeenmaa class minelayer
Builders: (Aker Finnyards in Rauma)
Type: Minelayer, escort and logistical support ship
Displacement: 1,300 tons
Armament: 8 Umkhonto-IR SAM; 1 57 mm gun; 2 23 mm doublebarrel guns; 2 RBU-1200 ASROC launchers; 2 depth charge rails; 100–150 mines
Powerplant: 2 diesel engines; 2 shafts; 6,300 hp total power
Speed: 20 knots
Ships in class: 2
Operator:
Commissioned: 1992
Status: In active service
Pansio class minelayer
Builders: (Olkiluoto Shipyard)
Type: Minelayer and logistical transport
Displacement: 620 tons
Armament: 2 23 mm doublebarrel guns; 2 12.7 mm machineguns; 100 mines
Powerplant: 2 diesel engines; 2 shafts; 1,500 hp total power
Speed: 11 knots
Ships in class: 3
Operator:
Commissioned: 1991
Status: In active service
Pohjanmaa class minelayer
Builders: (Wärtsilä in Helsinki)
Type: Ocean capable minelayer and training ship
Displacement: 1,450 tons
Armament: 1 57 mm gun; 1 40 mm gun; 2 23 mm doublebarrel guns; 2 12.7 mm machineguns; 2 depth charge rails; 150 mines
Cargo: 50 trainees (in place of mines)
Powerplant: 2 diesel engines; 2 shafts; 6,300 hp total power
Speed: 18 knots
Ships in class: 1
Operator:
Commissioned: 8 June 1979
Status: In active service
Amphibious warfare vessels
Amphibious assault ships
America-class amphibious assault ship (LHA-6)
Builder:
Displacement: 45,000 tons
Armament:
2 × RIM-116 Rolling Airframe Missile launchers
2 × Phalanx CIWS
7 × dual .50 cal machine guns
Aircraft carried:
AV-8B Harrier II
F-35B Lightning II
MV-22B Osprey
CH-53E Super Stallion
UH-1Y Venom
AH-1Z Viper
MH-60S Seahawk
Operator: : (2 in commission, at least 9 more planned)
Canberra-class landing helicopter dock (LHD)'
Builder: , Navantia.
Displacement: 27,500 tons.
Aircraft carried: standard, 6 helicopters. Maximum in hangar space, 18 helicopters.
Armament:
Radars: Giraffe AMB radar and Saab 9LV combat system.
4 × Rafael Typhoon 25 mm remote weapons systems
6 × 25mm Bushmaster chain gun
1 x coaxially mounted M240 7.62mm machine gun.
Nulka decoy system
Operators: , two in commission.
Dokdo-class amphibious assault ship (LPX)
Builder:
Displacement: 18,800 tons
Operator: : 1 in commission, 1 under construction
Hyūga-class ASW helicopter (carrier) destroyer
Builder:
Displacement: 18,000
Operator: : 2 in commission
Izumo-class ASW helicopter (carrier) destroyer
Builder:
Displacement: 27,000
Operator: : 2 in commission
Juan Carlos I landing helicopter dock (LHD)
Builder:
Displacement: 27,000 tons
Aircraft carried:
AV-8B Harrier II Plus
NH-90
MH-60
Eurocopter Tigre (Spanish Army)
Operator: : 1 in commission, , 2 in commission, : 1 under construction
Mistral-class projection and command ship
Builder:
Displacement: 21,300 tons
Operator: : 3 in commission, (2 Launched, Russian sale cancelled, sold to Egypt), 2 in commission
Wasp-class amphibious assault ship (LHD 1)
Builder:
Displacement: 40,500 tons
Armament:
2 × RIM-116 Rolling Airframe Missile launchers
2 × RIM-7 Sea Sparrow launchers
3 × Phalanx CIWS
4 × Mk 38 25 mm Machine Gun Systems
4 × .50 cal machine guns
Aircraft:
AV-8B Harrier II
F-35B Lightning II
MV-22B Osprey
CH-53E Super Stallion
UH-1Y Venom
AH-1Z Viper
MH-60S Seahawk
Operator: : 7 in commission
Dock landing ships
Albion-class landing platform dock
Builder:
Displacement: 21,500 tons
Operator: 2 in commission
Bay-class landing ship dock
Builder:
Displacement: 16,160 tons
Operator: , ( Royal Fleet Auxiliary), 3 in commission, , (1 commission in 2012)
Endurance-class landing platform dock
Builder:
Displacement: 8,500 tons
Operator: : 4 in commission (1 building)
Foudre-class dock landing ship
Builder:
Displacement: 12,000 tons
Operator: : 2 in service
Galicia-class landing platform dock
Builder:
Displacement: 13,815 tons
Operator: : 2 in commission
Harpers Ferry-class amphibious transport dock (LSD 49)
Builder:
Displacement: 16,500 tons
Armament:
2 × 25 mm Mk 38 cannons
2 × Phalanx CIWS
2 × RIM-116 Rolling Airframe Missile launchers
6 × .50 cal M2HB machine guns
Operator: : 4 in commission
Hsu Hai-class dock landing ship
Builder:
Displacement: 14,225 tons
Operator: 1 in commission (5 built)
Johan de Witt-class amphibious transport dock
Builder:
Displacement: 17,550 tons
Operator: : 1 in commission
Makassar-class landing platform dock
Builder:
Displacement: 11,394 tons
Operator: : 5 in commission
Mk IV LCU landing craft utility
Builder:
Displacement: 1,001 tons
Operator: : 7 in commission
Ouragan-class amphibious transport dock
Builder:
Displacement: 8,500 tons
Operator: : 2 (Retired in 2007)
Ōsumi-class LST amphibious transport dock
Builder:
Displacement: 14,000 tons
Operator: : 3 in commission
Rotterdam-class amphibious transport dock (L 800)
Builder:
Displacement: 12,750 tons
Operator: : 1 in commission
San Antonio-class amphibious transport dock (LPD 17)
Builder:
Displacement: 25,000 tons
Armament:
2 × Bushmaster II 30 mm guns
2 × RIM-116 Rolling Airframe Missile launchers
2 × Mk 41 eight cell VLS for quad packed RIM-162 ESSMs
Operator: : (11 in commission, 2 under construction, 1 Flight II ordered)
San Giorgio-class amphibious transport dock
Builder:
Displacement: 7,650 tons
Operator : 3 in service
Tarlac-class landing platform dock
Builder:
Displacement: 11,583 tons
Operator: : 2 in commission
Thomaston-class dock landing ship
Builder:
Displacement:
11,989 tons (full load)
Operator:
: 1 in service
Whidbey Island-class dock landing ship (LSD 41)
Builder:
Displacement: 16,300 tons
Armament:
2 × 25 mm Mk 38 cannons
2 × Phalanx CIWS
2 × RIM-116 Rolling Airframe Missile launchers
6 × .50 cal M2HB machine guns
Operator: : 8 in commission
Yuzhao-class (Type 071) amphibious warfare ship
Builder:
Displacement:
25,000 tons (full load)
Operator:
: 6 in service, 1 fitting out
Landing craft and landing ships
Balikpapan-class (LHC) Heavy Landing Craft
Builder:
Displacement:
364 tons (standard), 503 tons (full load)
Operator:
: 3 in service
: 5 in service
Barbe-class (Type 520) Landing Craft Utility
Builder:
Displacement:
430 tons (full load)
Operator:
: 2 in service
: 11 in service
BATRAL (Champlain-class) Medium Landing Ship
Builder:
Displacement:
770 tons (standard), 1,300 tons (full load)
Operator:
: 5 in service
Dyugon-class (Project 21820) Small Landing Ship
Builder:
Displacement:
280 tons (full load)
Operator:
: 5 in service
Hoyerswerda-class (Project 109, NATO reporting name Frosch) Medium Landing Ship
Builder:
Displacement:
1,744 tons
Operator:
: 12 in service
Ivan Gren-class (Project 11711) Large Landing Ship
Builder:
Displacement:
5,080 tons (standard), 6,000 tons (full load)
Operator:
: 2 in service
Jason-class (LST) Tank Landing Ship
Builder:
Displacement:
4,470 tons (full load)
Operator:
: 5 in service
Kumbhir class (LST) Tank Landing Ship
Builder:
Displacement:
1,120 tons (standard)
Operator:
: 4 in service
LST-117-class (LST) Tank Landing Ship
Builder:
Displacement:
2,366 tons
Operator:
: 3 in service
LST Mk 2-class (LST) Tank Landing Ship
Builder:
Displacement:
1,809 tons (light), 3,942 tons (full load)
Operator:
: 12 in service
: 2 in service
: 3 in service
: 4 in service
: 4 in service
: 2 in service 1 serve as an outpost
: 4 in service
: 1 in service
Magar-class (LST) Tank Landing Ship
Builder:
Displacement:
5,665 tons (full load)
Operator:
: 2 in service
Newport-class (LST) Tank Landing Ship
Builder:
Displacement:
4,793 tons (light), 8,500 tons (full load)
Operator:
: 2 in service
: 1 in service
: 1 in service
: 2 in service
: 2 in service
Ondatra-class (Project 1176, NATO reporting name Akula) Small Landing Ship
Builder:
Displacement:
107.3 tons (full loaded)
Operator:
: 2 in service
: 4 in service
: 1 in service
Polnocny-class (NS-722) Medium Landing Ship
Builder:
Displacement:
1,410 tons (full load)
Operator:
: 1 in service
Polnocny A-class (Project 770) Medium Landing Ship
Builder:
Displacement:
800 tons (full load)
Operator:
: 2 in service
: 1 in service
: 3 in service
Polnocny B-class (Project 771) Medium Landing Ship
Builder:
Displacement:
834 tons (full load)
Operator:
: 1 in service
: 2 in service
: 6 in service
: 3 in service
: 3 in service
Polnocny C-class (Project 773) Medium Landing Ship
Builder:
Displacement:
1,150 tons (full load)
Operator:
: 2 in service
: 1 in service
Polnocny D-class (Project 773U) Medium Landing Ship
Builder:
Displacement:
1,233 tons (full load)
Operator:
: 4 in service
Ropucha I-class (Project 775) Large Landing Ship
Builder:
Poland
Displacement:
2,200 tons (standard), 4,080 tons (full loaded)
Operator:
: 12 in service
Ropucha II-class (Project 775M) Large Landing Ship
Builder:
Poland
Displacement:
2,200 tons (standard), 4,080 tons (full loaded)
Operator:
: 4 in service
Runnymede-class (LCU 2000) Large Landing Craft
Builder:
Displacement:
584 tons (standard), 1,104 tons (full load)
Operator:
: 35 in service
Serna-class (Project 11771) Landing Craft Utility
Builder:
Displacement:
61 tons (standard), 99.7 tons (full load)
Operator:
: 1 in service
: 12 in service
: 3 in service
Shardul-class (LST) Tank Landing Ship
Builder:
Displacement:
5,650 tons (full load)
Operator:
: 3 in service
Tagbanua-class (AT-296) Landing Craft Utility
Builder:
Displacement:
579 tons
Operator:
: 1 in service
Tapir-class (Project 1171, NATO reporting name "Alligator") Large Landing Ship
Builder:
Displacement:
3,400 tons (standard), 4,700 tons (full load)
Operator:
: 4 in service
Teluk Bintuni-class (LST) Tank Landing Ship
Builder:
Displacement:
2,300 tons
Operator:
: 2 in service, 7 completed
Vydra-class (Project 106) Small Landing Ship
Builder:
Displacement:
258 tons (standard), 550 tons (full load)
Operators:
: 5 in service
: 2 in service
Vydra-class (Project 106K Saygak) Small Landing Ship
Builder:
Displacement:
460 tons (standard), 610 tons (full load)
Operators:
: 2 in service
: 21 in service
: 2 in service
: 10 in service
: 2 in service
Yudao-class (Type 073) Medium Landing Ship
Builder:
Displacement:
850 tons (full load)
Operator:
: 1 in service
Yudao-class (Type 073II) Medium Landing Ship
Builder:
Displacement:
1,040 tons (full load)
Operator:
: 1 in service
Yudao-class (Type 073IIY) Medium Landing Ship
Builder:
Displacement:
1,100 tons (full load)
Operator:
: 2 in service
Yudeng-class (Type 073III) Medium Landing Ship
Builder:
Displacement:
1,460 tons (standard), 1,850 tons (full load)
Operator:
: 1 in service
Yuhai-class (Type 074) Medium Landing Ship
Builder:
Displacement:
800 tons (full load)
Operator:
: 12 in service
: 1 in service
Yunshu-class (Type 073A) Medium Landing Ship
Builder:
Displacement:
2,000 tons (full load)
Operator:
: 10 in service
Yulian-class (Type 079) Medium Landing Ship
Builder:
Displacement:
714 tons (light), 730 tons (standard), 833 tons (full load)
Operator:
: 23 in service
Air-cushioned landing craft
Aist-class (Project 12321, NATO reporting name "Dzheyran") Air Cushioned Landing Craft
Builder:
Displacement:
?
Speed:
max.
Operator:
: 6 in service
Griffon 2000TD Light-Weight Hovercraft
Builder:
Displacement:
3.5 tons (civilian), 6.8 tons (military)
Speed:
35 knots at sea state 3 (~65 km/h)
Operator:
: 1 in service
: 8 in service
Border Guard: 1 in service
Border Guard: 7 in service
Border Guard: 1 in service
: 4 in service
Marina de Guerra: 7 in service
Border Guard: 2 in service
Coast Guard: 3 in service
Royal Marines: 4 in service
Landing Craft Air Cushion (LCAC) Air Cushioned Landing Craft
Builder:
Displacement:
87.2 tons (light), 182 tons (full load)
Speed:
max. 70+ knots (~130 km/h), full loaded 40+ knots (~74 km/h)
Operator:
: 6 in service
: 74 in service
LSF-II 631 Solgae''-class (LCAC) Air Cushioned Landing Craft
Builder:
Displacement:
157 tons (full load)
Speed:
full loaded
Operator:
: 3 in service
Zubr-class (Project 1232.2, NATO reporting name "Pomornik") Air Cushioned Landing Craft
Builder:
Displacement:
340 tons (light), 415 tons (standard), 555 tons (full load)
Speed:
max. , full loaded
Operator:
: 4 in service
: 2 in service
: 2 in service
References
Naval ship classes in service |
4094028 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marilyn%20Kaye | Marilyn Kaye | Marilyn Kaye (born 1949) is an American children's writer. She taught children's literature at St. John's University, New York. She is the author of over 100 children's and young adult novel series, including the successful Replica and Gifted series.
Biography
Marilyn Kaye was born in 1949 in New Britain, Connecticut. She spent most of her childhood in Atlanta, Georgia, although she spent her tenth year in Montgomery, Alabama and her thirteenth in Ann Arbor, Michigan. She kept a diary as a child and wrote in a wide range of formats.
Marilyn majored in English at Emory University, going on to study a master's degree in library science at Emory and a Doctor of Philosophy degree at the University of Chicago, with the thesis title "The nature of didacticism as related to romance and sexuality in young adult novels, 1965–1978". She taught children's literature at St. John's University, New York for over twenty years. She began publishing her work in 1984 under the pseudonym Shannon Blair, and has since had much success, particularly with the internationally selling Replica series.
Replica
"Replica" is a children's science fiction series about Amy Candler, a young teenager who discovers she is one of thirteen cloned girls who have been genetically modified to have superhuman abilities. She was created in the government-funded Project Crescent, and was kidnapped and adopted by one of the scientists after a change of heart. Throughout the series Amy struggles to live a normal life as the mysterious Organisation tries to use her and the other Project Crescent clones to create a master race and take over the world. Amy also seeks to help the other clones in the project, and encounters a number of other children and teenagers with genetic modifications or supernatural powers.
This series is very popular and has been sold internationally.
Books
There are twenty-four books in the original series, published regularly between 1998 and 2002. A separate trilogy based on the same characters was also published in 2002.
1. Amy, Number 7: Whilst writing an autobiography for an English project, Amy begins to question the identity of her "father", who supposedly died before she was born. She is also confused by her suddenly increased physical abilities and powers of healing. She is shocked to discover that she is one of thirteen clones created in a government project which her "mother" was part of.
2. Pursuing Amy: Amy struggles to hide her true identity from her friends, particularly when her mother's new boyfriend turns out to be from the organization attempting to track her down. She eventually reveals her abilities to Eric, her best friend's brother. Amy also sees another clone for the first time.
3. Another Amy: Another clone comes to Amy's school to film a movie, and is horrified by Amy's insistence that they are clones. Over time, Amy begins to realise that this clone is very unlike Amy – she is evil. Also, Amy begins dating Eric.
4. Perfect Girls: Amy thinks she has won the trip of a lifetime to New York, but she soon discovers this is a front to capture and test herself and seven other clones. Amy eventually escapes, but no-one believes her story.
5. Secret Clique: When a group of popular girls appear to gain supernatural abilities, Amy begins to investigate, confusing her best friend Tasha and boyfriend Eric.
6. And The Two Shall Meet: Amy meets a boy named Andy at a wilderness camp, and is instantly attracted to him. When someone dies in a freak accident, Andy claims he witnessed the murder and convinces Amy to run away with him. However, Amy grows suspicious and discovers that Andy is another clone, designed to be her perfect other half.
7. The Best of the Best: When Eric is asked to show around a new student, obnoxious eight-year-old child genius Adrian Peele, Amy senses something is not right. She is surprised to discover that, rather than being a victim, Adrian runs a genetics company.
8. Mystery Mother: Amy has always been satisfied that her mother loves her, even though they are not genetically related. However, when a woman claims to be Amy's birth mother, and accuses Nancy of kidnap, Amy begins to wonder if she really is a clone.
9. The Fever: When Amy, who has been genetically modified to never become ill, suddenly becomes feverish and hallucinates, her mother believes that Amy must have been drugged at the new club in town. However, when a doctor arrives for a blood sample, Tasha suspects something more sinister is going on.
10. Ice Cold: Amy fears her secret will be revealed to the world after her worst enemy Jeanine discovers that Amy is a clone and begins blackmailing her. However, Jeanine ends up in a coma, making Amy the main suspect.
11. Lucky Thirteen: Amy meets Aly, another clone who was rejected by the project because of her lack of special abilities. Aly encourages Amy to act out, but Aly's desire to live up to Amy's perfection leads her into trouble. Eventually, Amy is forced to break contact.
12. In Search of Andy: On a trip to Paris, Amy is surprised to run into Andy, her "perfect match" who disappeared suddenly the summer before. She wants to find Andy, but she suspects that he might be leading her into a trap.
13. The Substitute: Amy is at risk after the death of her mysterious ally, Mr Devon. Amy suspects that the cruel new teacher at school, Ms Heartshorn, is there to kidnap her, but the truth is not what she expected.
14. The Beginning: A trip to Washington DC, home of Project Crescent, puts Amy on edge. Meanwhile, Amy's mother remembers the origins of the project, including the pain of losing her brother to a genetic disorder and the betrayal which puts Amy at risk in the modern day.
15. Transformation: When Tasha and Amy's other classmates begin to act like zombies, Amy suspects they have been influenced by the new TV show, Cherry Lane.
16. Happy Birthday, Dear Amy: On the eve of Amy's thirteenth birthday, she suddenly ages into her twenties. After she impulsively runs away from the private hospital where she is being treated, she finds herself at a very unusual homeless shelter.
17. Missing Pieces: Amy becomes suspicious when her fellow students start losing their most prized abilities, such as a sprinter losing his running ability and a basketball player forgetting how to throw. Meanwhile, Eric has begun High School and has little time for Amy any more, leading her to become fascinated with newcomer Chris.
18. Return of the Perfect Girls: Thinking she is headed on a romantic cruise with her new boyfriend Chris, Amy is kidnapped by the organisation and taken to a desert island. There, she must compete with the other Amys and Andys in a Survivor-style competition, in which those voted off face death.
19. Dreamcrusher: After being struck by lightning, Amy develops the unwanted ability to read minds and see the future.
20. Like Father, Like Son: After Chris's absent father returns asking for a bone marrow transplant, Amy suspects that Chris and many of her other classmates are clones intended as organ donors for the wealthy.
21. Virtual Amy: After Andy mysteriously disappears after giving her a warning, Amy becomes worried by a new virtual reality computer game.
22. All About Andy: Andy investigates the truth about his past and his family.
23. War of the Clones: When a tabloid runs a story of human clones creating a master race, Amy and Andy begin to uncover the truth about Project Crescent and The Organisation.
24. Amy, On Her Own: When Amy's crescent birthmark fades and she and the other clones begin experiencing new physical problems, they fear that their genes are deteriorating. Amy tries to cope with the possibility that she must return to a normal life.
The Plague Trilogy: A miniseries about Amy's battle against a deadly plague which threatens to destroy civilisation.
1. Rewind: Amy travels back in time to prevent the plague from beginning.
2. Play: Amy travels inside a human body to fight the plague within them.
3. Fast Forward: After she is exposed as a clone and rejected, Amy travels to a world where everyone is a clone like her.
Gifted
Gifted is the latest series by Marilyn Kaye and features a small class of students at Meadowbrook Middle School Each has a different supernatural ability, or "Gift", and they all attend a class to learn to use these abilities, although few people outside the class know about them. The class teacher, Madame, encourages the students to work together to use their abilities, particularly as they are being targeted by a group who wants to control their abilities to make money. However, the students dislike their abilities and each other, and are often reluctant to join forces.
The first book was published in February 2009, with the latest installment scheduled for publishing September 2010. Although only six books have so far been announced, each book so far has focused on a different student, suggesting the series will run to nine books in total. As of May 2020, there have been no announcements or updates about continuing this series. Goodreads has it listed as a completed series with 6 books, or two volumes (vol. 1 contains the first three books, and vol. 2 contains the last three books).
Characters
Amanda Beeson: A cruel queen bee who is disliked by her classmates. She is frequently mean, and tries to avoid empathising with people as, when she does, she uncontrollably possesses their body for an indeterminate amount of time. When she possesses a body, the person she is possessing "blacks out" and a "fake" Amanda with no real emotions takes her place. She generally tries to avoid this, although her classmates believe she purposefully uses her ability out of spite. Over the course of the series, she tries to help the class but is often ignored and taunted. She has a crush on Ken. Which is shown in a later series.
Jenna Kelley: A telepathic Goth with a reputation as a juvenile delinquent. Many of her friends outside the Gifted class are criminals, and she is frequently in trouble with the law because of her involvement with them. This led to a brief time in reform school. Her mother is an alcoholic who has frequently failed to complete rehab, and they face financial difficulties. Jenna's father disappeared many years ago, and in Better Late than Never Jenna learns of his death. Although she is initially annoyed by her classmates, she develops a friendship with Tracey and Emily as the series progresses.
Emily Sanders: A girl known for day-dreaming, which is actually caused by near-constant visions of the future. Her ability is hard to control and her visions are difficult to interpret, often seeming meaningless until after the event they depict. She feels guilty for not warning her father when she predicted his death in a car accident.
Ken Preston: A popular athletic student, who no longer plays sports after a sporting accident killed his best friend. Ken can contact the dead telepathically, although he is irritated by their constant requests for his help which he is incapable of completing without revealing his ability and appearing delusional.
Tracey Devon: A shy, plain girl who feels constantly ignored, particularly by her parents, who care more for her septuplet siblings. Her feelings of invisibility cause her to become invisible, although as her confidence grows she gains more control of this ability. She is possessed by Amanda for a long period in Out of Sight, Out of Mind, and receives a makeover and change of life which helps her become confident. Tracey is friends with Jenna, and has her to stay while her mother is in rehab. Trace also has seven sisters called the "Devon Seven."
Charles Temple: A selfish and unhelpful boy in a wheelchair. He is telekinetic, but he refuses to use his abilities except for personal gain.
Sarah Miller: A kind, friendly girl with the ability to control the actions of others. She is very afraid of her power, and refuses to use it unless absolutely necessary.
Martin Cooper: A victim of bullying who becomes supernaturally strong when angry.
Carter Street: A mute amnesiac found wandering Carter Street.
Books
1. Out of Sight, Out of Mind: Amanda finds herself trapped in Tracey's body, with her own place occupied by a clone. Reluctantly, she decides to improve Tracey's life, ending her years of invisibility. Meanwhile, the Gifted class fights off a TA who attempts to hypnotise Emily to predict the lottery.
2. Better Late Than Never: Jenna, who has begun to befriend Tracey, is shocked by the sudden reappearance of her "father", not realising that this man is a fraud who wants her ability to win at poker. Meanwhile, Amanda possesses Ken and develops a romance with a dead boy.
3. Here Today, Gone Tomorrow: Emily is worried by visions that her classmates are disappearing. Soon, many of them are kidnapped and forced to rob a bank, but the remaining classmates work together to rescue them in time.
4. Finders Keepers: Ken struggles to simultaneously help his dead friend Jack look after his girlfriend, and keep his ability secret after attending a seance at which a boy begs for help finding his dead father's winning lottery ticket. Meanwhile, Amanda possesses the body of a woman plotting to steal the boy's money, uncovering a conspiracy acting against the class.
5. Now You See Me: Tracey investigates her suspicion that there is a spy in the class, particularly after Jenna is framed for a crime she didn't commit and sent away. Meanwhile, Amanda volunteers in the school office to investigate the principal's involvement in the conspiracy.
6. Speak No Evil: Carter is at Harmony House and has talks with Dr. Paley. It is revealed that he has a gift which is shape-shifting. Meanwhile, in the gifted class, Madame tries to get everyone to think of positive ways to use their gifts, while Ken and Amanda find no point to, so they think of losing their gifts. Dr. Paley might have the answer.
Bibliography
Works by Marilyn Kaye include:
Celebrating Children's Books, published 1981. A collection of essays edited by Marilyn Kaye and Betsy Hearne.
Films, Young People and Libraries, a non-fiction work published 1984.
Sweet Dreams, a long-running novel series contributed to by many authors:
Call Me Beautiful, written under the pseudonym Shannon Blair, published 1984.
Starstruck, written under the pseudonym Shannon Blair, published 1985.
Wrong Kind of Boy, written under the pseudonym Shannon Blair, published 1985.
Kiss and Tell, written under the pseudonym Shannon Blair, published 1985.
Will You Cross Me?, illustrated by Ned Delaney, published 1985.
Baby Fozzie Is Afraid of the Dark, published 1986 in Weekly Reader. A story based around Muppets character Fozzie Bear.
Out of This World, published 1986–1989. A nonconformist alien named Max comes to Earth to learn about human emotions, but faces trouble with her literal interpretation of human culture:
Max on Earth
Max in Love
Max on Fire
Max Flips Out
Max Goes Bad
Max All Over
Sisters, published 1987–1989. A family of four girls face struggles in their everyday lives:
Phoebe
Daphne
Cassie
Lydia
A Friend Like Phoebe
The Best Baby-Sitter in the World, published 1987.
Zoobille Zoo: Big Mess, illustrated by Carol Hudson, published 1987.
Miss Piggy and the Big Gorilla, published 1988. Based around Muppets character Miss Piggy.
What a Teddy Bear Needs, published 1989.
Gonzo the Great, published 1989. Based around Muppets character Gonzo.
Camp Sunnyside Friends, published 1989–1992. Friends Katie, Trina, Megan, Sarah and Erin enjoy their holidays at Camp Sunnyside:
No Boys Allowed
Cabin Six Plays Cupid
Color War
New Girl in Cabin Six
Looking for Trouble
Katie Steals the Show
A Witch in Cabin Six
Too Many Counselors
The New-and-Improved Sarah
Erin and the Movie Star
The Problem With Parents
The Tennis Trap
Big Sister Blues
Megan's Ghost
Christmas Break
Happily Ever After
Camp Spaghetti
Balancing Act
My Camp Memory Book: A Camp Sunnyside Friends Special
Christmas Reunion: A Camp Sunnyside Friends Special
School Daze: A Camp Sunnyside Friends Back to School Special
The Spirit of Sunnyside: A Camp Sunnyside Friends Christmas Special
The Real Tooth Fairy, illustrated by Helen Cogancherry, published 1990. A child questions the existence of the tooth fairy, but her mother explains away the doubts.
Attitude, published 1990.
Three of a Kind, published 1990–1991. Orphans Cat, Josie, and Becka are adopted by the same family:
With Friends Like These, Who Needs Enemies?
Home's a Nice Place to Visit, but I Wouldn't Want to Live There
Will the Real Becka Morgan Please Stand Up?
Two's Company, Four's a Crowd
Cat Morgan, Working Girl
101 Ways to Win Homecoming Queen
The Atonement of Mindy Wise, published 1991. Yom Kippur prompts a girl to atone for the sins she has committed to gain popularity.
A Day with No Math, illustrated by Tim Bowers, published 1992.
Disney's The Little Mermaid: The Same Old Song, illustrated by Fred Marvin, published 1992. Based around Disney's The Little Mermaid.
Disney's The Little Mermaid: Reflections of Arsulu, illustrated by Fred Marvin, published 1992. Based around Disney's The Little Mermaid.
Changes Romance, a series of romance books contributed to by several authors:
Runaway, published 1992.
Choose Me, published 1992.
Real Heroes, published 1993. A boy is torn when his father campaigns against his HIV-positive teacher.
Video High, published 1994–1995. A group of teenagers from the same high school star in a TV show:
Modern Love
The High Life
Date is a Four-Letter Word
The Body Beautiful
The Colors of the Heart
Checking Out
Groupies
Secrets & Lies
French Kisses
After School Club, published 1997. A group of third graders attend the same after school club:
Jill's Happy Un-Birthday
Valentine's Day Surprise
Teammates
Dream Lover, published 1995. A girl is drawn to an amnesiac who she suspects is a reincarnated rock star.
Club Paradise, published 1995–1997:
Scandal in Paradise
Trouble in Paradise
Stranger in Paradise
Double Click Cafe, published 1997. A group of teens face encounters online and IRL in an Internet cafe:
Cyber Kiss
Love Bytes
Access Romance
Control and Escape
Last on Earth, published 1998–1999. A group of High School seniors leave their maths class to discover that everyone else on Earth has vanished. Over the course of the series the group try to discover what happens, forging their own society as they do so. Eventually, they realise that an alien civilisation has kidnapped the Earth's inhabitants:
The Vanishing
The Convergence
The Return
Replica, published 1998–2002. See above.
Penelope, published 2007. A novelisation of the movie Penelope, based on the original screenplay by Leslie Caveny.
Demon Chick, published 2009. Jessica is shocked to learn that her mother has sold her to the Devil to get ahead in her career.
Gifted, published 2009–present. See above.
Ticket to Love, published 2012. Four girlfriends travel to New York City for a long weekend and encounter a variety of romantic adventures.
White Lies and Tiaras, published 2012. Alice, Lara, and their boyfriends go to Paris for a wedding, and find romantic surprises in the City of Lights.
Gloss, published 2013. In 1963, a group of girls learn about life as magazine interns in the city that never sleeps.
References
External links
Marilyn Kaye at Fantastic Fiction
Shannon Blair at LC Authorities, no records
1949 births
Living people
American children's writers
Emory University alumni
University of Chicago alumni
St. John's University (New York City) faculty |
4094152 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idrimi | Idrimi | Idrimi (meaning "It is my help") was the king of Alalakh c. 1490–1465 BC, or around 1450 BC. He is known, mainly, from an inscription on his statue found at Alalakh by Leonard Woolley in 1939. According to that inscription, he was a son of Ilim-Ilimma I the king of Halab, now Aleppo, who would have been deposed by the new regional master, Barattarna, king of Mitanni. Idrimi would have succeeded in gaining the throne of Alalakh with the assistance of a group known as the Habiru, founding the kingdom of Mukish as a vassal to the Mitanni state. He also invaded the Hittite territories to the north, resulting in a treaty with the country Kizzuwatna.
Jacob Lauinger considers Idrimi as a historical character, king of Alalakh around 1450 BC, in Late Bronze Age, but suggests his statue and inscriptions can be dated from c. 1400 to 1350 BC, and be related to a Mesopotamian pseudo-autobiography (called narû-literature), in which kings apparently leave records of their misadventures as a lesson for future generations. Lauinger also comments that the inscriptions try to legitimate the rule of Alalakh only by acknowledging the supremacy of Mitanni, and the text(s) may have had an audience coeval to politics of that time.
Sources of Idrimi
All three sources were discovered by British archaeologist Leonard Woolley within the Level IV (Late Bronze Age in the mid-15th century BC) archives of the Alalakh palace and come from his collection at the British Museum.
Statue text
The inscription bears 104 lines "written in a provincial dialect of Akkadian,"
and records Idrimi's autobiographical vicissitudes on his statue's base found within a pit of a Level IB temple at the site of Tell Atchana (Alalakh). Jacob Lauinger dates the inscription around 1400-1350 BC, in Level III (/II) excavated by Woolley, or Period 3, according to Yener's excavations.
The first part of the inscription revealed Idrimi's circumstances fleeing from Aleppo. The translated inscription, according to author Amélie Kuhrt, stated: "I am Idrimi, the son of Ilimilimma, servant of Teshub, Hepat, and Shaushga, the lady of Alalakh, my mistress. In Aleppo, in the house of my fathers, a crime had occurred and we fled. The Lords of Emar were descended from the sisters of my mother, so we settled in Emar. My brothers, who were older than me, also lived with me..." After his family had been forced to flee to Emar, with his mother's people, he realized that he wouldn't wield real power in Emar, saying "...but he that is with the people of Emar, is a slave." As a result, He left his family and brothers, took his horse, chariot, and squire, went into the desert, and joined the "Hapiru people" in "Ammija (Amiya) in the land of Canaan", where other refugees from Aleppo (the people from Halab, people from the land Mukish [dominated by Alalakh], people from the land of Nihi [near the Orontes River in Syria], and people of Nuhašše, also known as Ama'e), recognized him as the "son of their overlord" and "gathered around him."
The second part of the inscription revealed major events in Idrimi's life including a campaign in Hurrian territory to reclaim Alalakh. After living among the Habiru (Hapiru) for seven years, he led his new friends and Habiru allies in a successful attack by sea on Alalakh, where he became king. The inscription further stated: "In the seventh year, Teshub turned towards me. As a result, I built ships. The x-soldiers I caused to enter the ships...when my country heard of me, cattle and sheep were brought before me. In a single day...Nihi...Amae...the country of Mukish and Alalah, turned towards me like one man. My brothers heard of this and came to me. My brothers and I swore mutual alliance; I placed my brothers under my protection." Idrimi built ships and likely gathered soldiers from Mukish, Amae, Nihi, and Alakah, which was enough to impress his own brothers to join him in reclaiming Alalakh. Inscription continues telling he somehow gained the trust of Barattarna who recognized Idrimi's oath of alliance with his brothers and placed himself within the alliance. A final section requested a blessing of the statue from Sharruwa, the statue's scribe, and cursed those who would deface his statue. However, there is a strong danger of using the statue's text as a single historical source. Just like the inscriptions of Ramesses II's poetic prose of the Battle of Kadesh, the statue of Idrimi's text suggested that Idrimi's real campaigns were probably exaggerated to make himself legitimate. Many scholars studying the inscription have suggested it to be a form of pseudo-history, possibly based on "exaggerations" of his campaigns, or a moralizing story, composed 50-100 years after Idrimi's lifetime.
Idrimi tablet 1
This tablet (shown left) was excavated by Leonard Woolley between 1936-1949 at Tell Atchana (Alalakh) in northern Syria. It dates back to c. 1500–1450 BC. The tablet contained Idrimi's royal seal and revealed an agreement that Idrimi made for the annual dues of gold and sheep to be paid to him or to his successor, his son Niqmepa who often used his own father's seal. The seal's inscription also read: "Idrimi, servant of the God Adad" (the local storm-god in Alalakh). The tablet suggested that Idrimi not only wielded absolute power in Alalakh, but it also suggested that Idrimi had exercised some independence through his own self-deification.
Idrimi tablet 2
This tablet (shown right) was excavated at Tell Achtana in northern Syria between 1936-1949 and dates back to c. 1480 BC. It was a treaty that Idrimi made with another vassal ruler to Mitanni, Pilliya of Kizzuwatna. The treaty was for fugitives exchanges between Idrimi and Pilliya.
Early life of Idrimi
In the first part of Idrimi's autobiography on his statue, it is claimed that an incident had occurred in Halab and that he and his family had to flee as a result. Jack M. Sasson of the University of North Carolina speculated that Idrimi didn't claim any relationship to Halab's rulers. He argued that Ilim-Ilimma I, Idrimi's father, was either dethroned or had unsuccessfully attempted to usurp the throne of Halab from an unknown king. Idrimi goes to Emar because of his maternal ancestral connections to the Lords of Emar. While living in Emar, he considered himself as a slave.
According to Tremper Longman, lines 8b-9 of the autobiography indicate that Idrimi may have considered retaking his father's lost throne, and that he tried to involve his brothers in his cause. As his brothers declined to participate, Idrimi went to Alalakh alone but then fled to Ammiya in the land of Canaan. According to Marc Van de Mieroop, Idrimi was unhappy at Emar for being an "underling".
If the narrative is historical, there is no scholarly debate that is adequate enough to explain why Idrimi chose to live among the Habiru in Canaan, though it is psychologically clear that Idrimi got along well with the other refugees. It was because they went through a similar experience of being uprooted from their own hometowns. Another possibility by looking at Tremper Longman's theory is that Idrimi was recruiting potential allies in a greater effort to take Alalakh. But, it is clear from these various scholarly speculations that a political motivation may be involved in Idrimi's desire to take back Alalakh. This motive is further indicated by author Garrett Galvin who compared Idrimi's story to the famous Egyptian work, the Story of Sinuhe. Idrimi was similar to Sinuhe in the sense that he was a high-class refugee looking back to his roots and finding an opportunity to take back his throne while being fueled by humiliation and anger towards his political enemies. Galvin also argued that Idrimi's attitude of being from a higher social class overcame the hardships he had as a refugee.
The decision to take back Alalakh
After seven years living among the Habiru in Canaan, seeking an opportunity to take back his throne, Idrimi found his chance. Edward Greenstein and David Marcus' translation of the inscription on lines 29–34 revealed that following the storm-god Teshub's advice in a dream, Idrimi "made ships and had auxiliary troops board them and proceeded via the sea to Mukishe (Mukish)," and he adds that "Now, when my country heard of me, they brought me large cattle and small cattle, and in one day, in unison, the countries of Ni'i (Niya)..., Mukishe (Mukish), and my own city Alalah (Alalakh) became reconciled with me...they concluded a treaty and established them truly as my allies." This newfound alliance with local rulers, created by cattle exchanges, was just the beginning of the gradual restoration of Idrimi's royal status as the king of Alalakh.
Edward Greenstein's and David Marcus's translation of the inscription on lines 42-51 revealed that despite Barattarna's hostility to Idrimi while he was in exile in Canaan, he actually respected Idrimi's coalition, maybe submitting to Idrimi out of fear that his social outcast army could overthrow him. Idrimi said that King Barattarna for "seven years...was hostile to me. I sent Anwanda to Barattarna, the mighty king, the king of the Hurrian warriors, and told him of the treaties of my ancestors...and that our actions were pleasing to the former kings of the Hurrian warriors for they had made a binding agreement. The mighty king heard of the treaties of our predecessors and the agreement made between them and...read to him the words of the treaty in detail. So on account of our treaty terms he received my tribute...I...restored to him a lost estate. I swore to him a binding oath as a loyal vassal." Here, possibly influenced by the nature of Hittite oaths, Idrimi swore loyalty to Barattarna after seven years despite him overthrowing his father on the throne in Aleppo. He made his request to the throne peacefully by restoring Barattarna's estate and swore him an ultimate Hurrian loyalty oath, which was the first step to Idrimi regaining his power again.
The inscription in lines 42-51 of Greenstein and Marcus's translation described Idrimi's capture of Alalakh as a peaceful effort to appease Barattarna with tributes of restoring his estate and swearing a loyalty oath unto him rather than using warfare to capture the city. Marc Van de Mieroop mentioned that Idrimi "captured" Alalakh implying a warfare approach that the inscription doesn't give. Author Paul Collins described Idrimi's maneuver as a "greeting-present, the traditional form of establishing and maintaining friendly relations between rulers, even those of different rank, and reminded him (Barattarna) of earlier oaths sworn between the kings of Halab (Aleppo) and the kings of Mitanni." Also, Collins mentioned that Barattarna had accepted Idrimi's tribute to him as a loyal vassal ruler. He only allowed Idrimi limited independence of making his own military and diplomatic decisions just as long as it didn't interfere with Mitanni's overall policy. This further allowed Idrimi to set his sights on his diplomatic and military aims in Kizzuwatna and act as an independent ruler. Idrimi's "capture" of Alalakh was evidenced in his statue inscription and Collins' analysis as a peaceful movement rather than a military movement.
The rule of Idrimi in Alalakh
After Idrimi's success in establishing a peaceful agreement with King Barattarna of Mitanni sometime around 1490 BC, most of his actions as king are vaguely written and are limited to only smaller sources. Tablets 1 and 2 at the British Museum are great primary sources about Idrimi's actions during his rule, but it's not enough to just look at those two tablets as a whole description of Idrimi's rule. Strong scholarly consensus argued by ancient Syro-Palestine scholars Dominique Collon and Gary Oller also suggested that Idrimi led cross-border raids into Hittite territory during his rule. According to Collon, he raided Hittite territory and used the booty from that raid to build his massive palace.
Gary Oller, in his 1977 dissertation, further confirmed Collon's statement by reaffirming Idrimi's statement in lines 64-77 of his statue inscription that he raided seven cities somewhere near the city of Gaziantep in modern-day Turkey.
According to Edward Greenstein and David Marcus' translation of Idrimi's statue inscription, "Then I took troops and attacked Hatti-land. As for the seven cities under their protection...these I destroyed. Hatti-land did not assemble and did not march against me, so I did what I wanted. I took captives from them and took their property, valuables, and possessions and distributed them to my auxiliaries, kinsmen, and friends. Together with them I took booty."It is possible that Idrimi may have taken slaves along with other trade goods in his raids on the seven Hittite towns as booty to restore his own power. Gary Oller gave some validity to the existence of the cities sacked in Idrimi's raid by mentioning two of the seven Hatti cities of Hassuwa (Khashshum) and Zaruna in Hattusili I's annals from his reign in c. 1580–1556 BC. The annals mentioned that Hattusili I destroyed Zaruna in his fifth campaign and defeated a coalition of Hassuwa and Halab, cities also mentioned by Idrimi in his statue inscription.
Lines 77-78 from Greenstein's and Marcus's translation of the statue inscription confirmed Collon's argument of what Idrimi did with his booty: "Then I returned to Mukishe (Mukish) and entered my capital Alalah (Alalakh). With the captives, goods, and property, and possessions which I brought down from Hatti, I had a palace built." The inscription from lines 78-86 of that same translation states, "I made my regime like the regime of kings. I made my brothers like royal brothers, my sons like their sons and my relatives their relatives. The inhabitants who were in my land I made to dwell securely, and even those who did not have a dwelling I settled. Then I organized my land, and made my cities like they were before. Just as our ancestors had established regular rites for the gods of Alaklah, and just as our forefathers had performed sacrifices, I constantly performed them. These things I did, and I entrusted them to my son Adad-niari. It is possible according to the statue text that Idrimi would have used his "spoils of war" from the seven Hittite towns, especially any valuable items, to help fund the rebuilding of his cities. It is very likely that, based on his coalition he had when he took over Alalakh as vassal king, Mukish and other cities in the coalition became a part of Alalakh's vassal kingdom. As a "gratefulness" gift for Idrimi, they would offer tribute to him for him to rebuild their cities for them, which is mentioned in the royal seal of Idrimi. It is also possible that he supported the gods of Emar and the cults of the storm-god Teshub if one looks at the brief mentions of those gods in his statue inscriptions during the early phases of his life.
On the other hand, Tremper Longman III considers all this narrative passages in Idrimi's statue as having the same "basic threefold structure that characterizes all Akkadian fictional autobiography," and that "what is debated is whether the text is 'true' autobiography, which may be used uncritically as a source to reconstruct Syrian history in the fifteenth century B.C., or fictional autobiography...written after Idrimi had died...With these difficulties in mind, attention may be focused on the literary nature of the Idrimi inscription. Rather than being concerned with narrating historical facts, the author of the inscription employed many traditional folkloristic motifs in order to tell the story of Idrimi."
Debate on Sharruwa the scribe and his blessing of the statue
In the final parts of the statue inscription, Idrimi commissioned the scribe Sharruwa to write his statue inscription, invoking major blessings for those who respect his statues and cursings by the gods to anyone who would defile his statue. Jack M. Sasson of the University of North Carolina contended that Sharruwa wrote the inscription for selfish reasons to bolster his national pride. This was indicated by the fact that Idrimi's statue was not found in Level 4 in Woolley's time, but on Level 1B (1250–1200 BC). Dominique Collon refuted his arguments by saying that many of the documents associated with Idrimi in the Level 4 Alalakh palace archives discovered by Woolley were associated with his reign in 1490–1460 BC, therefore giving some validity to Sharruwa's statements.
Idrimi's rule in tablet #1: The royal seal of Idrimi
This tablet or "seal" was one of only two recorded sources of Idrimi from the British Museum. The tablet was Idrimi's royal seal, which contained his accounts of goodwill gifts of silver and other forms of tribute like cattle from Mukish and Zelki and other nearby cities, possibly demonstrating a tribute system among his allied city-states dating back to his alliance with them during his exile. His seal represented his act of piety towards the Shutu people and to those who "had no settled abode," to show his generosity as a king and former Habiru refugee as he rebuilt his cities.
It is clear from the inscriptions on the seal that Idrimi ruled within Level IV in the mid to late Bronze Age with piety and wise administration and that it was subsequently used by his son and successor Niqmepa as his royal seal as a replica of his own royal seal. If Niqmepa used his father's royal seal for his own royal seal, which contained the names of his predecessors, "Abbaban, Sararan, Naraam", it is implied that Idrimi would have those same names on his royal seal, indicating his need for legitimacy from his previous Hurrian rulers, who made oaths to legitimize their claims to the throne according to his statue inscription. Royal seals were frequently used in the Hittite Empire and Hurrian regions in northern Syria to demonstrate the king's power in Idrimi's time. They were made up of a material of glass and silica called failence. The failence was heated at a lower temperature so that the surface could have a glazed appearance, allowing them to be easily carved and cheaply produced. The seal could suggest a possible theory that despite the Hittites being a political rival to Idrimi, he adapted the Hittite-style royal seal along with Hittite-style oaths of loyalty he made to Parshatatar and Pilliya. Oller theorized that Idrimi's predecessors in his royal seal were Halabian rulers of the 16th century BC of an independent Halab (Aleppo) prior to Mitanni's rise to power, though their relationship with Idrimi has yet to be determined by other scholars. Oller also proposed a theory that Idrimi's predecessors ruled Yamhad when Alalakh was a part of Yamhad's territory, though that theory has not been confirmed by other scholars.
Idrimi's rule in tablet #2: Idrimi's treaty to Pilliya of Kizzuwatna
This tablet from several treaty texts revealed that Idrimi had somehow exchanged other slaves or fugitives with Pilliya of Kizzuwatna, which made sense considering that both Idrimi and Pilliya were vassal kings to Barattarna. According to Donald L. Magetti, the treaty was partly influenced by the swearing of oaths in the Hittite Empire, but only within the context of swearing oaths of loyalty with one another as leaders, saying in lines 3-5, they "took an oath by the gods and made this treaty". He argued that lines 40-43 of the treaty required that Barattarna, the Hittite king of Mitanni, approved the treaty before it could be effective and that fugitives or slaves could be exchanged between Idrimi and Pilliya only after the king approved the agreement. The treaty was concluded by Idrimi and Pilliya following Idrimi's raids into Hittite territory. This may somewhat validate line 77 of Greenstein's and Marcus's translation of Idrimi's statue inscription, "Together with them I took (booty)," suggesting that Idrimi led raids into Kizzuwatna and wanted to end them in order to gain Pilliya's favor against bigger enemies like the Hittites as a buffer state. This favor was to be gained by a runaway slave clause within the treaty allowing ordinary citizens to retrieve runaway slaves for rewards of five-hundred copper shekels for a man and one thousand shekels for a woman. A slave owner could also enter into Kizzuwatna and Alalakh to retrieve their runaway slaves for no reward.
Idrimi as a comparative character to Biblical characters
Assyriologist A. Leo Oppenheim saw parallels between Idrimi and King David of Judah. Idrimi stayed for seven years among Hapiru warriors. After seven years, the god Addu or Teshub became favorable to him and he started building ships. The king Barattarna was hostile to him for seven years. In the seventh year Idrimi launched negotiations with Barattarna. He also gathered spoils from seven Hittite cities and built his own palace. David had a similar pattern with the number seven too. He was the youngest of seven sons of Jesse. He stayed seven years in Hebron before conquering a Jebusite fortress outside of Jerusalem and renaming it the "City of David." He also offered the elders of Judah gifts from spoils won during the raid, while Idrimi raided the seven Hittite towns and gave those spoils to his allies as mentioned in his inscription.
Oppenheim also commented on similar stories of Joseph with his brothers, as those of David, claiming Idrimi's narrative is different from the content and style of Mesopotamian literature, but Jacob Lauinger considers it as part of a Mesopotamian pseudo-autobiography (called narû-literature).
For Edward Greenstein, the story of Idrimi was similar to the Biblical stories of Jacob, Joseph, Moses, Jephthah, and Nehemiah. All five Biblical figures and Idrimi were exiles in their younger days, undertook journeys to discover the divine will, and attributed their success in maintaining the well-being of their people to divine intervention. Christopher Woods (2020) comments on parallels, along with these five characters, to David and the Egyptian story of Sinuhe.
Notes
References
External links
The Electronic Idrimi - Jacob Lauinger ORACC
Idrimi the Movie
Idrimi: a 3,500-year-old refugee from Aleppo – a six-minute presentation of the statue of Idrimi in the British Museum (on YouTube)
Idrimi's campaign map.
15th-century BC monarchs
Kings of Alalakh
Amorite kings
Hurrian people
Habiru
15th-century BC deaths
15th-century BC births
Yamhad dynasty |
4094350 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyeong | Hyeong | The Korean terms hyeong, pumsae, poomsae and teul (meaning "form" or "pattern") are all used to refer to martial arts forms that are typically used in Korean martial arts such as Taekwondo and Tang Soo Do.
Hyeong is often romanized as hyung. This term is used primarily in earlier styles of taekwondo, often referred to as traditional taekwondo.
Pumsae is often romanized as poomsae or poomse. This term is used primarily in Kukkiwon/WTF-style taekwondo.
Teul is often romanized as tul. This term is used primarily in ITF-style taekwondo.
A hyeong is a systematic, prearranged sequence of martial techniques that is performed either with or without the use of a weapon. In traditional dojangs (training halls), hyeong are used primarily as a form of interval training that is useful in developing mushin, proper kinetics and mental and physical fortitude. Hyeong may resemble combat, but are artistically non-combative and woven together so as to be an effective conditioning tool. One's aptitude for a particular hyeong may be evaluated in competition. In such competitions, hyeong are evaluated by a panel of judges who base the score on many factors including energy, precision, speed, and control. In western competitions, there are two general classes of hyeong: creative and standard. Creative hyeong are created by the performer and are generally more acrobatic in nature and do not necessarily reflect the kinetic principles intrinsic in any martial system.
Summary table of taekwondo forms
Taekwondo forms
Traditional taekwondo forms
Beginning in 1946, shortly after the conclusion of the Japanese occupation of Korea, new martial arts schools called kwans were opened in Seoul. These schools were established by Korean martial artists who had studied primarily in Okinawa and China during the Japanese occupation. Accordingly, the martial arts practiced in the kwans was heavily influenced by shotokan karate and Chinese martial arts, though elements of taekkyeon and gwonbeop were also incorporated.
Five of these kwans were established during the interval between World War II and the Korean War. During the Korean War, establishment of new schools was halted; at the conclusion of the war four new schools were established by students from the five original kwans. Collectively, these schools are referred to as the nine original kwans of taekwondo. Each kwan practiced its own style of martial art (the term taekwondo had not yet been coined) and employed their own set of forms. The majority of the forms used, however, derived from Shotokan karate. In many cases they were given new names. These forms are still used today in martial arts style such as Tang Soo Do, Soo Bahk Do, Moo Duk Kwan Taekwondo, and Chun Kuk Do. The article Karate kata lists many of the forms used in traditional taekwondo:
Five Pyung Ahn forms are used in traditional taekwondo as relatively simple, introductory forms. These correspond to the five Pinan forms of Shotokan.
Three Shotokan forms called Naihanchi are used, though sometimes they are called Chul-Gi forms when used in taekwondo.
Shotokan form Bassai is sometimes called Pal-sek.
Chintō is used under the name Jin-Do.
Rōhai is used, sometimes under the name Lohai or Nohai due to the Hangeul spelling and varying pronunciations.
Kūsankū is used under the name Kong-Sang-Koon.
Enpi is used under the name Sei-shan.
Jitte is used under the name Ship-soo.
Gojūshiho is used under the name Oh-sip-sa-bo.
In addition to these Shotokan forms, Tang Soo Do and other traditional styles incorporate additional forms as well, many developed by Hwang Kee.
WTF/Kukkiwon Pumsae
Kukkiwon-style taekwondo (and thus the World Taekwondo Federation) uses the word pumsae for form.
Prior to 1971, Kukkiwon-style taekwondo used a series of eight forms called the palgwae forms for color-belt forms. The term "pal-gwae" refers to the eight trigrams associated with the I Ching hexagrams. Symbolically, each form in the palgwae series corresponds to one trigram. Subsequent to 1971, the palgwae forms were deprecated in favor of eight taegeuk forms. The term taegeuk refers to the principle of the "unity of opposites". Though the movements in the taegeuk forms are different from those of the palgwae forms, each taegeuk form is likewise associated with a corresponding I Ching trigram.
Kukkiwon-style taekwondo uses a series of nine forms for dan-level black belts; this series is called the yudanja series. The first form in the series, Koryo, was replaced by a new form of the same name in 1971, as part of the transition from the palgwae to taegeuk forms.
Color Belt forms
Taegeuk Il Jang/Palgwe Il Jang
The general meaning of this form and associated trigram is Yang, which represents Heaven and Light. Also, this trigram has a relationship to South and Father. The first Taegeuk/Palgwe form is the beginning of all pumsaes, the "birth" of the martial artist into Taekwondo. This pumsae should be performed with the greatness of Heaven.
Taegeuk Ee Jang/Palgae Ee Jang
The associated trigram of this pumsae represents the Lake(joy, a calm sturdy spirit:). Also, related to the symbol is South East and the relationship of the youngest daughter. The movements of this Taegeuk/Palgwe are aimed to be performed believing that man has limitations, but that we can overcome these limitations. The Lake and its water symbolize the flowing and calm nature of the martial artist. This form is to reflect those attributes.
Taegeuk Sam Jang/Palgae Sam Jang
This trigram represents Fire. Related to this symbol is also East and the relationship of the Second Daughter. Fire contains a lot of energy. The symbol behind the fire is similar to the symbolism of the water in that both can aid and both can destroy. This form is intended to be performed rhythmically, with some outbursts of energy to reflect fire's rhythmic and energetic dualism.
Taegeuk Sa Jang/Palgae Sa Jang
This trigram represents Thunder. Also, the trigram is strongly connected to northeast and the relationship of the Eldest son. Thunder comes from the sky and is absorbed by the earth, thus, according to the beliefs of the I Ching, thunder is one of the most powerful natural forces. This pumsae is associated with power and the connection between the heavens and earth. This pumsae is intended to be performed with power resembling the Thunder for which it is named.
Taegeuk O Jang/Palgae O Jang
The trigram associated with this pumsae represents Wind. The trigram is also related to southwest and the relationship with an eldest daughter. The I Ching promotes that wind is a gentle force, but can sometimes be furious, destroying everything in its path. As such, it is intended that this pumsae is performed like the wind: gently, but knowing the ability of mass destruction with a single movement. The performer and audience should be aware of the duality of the form.
Taegeuk Yuk Jang/Palgae Yuk Jang
The trigram associated with this pumsae represents Water. Also, there is a relation to West and the relationship with a Second son. The movements of this pumsae are intended to be performed like water; flowing, powerful and cleansing. Sometimes standing still like water in a lake, sometimes thriving as a river, sometimes powerful like a waterfall. The water is to symbolize calm and cleansing, while also possessing the attribute of being violent and destructive.
Taegeuk Chil Jang/Palgae Chil Jang
The trigram associated with this pumsae represents a Mountain. Also, it represents the northwest and youngest son. The symbolism behind the mountain is the indomitable and majestic nature that all mountains possess. This pumsae is intended to be performed with the feeling that all movements are this majestic due to their unconquerable nature.
Taegeuk Pal Jang/Palgae Pal Jang
The trigram associated with this pumsae represents the Earth. Also, there is a representation of North and Mother. The associated trigram of this pumsae is Yin. Yin, here, represents the end of the beginning, the evil part of all that is good. This being the last of the pumsae Taegeuk, it represents the end of the circle and the cyclic nature of the Earth.
Black belt forms
Koryo – Koryo, or Goryeo, is the name of an old Korean dynasty. The people from the Goryeo defeated the Mongolian aggressors. It is intended that their spirit is reflected in the movements of the pumsae Koryo. Each movement of this pumsae represents the strength and energy needed to control the Mongols. The line of direction is the shape of the Hanja for a "Scholar", learned man.
Keumgang – Keumgang means "diamond," symbolizing hardness. Keumgang is also the name of the most beautiful mountain in Korea, as well as the Keumgang warrior, named by Buddha. Thus, the themes of hardness, beauty, and pondering permeate this pumsae.
Taebaek – The legendary Dangun founded a nation in Taebaek, near Korea's biggest mountain Baekdoo. Baekdoo is a known symbol for Korea. The definition of the word taebaek is literally "lightness". Every movement in this poomsae is intended to be not only be exact and fast, but with determination and hardness resembling the mountain Baekdoo, the origin of the nation of Korea.
Pyongwon – The definition of Pyongwon is "stretch, vast plain." The name carries with it a connotation of being large and majestic.
Sipjin – Sipjin stands for ten symbols of longevity, which are Sun, Moon, Mountain, Water, Stone, Pine tree, Herb of eternal youth, Turtle, Deer, and Crane. This pumsae represents the endless development and growth by the basic idea of the ten symbols of longevity and the decimal system.
Jitae – This pumsae is derived from the meaning of the earth. All things evolve from and return to the earth, the earth is the beginning and the end of life, as reelected through the Yin and Yang.
Cheonkwon – Cheonkwon literally means 'sky'. In the pumsae, the sky symbolizes the ruler of the universe. According to belief, it is mysterious, infinite and profound. The motions of Cheonkwon are full of piety, vitality and reverence.
Hansu – This pumsae is derived from the fluidity of water which easily adapts within nature. The symbol of the water repeats itself many times throughout all pumsae, hyeongs, and in martial arts in general.
Ilyo – The state of spiritual cultivation in Buddhism is called 'Ilyo' which means 'oneness'. In Ilyo, body and mind, spirit and substance, "I" and "you" are unified. The ultimate ideal of the martial art and pumsae can be found in this state. It is a discipline in which every movement is concentrated on leaving all materialistics thoughts, obsessions and external influences behind.
ITF Ch'ang Hon forms
Schools that follow the International Taekwon-Do Federation (ITF) tradition typically use the Chang Hon 창헌 (also called Chang Hun, Chang 'On or Chon-Ji) forms that were developed by Choi Hong Hi, Nam Tae Hi, Han Cha Kyo, Choi Chang Keun, Park Won Ha, Woo Jae Lim, Kim Bok Man and Cho Sang Min, and have their roots in the Oh Do Kwan. In addition, Kim J.C., Park Jong Soo, and Lee Byung Moo are thought to have developed four of the Ch'ang Hon patterns (Eui-Am, Moon-Moo, Yong-Gae & So-San) in 1968. Park Jung Tae, likely assisted by Choi Jung Hwa (General Choi's son), Michael McCormack (General Choi's son-in-law) and Lim Won Sup, is credited with developing the Juche pattern. Kong Young Il may have helped develop the Ch'ang Hon patterns as well. With the Oh Do Kwan in charge of the taekwondo training in the Korean military, the "Chang Hon hyeong" set of forms spread widely, and they are seen in many taekwondo organizations, including ITF-offshoots such as the Global Taekwondo Federation.
The pattern names below are shown with Revised Romanization spellings; however, the traditional spellings are shown in parentheses if they vary from the modern standard, since those patterns have long been known with those spellings.
Color Belt forms
Cheon-Ji
천지 / 天地 – 19 movements
Literally, Cheon-Ji (or Chon-Ji) means "heaven and earth" and refers to the creation of the world or the beginning of human history, and thus is the initial pattern learned by the beginner. It consists of forearm low blocks and punches in the first part to represent earth, and inner forearm middle blocks and punches in the second part to denote heaven. It does not use any kicks. The cross shaped diagram represents the four elements of the universe : fire, water, air and earth.
Dan-Gun
단군 / 檀君 – 21 movements
Dan-Gun is named after the holy Dangun, the legendary founder of Korea in 2333 BC. Unusually for a teul, all the punches in Dan-Gun are high section (at eye level), symbolizing Dangun scaling a mountain.
Do-San
도산 / 島山 – 24 movements
Do-San is a pseudonym of the patriot Ahn Chang-ho (1878–1938). The 24 movements represent his entire life, which he devoted to furthering education in Korea and the Korean independence movement.
(Note that Encyclopedia of TaeKwon-Do – 15 Volume Set – by General Choi Hong Hi states Dosan's birth year incorrectly as 1876)
Won-Hyo
원효 / 元曉 – 28 movements
This pattern is named after the noted monk Wonhyo who introduced Buddhism to the Silla dynasty in the year 686 AD.
Yul-Gok
율곡 / 栗谷 – 38 movements
Yul-Gok is a pseudonym of a great philosopher and scholar Yi I (1536–1584) nicknamed the "Confucius of Korea". The 38 movements of this pattern refer to his birthplace on 38-degree latitude and the diagram of the pattern represents scholar.
Jung-Geun
중근 / 重根 – 32 movements
Jung-Geun (or Joong-Gun) is named after the patriot Ahn Joong-Gun who assassinated Itō Hirobumi, the first Japanese governor-general of Korea, known as the man who played the leading part in the Korea-Japan merger. There are 32 movements in this pattern to represent Mr Ahn's age when he was executed at Lui-Shung Prison in 1910.
Note: Ahn Jung-Geun was born on 16 July 1879 and was executed on 26 March 1910, so was in fact 30 years old at his death. 32 comes from the old Korean age reckoning system, where a newborn is considered to be 1 year old, then all birthdays are held on the 1st of January every year after.
Toi-Gye
퇴계 / 退溪 – 37 movements
Toi-Gye is the pen name of the noted scholar Yi Hwang (16th century), an authority on neo-Confucianism. The 37 movements of the pattern refer to his birthplace on 37-degree latitude, the diagram represents "scholar" as in the Yul-Gok hyeong.
Hwa-Rang
화랑 / 花郎 – 29 movements
Hwa-Rang is named after the Hwarang youth group that originated under the Silla dynasty roughly 1350 years ago. The group eventually became the driving force for the unification of the three Kingdoms of Korea. The 29 movements refer to the 29th infantry Division, where Taekwondo developed into maturity.
Chung-Mu
충무 / 忠武 – 30 movements
Chung-Mu (or Choong-Moo) was the name given to the great Admiral Yi Sun-sin of the Yi dynasty. He was reputed to have invented the first armored battleship (kobukson) in 1592, which is said to be the precursor of the present day submarine. The reason this pattern ends with a left hand attack is to symbolize his regrettable death having no chance to show his unrestrained potentiality checked by the forced reservation of his loyalty to the King.
Black Belt forms
Gwang-Gae
광개 / 廣開 – 39 movements
Gwang-Gae (or Kwang-Gae) is named after the famous Kwang-Gae-Toh-Wang, the 19th king of the Goguryeo dynasty, who achieved the greatest territorial expansion including the greater part of Manchuria. The diagram of the form represents the expansion and recovery of lost territory. The 39 movements refer to the first two figures of 391AD, the year he came to the throne.
Po Eun
포은 / 圃隱 – 36 movements
Po Eun is the pseudonym of a loyal subject Jeong Mongju who was a distinguished scholar of neo-Confucianism during the Goryeo dynasty. His poem "I would not serve a second master though I might be crucified a hundred times" is known to every Korean people. The diagram, which is simply a straight line represents his unerring loyalty to the king and his country.
Gye-Baek
계백 / 階伯 – 44 movements
The Gye-Baek (or Gae-Baek) hyeong has 44 Movements. Gae-Baek is named after Gyebaek, a great general in the Baekje dynasty. The diagram represents his severe and strict military discipline.
Eui-Am
의암 / 義菴 – 45 movements
Eui-Am is the pseudonym of Son Byong Hi, leader of the Korean independence movement on 1 March 1919. The 45 movements refer to his age when he changed the name of his religion from Dong Hak (oriental learning) to Chondogyo (Heavenly Way Religion) in 1905. The diagram represents his indomitable spirit, displayed while dedicating himself to the prosperity of his nation.
Chung-Jang
충장 / 忠壯 – 52 movements
Chung-Jang (or Choong-Jang) is the pseudonym given to General Kim Duk Ryang who lived during the Yi dynasty, 14th century. This pattern ends with a left hand attack to symbolize the tragedy of his death at 27 in prison before he was able to reach full maturity.
Juche
주체 / 主體 – 45 movements
The Juche hyeong has 45 movements. Juche is a philosophical idea that man is the master of everything and decides everything. In other words, the idea that man is that master of the world and his own destiny. It is said that this idea was rooted in Baekdu Mountain, which symbolize the spirit of the Korean people. The diagram represents Baekdu Mountain, which is the highest mountain in Korea.
Go-Dang
고당/古堂 – 39 movements
Go-Dang (or Ko-Dang) was one of the original 24 patterns created by General Choi. In the early 1980s, however, Kodang was removed from the official syllabus by General Choi and replaced by a new pattern which he named Juche. Go-Dang was a famous South Korean anti-communist, and when Choi began to spread his art throughout the world, and to North Korea in particular, he removed this pattern so as not to offend anyone. Although no longer part of official ITF Taekwondo, Kodang is still included in the syllabi of many Taekwondo organisations. In those organisations where it is still taught, it is generally taught to students at the level of second dan black belt. It consists of a sequence of 39 individual techniques. Although some sources lead to the deduction that Kodang is exactly the same pattern as Juche, they are in fact two completely different patterns. The confusion arose when one of the ITF Taekwondo groups changed the name of the pattern Juche to Kodang in 2008, because the word "Juche" is associated with North Korea's communist ideology.
Sam-Il
삼일 / 三一 – 33 movements
Sam-Il name refers to the historic March 1st Movement, the biggest nationwide Korean independence movement against the imperial Japan in 1919. The 33 movements in the pattern represent for the 33 patriots who planned the movement.
Yu-Sin
유신 / 庾信 – 68 movements
Yu-Sin (or Yoo-Sin) is named after General Kim Yu-Sin, a commanding general during the Silla dynasty who played an important role in the merger of Goguryeo and Baekje by Silla. The 68 movements refer to the last two figures of 668 AD the year the three kingdoms were unified. The ready posture signifies a sword drawn to the right rather than the left side, symbolizing Yoo Sin's mistake of following his king's orders to fight with foreign forces (Tang dynasty of China) against his own people (Goguryeo and Baik-je).
Choe-Yeong
최영 / 崔榮 – 45 movements
Choe-Yeong (or Choi-Yong) is named after General Choe Yong, Premier and Commander-in Chief of the armed forces during the 14th century Goryeo dynasty. Choi Yong was greatly respected for his loyalty, patriotism, and humility. He was executed by subordinate commanders headed by General Yi Seonggye, who later became the first king of the Joseon dynasty.
Yeon-Gae
연개 / 淵蓋 – 49 movements
Yeon-Gae (or Yon-Gae) is named after the famous general Yon Gae Somoon during the Goguryeo dynasty. He defended Goguryeo from the aggression of the Tang dynasty by destroying nearly 300,000 of their troops at Ansi Sung. (This pattern normally resides between Choi Yong and Se-Jong)
Eul-Ji
을지 / 乙支 – 42 movements
Eul-Ji (or Ul-Ji) is named after general Eulji Mundeok who successfully defended Goguryeo against a Sui invasion force of over one million soldiers led by Yang Je in 612AD. By employing hit and run guerilla tactics, he was able to destroy the majority of the force. The diagram of the hyeong represents his surname. The 42 movements represent the author's age when he designed the pattern.
Mun-Mu
문무 / 文武 – 61 movements
Mun-Mu (or Moon-Moo) honors King Munmu, the 30th king of the Silla dynasty, who completed the unification of the three kingdoms (Goguryeo, Baik-je, Silla). His body was buried near Dae Wang Am (Great King's Rock). According to his will, the body was placed in the sea "Where my soul shall forever defend my land against the Japanese". The 61 movements in this pattern symbolize the last two figures of 661 AD when Munmu came to the throne. (This pattern normally resides between Choi Yong and Sea-Jong)
Seo-San
서산 / 西山 – 72 movements
Seo-San (or So-San) is the pseudonym of the great monk Choi Hyon Ung during the Joseon dynasty. The 72 movements refer to his age when he organized a corps of monk soldiers with the assistance of his pupil Sa Myung Dang. The monk soldiers helped repulse the Japanese who overran most of the Korean peninsula in 1592 during the Imjin War. (This pattern normally resides between Choi Yong and Sea-Jong) Seo-San is the longest of all Taekwon-do patterns.
Se-Jong
세종 / 世宗 – 24 movements
This pattern is named after Se-Jong who was the 4th king of the Yi dynasty. He was known for his many great achievements in domestic and foreign affairs, diplomacy, scientific advancements, defense matters and culture. His most remarkable achievement was his invention of "Hangeul", the Korean Alphabet. The 24 movements of this pattern represent the 24 letters of the "Hangeul".
Tong-Il
통일 / 統一 – 56 movements
Tong-Il means "unification" which is the ultimate goal of all Koreans. Korea used to be one country, but was divided into North and South Korea in 1945 by the ideological conflict between the USSR and the US after World War II. Yon Mu Sun, the diagram of this pattern symbolizes the North and South becoming one.
GTF forms
The Global Taekwondo Federation (GTF) is an offshoot of the International Taekwondo Federation (ITF). It was founded by Park Jung Tae in 1990. The GTF practices Choi's ITF Patterns, but in addition Park added six new patterns. GTF uses the original ITF form Ko-Dang, but never its replacement, Juche.
Color Belt forms
Jee-Sang – "JEE" means earth- representing the foundation of the world, "SANG" means above the earth- representing the spirit of the GTF. The 24 movements signify the 24 hours of every day that we learn, connect with each other, gain insight, knowledge and wisdom. The 4 directions in this pattern represent our inner compass.. with it we will never lose our way. When we connect the "JEE" and the "SANG" we connect the heaven and earth to create an invisible strength that lives on. [24 moves]
Dhan-Goon – DHAN-GOON named after the founder of Korea. The 23 movements in this pattern represent the first two digits of the year 2333 B.C. when, according to legend, Korea was born. This is Park's progressive interpretation of the traditional Taekwon-Do pattern of the same name. [23 moves]
Black Belt forms
Jee-Goo – Means "Global". The "X" shape of the form symbolizes crossing out the years of political strife in TaeKwon-Do that has been evident worldwide. The first movement symbolizes the beginning of the new Global TaeKwon-Do Movement – a concept of global peace and harmony. The 30 movements of the pattern are composed of three numbers (24, 4, 2) which explain the purpose. There are 24 hours in each day; therefore this concept will be with us every second. The four directions of movements represent the north, south, east and west encompassing all nations and all people. The four directions are done two times to reinforce our commitment to bring global peace and harmony to the world. [30 moves]
Jook-Am – Is a pseudonym for Park. Jook means bamboo which shoots up straight forward without any curvature, its roots intertwining to form an inseparable force. Am is an immovable boulder from which the bamboo plants its roots to form an unshakeable foundation. This pattern represents Park's life and his constant struggle for perfection. The diagram is a representation of a bamboo shooting up from the boulder. This pattern's 95 movements (112 including combinations) symbolizes the year 1995 in which Jook-Am was created.
Pyong-Hwa – Pyong Hwa means "Peace". Park dedicates this pattern for the 50 countries which found the UNO in San Francisco ( USA ) on year 1950 after the second World War. [50 moves]
Sun-Duk – This pattern is named after Queen Sun Duk of the Silla dynasty 668 A.D.,who was known for bringing martial art from China to Korea. The diagram represents "Lady". The 68 movements of this pattern refer to the year 668 A.D. [68 moves]
Jhoon Rhee forms
Jhoon Rhee Taekwondo or Jhoon Rhee's Martial Arts Ballet is the style of taekwondo developed by taekwondo pioneer Jhoon Rhee and overseen by the organization Jhoon Rhee International. The Jhoon Rhee-style of taekwondo originally used traditional taekwondo forms, then switched to ITF-style forms, then switched again to a set of forms developed by Jhoon Rhee. As a lover of dance and music, and someone who believed that the human form is the greatest of all works of art, Rhee wondered what it would be like to add music to the choreographed body movements of Tae Kwon Do, similar to the way that music is used in Olympic skating, ballroom dancing, and gymnastic floor exercise routines. Rhee choreographed several dances in ballet style, based on Tae Kwon Do moves, and set them to classical music, including Beethoven's Fifth Symphony and the theme from Exodus. The result of Rhee's invention—martial arts ballet—became the foundation for the musical forms competitions that are now popular at many martial arts tournaments in the U.S. The new art form has also found its way to Europe and Russia.
Beginner forms (White Belt)
Kamsah – Appreciation Form
Kyu-Yool – Discipline Form (a drill you must perform if you are late to class, etc.)
Color Belt forms
Jayoo – meaning "Freedom" (Gold or Yellow belt) "Stars and Stripes Forever"
Chosang – meaning "Ancestors" (Orange belt), performed to "God Bless America"
Hanguk – meaning "Korea" (Green belt), performed to "Aegukga"
Jung-Yi – meaning "Justice" (Purple belt)
Pyung-Wa – meaning "Peace" (Blue belt)
Meegook – meaning "America" (Red belt), performed to "Star-Spangled Banner"
Chashin – meaning "Confidence" (2nd Brown)
Might for Right (1st Brown), performed to "Exodus"
Black Belt forms
Marriage of East and West (1st Black) "Beethoven's Fifth Symphony"
Beauty of Mexico (2nd Black) "Granada"
Jhoon Rhee Taekwondo uses ITF forms as its higher dan-level (Black Belt) forms
ATA Songahm forms
The American Taekwondo Association (ATA) was founded in 1969 in Omaha, Nebraska by Haeng Ung Lee, a former Traditional Taekwondo instructor in the South Korean military. Songahm taekwondo is the style of martial arts practiced at ATA affiliated schools. Songahm means "Pine Tree and Rock." According to the ATA, the term Songahm itself represents "Evergreen strength the year round, long life and a symbol of unchanging human loyalty" as represented by the pine tree and the rock.
Color belts forms
Songahm 1 – 18 moves
Songahm 2 – 23 moves
Songahm 3 – 28 moves
Songahm 4 – 31 moves
Songahm 5 – 34 moves
In Wha 1 – 44 moves
In Wha 2 – 42 moves
Choong Jung 1 – 44 moves
Choong Jung 2 – 46 moves
Black Belts forms
Shim – 1 Jun Dan, 81 moves
Jung Yul – 2nd Dan, 82 moves
Chung San – 3rd Dan, 83 moves
Sok Bong – 4th Dan, 84 moves
Chung Hae – 5th Dan, 95 moves
Jhang Soo – 6th Dan, 96 moves
Chul Joon – 7th Dan, 97 moves
Jeong Seung – 8th Dan, 98 moves
Tang Soo Do forms
There are several different Tang Soo Do organizations around the world, but they generally follow a similar course with regard to hyeong. Most Tang Soo Do hyeong are related by borrowing from Japanese/Okinawan kata, with the names often directly translated from the Japanese.
Gicho/Kicho
Some schools teach new students the gicho/kicho, "basic," hyeong:
(Kicho) Hyeong Il Bu (as taught by Shin, Kyung Sun of Military Arts Institute in Chicago, IL., is different from most Tang Soo Do organizations)
(Kicho) Hyeong Ee Bu (as taught by Shin, Kyung Sun of Military Arts Institute in Chicago, IL., is different from most Tang Soo Do organizations)
(Kicho) Hyeong Sam Bu (as taught by Shin, Kyung Sun of Military Arts Institute in Chicago, IL., is different from most Tang Soo Do organizations)
(Kicho) Hyeong Sa Bu (as taught by Shin, Kyung Sun of Military Arts Institute in Chicago, IL.)
(Kicho) Hyeong Oh Bu (as taught by Shin, Kyung Sun of Military Arts Institute in Chicago, IL.)
The Kicho hyeong are extremely similar to the Taikyoku kata developed by Yoshitaka Funakoshi (son of the Japanese karate master Gichin Funakoshi). The embusen used are the same, the stances are the Tang Soo Do equivalent, and the blocks and strikes are virtually identical. There is great reason to believe that Hwang Kee based his Korean Kicho hyeong on the Japanese Taikyoku kata.
The Kicho hyeong were developed as a basic, simple form for beginners. The symbol used in Tang Soo Do for the Kicho hyeong is a human baby learning to walk. The pattern is also visible in the increasingly complex forms that follow. Hwang Kee used these forms to teach applications of basic moves and techniques. These forms are also influenced by the Wa Ka Ryu style of southern China. These and the Pyung Ahn forms to follow are characterized by speed, aggressiveness, dynamic action, and quick reaction.
In the 1970s, Chuck Norris added new versions of the Giecho Hyung to his American Tang Soo Do system. Giecho Hyung Il Bu still resembles the original Korean/Japanese version, but Yi (Ee) Bu and Sahm Bu have been modified. Norris created advanced versions of Il Bu and Yi Bu, by adding kicks, reverse punches and switching between forward and back stances.
Sae Kye
The World Tang Soo Do Association has modified the Kicho Hyeong, adding some kicks to it: These are the very first forms you learn if you are a part of World Tang Soo Do Association,(WTSDA).
Sae Kye Hyeong Il Bu
Sae Kye Hyeong E Bu
Sae Kye Hyeong Sam Bu
Pyong Ahn
The Pyong Ahn hyung are a series of five forms cognate in many ways to the pinan kata series of karate. They were reorganized by Master Itosu, an Okinawan practitioner of Tote and mentor of Funakoshi Gichin. They were originally a single form called Jae Nam (Channan). To make them easier to learn and safer for younger practitioners, the form was divided, and the more dangerous and lethal techniques were removed. These newly organized hyung were designed as training forms to prepare for Kong Sang Koon (Kusanku). For a more comprehensive description of these hyung see Pinan Kata.
Pyong Ahn Cho Dan – The first of the Pyong Ahn series that most practitioners learn, much of this form is a combination of gicho hyung il bu and ee bu. This form also employs low knife-hand blocks (ha dan soodo mahkkee). It is also the first hyung to incorporate multiple techniques per count (the low block/middle knife hand block combination).
Pyong Ahn Ee Dan – This hyeong is one count/technique longer than the other low-rank forms, due to one of its techniques, a side kick (yup podo chagi), which is performed in two counts, the first to set up and the second to deliver. It is also one of the few low-level hyung to have a kihap (yell) on the last move. Most forms feature their kihaps between the first and last techniques. The most-often used technique in this hyung is the middle knife-hand block in a back stance (hugul choong dan soodo mahkkee).
Pyong Ahn Sam Dan – The third of the pyong ahn forms, this is also the shortest. While the forms before it involve an I-structure for movement, this form instead goes along an inverted T-structure, cutting out several counts. Its series of outside-inside kicks (pahkeso ahnuro chagi) to sideways elbow blocks (palkoom mahkkee) and hammerfist strikes (kwondo kong kyuk) is its most recognizable feature. It also ends with a kihab.
Pyong Ahn Sa Dan – This form starts out much like Pyong Ahn Ee Dan, except that where Pyong Ahn Ee Dan has closed fists on its first blocks, Pyong Ahn Sa Dan has open hands. It is cognate to the Shotokan kata Pinan Yondan.
Pyong Ahn O Dan – Cognate to Pinan Godan, this is the final hyung of the series, as well as the most involved. Its key features are cross-legged stances (kyo charip jaseh) and a jump followed by a double arm X low block (song soo hadan mahkkee).
The phrase "pyong ahn" is often translated as "balance and security." These forms are usually taught after the gicho hyung. These forms were reorganized from their original form(called "Jae-Nam") in approximately 1870. In their original state they are run in sequence starting with the second form Pyong Ahn Ee Dan, to Pyong Ahn Cho Dan, and then to Pyong Ahn Sam Dan, Pyong Ahn Sa Dan, and Pyong Ahn O Dan, an order different from the order they are learned. Though designed as open hand forms (weaponless), their versatility allows weapon application very easily. Common adaptations include the sai, chool bong (nunchaku), and chung bong (middle staff). These forms show the influence of the southern China martial art style.
The Pyung Ahn hyung can be represented by the tortoise. The tortoise is well balanced, calm, and peaceful (pyung) and it carries its "home" on its back in the form of its shell. These forms are meant as a means of defense and should promote security (ahn). Also like the tortoise, they are meant to inspire longevity through both balance and security.
Naihanchi/Naebojin/Keema
The Keema hyeong series are borrowed from the naihanchi series of karate, and in fact some schools use the name Naihanchi for these forms. The level at which they are taught varies, but their difficulty and technicality means that they are most often reserved for red/black belts, though not always directly after each other. Hwang Kee assigned the Horse to represent the form. They are:
Naihanchi Cho Dan
Naihanchi Ee Dan
Naihanchi Sam Dan
Bassai/Passai/Palche/Bal Sak
The "Bassai" pattern, meaning "to penetrate a fortress," has cognates in both Chinese, Japanese and Korean martial arts. Moreover, there are many variations upon the two Bassai hyeong present in Tang Soo Do, Bassai(Palche) So and Bassai(Palche) Deh. Some schools only practice Palche De, the "greater" of the two forms. These are usually higher-belt forms. The animal these forms represent is the snake.
Kong Sang Koon
Sip Soo/Ship Soo
Meaning "Ten Hands," Ship Soo (or Sip Soo, depending on the Romanization) is cognate to the karate kata Jitte, though there are differences. Traditionally, this hyeong contains only hand techniques (its name can be taken to mean "all hands"), but some styles of Tang Soo Do do include kicking techniques. Its variations are many, and depend on the school, as with all hyeong. This form supposedly represents the bear.
Chinto/Jindo/Jinte
Jinte is a typically high-rank hyeong, whose hanja can be read as "Battle East". The hyeong requires balance with one legged techniques, and is often seen at tournament hyeong competitions.
ITF Tang Soo Do refers to the form as Jintae, instead of Chinto or Jindo.
Chil Sung and Yuk Ro
These two series of hyeong were created by Hwang Kee, who founded the Moo Duk Kwan organization. Chil Sung literally means "Seven Stars" in Korean. These are presumably represented by the seven forms of the series. "Yuk" meaning "six" and "Ro" means "Path". These forms represent the "six paths" taken in connecting the Physical, Mental, and Spiritual in Tang Soo Do/ Soo Bahk Do.
Chil Sung series:
Chil Sung Il Ro
Chil Sung Ee Ro
Chil Sung Sam Ro
Chil Sung Sa Ro
Chil Sung O Ro
Chil Sung Yuk Ro
Chil Sung Chil Ro
Yuk Ro series:
Yuk Ro Cho Dan (Du Mun)
Yuk Ro Ee Dan (Joong Jol)
Yuk Ro Sam Dan (Po Wol)
Yuk Ro Sa Dan (Yang Pyun)
Yuk Ro O Dan (Sahl Chu)
Yuk Ro Yuk Dan (Choong Ro)
See also
Korean martial arts
Kata
Karate kata
Taeguk (Taekwondo)
References
Taekwondo
Korean martial arts
Kata |
4094516 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afroyim%20v.%20Rusk | Afroyim v. Rusk | Afroyim v. Rusk, 387 U.S. 253 (1967), was a landmark decision of the Supreme Court of the United States, which ruled that citizens of the United States may not be deprived of their citizenship involuntarily. The U.S. government had attempted to revoke the citizenship of Beys Afroyim, a man born in Poland, because he had cast a vote in an Israeli election after becoming a naturalized U.S. citizen. The Supreme Court decided that Afroyim's right to retain his citizenship was guaranteed by the Citizenship Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment to the Constitution. In so doing, the Court struck down a federal law mandating loss of U.S. citizenship for voting in a foreign election—thereby overruling one of its own precedents, Perez v. Brownell (1958), in which it had upheld loss of citizenship under similar circumstances less than a decade earlier.
The Afroyim decision opened the way for a wider acceptance of dual (or multiple) citizenship in United States law. The Bancroft Treaties—a series of agreements between the United States and other nations which had sought to limit dual citizenship following naturalization—were eventually abandoned after the Carter administration concluded that Afroyim and other Supreme Court decisions had rendered them unenforceable.
The impact of Afroyim v. Rusk was narrowed by a later case, Rogers v. Bellei (1971), in which the Court determined that the Fourteenth Amendment safeguarded citizenship only when a person was born or naturalized in the United States, and that Congress retained authority to regulate the citizenship status of a person who was born outside the United States to an American parent. However, the specific law at issue in Rogers v. Bellei—a requirement for a minimum period of U.S. residence that Bellei had failed to satisfy—was repealed by Congress in 1978. As a consequence of revised policies adopted in 1990 by the United States Department of State, it is now (in the words of one expert) "virtually impossible to lose American citizenship without formally and expressly renouncing it."
Background
Early history of United States citizenship law
Citizenship in the United States has historically been acquired in one of three ways: by birth in the United States (jus soli, "right of the soil"); by birth outside the United States to an American parent (jus sanguinis, "right of the blood"); or by immigration to the United States followed by naturalization.
In 1857, the Supreme Court held in Dred Scott v. Sandford that African slaves, former slaves, and their descendants were not eligible to be citizens. After the Civil War (1861–65) and the resulting abolition of slavery in the United States, steps were taken to grant citizenship to the freed slaves. Congress first enacted the Civil Rights Act of 1866, which included a clause declaring "all persons born in the United States and not subject to any foreign power" to be citizens. Even as the Civil Rights Act was being debated in Congress, its opponents argued that the citizenship provision was unconstitutional. In light of this concern, as well as to protect the new grant of citizenship for former slaves from being repealed by a later Congress, the drafters of the Fourteenth Amendment to the Constitution included a Citizenship Clause, which would entrench in the Constitution (and thereby set beyond the future reach of Congress or the courts) a guarantee of citizenship stating that "All persons born or naturalized in the United States, and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United States". The Fourteenth Amendment—including the Citizenship Clause—was ratified by state legislatures and became a part of the Constitution in 1868.
Loss of United States citizenship
The Constitution does not specifically deal with loss of citizenship. An amendment proposed by Congress in 1810—the Titles of Nobility Amendment—would, if ratified, have provided that any citizen who accepted any "present, pension, office or emolument" from a foreign country, without the consent of Congress, would "cease to be a citizen of the United States"; however, this amendment was never ratified by a sufficient number of state legislatures and, as a result, never became a part of the Constitution.
In the Expatriation Act of 1868, Congress declared that individuals born in the United States had an inherent right to expatriation (giving up of citizenship), it has historically been accepted that certain actions could result in loss of citizenship. The possibility of this was noted by the Supreme Court in United States v. Wong Kim Ark, an 1898 case involving the citizenship of a man born in the United States to Chinese parents who were legally domiciled in the country. After ruling in this case that Wong was born a U.S. citizen despite his Chinese ancestry, the Court went on to state that his birthright citizenship "[had] not been lost or taken away by anything happening since his birth." By making this statement, the Supreme Court affirmed that Wong had not done anything to result in the loss of United States citizenship, therefore acknowledging that there were actions that could result in the loss of citizenship.
The Nationality Act of 1940 provided for loss of citizenship based on foreign military or government service, when coupled with citizenship in that foreign country. This statute also mandated loss of citizenship for desertion from the U.S. armed forces, remaining outside the United States in order to evade military service during wartime, or voting in a foreign election. The provision calling for loss of citizenship for foreign military service was held by the Supreme Court not to be enforceable without proof that said service had been voluntary, in a 1958 case (Nishikawa v. Dulles), and revocation of citizenship as a punishment for desertion was struck down that same year in another case (Trop v. Dulles).
However, in yet another 1958 case (Perez v. Brownell), the Supreme Court affirmed the provision revoking the citizenship of any American who had voted in an election in a foreign country, as a legitimate exercise (under the Constitution's Necessary and Proper Clause) of Congress' authority to regulate foreign affairs and avoid potentially embarrassing diplomatic situations. Associate Justice Felix Frankfurter, the author of the opinion of the Court (supported by a 5–4 majority), wrote that:
In a dissenting opinion, Chief Justice Earl Warren argued that "Citizenship is man's basic right, for it is nothing less than the right to have rights" and that "a government of the people cannot take away their citizenship simply because one branch of that government can be said to have a conceivably rational basis for wanting to do so." While Warren was willing to allow for loss of citizenship as a result of foreign naturalization or other actions "by which [an American] manifests allegiance to a foreign state [which] may be so inconsistent with the retention of [U.S.] citizenship as to result in loss of that status", he wrote that "In specifying that any act of voting in a foreign political election results in loss of citizenship, Congress has employed a classification so broad that it encompasses conduct that fails to show a voluntary abandonment of American citizenship."
Two Supreme Court decisions after Perez called into question the principle that loss of citizenship could occur even without the affected individual's intent. In Kennedy v. Mendoza-Martinez (1963), the Court struck down a law revoking citizenship for remaining outside the United States in order to avoid conscription into the armed forces. Associate Justice William J. Brennan (who had been in the majority in Perez) wrote a separate opinion concurring with the majority in Mendoza-Martinez and expressing reservations about Perez. In Schneider v. Rusk (1964), where the Court invalidated a provision revoking the citizenship of naturalized citizens who returned to live permanently in their countries of origin, Brennan recused himself and did not participate in the decision of the case.
Beys Afroyim
Beys Afroyim (born Ephraim Bernstein, 1893–1984) was an artist and active communist. Various sources state that he was born in either 1893 or 1898, and either in Poland generally, specifically in the Polish town of Ryki, or in Riga, Latvia (then part of the Russian Empire). In 1912, Afroyim immigrated to the United States, and on June 14, 1926, he was naturalized as a U.S. citizen. He studied at the Art Institute of Chicago, as well as the National Academy of Design in New York City, and he was commissioned to paint portraits of George Bernard Shaw, Theodore Dreiser, and Arnold Schoenberg. In 1949, Afroyim left the United States and settled in Israel, together with his wife and former student Soshana (an Austrian artist).
In 1960, following the breakdown of his marriage, Afroyim decided to return to the United States, but the State Department refused to renew his U.S. passport, ruling that because Afroyim had voted in the 1951 Israeli legislative election, he had lost his citizenship under the provisions of the Nationality Act of 1940. A letter certifying Afroyim's loss of citizenship was issued by the Immigration and Naturalization Service (INS) on January 13, 1961.
Afroyim challenged the revocation of his citizenship. Initially, he claimed that he had not in fact voted in Israel's 1951 election, but had entered the polling place solely in order to draw sketches of voters casting their ballots. Afroyim's initial challenge was rejected in administrative proceedings in 1965. He then sued in federal district court, with his lawyer agreeing to a stipulation that Afroyim had in fact voted in Israel, but arguing that the statute under which this action had resulted in his losing his citizenship was unconstitutional. A federal judge of the United States District Court for the Southern District of New York rejected Afroyim's claim on February 25, 1966, concluding that "in the opinion of Congress voting in a foreign political election could import 'allegiance to another country' in some measure 'inconsistent with American citizenship'" and that the question of this law's validity had been settled by the Supreme Court's 1958 Perez decision.
Afroyim appealed the district court's ruling against him to the Second Circuit Court of Appeals, which upheld the lower court's reasoning and decision on May 24, 1966. Two of the three judges who heard Afroyim's appeal found the district court's analysis and affirmation of Perez to be "exhaustive and most penetrating". The third judge expressed serious reservations regarding the viability of Perez and suggested that Afroyim might have obtained a different result if he had framed his case differently, but decided to concur (albeit reluctantly) in the majority's ruling.
Arguments before the Supreme Court
After losing his appeal to the Second Circuit, Afroyim asked the Supreme Court to overrule the precedent it had established in Perez, strike down the foreign voting provision of the Nationality Act as unconstitutional, and decide that he was still a United States citizen. Afroyim's counsel argued that since "neither the Fourteenth Amendment nor any other provision of the Constitution expressly grants Congress the power to take away [U.S.] citizenship once it has been acquired ... the only way [Afroyim] could lose his citizenship was by his own voluntary renunciation of it." The Supreme Court agreed to consider Afroyim's case on October 24, 1966 and held oral arguments on February 20, 1967.
The official respondent (defendant) in Afroyim's case on behalf of the U.S. government was Dean Rusk, the Secretary of State during the Kennedy and Johnson administrations (1961–1969). The legal brief laying out Afroyim's arguments was written by Nanette Dembitz, general counsel of the New York Civil Liberties Union; the government's brief was written by United States Solicitor General (and future Supreme Court Associate Justice) Thurgood Marshall. The oral arguments in the case were presented by attorneys Edward Ennis—chairman of the American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU)—for Afroyim, and Charles Gordon—general counsel for the INS—for the government. Afroyim was in New York City at this time, having been granted a visitor's visa in 1965 while his case went through the courts.
Before heading the ACLU, Ennis had served as general counsel for the INS. In his oral argument supporting Afroyim, Ennis asserted that Congress lacked the power to prescribe forfeiture of citizenship, and he sharply criticized the foreign-relations argument under which the Perez court had upheld loss of citizenship for voting in a foreign election—pointing out, for example, that when a referendum was held in 1935 on the status of the Saar (a region of Germany occupied after World War I by the United Kingdom and France), Americans had participated in the voting without raising any concerns within the State Department at the time.
Gordon did not make a good showing in the Afroyim oral arguments despite his skill and experience in the field of immigration law, according to a 2005 article on the Afroyim case by law professor Peter J. Spiro. Gordon mentioned Israeli elections in 1955 and 1959 in which Afroyim had voted—facts which had not previously been presented to the Supreme Court in the attorneys' briefs or the written record of the case—and much of the remaining questioning from the justices involved criticism of Gordon for confusing matters through the last-minute introduction of this new material.
Afroyim's earlier stipulation that he had voted in the 1951 Israeli election—together with an accompanying concession by the government that this was the sole ground upon which it had acted to revoke Afroyim's citizenship—allowed the potential issue of diluted allegiance through dual citizenship to be sidestepped. Indeed, in 1951 there was no Israeli nationality law; eligibility to vote in the election that year had been based on residence rather than any concept of citizenship. Although Afroyim had later acquired Israeli citizenship and voted in at least two other elections in his new country, his lawyers were able to avoid discussing this matter and instead focus entirely on whether foreign voting was a sufficient cause for loss of one's U.S. citizenship.
Opinion of the Court
The Supreme Court ruled in Afroyim's favor in a 5–4 decision issued on May 29, 1967. The opinion of the Court—written by Associate Justice Hugo Black, and joined by Chief Justice Warren and Associate Justices William O. Douglas and Abe Fortas—as well as Associate Justice Brennan, who had been part of the majority in Perez—was grounded in the reasoning Warren had used nine years earlier in his Perez dissent. The court's majority now held that "Congress has no power under the Constitution to divest a person of his United States citizenship absent his voluntary renunciation thereof." Specifically repudiating Perez, the majority of the justices rejected the claim that Congress had any power to revoke citizenship and said that "no such power can be sustained as an implied attribute of sovereignty". Instead, quoting from the Citizenship Clause, Black wrote:
All persons born or naturalized in the United States ... are citizens of the United States...." There is no indication in these words of a fleeting citizenship, good at the moment it is acquired but subject to destruction by the Government at any time. Rather the Amendment can most reasonably be read as defining a citizenship which a citizen keeps unless he voluntarily relinquishes it. Once acquired, this Fourteenth Amendment citizenship was not to be shifted, canceled, or diluted at the will of the Federal Government, the States, or any other governmental unit.
The Court found support for its position in the history of the unratified Titles of Nobility Amendment. The fact that this 1810 proposal had been framed as a constitutional amendment, rather than an ordinary act of Congress, was seen by the majority as showing that, even before the passage of the Fourteenth Amendment, Congress did not believe that it had the power to revoke anyone's citizenship. The Court further noted that a proposed 1818 act of Congress would have provided a way for citizens to voluntarily relinquish their citizenship, but opponents had argued that Congress had no authority to provide for expatriation.
Afroyim's counsel had addressed only the foreign voting question and had carefully avoided any direct challenge to the idea that foreign naturalization might legitimately lead to loss of citizenship (a concept which Warren had been willing to accept in his Perez dissent). Nevertheless, the Court's Afroyim ruling went beyond even Warren's earlier position—holding instead that "The very nature of our government makes it completely incongruous to have a rule of law under which a group of citizens temporarily in office can deprive another group of citizens of their citizenship."
In sum Justice Black concluded:
In our country the people are sovereign and the Government cannot sever its relationship to the people by taking away their citizenship. Our Constitution governs us and we must never forget that our Constitution limits the Government to those powers specifically granted or those that are necessary and proper to carry out the specifically granted ones. The Constitution, of course, grants Congress no express power to strip people of their citizenship, whether, in the exercise of the implied power to regulate foreign affairs or in the exercise of any specifically granted power. [...] Citizenship is no light trifle to be jeopardized any moment Congress decides to do so under the name of one of its general or implied grants of power. In some instances, loss of citizenship can mean that a man is left without the protection of citizenship in any country in the world -- as a man without a country. Citizenship in this Nation is a part of a cooperative affair. Its citizenry is the country, and the country is its citizenry. The very nature of our free government makes it completely incongruous to have a rule of law under which a group of citizens temporarily in office can deprive another group of citizens of their citizenship. We hold that the Fourteenth Amendment was designed to, and does, protect every citizen of this Nation against a congressional forcible destruction of his citizenship, whatever his creed, color, or race. Our holding does no more than to give to this citizen that which is his own, a constitutional right to remain a citizen in a free country unless he voluntarily relinquishes that citizenship.
Dissent
The minority—in a dissent written by Associate Justice John Marshall Harlan II and joined by Associate Justices Tom C. Clark, Potter Stewart, and Byron White—argued that Perez had been correctly decided, that nothing in the Constitution deprived Congress of the power to revoke a person's citizenship for good cause, and that Congress was within its rights to decide that allowing Americans to vote in foreign elections ran contrary to the foreign policy interests of the nation and ought to result in loss of citizenship. Harlan wrote:
Responding to the assertion that Congress did not have power to revoke a person's citizenship without his or her assent, Harlan predicted that "Until the Court indicates with greater precision what it means by 'assent', today's opinion will surely cause still greater confusion in this area of the law."
Subsequent developments
The Afroyim decision stated that no one with United States citizenship could be involuntarily deprived of that citizenship. Nevertheless, the Court distinguished a 1971 case, Rogers v. Bellei, holding in this newer case that individuals who had acquired citizenship via jus sanguinis, through birth outside the United States to an American parent or parents, could still risk loss of citizenship in various ways, since their citizenship (unlike Afroyim's citizenship) was the result of federal statutes rather than the Citizenship Clause. The statutory provision whereby Bellei lost his citizenship—a U.S. residency requirement which he had failed to satisfy in his youth—was repealed by Congress in 1978; the foreign voting provision, already without effect since Afroyim, was repealed at the same time.
Although Afroyim appeared to rule out any involuntary revocation of a person's citizenship, the government continued for the most part to pursue loss-of-citizenship cases when an American had acted in a way believed to imply an intent to give up citizenship—especially when an American had become a naturalized citizen of another country. In a 1980 case, however—Vance v. Terrazas—the Supreme Court ruled that intent to relinquish citizenship needed to be proved by itself, and not simply inferred from an individual's having voluntarily performed an action designated by Congress as being incompatible with an intent to keep one's citizenship.
The concept of dual citizenship, which previously had been strongly opposed by the U.S. government, has become more accepted in the years since Afroyim. In 1980, the administration of President Jimmy Carter concluded that the Bancroft Treaties—a series of bilateral agreements, formulated between 1868 and 1937, which provided for automatic loss of citizenship upon foreign naturalization of a U.S. citizen—were no longer enforceable, due in part to Afroyim, and gave notice terminating these treaties. In 1990, the State Department adopted new guidelines for evaluating potential loss-of-citizenship cases, under which the government now assumes in almost all situations that Americans do not in fact intend to give up their citizenship unless they explicitly indicate to U.S. officials that this is their intention. As explained by Peter J. Spiro, "In the long run, Afroyims vision of an absolute right to retain citizenship has been largely, if quietly, vindicated. As a matter of practice, it is now virtually impossible to lose American citizenship without formally and expressly renouncing it."
While acknowledging that "American citizenship enjoys strong protection against loss under Afroyim and Terrazas", retired journalist Henry S. Matteo suggested, "It would have been more equitable ... had the Supreme Court relied on the Eighth Amendment, which adds a moral tone as well as a firmer constitutional basis, than the Fourteenth." Matteo also said, "Under Afroyim there is a lack of balance between rights and protections on one hand, and obligations and responsibilities on the other, all four elements of which have been an integral part of the concept of citizenship, as history shows." Political scientist P. Allan Dionisopoulos wrote that "it is doubtful that any [Supreme Court decision] created a more complex problem for the United States than Afroyim v. Rusk", a decision which he believed had "since become a source of embarrassment for the United States in its relationships with the Arab world" because of the way it facilitated dual U.S.–Israeli citizenship and participation by Americans in Israel's armed forces.
After his Supreme Court victory, Afroyim divided his time between West Brighton (Staten Island, New York) and the Israeli city of Safed until his death on May 19, 1984, in West Brighton.Spiro (2005), p. 165.
See also
List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 387
Reid v. Covert, a Supreme Court case holding that treaties cannot override the Constitution
Notes
References
Dionisopoulos, P. Allan (1970–71). "Afroyim v. Rusk: The Evolution, Uncertainty and Implications of a Constitutional Principle". Minnesota Law Review 55''':235–257.
Matteo, Henry S. (1997). Denationalization v. "The Right to Have Rights": The Standard of Intent in Citizenship Loss. University Press of America. .
Spiro, Peter J. (2005). "Afroyim: Vaunting Citizenship, Presaging Transnationality". In Martin, David A.; Schuck, Peter H. (2005). Immigration Stories''. Foundation Press. pp. 147–168.
External links
Summaries of the case at Oyez, Lawnix
1967 in United States case law
History of immigration to the United States
United States Citizenship Clause case law
United States Supreme Court cases
United States Supreme Court decisions that overrule a prior Supreme Court decision
United States Supreme Court cases of the Warren Court
Denaturalization case law |
4094904 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle%20of%20Grand%20Gulf | Battle of Grand Gulf | The Battle of Grand Gulf was fought on April 29, 1863, during the American Civil War. Union Army forces commanded by Major General Ulysses S. Grant had failed several times to bypass or capture the Confederate-held city of Vicksburg, Mississippi, during the Vicksburg campaign. Grant decided to move his army south of Vicksburg, cross the Mississippi River, and then advance on the city. A Confederate division under Brigadier General John S. Bowen prepared defenses—Forts Wade and Cobun—at Grand Gulf, Mississippi, south of Vicksburg. To clear the way for a Union crossing, seven Union Navy ironclad warships from the Mississippi Squadron commanded by Admiral David Dixon Porter bombarded the Confederate defenses at Grand Gulf on April 29. Union fire silenced Fort Wade and killed its commander, but the overall Confederate position held. Grant decided to cross the river elsewhere.
The next day, Union forces crossed the river at Bruinsburg, Mississippi. A Union victory in the Battle of Port Gibson on May 1 secured the beachhead and forced the abandonment of the position at Grand Gulf, which became a Union supply point. Grant's command moved inland, and after defeating Confederate forces in the Battle of Champion Hill on May 16, began the Siege of Vicksburg two days later. Vicksburg surrendered on July 4, marking a major Confederate defeat and a turning point in the war. The Grand Gulf battlefield is preserved in Grand Gulf Military State Park, which was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1972.
Background
Early in the American Civil War, the Union military leadership developed the Anaconda Plan, which was a strategy to defeat the Confederate States of America. A significant component of this strategy was controlling the Mississippi River. Much of the Mississippi Valley fell under Union control in early 1862 after the capture of New Orleans, Louisiana, and several land victories. The strategically important city of Vicksburg, Mississippi was still in Confederate hands, serving as a strong defensive position that commanded the river and prvented the Union from separating the two halves of the Confederacy. Union Navy elements were sent upriver from New Orleans in May to try to take the city, a move that was unsuccessful. In late June, a joint army-navy expedition returned to make another campaign against Vicksburg. Union Navy leadership decided that the city could not be taken without more infantrymen, who were not forthcoming. An attempt to cut Williams's Canal across a meander of the river in June and July, bypassing Vicksburg, failed.
In late November, about 40,000 Union infantry commanded by Major General Ulysses S. Grant began moving south towards Vicksburg from a starting point in Tennessee. Grant ordered a retreat after a supply depot and part of his supply line were destroyed during the Holly Springs Raid on December 20 and Forrest's West Tennessee Raid. Meanwhile, another arm of the expedition under the command of Major General William T. Sherman left Memphis, Tennessee, on the same day as the Holly Springs Raid and traveled down the Mississippi River. After diverting up the Yazoo River, Sherman's men began skirmishing with Confederate soldiers defending a line of hills above the Chickasaw Bayou. A Union attack on December 29, was defeated decisively at the Battle of Chickasaw Bayou, and Sherman's men withdrew on January 1, 1863.
By late March, further attempts to bypass Vicksburg had failed. Grant then considered three plans: to withdraw to Memphis and retry the overland route through northern Mississippi; to move south along the west side of the Mississippi River, cross below Vicksburg, and then strike for the city; or to make an amphibious assault across the river directly against Vicksburg. An assault across the river risked heavy casualties, and a withdrawal to Memphis could be politically disastrous if the public perceived such a movement as a retreat. Grant then decided upon the downstream crossing. The advance along the west bank of the Mississippi began on March 29, and was spearheaded by Major General John A. McClernand's troops. The movement down the river was masked by decoy operations such as Steele's Greenville expedition, Streight's Raid, and Grierson's Raid. Confederate regional commander John C. Pemberton fell for the Union decoys (especially Grierson's Raid), and lost touch with the true tactical situation, believing Grant was withdrawing.
Prelude
On multiple occasions in mid-1862, Confederate field artillery harassed Union Navy vessels from Grand Gulf, Mississippi, which was located along the Mississippi River to the south of Vicksburg. The town was largely burned by Union troops attempting to suppress the Confederate guns. In early March 1863, the Confederates decided to rebuild fortifications at Grand Gulf, and the brigade of Brigadier General John S. Bowen was transferred there. By the middle of the month, Bowen's troops and several slaves were working on building new defenses and strengthening the existing ones. Heavy cannons were transferred to the position, but before those guns could arrive, a skirmish occurred on March 19, between the Confederate defenders and two Union Navy ships: the sloop-of-war USS Hartford and the schooner USS Albatross. The exchange was not protracted and the Confederates suffered no loss; the Union had eight men killed or wounded on Hartford. Soon afterwards, five heavy guns arrived at Grand Gulf: two pieces and three 32-pounder rifled cannons.
In early April, Bowen became aware of Grant's movement down the west side of the Mississippi River, and sent part of his force under the command of Francis Cockrell across the river on April 4, to counter the Union movement. Bowen informed Pemberton of Grant's advance, but the latter officer disregarded the information. The Union Navy forces cooperating with Grant, which were commanded by David Dixon Porter and known as the Mississippi Squadron, were positioned north of Vicksburg, but there was a need for vessels to move south for operations near Port Hudson, Louisiana, as well as to provide a stronger protecting force for the transports that would ferry troops in Grant's planned crossing of the Mississippi River. Beginning two hours after nightfall on April 16, Porter ran several vessels past the batteries at Vicksburg, with the loss of only a transport and a barge. Pemberton learned of the passing of the batteries, and began to develop a clearer picture of the true strategic situation. Grand Gulf was reinforced by Brigadier General Martin E. Green's brigade; when this unit arrived Pemberton elevated the concentration at Grand Gulf to divisional status with Bowen in command. With the addition of a miscellaneous command of 800 men and a four-gun battery sent from Jackson, Mississippi, there were about 4,200 Confederate troops around Grand Gulf.
After dark on April 22, more transports were run down the river past Vicksburg: one transport and several barges were lost, and all of the surviving transports were damaged. Porter had been prepared to bombard Grand Gulf on April 23, with McClernand providing an infantry force to land there afterwards, but believing a false report of the Confederates having 12,000 men at Grand Gulf, called off the attack. McClernand observed Grand Gulf later that day, as did Grant the next day. Both determined the Confederate position was not as strong as had been reported. Union forces moved further downriver, and opened a base of operations at Hard Times Landing. By April 28, most of McClernand's men had been loaded onto transports in preparation for the river crossing. Hoping to further distract the Confederates, Grant suggested another feint: this one to be made by Sherman up the Yazoo River. Grant had some hesitations about such a feint, believing that reports of it might be misconstrued by the Union public as another Chickasaw Bayou-style defeat, but Sherman continued with the operation. Sherman's movement resulted in the Battle of Snyder's Bluff, which saw Union warships and transports loaded with infantry move up the Yazoo River on April 29, and skirmish with Confederate forces during the next two days. Overall, it was not particularly effective as a distractionn.
On April 28, Pemberton finally realized the importance of the Union buildup near Grand Gulf. He ordered Carter L. Stevenson to prepare a 5,000-man force to be sent to Grand Gulf at Bowen's discretion, but Stevenson still regarded the Union move south as a feint in preparation for an assault directly against Vicksburg. Bowen lacked a cavalry force for scouting, as the cavalry at Grand Gulf had been sent elsewhere to chase down Grierson's Raid. The work on the defenses at Grand Gulf had resulted in a much stronger position than had been there at the beginning of March. Two forts were the strongpoints of the fortification. The stronger was known as Fort Cobun, and the other as Fort Wade.
Fort Cobun was positioned on a tall bluff known as Point of Rock and had a parapet that was about in width. It mounted four cannonstwo 32-pounder guns, an 8-inch Dahlgren gun, and a 30-pounder Parrott riflewhich were crewed by Battery A, 1st Louisiana Heavy Artillery. Fort Wade was located downriver, on a point above the level of the river and away from it. This fort mounted a 100-pounder Blakely rifle, another 8-inch Dahlgren piece, and two more 32-pounders. These pieces were worked by Wade's Missouri Battery and Guibor's Missouri Battery. In between the two forts were two rows of rifle pits and a covered passageway. The 3rd Missouri Infantry Regiment held this position. A secondary line of rifle pits to the rear on a ridge was defended by five smaller Parrott rifles and the 6th Missouri Infantry Regiment. Two more cannons and the 1st Confederate Battalion were positioned on a bluff to guard the mouth of the Big Black River, with some sharpshooters from Arkansas, Dawson's Missouri Battery, and a dismounted cavalry unit positioned further up the Big Black River. Porter believed the Confederates were too well-prepared for an attack against Grand Gulf to be worthwhile, and instead suggested that the army march further south, accompanied by the navy's ironclad warships to cover the movement of its transports. Grant had the area north of Grand Gulf assessed for suitable crossing points, but none could be found. Grant believed that the position would not be difficult to take, so the assault against Grand Gulf would occur as planned.
Battle
At 7:00a.m. on April 29, seven Union Navy ironclads led by Porter moved down the river from Hard Times Landing towards the positions at Grand Gulf. Roughly 30,000 Union infantry were in the Hard Times Landing area, of whom about 10,000 were on transports. The men on the transports, which had pulled away from the landing and were sheltered behind a spit of land named Point Coffee, were intended to cross the river and occupy Grand Gulf once the Confederate batteries were subdued. Of Porter's ironclads, USS Pittsburgh was in the lead, followed by USS Louisville, USS Carondelet, and USS Mound City. A second wave composed of USS Benton, USS Tuscumbia, and USS Lafayette followed. A total of 81 cannons were carried by these vessels, compared to 13 in the Confederate positions. The naval forces also had the advantage in size of artillery: the majority of the Confederate guns were 30-pounders or smaller, as opposed to the median Union piece being a 42-pounder. The ironclads first targeted Fort Cobun, then Pittsburgh, Louisville, Carondelet, and Mound City moved to focus on Fort Wade; the other three remained focused on Fort Cobun. After passing Fort Cobun, the ships turned so that their bows pointed upstream. The lead Union vessels opened fire at about 7:50a.m., and Fort Cobun responded about 25 minutes later. Currents in the river caught some of the Union vessels, forcing them to spin in circles while the Confederate fired upon them. After the shooting started, the 12th Arkansas Sharpshooter Battalion was moved forward from a reserve position into rifle pits near Fort Cobun.
Although Pittsburgh, Louisville, Carondelet, and Mound City each carried 13 guns, the positioning of the guns on the ships allowed a maximum of four guns at a time to be aimed at the Confederate fortifications, reducing the Union firepower. By 10:00a.m., Fort Wade was knocked out of action. One of the large cannons in Fort Wade had exploded, the fortifications themselves had been severely damaged, and Colonel William F. Wade, commanding the post, had been decapitated by Union fire. The surviving cannons at Fort Wade had been buried under earth from the damaged fortifications. The four Union vessels that had silenced Fort Wade moved upriver to face the remaining Confederate fort, which fought on. A Confederate shot struck Benton, destroying the ship's wheel. Confederate troops in the rifle pits also fired into the Union vessels. Around 1:00 p.m., Fort Cobun decreased its fire due to ammunition shortages. However, Porter and Grant decided not to attempt an amphibious landing against Grand Gulf due to the strength of the Confederate position. Despite the damage and the ammunition shortage, the Confederate batteries were still capable of repulsing a landing from the transports. During the action, Porter had been struck in the back of his head with a shell fragment; the painful wound caused him to use his sword as a cane. The naval vessels had fired more than 2,300 shots during the bombardment.
Confederate fire had focused the heaviest on Benton, Pittsburgh, and Tuscumbia. The former vessel had taken 47 hits, Pittsburgh 35, and the latter over 80. Tuscumbia was poorly built (for instance, the spikes holding the ship's iron plating on were not secured with nuts), and had been badly damaged and knocked out of the fighting. Historians Michael B. Ballard and Ed Bearss state that the Union forces lost 18 men killed and 57 wounded, for a total of 75, with historians William L. Shea and Terrence J. Winschel instead placing Union casualties at 24 killed and 56 wounded, including a few men from the army serving on the warships in a volunteer capacity. According to Ballard and Bearss, Confederate losses totaled 22: three dead and 19 wounded; historian Donald L. Miller and Shea and Winschel state that the Confederates lost 18 men, the difference being in wounded.
Aftermath
After the naval bombardment was unable to neutralize the Confederate position at Grand Gulf, the troops on the transports returned to dry land. Later that day, the Union transports and barges were run downriver, under the covering fire of Porter's gunboats. The vessels were able to make it downriver safely; Porter lost one man in the affair and the Confederates lost none. Grant's infantrymen marched downriver to Disharoon's plantation, where the transports had been gathered after passing Grand Gulf. Two crossing points below Grand Gulf were considered by Grant: Rodney, Mississippi, or Bruinsburg, Mississippi. Bowen expected Union troops to cross at the former. Discussions between Union scouts and an African American, who was possibly named Bob, yielded the information that a usable road ran from Bruinsburg to Port Gibson, so Bruinsburg was selected as the crossing point.
Late on April 29, expecting a Union crossing of the river, Bowen sent a detachment from his command to hold Port Gibson, and the next day sent reinforcements that had arrived from Vicksburg to that place as well. On the morning of April 30, the Bruinsburg crossing began. McClernand's corps and a portion of Major General James B. McPherson's corps led the way. By the next morning, 24,000 Union soldiers had crossed the river without opposition. More of McPherson's men crossed on May 1. Early that morning, the Confederates near Port Gibson encountered McClernand's advancing troops. The ensuing Battle of Port Gibson was a hard-fought Union victory. Winning the battle protected the Union beachhead and rendered Grand Gulf indefensible. Pemberton ordered Bowen to abandon the position, and the Confederates spiked the cannons there early on May 3. Union forces occupied the position after the Confederates withdrew, and it became a supply point during the ongoing campaign. Portions of Sherman's corps crossed the river at Grand Gulf late on May 6 and into May 7.
Grant's men swung inland towards the railroad supplying Vicksburg. After the Battle of Raymond on May 12, Grant decided to swing east to disperse the Confederate reinforcements gathering at Jackson. Jackson was taken on May 14, and two days later, Pemberton's attempt to defeat Grant outside of Vicksburg was defeated in the climactic Battle of Champion Hill. The Siege of Vicksburg began on May 18, and ended in a Confederate surrender on July 4. The capture of Vicksburg divided the Confederacy along the Mississippi River, and with the Union victory at the Siege of Port Hudson, gave the Union control of the river. Together with a Confederate defeat at the Battle of Gettysburg on July 3, the fall of Vicksburg marked a turning point in the war. The war ended in 1865 with a Confederate defeat.
The site of the battle is preserved by Grand Gulf Military State Park. The park contains the land where forts Wade and Cobun were located, as well as an observation tower, a museum, and the remains of the old town of Grand Gulf. The park was listed on the National Register of Historic Places on April 11, 1972.
Notes
References
Sources
Further reading
CWSAC Report Update
Vicksburg campaign
Battles of the Western Theater of the American Civil War
Claiborne County, Mississippi
Confederate victories of the American Civil War
Grand Gulf
Grand Gulf
Conflicts in 1863
1863 in Mississippi
Riverine warfare
April 1863 events |
4095083 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jarmila%20Wolfe | Jarmila Wolfe | Jarmila Wolfe (née Gajdošová, formerly Groth; born 26 April 1987) is a Slovak-Australian former tennis player.
In her career, she won two singles titles and one doubles title on the WTA Tour, as well as 14 singles and ten doubles titles on the ITF Women's Circuit. She won her first WTA Tour title in 2006, emerging as the Nordic Light Open doubles champion, her first singles title came in 2010 at the Guangzhou International Open, and the following year she won the Hobart International. In May 2011, she reached her best singles ranking of world No. 25. In August 2012, she peaked at No. 31 in the doubles rankings. Her greatest achievement came at the 2013 Australian Open, where she won the mixed-doubles title with countryman Matthew Ebden.
Personal life
Wolfe's father Ján Gajdoš is an engineer, as was her mother who died in September 2012; her older brother Ján Gajdoš Jr. was a professional skier. She married Australian tennis player Sam Groth in February 2009 and competed as Jarmila Groth from 2009 to 2011. When the couple divorced in 2011, Wolfe reverted to her birth name. Following her marriage on 1 November 2015 to Adam Wolfe, from January 2016 on she was competing as Jarmila Wolfe. In November 2017, Wolfe gave birth to their first child, Natalia Jarmila Wolfe.
Junior career
Although she had already been playing in senior events for some years by the time, the highlights of her junior career came as she reached the semifinals at two junior Grand Slam tournaments. In the 2003 Wimbledon junior competition she lost in semifinal to the eventual winner Kirsten Flipkens. In the Australian Open junior competition, 2004, she reached semifinals in both singles and doubles (with Shahar Pe'er). Both times she lost to Nicole Vaidišová. Another success came in winning doubles at the Italian Open junior tournament in 2003 with Andrea Hlaváčková.
Professional career
2001–2003
Wolfe began competing as Jarmila Gajdošová on the ITF Women's Circuit just days after her 14th birthday in 2001, and that year entered three ITF tournaments, winning two matches and losing three. In 2002, she again entered only three tournaments, but this time won four matches and lost three.
Early in 2003, still aged 15, she stepped up her schedule, and that February she reached the semifinal of a $25k tournament at Redbridge, defeating Séverine Beltrame, Sandra Klösel, and Roberta Vinci before losing to Olga Barabanschikova. She won the next tournament she entered, her third of the year and only the ninth of her career. It was the $10k event at Rabat in March; and in the semifinal she defeated Ekaterina Bychkova. On the strength of this result, she found herself wildcarded into qualifying for her first WTA Tour event, a clay-court tournament at Budapest in April, and justified the wildcard by defeating all three of her opponents in the qualifying draw, including Melinda Czink, in straight sets, then Virginie Razzano in the second round of the main draw, before losing 4–6, 3–6 to Alicia Molik.
On her 16th birthday she entered qualifying for a $50k event on grass at Gifu, Japan. Again, she qualified defeating Aiko Nakamura in the qualifying round; and she reached the second round of the main draw before losing to another top Japanese player, Akiko Morigami. The next week, she came through three straight matches in qualifying at her third successive event, another Japanese $50k grass-court tournament at Fukuoka, defeating Sanda Mamić of Croatia in the qualifying round, before advancing to the quarterfinal of the main draw after a second-round victory over Zheng Jie, only to lose to Saori Obata.
At the US Open in August, she reached the final round of qualifying with upset of Anabel Medina Garrigues, but ultimately lost to Anikó Kapros of Hungary. Her season ended with two more losses in the later stages of qualifying draws at WTA events to higher ranked players. The 16-year-old Slovak ended the year ranked No. 197.
2004–2005
In 2004, she suffered six successive losses between August and October. Earlier in the season she scored wins over Lilia Osterloh and Tzipora Obziler in qualifying for Memphis, Akiko Morigami and Tiffany Dabek at Fukuoka, Zuzana Ondrášková in Wimbledon qualifying, and Elena Baltacha in a $50k event at Lexington, while her performance in reaching the final of the $50k event at Fukuoka was her career-best in a tournament of its class. Her year-end ranking was world No. 217.
In February 2005, she qualified for the annual WTA Tour event at Hyderabad, and beat Li Ting in the first round of the main draw before losing to Anna-Lena Grönefeld of Germany. She did not play in March or April, but returned in May to win her first $25k event and her second career tournament on the clay of Catania, Italy beating Ivana Abramović of Croatia in the final. The following week, she reached the quarterfinal of another $50k event at Saint-Gaudens, France beating Argentine María Emilia Salerni and French player Pauline Parmentier to this end. She entered qualifying at the French Open, and defeated Shikha Uberoi but lost to Sofia Arvidsson in the second leg.
Over May and June, the 18-year-old suffered two consecutive losses in $25k tournaments to Chinese player Yuan Meng. She was able to win her second $25k tournament of the year and third career title on the grass courts of Felixstowe in July, beating Katie O'Brien of Great Britain in the semifinal and Alla Kudryavtseva in the final. The following week, she reached the semifinals of the $50k event at Vittel, France with wins over German Jana Kandarr and her countrywoman Sandra Klösel.
For the second successive summer, she experienced several consecutive early defeats. But in late September she defeated Alona Bondarenko, Kateryna Bondarenko, and María Emilia Salerni to qualify for the WTA event at Luxembourg, in the first round of which she defeated Katarina Srebotnik in two close sets before losing to Dinara Safina. She had improved her year-end ranking to No. 147.
2006: Top 100 breakthrough and first WTA doubles titles
The 18-year-old Gajdošová came through the qualifying draw to gain entry to her first Grand Slam main draw at the Australian Open. She then lost a close three set first-round match to Martina Müller of Germany. But the ranking points accrued were sufficient to lift her to world No. 117 on 6 February 2006.
Staying in Australia for the rest of the month, she retreated temporarily to the ITF Circuit, winning two $25k tournaments in consecutive weeks, at Gosford and Sydney, the fourth and fifth ITF singles titles of her career. These two minor tournament victories resulted in her ranking rising to No. 106.
In mid-March, she followed up these two tournament victories by entering another $25k event at Canberra, and again came through as the victor, defeating world No. 178, Hanna Nooni, in the semifinals and Australian Monique Adamczak in the final.
The next week, she extended her winning streak to seventeen matches in reaching the quarterfinals of a $25k event in Melbourne, but then lost to Australian world No. 260 Sophie Ferguson, 1–6, 4–6. She had succeeded in breaking through into the WTA top 100 for the first time in her career.
In April, staying at the $25k tournament level that had recently brought her so much success, she reached another semifinal at Patras, Greece (losing in three sets to Estonian world No. 240, Margit Rüütel), but only reached the second-round at Bari, Italy before retiring when trailing upcoming French player Alizé Cornet 6–0, 4–1.
In early May she decided to return to the WTA Tour, entering qualifying for the Tier I German Open in Berlin while ranked world No. 94. However, she lost in three sets in the second round of the qualifying draw to Ukrainian world No. 147, Julia Vakulenko, 6–3, 6–7, 3–6. The next week, she lost in the first round of qualifying for the Tier I Italian Open in Rome to world No. 115, Victoria Azarenka, 3–6, 3–6.
At the end of the month, entering a Grand Slam tournament as a direct entrant for the first time at the French Open, as world No. 100, she defeated lower-ranked wildcard Stéphanie Cohen-Aloro in round one before losing in straight sets to world No. 9, Patty Schnyder, in round two.
The following week, in early June, she entered a $75k event at Prostějov in the Czech Republic and defeated two Czech players in succession, world No. 31, Lucie Šafářová, and world No. 239, Renata Voráčová (3–6, 6–2, 7–6), before losing in the quarterfinals to in-form Italian Romina Oprandi in straight sets, 3–6, 4–6.
Buoyed by her career-best ranking of world No. 86, she reached the second round of the Tier III tournament at Birmingham with a 6–3, 6–4 win over Yuan Meng before losing to Japanese veteran Ai Sugiyama. She then came through three rounds of qualifying in straight sets at Eastbourne, a Tier II tournament, with wins over Stéphanie Foretz, Galina Voskoboeva and Samantha Stosur, but lost in the first round of the main draw to Russian former world No. 2, Anastasia Myskina. A week later, as a direct entrant at Wimbledon, she lost to Australian Nicole Pratt in the first round.
At the $50k event in Vittel, France she won the event, beating Frenchwoman Olivia Sanchez. Her ranking rose to No. 86. However, in the Tier IV tournament in Budapest the following week, she lost 6–7, 2–6 in the first round to fellow Slovak Martina Suchá.
As a direct entrant to the main draw of the US Open, she reached the third round with straight-sets victories over American Alexa Glatch and the Ukraine's Viktoriya Kutuzova before succumbing to Dinara Safina, 3–6, 0–6. As a result, her ranking leapt to No. 65.
Despite an uninspired finish to 2006, she finished the year ranked world No. 71.
2007
She began the new season, still in Australia, at the end of December 2006, by narrowly failing to qualify for Gold Coast. Then in qualifying for Hobart in January, she fell at the first hurdle to Klára Zakopalová in straight sets. And as a direct entrant to the Australian Open, she lost in round one to Venezuelan Milagros Sequera, also in straight sets.
In February, she managed to pull together a string of back-to-back victories in a $75k tournament at Las Vegas, with wins over Kristina Barrois (in three sets), Ahsha Rolle (6–0, 6–2) and Tatiana Poutchek (6–4, 6–3), before bowing out to Akiko Morigami in the semifinals.
In March, as a direct entrant to the Tier I Indian Wells Open, ranked world No. 90, she lost in the first round to Caroline Wozniacki 3–6, 1–6. Then she came through qualifying for Miami with a straight-sets wins over Kristina Barrois and Anne Kremer, before losing a close two-setter in the first round of the main draw to Catalina Castaño of Colombia, 3–6, 5–7. And in the first round of the main draw of the Tier II fixture at Amelia Island, her ranking having slipped back to world No. 99, she was defeated by American Alexa Glatch, 6–4, 6–3.
In May, ranked No. 95, she reached the quarterfinals of the Tier IV fixture at Prague with straight-sets victories over Anastasia Rodionova and Sandra Klösel, before losing to Marion Bartoli. At the end of the month, in the first round, she lost to Andrea Petkovic at the French Open.
In June at Wimbledon, she defeated Meghann Shaughnessy 6–2, 6–4 before losing to Jelena Janković in round two, 1–6, 1–6. She returned to action in mid-August in Canada, again ranked No. 105, and attempted to qualify for the Tier I Canadian Open, but lost to Flavia Pennetta. Her only other tournament that month was the US Open, where she again faced Jelena Janković, this time losing 2–6, 6–7.
The Slovak would play only four more tournaments that season, recording her sole victory in the first round of the Tier III event at Kolkata, India against Youlia Fedossova of France in mid-September. Her ranking was No. 142 by the end of the year.
2008
Gajdošová received a wildcard into the main draw of the Australian Women's Hardcourts in Gold Coast, Australia where she lost in the first round to world No. 15, Dinara Safina, 6–4, 1–6, 2–6. She then lost in the second round of the qualifying competition for the Sydney International to world No. 100, Jill Craybas, 5–7, 2–6. Gajdošová then received a wildcard into the main draw of the Australian Open where she lost in the first round to then world No. 7, Serena Williams, 3–6, 3–6.
She then played two tournaments in the United States. She lost in the first round of the qualifying competition for the Tier I Indian Wells Open to world No. 101, Alla Kudryavtseva, 2–6, 0–6. She then lost in the first round of the ITF event in Redding, California to world No. 199, Margalita Chakhnashvili, 0–4 ret.
She then played three ITF Circuit tournaments in South Korea. In Incheon, she lost in the first round to world No. 374, Lee Jin-a 4–6, 7–5, 2–6. The following week, Gajdošová won the tournament in Gimcheon, defeating No. 295 Lu Jingjing in the final. She then lost in the second round of the tournament in Changwon to world No. 432, Zhang Ling, in two straight sets. As of 26 May 2008, her ranking had dropped to No. 195.
2009: First Grand Slam appearance
Gajdošová started the year at the Brisbane International losing in a tight second round to eventual champion Victoria Azarenka. In the Sydney International she again lost in the second round to eventual champion Elena Dementieva. At the Australian Open, Gajdošová lost a tight three-setter to Virginie Razzano making it her fourth straight first round loss at the first Grand Slam of the year. She then married Sam Groth, taking his name from February onwards.
At the 2009 Indian Wells tournament, she played in the qualifying winning her first match and losing her final qualifying match, resulting in a slight rise in the rankings. At Roland Garros, Groth defeated French wildcard Kinnie Laisné 6–4, 6–3 and Mariana Duque Marino 6–2, 7–6. She then lost to fifth seed Jelena Janković in the third round, 1–6, 1–6.
At Wimbledon, in the first round, Groth defeated Lucie Šafářová 6–3, 3–6, 6–3, and then lost to second seed Serena Williams 2–6, 1–6. After solid performances at both Roland Garros and Wimbledon Groth received a career-high singles ranking of No. 57.
She was then out of action with an ankle injury until returning to the tour in 2010 as a fully fledged Australian player available for Fed Cup Team selection, after being granted Australian citizenship on 23 November 2009.
2010: Top 50 breakthrough and first singles WTA Tour title
Starting 2010 with the task to re-enter the top 100 she started the year at Brisbane and Sydney falling in second round of qualifying. Then lost another tough three-set first round at Australia Open to Sofia Arvidsson, 2–6, 6–4, 4–6. Groth remained in Australia to gain ranking points and was very successful winning the $25k Sydney, finalist at the $25k Burnie and a quarterfinalist at the Mildura ITF. She also had success in doubles with a semifinal and final showings at the Burnie and Mildura ITF events. She received a wildcard entry into the French Open and played Chan Yung-jan in the first round. Groth moved into the second-round winning 6–2, 6–3. She then played Kimiko Date-Krumm from Japan. She beat Date-Krumm who had knocked out Safina the round before, 6–0, 6–3. Groth then faced fellow Australian player Anastasia Rodionova. They played a long three-setter but Groth prevailed 6–3, 5–7, 6–2. In the fourth round, she lost to Kazakh Yaroslava Shvedova 4–6, 3–6. Her French Open performance was her best in Grand Slam tournaments. After the French Open, she was ranked No. 88.
At Wimbledon, she progressed to the fourth round where she was beaten by Venus Williams, 6–4, 7–6.
On 23 August, she reached a new career high ranking of 56 and became the second highest ranked Australian behind No. 6, Samantha Stosur.
At the US Open, she lost to Maria Sharapova 6–4, 3–6, 1–6 in the first round. In doubles, partnering Klára Zakopalová, she defeated Angelique Kerber and Līga Dekmeijere.
After the US Open, Groth participated in the Guangzhou International Open as top seed. She made it to her first WTA Tour final defeating Edina Gallovits in the semifinals 6–0, 6–1 in 38 minutes. In the final, Groth defeated Alla Kudryavtseva 6–1, 6–4 to win her maiden title. Groth's ranking rose to a career high of 41 as a result of her performance.
Her next tournament was the Korea Open where she faced top seed Nadia Petrova in the first round. She lost 3–6, 2–6.
2011: Career best ranking
Groth started off the year at the Brisbane International where she reached the quarterfinals by beating first seed Sam Stosur in the previous round. It was Groth's first win against a top-10 player. However, she lost to German Andrea Petkovic. She then competed at the Hobart International where she defeated Johanna Larsson, Tamira Paszek, fourth seed Roberta Vinci and Klára Zakopalová all in straight sets to reach the final. Groth defeated Bethanie Mattek-Sands in the final to gain her second WTA title. In doubles, Groth and her partner Zakopalová won their first-round match in straight sets and then defeated fourth seeds Natalie Grandin and Vladimíra Uhlířová in the quarterfinals. They lost to Kateryna Bondarenko and Līga Dekmeijere in the semifinals. At the Australian Open, she lost in the first round to 2009 US Open semifinalist Yanina Wickmayer in a close three-set match.
Groth then became part of the Australia Fed Cup team for the first time. Despite Australia losing the tie, she managed to win against world No. 4, Francesca Schiavone, after dropping the first set. Groth then played at the Dubai Tennis Championships where she defeated Dominika Cibulková in the first round. However, she lost to 15th seed Alisa Kleybanova. She then took part in the Qatar Ladies Open where she had to qualify to reach the main draw. As top seed in qualifying, she defeated wildcard player Selima Sfar in the first round, fellow Australian Jelena Dokić in the second round and sixth seed Timea Bacsinszky to qualify in the main draw. There, she faced Dominika Cibulková in the first round, where she lost 8–10 in the third set tiebreak. Groth's next tournament was the Malaysian Open where she received a wildcard into the main draw and was seeded fourth. She won her first match against qualifier Sun Shengnan and followed that up with a win against Misaki Doi. She then defeated the sixth seed Ayumi Morita in three close sets to advance to the semifinals where she met her doubles partner and ended up losing to fifth seed Šafářová in straight sets.
Groth was the 29th seed at the Indian Wells Open and received a first-round bye. She was defeated in the second round by Sara Errani. At the Miami Open, Groth was seeded No. 28 and had a first-round bye. In the second round, she defeated Yaroslava Shvedova. Groth was up by a set and break. She was defeated in the next round by world No. 3, Vera Zvonareva.
Groth next travelled to Melbourne to partake with Anastasia Rodionova in the Fed Cup World Group play-offs. Although she won both of her singles matches against Olga Savchuk and Lesia Tsurenko, Rodionova lost both of her singles matches. As such, it came down to the doubles, where despite easily taking the first set 6–0, Groth and Rodionova ended up losing to Savchuk and Tsurenko. Australia, as a result, was relegated to the 2012 Fed Cup World Group II.
At the Estoril Open, Wolfe, who from that point changed her name to Gajdošová, was seeded second. She defeated Renata Voráčová and compatriot Casey Dellacqua to successfully defend her quarterfinal appearance. However, she advanced no further as she lost to Monica Niculescu. Gajdošová competed at the Madrid Open where she defeated Maria Kirilenko in the first round in a third set tiebreak. She then upset tenth seed Agnieszka Radwańska in three sets before losing to Lucie Šafářová.
Her next tournament was the Italian Open, where she opened up by defeating wildcard Corinna Dentoni and followed that up with a win against Bethanie Mattek-Sands. Her next opponent was world No. 6 and fourth seed, Li Na, and she lost in straight sets. In doubles, Groth partnered with Romanian Alexandra Dulgheru as an alternative. Their run ended in the semifinals against Chinese pair Peng Shuai and Zheng Jie. However, their best victory was in the quarterfinals where they upset top seed and world No. 1 doubles players Gisela Dulko and Flavia Pennetta in straight sets.
Gajdošová beat Virginie Razzano and Anabel Medina Garrigues in the French Open, where she was seeded 24th, but lost in three sets in the third round to Andrea Petkovic, the 15th seed. At the Wimbledon Championships, she defeated former top-20 player Alona Bondarenko. As the last Australian standing in the women's singles draw, she then beat Andrea Hlaváčková to reach the third round, but lost against world No. 1, Caroline Wozniacki. She then went on a five-match losing streak: losing in first rounds at the Gastein Ladies Open, Mercury Insurance Open in Carlsbad, Canadian Open in Toronto, the Western & Southern Open in Cincinnati, and at the Texas Tennis Open. She broke her losing streak at the US Open; although hitting 57 unforced errors, she did hit 29 winners, and it was enough to defeat Iveta Benešová. In the second round she was defeated by Vania King.
Gajdošová's first tournament of the Asian swing was at the Guangzhou International Open where she was the defending champion. She reached the quarterfinals by defeating Han Xinyun and Mandy Minella. In the quarterfinal however, she lost to world No. 72, Magdaléna Rybáriková. Gajdosova then played in the Pan Pacific Open where in the first round she played world No. 55, Rebecca Marino, and won in three sets. She then played world No. 1, Caroline Wozniacki, going down in three sets. The next week she played at the China Open where she defeated world No. 29, Medina Garrigues, but again lost to Wozniacki, this time in straight sets. Her last tournament of the year was at the Japan Open where she lost in the second round. Gajdošová ended the year ranked world No. 33 in singles and No. 41 in doubles.
2012: Wrist injury and loss of form
She started her year at the 2012 Hopman Cup partnering Lleyton Hewitt. In the first tie against Spain, Gajdošová put Australia up by beating Medina Garrigues in three sets. They eventually lost the tie by losing the deciding mixed doubles, 9–11 in the final set tiebreak despite leading 5–1. In the second tie against France, Gajdošová left the court in tears after losing to Marion Bartoli, 0–6, 0–6. In the final tie against China, Gajdošová lost to Li Na, however Australia won the tie in the mixed doubles. She then played at the Hobart International, where she was the defending champion. In the first round, she defeated Ayumi Morita in straight sets and then defeated Anastasia Rodionova in a very tough second-round match. Although she started well against qualifier Mona Barthel, she lost in three sets to the eventual champion.
Gajdošová then played in the Australian Open, where she faced Maria Kirilenko. She was trying to get past the first round for the first time in seven attempts, but lost the match. Gajdošová left that disappointing result behind and headed to Fribourg, Switzerland to take on the Swiss in the Fed Cup. She competed in the second singles rubber, but had a loss to Stefanie Vögele, 6–0, 6–7, 6–8. She then played in the fourth rubber and confirmed a victory for Australia with a 6–3, 3–6, 8–6 win over Amra Sadiković.
Gajdošová then competed at the Open GdF Suez, where she again lost her opening round in three sets to Monica Niculescu. She then lost in the first round of the Qatar Open to Sorana Cîrstea. She was the fourth seed at the Malaysian Open where she won her first round over Kathrin Wörle after losing the first set. She lost her second-round match against Eleni Daniilidou.
At Indian Wells, she defeated American wildcard CoCo Vandeweghe. In the second round she defeated Yanina Wickmayer after another first-set loss. She lost in the third round to American Jamie Hampton. Gajdošová was down 2–5 in the second-set but came back to win it in a tie-break, but eventually lost the match. At the Miami Open, she was dealt a tough first-round match against four-time Grand Slam winner Kim Clijsters, who had not played since the Australian Open semifinal. Gajdošová started well and won the opening set before Clijsters came storming back to win with just the loss of one more game.
Her next tournament was the Family Circle Cup, where she played Stefanie Vögele in the first round and lost in three sets. Gajdošová then competed in the 2012 Fed Cup World Group play-offs against Germany in Stuttgart, enjoying a return to good form where she beat top 20 player Julia Görges. At the 2012 Summer Olympics, she partnered Anastasia Rodionova in the women's doubles.
She finished the year as world No. 183.
2013
Gajdošová began her season at the Brisbane International as a wildcard. She came back from a set down to defeat world No. 16 Roberta Vinci in the first round and thus ended her nine-match losing streak from the previous season. She lost in the second round to Lesia Tsurenko despite winning the first set. After receiving a wildcard into the Hobart International, Gajdošová reached the quarterfinals for the third consecutive year after defeating Romina Oprandi and Olga Govortsova but lost to the eventual champion Elena Vesnina in straight sets. At the Australian Open, Gajdošová failed to progress beyond the first round of the event for the eighth consecutive year, losing to 20th seed Yanina Wickmayer in straight sets. However, she won the mixed doubles title with compatriot Matthew Ebden and in doing so, won her first Grand Slam and first mixed-doubles title. This win made Gajdošová and Ebden the third all Australian pairing to win the Australian Open mixed doubles title and the first since 2005 when Samantha Stosur and Scott Draper won that title.
In April, Gajdošová was diagnosed with mononucleosis which left her out of the game for six months. She made her comeback at the Nanjing Ladies Open where she advanced to the semifinal before losing to Ayumi Morita. At the Wildcard Playoff for the Australian Open, Gajdošová opened with a straight sets win over Jelena Dokic. However, she lost in the quarterfinals against Tammi Patterson. Gajdošová ended 2013 ranked No. 232 in the world.
2014: Comeback to top 100
Gajdošová received a wildcard for the Sydney International but lost in the opening round against Lauren Davis. She was also awarded a wildcard for the Australian Open where she lost in the first round to Angelique Kerber. In mixed doubles, teaming up again with Matthew Ebden, she reached the semifinals.
In June, Gajdošová won the Nottingham Challenge defeating Timea Bacsinszky 6–2, 6–2 in the singles final. This earned a wildcard into Wimbledon Championships and was her first title in over three years. Gajdošová also won the doubles draw, pairing with Arina Rodionova.
2015: Returning form then fading
Gajdošová started her 2015 season at the Brisbane International which she entered as a wildcard entry. In the first round, she defeated Zhang Shuai to set up a second-round match against second seed and world No. 7, Ana Ivanovic, to whom she would later lose in straight sets.
Gajdošová then played at the Sydney International, defeating world No. 13, Andrea Petkovic, and No. 11, Dominika Cibulková, before losing to eventual champion Petra Kvitová in the quarterfinal, 6–4, 3–6, 4–6. She next played at the Australian Open, where she had never won a main-draw match, but she was able to break her duck there (on her tenth attempt) defeating Alexandra Dulgheru in straight sets to move into the second round where she then lost to world No. 3, Simona Halep, in straight sets.
Gajdošová then played in the Fed Cup World Group where she defeated world No. 10, Angelique Kerber, in three sets. She then lost to Andrea Petkovic in another three set match. Jarmila then played at the Thailand Open as the sixth seed where she lost to eventual finalist Ajla Tomljanović in the second round. Gajdošová then contested the Dubai Tennis Championships where she qualified for the main draw but lost in three sets to eventual semifinalist Garbiñe Muguruza. The following week she failed to qualify for the Qatar Open losing to Alexandra Dulgheru. Gajdošová then had a great run at the Malaysian Open where she was the fourth seed. She reached the semifinals before again losing to Dulgheru. Following this she played at Indian Wells Open where she lost in the first round to Roberta Vinci.
Gajdošová started her clay-court season at the 2015 Fed Cup World Group play-offs where she lost to lower ranked players Kiki Bertens and Arantxa Rus, and as a result, Australia was relegated to the Fed Cup World Group II in 2016. She then contested the Premier Mandatory Madrid Open where she lost to world No. 5, Caroline Wozniacki. The following week she played at the Italian Open, where she defeated Elena Vesnina in a thrilling third set tiebreak which she won 16–14. She then retired against world No. 3, Maria Sharapova, after trailing 6–2, 3–1. She lost in the first round of the French Open to the lower ranked Amandine Hesse.
Gajdošová then qualified at Nottingham before being defeated in the first round by Christina McHale. She lost in the first round at Birmingham to Johanna Konta before qualifying at Eastbourne, winning the first round against Lauren Davis before losing in the second round to Caroline Wozniacki.
Gajdošová lost in the first round at Wimbledon to Sabine Lisicki, lost in the first round in Washington, D.C. to Naomi Broady and in the first round of the US Open to the eventual winner Flavia Pennetta.
Gajdošová reached the second round in Tokyo, defeating qualifier Alexandra Panova before losing to Kateryna Bondarenko. She ended the year with a poor run of failures in qualifying and then losing in the first round in Hong Kong to Yaroslava Shvedova.
In December, Gajdošová competed for the Philippine Mavericks in the International Premier Tennis League losing to Agnieszka Radwańska and Kurumi Nara before defeating Kristina Mladenovic.
2016
Under her married name, Wolfe partnered Lleyton Hewitt in the Australia Gold Team for the Hopman Cup in Perth in January. In the tie against the United States, Wolfe defeated world No. 1, Serena Williams, albeit the American retired due to a knee injury. She was beaten by Karolína Plíšková and Elina Svitolina in the respective ties against the Czech Republic and Ukraine.
At the Australian Open, Wolfe was forced to retire, a set and 2–4 down in the second, in her first-round match against Anastasija Sevastova, after sustaining a back injury during the warm-up.
2017
In January 2017, Wolfe announced her retirement from the tour.
Performance timelines
Only main-draw results in WTA Tour, Grand Slam tournaments, Fed Cup and Olympic Games are included in win–loss records.
Note: Wolfe played under Slovakian flag until 2009.
Singles
Doubles
Grand Slam tournament finals
Mixed doubles: 1 title
WTA career finals
Singles: 2 (2 titles)
Doubles: 6 (1 title, 5 runner-ups)
ITF Circuit finals
Singles: 18 (14 titles, 4 runner-ups)
Doubles: 19 (10 titles, 9 runner-ups)
Top 10 wins
Notes
References
External links
1987 births
Living people
Tennis players from Bratislava
Australian female tennis players
Australian people of Slovak descent
Australian expatriate sportspeople in the United States
Naturalised citizens of Australia
Naturalised tennis players
Sportswomen from New South Wales
Slovak emigrants to Australia
Slovak female tennis players
Hopman Cup competitors
Tennis players from Sydney
Tennis players at the 2012 Summer Olympics
Olympic tennis players for Australia
Australian Open (tennis) champions
Grand Slam (tennis) champions in mixed doubles |
4095564 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lucas%20di%20Grassi | Lucas di Grassi | Lucas Tucci di Grassi (born 11 August 1984) is a Brazilian professional racing driver who is set to compete in the FIA Formula E World Championship for ABT CUPRA. He became the FIA Formula E Champion in 2016–2017, achieved three overall podiums at the 24 Hours of Le Mans, and won the Macau Grand Prix in 2005.
Born in São Paulo, di Grassi began racing karts at the age of ten, and achieved early success in the regional and later national kart series. He progressed to car racing in 2002 and was the runner up in the Formula Renault 2.0 Brazil and Formula 3 Sudamericana championships. Di Grassi took two consecutive victories in the 2004 British Formula Three Championship and progressed to the Euro Series the following year which saw him clinch a solitary race victory and was the winner of the non-championship Macau Grand Prix. After that, he spent the next three years in the GP2 Series where he won four races and finished the runner-up in 2007 to Timo Glock.
Di Grassi drove in Formula One with the Virgin Racing team in 2010 but was dropped for the following season. He was subsequently employed by Pirelli in mid-2011 as their official tyre tester and developed the company's next generation of tyres. Di Grassi continued this role into 2012. For the next four seasons, he drove for Audi Sport Team Joest in the FIA World Endurance Championship and took a best finish of second with two victories in 2016. Since 2014, di Grassi has raced in Formula E and has scored thirteen victories and won the 2016–17 Drivers' Championship.
In July 2020, Di Grassi was announced as co-founder and Sustainability Ambassador of the eSkootr Championship (eSC) - which was launched in May 2022.
Early and personal life
Di Grassi was born on 11 August 1984 in São Paulo, Brazil. He is of Italian descent through his grandfather who came from Polignano a Mare. Di Grassi's family did not have a background in motor racing but his uncle owned a go-kart shop and di Grassi visited him driving go-karts every weekend between the ages of seven and eight. He was educated at the local Santa Cruz High School and later went on to graduate with a degree in Economics after his second year at the private business university Ibmec. Di Grassi married the designer Bianca Diniz Caloi in a ceremony held in the São Paulo municipality of Itirapina on 1 December 2013. He currently resides in Monaco. On 3 July 2018, di Grassi became a father with the birth of his son Leonardo.
He founded the fuel conservation non-governmental organisation Smarter Driving in 2007 and was appointed the United Nations Environment Programme's clean air ambassador in 2018. Di Grassi partakes in triathlons to maintain his fitness and balance his racing career. He is also a member of the high IQ society Mensa. In addition to his native Portuguese, he is fluent in English, Italian, Spanish, and has basic knowledge of French.
Early career
Karting and early junior formulae
Upon the invitation of his father, Vito, the former vice-president of the Brazilian heavy vehicles manufacturer Engesa, di Grassi made his karting debut at the age of ten. He won a karting series in São Paulo in 1997, and continued to progress upwards through the South American karting series by winning several races in his native country. The peak of di Grassi's karting career came in 2000 when he placed fifth overall in the Formula A World Championship. That year, he won the Pan American Kart Championship. Di Grassi made his car racing debut in 2002, driving in the Formula Renault 2.0 Brazil, finishing the season with two victories, and placed seven points behind the series victor Sérgio Jimenez. In 2003, he switched to the Formula 3 Sudamericana and joined the Avellone team. Di Grassi took one victory and stood on the podium eleven times, en route to second in the championship, behind the more experienced Danilo Dirani, despite missing the season's final six races due to him injuring his neck in an accident he sustained in Curitiba.
He elected to move to the United Kingdom in 2004 so he could take part in the British Formula Three Championship with Hitech Racing. Di Grassi won both races at the Thruxton meeting but the remainder of the season was difficult for him and could only muster eighth in the final standings in spite of good qualifying performances. He was invited to race in the season-ending Macau Grand Prix and came third. Di Grassi graduated to the Formula 3 Euro Series in 2005 with Manor Motorsport but started the season with a major accident at the Hockenheimring where he attempted to pass Giedo van der Garde but clipped the latter's rear-left wheel. He launched into the air and rolled several times before resting in the tyre barrier. Di Grassi recovered to have a solid season and took a lights-to-flag victory at the Oschersleben and came third in the championship. He took a third-place finish at the Masters of Formula 3, and won the end-of-the season Macau Grand Prix from third on the grid by passing Robert Kubica shortly after a safety car restart in the closing stages of the event.
GP2 Series and Formula One testing (2006–2009)
2006 brought di Grassi to the next stage of his career as he entered the GP2 Series support series with the unsuccessful Durango team and was partnered by the Spanish driver Sergio Hernández. While his local rival Nelson Piquet Jr. battled Lewis Hamilton for the championship, di Grassi struggled with a noncompetitive car and could only muster eight points throughout the course of the season. With assistance from the Renault Formula One team, he signed a contract to race for ART Grand Prix in the 2007 season in December 2006 and was partnered for the first round by Michael Ammermüller. He scored points consistently throughout the season, failing to score only once in the first thirteen races. Despite not winning a race in that time, it put di Grassi in contention for the championship along with iSport driver Timo Glock.
He scored his first win of the year in the fourteenth round of the season at Istanbul, and took the lead of the championship, but Glock moved back ahead of him when he won the sprint race at the same track. Heading into the final race of the season at Valencia, di Grassi was two points adrift of Glock and said that he was not worried over outside factors determining the title. In changeable weather conditions, di Grassi started on wet tyres, but the rain let up, and he entered the pit lane after two laps for the slick tyres. He pushed too hard on the slippery surface and beached his car in the gravel trap. Glock took the victory in the sprint race and earned one additional point for the fastest lap to clinch the title while di Grassi struggled throughout to finish outside of the top ten.
Di Grassi had no intentions of remaining in GP2 for 2008 as due to his relationship with Renault he was developing the series's new Dallara GP2/08 chassis in addition to his Formula One test and reserve driver duties. However, he resumed his GP2 career that year by securing a drive at Campos Racing from round four onwards, replacing the 2007 Formula Renault 3.5 Series runner-up Ben Hanley. With three-second places and one fourth-place finish, di Grassi was the highest-scoring driver over the first two race meetings in which he took part. Two wins followed and he briefly looked set for a surprising championship challenge, before a final lap collision with Giorgio Pantano (who was disqualified for the incident) at Spa-Francorchamps effectively ended di Grassi's hopes. He finished an eventual third, ten points behind Pantano despite six fewer races.
Di Grassi sought to race in Formula One in 2009 with Renault and speculation arose in the motor sport press over him replacing fellow countryman Nelson Piquet Jr. after the latter's poor performance compared to his teammate Fernando Alonso. Renault looked at running either di Grassi or fellow test driver Romain Grosjean for the season, but eventually chose to keep Piquet and Alonso. He along with the 2008 GP2 Series runner-up Bruno Senna were strongly considered by Ross Brawn to drive for Honda. The pair tested the Honda RA108 at the Circuit de Catalunya in mid-November which had di Grassi lap within half a second of Senna's pace. After Honda withdrew from Formula One due to the global financial crisis, Brawn elected for experience over youth by retaining Rubens Barrichello.
With no other options available, di Grassi chose to remain in GP2 for another season and signed to drive for Racing Engineering, partnering Dani Clos. He was released from his Renault testing duties after the world governing body of motorsport, the Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile (FIA), prohibited Formula One teams from undertaking in-season testing. However, di Grassi was retained as Renault's reserve driver and was prepared as a potential replacement from Grosjean in the Singapore Grand Prix after Grosjean became ill with food poisoning. He opened the season with two four-place finishes at the duo of Monaco races before clinching his sole victory of the campaign in the Istanbul sprint race from reverse grid pole position. Over the coming rounds, it was noticeable that di Grassi would not be able to clinch the title but came second in the Silverstone feature race. He followed this up with six further podiums throughout the remainder of the season. As in the previous year, di Grassi was third in the drivers' standings.
Formula One (2010)
Di Grassi was announced as one of two drivers of the brand new Virgin Racing team on 15 December 2009 and would be partnered by his former GP2 Series rival Timo Glock in a deal predicted by BBC Radio Sheffield. An important factor in his decision was the chance to work with John Booth, the Virgin team principal. It was reported by The Daily Telegraph that di Grassi had also provided Virgin with £5 million worth of sponsorship. Writing in The Guardians 2010 Formula One supplement, Alan Henry and Rob Bagchi predicted that Glock would outperform di Grassi throughout the season. He retired from the opening two rounds of the season (Bahrain and Australia) due to hydraulic problems. However his fortunes improved at Sepang where he took his first (and best finish) of the season with a 14th in spite of having to do the second half of the race in fuel conservation mode due to pick-up and fuel capacity problems.
Di Grassi struggled at the Chinese Grand Prix which had him start from the pit lane. He circulated behind HRT driver Karun Chandhok until he retired with clutch failure after completing nine laps. Further issues arose in Spain as di Grassi battled with car setup and was the last driver to finish the race, and retired early in Monaco due to his right-rear wheel becoming loose at his pit stop. At the Turkish Grand Prix, problems striking multiple Cosworth-engine cars elevated di Grassi to 19th although he had to manage his engine to finish it. Hydraulics issues further afflicted him in Canada but still managed to finish the race and only needed one pit stop to reach the conclusion of the European Grand Prix two weeks later before a further hydraulics issue ended his participation in the British Grand Prix after nine laps.
A further retirement followed at the Hockenheimring from a damaged rear suspension from hitting a kerb too hard, and had further difficulty at the Hungaroring when he was put a lap down due to a loose wheel but still managed to finish. In variable weather conditions at the Belgian Grand Prix, he battled Lotus's Heikki Kovalainen in the closing ten laps which ended in the latter's favour by two seconds before another suspension issue ended his Italian Grand Prix with three laps left. Di Grassi had impressed the Virgin Racing engineers with his feedback but Booth had not been satisfied with his pace against Glock and scouted an alternative driver that ended with Booth coming into contact with the Belgian racer Jérôme d'Ambrosio. Di Grassi was the last classified driver in the Singapore Grand Prix, and did not start the Japanese Grand Prix as he crashed on the way to the grid.
At the inaugural Korean Grand Prix, di Grassi lost control of his car while trying to overtake Hispania driver Sakon Yamamoto and crashed into the barriers on the 26th lap. He struggled with further problems with his suspension at his home race in Brazil, and despite his team's mechanics rectifying the issue at his mid-race pit stop, he was not classified in the final results. At the season-ending Abu Dhabi Grand Prix, di Grassi chose to make a pit stop for new tyres during a safety car period and managed them until the end of the race. He ended the season 24th in the Drivers' Championship and scored no points. On 19 December, di Grassi won the Desafio Internacional das Estrelas, a karting event organised by Felipe Massa. Two days later, he was left without a drive, after Virgin announced d'Ambrosio to partner Glock in 2011.
Pirelli test driver and sports car racing (2011–present)
2011–2014
In 2011, di Grassi re-organised his management and sought a Pirelli tyre testing role. This was attained on 6 July and he developed Pirelli's Formula One tyres for the 2011 season, and drove the company's Toyota TF109 test car in five test sessions in order to develop the next generation of tyres, as well as attending several race weekends where he collected information about tyre performance and attended technical briefings. In late 2011, he was among two drivers vying for a seat with Peugeot and tested for the team at the Circuit Paul Ricard and the Ciudad del Motor de Aragón in October. Di Grassi was close to signing a contract with Peugeot but the manufacturer withdrew from sports car racing in January 2012 because of financial difficulties. He remained with Pirelli for the 2012 season alongside the former Toro Rosso driver Jaime Alguersuari to help develop tyres for the 2013 season and beyond using a Renault R30 chassis. The chassis was upgraded to the 2012 requirements for Alguersuari and di Grassi to run the car across four development tests during the course of the season at the Circuito de Jerez, Circuit de Spa-Francorchamps, Autodromo Nazionale Monza and the Circuit de Catalunya to help Pirelli improve its selection of tyres.
Di Grassi made his endurance racing debut at the 2012 24 Hours of Nürburgring, driving the No. 69 Dörr Motorsport McLaren MP4-12C GT3, and was joined by Rudi Adams, Chris Goodwin and Jochen Übler. The quartet retired after eleven laps from multiple problems. He made his first appearance in the World Endurance Championship (WEC) at the 6 Hours of São Paulo, competing for Audi Sport Team Joest in place of Rinaldo Capello who retired after the 24 Hours of Le Mans. Di Grassi drove the No. 2 Audi R18 e-tron quattro alongside Tom Kristensen and Allan McNish, finishing third overall. Afterwards, he entered the International V8 Supercars Championship for the Armor All Gold Coast 600 round, partnering Michael Patrizi at Tekno Autosports in a Holden VE Commodore, finishing eleventh in the first race, but missed the second after Patrizi heavily damaged the car in qualifying. In November, di Grassi returned to Macau to compete in the GT Cup, driving the AF Corse Ferrari 458 GT3, taking second after battling Edoardo Mortara for the win.
Based on his performance in São Paulo, Audi offered di Grassi a contract in late 2012 which he accepted. He replaced Marco Bonanomi whom Audi released. Audi announced in January 2013 that di Grassi was selected to race for the team in the opening round of the 2013 American Le Mans Series, the 12 Hours of Sebring. He again teamed up with Kristensen and McNish, finishing second overall after exchanging the lead several times with the sister Audi. Shortly after the 6 Hours of Silverstone, Audi announced that di Grassi would be racing an experimental car at the 6 Hours of Spa-Francorchamps and the 24 Hours of Le Mans alongside Oliver Jarvis and Marc Gené. The trio took third place in an Audi clean sweep of the podium. At Le Mans, despite a puncture in the race's opening hours, he, Jarvis and Gené took a second consecutive third-place finish as Kristensen, McNish and Loïc Duval's No. 2 Audi secured the overall victory. Di Grassi, Jarvis and Gené finished ninth in the World Endurance Drivers' Championship. In late August, di Grassi drove the Audi RS5 DTM at a test session, held at the Red Bull Ring.
To start 2014, he raced the No. 21 RCM Motorsport Chevrolet Sonic alongside Thiago Camilo for the opening round of the Stock Car Brasil season at the Autódromo José Carlos Pace; the duo retired on the first lap due to a clutch failure. Di Grassi was retained by Audi for 2014 and was promoted to a full-time racing seat. He was selected to replace the retired McNish in the No. 1 Audi and shared it with Kristensen and Duval. Di Grassi started the season by retiring due to chassis damage arising from a crash at the 6 Hours of Silverstone, but recovered to finish second overall at Spa-Francorchamps. Although the No. 1 Audi's fuel injectors and turbocharger were replaced, di Grassi, Kristensen and Duval took second at Le Mans three laps adrift of André Lotterer, Benoît Tréluyer and Marcel Fässler's winning car. After another second position at the Circuit of the Americas, he clinched a hat-trick of fifth-places before ending with a podium at the season-closing 6 Hours of São Paulo. The trio's results ranked them ninth in the drivers' standings with 117 points.
2015–present
As in the previous year, di Grassi took part in the season-opening round of the Stock Car Brasil in the No. 21 RCM Motorsport Chevrolet Sonic that he shared with Thiago Camilo but this time at the Autódromo Internacional Ayrton Senna and the two finished fifth. He remained with Audi for the upcoming season and was paired with Oliver Jarvis and Loïc Duval in the No. 8 car. He began the year with a fifth-place at Silverstone followed by a seventh at Spa-Francorchamps. Le Mans was different for the trio as Duval crashed heavily in the third hour and this ended their chances of winning the race but were able to settle for fourth overall. The trio took fourth at the inaugural 6 Hours of Nürburgring, and followed this up by securing their first (and only) podium of the season at the 6 Hours of Circuit of the Americas in third position despite serving a one-minute stop-and-go penalty for a pit lane infringement. After that, he took two back-to-back fourth-place finishes in Fuji and Shanghai and rounded out the season with a fifth at Bahrain. Di Grassi's results for the season placed him fourth in the Drivers' Championship and accumulated 99 points.
For the third consecutive year, he shared the No. 21 RCM Motorsport Chevrolet Sonic with Thiago Camilo in the season-opening Stock Car Brasil round which in 2016 was held at the Autódromo Internacional de Curitiba; the duo came fourteenth. Di Grassi's WEC campaign started badly when his car's hybrid system failed at the season-opening 6 Hours of Silverstone, but recovered to take advantage of problems striking the LMP1 field to secure his first outright victory in the series at Spa-Francorchamps. Variable weather conditions were dealt with at Le Mans but the trio spent thirty-nine minutes in the pit lane to replace brakes and settled for third overall after the No. 5 Toyota TS050 Hybrid was not classified for failing to complete the final lap. On Audi's orders, di Grassi took part in the Norisring round of the Audi Sport TT Cup as a guest driver, finishing second in the first race and won the second.
The trio matched Porsche for pace at the 6 Hours of Nürburgring and ended the duel in second, but a wheel bearing failure in Mexico City put the car out of contention. At the 6 Hours of Circuit of the Americas two weeks later the trio led before electrical failure cost them fifty seconds but the switch to di Grassi had him push hard for second overall. Another strong performance came at Fuji where the car led for the majority of the race until the No. 6 Toyota of Kamui Kobayashi took over first place and held onto it despite the trio's advances. Di Grassi took the lead at Shanghai but a refuelling rig issue lost him time, meaning he could only manage fifth. He, Jarvis and Duval dominated the 6 Hours of Bahrain to win Audi's final World Endurance Championship race, and their efforts throughout the season earned them second in the drivers' standings with 147.5 points.
Di Grassi was offered a contract to race for Toyota at the 2017 6 Hours of Spa-Francorchamps and the 24 Hours of Le Mans but he was not granted clearance by Audi to race in LMP1. He was later slated to co-drive the No. 51 AF Corse Ferrari 488 GTE at Le Mans but was ruled out due to an ankle injury he sustained in a football match. In October 2017, di Grassi was announced as one of sixteen drivers selected to participate in the Audi Sport TT Cup series-ending Race of Legends at the Hockenheimring. He finished in second after battling with Frank Stippler for the victory in the race's final laps. The following month, di Grassi returned to Macau for the first time in five years to compete in the FIA GT World Cup in an Audi R8 LMS fielded by HCB-Rutronik Racing. He was involved in a multi-car pile up in the first lap of the qualifying race, but was cleared by doctors for the following day's main race. Di Grassi retired following an accident on the sixth lap. He joined Mazda Team Joest in its No. 77 Mazda DPi for the 2018 WeatherTech SportsCar Championship season-ending Petit Le Mans alongside Oliver Jarvis and Tristan Nunez in October 2018.
Formula E (2012–present)
Formula E promoter Alejandro Agag sought di Grassi's technological expertise as a driver to develop the series' electric race car. He was initially dubious as he was not convinced that electric car racing would be exciting but reconsidered after hearing its socially-oriented goal to develop attractive environmentally friendly vehicles. A year later, di Grassi was announced as the official test driver for Formula E. He first tested the prototype Formula E car, called Formulec, at Circuit de L'Eure near Paris in August 2012, and was heavily involved in the development of the vehicle. Di Grassi later terminated his contract as test driver to race in the series. On 13 February 2014, di Grassi was announced to be competing in the inaugural Formula E season with Audi Sport ABT alongside his campaign in the World Endurance Championship. His teammate was the former GP2 driver Daniel Abt.
ABT Sportsline (2014–2021)
2014–15 season
In September 2014, di Grassi won the first race of the season in Beijing, the first driver to win an all-electric motor race. He recorded two more consecutive podiums in Putrajaya with a second-place finish, and in Punta del Este with third place to give him the lead in the championship. However, di Grassi had bad luck with a suspension failure in Buenos Aires, causing him to retire from the lead, and technical issues caused him to finish ninth in Miami, to lose the championship lead. He bounced back by finishing in third position at Long Beach, and second place in Monaco to give himself a four-point lead with four rounds to go. Di Grassi's championship took a blow when he was disqualified from victory due to illegal modifications to his front wing endplates in Berlin; with second place in Moscow to Nelson Piquet Jr., di Grassi entered the season-ending double-header in London seventeen points in arrears. He finished fourth and sixth in the two races in London, one place ahead of Piquet each time. As a result, the driver finished eleven points behind Piquet and lost second to Sébastien Buemi, who won the first race. Di Grassi, however, managed the most podium finishes of any driver with six.
2015–16 season
For the second consecutive season, he achieved three podium finishes in the opening three races. Di Grassi started the season with second place in Beijing and then followed this up with victory in Putrajaya and took the championship lead. He followed up his win with second place in Punta del Este behind Buemi, and third place in Buenos Aires also behind Buemi, meaning he was four points behind after four races.
Di Grassi's title hopes took a brief blow after being disqualified from the win at the Mexico City after his car was found to be below the minimum weight limit. He bounced back with a victory at Long Beach, while points leader Buemi had a mistake-filled race, where he collided into the back of Robin Frijns, had to switch cars early and ultimately finished sixteenth and took two points for fastest lap. Now with a one-point advantage in the championship, he then followed this up with another victory in Paris whereas Buemi finished in third to give him an eleven-point lead heading into Berlin. The scenario was reversed in Berlin, as Buemi took victory and di Grassi finishing third after teammate Abt refused team orders to let him through in the final laps.
Di Grassi extended his championship lead to three after the first London ePrix race, finishing fourth to Buemi's fifth, but Buemi stated his rival was "willing to crash" after their battle during the race. Buemi eradicated that advantage with pole position for the season's final race, while di Grassi qualified third behind Buemi's team-mate Nico Prost. On the opening lap, di Grassi and Prost went side by side through the opening bends and under braking for turn three, di Grassi made slight contact with Prost and ran into the back of Buemi. Both cars sustained damage in the collision; Buemi's rear wing was dislodged, while di Grassi's front wing was removed as well as damage to the front-right suspension. With the drivers down the order, and two points available for the race's fastest lap, di Grassi and Buemi used their second cars to commence a battle to set the fastest lap time while not getting held up by other drivers. Di Grassi initially set the best time, before Buemi improved upon that, and ultimately took the championship title by five tenths on track, and two points in the championship.
2016–17 season
During the off season, di Grassi became the first person to drive an electric car on the Arctic polar ice cap in an area of Northern Greenland and produced a video clip that promotes awareness of global warming. He opened the first three races of the 2016-17 season with a second place at the inaugural Hong Kong ePrix and followed this up with a fifth position in Marrakesh and clinched another podium in the Buenos Aires round with a third-place finish. After being involved in a first lap accident which necessitated a change of rear wing at the Mexico City race, di Grassi then made the switch into his second car which meant he would have to conserve electrical energy towards the race's end. However, circumstances including a safety car meant he held onto the lead to clinch his first victory of the season and was now five points in arrears of Buemi. A month later in Monaco, he launched an attack on Buemi for the win in the closing stages of the ePrix but was unable to get ahead and took second place.
Di Grassi, however, struggled in the Paris ePrix as he made contact with the Andretti car of António Félix da Costa and later crashed out. His performance at the first double header of the season at Berlin reduced Buemi's championship lead from a season-high forty-three points to thirty-two. Di Grassi then accumulated a further twenty-two points at the July New York City ePrix to be ten points behind Buemi (who missed the race due to a World Endurance Championship commitment at the Nürburgring) heading into the season-closing double header in Montreal two weeks later. He clinched the pole position for the first ePrix which he won and came seventh in the second. In addition, di Grassi took advantage of Buemi performing poorly in both races to win his first Drivers' Championship. He was named CEO of Roborace on 13 September having served as an adviser since 2016. Di Grassi was one of six drivers shortlisted for the 2017 Autosport International Racing Driver Award. On 6 December, di Grassi was voted the Brazilian Driver of the Year by readers of Grande Prêmio.
2017–18 season
Di Grassi continued with Audi Sport ABT for the 2017–18 Formula E season. He had a poor start to his campaign, scoring no points in the first four races due to multiple problems relating to his car's powertrain, but took his first top-ten finish of the season at the Mexico City round, coming ninth. Thereafter, he took seven consecutive podium finishes which included successive victories in the Zürich ePrix and the first New York City race. Di Grassi finished second in the Drivers' Championship with 144 points and his and teammate Abt's form throughout the season helped Audi win their first Teams' Championship from Techeetah. After the season, he said to Autosport that he believed his standard of driving had improved from the previous season and called his comeback " a miracle", "The difficult part was not to get that mental spiral that you doubt yourself or anything during these first four or five races. I think I drove better this year than I drove last year because I didn't do any mistakes".
2018–19 season
Di Grassi won the 2019 Mexico City ePrix by overtaking Pascal Wehrlein a few meters before the chequered flag. He also won in Berlin later that year and would end the season 3rd overall in the standings with 108 points.
2019–20 season
Di Grassi scored his first podium of the 2019-20 season in Diriyah. The Brazilian finished 6th in the championship table with 77 points, despite this year being di Grassi's first Formula E season in which he did not manage to win a single race.
2020–21 season
Di Grassi won the first Puebla ePrix after Pascal Wehrlein was disqualified for failing to declare his tyres. Di Grassi was leading the first race in rome before his car failed with 5 minutes left. He also failed the finished the second race the next day. Di Grassi won the first Puebla ePrix after Pascal Wehrlein was disqualified for failing to declare his tyres. In the second race in London, Di Grassi was 8th when the safety car was deployed, and felt the safety car was too slow. Di Grassi went through the pitlane and emerged in first, however had not come to a complete stop in his pit, and was given a drive-through penalty. Audi did not tell him, and as a result was disqualified for not serving the penalty. Di Grassi finished the season in 7th, tied on 87 points but behind Sam Bird.
He ran two double rounds of Deutsche Tourenwagen Masters, with 12th as his best finish.
ROKIT Venturi Racing (2022)
2021–22 season
Di Grassi moved to Venturi Racing for season 8 after Audi quit the championship. He started the season strong with a 5th and 3rd place however then scored 0 for the next 2 races and failed to finish in the first race in Berlin, which left him with 37 points from 7 races. In New York Di Grassi took a 2nd place and then was outside of the points in 11th when he had contact with 1 minute left on the clock, resulting in a DNF. Di Grassi lined up 2nd in race 2 in London and took the win. a 3rd place in Seoul race 1 meant Di Grassi now had 1009 points in Formula E. He ended the season in 5th with 126 points.
Mahindra Racing (2023)
2022–23 season
Di Grassi moved to Mahindra Racing for the 2022–23 season, replacing the outgoing Alexander Sims. At the season opening Mexico City ePrix, he qualified on pole and finished third, which he described as "like a Mexican miracle". After scoring 18 points at the first ePrix, he only scored 14 more in the rest of the year. Di Grassi left the team following the conclusion of the season.
ABT Cupra (2024)
Di Grassi reunited with ABT CUPRA for the 2023–24 season, partnering Nico Müller.
Driver profile and views
Di Grassi is regarded by some as one of the world's most "technically gifted" racing drivers due to his development of the Dallara GP2/08 Formulec and Spark-Renault SRT 01E chassis. He is known as a controlled individual who has a shrewd understanding on dealing with the press. William Briety of The Checkered Flag wrote that di Grassi is "unquestionably a new breed of racing driver" as he is supposedly more at ease over the future of motor racing than his contemporaries, and believes that automated racing has the potential to relieve Formula One from any obligation it has to have any sort of relevance to the road cars of today and thus make the driver the focus of attention. The Independent journalist Samuel Lovett described di Grassi as "a vibrant, forceful personality" who brings "colour and intrigue to a world dominated by Kubrick-esque machines, big data and space-age technology."
He has criticised the introduction of the Halo cockpit protection device in Formula One and track limits. Di Grassi favours altering track layouts after noticing how this has led to a lack of overtaking opportunities in some categories of motor racing. Discussing these issues have led to several racing pundits to suggest that di Grassi should consider becoming more actively involved in the future of motor racing's and has spoken of his desire to run for the presidency of the FIA in the future.
Racing record
Career summary
† As di Grassi was a guest driver, he was ineligible for championship points.
Complete Formula 3 Euro Series results
(key) (Races in bold indicate pole position; races in italics indicate fastest lap)
Complete GP2 Series results
(key) (Races in bold indicate pole position; races in italics indicate fastest lap)
Complete Formula One results
(key)
Driver did not finish the Grand Prix, but was classified as they had completed over 90% of the race distance.
Touring car racing
Complete V8 Supercar results
† Not Eligible for points
Complete Stock Car Brasil results
(key) (Races in bold indicate pole position) (Races in italics indicate fastest lap)
† Ineligible for championship points.
Complete Deutsche Tourenwagen Masters results
(key) (Races in bold indicate pole position) (Races in italics indicate fastest lap)
† As di Grassi was a guest driver, he was ineligible to score points.
Complete FIA World Endurance Championship results
24 Hours of Le Mans results
Complete Formula E results
(key) (Races in bold''' indicate pole position; races in italics'' indicate fastest lap)
† Driver did not finish the race, but was classified as he completed over 90% of the race distance.
References
External links
1984 births
Living people
Racing drivers from São Paulo
Brazilian people of Italian descent
Karting World Championship drivers
Brazilian Formula Renault 2.0 drivers
Formula 3 Sudamericana drivers
British Formula Three Championship drivers
Formula 3 Euro Series drivers
Brazilian GP2 Series drivers
Brazilian Formula One drivers
Virgin Racing Formula One drivers
Supercars Championship drivers
Mensans
American Le Mans Series drivers
FIA World Endurance Championship drivers
24 Hours of Le Mans drivers
Stock Car Brasil drivers
Brazilian Formula E drivers
Audi Sport TT Cup drivers
Formula E Champions
Prema Powerteam drivers
Hitech Grand Prix drivers
Manor Motorsport drivers
Durango drivers
ART Grand Prix drivers
Campos Racing drivers
Racing Engineering drivers
Audi Sport drivers
Team Joest drivers
Abt Sportsline drivers
Venturi Grand Prix drivers
Mahindra Racing drivers
Brazilian Deutsche Tourenwagen Masters drivers
Brazilian expatriate sportspeople in Monaco
Brazilian racing drivers
Cupra Racing drivers |
4095664 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20birds%20of%20Arizona | List of birds of Arizona | This list of birds of Arizona includes every wild bird species seen in Arizona, as recorded by the Arizona Bird Committee (ABC) through January 2023. An additional accidental species has been added from another source.
This list is presented in the taxonomic sequence of the Check-list of North and Middle American Birds, 7th edition through the 63rd Supplement, published by the American Ornithological Society (AOS). Common and scientific names are also those of the Check-list, except that the common names of families are from the Clements taxonomy because the AOS list does not include them.
The following tags have been used to identify categories of occurrence:
(n) – Nesting: Per the ABC, this denotes "[a] species that has hatched young at least once, however, this does not include hybrid offspring"
(Int) – Introduced: Birds that have been introduced to North America by the actions of humans, either directly or indirectly
(Ex) – Extirpated: Birds that have formerly bred in Arizona but no longer do; reintroduction attempts may have been made but the species remains unestablished
(A) – Accidental: Birds that have been seen only a few times, or only once; the ABC requires a formal report for sightings of them to be included in the official record
(H) – Hypothetical: Birds that have had a credible sighting reported, but have not been documented with physical evidence such as a specimen or photograph
The ABC list contains 570 species, including one "slash" entry for a record which could not be identified at the species level. Of them, 153 taxa are considered accidental, eight as introduced by humans, four as extirpated, and two as hypothetical. Nesting has been recorded for 309 taxa. The list also includes eight forms or groups of subspecies which have been recorded in the state, all requiring committee review. This list has been prepared with the Arizona Bird Committee (Jan. 2023).
Ducks, geese, and waterfowl
Order: AnseriformesFamily: Anatidae
The family Anatidae includes the ducks and most duck-like waterfowl, such as geese and swans. These birds are adapted to an aquatic existence with webbed feet, bills which are flattened to a greater or lesser extent, and feathers that are excellent at shedding water due to special oils.
Black-bellied whistling-duck, Dendrocygna autumnalis (n)
Fulvous whistling-duck, Dendrocygna bicolor (A)
Snow goose, Anser caerulescens
Ross's goose, Anser rossii
Greater white-fronted goose, Anser albifrons
Brant, Branta bernicla (A)
Cackling goose, Branta hutchinsii
Canada goose, Branta canadensis (n)
Trumpeter swan, Cygnus buccinator (A)
Tundra swan, Cygnus columbianus
Wood duck, Aix sponsa (n)
Baikal teal, Sibirionetta formosa (A)
Garganey, Spatula querquedula (A)
Blue-winged teal, Spatula discors (n)
Cinnamon teal, Spatula cyanoptera (n)
Northern shoveler, Spatula clypeata (n)
Gadwall, Mareca strepera (n)
Eurasian wigeon, Mareca penelope
American wigeon, Mareca americana (n)
Mallard, Anas platyrhynchos (n)
Mexican duck, Anas diazi (n)
Northern pintail, Anas acuta (n)
Green-winged teal, Anas crecca (n)
Eurasian (crecca) form (A)
Canvasback, Aythya valisineria (n)
Redhead, Aythya americana (n)
Ring-necked duck, Aythya collaris (n)
Tufted duck, Aythya fuligula (A)
Greater scaup, Aythya marila
Lesser scaup, Aythya affinis
Harlequin duck, Histrionicus histrionicus (A)
Surf scoter, Melanitta perspicillata
White-winged scoter, Melanitta deglandi
Black scoter, Melanitta americana
Long-tailed duck, Clangula hyemalis
Bufflehead, Bucephala albeola
Common goldeneye, Bucephala clangula
Barrow's goldeneye, Bucephala islandica
Hooded merganser, Lophodytes cucullatus
Common merganser, Mergus merganser (n)
Red-breasted merganser, Mergus serrator
Ruddy duck, Oxyura jamaicensis (n)
New World quail
Order: GalliformesFamily: Odontophoridae
The New World quails are small, plump terrestrial birds only distantly related to the quails of the Old World, but named for their similar appearance and habits.
Masked bobwhite, Colinus virginianus ridgwayi (n) (Ex)
Scaled quail, Callipepla squamata (n)
California quail, Callipepla californica (n) (Int)
Gambel's quail, Callipepla gambelii (n)
Montezuma quail, Cyrtonyx montezumae (n)
Pheasants, grouse, and allies
Order: GalliformesFamily: Phasianidae
Phasianidae consists of the pheasants and their allies. These are terrestrial species, variable in size but generally plump with broad relatively short wings. Many species are gamebirds or have been domesticated as a food source for humans.
Wild turkey, Meleagris gallopavo (n)
Dusky grouse, Dendragapus obscurus (n)
Ring-necked pheasant, Phasianus colchicus (n) (Int)
Chukar, Alectoris chukar (n) (Int)
Grebes
Order: PodicipediformesFamily: Podicipedidae
Grebes are small to medium-large freshwater diving birds. They have lobed toes and are excellent swimmers and divers. However, they have their feet placed far back on the body, making them quite ungainly on land.
Least grebe, Tachybaptus dominicus (n)
Pied-billed grebe, Podilymbus podiceps (n)
Horned grebe, Podiceps auritus
Red-necked grebe, Podiceps grisegena
Eared grebe, Podiceps nigricollis (n)
Western grebe, Aechmophorus occidentalis (n)
Clark's grebe, Aechmophorus clarkii (n)
Pigeons and doves
Order: ColumbiformesFamily: Columbidae
Pigeons and doves are stout-bodied birds with short necks and short slender bills with a fleshy cere.
Rock pigeon, Columba livia (n) (Int)
Band-tailed pigeon, Patagioenas fasciata (n)
Eurasian collared-dove, Streptopelia decaocto (n) (Int)
Inca dove, Columbina inca (n)
Common ground dove, Columbina passerina (n)
Ruddy ground dove, Columbina talpacoti (n)
White-tipped dove, Leptotila verreauxi (A)
White-winged dove, Zenaida asiatica (n)
Mourning dove, Zenaida macroura (n)
Cuckoos
Order: CuculiformesFamily: Cuculidae
The family Cuculidae includes cuckoos, roadrunners, and anis. These birds are of variable size with slender bodies, long tails, and strong legs.
Groove-billed ani, Crotophaga sulcirostris
Greater roadrunner, Geococcyx californianus (n)
Yellow-billed cuckoo, Coccyzus americanus (n)
Black-billed cuckoo, Coccyzus erythrophthalmus (A)
Nightjars and allies
Order: CaprimulgiformesFamily: Caprimulgidae
Nightjars are medium-sized nocturnal birds that usually nest on the ground. They have long wings, short legs, and very short bills. Most have small feet, of little use for walking, and long pointed wings. Their soft plumage is cryptically colored to resemble bark or leaves.
Lesser nighthawk, Chordeiles acutipennis (n)
Common nighthawk, Chordeiles minor (n)
Common poorwill, Phalaenoptilus nuttallii (n)
Buff-collared nightjar, Antrostomus ridgwayi (n)
Eastern whip-poor-will, Antrostomus vociferus (A)
Mexican whip-poor-will, Antrostomus arizonae (n)
Swifts
Order: ApodiformesFamily: Apodidae
The swifts are small birds which spend the majority of their lives flying. These birds have very short legs and never settle voluntarily on the ground, perching instead only on vertical surfaces. Many swifts have long swept-back wings which resemble a crescent or boomerang.
Black swift, Cypseloides niger (A)
Chimney swift, Chaetura pelagica (A)
Vaux's swift, Chaetura vauxi
White-throated swift, Aeronautes saxatalis (n)
Hummingbirds
Order: ApodiformesFamily: Trochilidae
Hummingbirds are small birds capable of hovering in mid-air due to the rapid flapping of their wings. They are the only birds that can fly backwards.
Rivoli's hummingbird, Eugenes fulgens (n)
Plain-capped starthroat, Heliomaster constantii
Blue-throated mountain-gem, Lampornis clemenciae (n)
Lucifer hummingbird, Calothorax lucifer (n)
Ruby-throated hummingbird, Archilochus colubris (A)
Black-chinned hummingbird, Archilochus alexandri (n)
Anna's hummingbird, Calypte anna (n)
Costa's hummingbird, Calypte costae (n)
Calliope hummingbird, Selasphorus calliope
Rufous hummingbird, Selasphorus rufus
Allen's hummingbird, Selasphorus sasin
Broad-tailed hummingbird, Selasphorus platycercus (n)
Bumblebee hummingbird, Atthis heloisa (A)
Broad-billed hummingbird, Cynanthus latirostris (n)
White-eared hummingbird, Basilinna leucotis (n)
Violet-crowned hummingbird, Leucolia violiceps (n)
Berylline hummingbird, Saucerottia beryllina (n)
Cinnamon hummingbird, Amazilia rutila (A)
Rails, gallinules, and coots
Order: GruiformesFamily: Rallidae
Rallidae is a large family of small to medium-sized birds which includes the rails, crakes, coots, and gallinules. The most typical family members occupy dense vegetation in damp environments near lakes, swamps, or rivers. In general they are shy and secretive birds, making them difficult to observe. Most species have strong legs and long toes which are well adapted to soft uneven surfaces. They tend to have short, rounded wings and to be weak fliers.
Ridgway's rail, Rallus obsoletus (n)
Virginia rail, Rallus limicola (n)
Sora, Porzana carolina (n)
Common gallinule, Gallinula galeata (n)
American coot, Fulica americana (n)
Purple gallinule, Porphyrio martinicus (A)
Black rail, Laterallus jamaicensis (n)
Cranes
Order: GruiformesFamily: Gruidae
Cranes are large, long-legged, and long-necked birds. Unlike the similar-looking but unrelated herons, cranes fly with necks outstretched, not pulled back. Most have elaborate and noisy courting displays or "dances".
Sandhill crane, Antigone canadensis (n)
Common crane, Grus grus (A)
Stilts and avocets
Order: CharadriiformesFamily: Recurvirostridae
Recurvirostridae is a family of large wading birds which includes the avocets and stilts. The avocets have long legs and long up-curved bills. The stilts have extremely long legs and long, thin, straight bills.
Black-necked stilt, Himantopus mexicanus (n)
American avocet, Recurvirostra americana (n)
Plovers and lapwings
Order: CharadriiformesFamily: Charadriidae
The family Charadriidae includes the plovers, dotterels, and lapwings. They are small to medium-sized birds with compact bodies, short thick necks, and long, usually pointed, wings. They are found in open country worldwide, mostly in habitats near water.
Black-bellied plover, Pluvialis squatarola
American golden-plover, Pluvialis dominica
Pacific golden-plover, Pluvialis fulva (A)
Killdeer, Charadrius vociferus (n)
Semipalmated plover, Charadrius semipalmatus
Lesser sand-plover, Charadrius mongolus (A)
Mountain plover, Charadrius montanus (n)
Snowy plover, Charadrius nivosus (n)
Jacanas
Order: CharadriiformesFamily: Jacanidae
The jacanas are a family of waders found worldwide within the tropical zone. They are identifiable by their huge feet and claws which enable them to walk on floating vegetation in the shallow lakes that are their preferred habitat.
Northern jacana, Jacana spinosa (A)
Sandpipers and allies
Order: CharadriiformesFamily: Scolopacidae
Scolopacidae is a large diverse family of small to medium-sized shorebirds including the sandpipers, curlews, godwits, shanks, tattlers, woodcocks, snipes, dowitchers, and phalaropes. The majority of these species eat small invertebrates picked out of the mud or soil. Different lengths of legs and bills enable multiple species to feed in the same habitat, particularly on the coast, without direct competition for food.
Upland sandpiper, Bartramia longicauda (A)
Whimbrel, Numenius phaeopus
Long-billed curlew, Numenius americanus (n)
Hudsonian godwit, Limosa haemastica (A)
Marbled godwit, Limosa fedoa
Ruddy turnstone, Arenaria interpres (A)
Black turnstone, Arenaria melanocephala (A)
Red knot, Calidris canutus (A)
Ruff, Calidris pugnax (A)
Sharp-tailed sandpiper, Calidris acuminata (A)
Stilt sandpiper, Calidris himantopus
Sanderling, Calidris alba
Dunlin, Calidris alpina
Baird's sandpiper, Calidris bairdii
Least sandpiper, Calidris minutilla
White-rumped sandpiper, Calidris fuscicollis (A)
Buff-breasted sandpiper, Calidris subruficollis (A)
Pectoral sandpiper, Calidris melanotos
Semipalmated sandpiper, Calidris pusilla
Western sandpiper, Calidris mauri
Short-billed dowitcher, Limnodromus griseus
Long-billed dowitcher, Limnodromus scolopaceus
American woodcock, Scolopax minor (A)
Wilson's snipe, Gallinago delicata (n)
Spotted sandpiper, Actitis macularia (n)
Solitary sandpiper, Tringa solitaria
Wandering tattler, Tringa incana (A)
Lesser yellowlegs, Tringa melanoleuca
Willet, Tringa semipalmata
Greater yellowlegs, Tringa flavipes
Wilson's phalarope, Phalaropus tricolor (n)
Red-necked phalarope, Phalaropus lobatus
Red phalarope, Phalaropus fulicaria
Skuas and jaegers
Order: CharadriiformesFamily: Stercorariidae
Skuas and jaegers are in general medium to large birds, typically with gray or brown plumage, often with white markings on the wings. They have longish bills with hooked tips and webbed feet with sharp claws. They look like large dark gulls, but have a fleshy cere above the upper mandible. They are strong, acrobatic fliers.
Pomarine jaeger, Stercorarius pomarinus (A)
Parasitic jaeger, Stercorarius parasiticus (A)
Long-tailed jaeger, Stercorarius longicaudus (A)
Gulls, terns, and skimmers
Order: CharadriiformesFamily: Laridae
Laridae is a family of medium to large seabirds and includes gulls, terns, and skimmers. Gulls are typically gray or white, often with black markings on the head or wings. They have stout, longish bills and webbed feet. Terns are a group of generally medium to large seabirds typically with grey or white plumage, often with black markings on the head. Most terns hunt fish by diving but some pick insects off the surface of fresh water. Terns are generally long-lived birds, with several species known to live in excess of 30 years. Skimmers are a small family of tropical tern-like birds. They have an elongated lower mandible which they use to feed by flying low over the water surface and skimming the water for small fish.
Black-legged kittiwake, Rissa tridactyla (A)
Ivory gull, Pagophila eburnea (A)
Sabine's gull, Xema sabini
Bonaparte's gull, Chroicocephalus philadelphia
Little gull, Hydrocoloeus minutus (A)
Laughing gull, Leucophaeus atricilla
Franklin's gull, Leucophaeus pipixcan
Heermann's gull, Larus heermanni
Short-billed gull, Larus brachyrhynchus
Ring-billed gull, Larus delawarensis
Western gull, Larus occidentalis (A)
Yellow-footed gull, Larus livens (A)
California gull, Larus californicus
Herring gull, Larus argentatus
Iceland gull, Larus glaucoides (A)
Lesser black-backed gull, Larus fuscus (A)
Glaucous-winged gull, Larus glaucescens (A)
Glaucous gull, Larus hyperboreus (A)
Least tern, Sternula antillarum (n)
Gull-billed tern, Gelochelidon nilotica (A)
Caspian tern, Hydroprogne caspia
Black tern, Chlidonias niger
Common tern, Sterna hirundo
Arctic tern, Sterna paradisaea (A)
Forster's tern, Sterna forsteri
Royal tern, Thalasseus maximus (A)
Elegant tern, Thalasseus elegans (A)
Black skimmer, Rynchops niger (A)
Tropicbirds
Order: PhaethontiformesFamily: Phaethontidae
Tropicbirds are slender white birds of tropical oceans with exceptionally long central tail feathers. Their long wings have black markings, as does the head.
White-tailed tropicbird, Phaethon lepturus (A)
Red-billed tropicbird, Phaethon rubicauda (A)
Loons
Order: GaviiformesFamily: Gaviidae
Loons are aquatic birds, the size of a large duck, to which they are unrelated. Their plumage is largely gray or black, and they have spear-shaped bills. Loons swim well and fly adequately, but are almost hopeless on land, because their legs are placed towards the rear of the body.
Red-throated loon, Gavia stellata
Pacific loon, Gavia pacifica
Common loon, Gavia immer
Yellow-billed loon, Gavia adamsii (A)
Albatrosses
Order: ProcellariiformesFamily: Diomedeidae
The albatrosses are among the largest of flying birds, and the great albatrosses of the genus Diomedea have the largest wingspans of any extant birds.
Laysan albatross, Phoebastria immutabilis (A)
Northern storm-petrels
Order: ProcellariiformesFamily: Hydrobatidae
The storm-petrels are the smallest seabirds, relatives of the petrels, feeding on planktonic crustaceans and small fish picked from the surface, typically while hovering. The flight is fluttering and sometimes bat-like.
Leach's storm-petrel/Townsend's storm-petrel/Ainley's storm-petrel, Hydrobates leucorhous/socorroensis/cheimomnestes (A) (H)
Wedge-rumped storm-petrel, Hydrobates tethys (A)
Black storm-petrel, Hydrobates melania (A)
Least storm-petrel, Hydrobates microsoma (A)
Shearwaters and petrels
Order: ProcellariiformesFamily: Procellariidae
The procellariids are the main group of medium-sized "true petrels", characterized by united nostrils with medium septum and a long outer functional primary.
Juan Fernandez petrel, Pterodroma externa (A)
Hawaiian petrel, Pterodroma sandwichensis (A)
Wedge-tailed shearwater, Ardenna pacificus (A)
Sooty shearwater, Ardenna griseus (A)
Black-vented shearwater, Puffinus opisthomelas (A) (H)
Storks
Order: CiconiiformesFamily: Ciconiidae
Storks are large, heavy, long-legged, long-necked wading birds with long stout bills and wide wingspans. They lack the powder down that other wading birds such as herons, spoonbills, and ibises use to clean off fish slime. Storks lack a pharynx and are mute.
Wood stork, Mycteria americana (A)
Frigatebirds
Order: SuliformesFamily: Fregatidae
Frigatebirds are large seabirds usually found over tropical oceans. They are large, black, or black-and-white, with long wings and deeply forked tails. The males have colored inflatable throat pouches. They do not swim or walk and cannot take off from a flat surface. Having the largest wingspan-to-body-weight ratio of any bird, they are essentially aerial, able to stay aloft for more than a week.
Magnificent frigatebird, Fregata magnificens (A)
Boobies and gannets
Order: SuliformesFamily: Sulidae
The sulids comprise the gannets and boobies. Both groups are medium-large coastal seabirds that plunge-dive for fish.
Blue-footed booby, Sula nebouxii (A)
Brown booby, Sula leucogaster (A)
Anhingas
Order: SuliformesFamily: Anhingidae
Anhingas are cormorant-like water birds with very long necks and long straight bills. They are fish eaters which often swim with only their neck above the water.
Anhinga, Anhinga anhinga (A)
Cormorants and shags
Order: SuliformesFamily: Phalacrocoracidae
Cormorants are medium-to-large aquatic birds, usually with mainly dark plumage and areas of colored skin on the face. The bill is long, thin, and sharply hooked. Their feet are four-toed and webbed.
Double-crested cormorant, Nannopterum auritum (n)
Neotropic cormorant, Nannopterum brasilianum (n)
Pelicans
Order: PelecaniformesFamily: Pelecanidae
Pelicans are very large water birds with a distinctive pouch under their bill. Like other birds in the order Pelecaniformes, they have four webbed toes.
American white pelican, Pelecanus erythrorhynchos
Brown pelican, Pelecanus occidentalis
Herons, egrets, and bitterns
Order: PelecaniformesFamily: Ardeidae
The family Ardeidae contains the herons, egrets, and bitterns. Herons and egrets are medium to large wading birds with long necks and legs. Bitterns tend to be shorter necked and more secretive. Members of Ardeidae fly with their necks retracted, unlike other long-necked birds such as storks, ibises, and spoonbills.
American bittern, Botaurus lentiginosa (n)
Least bittern, Ixobrychus exilis (n)
Great blue heron, Ardea herodias (n)
Great egret, Ardea alba (n)
Snowy egret, Egretta thula (n)
Little blue heron, Egretta caerulea
Tricolored heron, Egretta tricolor
Reddish egret, Egretta rufescens
Cattle egret, Bubulcus ibis (n)
Green heron, Butorides virescens (n)
Black-crowned night-heron, Nycticorax nycticorax (n)
Yellow-crowned night-heron, Nycticorax violaceus (A)
Ibises and spoonbills
Order: PelecaniformesFamily: Threskiornithidae
The family Threskiornithidae includes the ibises and spoonbills. They have long, broad wings. Their bodies tend to be elongated, the neck more so, with rather long legs. The bill is also long, decurved in the case of the ibises, straight and distinctively flattened in the spoonbills.
White ibis, Eudocimus albus (A)
Glossy ibis, Plegadis falcinellus (A)
White-faced ibis, Plegadis chihi (n)
Roseate spoonbill, Platalea ajaja
New World vultures
Order: CathartiformesFamily: Cathartidae
The New World vultures are not closely related to Old World vultures, but superficially resemble them because of convergent evolution. Like the Old World vultures, they are scavengers. However, unlike Old World vultures, which find carcasses by sight, New World vultures have a good sense of smell with which they locate carcasses.
California condor, Gymnogyps californianus (n) (Ex) (reintroduced 1996 after a century of extirpation, first successful nesting attempt 2003)
Black vulture, Coragyps atratus (n)
Turkey vulture, Cathartes aura (n)
Osprey
Order: AccipitriformesFamily: Pandionidae
Pandionidae is a monotypic family of fish-eating birds of prey. Its single species possesses a very large and powerful hooked bill strong legs, strong talons, and keen eyesight.
Osprey, Pandion haliaetus (n)
Hawks, eagles, and kites
Order: AccipitriformesFamily: Accipitridae
Accipitridae is a family of birds of prey which includes hawks, eagles, kites, harriers, and Old World vultures. These birds have very large powerful hooked bills for tearing flesh from their prey, strong legs, powerful talons, and keen eyesight.
White-tailed kite, Elanus leucurus (n)
Swallow-tailed kite, Elanoides forficatus (A)
Golden eagle, Aquila chrysaetos (n)
Northern harrier, Circus hudsonius (n)
Sharp-shinned hawk, Accipiter striatus (n)
Cooper's hawk, Accipiter cooperii (n)
American goshawk, Accipiter atricapillus (n)
Bald eagle, Haliaeetus leucocephalus (n)
Mississippi kite, Ictinia mississippiensis (n)
Common black hawk, Buteogallus anthracinus (n)
Harris's hawk, Parabuteo unicinctus (n)
White-tailed hawk, Geranoaetus albicaudatus (A)
Gray hawk, Buteo plagiatus (n)
Red-shouldered hawk, Buteo lineatus (n)
Broad-winged hawk, Buteo platypterus
Short-tailed hawk, Buteo brachyurus (n)
Swainson's hawk, Buteo swainsoni (n)
Zone-tailed hawk, Buteo albonotatus (n)
Red-tailed hawk, Buteo jamaicensis (n)
Rough-legged hawk, Buteo lagopus
Ferruginous hawk, Buteo regalis (n)
Barn-owls
Order: StrigiformesFamily: Tytonidae
Owls in the family Tytonidae are medium to large owls with large heads and characteristic heart-shaped faces.
Barn owl, Tyto alba (n)
Owls
Order: StrigiformesFamily: Strigidae
Typical or "true" owls are small to large solitary nocturnal birds of prey. They have large forward-facing eyes and ears, a hawk-like beak, and a conspicuous circle of feathers around each eye called a facial disk.
Flammulated owl, Psiloscops flammeolus (n)
Whiskered screech-owl, Megacsops trichopsis (n)
Western screech-owl, Megascops kennicottii (n)
Great horned owl, Bubo virginianus (n)
Northern pygmy-owl, Glaucidium gnoma (n)
Ferruginous pygmy-owl, Glaucidium brasilianum (n)
Elf owl, Micrathene whitneyi (n)
Burrowing owl, Athene cunicularia (n)
Spotted owl, Strix occidentalis (n)
Long-eared owl, Asio otus (n)
Short-eared owl, Asio flammeus
Northern saw-whet owl, Aegolius acadicus (n)
Trogons
Order: TrogoniformesFamily: Trogonidae
Trogons are residents of tropical forests worldwide with the greatest diversity in Central and South America. They feed on insects and fruit, and their broad bills and weak legs reflect their diet and arboreal habits. Although their flight is fast, they are reluctant to fly any distance. Trogons do not migrate. Trogons have soft, often colorful, feathers with distinctive male and female plumage. They nest in holes in trees or termite nests, laying white or pastel-colored eggs.
Elegant trogon, Trogon elegans (n)
Eared quetzal, Euptilotis neoxenus (n) (A)
Kingfishers
Order: CoraciiformesFamily: Alcedinidae
Kingfishers are medium-sized birds with large heads, long, pointed bills, short legs, and stubby tails.
Ringed Kingfisher, Megaceryle torquata (A)
Belted kingfisher, Megaceryle alcyon (n)
Green kingfisher, Chloroceryle americana (n)
Woodpeckers
Order: PiciformesFamily: Picidae
Woodpeckers are small to medium-sized birds with chisel-like bills, short legs, stiff tails, and long tongues used for capturing insects. Some species have feet with two toes pointing forward and two backward, while several species have only three toes. Many woodpeckers have the habit of tapping noisily on tree trunks with their bills.
Lewis's woodpecker, Melanerpes lewis (n)
Red-headed woodpecker, Melanerpes erythrocephalus (A)
Acorn woodpecker, Melanerpes formicivorus (n)
Gila woodpecker, Melanerpes uropygialis (n)
Williamson's sapsucker, Sphyrapicus thyroideus (n)
Yellow-bellied sapsucker, Sphyrapicus varius
Red-naped sapsucker, Sphyrapicus nuchalis (n)
Red-breasted sapsucker, Sphyrapicus ruber
American three-toed woodpecker, Picoides dorsalis (n)
Downy woodpecker, Dryobates pubescens (n)
Ladder-backed woodpecker, Dryobates scalaris (n)
Hairy woodpecker, Dryobates villosus (n)
Arizona woodpecker, Dryobates arizonae (n)
Northern flicker, Colaptes auratus (n)
Gilded flicker, Colaptes chrysoides (n)
Falcons and caracaras
Order: FalconiformesFamily: Falconidae
Falconidae is a family of diurnal birds of prey, notably the falcons and caracaras. They differ from hawks, eagles, and kites in that they kill with their bills instead of their talons.
Crested caracara, Caracara plancus (n)
American kestrel, Falco sparverius (n)
Merlin, Falco columbarius
Aplomado falcon, Falco femoralis (n) (A) (Ex)
Peregrine falcon, Falco peregrinus (n)
Prairie falcon, Falco mexicanus (n)
New World and African parrots
Order: PsittaciformesFamily: Psittacidae
Characteristic features of parrots include a strong curved bill, an upright stance, strong legs, and clawed zygodactyl feet. Many parrots are vividly colored, and some are multi-colored. In size they range from to in length. Most of the more than 150 species in this family are found in the New World.
Thick-billed parrot, Rhynchopsitta pachyrhyncha (n) (A) (Ex) (attempts at reintroduction in the 1980s failed)
Old World parrots
Order: PsittaciformesFamily: Psittaculidae
Characteristic features of parrots include a strong curved bill, an upright stance, strong legs, and clawed zygodactyl feet. Many parrots are vividly colored, and some are multi-colored. In size they range from to in length. Old World parrots are found from Africa east across south and southeast Asia and Oceania to Australia and New Zealand.
Rosy-faced lovebird, Agapornis roseicollis (n) (Int)
Tityras and allies
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Tityridae
Tityridae is family of suboscine passerine birds found in forest and woodland in the Neotropics. The approximately 30 species in this family were formerly lumped with the families Pipridae and Cotingidae (see Taxonomy). As yet, no widely accepted common name exists for the family, although Tityras and allies and Tityras, mourners, and allies have been used. They are small to medium-sized birds.
Gray-collared becard, Pachyramphus major (A)
Rose-throated becard, Pachyramphus aglaiae (n)
Tyrant flycatchers
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Tyrannidae
Tyrant flycatchers are Passerine birds which occur throughout North and South America. They superficially resemble the Old World flycatchers, but are more robust and have stronger bills. They do not have the sophisticated vocal capabilities of the songbirds. Most, but not all, are rather plain. As the name implies, most are insectivorous.
Northern beardless-tyrannulet, Camptostoma imberbe (n)
Dusky-capped flycatcher, Myiarchus tuberculifer (n)
Ash-throated flycatcher, Myiarchus cinerascens (n)
Nutting's flycatcher, Myiarchus nuttingi (n) (A)
Great crested flycatcher, Myiarchus crinitus (A)
Brown-crested flycatcher, Myiarchus tyrannulus (n)
Great kiskadee, Pitangus sulphuratus (A)
Sulphur-bellied flycatcher, Myiodynastes luteiventris (n)
Tropical kingbird, Tyrannus melancholicus (n)
Couch's kingbird, Tyrannus couchii (A)
Cassin's kingbird, Tyrannus vociferans (n)
Thick-billed kingbird, Tyrannus crassirostris (n)
Western kingbird, Tyrannus verticalis (n)
Eastern kingbird, Tyrannus tyrannus
Scissor-tailed flycatcher, Tyrannus forficatus
Tufted flycatcher, Mitrephanes phaeocercus (n) (A)
Olive-sided flycatcher, Contopus cooperi (n)
Greater pewee, Contopus pertinax (n)
Western wood-pewee, Contopus sordidulus (n)
Eastern wood-pewee, Contopus virens (A)
Yellow-bellied flycatcher, Empidonax flaviventris (A)
Acadian flycatcher, Empidonax virescens (A)
Willow flycatcher, Empidonax traillii (n)
Least flycatcher, Empidonax minimus (A)
Hammond's flycatcher, Empidonax hammondii (n)
Gray flycatcher, Empidonax wrightii (n)
Dusky flycatcher, Empidonax oberholseri (n)
Pine flycatcher, Empidonax affinis (A)
Western flycatcher, Empidonax difficilis
Buff-breasted flycatcher, Empidonax fulvifrons (n)
Black phoebe, Sayornis nigricans (n)
Eastern phoebe, Sayornis phoebe
Say's phoebe, Sayornis saya (n)
Vermilion flycatcher, Pyrocephalus rubinus (n)
Vireos, shrike-babblers, and erpornis
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Vireonidae
The vireos are a group of small to medium-sized passerine birds mostly restricted to the New World, though a few other species in the family are found in Asia. They are typically greenish in color and resemble wood-warblers apart from their heavier bills.
Black-capped vireo, Vireo atricapilla (A)
White-eyed vireo, Vireo griseus
Bell's vireo, Vireo bellii (n)
Eastern (bellii) form (A)
Gray vireo, Vireo vicinior (n)
Hutton's vireo, Vireo huttoni (n)
Yellow-throated vireo, Vireo flavifrons
Cassin's vireo, Vireo cassinii
Blue-headed vireo, Vireo solitarius (A)
Plumbeous vireo, Vireo plumbeus (n)
Philadelphia vireo, Vireo philadelphicus (A)
Warbling vireo, Vireo gilvus (n)
Red-eyed vireo, Vireo olivaceus
Yellow-green vireo, Vireo flavoviridis (A)
Shrikes
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Laniidae
Shrikes are passerine birds known for their habit of catching other birds and small animals and impaling the uneaten portions of their bodies on thorns. A shrike's bill is hooked, like that of a typical bird of prey.
Loggerhead shrike, Lanius ludovicianus (n)
Northern shrike, Lanius borealis
Crows, jays, and magpies
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Corvidae
The family Corvidae includes crows, ravens, jays, choughs, magpies, treepies, nutcrackers, and ground jays. Corvids are above average in size among the Passeriformes, and some of the larger species show high levels of intelligence.
Canada jay, Perisoreus canadensis (n)
Pinyon jay, Gymnorhinus cyanocephalus (n)
Steller's jay, Cyanocitta stelleri (n)
Blue jay, Cyanocitta cristata (A)
California scrub-jay, Aphelocoma californica (A)
Woodhouse's scrub-jay, Aphelocoma woodhouseii (n)
Mexican jay, Aphelocoma ultramarina (n)
Clark's nutcracker, Nucifraga columbiana (n)
Black-billed magpie, Pica hudsonia (n)
American crow, Corvus brachyrhynchos (n)
Chihuahuan raven, Corvus cryptoleucos (n)
Common raven, Corvus corax (n)
Penduline-tits
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Remizidae
The only member of this family in the New World, the verdin is one of the smallest passerines in North America. It is gray overall and adults have a bright yellow head and rufous "shoulder patch" (the lesser coverts). Verdins are insectivorous, continuously foraging among the desert trees and scrubs. They are usually solitary except when they pair up to construct their conspicuous nests.
Verdin, Auriparus flaviceps (n)
Tits, chickadees, and titmice
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Paridae
The Paridae are mainly small stocky woodland species with short stout bills. Some have crests. They are adaptable birds, with a mixed diet including seeds and insects.
Black-capped chickadee, Poecile atricapillus (n) (A)
Mountain chickadee, Poecile gambeli (n)
Mexican chickadee, Poecile sclateri (n)
Bridled titmouse, Baeolophus wollweberi (n)
Juniper titmouse, Baeolophus ridgwayi (n)
Larks
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Alaudidae
Larks are small terrestrial birds with often extravagant songs and display flights. Most larks are fairly dull in appearance. Their food is insects and seeds.
Horned lark, Eremophila alpestris (n)
Swallows
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Hirundinidae
The family Hirundinidae is adapted to aerial feeding. They have a slender streamlined body, long pointed wings, and a short bill with a wide gape. The feet are adapted to perching rather than walking, and the front toes are partially joined at the base.
Bank swallow, Riparia riparia
Tree swallow, Tachycineta bicolor (n)
Violet-green swallow, Tachycineta thalassina (n)
Northern rough-winged swallow, Stelgidopteryx serripennis (n)
Brown-chested martin, Progne tapera (A)
Purple martin, Progne subis (n)
Barn swallow, Hirundo rustica (n)
Cliff swallow, Petrochelidon pyrrhonota (n)
Cave swallow, Petrochelidon fulva (n) (A)
Long-tailed tits
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Aegithalidae
The long-tailed tits are a family of small passerine birds with medium to long tails. They make woven bag nests in trees. Most eat a mixed diet which includes insects.
Bushtit, Psaltriparus minimus (n)
Kinglets
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Regulidae
The kinglets and "crests" are a small family of birds which resemble some warblers. They are very small insectivorous birds. The adults have colored crowns, giving rise to their name.
Ruby-crowned kinglet, Corthylio calendula (n)
Golden-crowned kinglet, Regulus satrapa (n)
Waxwings
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Bombycillidae
The waxwings are a group of passerine birds with soft silky plumage and unique red tips to some of the wing feathers. In the Bohemian and cedar waxwings, these tips look like sealing wax and give the group its name. These are arboreal birds of northern forests. They live on insects in summer and berries in winter.
Bohemian waxwing, Bombycilla garrulus (A)
Cedar waxwing, Bombycilla cedrorum
Silky-flycatchers
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Ptiliogonatidae
The silky-flycatchers are a small family of passerine birds which occur mainly in Central America. They are related to waxwings and most species have small crests.
Phainopepla, Phainopepla nitens (n)
Nuthatches
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Sittidae
Nuthatches are small woodland birds. They have the unusual ability to climb down trees head first, unlike other birds which can only go upwards. Nuthatches have big heads, short tails, and powerful bills and feet.
Red-breasted nuthatch, Sitta canadensis (n)
White-breasted nuthatch, Sitta carolinensis (n)
Pygmy nuthatch, Sitta pygmaea (n)
Treecreepers
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Certhiidae
Treecreepers are small woodland birds, brown above and white below. They have thin pointed down-curved bills, which they use to extricate insects from bark. They have stiff tail feathers, like woodpeckers, which they use to support themselves on vertical trees
Brown creeper, Certhia americana (n)
Gnatcatchers
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Polioptilidae
These dainty birds resemble Old World warblers in their structure and habits, moving restlessly through the foliage seeking insects. The gnatcatchers are mainly soft bluish gray in color and have the typical insectivore's long sharp bill. Many species have distinctive black head patterns (especially males) and long, regularly cocked, black-and-white tails.
Blue-gray gnatcatcher, Polioptila caerulea (n)
Black-tailed gnatcatcher, Polioptila melanura (n)
Black-capped gnatcatcher, Polioptila nigriceps (n)
Wrens
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Troglodytidae
Wrens are small and inconspicuous birds, except for their loud songs. They have short wings and thin down-turned bills. Several species often hold their tails upright. All are insectivorous.
Rock wren, Salpinctes obsoletus (n)
Canyon wren, Catherpes mexicanus (n)
House wren, Troglodytes aedon (n)
Pacific wren, Troglodytes pacificus (n)
Winter wren, Troglodytes hiemalis
Sedge wren, Cistothorus platensis (A)
Marsh wren, Cistothorus palustris (n)
Carolina wren, Thryothorus ludovicianus (A)
Bewick's wren, Thryomanes bewickii (n)
Cactus wren, Campylorhynchus brunneicapillus (n)
Sinaloa wren, Thryophilus sinaloa (A)
Mockingbirds and thrashers
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Mimidae
The mimids are a family of passerine birds which includes thrashers, mockingbirds, tremblers, and the New World catbirds. These birds are notable for their vocalization, especially their remarkable ability to mimic a wide variety of birds and other sounds heard outdoors. The species tend towards dull grays and browns in their appearance.
Blue mockingbird, Melanotis caerulescens (A)
Gray catbird, Dumetella carolinensis (n)
Curve-billed thrasher, Toxostoma curvirostre (n)
Brown thrasher, Toxostoma rufum
Bendire's thrasher, Toxostoma bendirei (n)
LeConte's thrasher, Toxostoma lecontei (n)
Crissal thrasher, Toxostoma crissale (n)
Sage thrasher, Oreoscoptes montanus (n)
Northern mockingbird, Mimus polyglottos (n)
Starlings
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Sturnidae Starlings and mynas are small to medium-sized Old World passerine birds with strong feet. Their flight is strong and direct and most are very gregarious. Their preferred habitat is fairly open country, and they eat insects and fruit. The plumage of several species is dark with a metallic sheen.
European starling, Sturnus vulgaris (n) (Int)
Dippers
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Cinclidae
Dippers are a group of perching birds whose habitat includes aquatic environments in the Americas, Europe, and Asia. They are named for their bobbing or dipping movements. These birds have adaptations which allows them to submerge and walk on the bottom to feed on insect larvae.
American dipper, Cinclus mexicanus (n)
Thrushes and allies
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Turdidae
The thrushes are a group of passerine birds that occur mainly but not exclusively in the Old World. They are plump, soft plumaged, small to medium-sized insectivores or sometimes omnivores, often feeding on the ground. Many have attractive songs.
Eastern bluebird, Sialia sialis (n)
Western bluebird, Sialia mexicana (n)
Mountain bluebird, Sialia currucoides (n)
Townsend's solitaire, Myadestes townsendi (n)
Brown-backed solitaire, Myadestes occidentalis (A)
Orange-billed nightingale-thrush, Catharus aurantiirostris (A) (record is under committee review)
Veery, Catharus fuscescens (n) (A)
Gray-cheeked thrush, Catharus minimus (A)
Swainson's thrush, Catharus ustulatus (n)
Hermit thrush, Catharus guttatus (n)
Wood thrush, Hylocichla mustelina (A)
Clay-colored thrush, Turdus grayi (A)
White-throated thrush, Turdus assimilis (A)
Rufous-backed robin, Turdus rufopalliatus (n)
American robin, Turdus migratorius (n)
Varied thrush, Ixoreus naevius
Aztec thrush, Ridgwayia pinicola (A)
Old World flycatchers
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Muscicapidae
The Old World flycatchers form a large family of small passerine birds. These are mainly small arboreal insectivores, many of which, as the name implies, take their prey on the wing.
Northern wheatear, Oenanthe oenanthe (A)
Olive warbler
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Peucedramidae
The olive warbler has a gray body with some olive-green on the wings and two white wing bars. The male's head and breast are orange and there is a black patch through the eye. This is the only species in its family.
Olive warbler, Peucedramus taeniatus (n)
Old World sparrows
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Passeridae
Old World sparrows are small passerine birds. In general, sparrows tend to be small plump brownish or grayish birds with short tails and short powerful bills. Sparrows are seed eaters, but they also consume small insects.
House sparrow, Passer domesticus (n) (Int)
Wagtails and pipits
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Motacillidae
Motacillidae is a family of small passerine birds with medium to long tails. They include the wagtails, longclaws, and pipits. They are slender ground-feeding insectivores of open country.
White wagtail, Motacilla alba (A)
Red-throated pipit, Anthus cervinus (A)
American pipit, Anthus rubescens (n)
Sprague's pipit, Anthus spragueii
Finches, euphonias, and allies
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Fringillidae
Finches are seed-eating passerine birds that are small to moderately large and have a strong bill, usually conical and in some species very large. All have twelve tail feathers and nine primaries. These birds have a bouncing flight with alternating bouts of flapping and gliding on closed wings, and most sing well.
Evening grosbeak, Coccothraustes vespertinus (n)
Pine grosbeak, Pinicola enucleator (n)
Gray-crowned rosy-finch, Leucosticte tephrocotis (A)
Black rosy-finch, Leucosticte atrata (A)
House finch, Haemorhous mexicanus (n)
Purple finch, Haemorhous purpureus
Eastern (purpureus) group (A)
Cassin's finch, Haemorhous cassinii (n)
Common redpoll, Acanthis flammea (A)
Red crossbill, Loxia curvirostra (n)
White-winged crossbill, Loxia leucoptera (A)
Pine siskin, Spinus pinus (n)
Lesser goldfinch, Spinus psaltria (n)
Lawrence's goldfinch, Spinus lawrencei (n)
American goldfinch, Spinus tristis (n)
Longspurs and snow buntings
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Calcariidae
The Calcariidae are a group of passerine birds that had been traditionally grouped with the New World sparrows, but differ in a number of respects and are usually found in open grassy areas.
Lapland longspur, Calcarius lapponicus
Chestnut-collared longspur, Calcarius ornatus
Smith's longspur, Calcarius pictus (A)
Thick-billed longspur, Rhynchophanes mccownii
Snow bunting, Plectophenax nivalis (A)
Old World buntings
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Emberizidae
Emberizidae is a family of passerine birds containing a single genus. Until 2017, the New World sparrows (Passerellidae) were also considered part of this family.
Little bunting, Emberiza pusilla (A)
New World sparrows
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Passerellidae
Until 2017, these species were considered part of the family Emberizidae. Most of the species are known as sparrows, but these birds are not closely related to the Old World sparrows which are in the family Passeridae. Many of these have distinctive head patterns.
Rufous-winged sparrow, Peucaea carpalis (n)
Botteri's sparrow, Peucaea botterii (n)
Cassin's sparrow, Peucaea cassinii (n)
Grasshopper sparrow, Ammodramus savannarum (n)
Five-striped sparrow, Amphispizopsis quinquestriata (n)
Black-throated sparrow, Amphispiza bilineata (n)
Lark sparrow, Chondestes grammacus (n)
Lark bunting, Calamospiza melanocorys (n)
Chipping sparrow, Spizella passerina (n)
Clay-colored sparrow, Spizella pallida
Black-chinned sparrow, Spizella atrogularis (n)
Field sparrow, Spizella pusilla (A)
Brewer's sparrow, Spizella breweri (n)
Fox sparrow, Passerella iliaca
Thick-billed (megarhyncha) group (A)
American tree sparrow, Spizelloides arborea (A)
Dark-eyed junco, Junco hyemalis (n)
White-winged (aikeni) form (A)
Yellow-eyed junco, Junco phaeonotus (n)
White-crowned sparrow, Zonotrichia leucophrys (n)
Golden-crowned sparrow, Zonotrichia atricapilla
Harris's sparrow, Zonotrichia querula
White-throated sparrow, Zonotrichia albicollis
Sagebrush sparrow, Artemisiospiza nevadensis (n)
Bell's sparrow, Artemisiospiza belli
Vesper sparrow, Pooecetes gramineus (n)
LeConte's sparrow, Ammospiza leconteii (A)
Nelson's sparrow, Ammospiza nelsonii (A)
Baird's sparrow, Centronyx bairdii
Savannah sparrow, Passerculus sandwichensis (n)
Large-billed (rostratus) form (A)
Song sparrow, Melospiza melodia (n)
Lincoln's sparrow, Melospiza lincolnii (n)
Swamp sparrow, Melospiza georgiana
Canyon towhee, Melozone fuscus (n)
Abert's towhee, Melozone aberti (n)
Rufous-crowned sparrow, Aimophila ruficeps (n)
Green-tailed towhee, Pipilo chlorurus (n)
Spotted towhee, Pipilo maculatus (n)
Eastern towhee, Pipilo erythrophthalmus (A)
Yellow-breasted chat
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Icteriidae
This species was historically placed in the wood-warblers (Parulidae) but nonetheless most authorities were unsure if it belonged there. It was placed in its own family in 2017.
Yellow-breasted chat, Icteria virens (n)
Troupials and allies
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Icteridae
The icterids are a group of small to medium-sized, often colorful passerine birds restricted to the New World and include the grackles, New World blackbirds, and New World orioles. Most species have black as a predominant plumage color which is often enlivened by yellow, orange, or red.
Yellow-headed blackbird, Xanthocephalus xanthocephalus (n)
Bobolink, Dolichonyx oryzivorus (n) (A)
Chihuahuan meadowlark, Sturnella lilianae (n)
Western meadowlark, Sturnella neglecta (n)
Black-vented oriole, Icterus wagleri (A)
Orchard oriole, Icterus spurius
Hooded oriole, Icterus cucullatus (n)
Eastern (cucullatus) group (A)
Streak-backed oriole, Icterus pustulatus (n)
Bullock's oriole, Icterus bullockii (n)
Baltimore oriole, Icterus galbula
Scott's oriole, Icterus parisorum (n)
Red-winged blackbird, Agelaius phoeniceus (n)
Bronzed cowbird, Molothrus aeneus (n)
Brown-headed cowbird, Molothrus ater (n)
Rusty blackbird, Euphagus carolinus
Brewer's blackbird, Euphagus cyanocephalus (n)
Common grackle, Quiscalus quiscula
Great-tailed grackle, Quiscalus mexicanus (n)
New World warblers
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Parulidae
The wood-warblers are a group of small often colorful passerine birds restricted to the New World. Most are arboreal, but some are more terrestrial. Most members of this family are insectivores.
Ovenbird, Seiurus aurocapilla
Worm-eating warbler, Helmitheros vermivorum
Louisiana waterthrush, Parkesia motacilla
Northern waterthrush, Parkesia noveboracensis
Golden-winged warbler, Vermivora chrysoptera (A)
Blue-winged warbler, Vermivora cyanoptera (A)
Black-and-white warbler, Mniotilta varia (n)
Prothonotary warbler, Protonotaria citrea
Swainson's warbler, Limnothlypis swainsonii (A)
Crescent-chested warbler, Oreothlypis superciliosa (n) (A)
Tennessee warbler, Leiothlypis peregrina
Orange-crowned warbler, Leiothlypis celata (n)
Lucy's warbler, Leiothlypis luciae (n)
Nashville warbler, Leiothlypis ruficapilla
Virginia's warbler, Leiothlypis virginiae (n)
Connecticut warbler, Oporornis agilis (A)
MacGillivray's warbler, Geothlypis tolmiei (n)
Mourning warbler, Geothlypis philadelphia (A)
Kentucky warbler, Geothlypis formosa
Common yellowthroat, Geothlypis trichas (n)
Hooded warbler, Setophaga citrina
American redstart, Setophaga ruticilla (n)
Cape May warbler, Setophaga tigrina (A)
Cerulean warbler, Setophaga cerulea (A)
Northern parula, Setophaga americana (n)
Tropical parula, Setophaga pitiayumi (A)
Magnolia warbler, Setophaga magnolia
Bay-breasted warbler, Setophaga castanea (A)
Blackburnian warbler, Setophaga fusca
Yellow warbler, Setophaga petechia (n)
Mangrove (erithachorides) form (A)
Chestnut-sided warbler, Setophaga pensylvanica
Blackpoll warbler, Setophaga striata
Black-throated blue warbler, Setophaga caerulescens
Palm warbler, Setophaga palmarum
Pine warbler, Setophaga pinus (A)
Yellow-rumped warbler, Setophaga coronata (n)
Yellow-throated warbler, Setophaga dominica
Prairie warbler, Setophaga discolor (A)
Grace's warbler, Setophaga graciae (n)
Black-throated gray warbler, Setophaga nigrescens (n)
Townsend's warbler, Setophaga townsendi
Hermit warbler, Setophaga occidentalis
Black-throated green warbler, Setophaga virens
Fan-tailed warbler, Basileuterus lachrymosus (A)
Rufous-capped warbler, Basileuterus rufifrons (n)
Canada warbler, Cardellina canadensis (A)
Wilson's warbler, Cardellina pusilla
Red-faced warbler, Cardellina rubrifrons (n)
Painted redstart, Myioborus pictus (n)
Slate-throated redstart, Myioborus miniatus (A)
Cardinals and allies
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Cardinalidae
The cardinals are a family of robust seed-eating birds with strong bills. They are typically associated with open woodland. The sexes usually have distinct plumages.
Hepatic tanager, Piranga hepatica (n)
Summer tanager, Piranga rubra (n)
Scarlet tanager, Piranga olivacea
Western tanager, Piranga ludoviciana (n)
Flame-colored tanager, Piranga bidentata (n) (A)
Northern cardinal, Cardinalis cardinalis (n)
Pyrrhuloxia, Cardinalis sinuatus (n)
Yellow grosbeak, Pheucticus chrysopeplus (A)
Rose-breasted grosbeak, Pheucticus ludovicianus
Black-headed grosbeak, Pheucticus melanocephalus (n)
Blue grosbeak, Passerina (Guiraca) caerulea (n)
Lazuli bunting, Passerina amoena (n)
Indigo bunting, Passerina cyanea (n)
Varied bunting, Passerina versicolor (n)
Painted bunting, Passerina ciris
Dickcissel, Spiza americana
Tanagers and allies
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Thraupidae
The tanagers are a large group of small to medium-sized passerine birds restricted to the New World, mainly in the tropics. Many species are brightly colored. As a family they are omnivorous, but individual species specialize in eating fruits, seeds, insects, or other types of food. Most have short, rounded wings.
Blue-black grassquit, Volatinia jacarina (A)
See also
List of birds of Grand Canyon National Park
References
External links
Arizona Bird Committee home page
Arizona Field Ornithologists home page
Birds
Arizona |
4095924 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Value%20%28ethics%20and%20social%20sciences%29 | Value (ethics and social sciences) | In ethics and social sciences, value denotes the degree of importance of some thing or action, with the aim of determining which actions are best to do or what way is best to live (normative ethics in ethics), or to describe the significance of different actions. Value systems are prospective and prescriptive beliefs; they affect the ethical behavior of a person or are the basis of their intentional activities. Often primary values are strong and secondary values are suitable for changes. What makes an action valuable may in turn depend on the ethical values of the objects it increases, decreases, or alters. An object with "ethic value" may be termed an "ethic or philosophic good" (noun sense).
Values can be defined as broad preferences concerning appropriate courses of actions or outcomes. As such, values reflect a person's sense of right and wrong or what "ought" to be. "Equal rights for all", "Excellence deserves admiration", and "People should be treated with respect and dignity" are representatives of values. Values tend to influence attitudes and behavior and these types include ethical/moral values, doctrinal/ideological (religious, political) values, social values, and aesthetic values. It is debated whether some values that are not clearly physiologically determined, such as altruism, are intrinsic, and whether some, such as acquisitiveness, should be classified as vices or virtues.
Fields of study
Ethical issues that value may be regarded as a study under ethics, which, in turn, may be grouped as philosophy. Similarly, ethical value may be regarded as a subgroup of a broader field of philosophic value sometimes referred to as axiology. Ethical value denotes something's degree of importance, with the aim of determining what action or life is best to do, or at least attempt to describe the value of different actions.
The study of ethical value is also included in value theory. In addition, values have been studied in various disciplines: anthropology, behavioral economics, business ethics, corporate governance, moral philosophy, political sciences, social psychology, sociology and theology.
Similar concepts
Ethical value is sometimes used synonymously with goodness. However, goodness has many other meanings and may be regarded as more ambiguous.
Types of value
Personal versus cultural
Personal values exist in relation to cultural values, either in agreement with or divergence from prevailing norms. A culture is a social system that shares a set of common values, in which such values permit social expectations and collective understandings of the good, beautiful and constructive. Without normative personal values, there would be no cultural reference against which to measure the virtue of individual values and so cultural identity would disintegrate.
Relative or absolute
Relative values differ between people, and on a larger scale, between people of different cultures. On the other hand, there are theories of the existence of absolute values, which can also be termed noumenal values (and not to be confused with mathematical absolute value). An absolute value can be described as philosophically absolute and independent of individual and cultural views, as well as independent of whether it is known or apprehended or not. Ludwig Wittgenstein was pessimistic towards the idea that an elucidation would ever happen regarding the absolute values of actions or objects; "we can speak as much as we want about "life" and "its meaning," and believe that what we say is important. But these are no more than expressions and can never be facts, resulting from a tendency of the mind and not the heart or the will".
Intrinsic or extrinsic
Philosophic value may be split into instrumental value and intrinsic values. An instrumental value is worth having as a means towards getting something else that is good (e.g., a radio is instrumentally good in order to hear music). An intrinsically valuable thing is worth for itself, not as a means to something else. It is giving value intrinsic and extrinsic properties.
An ethic good with instrumental value may be termed an ethic mean, and an ethic good with intrinsic value may be termed an end-in-itself. An object may be both a mean and end-in-itself.
Summation
Intrinsic and instrumental goods are not mutually exclusive categories. Some objects are both good in themselves, and also good for getting other objects that are good. "Understanding science" may be such a good, being both worthwhile in and of itself, and as a means of achieving other goods. In these cases, the sum of instrumental (specifically the all instrumental value) and intrinsic value of an object may be used when putting that object in value systems, which is a set of consistent values and measures.
Universal values
S. H. Schwartz, along with a number of psychology colleagues, has carried out empirical research investigating whether there are universal values, and what those values are. Schwartz defined 'values' as "conceptions of the desirable that influence the way people select action and evaluate events". He hypothesised that universal values would relate to three different types of human need: biological needs, social co-ordination needs, and needs related to the welfare and survival of groups
Intensity
The intensity of philosophic value is the degree it is generated or carried out, and may be regarded as the prevalence of the good, the object having the value.
It should not be confused with the amount of value per object, although the latter may vary too, e.g. because of instrumental value conditionality. For example, taking a fictional life-stance of accepting waffle-eating as being the end-in-itself, the intensity may be the speed that waffles are eaten, and is zero when no waffles are eaten, e.g. if no waffles are present. Still, each waffle that had been present would still have value, no matter if it was being eaten or not, independent on intensity.
Instrumental value conditionality in this case could be exampled by every waffle not present, making them less valued by being far away rather than easily accessible.
In many life stances it is the product of value and intensity that is ultimately desirable, i.e. not only to generate value, but to generate it in large degree. Maximizing life-stances have the highest possible intensity as an imperative.
Positive and negative value
There may be a distinction between positive and negative philosophic or ethic value. While positive ethic value generally correlates with something that is pursued or maximized, negative ethic value correlates with something that is avoided or minimized. Value may have an upper limit. David Manheim and Anders Sandberg argue that modern physics implies an upper limit, even if that limit may be extremely large. Negative value may be both intrinsic negative value and/or instrumental negative value.
Protected value
A protected value (also sacred value) is one that an individual is unwilling to trade off no matter what the benefits of doing so may be. For example, some people may be unwilling to kill another person, even if it means saving many other individuals. Protected values tend to be "intrinsically good", and most people can in fact imagine a scenario when trading off their most precious values would be necessary. If such trade-offs happen between two competing protected values such as killing a person and defending your family they are called tragic trade-offs.
Protected values have been found to be play a role in protracted conflicts (e.g., the Israeli-Palestinian conflict) because they can hinder businesslike (''utilitarian'') negotiations. A series of experimental studies directed by Scott Atran and Ángel Gómez among combatants on the ISIS front line in Iraq and with ordinary citizens in Western Europe suggest that commitment to sacred values motivate the most "devoted actors" to make the costliest sacrifices, including willingness to fight and die, as well as a readiness to forsake close kin and comrades for those values if necessary. From the perspective of utilitarianism, protected values are biases when they prevent utility from being maximized across individuals.
According to Jonathan Baron and Mark Spranca, protected values arise from norms as described in theories of deontological ethics (the latter often being referred to in context with Immanuel Kant). The protectedness implies that people are concerned with their participation in transactions rather than just the consequences of it.
Economic versus philosophic value
Philosophical value is distinguished from economic value, since it is independent from some other desired condition or commodity. The economic value of an object may rise when the exchangeable desired condition or commodity, e.g. money, become high in supply, and vice versa when supply of money becomes low.
Nevertheless, economic value may be regarded as a result of philosophical value. In the subjective theory of value, the personal philosophic value a person puts in possessing something is reflected in what economic value this person puts on it. The limit where a person considers to purchase something may be regarded as the point where the personal philosophic value of possessing something exceeds the personal philosophic value of what is given up in exchange for it, e.g. money. In this light, everything can be said to have a "personal economic value" in contrast to its "societal economic value."
Personal values
Personal values provide an internal reference for what is good, beneficial, important, useful, beautiful, desirable and constructive. Values are one of the factors that generate behavior (besides needs, interests and habits) and influence the choices made by an individual.
Values may help common human problems for survival by comparative rankings of value, the results of which provide answers to questions of why people do what they do and in what order they choose to do them. Moral, religious, and personal values, when held rigidly, may also give rise to conflicts that result from a clash between differing world views.
Over time the public expression of personal values that groups of people find important in their day-to-day lives, lay the foundations of law, custom and tradition. Recent research has thereby stressed the implicit nature of value communication. Consumer behavior research proposes there are six internal values and three external values. They are known as List of Values (LOV) in management studies. They are self respect, warm relationships, sense of accomplishment, self-fulfillment, fun and enjoyment, excitement, sense of belonging, being well respected, and security. From a functional aspect these values are categorized into three and they are interpersonal relationship area, personal factors, and non-personal factors. From an ethnocentric perspective, it could be assumed that a same set of values will not reflect equally between two groups of people from two countries. Though the core values are related, the processing of values can differ based on the cultural identity of an individual.
Individual differences
Schwartz proposed a theory of individual values based on surveys data. His model groups values in terms of growth versus protection, and personal versus social focus. Values are then associated with openness to change (which Schwartz views as related to personal growth), self-enhancement (which Schwartz views as mostly to do with self-protection), conservation (which Schwartz views as mostly related to social-protection), and self-transendence (which Schwartz views as a form of social growth). Within this Schwartz places 10 universal values: self-direction, stimulation and hedonism (related to openness growth), achievement and power (related to self enhancement), security, conformity and tradition (related to conservation), and humility, benevolence and universalism (relate to self-transcendence).
Personality traits using the big 5 measure correlate with Schwartz's value construct. Openness and extraversion correlates with the values related to openness-to-change (openness especially with self-direction, extraversion especially with stimulation); agreeableness correlates with self-transcendence values (especially benevolence); extraversion is correlated with self-enhancement and negatively with traditional values. Conscienciousness correlates with achievement, conformity and security.
Men are found to value achievement, self-direction, hedonism, and stimulation more than women, while women value benevolence, universality and tradition higher.
The order of Schwartz's traits are substantially stability amongst adults over time. Migrants values change when they move to a new country, but the order of preferences is still quite stable. Motherhood causes women to shift their values towards stability and away from openness-to-change but not fathers.
Moral foundations theory
Moral foundation theory identifies five forms of moral foundation harm/care, fairness/reciprocity, in-group/loyalty, authority/respect, and purity/sancity. Harm and fairness are often called individualizing foundations, while the other three factors are termed binding foundations. The moral foundations were found to be correlated with the theory of basic human values. The strong correlations are between conservatives values and binding foundations.
Cultural values
Individual cultures emphasize values which their members broadly share. Values of a society can often be identified by examining the level of honor and respect received by various groups and ideas.
Values clarification differs from cognitive moral education:
Value clarification consists of "helping people clarify what their lives are for and what is worth working for. It encourages students to define their own values and to understand others' values."
Cognitive moral education builds on the belief that students should learn to value things like democracy and justice as their moral reasoning develops.
Values relate to the norms of a culture, but they are more global and intellectual than norms. Norms provide rules for behavior in specific situations, while values identify what should be judged as good or evil. While norms are standards, patterns, rules and guides of expected behavior, values are abstract concepts of what is important and worthwhile. Flying the national flag on a holiday is a norm, but it reflects the value of patriotism. Wearing dark clothing and appearing solemn are normative behaviors to manifest respect at a funeral. Different cultures represent values differently and to different levels of emphasis. "Over the last three decades, traditional-age college students have shown an increased interest in personal well-being and a decreased interest in the welfare of others." Values seemed to have changed, affecting the beliefs, and attitudes of the students.
Members take part in a culture even if each member's personal values do not entirely agree with some of the normative values sanctioned in that culture. This reflects an individual's ability to synthesize and extract aspects valuable to them from the multiple subcultures they belong to.
If a group member expresses a value that seriously conflicts with the group's norms, the group's authority may carry out various ways of encouraging conformity or stigmatizing the non-conforming behavior of that member. For example, imprisonment can result from conflict with social norms that the state has established as law.
Furthermore, cultural values can be expressed at a global level through institutions participating in the global economy. For example, values important to global governance can include leadership, legitimacy, and efficiency. Within our current global governance architecture, leadership is expressed through the G20, legitimacy through the United Nations, and efficiency through member-driven international organizations. The expertise provided by international organizations and civil society depends on the incorporation of flexibility in the rules, to preserve the expression of identity in a globalized world.
Nonetheless, in warlike economic competition, differing views may contradict each other, particularly in the field of culture. Thus audiences in Europe may regard a movie as an artistic creation and grant it benefits from special treatment, while audiences in the United States may see it as mere entertainment, whatever its artistic merits. EU policies based on the notion of "cultural exception" can become juxtaposed with the policy of "cultural specificity" on the liberal Anglo-Saxon side. Indeed, international law traditionally treats films as property and the content of television programs as a service. Consequently, cultural interventionist policies can find themselves opposed to the Anglo-Saxon liberal position, causing failures in international negotiations.
Development and transmission
Values are generally received through cultural means, especially diffusion and transmission or socialization from parents to children. Parents in different cultures have different values. For example, parents in a hunter–gatherer society or surviving through subsistence agriculture value practical survival skills from a young age. Many such cultures begin teaching babies to use sharp tools, including knives, before their first birthdays. Italian parents value social and emotional abilities and having an even temperament. Spanish parents want their children to be sociable. Swedish parents value security and happiness. Dutch parents value independence, long attention spans, and predictable schedules. American parents are unusual for strongly valuing intellectual ability, especially in a narrow "book learning" sense. The Kipsigis people of Kenya value children who are not only smart, but who employ that intelligence in a responsible and helpful way, which they call ng'om. Luos of Kenya value education and pride which they call "nyadhi".
Factors that influence the development of cultural values are summarized below.
The Inglehart–Welzel cultural map of the world is a two-dimensional cultural map showing the cultural values of the countries of the world along two dimensions: The traditional versus secular-rational values reflect the transition from a religious understanding of the world to a dominance of science and bureaucracy. The second dimension named survival values versus self-expression values represents the transition from industrial society to post-industrial society.
Cultures can be distinguished as tight and loose in relation to how much they adhere to social norms and tolerates deviance. Tight cultures are more restrictive, with stricter disciplinary measures for norm violations while loose cultures have weaker social norms and a higher tolerance for deviant behavior. A history of threats, such as natural disasters, high population density, or vulnerability to infectious diseases, is associated with greater tightness. It has been suggested that tightness allows cultures to coordinate more effectively to survive threats.
Studies in evolutionary psychology have led to similar findings. The so-called regality theory finds that war and other perceived collective dangers have a profound influence on both the psychology of individuals and on the social structure and cultural values. A dangerous environment leads to a hierarchical, authoritarian, and warlike culture, while a safe and peaceful environment fosters an egalitarian and tolerant culture.
Value system
A value system is a set of consistent values used for the purpose of ethical or ideological integrity.
Consistency
As a member of a society, group or community, an individual can hold both a personal value system and a communal value system at the same time. In this case, the two value systems (one personal and one communal) are externally consistent provided they bear no contradictions or situational exceptions between them.
A value system in its own right is internally consistent when
its values do not contradict each other and
its exceptions are or could be
abstract enough to be used in all situations and
consistently applied.
Conversely, a value system by itself is internally inconsistent if:
its values contradict each other and
its exceptions are
highly situational and
inconsistently applied.
Value exceptions
Abstract exceptions serve to reinforce the ranking of values. Their definitions are generalized enough to be relevant to any and all situations. Situational exceptions, on the other hand, are ad hoc and pertain only to specific situations. The presence of a type of exception determines one of two more kinds of value systems:
An idealized value system is a listing of values that lacks exceptions. It is, therefore, absolute and can be codified as a strict set of proscriptions on behavior. Those who hold to their idealized value system and claim no exceptions (other than the default) are called absolutists.
A realized value system contains exceptions to resolve contradictions between values in practical circumstances. This type is what people tend to use in daily life.
The difference between these two types of systems can be seen when people state that they hold one value system yet in practice deviate from it, thus holding a different value system. For example, a religion lists an absolute set of values while the practice of that religion may include exceptions.
Implicit exceptions bring about a third type of value system called a formal value system. Whether idealized or realized, this type contains an implicit exception associated with each value: "as long as no higher-priority value is violated". For instance, a person might feel that lying is wrong. Since preserving a life is probably more highly valued than adhering to the principle that lying is wrong, lying to save someone's life is acceptable. Perhaps too simplistic in practice, such a hierarchical structure may warrant explicit exceptions.
Conflict
Although sharing a set of common values, like hockey is better than baseball or ice cream is better than fruit, two different parties might not rank those values equally. Also, two parties might disagree as to certain actions are right or wrong, both in theory and in practice, and find themselves in an ideological or physical conflict. Ethonomics, the discipline of rigorously examining and comparing value systems, enables us to understand politics and motivations more fully in order to resolve conflicts.
An example conflict would be a value system based on individualism pitted against a value system based on collectivism. A rational value system organized to resolve the conflict between two such value systems might take the form below. Added exceptions can become recursive and often convoluted.
Individuals may act freely unless their actions harm others or interfere with others' freedom or with functions of society that individuals need, provided those functions do not themselves interfere with these proscribed individual rights and were agreed to by a majority of the individuals.
A society (or more specifically the system of order that enables the workings of a society) exists for the purpose of benefiting the lives of the individuals who are members of that society. The functions of a society in providing such benefits would be those agreed to by the majority of individuals in the society.
A society may require contributions from its members in order for them to benefit from the services provided by the society. The failure of individuals to make such required contributions could be considered a reason to deny those benefits to them, although a society could elect to consider hardship situations in determining how much should be contributed.
A society may restrict behavior of individuals who are members of the society only for the purpose of performing its designated functions agreed to by the majority of individuals in the society, only insofar as they violate the aforementioned values. This means that a society may abrogate the rights of any of its members who fails to uphold the aforementioned values.
See also
Attitude (psychology)
Axiological ethics
Axiology
Clyde Kluckhohn and his value orientation theory
Hofstede's Framework for Assessing Culture
Instrumental and intrinsic value
Intercultural communication
Meaning of life
Paideia
Rokeach Value Survey
Spiral Dynamics
The Right and the Good
Value judgment
World Values Survey
References
Further reading
see https://www.researchgate.net/publication/290349218_The_political_algebra_of_global_value_change_General_models_and_implications_for_the_Muslim_world
External links
Concepts in ethics
Concepts in metaphysics
Codes of conduct
Moral psychology
Motivation
Social philosophy
Social psychology
Social systems |
4095942 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Katharine%20McPhee | Katharine McPhee | Katharine Hope McPhee (born March 25, 1984) is an American singer-songwriter and actress. In May 2006, she was the runner-up on the fifth season of American Idol.
Her eponymous debut album was released on RCA Records on January 30, 2007, and debuted at number two on the Billboard 200, selling 381,000 copies (as of December 2010). The album's first single, "Over It", was a Billboard Top 30 hit and was certified gold in 2008. Her second album, Unbroken, was released on Verve Forecast Records on January 5, 2010, and debuted at No. 27 on the "Billboard 200". The album featured the single "Had It All", which peaked at number 22 on the AC chart. It has sold 45,000 copies as of January 2011.
Her third album, the holiday-themed Christmas Is the Time to Say I Love You, was released on October 12, 2010. The album debuted at number 11 on the Billboard Top Holiday Albums chart, while the single "Have Yourself a Merry Little Christmas" peaked at number 16 on the "Billboard" AC chart. As of January 2011, this album had sold 23,000 copies. McPhee released her fourth album, Hysteria, on September 18, 2015. She released her fifth album, I Fall in Love Too Easily, composed of jazz standards, on November 17, 2017.
McPhee has also established an acting career, co-starring in The House Bunny and Shark Night 3D. She played Karen Cartwright, one of the lead roles on Smash. From 2014 to 2018, she starred in CBS' Scorpion as Paige Dineen.
She made her Broadway debut in the musical Waitress, taking over the role of Jenna in 2018 and again in 2019–2020 and also starred in the role in London's West End in 2019.
Early life
McPhee was born in Los Angeles, California. Her father, Daniel McPhee, was a television producer. Her mother, Peisha (née Burch) McPhee, has been a vocal coach on American Idol since 2011. The family moved to the Sherman Oaks neighborhood of Los Angeles when she was 12 years old. Peisha McPhee recognized her daughter's musical talent and decided to train her. McPhee's older sister, Adriana, has been a vocal coach on American Idol since 2012. McPhee is of English, Irish, Scottish, and German descent.
She attended Boston Conservatory for three semesters, majoring in musical theatre. She left college before graduation on the advice of her manager, and returned to Los Angeles to try out for television pilots. McPhee was cast (during the time she had dropped out of college and was auditioning in Los Angeles) in a mall-based MTV soap opera pilot, You Are Here, playing the older sister of a more popular younger sister. MTV never aired the pilot and did not pick up the series.
In March 2005, McPhee starred as Annie Oakley in a Cabrillo Music Theater production of the musical Annie Get Your Gun. McPhee was nominated for a Los Angeles Stage Ovation Award in the category of "Lead Actress in a Musical". McPhee had a small role as Paramount Girl in the 2007 musical film Crazy, based on the life of Hank Garland. McPhee filmed the role in early 2005, before she auditioned for American Idol.
McPhee has struggled with eating disorders. She told People that at age 13, she began starving herself and exercising compulsively, and at age 17, became bulimic. McPhee gained weight in college due to her bingeing. After seven years of illness, she finally entered a three-month rehabilitation program after successfully passing her American Idol audition; her rehab stint ended just before the Idol semifinals started in February 2006.
She told Teen Vogue in May 2007, "I eat whatever I crave—I'm just really careful about portions." McPhee and her sister appeared on the debut of The Dr. Keith Ablow Show on September 18, 2006, to discuss her struggles with bulimia and her childhood fear of her father.
Career
American Idol
In 2005, McPhee was persuaded by eventual husband Nick Cokas and her parents to try out for the television series competition American Idol. She auditioned in San Francisco and sang "God Bless the Child", originally performed by Billie Holiday, and was selected to be a participant in the fifth season, which aired in 2006. After the first round of Hollywood week, she sang "I'll Never Love This Way Again" by Dionne Warwick, which earned favorable comments from the judges. During the second round, she performed in a group, singing "I Can't Help Myself (Sugar Pie Honey Bunch)" by the Four Tops, forgetting the words, but the judges decided to advance the entire group. During the third round, she sang "My Funny Valentine" a cappella and advanced to the top 40. She was angered when fellow group member Crystal Stark did not make the top 24. McPhee's run on American Idol led to the use of the term "McPheever". The inclusion of producer David Foster and singer Andrea Bocelli as guest mentors for Top 6 Week turned out to be a fortuitous introduction for McPhee, as she has worked on various music projects with both men after Idol. In May 2006, McPhee visited her alma mater Notre Dame High School for her hometown celebration. Mayor Antonio Villaraigosa visited the school and proclaimed the day Katharine McPhee Day. She finished as the runner-up to Taylor Hicks.
Performances and results (during voting weeks)
When Ryan Seacrest announced the results that night, McPhee was placed in the top two.
When Ryan Seacrest announced the results that night, McPhee was in the bottom two but declared safe when Chris Daughtry was eliminated.
2006–08: Katharine McPhee and feature-film debut
On June 6, 2006, McPhee signed to American Idol series creator Simon Fuller's 19 Recordings Limited and Sony BMG's RCA Records. Also in June, McPhee performed at the JCPenney Jam: Concert for America's Kids, soloing with "Somewhere Over the Rainbow" and performing a duet with Andrea Bocelli on "Somos Novios".
McPhee's Idol single, "Somewhere Over the Rainbow/My Destiny" was released on June 27, 2006, by RCA Records. "Somewhere Over the Rainbow" peaked at number 12 on the Billboard Hot 100 and "My Destiny" peaked at number 60. 32 weeks after its release, Somewhere Over the Rainbow/My Destiny had climbed to number four on the Billboard Hot Singles Sales charts. It was the second-highest best-selling single of 2006 after Taylor Hicks' "Do I Make You Proud". "Somewhere Over the Rainbow/My Destiny" remained on the chart for more than 58 weeks.
In July, McPhee missed the first three weeks of the American Idol Tour due to laryngitis and bronchitis. She joined the tour beginning with the July 28 show in Washington, DC, singing only two songs "Over the Rainbow" and "Black Horse and the Cherry Tree", instead of the usual four, on doctor's orders to conserve her voice. At the August 1 concert in Charlotte, North Carolina, McPhee suffered a hairline fracture of her foot when she tripped backstage and was fitted with a walking-boot cast. Once she recovered from the foot injury, she added "Think" to her concert set.
McPhee recorded a duet with Andrea Bocelli on "Can't Help Falling in Love" for his Under the Desert Sky album, which was released as a CD/DVD package on November 7, 2006.
McPhee signed a two-year endorsement deal in 2006 with Sexy Hair Concepts to become their first celebrity spokesperson for their hair-care product line. Also in 2006, McPhee founded a charity called McPhee Outreach. The purpose of the charity is to team up with other foundations or organizations and help in any way possible. The foundation teamed up with the Lollipop Theater Network to provide music outreach (called "Rhythm of Hope") to sick children in Southern California hospitals. McPhee Outreach teamed up with Global Compassion Services to build a preschool in the West African nation of Burkina Faso to help combat that nation's high illiteracy rate.
On December 1, 2006, McPhee released "A Gift to You / O Come All Ye Faithful". The single was conceived and co-produced by Al Gomes of Big Noise, along with Walter Afanasieff. McPhee performed "O Come All Ye Faithful" on the TNT Network special Christmas in Washington, DC.
McPhee's self-titled debut album, Katharine McPhee was released on January 30, 2007, and sold 116,000 copies its first week, debuting at number two on the Billboard 200 Albums Chart. The first single from the album was "Over It" peaked at number 29 on the Billboard Hot 100. The second single, "Love Story" failed to crack the Billboard Hot 100.
In early 2007, McPhee guest-starred in the web series, lonelygirl15 as an unnamed character in the episode "Truth or Dare". McPhee made a cameo appearance as herself on Ugly Betty in the episode "I'm Coming Out". The episode was broadcast February 1, 2007. During the 2007 Christmas holiday season, McPhee released a Christmas single "O Come All Ye Faithful".
On January 11, 2008, Billboard.com reported that McPhee had been released from her contract with RCA Records. A spokesperson for the label stated, "She is going to record her next album on her own."
McPhee signed a two-year endorsement deal with Neutrogena to become the new spokesperson for their anti-acne skin-care product line. In March 2008, she filmed her first commercial, which began airing on television in May 2008 and on Neutrogena's skinid.com website. McPhee appeared on American Idol judge Randy Jackson's album Randy Jackson's Music Club, Vol. 1, which was released on March 11, 2008. McPhee recorded a duet of "Real Love" with fellow American Idol 5 contestant Elliott Yamin. On March 12, 2008, McPhee returned to the American Idol stage during the Top 12 results night of the seventh season of the competition. She performed the Beatles song "Something", with producer David Foster, on piano. After the performance, Foster indicated that McPhee and he were collaborating on her second studio album (though it ended up he was not part of the finished product). McPhee took part in the David Foster tribute concert Hit Man: David Foster & Friends, which was filmed by PBS, in May 2008. She soloed on "Somewhere" and performed a duet of "The Prayer" with Andrea Bocelli. A CD/DVD was released in November 2008. Foster recorded "I Will Be There With You" for Japan Airlines (JAL), with McPhee on vocals. Starting in June 2008, it was used to promote the introduction of new aircraft to JAL's US flights.
McPhee made her studio-acting debut in the comedy The House Bunny, co-starring as one of the few members of a misfit sorority. The movie, released in August 2008, starred Anna Faris as a Playboy Bunny who took the girls under her wing. It was directed by Fred Wolf for Columbia Pictures and produced by Adam Sandler's Happy Madison Productions. McPhee released a cover of the song "I Know What Boys Like", featuring the other cast members of the movie 'The House Bunny'. In September 2008, McPhee took part in Chris Botti's concert, which was filmed by PBS in Boston. She sang "I've Got You Under My Skin" accompanied by Botti on trumpet. The concert was shown several times on PBS starting in January 2009. A live album, Chris Botti in Boston, was released on March 31, 2009, on CD/DVD and Blu-ray.
2009–10: Unbroken, TV shows, and movie projects
On January 27, 2009, that McPhee had signed a record deal with Verve Forecast Records (part of the Verve Music Group under Universal Music Group).
McPhee guest-starred on CSI: NY in the episode "Prey" as a singer and stalker victim who murdered her stalker. The episode was broadcast April 8, 2009. In September 2009, McPhee took part in the United Negro College Fund's "An Evening of Stars" concert that was a tribute to singer-songwriter Lionel Richie. McPhee sang You Are. The concert was broadcast in syndication and on BET the weekend of January 23–24, 2010. A two-disc DVD of the concert was available for a time through a donation to the United Negro College Fund. McPhee joined actresses Alyson Hannigan, Jaime King, Minka Kelly, and Emily Deschanel in a video slumber party made available in October 2009 and featured on FunnyorDie.com and other Internet platforms in a comedic take to promote regular breast-cancer screenings for the organization Stand Up to Cancer. A Christmas single "I'll Be Home for Christmas" was released November 17, 2009.
McPhee's second album Unbroken was released January 5, 2010, and debuted at number 27 on the Billboard 200 chart, selling 15,000 copies its first week. For her second effort, McPhee worked with producer John Alagia. The first single from the album, "Had It All", was released to McPhee's MySpace page on August 25, 2009.
McPhee appeared on the Jan 19, 2010, episode of The Biggest Loser, McPhee was shown volunteering at a Los Angeles food bank and meeting with children at a Boys and Girls Club and talking about the importance of helping to fight hunger in America. On February 1, 2010, McPhee joined over 75 other musicians, including fellow American Idol alumni Jennifer Hudson and Jordin Sparks and American Idol judge Randy Jackson, for a remake of "We Are the World", retitled "We Are the World 25 for Haiti", which marked the 25th anniversary of the iconic song and for which proceeds will go to Haitian earthquake relief.
During the week of February 8, 2010, in the taped Hollywood Week portion of the ninth season of American Idol, contestant Didi Benami was shown singing "Terrified", a song on the Unbroken album and written by Idol judge Kara DioGuardi. As a result of the exposure, digital downloads of the song (the album version featuring Jason Reeves) rose nearly 10 times from the week before, selling about 20,000 copies for the week, for a total of 22,000 sold at that point. On February 22, 2010, McPhee appeared in the production of 110 Stories, directed by Mark Freiburger at the Geffen Playhouse in Los Angeles. She co-starred alongside Ed Asner, Diane Venora, Gail O'Grady, John Hawkes, Malcolm-Jamal Warner, and many others. The play was a benefit to help the victims of the recent Haiti earthquake. Proceeds went to the Red Cross of Greater Los Angeles. On March 9, 2010, McPhee performed "Surrender" at the White House, in front of President Obama and the First Lady as part of International Women's Day. McPhee guest-starred on Community in the episode "Basic Genealogy" as Chevy Chase's character's ex-stepdaughter and potential love interest for Joel McHale's character. The episode was broadcast March 11, 2010.
In April 2010, McPhee made a TV pilot for The Pink House. McPhee played Emily, a down-to-earth Midwestern girl new to Manhattan Beach, Los Angeles. The pilot was shot as a possible pickup for the Fall 2010 season and was produced by Conan O'Brien's production company, with O'Brien as executive producer. Shooting took place April 9, 2010. NBC did not pick up the pilot.
On May 4, 2010, a new version of the Unbroken song "Terrified" featuring actor Zachary Levi premiered on Entertainment Weekly'''s website and was made available for purchase on iTunes. The accompanying music video premiered on May 7, 2010, on the music video website Vevo. In the summer of 2010, McPhee partnered with Feeding America and ConAgra Foods Foundation to help launch the Hunger-Free Summer Initiative, which aimed to help children at risk of hunger during the summer months. Throughout the month of July, McPhee traveled around the country to various Feeding America food banks to raise awareness.
McPhee released a Christmas album titled Christmas Is the Time to Say I Love You on October 12, 2010. The album debuted at number 11 on the Billboard Top Holiday Albums chart and sold 1,000 copies in its first week. One of the Christmas album's songs "Have Yourself a Merry Little Christmas" was released to radio in November 2010 and peaked at number 16 on the Billboard Adult Contemporary Chart. Country singer Chelsea Field's song "Love's Never Leavin'", a song that McPhee co-wrote with singer-songwriter Richard Marx and producer Trey Bruce, was made available for purchase on iTunes on November 9, 2010, with 100% of the proceeds to benefit the Tammany Humane Society in Covington, LA. On December 15, 2010, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital released a video on their website for their Thanks and Giving Campaign that featured McPhee interacting with sick children at the hospital with her song "Lifetime" playing over the soundtrack.
2011–2013: Smash series and new record deal
In February 2011, McPhee landed a starring role in the TV pilot Smash, also starring Debra Messing, Megan Hilty, Jack Davenport, Anjelica Huston, Christian Borle, and Brian d'Arcy James. In May 2011, NBC picked up Smash as a series. The series, set as a musical drama, follows a group of characters who come together to put on a Broadway musical inspired by Marilyn Monroe.
On June 9, 2011, McPhee signed a record deal with Columbia Records (a label under Sony Music Entertainment), in conjunction with Columbia teaming with NBC to distribute the music for Smash. In July 2011, Forbes reported that McPhee was number 10 on their list of the 10 top-earning American Idol performers (she was tied with David Archuleta and David Cook), earning $1 million (pretax estimates before subtracting manager and agent fees) for music and acting endeavors for the period May 2010 to May 2011.
McPhee co-starred in director David Ellis' shark thriller indie film Shark Night 3D, which was released September 2, 2011."Actors Feed 'Shark Night 3-D'", Variety.
In December 2011, McPhee became a spokesperson for the Malaria No More organization to help raise awareness about the campaign to eradicate malaria.
NBC debuted Smash in midseason 2011–12 on February 6, 2012, to generally favorable reviews, scoring a 79 out of 100 on Metacritic. On March 26, 2012, Smash was renewed for a second season. McPhee recorded a voice-over for Family Guy, for the episode "You Can't Do That on Television, Peter", playing the voice of Mother Maggie. The episode was broadcast April 1, 2012.
McPhee had a cameo role as a singer performing at a festival for the feature film Peace, Love & Misunderstanding, which starred Jane Fonda and was filmed in upstate New York. McPhee filmed her cameo in September 2010. The film was out as a limited release on June 8, 2012.
In early 2009, McPhee was cast in a lead role in the independent $6 million romantic-comedy You May Not Kiss the Bride, which was filmed in Hawaii. McPhee played the role of Masha, alongside Dave Annable. The film debuted at the 14th Annual Sonoma International Film Festival that was held April 6–10, 2011 The film was released theatrically in the US in late 2012, premiering August 29, 2012, in Hawaii and September 21, 2012, in several mainland markets including Chicago, Dallas, and Los Angeles, as well as Video On Demand, iTunes, and Amazon. One of the songs included in the movie was co-written by McPhee.
In January 2013, Forbes reported that McPhee again made their list of the 10 top-earning American Idol performers (she was tied with Kellie Pickler at number seven), earning $1.1 million (pretax estimates before subtracting manager and agent fees) for music and acting endeavors for the period May 2011 to May 2012.
On March 28, 2013, McPhee returned to the American Idol stage to perform on the 12th season top-eight results show with OneRepublic, where she lent guest vocals to the group's latest single, "If I Lose Myself".
By April 2013, McPhee had begun recording her fourth studio album, then scheduled for release in late 2013 and featuring songwriting collaborations with Ryan Tedder, Linda Perry, and Sia. Smash was cancelled that same year, after two seasons. In August 2013, McPhee indicated in an interview for an upcoming concert that she hoped to see the album released in 2014.
2014–2017: Scorpion and Hysteria
In January 2014, Forbes reported that McPhee again made their list of the 10 top-earners (tied with Jennifer Hudson at number 10), this time for 2013, earning $1 million (pretax estimates before subtracting manager and agent fees) for music and acting endeavors for the period May 2012 to May 2013.
In November and December 2013, McPhee filmed a Hallmark Hall of Fame movie in Vancouver, British Columbia, called In My Dreams. Directed by Kenny Leon, it stars McPhee and Mike Vogel as two people searching for love and meeting in their dreams. The movie was broadcast on April 20, 2014.
McPhee starred as Paige in Scorpion. CBS picked up the show on May 9, 2014, and it premiered September 22.
McPhee guest-starred with fellow Smash actor Megan Hilty on the Wesley Taylor web series It Could Be Worse. McPhee and Hilty filmed the roles in January 2014 and the episode premiered with the second season on Hulu in July 2014.
McPhee said in interviews for Scorpion, including one to the L.A. Times in September 2014, that her fourth album had been put on hold due to Scorpion being picked up and that some realigning would occur as far as where the music fits.
CBS debuted Scorpion on September 22, 2014, as part of the 2014–15 fall TV season. The pilot received generally mixed reviews from critics. On Metacritic, it received a score of 48/100 from 19 critics, indicating mixed or average reviews. The pilot earned 13.83 million viewers and a 3.2 in the 18–49 demographic. McPhee covered the Frankie Valli song "Can't Take My Eyes Off You" in the episode "Risky Business".
On November 5, 2014, McPhee was a presenter for the 2015 People's Choice Awards nominations announcement.
McPhee performed on the 16th annual A Home For the Holidays adoption special that was broadcast on December 19, 2014. This was her second appearance on the annual special.
On January 7, 2015, McPhee was a presenter at the 2015 People's Choice Awards, where she introduced a performance by Lady Antebellum.
On January 18, McPhee sang the national anthem before the NFC Championship Game in Seattle. On January 26, she co-hosted with sports analyst Boomer Esiason the 2015 Greatest Super Bowl Commercials special. On February 8, McPhee was a presenter at the 2015 Grammy Awards on CBS, where she introduced a performance of Tony Bennett and Lady Gaga.
On April 9, 2015, McPhee posted a photo on Instagram, teasing about the upcoming music video of the first single from her fourth album. "Lick My Lips", written by Florence and the Machine member Isabella Summers, was released on May 26. The track list of Hysteria has been revealed with one song written by Ryan Tedder and another song written by Sia Furler. On August 14, "Stranger than Fiction", a song co-written by Ryan Tedder and McPhee, was released. On August 28, "Love Strikes" was released on iTunes. Hysteria, McPhee's fourth studio album was released as scheduled on September 18, 2015.
On December 6, Katharine performed "You Make Me Feel So Young" and with John Legend on "You and Me (We Wanted It All)" on the Sinatra 100: An All-Star Grammy Concert.
McPhee returned to American Idol on March 24, 2016, and performed "Somewhere Over the Rainbow". She returned for the fifteenth season finale on April 7, where she performed a short version of "Need You Now" with Casey James as part of an acoustic medley.
McPhee appeared on Lip Sync Battle on April 7, 2016, where she performed against Jason Derulo and won.
On September 18, 2015, McPhee independently released her fourth album, Hysteria, composed of pop originals.
In December 2016, McPhee performed as the opening act at several stops on Andrea Bocelli's tour.
On February 12, 2017, McPhee was a presenter with The Chainsmokers at the 59th Annual Grammy Awards.
On April 16, 2017, CBS broadcast the concert Stayin' Alive: A Grammy's Salute to the Music of the Bee Gees, where McPhee performed "Emotion".
In June 2017, McPhee began filming the independent film Louisiana Cavier in New Orleans.
2017–2021: I Fall in Love Too Easily and Waitress
On November 4, 2017, McPhee starred in the Lifetime TV movie The Lost Wife of Robert Durst in the role of Robert Durst's first wife Kathie.I Fall in Love Too Easily, a collection of romantic standards, was released on November 17, 2017, via BMG. The first single, "Night and Day", was made available for free via streaming.
McPhee took over the lead female role of Jenna in Waitress as her Broadway debut. She began performances on April 10, 2018, and played the role through August 19, 2018.
On May 11, 2018, the song "Living in the Moment" was released. Carole Bayer Sager shared in a Twitter post that it was written by her, Jay Landers and Walter Afanasieff as the theme for the movie Book Club.McPhee played the lead role Jenna again in Waitress at the Adelphi Theatre in London's West End in March through June 2019. She returned to the Broadway production on November 25, 2019, and remained with the show until its final performance on January 5, 2020. In 2021, she plays Bailey in Country Comfort.Also in 2021, Katharine McPhee and David Foster competed in sixth season of The Masked Singer as "Banana Split" in which McPhee dressed up as the ice cream half who did all the singing and Foster dressed up as the banana half who did the instrument playing and conducting. They were eliminated in the Group B Finale.
2022–present: Christmas Songs and jewelry line
McPhee and her husband David Foster recorded a Christmas EP, Christmas Songs, composed of seven songs. The first single, "Jingle Bell Rock", was released digitally on October 28, 2022. The EP was released on November 25, 2022.
McPhee released a jewelry line, KMF Jewelry, in early November 2022.
Personal life
After dating for three years, on February 2, 2008, McPhee married Nick Cokas at Beverly Hills Presbyterian Church. In October 2013, she was photographed publicly kissing her married Smash director, Michael Morris. On May 22, 2014, McPhee filed for divorce from Cokas, after "having been separated for the past year". Her divorce from Cokas was finalized on February 8, 2016.
McPhee dated her Scorpion co-star Elyes Gabel for almost two years. They split in 2016.
She became engaged to record producer David Foster in June 2018. They married a year later on June 28, 2019, at the St. Yeghiche Armenian Apostolic Church in Kensington, London. She gave birth to a son on February 22, 2021. In February 2022, McPhee described struggling with her mental health after gaining weight during her pregnancy.
Discography
Katharine McPhee (2007)
Unbroken (2010)
Christmas Is the Time to Say I Love You (2010)
Hysteria (2015)
I Fall in Love Too Easily (2017)
Christmas Songs'' (with David Foster) (2023)
Filmography
Film
Television
Stage
Awards and nominations
References
External links
1984 births
Living people
19 Recordings artists
21st-century American actresses
21st-century American singer-songwriters
21st-century American women singers
Actresses from Los Angeles
American women pop singers
American women singer-songwriters
American film actresses
American Idol participants
American people of German descent
American people of Irish descent
American people of Scottish descent
American television actresses
Boston Conservatory at Berklee alumni
California Republicans
Columbia Records artists
Singers from Los Angeles
People from Sherman Oaks, Los Angeles
RCA Records artists
Singer-songwriters from California
Verve Forecast Records artists |
4095959 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elliott%20Yamin | Elliott Yamin | Efraym Elliott Yamin (born July 20, 1978) is an American singer known for his hit single "Wait for You" and for placing third on the fifth season of American Idol.
His self-titled album, released March 20, 2007, debuted at number one on the Billboard Independent Albums chart and at number three on the Billboard 200. The album was certified gold in the United States in October 2007. Retitled Wait for You, the album was released in Japan in May 2008 and certified gold in that country in September 2008.
Yamin also released two Christmas collections: Sounds of the Season: The Elliott Yamin Holiday Collection in October 2007 and My Kind of Holiday in October 2008.
Yamin's second album, titled Fight for Love, was released on May 5, 2009. The album's first single, "Fight for Love", premiered on AOL Music on February 13, 2009.
His third album, Gather 'Round was released in Japan in 2011. It was retitled in the United States as Let's Get to What's Real and released in 2012. The first single in Japan and the United States was "3 Words".
His fourth album, As Time Goes By, was released exclusively for the Japanese market on November 5, 2015. Previous to the album release, a video for the single "Katy" was released on late October 2015. Yamin travelled to Japan to promote the album in early November.
Biography
Personal life
Yamin's mother, Claudette Goldberg Yamin was a former professional singer known for her "fiery spirit" and for receiving the "Golden Idol for Proudest Family Moment Award" from Ryan Seacrest during her son's American Idol competition. His family relocated to Richmond, Virginia when Yamin was 11, and his parents divorced when he was 14, his father returning to Los Angeles. Yamin went to school in Richmond at Tuckahoe Middle School, and later, Douglas S. Freeman High School. Dropping out of high school in his sophomore year, he later achieved a high school GED while working at Foot Locker (in their management program), a pharmacy, and as an on-air disc jockey for local R&B radio station WCDX/Power 92 FM, using the name E-Dub before auditioning for American Idol.
Yamin has an older half-sister and a younger brother.
A history of ear infections as a child and eardrum replacement surgery at 13 left Yamin with 90% hearing loss in his right ear. He was diagnosed with Type I diabetes at the age of 16 and wears an insulin pump to help him manage his diabetes. Yamin is 5'6" tall.
Yamin first discovered his vocal talent while singing karaoke in his late teens. Although he had not been musically trained, he sang in a local jazz band and in amateur performance forums emulating Stevie Wonder, Whitney Houston, and Donny Hathaway.
American Idol
Yamin auditioned in Boston, Massachusetts, singing Leon Russell's "A Song for You", but his audition was not aired (it was later aired on October 24, 2009, as part of the American Idol Rewind – season 5 show). He performed the song again in front of the judges during Hollywood rounds, as well as Rascal Flatts's "Bless the Broken Road". During the group auditions, Yamin and his group performed "It's In Her Kiss" (aka "The Shoop Shoop Song") from Betty Everett; Simon Cowell disliked the group performance, but Randy Jackson said Yamin was the best one in his group, and Paula Abdul said it was a good thing she could look past two left feet, in a way of saying he did not dance well but he could definitely sing. He was sent through by the judges and made it through to the finals of the competition.
During one weekly rehearsal, guest coach Stevie Wonder told Yamin that he should definitely pursue a career in music. Simon Cowell stated that he thought Yamin was "potentially the best male vocalist" in five seasons on American Idol and later, after Yamin's "A Song for You" performance, he declared that it was a "vocal masterclass". His performance of "A Song for You" ranked third on Entertainment Weeklys countdown of the 16 best American Idol performances in the series history.
On the May 10, 2006, results show Yamin, Taylor Hicks, and Katharine McPhee were announced as the top three finalists. All three returned to their respective hometowns for a day of festivities in their honor. Yamin's homecoming visit included radio and television interviews; performing "Home" for more than 4,000 fans, capped by Mayor Douglas Wilder presenting the key to the city; and meeting Governor Tim Kaine, whom Yamin greeted with a hug. Yamin threw out the first pitch before a sold-out crowd at The Diamond for a Richmond Braves game and sang a verse a cappella of "A Song for You". Video highlights were shown on the top three results show.
Yamin was eliminated from American Idol on May 17, 2006, after the tightest race; each of the three top contestants received an almost exactly equal percentage of the viewer votes necessary for advancement to the remaining two spots.
Performances and results
: When Ryan Seacrest announced the results for this particular night, Yamin was among the Bottom 2 but declared safe when Paris Bennett was eliminated.Semi-finals:Week 1: "If You Really Love Me" (Stevie Wonder) The judges loved his performance. Jackson called him a hot one and brilliant, Abdul said it was a great performance since beginning to end, and Cowell called him potentially the best male vocalist in the show in five seasons.Week 2: "Moody's Mood For Love" (James Moody) Jackson gave Yamin a stand-up ovation, Abdul said his performance was brilliant, and Cowell said although he was growing on confidence and gave a great performance, he "can't win a show like this with a song like that".Week 3: "Heaven" (Bryan Adams) Jackson said he would sign Yamin right after his performance, and Abdul called him phenomenal, amazing and fantastic. Cowell though said it was a copout and for the first time there was a disconnect between Yamin and the song.Finals:Week 1: Stevie Wonder – "Knocks Me Off My Feet" Jackson said it was not Yamin's best performance but at the end it was good. Abdul loved his passion, and Cowell said it lacked of originality and lacked the "wow" factor, although it was a good rendition. Guest Stevie Wonder confessed to be impressed with Yamin, and said he should definitely choose singing as a profession.Week 2: Songs of the '50s – "Teach Me Tonight" (Al Jarreau) Jackson said Yamin chose the toughest song of the night and he worked it out. Abdul said she was moved by his performance, and Cowell said it was fantastic. Guest Barry Manilow said Yamin sings great but should keep remembering him about the story on the song.Week 3: Songs of the 21st Century – "I Don't Want To Be" (Gavin DeGraw) Jackson and Abdul liked the performance and the arrangements, Jackson calling Yamin a hot one, while Abdul called him "a funky white boy". Cowell said: "great song, terrible arrangement, good vocals and hideous dancing"; show host Ryan Seacrest liked the equation.Week 4: Country Songs – "If Tomorrow Never Comes" (Garth Brooks) Jackson said the competition finally started with Yamin's rendition. Abdul called him humble and understated, and stated he has a reckless abandon. Cowell called it safe and thought Yamin was nervous that night, which Yamin agreed. Guest Kenny Rogers thought Yamin could do great with the song. Yamin was in the Bottom 2 that week.Week 5: Queen – "Somebody to Love" Jackson said he sang the hardest song and loved it despite some pitch problems. Abdul said he was the best vocals of the night and said it was his best performance so far. Cowell agreed in that Yamin chose the tough one and he pulled it off. Guests Brian May and Roger Taylor (Queen members) thought Yamin chose the tough one that night and did a good job. Yamin was in the Bottom 3 that week.Week 6: Songs from The Great American Songbook – "It Had to Be You" (Frank Sinatra) Jackson said Yamin did a very nice job, and Abdul loved his performance. Cowell said it was a good vocal, but that he showed no personality, to what Yamin replied "I disagree"; Jackson and Abdul disagreed with Cowell too. Guest Rod Stewart called Yamin a blue-eyed soul.Week 7: Love Songs – "A Song for You" (Leon Russell as performed by Donny Hathaway) Jackson hated the arrangements but loved Yamin's performance. Abdul was moved to tears and called Yamin an American Idol and said he celebrates what the competition is about. Cowell called it superb and said it was in part a vocal masterclass. Guest David Foster seemed impatient with Yamin, but recognized he sings well.Week 8: Songs from the contestant's birth year (1978); Songs from the Top 10 of any Billboard Chart – "On Broadway" (by Barry Mann & Cynthia Weil, recorded by George Benson); "Home" (Michael Bublé) Jackson and Abdul said Yamin started rough in "On Broadway", but then got it together, while Cowell said it was disjointed. After "Home", Jackson said Yamin showed a tender side and made a nice job, and Abdul said it showed the richness of his voice. Cowell though said he was slightly worried for Yamin for singing a song that states he wants to go home and because the song has not enough of a hook. Yamin was in the Bottom 2 that week.Week 9: Elvis Presley – "If I Can Dream"; "Trouble" The judges liked his rendition of "If I Can Dream"; Jackson said it was hot, Abdul said it was his best vocal performance during the season, and Cowell said Yamin came to the show that night as the underdog, chose a song that not many people know and yet gave the best performance. Jackson and Abdul said "Trouble" was Yamin's best performance ever, and Cowell said Yamin fought, showed personality and deserved to get through to the next round. Guest Tommy Mottola said Yamin is a laidback kid and that he pulled it off well.Week 10: Clive Davis' pick; Judge's pick (Paula Abdul); Contestant's pick – "Open Arms" (Journey); "What You Won't Do for Love" (Bobby Caldwell); "I Believe to My Soul" (Ray Charles, as performed by Donny Hathaway) The judges had divergent opinions about "Open Arms", with Jackson saying he had problem in the chorus and he should take chances, Abdul said he was in excellent voice and did a great job, and Cowell said he was stiff and he should loosen up. Same happened with "What You Won't Do for Love": Jackson said Yamin was sharp, Abdul liked it and Cowell said he was pretty good because the style suit him although it was not the best song in the world. After "I Believe To My Soul" Jackson said it was not the perfect song for him but he could definitely sing and he did a good job, Abdul said nobody can sing songs like that like he did and called him a funky white boy again, and Cowell said Yamin is a great guy and a great singer and has made his mother proud, but also stated his song choices would not carry him through to the next round. Yamin was eliminated that week.Finale:Yamin performed a duet with Mary J. Blige and participated in the Top 12 Burt Bacharach's medley and the "guys' medley". Guys Medley: "Takin' Care Of Business" (Bachman–Turner Overdrive) / "Tobacco Road" (John D. Loudermilk) / "Don’t Stop" (Fleetwood Mac).
"One" (U2 as performed by Mary J. Blige & U2) with Mary J. Blige
"A House is Not a Home" (by Burt Bacharach)
After Idol
Yamin appeared on several talk shows, including The Tonight Show, Live with Regis and Kelly and the Fox News Channel program, Dayside. On June 11, 2006, he performed the national anthem a cappella at Game 2 of the NBA finals.
He also appeared in the annual Pop Tart-sponsored national American Idols LIVE! Tour between July and September 2006. The tour included a sold-out show at the Richmond Coliseum in Yamin's hometown.
On October 8, 2006, Yamin performed at the Virginia State Fair as the closing act. He was the first contestant from Season 5 to have his own solo concert. His backup band was the Little Memphis Blues Orchestra. There was no new material featured in the concert; instead, he sang nine cover songs.
"Use Me" (Bill Withers)
"Ready For Love" (Bad Company)
"Little Ghetto Boy" (Donny Hathaway)
"I Believe To My Soul" (Donny Hathaway)
"You've Got a Friend" (James Taylor)
"Empty Arms" (Stevie Ray Vaughan)
"I Love You More Than You'll Ever Know" (Donny Hathaway)
"What's Going On?" (Marvin Gaye)
"Whipping Post" (The Allman Brothers Band)
On December 8, 2006, Yamin sang the national anthem, Marvin Gaye's "What's Going On?" and his newly released single, "This Christmas", as part of the 2006 Genworth Children's Advantage Classic (sponsored by the Genworth Foundation) at the Alltel Pavilion at the Virginia Commonwealth University's Stuart C. Siegel Center in Richmond. Proceeds from the tennis event, which featured James Blake, Andre Agassi, Lindsay Davenport, and Steffi Graf, benefited local programs for disadvantaged youth.
Music career
Pre-Idol recordings
In 2005, Yamin was featured on three tracks ("Sound Doctrine", "Song of Hope", and "Whatchacomeherefoe?") of Richmond, Virginia gospel musical artist Big Planz's album Sound Doctrine. Four renditions of another song he recorded with Big Planz, "The Storm", were released on iTunes.
Post-Idol recordings
In December 2006, Yamin announced a music publishing contract with Sony/ATV Music Publishing. On January 25, 2007, Yamin signed a record deal with Hickory Records, a Sony/ATV-owned imprint set up as a "virtual label", with distribution handled by RED Distribution. Yamin has stated that "Sony invested in [him] as a partner" as part of a 50/50 deal, which means that "[they] both stand or fall".
2007–2008: Elliott Yamin
As a teaser, Yamin released the song "Movin' On" from his self-titled debut album on AOL's First Listen and iTunes in February 2007. His first radio single, "Wait for You", was released on March 13, 2007.
Elliott Yamin was released on March 20, 2007, debuting at number three on the Billboard 200 chart with sales of 90,000 copies in its first week. The album was the highest new artist debut on an independent label in SoundScan history. The album was certified gold status by the RIAA on October 12, 2007.
To promote his album, Yamin made TV appearances on Live with Regis and Kelly, The Ellen DeGeneres Show, "Rachael Ray", Jimmy Kimmel Live!, and TRL, where the video for the song "Wait for You" was premiered on March 20, 2007. He also signed CDs at the New York Times Square Virgin Megastore across from the TRL studio and at Circuit City in his hometown, Richmond, Virginia, where the line went around the building.
During April and May 2007, Yamin embarked on a radio tour which included interviews and acoustic in-studio performances, accompanied by guitarist Russel Ali.
Mark Gorlick (VP Artist Development & Marketing, Sony/BMG RED) emphasized the importance of this type of promotion: "We put together a five-week promo tour across the country, and just worked it...When programmers saw that the Elliott in person was consistent with the Elliott they saw on television that was huge."
On May 16, 2007, Yamin performed his hit single, "Wait for You", on the American Idol Season 6 Top 3 results show. The song jumped 60 spots on iTunes in a few hours as well as from 80 to 31 on the Billboard Hot 100. Following the performance, sales of his self-titled album increased, jumping 47 spots on the Billboard 200, from 67 to 20.
Yamin toured North America during May and June 2007, with pop/R&B singer Josh Hoge opening for him. The tour continued in October and November 2007, again with Hoge opening and adding the rock band The Last Goodnight. Fellow American Idol 5 alumnus José "Sway" Penala was added to Yamin's band to provide backing vocals.
Yamin performed in Washington, DC, at the country's biggest Independence Day celebration, "A Capitol Fourth", televised live on PBS on July 4, 2007, singing "In Love with You Forever" and "America the Beautiful". During August 2007, Yamin visited several local television morning shows for interviews and acoustic performances. He also appeared as himself on the television soap opera The Bold and the Beautiful (aired August 24) and the television drama Lincoln Heights (aired September 20), performing "Wait for You".
Yamin visited the Philippines in September 2007 for a free mall concert tour of the Ayala Malls to promote his self-titled album. During his press conference at the Glorietta Activity Center, Yamin expressed his excitement at being a part of the "warm and friendly...Filipino culture" and his desire to return with his full band for a concert tour. Following his TriNoma show on September 21, members of his fan group Yaminoys presented him with a "mini-me" Elliott doll. During the last concert held at the Alabang Town Center, Yamin accidentally stepped on the cord of his microphone while performing "Wait for You", inadvertently unplugging his microphone from the cord. A video of this can be seen on YouTube.
On December 1, 2007, Yamin performed at the Live & Loud 07 Music Festival in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, where he was the opening act for one of his personal idols, Whitney Houston. However he did not meet Houston.
Elliott Yamin placed on four-year-end Billboard charts for 2007, ranking at number 3 on the Independent Albums chart and at number 114 on The Billboard 200 chart, as well as ranking at number 39 on the Independent Albums decade-end chart (2009). "Wait for You" placed on six-year-end Billboard charts for 2007, ranking at number 11 on the Pop 100 Airplay chart and at number 41 on the Billboard Hot 100 Songs chart. "Wait for You" was honored as one of the most performed songs in the ASCAP repertory during 2007; Yamin performed it at the 25th Annual ASCAP Pop Music Awards on April 9, 2008, at the Kodak Theatre in Los Angeles. The song was certified Platinum in digital sales on October 16, 2008.
Yamin traveled to the United Kingdom, Belgium, the Netherlands and Germany to
entertain service members as part of a USO/Armed Forces Entertainment tour from February 12 to 21, 2008.
On March 2, 2008, accompanied by Fantasia and a film crew, Yamin went on a four-day trip to Angola as a guest of Idol Gives Back sponsor ExxonMobil for the "Idol Gives Back" special. Footage of the pair distributing mosquito nets to villagers as part of the Malaria No More program was shown on the American Idol Season 7 Top 11 results show (March 19, 2008). Fantasia sang "Amazing Grace" and, following the local custom of naming a newborn after a visitor, a baby boy was named "Elliott", which reduced Yamin to tears. Yamin attended but did not perform on the Idol Gives Back show, broadcast on April 9, 2008.
On April 16, 2008, Yamin performed on the American Idol Season 7 Top 7 results show – dedicating the song "Free" to his late mother, Claudette Yamin (See Personal Life).
A Japan edition of Yamin's debut album was released on May 21, 2008, by Avex Trax. Retitled Wait for You, the album included bonus tracks "Believe" and "In Love With You Forever", the latter song featured in a Toyota Vitz commercial airing in Japan. Yamin made several trips to Japan during 2008 for media interviews and appearances to promote the album and performed 10 shows at Billboard Live venues in Tokyo, Osaka, and Fukuoka in August. The album was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of Japan (RIAJ) in September 2008. A Premium Edition was released on October 8, 2008, containing additional bonus tracks: "A Whiter Shade of Pale" and "I'll Make You Dance", plus Yamin's cover version of "Home", originally from Japanese singer Yusaku Kiyama, who recorded a Japanese version of the song "Wait for You" in return. Kiyama and Yamin performed together during Yamin's October visit to promote the release of the Wait for You Premium Edition. Yamin was named one of the Best 3 New Artists (International) by the 23rd Annual Japan Gold Disc Awards along with Leona Lewis and Flo Rida. A standard edition and a special edition of Wait for You with different bonus tracks were also released in Taiwan in July and September 2008, respectively.
2009–2010: Fight for Love
"Fight for Love", the title track and lead single from Yamin's second album, premiered on AOL Music on February 13, 2009. The song, co-written and co-produced by Johntá Austin, became available at iTunes and other digital outlets on March 10, 2009; and was officially released for Top 40 and Rhythm radio airplay the same day.
Fight for Love was released on May 5, 2009. Yamin recorded 35 songs from which to choose the final track list and worked with various producers, including Jermaine Dupri, Eman, Harvey Mason, Jr., Steve Russell and Stargate. Yamin has described the album as more contemporary R&B pop than his debut with three or four more "radio-friendly" singles. Yamin co-wrote the majority of songs for the album, including "Someday", a song about his feelings of loss following the death of his mother. His collaboration with Jermaine Dupri, "When I'm Gone", became a bonus track on the Japanese edition, which was released on May 20, 2009. A Premium Edition of the album was released in Japan on October 21, 2009.
During March through early June 2009, Yamin promoted the new album with acoustic performances on air at radio stations and at radio-sponsored concerts, as well as a few club shows with his full band. Promotion in June 2009 included a 3-week visit to Japan with 14 shows at Billboard Live venues and other appearances.
The second single, "Can't Keep on Loving You (From a Distance)", was released to Adult Contemporary radio on August 10, 2009.
Yamin and his band began their second USO/Armed Forces Entertainment tour on October 7, 2009, performing four concerts for troops and their families over 10 days in Guam and Japan.
On January 2, 2010, Yamin kicked off a month-long Fight for Love tour, which he described as "acoustic with a cool twist", in Alexandria, Virginia. The tour schedule included dates in the Northeastern and Southeastern United States, as well as Arizona and California, although the California dates were subsequently cancelled.
In February 2010, Yamin returned to Angola as a representative of Idol Gives Back, this time accompanied by Kara DioGuardi. During his performance at the 1st Annual Washington Ideas Forum on October 2, 2009, Yamin had announced a $100,000 grant to the Saint Isabel Orphanage and School in Luanda, Angola, from ExxonMobil as part of their malaria prevention program. The grant was made to enable the school, which Yamin had visited in 2008 with Fantasia, to improve and expand their facility. Video of Yamin and DioGuardi visiting the ongoing construction of the school dormitory, as well as distributing bed nets, was shown on the American Idol Season 9 Top 9 (second week) results show (April 14, 2010). Sister Domingas Loureira, director of the orphanage, flew to Los Angeles as a guest of American Idol and ExxonMobil and sat next to Yamin at Idol Gives Back performance on April 21, 2010. Later that week, Yamin performed the National Anthem in honor of World Malaria Day at Washington Nationals and Chicago White Sox baseball games.
From February 22 to 27, 2010, Yamin represented the U.S. in the international competition of the LI Festival Internacional de la Canción de Viña del Mar (LI International Song Festival of Viña del Mar), in Chile, against interpreters from Argentina, Chile, Cuba, France, Italy, Mexico, Peru, Spain and UK The competition's theme was "Songs with History", and Yamin performed "Rock Around the Clock". On February 25, he was announced as one of the five semi-finalists in the Festival, along with the representative artists of Argentina, Cuba, Italy and Chile. On February 26 the three finalists were announced: Argentina, Cuba and Italy; Chile and the USA were eliminated from the competition that night.
During the early morning hours of February 27, as the festival entered its final day, Chile experienced a magnitude 8.8 earthquake. Yamin was uninjured – relaying his experience via multiple Twitter messages and phone interviews with American media the morning of the 27th.
On March 7, 2010, Yamin performed at the 11th Annual Children Uniting Nations Oscar Celebration, held at the Beverly Hilton Hotel in Beverly Hills, California.
In June 2010, Yamin was invited by United Airlines to fly on its inaugural flight from Washington, DC, to Accra, Ghana. While in Ghana, he helped the non-profit organization Malaria No More deliver mosquito nets donated by ExxonMobil to a children's hospital in Accra.
2011: Gather 'Round/Let's Get to What's Real
On February 2, 2011, Yamin released, exclusively for the Japanese market, his third studio album, Gather 'Round, which contains 12 tracks. The album's first single was 3 Words.
A May 2011 interview with American Idol blogger Rodney Ho of the Atlanta Journal-Constitution indicated Yamin was no longer with Hickory Records and had not signed with another US label.
In January 2012, it was announced that his third studio album, Gather 'Round, would be released in the United States under the title Let's Get to What's Real on April 10, 2012, on the E1/Purpose Music Group label. The album contains all but three of the tracks from the Japanese version, and includes two new songs: "Enough Love" and "Up, Down, All Around". The lead single is the song "3 Words" which was also released as the first Japanese single.
2015–present: As Time Goes By
On November 5, 2015, Yamin released, again exclusively for the Japanese market, his fourth studio album, As Time Goes By, which contains 12 tracks.
A video for the single "Katy" was released in Japan in late October 2015. Yamin travelled to Japan to promote the album in early November.
Holiday collections
Sounds of the Season: The Elliott Yamin Holiday Collection
On October 14, 2007, Yamin released Sounds Of The Season: The Elliott Yamin Holiday Collection, a Christmas album with 8 tracks, including two originals recorded specifically for the album. Distributed exclusively through Target stores during the 2007 holiday season, it sold 81,000 copies.
My Kind of Holiday
On October 7, 2008, Yamin released another holiday album titled My Kind of Holiday. It includes the 8 tracks from Sounds of the Season: The Elliott Yamin Holiday Collection, plus 2 new tracks: "Back Door Santa" and "Christmas Without Carol", which he co-wrote.
"This Christmas"
"Warm Me Up"
"Jingle Bells"
"A Very Merry Christmas"
"Little Drummer Boy"
"Back Door Santa"
"The Christmas Song"
"Merry Christmas, Baby"
"Let’s Be Naughty (And Save Santa the Trip)"
"Christmas Without Carol"
The Japan Exclusive Edition of the album was released on December 10, 2008, and includes three bonus tracks: "Sharing the Night Together", an acoustic version of "Home", and "Wait for You (The Standard Club Piano Dance Remix)".
Compilation albums
Randy Jackson's Music Club, Vol. 1
On March 11, 2008, producer Randy Jackson released his first studio album, in which Yamin features in a duet with American Idol co-contestant Katharine McPhee. The song, "Real Love", is a cover of a Lee Ryan song, using the male/female structure of the Trinity Stone featuring Ne-Yo cover. The song was released as a single for radio airplay on April 22, 2008.
DisneyMania 6
Yamin covered Elton John's Academy Award-winning song in 1994, "Can You Feel the Love Tonight" from Disney's The Lion King, for the compilation album DisneyMania 6, released on May 20, 2008.
On October 27, 2008, Yamin performed in a concert as part of the celebration of the 10th anniversary of the Peres Center for Peace in Israel. The concert was titled "Believe: Celebrating a Decade of Peacebuilding Activities" and took place at the Tel Aviv Performing Arts Center. Yamin performed "Can You Feel the Love Tonight", and then closed the concert in a duet with singer Liel Kolet, performing "I Wish That...", a song written by Diane Warren. Other artists that were scheduled to perform include Andrea Bocelli, Slash and Dave Koz.
Collaborations
Taylor Hicks: The Distance
Yamin collaborated with fellow American Idol Taylor Hicks on Hicks' second album, The Distance, released on March 10, 2009. They recorded a duet of a cover of Bobby Womack's "Woman's Gotta Have It".
Sanjoy: OBVI
Yamin collaborated with Bangladeshi American DJ Sanjoy in the fast-paced pop EDM "OBVI," released on January 13, 2017. Yamin was selected as the singer after "OBVI" brought Sanjoy back memories of his first kiss in high school to Yamin's song "Wait for You".
Philthy: Party Crashers
Yamin collaborated with jazz musician Phil Lassiter in his second album Party Crashers, released digitally on July 6, 2018. The album contains 11 tracks featuring former member of Prince & The New Power Generation, Philip Lassiter, members of Snarky Puppy, Bobby Sparks, Mark Lettieri & Jason Thomas, and Mono Neon.
On April 21, 2018, Yamin performed the National Anthem for the Toyota Owners 400 Monster Energy NASCAR Cup Series race at Richmond Raceway in Richmond, Virginia.
Advocacy
As a diabetic, Yamin supports and works as a spokesman for various organizations, including the Juvenile Diabetes Research Foundation (JDRF). In October 2006, Yamin sang the national anthem at the Dodger Stadium (LA) and cut the ribbon during the JDRF International Walk to Cure Diabetes. In addition, a portion of the proceeds from his Virginia State Fair concert benefitted the JDRF. The Central Virginia Chapter of the JDRF honored Yamin for his commitment to diabetes awareness and research at its 8th Annual Spring Gala on March 1, 2008; more than $400,000 was raised at the event. He returned for the 9th Annual Spring Gala on April 4, 2009.
In August 2007, Yamin visited Capitol Hill as International Celebrity Advocate Co-chair of the Promise to Remember Me Campaign to petition Representatives for their support to extend the Special Diabetes Program, which provides federal funding for type 1 diabetes research.
In October 2007, Yamin was named Global Ambassador to promote the Inspired by Diabetes Creative Expression Competition, a global contest in which people with diabetes, as well as their friends and families, can share through art, music, or essay how the disease has impacted their lives.
During his fall 2007 concert tour, Yamin announced that 100% of proceeds from the sale of designated T-shirts and pins would benefit the Life for a Child Program, which provides insulin, as well as diabetes-related care and supplies, for children in developing countries.
On World Diabetes Day, November 14, 2007, Yamin was joined by children with diabetes for a performance of the song "Promise to Remember Me" in the United Nation's Rose Garden.
Following the World Diabetes Day ceremonies, Yamin taped a segment of the Montel Williams Show during which he shared his experiences learning to live with the disease and performed "Wait for You". The 30-minute segment was aired on November 29, 2007.
During October 2009, Yamin was a guest speaker at the World Diabetes Congress in Montreal, Canada, speaking at an open forum on "Living with diabetes and its complications: perspective of someone with diabetes".
On November 3, 2010, Yamin appeared on Don't Forget the Lyrics, contesting for two charities: JDRF and Malaria No More. He won $5,000 for them.
On November 5, 2010, Yamin was a guest performer at the 40th Anniversary of Africare.
During October and November 2012, Yamin was an integral part of the Big Blue Test campaign organized by Diabetes Hands Foundation, to raise awareness of the importance of exercise and help people with diabetes in need.
Discography
Studio albums
Singles
Other songsNotesA ^Yamin's cover of Donny Hathaway's song "This Christmas" was originally released as a single online to AOL Music and iTunes on December 6, 2006. The rendition was later included on Sounds of the Season: The Elliott Yamin Holiday Collection, released in October 2007. Although the song was first released in 2006, it achieved its peak Billboard chart position in January 2008.
B ^"Wait for You" was the first official single released from Yamin's self-titled debut. It premiered on radio on March 1, 2007, and was released to iTunes on March 13, 2007. The song was added to Z100 NYC's (the most listened radio station in the U.S.) Top 40 list in late May 2007, making Yamin one of the few independent artists to be played on that radio station.
C ^"Wait for You" has been included in the Now That's What I Call Music! 25 collection, the Radio Disney Jams, Vol. 10 compilation, and the Kidz Bop 13 album. The Jason Nevins GTR Mix of the song has been included on Ultra.2008, a collection of dance club remixes. An instrumental version of the song has also been included in the Strung Out Vol. 2: The String Quartet Tribute to Modern Rock Hits album.
D ^On August 16, 2007, Yamin announced his second radio single, "One Word", on Fox 5 News in Washington, DC. It was released to radio on October 16, 2007.
E ^"Moody's Mood for Love" was not released as a standard single in the U.S.; no songs from the American Idol Season 5: Encores CD were made available as singles for radio airplay. The chart position was attained strictly from sales of the individual track from various Internet music download sites.
F ^'"Movin' On" was not released as a single, but rather as a pre-album track made available to U.S. online music retailers on February 13, 2007.
Music videos
References
External links
Elliott Yamin official website
Official site by Avex Group
EtrainStation – Official Elliott Yamin Forum
Elliott Yamin Songs on AOL Music
Elliott Yamin on American Idol at American Idol Watch
1978 births
21st-century American singers
American Idol participants
American male pop singers
Living people
Singers from Los Angeles
Musicians from Richmond, Virginia
People with type 1 diabetes
Avex Group artists
Sony Music Publishing artists
Hickory Records artists
Fontana Records artists
American contemporary R&B singers
Songwriters from Virginia
Songwriters from California
21st-century American male singers
21st-century American Jews
American male songwriters |
4096004 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sri%20Lankan%20Tamils | Sri Lankan Tamils | Sri Lankan Tamils ( or ), also known as Ceylon Tamils or Eelam Tamils, are Tamils native to the South Asian island state of Sri Lanka. Today, they constitute a majority in the Northern Province, form the plurality in the Eastern Province and are in the minority throughout the rest of the country. 70% of Sri Lankan Tamils in Sri Lanka live in the Northern and Eastern provinces.
Modern Sri Lankan Tamils descend from residents of the Jaffna Kingdom, a former kingdom in the north of Sri Lanka and Vannimai chieftaincies from the east. According to the anthropological and archaeological evidence, Sri Lankan Tamils have a very long history in Sri Lanka and have lived on the island since at least around the 2nd century BCE.
The Sri Lankan Tamils are mostly Hindus with a significant Christian population. Sri Lankan Tamil literature on topics including religion and the sciences flourished during the medieval period in the court of the Jaffna Kingdom. Since the beginning of the Sri Lankan Civil War in the 1980s, it is distinguished by an emphasis on themes relating to the conflict. Sri Lankan Tamil dialects are noted for their archaism and retention of words not in everyday use in Tamil Nadu, India.
Since Sri Lanka gained independence from Britain in 1948, relations between the majority Sinhalese and minority Tamil communities have been strained. Rising ethnic and political tensions following the Sinhala Only Act, along with ethnic pogroms carried out by Sinhalese mobs in 1956, 1958, 1977, 1981 and 1983, led to the formation and strengthening of militant groups advocating independence for Tamils. The ensuing civil war resulted in the deaths of more than 100,000 people and the forced disappearance and rape of thousands of others. The civil war ended in 2009 but there are continuing allegations of atrocities being committed by the Sri Lankan military. A United Nations panel found that as many as 40,000 Tamil civilians may have been killed in the final months of the civil war. In January 2020, President Gotabaya Rajapaksa said that the estimated 20,000+ disappeared Sri Lankan Tamils were dead. The end of the civil war has not fully improved conditions in Sri Lanka, with press freedom not being restored and the judiciary coming under political control.
One-third of Sri Lankan Tamils now live outside Sri Lanka. While there was significant migration during the British colonial era to Singapore and Malaysia, the civil war led to more than 800,000 Tamils leaving Sri Lanka, and many have left the country for destinations such as Canada, United Kingdom, Germany and India as refugees or emigrants. According to the pro-rebel TamilNet, the persecution and discrimination that Sri Lankan Tamils faced has resulted in some Tamils today not identifying themselves as Sri Lankans but instead identifying themselves as either Eelam Tamils, Ceylon Tamils, or simply Tamils. Many still support the idea of Tamil Eelam, a proposed independent state that Sri Lankan Tamils aspired to create in the North-East of Sri Lanka. Inspired by the Tamil Eelam flag, the tiger also used by the LTTE, has become a symbol of Tamil nationalism for some Tamils in Sri Lanka and the Sri Lankan Tamil diaspora.
History
There is little scholarly consensus over the presence of the Sri Lankan Tamil people in Sri Lanka, also known as Eelam in Sangam literature. One older theory states that there were no large Tamil settlements in Sri Lanka until the 10th century CE. According to the anthropological and archaeological evidence, Sri Lankan Tamils have a very long history in Sri Lanka and have lived on the island since at least around the 2nd century BCE.
Prehistoric period
The Indigenous Veddas are ethnically related to people in South India and early populations of Southeast Asia. It is not possible to ascertain what languages that they originally spoke as Vedda language is considered diverged from its original source (due to Sinhalese language influence).
According to K. Indrapala, cultural diffusion, rather than migration of people, spread the Prakrit and Tamil languages from peninsular India into an existing mesolithic population, centuries before the common era. Tamil Brahmi and Tamil-Prakrit scripts were used to write the Tamil language during this period on the island.
During the protohistoric period (1000-500 BCE) Sri Lanka was culturally united with Southern India, and shared the same megalithic burials, pottery, iron technology, farming techniques and megalithic graffiti. This cultural complex spread from southern India along with Dravidian clans such as the Velir, prior to the migration of Prakrit speakers.
Settlements of culturally similar early populations of ancient Sri Lanka and ancient Tamil Nadu in India were excavated at megalithic burial sites at Pomparippu on the west coast and in Kathiraveli on the east coast of the island. Bearing a remarkable resemblance to burials in the Early Pandyan Kingdom, these sites were established between the 5th century BCE and 2nd century CE.
Excavated ceramic sequences similar to that of Arikamedu were found in Kandarodai (Kadiramalai) on the north coast, dated to 1300 BCE. Cultural similarities in burial practices in South India and Sri Lanka were dated by archaeologists to 10th century BCE. However, Indian history and archaeology have pushed the date back to 15th century BCE. In Sri Lanka, there is radiometric evidence from Anuradhapura that the non-Brahmi symbol-bearing black and red ware occur in the 10th century BCE.
The skeletal remains of an Early Iron Age chief were excavated in Anaikoddai, Jaffna District. The name Ko Veta is engraved in Brahmi script on a seal buried with the skeleton and is assigned by the excavators to the 3rd century BCE. Ko, meaning "King" in Tamil, is comparable to such names as Ko Atan, Ko Putivira and Ko Ra-pumaan occurring in contemporary Tamil Brahmi inscriptions of ancient South India and Egypt.
Historic period
Potsherds with early Tamil writing from the 2nd century BCE have been found from the north in Poonagari, Kilinochchi District to the south in Tissamaharama. They bore several inscriptions, including a clan name—veḷ, a name related to velir from ancient Tamil country.
Once Prakrit speakers had attained dominance on the island, the Mahavamsa further recounts the later migration of royal brides and service castes from the Tamil Pandya Kingdom to the Anuradhapura Kingdom in the early historic period.
Epigraphic evidence shows people identifying themselves as Damelas or Damedas (the Prakrit word for Tamil people) in Anuradhapura, the capital city of Rajarata the middle kingdom, and other areas of Sri Lanka as early as the 2nd century BCE. Excavations in the area of Tissamaharama in southern Sri Lanka have unearthed locally issued coins, produced between the 2nd century BCE and the 2nd century CE, some of which carry local Tamil personal names written in early Tamil characters, which suggest that local Tamil merchants were present and actively involved in trade along the southern coast of Sri Lanka by the late classical period.
Other ancient inscriptions from the period reference a Tamil merchant, the Tamil householder residing in Iḷabharata and a Tamil sailor named Karava. Two of the six ancient inscriptions referring to the Damedas (Tamils) are in Periya Pullyakulam in the Vavuniya District, one is in Seruvavila in Trincomalee District, one is in Kuduvil in Ampara District, one is in Anuradhapura and one is in Matale District.
Literary sources make references about Tamil rulers bringing horses to the island in water crafts in the second century BCE, most likely arriving at Kudiramalai. Historical records establish that Tamil kingdoms in modern India were closely involved in the island's affairs from about the 2nd century BCE. Kudiramalai, Kandarodai and Vallipuram served as great northern Tamil capitals and emporiums of trade with these kingdoms and the Romans from the 6th–2nd centuries BCE. The archaeological discoveries in these towns and the Manimekhalai, a historical poem, detail how Nāka-Tivu of Nāka-Nadu on the Jaffna Peninsula was a lucrative international market for pearl and conch trading for the Tamil fishermen.
In Mahavamsa, a historical poem, ethnic Tamil adventurers such as Ellalan invaded the island around 145 BCE. Early Chola king Karikalan, son of Eelamcetcenni utilised superior Chola naval power to conquer Ceylon in the first century CE. Hindu Saivism, Tamil Buddhism and Jainism were popular amongst the Tamils at this time, as was the proliferation of village deity worship.
The Amaravati school was influential in the region when the Telugu Satavahana dynasty established the Andhra empire and its 17th monarch Hāla (20–24 CE) married a princess from the island. Ancient Vanniars settled in the east of the island in the first few centuries of the common era to cultivate and maintain the area. The Vanni region flourished.
In the 6th century CE, a special coastal route by boat was established from the Jaffna peninsula southwards to Saivite religious centres in Trincomalee (Koneswaram) and further south to Batticaloa (Thirukkovil), passed a few small Tamil trading settlements in Mullaitivu on the north coast.
The conquests and rule of the island by Pallava king Narasimhavarman I (630–668 CE) and his grandfather King Simhavishnu (537–590 CE) saw the erection and structural development of several Kovils around the island, particularly in the north-east—these Pallava Dravidian rock temples remained a popular and highly influential style of architecture in the region over the next few centuries. Tamil soldiers from what is now South India were brought to Anuradhapura between the 7th and 11th centuries CE in such large numbers that local chiefs and kings trying to establish legitimacy came to rely on them. By the 8th century CE Tamil villages were collectively known as Demel-kaballa (Tamil allotment), Demelat-valademin (Tamil villages), and Demel-gam-bim (Tamil villages and lands).
Medieval period
In the 9th and 10th centuries CE, Pandya and Chola incursions into Sri Lanka culminated in the Chola annexation of the island, which lasted until the latter half of the 11th century CE. Raja Raja Chola I renamed the northern throne Mummudi Chola Mandalam after his conquest of the northeast country to protect Tamil traders being looted, imprisoned and killed for years on the island. Rajadhiraja Chola's conquest of the island led to the fall of four kings there, one of whom, Madavarajah, the king of Jaffna, was a usurper from the Rashtrakuta Dynasty. These dynasties oversaw the development of several kovils that administered services to communities of land assigned to the temples through royal grants. Their rule also saw the benefaction of other faiths. Recent excavations have led to the discovery of a limestone Kovil of Raja Raja Chola I's era on Delft island, found with Chola coins from this period. The decline of Chola power in Sri Lanka was followed by the restoration of the Polonnaruwa kingdom in the late 11th century CE.
In 1215, following Pandya invasions, the Tamil-dominant Arya Chakaravarthi dynasty established an independent Jaffna kingdom on the Jaffna peninsula and other parts of the north. The Arya Chakaravarthi expansion into the south was halted by Alagakkonara, a man descended from a family of merchants from Kanchipuram in Tamil Nadu. He was the chief minister of the Sinhalese king Parakramabahu V (1344–59 CE). Vira Alakeshwara, a descendant of Alagakkonara, later became king of the Sinhalese, but he was overthrown by the Ming admiral Zheng He in 1409 CE. The next year, the Chinese admiral Zheng He erected a trilingual stone tablet in Galle in the south of the island, written in Chinese, Persian and Tamil that recorded offerings he made to Buddha, Allah and the God of Tamils Tenavarai Nayanar. The admiral invoked the blessings of Hindu deities at Temple of Perimpanayagam Tenavaram, Tevanthurai for a peaceful world built on trade.
The 1502 map Cantino represents three Tamil cities on the east coast of the island - Mullaitivu, Trincomalee and Panama, where the residents grow cinnamon and other spices, fish for pearls and seed pearls and worship idols, trading heavily with Kozhikode of Kerala. The Arya Chakaravarthi dynasty ruled large parts of northeast Sri Lanka until the Portuguese conquest of the Jaffna kingdom in 1619 CE. The coastal areas of the island were conquered by the Dutch and then became part of the British Empire in 1796 CE.
The Sinhalese Nampota dated in its present form to the 14th or 15th century CE suggests that the whole of the Tamil Kingdom, including parts of the modern Trincomalee District, was recognised as a Tamil region by the name Demala-pattana (Tamil city). In this work, a number of villages that are now situated in the Jaffna, Mullaitivu and Trincomalee districts are mentioned as places in Demala-pattana.
The English sailor Robert Knox described walking into the island's Tamil country in the publication An Historical Relation of the Island Ceylon, referencing some aspects of their royal, rural and economic life and annotating some kingdoms within it on a map in 1681 CE. Upon arrival of European powers from the 17th century CE, the Tamils' separate nation was described in their areas of habitation in the northeast of the island.
The caste structure of the majority Sinhalese has also accommodated Tamil and Kerala immigrants from South India since the 13th century CE. This led to the emergence of three new Sinhalese caste groups: the Salagama, the Durava and the Karava. The Tamil migration and assimilation continued until the 18th century CE.
Society
Demographics
According to the 2012 census there were 2,270,924 Sri Lankan Tamils in Sri Lanka, 11.2% of the population. Sri Lankan Tamils constitute an overwhelming majority of the population in the Northern Province and are the largest ethnic group in the Eastern Province. They are minority in other provinces. 70% of Sri Lankan Tamils in Sri Lanka live in the Northern and Eastern provinces.
There are no accurate figures for the number of Sri Lankan Tamils living in the diaspora. Estimates range from 450,000 to one million.
Other Tamil-speaking communities
The two groups of Tamils located in Sri Lanka are the Sri Lankan Tamils and the Indian Tamils. There also exists a significant population in Sri Lanka who are native speakers of Tamil language and are of Islamic faith. Though a significant amount of evidence points towards these Muslims being ethnic Tamils, they are controversially listed as a separate ethnic group by the Sri Lankan government.
Sri Lankan Tamils (also called Ceylon Tamils) are descendants of the Tamils of the old Jaffna Kingdom and east coast chieftaincies called Vannimais. The Indian Tamils (or Hill Country Tamils) are descendants of bonded labourers sent from Tamil Nadu to Sri Lanka in the 19th century to work on tea plantations.
Most Sri Lankan Tamils live in the Northern and Eastern provinces and in the capital Colombo, and most Indian Tamils live in the central highlands. Historically, both groups have seen themselves as separate communities, although there has been a greater sense of unity since the 1980s. In 1948, the United National Party government stripped the Indian Tamils of their citizenship. Under the terms of an agreement reached between the Sri Lankan and Indian governments in the 1960s, about forty percent of the Indian Tamils were granted Sri Lankan citizenship, and most of the remainder were repatriated to India. By the 1990s, most Indian Tamils had received Sri Lankan citizenship.
Regional groups
Sri Lankan Tamils are categorised into three subgroups based on regional distribution, dialects, and culture: Negombo Tamils from the western part of the island, Eastern Tamils from the eastern part, and Jaffna or Northern Tamils from the north.
Eastern Tamils
Eastern Tamils inhabit a region that spans the Trincomalee, Batticaloa, and Ampara districts. Their history and traditions are inspired by local legends, native literature, and colonial documents.
In the 16th century the area came under the nominal control of the Kingdom of Kandy, but there was scattered leadership under Vannimai chiefs in Batticaloa District who came with Magha's army in 1215. From that time on, Eastern Tamil social development diverged from that of the Northern Tamils.
Eastern Tamils are an agrarian-based society. They follow a caste system similar to the South Indian or Dravidian kinship system. The Eastern Tamil caste hierarchy is dominated by the Mukkuvar, Vellalar and Karaiyar. The main feature of their society is the kudi system. Although the Tamil word kudi means a house or settlement, in eastern Sri Lanka it is related to matrimonial alliances. It refers to the exogamous matrilineal clans and is found amongst most caste groups. Men or women remain members of the kudi of their birth and be brother or sister by relation. No man can marry in the same kudi because woman is always become sister to him. But, a man can only marry in one of his sampantha kudis not in the sakothara kudis. By custom, children born in a family belong to mother's kudi. Kudi also collectively own places of worship such as Hindu temples. Each caste contains a number of kudis, with varying names. Aside from castes with an internal kudi system, there are seventeen caste groups, called Ciraikudis, or imprisoned kudis, whose members were considered to be in captivity, confined to specific services such as washing, weaving, and toddy tapping. However, such restrictions no longer apply.
The Tamils of the Trincomalee district have different social customs from their southern neighbours due to the influence of the Jaffna kingdom to the north. The indigenous Veddha people of the east coast also speak Tamil and have become assimilated into the Eastern Tamil caste structure. Most Eastern Tamils follow customary laws called Mukkuva laws codified during the Dutch colonial period.
Northern Tamils
Jaffna's history of being an independent kingdom lends legitimacy to the political claims of the Sri Lankan Tamils, and has provided a focus for their constitutional demands. Northern Tamil society is generally categorised into two groups: those who are from the Jaffna peninsula in the north, and those who are residents of the Vanni to the immediate south. The Jaffna society is separated by castes. Historically, the Sri Lankan Vellalar were in northern region dominant and were traditionally husbandman involved in agriculture and cattle cultivation. They constitute half of the population and enjoyed dominance under Dutch rule, from which community the colonial political elites also were drawn from. The maritime communities existed outside the agriculture-based caste system and is dominated by the Karaiyars. The dominant castes (e.g. the Vellalar or Karaiyar) traditionally use the service of those collectively known as Kudimakkal. The Panchamars, who serve as Kudimakkal, consists of the Nalavar, Pallar, Parayar, Vannar and Ambattar. The castes of temple priests known as the Kurukkals and the Iyers are also held in high esteem. The artisans who are known as Kammalar also serve as Kudimakkal, and consists of the Kannar (brass-workers), Kollar (blacksmiths), Tattar (goldsmiths), Tatchar (carpenters) and Kartatchar (sculptor). The Kudimakkal were domestic servants who also gave ritual importance to the dominant castes.
People in the Vanni districts considered themselves separate from Tamils of the Jaffna peninsula but the two groups did intermarry. Most of these married couples moved into the Vanni districts where land was available. Vanni consists of a number of highland settlements within forested lands using irrigation tank-based cultivation. An 1890 census listed 711 such tanks in this area. Hunting and raising livestock such as water buffalo and cattle is a necessary adjunct to the agriculture. The Tamil-inhabited Vanni consists of the Vavuniya, Mullaitivu, and eastern Mannar districts. Historically, the Vanni area has been in contact with what is now South India, including during the medieval period and was ruled by the Vanniar Chieftains. Northern Tamils follow customary laws called Thesavalamai, codified during the Dutch colonial period.
Western Tamils
Western Tamils, also known as Negombo Tamils or Puttalam Tamils, are native Sri Lankan Tamils who live in the western Gampaha and Puttalam districts. The term does not apply to Tamil immigrants in these areas. They are distinguished from other Tamils by their dialects, one of which is known as the Negombo Tamil dialect, and by aspects of their culture such as customary laws. Most Negombo Tamils have assimilated into the Sinhalese ethnic group through a process known as Sinhalisation. Sinhalisation has been facilitated by caste myths and legends. The Western Tamils caste hierarchy is principally dominated by the maritime Karaiyars, along with other dominant groups such as the Paravars.
In Gampaha District, Tamils have historically inhabited the coastal region. In the Puttalam District, there was a substantial ethnic Tamil population until the first two decades of the 20th century. Most of those who identify as ethnic Tamils live in villages such as Udappu and Maradankulam. The coastal strip from Jaffna to Chilaw is also known as the "Catholic belt". The Tamil Christians, chiefly Roman Catholics, have preserved their heritage in the major cities such as Negombo, Chilaw, Puttalam, and also in villages such as Mampuri.
Some residents of these two districts, especially the Karaiyars, are bilingual, ensuring that the Tamil language survives as a lingua franca among migrating maritime communities across the island. Negombo Tamil dialect is spoken by about 50,000 people. This number does not include others, outside of Negombo city, who speak local varieties of the Tamil language. The bilingual catholic Karavas are also found in the western coastal regions, who trace their origins to the Tamil Karaiyar however identify themselves as Sinhalese.
Negombo Tamil indicates that the Karavas immigrated to Sri Lanka much later than Tamils immigrated to Jaffna. This would suggest that the Negombo dialect continued to evolve in the Coromandel Coast before it arrived in Sri Lanka and began to get influenced by Sinhala. So, in some ways, the dialect is closer to those spoken in Tamil Nadu than to Jaffna Tamil.
Some Tamil place names have been retained in these districts. Outside the Tamil-dominated northeast, the Puttalam District has the highest percentage of place names of Tamil origin in Sri Lanka. Composite or hybrid place names are also present in these districts.
Genetic affinities
Although Sri Lankan Tamils are culturally and linguistically distinct, genetic studies indicate that they are closely related to other ethnic groups in the island while being related to the Indian Tamils from South India as well. There are various studies that indicate varying degrees of connections between Sri Lankan Tamils, Sinhalese, and Indian ethnic groups.
A study conducted by Kshatriya in 1995 found that both ethnolinguistic groups of Sri Lanka, including the Tamils, were closest to the Tamil population of India and also the Muslim population of South India. They were found to be the most distant group from the Veddahs, and quite distant from both North-West Indians (Punjabis and Gujratis) and North-East Indians (Bengalis). In comparison to Indian Tamils, the Tamils of Sri Lanka had a higher admixture with the Sinhalese, though the Sinhalese themselves share a 69.86% (+/- 0.61) genetic admixture with the Indian Tamils. The study stated that any admixture from migrations several thousand years ago must have been erased through millennia of admixture among geographically local peoples.
Religion
In 1981, about eighty percent of Sri Lankan Tamils were Hindus who followed the Shaiva sect. The rest were mostly Roman Catholics who converted after the Portuguese conquest of Jaffna Kingdom. There is also a small minority of Protestants due to missionary efforts in the 18th century by organisations such as the American Ceylon Mission. Most Tamils who inhabit the Western Province are Roman Catholics, while those of the Northern and Eastern Provinces are mainly Hindu. Pentecostal and other churches, such as Jehovah's Witnesses, are active among the internally displaced and refugee populations. The 2012 Sri Lanka Census revealed a Buddhist population of 22,254 amongst Sri Lankan Tamils, i.e. roughly 1% of all Sri Lankan Tamils in Sri Lanka.
The Hindu elite, especially the Vellalar, follow the religious ideology of Shaiva Siddhanta (Shaiva school) while the masses practice folk Hinduism, upholding their faith in local village deities not found in formal Hindu scriptures. The place of worship depends on the object of worship and how it is housed. It could be a proper Hindu temple known as a Koyil, constructed according to the Agamic scripts (a set of scriptures regulating the temple cult). More often, however, the temple is not completed in accordance with Agamic scriptures but consists of the barest essential structure housing a local deity. These temples observe daily Puja (prayers) hours and are attended by locals. Both types of temples have a resident ritualist or priest known as a Kurukkal. A Kurukkal may belong to someone from a prominent local lineage like Pandaram or Iyer community. In the Eastern Province, a Kurukkal usually belongs to Lingayat sect. Other places of worship do not have icons for their deities. The sanctum could house a trident (culam), a stone, or a large tree. Temples of this type are common in the Northern and Eastern Provinces; a typical village has up to 150 such structures. The offering would be done by an elder of the family who owns the site. A coconut oil lamp would be lit on Fridays, and a special rice dish known as pongal would be cooked either on a day considered auspicious by the family or on the Thai Pongal day, and possibly on Tamil New Year Day.
There are several worshipped deities: Ayyanar, Annamar, Vairavar, Kali, Pillaiyar, Murukan, Kannaki Amman and Mariamman. Villages have more Pillaiyar temples, which are patronised by local farmers. Kannaki Amman is mostly patronised by maritime communities. Tamil Roman Catholics, along with members of other faiths, worship at the Shrine of Our Lady of Madhu. Hindus have several temples with historic importance such as those at Ketheeswaram, Koneswaram, Naguleswaram, Munneswaram, Tondeswaram, and Nallur Kandaswamy. Kataragama temple and Adam's Peak are attended by all religious communities.
Language
Sri Lankan Tamils predominantly speak Tamil and its Sri Lankan dialects. These dialects are differentiated by the phonological changes and sound shifts in their evolution from classical or old Tamil (3rd century BCE–7th century CE). The Sri Lankan Tamil dialects form a group that is distinct from the dialects of the modern Tamil Nadu and Kerala states of India. They are classified into three subgroups: the Jaffna Tamil, the Batticaloa Tamil, and the Negombo Tamil dialects. These dialects are also used by ethnic groups other than Tamils such as the Sinhalese, Moors and Veddhas. Tamil loan words in Sinhala also follow the characteristics of Sri Lankan Tamil dialects. Sri Lankan Tamils, depending on where they live in Sri Lanka, may also additionally speak Sinhala and or English. According to the 2012 Census 32.8% or 614,169 Sri Lankan Tamils also spoke Sinhala and 20.9% or 390,676 Sri Lankan Tamils also spoke English.
The Negombo Tamil dialect is used by bilingual fishermen in the Negombo area, who otherwise identify themselves as Sinhalese. This dialect has undergone considerable convergence with spoken Sinhala. The Batticaloa Tamil dialect is shared between Tamils, Muslims, Veddhas and Portuguese Burghers in the Eastern Province. Batticaloa Tamil dialect is the most literary of all the spoken dialects of Tamil. It has preserved several ancient features, remaining more consistent with the literary norm, while at the same time developing a few innovations. It also has its own distinctive vocabulary and retains words that are unique to present-day Malayalam, a Dravidian language from Kerala that originated as a dialect of old Tamil around 9th century CE. The Tamil dialect used by residents of the Trincomalee District has many similarities with the Jaffna Tamil dialect.
The dialect used in Jaffna is the oldest and closest to old Tamil. The long physical isolation of the Tamils of Jaffna has enabled their dialect to preserve ancient features of old Tamil that predate Tolkappiyam, the grammatical treatise on Tamil dated from 3rd century BCE to 10th century CE. Also, a large component of the settlers were from the Coromandel Coast and Malabar Coast which may have helped with the preservation of the dialect. Their ordinary speech is closely related to classical Tamil. Conservational Jaffna Tamil dialect and Indian Tamil dialects are to an extent not mutually intelligible, and the former is frequently mistaken for Malayalam by native Indian Tamil speakers. The closest Tamil Nadu Tamil variant to Jaffna Tamil is literary Tamil, used in formal speeches and news reading. There are also Prakrit loan words that are unique to Jaffna Tamil.
Education
Sri Lankan Tamil society values education highly, for its own sake as well as for the opportunities it provides. The kings of the Aryacakravarti dynasty were historically patrons of literature and education. Temple schools and traditional gurukulam classes on verandahs (known as Thinnai Pallikoodam in Tamil) spread basic education in religion and in languages such as Tamil and Sanskrit to the upper classes. The Portuguese introduced western-style education after their conquest of the Jaffna kingdom in 1619. The Jesuits opened churches and seminaries, but the Dutch destroyed them and opened their own schools attached to Dutch Reformed churches when they took over Tamil-speaking regions of Sri Lanka.
The primary impetus for educational opportunity came with the establishment of the American Ceylon Mission in Jaffna District, which started with the arrival in 1813 of missionaries sponsored by the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions. The critical period of the missionaries' impact was from the 1820s to the early 20th century. During this time, they created Tamil translations of English texts, engaged in printing and publishing, established primary, secondary, and college-level schools, and provided health care for residents of the Jaffna Peninsula. American activities in Jaffna also had unintended consequences. The concentration of efficient Protestant mission schools in Jaffna produced a revival movement among local Hindus led by Arumuga Navalar, who responded by building many more schools within the Jaffna peninsula. Local Catholics also started their own schools in reaction, and the state had its share of primary and secondary schools. Tamil literacy greatly increased as a result of these changes. This prompted the British colonial government to hire Tamils as government servants in British-held Ceylon, India, Malaysia, and Singapore.
By the time Sri Lanka became independent in 1948, about sixty percent of government jobs were held by Tamils, who formed barely fifteen percent of the population. The elected Sinhalese leaders of the country saw this as the result of a British stratagem to control the majority Sinhalese, and deemed it a situation that needed correction by implementation of the Policy of standardization.
Literature
According to legends, the origin of Sri Lankan Tamil literature dates back to the Sangam period (3rd century BCE–6th century CE). These legends indicate that the Tamil poet Eelattu Poothanthevanar (Poothanthevanar from Sri Lanka) lived during this period.
Medieval period Tamil literature on the subjects of medicine, mathematics and history was produced in the courts of the Jaffna Kingdom.
During Singai Pararasasekaran's rule, an academy for the propagation of the Tamil language, modelled on those of ancient Tamil Sangam, was established in Nallur. This academy collected manuscripts of ancient works and preserved them in the Saraswathy Mahal library.
During the Portuguese and Dutch colonial periods (1619–1796), Muttukumara Kavirajar is the earliest known author who used literature to respond to Christian missionary activities. He was followed by Arumuga Navalar, who wrote and published a number of books. The period of joint missionary activities by the Anglican, American Ceylon, and Methodist Missions also saw the spread of modern education and the expansion of translation activities.
The modern period of Tamil literature began in the 1960s with the establishment of modern universities and a free education system in post-independence Sri Lanka. The 1960s also saw a social revolt against the caste system in Jaffna, which impacted Tamil literature: Dominic Jeeva, Senkai aazhiyaan, Thamizhmani Ahalangan are the products of this period.
After the start of the civil war in 1983, a number of poets and fiction writers became active, focusing on subjects such as death, destruction, and rape. Such writings have no parallels in any previous Tamil literature. The war produced displaced Tamil writers around the globe who recorded their longing for their lost homes and the need for integration with mainstream communities in Europe and North America.
The Jaffna Public Library which contained over 97,000 books and manuscripts was one of the biggest libraries in Asia, and through the Burning of the Jaffna Public Library much of Sri Lankan Tamil literature has been obliterated.
Cuisine
The cuisine of Sri Lankan Tamils draws influence from that of India, as well as from colonialists and foreign traders. Rice is usually consumed daily and can be found at any special occasion, while spicy curries are favourite dishes for lunch and dinner. Rice and curry is the name for a range of Sri Lankan Tamil dishes distinct from Indian Tamil cuisine, with regional variations between the island's northern and eastern areas. While rice with curries is the most popular lunch menu, combinations such as curd, tangy mango, and tomato rice are also commonly served.
String hoppers, which are made of rice flour and look like knitted vermicelli neatly laid out in circular pieces about in diameter, are frequently combined with tomato sothi (a soup) and curries for breakfast and dinner. Another common item is puttu, a granular, dry, but soft steamed rice powder cooked in a bamboo cylinder with the base wrapped in cloth so that the bamboo flute can be set upright over a clay pot of boiling water. This can be transformed into varieties such as ragi, spinach, and tapioca puttu. There are also sweet and savoury puttus. Another popular breakfast or dinner dish is Appam, a thin crusty pancake made with rice flour, with a round soft crust in the middle. It has variations such as egg or milk Appam.
Jaffna, as a peninsula, has an abundance of seafood such as crab, shark, fish, prawn, and squid. Meat dishes such as mutton, chicken and pork also have their own niche. Vegetable curries use ingredients primarily from the home garden such as pumpkin, yam, jackfruit seed, hibiscus flower, and various green leaves. Coconut milk and hot chilli powder are also frequently used. Appetizers can consist of a range of achars (pickles) and vadahams. Snacks and sweets are generally of the homemade "rustic" variety, relying on jaggery, sesame seed, coconut, and gingelly oil, to give them their distinct regional flavour. A popular alcoholic drink in rural areas is palm wine (toddy), made from palmyra tree sap. Snacks, savouries, sweets and porridge produced from the palmyra form a separate but unique category of foods; from the fan-shaped leaves to the root, the palmyra palm forms an intrinsic part of the life and cuisine of northern region.
Politics
Sri Lanka became an independent nation in 1948. Since independence, the political relationship between the Sinhalese and Sri Lankan Tamil communities has been strained. Sri Lanka has been unable to contain its ethnic violence as it escalated from sporadic terrorism to mob violence, and finally to civil war. The Sri Lankan Civil War has several underlying causes: the ways in which modern ethnic identities have been made and remade since the colonial period, rhetorical wars over archaeological sites and place name etymologies, and the political use of the national past. The civil war resulted in the death of at least 100,000 people and, according to human rights groups such as Human Rights Watch, the forced disappearance of thousands of others (see White van abductions in Sri Lanka). Since 1983, Sri Lanka has also witnessed massive civilian displacements of more than a million people, with eighty percent of them being Sri Lankan Tamils.
Before independence
The arrival of Protestant missionaries on a large scale beginning in 1814 was a primary contributor to the development of political awareness among Sri Lankan Tamils. Activities by missionaries of the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions and Methodist and Anglican churches led to a revival among Hindu Tamils who created their own social groups, built their own schools and temples, and published their own literature to counter the missionary activities. The success of this effort led to a new confidence for the Tamils, encouraging them to think of themselves as a community, and it paved the way for their emergence as a cultural, religious, and linguistic society in the mid-19th century.
Britain, which conquered the whole island by 1815, established a legislative council in 1833. During the 1833 Colebrooke-Cameron reforms the British centralised control to Colombo and amalgamated all administrative territories including the Tamil areas which had previously been administered separately. A form of modern central government was established for the first time in the island, followed by gradual decline of local form of feudalism including Rajakariya, which was abolished soon after.
In the legislative council the British assigned three European seats and one seat each for Sinhalese, Tamils and Burghers. This council's primary function was to act as advisor to the Governor, and the seats eventually became elected positions. There was initially little tension between the Sinhalese and the Tamils, when in 1913 Ponnambalam Arunachalam, a Tamil, was elected representative of the Sinhalese as well as of the Tamils in the national legislative council. British Governor William Manning, who was appointed in 1918 however, actively encouraged the concept of "communal representation". Subsequently, the Donoughmore Commission in 1931 rejected communal representation and brought in universal franchise. This decision was opposed by the Tamil political leadership, who realised that they would be reduced to a minority in parliament according to their proportion of the overall population. In 1944, G. G. Ponnambalam, a leader of the Tamil community, suggested to the Soulbury Commission that a roughly equal number of seats be assigned to Sinhalese and minorities in an independent Ceylon (50:50)—a proposal that was rejected. But under section 29(2) of the constitution formulated by the commissioner, additional protection was provided to minority groups, such requiring a two-thirds majority for any amendments and a scheme of representation that provided more weight to the ethnic minorities.
After independence
Shortly after independence in 1948, G.G. Ponnambalam and his All Ceylon Tamil Congress joined D.S. Senanayake's moderate, western-oriented United National Party led government which led to a split in the Tamil Congress. S.J.V. Chelvanayakam, the leader of the splinter Federal Party (FP or Illankai Tamil Arasu Kachchi), contested the Ceylon Citizenship Act, which denied citizenship to Tamils of recent Indian origin, before the Supreme Court, and then in the Privy council in England, but failed to overturn it. The FP eventually became the dominant Tamil political party. In response to the Sinhala Only Act in 1956, which made Sinhala the sole official language, Federal Party Members of Parliament staged a nonviolent sit-in (satyagraha) protest, but it was violently broken up by a mob. The FP was blamed and briefly banned after the riots of May–June 1958 targeting Tamils, in which many were killed and thousands forced to flee their homes. Another point of conflict between the communities was state sponsored colonisation schemes that effectively changed the demographic balance in the Eastern Province, an area Tamil nationalists considered to be their traditional homeland, in favour of the majority Sinhalese.
In 1972, a newly formulated constitution removed section 29(2) of the 1947 Soulbury constitution that was formulated to protect the interests of minorities. Also, in 1973, the Policy of standardization was implemented by the Sri Lankan government, supposedly to rectify disparities in university enrolment created under British colonial rule. The resultant benefits enjoyed by Sinhalese students also meant a significant decrease in the number of Tamil students within the Sri Lankan university student population.
Shortly thereafter, in 1973, the Federal Party decided to demand a separate Tamil state. In 1976 they merged with the other Tamil political parties to become the Tamil United Liberation Front (TULF). By 1977 most Tamils seemed to support the move for independence by electing the Tamil United Liberation Front overwhelmingly. The elections were followed by the 1977 riots, in which around 300 Tamils were killed. There was further violence in 1981 when an organised Sinhalese mob went on a rampage during the nights of 31 May to 2 June, burning down the Jaffna public library—at the time one of the largest libraries in Asia—containing more than 97,000 books and manuscripts.
Rise of militancy
Since 1948, successive governments have adopted policies that had the net effect of assisting the Sinhalese community in such areas as education and public employment. These policies made it difficult for middle class Tamil youth to enter university or secure employment.
The individuals belonging to this younger generation, often referred to by other Tamils as "the boys" (Podiyangal in Tamil), formed many militant organisations. The most important contributor to the strength of the militant groups was the Black July massacre, in which between 1,000 and 3,000 Tamils were killed, prompting many youths to choose the path of armed resistance.
By the end of 1987, the militant youth groups had fought not only the Sri Lankan security forces and the Indian Peace Keeping Force also among each other, with the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE) eventually eliminating most of the others. Except for the LTTE, many of the remaining organisations transformed into either minor political parties within the Tamil National Alliance or standalone political parties. Some also function as paramilitary groups within the Sri Lankan military.
Human rights groups such as Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch, as well as the United States Department of State and the European Union, have expressed concern about the state of human rights in Sri Lanka, and both the government of Sri Lanka and the rebel LTTE have been accused of human rights violations. Although Amnesty International in 2003 found considerable improvement in the human rights situation, attributed to a ceasefire and peace talks between the government and the LTTE, by 2007 they reported an escalation in political killings, child recruitment, abductions, and armed clashes, which created a climate of fear in the north and east of the country.
End of the civil war
In August 2009, the civil war ended with total victory for the government forces. During the last phase of the war, many Tamil civilians and combatants were killed. The government estimated that over 22,000 LTTE cadres had died. The civilian death toll is estimated to be as high as 40,000 or more. This is in addition to the 70,000 Sri Lankans killed up to the beginning of the last phase of the civil war. Over 300,000 internally displaced Tamil civilians were interred in special camps and eventually released. As of 2011, there were still a few thousand alleged combatants in state prisons awaiting trials. The Sri Lankan government has released over 11,000 rehabilitated former LTTE cadres.
Bishop of Mannar (a northwestern town) Rayappu Joseph said that 146,679 people seemed to be unaccounted between 2008 October and at the end of the civil war.
The Tamil presence in Sri Lankan politics and society is facing a revival. In 2015 elections the Tamil national alliance got the third largest number of seats in the Parliament and as the largest parties UNP and SLFP created a unity government TNA leader R. Sampanthan was appointed as the opposition leader. K. Sripavan became the 44th Chief justice and the second Tamil to hold the position.
Migrations
Pre-independence
The earliest Tamil speakers from Sri Lanka known to have travelled to foreign lands were members of a merchant guild called Tenilankai Valanciyar (Valanciyar from Lanka of the South). They left behind inscriptions in South India dated to the 13th century. In the late 19th century, educated Tamils from the Jaffna peninsula migrated to the British colonies of Malaya (Malaysia and Singapore) and India to assist the colonial bureaucracy. They worked in almost every branch of public administration, as well as on plantations and in industrial sectors. Prominent Sri Lankan Tamils in the Forbes list of billionaire include: Ananda Krishnan, Raj Rajaratnam, and G. Gnanalingam, and Singapore's former foreign minister and deputy prime minister, S. Rajaratnam, are of Sri Lankan Tamil descent. C. W. Thamotharampillai, an Indian-based Tamil language revivalist, was born in the Jaffna peninsula.Before the Sri Lankan civil war, Sri Lankan Tamil communities were well established in Malaysia, Singapore, India and the UK.
Post civil war
After the start of the conflict between the Sri Lankan government and the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam, there was a mass migration of Tamils trying to escape the hardships and perils of war. Initially, it was middle class professionals, such as doctors and engineers, who emigrated; they were followed by the poorer segments of the community. The fighting drove more than 800,000 Tamils from their homes to other places within Sri Lanka as internally displaced persons and also overseas, prompting the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) to identify them in 2004 as the largest asylum-seeking group.
The country with the largest share of displaced Tamils is Canada, with more than 200,000 legal residents, found mostly within the Greater Toronto Area. and there are a number of prominent Canadians of Sri Lankan Tamil descent, such as author Shyam Selvadurai, and Indira Samarasekera, former president of the University of Alberta.
Sri Lankan Tamils in India are mostly refugees of about over 100,000 in special camps and another 50,000 outside of the camps. In western European countries, the refugees and immigrants have integrated themselves into society where permitted. Tamil British singer M.I.A (born Mathangi Arulpragasam) and BBC journalist George Alagiah are, among others, notable people of Sri Lankan Tamil descent. Sri Lankan Tamil Hindus have built a number of prominent Hindu temples across North America and Europe, notably in Canada, France, Germany, Denmark, and the UK.
Sri Lankan Tamils continue to seek refuge in countries like Canada and Australia. The International Organization for Migration and the Australian government has declared some Sri Lankans including Tamils as economic migrants. A Canadian government survey found that over 70% of Sri Lankan Tamil refugees have gone back to Sri Lanka for holidays raising concerns over the legitimacy of their refugee claims. However, the inability of Tamils to settle in their own lands indicate the ongoing hostilities and differential treatment of Tamils even after the end of armed war in May 2009.
See also
List of Sri Lankan Tamils
Sri Lankan Tamils in Indian cinema
Tamil inscriptions in Sri Lanka
Notes
References
Further reading
Mendis, G.C. (1957, 3rd ed. 1995). Ceylon Today and Yesterday, Colombo, Lake House.
External links
Tamils, Sri Lankan
Sri Lankan
Sri Lankan |
4096055 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vladimir%20Tism%C4%83neanu | Vladimir Tismăneanu | Vladimir Tismăneanu (; born July 4, 1951) is a Romanian American political scientist, political analyst, sociologist, and professor at the University of Maryland, College Park. A specialist in political systems and comparative politics, he is director of the University of Maryland's Center for the Study of Post-Communist Societies, having served as chairman of the editorial committee (2004–2008) and editor (1998–2004) of the East European Politics and Societies academic review. Over the years, Tismăneanu has been a contributor to several periodicals, including Studia Politica, Journal of Democracy, Sfera Politicii, Revista 22, Evenimentul Zilei, Idei în Dialog and Cotidianul. He has also worked with the international radio stations Radio Free Europe and Deutsche Welle, and authored programs for the Romanian Television Company. As of 2009, he is Academic Council Chairman of the Institute for People's Studies, a think tank of the Romanian Democratic Liberal Party. Between February 2010 and May 2012, he was also President of the Scientific Council of the Institute for the Investigation of Communist Crimes in Romania.
Acclaimed for his scholarly works on Stalinism in general and the Romanian communist regime in particular, as well as for exploring the impact of nationalism, national communism and neo-Stalinism in the Soviet Union and countries of the Eastern Bloc, Tismăneanu writes from the critical perspective of a civil society supporter. His other influential texts deal with diverse topics such as Cold War history, Kremlinology and the Holocaust. Having moved from a loose Marxist vision, shaped under the influence of neo-Marxist and Western Marxist scholarship, he became a noted proponent of classical liberalism and liberal democracy. This perspective is outlined in both his scientific contributions and volumes dealing with Romania's post-1989 history, the latter of which include collections of essays and several published interviews with literary critic . Tismăneanu completed his award-winning synthesis on Romanian communism, titled Stalinism for All Seasons, in 2003.
Tismăneanu's background and work came under scrutiny after his 2006 appointment by Romanian President Traian Băsescu as head of the Presidential Commission for the Study of the Communist Dictatorship in Romania, which presented its report to the Romanian Parliament on December 18, 2006. There has been much controversy about the choice of Tismăneanu as commission president, about Tismăneanu's choices for commission members, and about the conclusions of the report.
Biography
Born in Brașov, Vladimir Tismăneanu is the son of Leonte Tismăneanu, an activist of the Romanian Communist Party since the early 1930s, and Hermina Marcusohn, a physician and one-time Communist Party activist, both of whom were Jewish and Spanish Civil War veterans. His father, born in Bessarabia and settled in the Soviet Union at the end of the 1930s, worked in agitprop structures, returning to Romania at the end of World War II, and becoming, under the communist regime, chair of the Marxism-Leninism department of the University of Bucharest. Progressively after Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej acted against Ana Pauker, the Tismăneanus were sidelined inside the Romanian nomenklatura; in 1960, Leonte Tismăneanu was stripped of his position as deputy head of Editura Politică.
Vladimir Tismăneanu grew up in the exclusive Primăverii quarter of Bucharest. During his years of study at the , which was then largely attended by students belonging to the nomenklatura, he was in the same year as Nicu Ceaușescu, son of communist leader Nicolae Ceaușescu, as well as the children of Leonte Răutu, , and Silviu Brucan.
In his preface to the Romanian-language edition of his 2003 book Stalinism for All Seasons, Tismăneanu indicated that, starting in 1970, he became interested in critiques of Marxism-Leninism and the Romanian communist regime in particular, after reading banned works made available to him by various of his acquaintances (among others, writer Dumitru Țepeneag and his wife, translator Mona Țepeneag, as well as Ileana, the daughter of Communist Party dignitary Gheorghe Gaston Marin). He stated that, at the time, he was influenced by Communism in Romania, an analytic and critical work by Romanian-born British political scientist Ghiță Ionescu, as well as by Marxist, Western Marxist, Democratic and Libertarian Socialist scholarship (among others, the ideas of Georg Lukács, Leszek Kołakowski, Leon Trotsky, Antonio Gramsci, and the Frankfurt School). According to Tismăneanu, his family background allowed him insight into the hidden aspects of Communist Party history, which was comparing with the ideological demands of the Ceauşescu regime, and especially with the latter's emphasis on nationalism.
He graduated as a valedictorian from the University of Bucharest's Faculty of Sociology in 1974, and received his Ph.D. from the same institution in 1980, presenting the thesis Teoria Critică a Școlii de la Frankfurt și radicalismul de stînga contemporan ("The Critical Theory of the Frankfurt School and Contemporary Left-Wing Radicalism"). During the period, he was received into the ranks of the Union of Communist Youth (UTC), authored several articles which displayed support for the regime, and, as vice-president of the UTC's Communist Student Association, allegedly took part in authoring and compiling propaganda aimed at students. He was also contributing to the UTC magazines Amfiteatru and Viața Studențească, where his essentially neo-Marxist essays were often mixed for publication with endorsements of the official ideology.
Between 1974 and 1981, Tismăneanu worked as a sociologist, employed by the Urban Sociology Department of the Institute Typified Buildings Design in Bucharest. Among his colleagues there were Alexandru Florian, Cătălin Mamali, Dumitru Sandu, Dorel Abraham, , Alin Teodorescu, and Mihai Milca. Tismăneanu was not given approval to hold an academic position. Around 1977, he was involved in a debate about the nature of Romanian culture, expressing a pro-European perspective in reaction to officially endorsed nationalism in general and, in particular, to the form of protochronism advocated by Edgar Papu and Luceafărul magazine. His thoughts on the matter, published by Amfiteatru alongside similar writings by Milca, Gheorghe Achiței, , and Solomon Marcus.
In September 1981, a short while after the death of his father, he accompanied his mother on a voyage to Spain, after she had been granted a request to visit the sites where she and her husband had fought as young people. Unlike Hermina Tismăneanu, he opted not to return, and soon after left for Venezuela, before ultimately settling in the United States in 1982. During his time in Caracas, he was the recipient of a scholarship at the Contemporary Art Museum.
He lived first in Philadelphia, where he was employed by the Foreign Policy Research Institute (1983–1990), while teaching at the University of Pennsylvania (1985–1990). At the time, he began contributing comments on local politics to Radio Free Europe and Voice of America, beginning with an analysis of the "dynastic socialism" in Romania, centered on the political career of Nicu Ceaușescu. His essays on the lives and careers of communist potentates, requested by Radio Free Europe's Vlad Georgescu and aired by the station as a series, were later grouped under the title Archeology of Terror.
In 1990, Tismăneanu received a professorship at the University of Maryland, College Park and moved to Washington, D.C. He became editor of East European Politics and Societies in 1998, holding the position until 2004, when he became chair of its editorial committee. Between 1996 and 1999, he held a position on the Fulbright Program's Selection Committee for South-East Europe, and, from 1997 to 2003, was member of the Eastern Europe Committee at the American Council of Learned Societies. A fellow at the Institut für die Wissenschaften vom Menschen in Vienna, Austria and the New York University Erich Maria Remarque Institute (both in 2002), he was Public Policy Scholar at the Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars in 2001, returning as Fellow in 2005 and 2008–2009. Tismăneanu was also granted fellowship by Indiana University (Bloomington) (2003) and National Endowment for Democracy (2003–2004). The University of Maryland presented him with the award for excellence in teaching and mentorship (2001), the Distinguished Scholar Teacher Award (2003–2004), and the GRB Semester Research Award (2006). He received the Romanian-American Academy of Arts and Sciences's Prize for his 1998 volume Fantasies of Salvation: Democracy, Nationalism, and Myth in Post-Communist Europe and the 2003 Barbara Jelavich Award, presented by the American Association for the Advancement of Slavic Studies for his Stalinism for All Seasons. During the late 1990s, he collaborated with the German-based radio station Deutsche Welle, with a series of broadcasts, most of which he published in Romania as Scrisori din Washington ("Letters from Washington", 2002). He also worked as editor of Dorin Tudoran's Agora, a political journal of the Romanian diaspora.
Since the Romanian Revolution of 1989, he has been visiting his native country on a regular basis. Tismăneanu was in Bucharest during June 1990, witnessing the Mineriad, when miners from the Jiu Valley supporting the National Salvation Front put a violent stop to the Golani protest, an experience he claims gave him insight into "barbarity in its crassest, most revolting, form." Other sojourns included 1993-1994 research visits to the Communist Party archives, at the time supervised by the Romanian Army General Staff. Tismăneanu resumed his articles in the Romanian press, beginning with a series on communist leader Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej, which was published by the Writers' Union magazine România Literară during the early 1990s. He contributed a weekly column in Jurnalul Național, before moving to Cotidianul, and was regularly published by other press venues: Revista 22, Idei în Dialog, and Orizont. He later began contributing to Observator Cultural and Evenimentul Zilei.
Tismăneanu received the Romanian Cultural Foundation's award for the whole activity (2001), and was awarded Doctor honoris causa degrees by the West University of Timișoara (2002) and the SNSPA university in Bucharest. In its Romanian edition of 2005, Stalinism for All Seasons was a bestseller at Bookarest, the Romanian literary festival.
In 2006, Romanian President Traian Băsescu appointed him head of the Presidential Commission for the Study of the Communist Dictatorship in Romania, which presented its report to the Romanian Parliament in December of that year. As of 2009, Tismăneanu is also Chairman of the Academic Board, Institute of People's Studies—an institution affiliated with the Democratic Liberal Party, which in turn is the main political group supportive of Băsescu's policies. The institution is presided upon by political scientist Andrei Țăranu. The following year, Tismăneanu was chosen by Democratic Liberal Premier Emil Boc to lead, with Ioan Stanomir, the Institute for the Investigation of Communist Crimes in Romania, substituting the National Liberal Party's choice Marius Oprea. Tismăneanu was dismissed by the newly formed Victor Ponta government in May 2012.
Vladimir Tismăneanu is married to Mary Frances Sladek, and has fathered a son, Adam.
Views and contributions
Overview
Vladimir Tismăneanu is one of the best-recognized contributors to modern-day political science in both the United States and Romania. Historian Cas Mudde referred to him as "one of the foremost American scholars on Eastern Europe", while Romanian literary critic and civil society activist Adrian Marino wrote: "The works of the political scientist Vladimir Tismăneanu, who owns a double cultural identity, American and Romanian, indicate a full-scale research agenda. His books are first rate, both in Romanian and in English .... They are representative of what has effectively shaped up nowadays into the Romanian political science .... When reading and studying Vladimir Tismăneanu, one enters a new realm, where, most importantly, one experiences a novel approach to writing. He rejects the usage of empty and inordinate formulae. He saves the characteristic Romanian creative writing, with its inconsistency and amorphousness, only for the literary trash bin. He sports a jaunty style, utterly lacking any inhibition or obsequiousness. ... His activity also fills a considerable void. It informs and it disseminates ideas. This is, undoubtedly, his fundamental virtue." According to historian Adrian Cioroianu, the insight provided to Tismăneanu by his family's oral history is "unique", amounting to "actual lessons in history, at a time when [it] was being Orwellianly processed by the [communist] system".
Sociologist Mihai Dinu Gheorghiu sees Tismăneanu and George Voicu as the two main contemporary Romanian sociologists to have "reconverted [to political science] while preserving a rather symbolic link with sociology". At the end of this process, he argues, Tismăneanu "has enjoyed the greatest authority in his field in Romania", while, according to critic Livius Ciocârlie: "Not so long ago, to the question of who is the greatest Romanian politologist, any other politologist would reply that there is only one possible answer: Vladimir Tismăneanu."
According to Vasile, Tismăneanu's contribution, like those of historians Katherine Verdery and Catherine Durandin, is being purposefully ignored by some Romanian academics, who object to their exposure of national communism. Vasile nominates such figures as "the pernicious and not altogether innocent continuity" of Communist Romania. In contrast, Tismăneanu was a direct influence on the first post-Revolution generation of political scientists and historians. Vasile credits his colleague with having influenced "an entire generation of young researchers of Romania's recent history." As one of them, Cioroianu, writes: "quite a lot of us in the field of historical-social analysis in this country have emerged from underneath Vl[adimir] Tismăneanu's cloak". In Cioroianu's definition, the group includes himself, alongside Stelian Tănase, , Marius Oprea, , Dan Pavel, Dragoș Petrescu and others. The same author notes that his predecessor had an early and important contribution, equivalent to a "generative enlightenment", by presenting younger researchers with a detailed account of previously obscured phenomena and events. Most of Tismăneanu's works have English and Romanian-language editions, and books of his were translated into Polish, Lithuanian, and Ukrainian.
In addition to his analytic contribution, Vladimir Tismăneanu earned praise for his literary style. Romanian critics, including Tismăneanu's friend, philosopher Horia-Roman Patapievici, admire his "passionate" writing. Essayist and România Literară reviewer Tudorel Urian, who contrasts Tismăneanu with what he sees as the regular "self-styled 'analysts' [who] abdicate logic and common sense", opines: "The American professor's articles impress by their very solid theoretical structure, by their always effective argumentation, by their author's correct positioning in relation to the facts invoked ... and, not least of all, by the elegance of their style. In the world of contemporary politology, Vladimir Tismăneanu is an erudite, doubled by an artist, and his texts are a delight for the reader." According to Tismăneanu's fellow Commission member, historian and political scientist Cristian Vasile, such perspectives are especially true for the choice of "piercing epithets" defining persons or phenomena discussed in his works. Literary critic notes in particular the many nocturnal and ghostly metaphors used by Tismăneanu in reference to totalitarianism, proposing that these reflect "perfectly natural psychoanalytical suggestions, for wherever there are ghosts, there are also neuroses, or, at the very least, obsessions."
Early works
Tismăneanu began his writing career as a dissenting Marxist, sympathizing with the intellectual currents known collectively as neo-Marxism. His doctoral thesis was cited as evidence that Tismăneanu was "a liberal student of Euro-Marxism" by University of Bucharest professor Daniel Barbu (who contrasted Tismăneanu with the official ideological background of Communist Romania, as one in a group of "outstanding authors", alongside Pavel Câmpeanu, Henri H. Stahl, Zigu Ornea, and Vlad Georgescu). Tismăneanu also states having been influenced by psychoanalysis, the Frankfurt School and Existentialism, and, from among the Marxist authors he had read at that stage, he cites as his early mentors Antonio Gramsci, Georg Lukács, Herbert Marcuse, and Jean-Paul Sartre.
According to Marino: "Some label [Tismăneanu] as 'Marxist anti-communist'. I'd rather say he used to be one. It seems remarkable to me the manner in which he achieves a freedom of spirit, lucidly and sharply applied to his present critique." Cristian Vasile places the author's "decisive split" with Marxism in the 1980s, during the Radio Free Europe years, while political scientist and critic Ioan Stanomir defines him as a "liberal-conservative spirit". American scholar Steven Fish writes:
[Tismăneanu] is animated by a passionate liberal spirit, albeit one of a particular type. [His] liberalism is less intimately akin to that of John Locke or Robert Nozick, or L. T. Hobhouse or John Rawls, than it is to that of Isaiah Berlin and, less proximately, John Stuart Mill. Tismăneanu shares with Berlin and Mill an uncompromising commitment to pluralism as the highest political value; a celebration of difference, nonconformity, and tolerance; a deep skepticism concerning ultimate solutions, political blueprints, and unequivocal policy prescriptions; and a wariness regarding the subtler danger of majoritarian authoritarianism.
Tismăneanu himself discusses the personal transition:
Originating as I was from the milieu of illegalists [that is, communists active in the pre-1944 underground], ... I discovered early on the contrast between the official legends and the various fragments of subjective truths as they revealed themselves in private conversations, syncopated confessions and biting ironies. I was also discovering a theme which was to puzzle me throughout my professional career: the relation between communism, fascism, anti-communism and anti-fascism; in short, I was growing aware that, as has been demonstrated by François Furet, the relationship between the two totalitarian movements, viscerally hostile to the values and institutions of liberal democracy, was the fundamental historical issue of the 20th century.
He credits , noted historian of Romanian communism, as his "mentor and model."
In her review of The Crisis of Marxist Ideology in Eastern Europe, political analyst Juliana Geran Pilon calls Tismăneanu's book "the best analysis of Marxist philosophy since Leszek Kołakowski's monumental trilogy Main Currents of Marxism." The work is Tismăneanu's study into the avatars of Marxism within the Eastern Bloc, and a contribution to both Kremlinology and Cold War studies. It proposes that the Soviet Union's policies of Perestroika and Glasnost masked an ideological crisis, and that the Bloc's regimes had reached a "post-totalitarian" stage, where repression was "more refined, less obvious, but by no means less effective". He criticizes Marxist opponents of Soviet-style communism for giving in to the ideological allure, and proposes that, although appearing reform-minded, Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev was, in effect, a "neo-Stalinist".
The 1990 collection In Search of Civil Society: Independent Peace Movements in the Soviet Bloc is structured around the transformation of the peace movements into anti-communist and dissident forces in the Soviet Union, the People's Republic of Hungary, the People's Republic of Poland, the Czechoslovak Socialist Republic and East Germany. It notably includes articles by two participants in such movements, Hungary's Miklós Haraszti and Russia's Eduard Kuznetsov. American University reviewer Laszlo Kürti called the volume "a milestone that will remain on reading lists for many years to come", but criticized Tismăneanu for not explaining neither the end of such movements nor their absence from other countries. Writing in 1999, scholar Gillian Wylie noted that, with In Search of Civil Society, Tismăneanu was one of the "few academics beyond those involved in the peace activist community" to have dealt with the topic of peace movements in Warsaw Pact countries.
Arheologia terorii and Reinventing Politics
With 1992's Romanian-published Arheologia terorii ("The Archeology of Terror"), which reunited the Radio Free Europe essays of the 1980s, Tismăneanu was focusing Romania's communism, in an attempt to identify what set apart from the experience of other Eastern Bloc countries. Cristian Vasile believes it to have been, at the time of its publishing, "one of the few researches on the Romanian communist elite to include prosopographic nuances." Among this group of essays, historian Bogdan Cristian Iacob singles out one dedicated to chief ideologist Leonte Răutu, the so-called "Romanian Zhdanov", as purportedly the first ever analytical writing dedicated to his career.
Much of the text focuses on Romania's dissidents after the start of De-Stalinization, and the peculiarities of this process in Romania. Tismăneanu notes how communist leader Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej, whose dictatorial rule of the 1950s and early 1960s preceded and survived the start of De-Stalinization, was able to exert control over the local intelligentsia even as civil society and nonviolent resistance movements were being created in other parts of the Bloc. It is also noted for its treatment of Gheorghiu-Dej's successor, Nicolae Ceaușescu, who associated himself with a message of liberalization and nationalist revival, and who made a point of opposing the 1968 Soviet-led invasion of Czechoslovakia. This gesture, Arheologia terorii argues, was in actuality Ceauşescu's attempt to ideologically legitimize his grip on Romanian society. In his review of the book, literary critic Ion Bogdan Lefter concludes: "One finds here, in the subtext, the premises for an extended debate on themes related to the philosophy of history: what are, in reality, the effective relations between the collective destiny of a community and the destinies of individuals who compose it? ... The [book's] answers are ... shattering. Looking back into the communist regime's back stages ... one finds not the faithful prophets of a utopia, but the morass of disgusting spiritual filth—and one cannot but be horrified by seeing who has been entrusted with the destiny of an entire people".
With the 1994 book Reinventing Politics, the Romanian author looked into the European revolutions of the previous decade, exploring the shades of repression, the differences in political culture, and how they related to the fall of communism in various countries. Calling it "a significant contribution", New School sociologist Jeffrey C. Goldfarb argues: "Tismăneanu is very good at ordering the often confusing details of what he calls 'the birth pangs of democracy.' " Goldfarb objects to the text being "long on historical detail and short on social theory", arguing that: "As a result, [his] attempts at generalization often miss the mark." According to Goldfarb, although Reinventing Politics cautions that the former communist societies risked folding into nationalism, xenophobia and antisemitism, its author "does not provide a clear sense of how [this] can be avoided." Goldfarb contends that, while the book expresses support for embarking on the road to an "open society", it fails to explain how the goal is supposed to be reached. In his review of a 2007 reprint, Romanian cultural historian Cristian Cercel comments on Vladimir Tismăneanu's belief in politics being "reinvented", which implied that power in former communist countries could be shifted to "the powerless" by following the example of Czechoslovak writer and activist Václav Havel. Cercel, who sees this as proof of "well-balanced idealism", writes: "Instead of an absolute critical distance, Tismăneanu presents us with a critical engagement at the core of the problem."
From Irepetabilul trecut to Balul mascat
The volume of essays Irepetabilul trecut ("The Unrepeatable Past") also saw print in 1994, and largely dealt with post-communist Romanian history. Bogdan Cristian Iacob describes it as "an expression of the priorities of those years, from the perspective of democratization and civil society consolidation" coupled with "a working site of ideas" for later works. The volume, Iacob notes, is structured as a typical work on the history of ideas, and, with "beneficent obstinacy", builds on Tismăneanu's "principal themes". In Iacob's view, "the most important" are: "the basic criminality of Bolshevism in any of its incarnations; the attachment to civic liberalism modeled on the experience of Central and Eastern European dissidence; the totalitarian past's reclamation ...; the research into Romania's communist experience; and, not least of all, the local environment's epistemic synchronization with debates in the Anglo-Saxon space." Under the influence of Jürgen Habermas and Karl Jaspers, the text proposes that social cohesion is only made possible by the common recognition of past evils around the idea of justice (see Historikerstreit). In particular, the essays reject the policies of Romania's major post-communist left-wing group, the National Salvation Front and those of its successor, the Social Democratic Party (PSD), arguing that their policies were a political hybrid designed to block the path of genuinely anti-communist liberalism. Irepetabilul trecut was the first such work to be noted for its biographical sketches of communist leaders.
In 1995, Tismăneanu was again focusing on Gheorghiu-Dej, analyzing the part he played in both the violent communization of the 1950s and the adoption of nationalism in the 1960s. This investigation produced the Romanian-language volume Fantoma lui Gheorghiu-Dej ("Gheorghiu-Dej's Ghost"), expanding on a similarly titled chapter in Irepetabilul trecut. It notably theorizes a difference between national communism and the "national Stalinism" suiting both Gheorghiu-Dej and his successor Ceaușescu. The question "What is left of Gheorghiu-Dej's experiment?", is answered by Tismăneanu as follows: "An inept and frightened elite, whose social mobility was linked to the nationalist-chauvinist line promoted by Ceaușescu. A sectarian and exclusive vision of socialism, a political style based on terror, manipulation and liquidating one's enemy. An unbound contempt for the spirit and a no less total conviction that humans are a mere maneuverable mass .... But most of all ... an immense scorn for principles, a trampling of all things dignified and honorable, a mental and moral corruption that continues to ravage this social universe that is still being haunted by the ghosts of national Stalinism." The text characterized the dictator himself as a figure who "had managed to unify within his style Jesuitism and lack of principles, opportunism and cruelty, fanaticism and duplicity."
Historian Lucian Boia highlights the clash between such a vision and that of a patriotic, liberal and congenial Gheorghiu-Dej, retrospectively advanced in the 1990s by some of the leader's collaborators, among them Alexandru Bârlădeanu, Silviu Brucan and Ion Gheorghe Maurer. Boia writes: "In between Bârlădeanu and Tismăneanu, may we be allowed to prefer the latter's interpretation. ... oblivion is not what we owe [Gheorghiu-Dej], but condemnation, be it moral and posthumous." Vladimir Tismăneanu's reflections on a self-legitimizing, "Byzantine", discourse in Romanian communism, Ioan Stanomir notes, were also being applied by Tismăneanu to the post-Revolution President of Romania, former Communist Party activist and PSD leader Ion Iliescu, who, both argued, did not represent an anti-communist social democracy, but a partial return to Gheorghiu-Dej's legacy.
Also in 1995, Tismăneanu published a collection of essays, Noaptea totalitară ("The Totalitarian Night"). It includes his reflections on the emergence of totalitarian regimes throughout the world, as well as more thoughts on Romania's post-1989 history. Writing in 2004, Ion Bogdan Lefter described it as the embryo of later works: "The author moves with essay-like dexterity from the concrete level, of history 'in movement', to the general, that of political philosophies and great 'societal' models, from biographic narrative to the evolution of systems, from anecdote to mentalities. ... From [such] reflections ... emerged Tismăneanu's studies on 20th century ideological and political history, and his articles on Romanian subjects have prepared and accompanied the completion of his recent synthesis [Stalinism for All Seasons]."
Balul mascat ("The Masquerade Ball", 1996), was Vladimir Tismăneanu's first book of conversations with Mircea Mihăieș, specifically dealing with political life in Romania's post-1989 evolution and on its relation to the European Union integration process. Tudorel Urian describes the volume and its successors in the series, all of them published at the end of electoral cycles, as "a most reliable indicator of tendencies", and to the authors as "important intellectuals of our age." Urian writes: "Although, at the time when these volumes were published, not everyone was pleased by the precise X-rays to which Vladimir Tismăneanu and Mircea Mihăieş subjected [Romania's politics], excessively vocal counterarguments were never produced. The distance (not just in kilometers) between Washington and Bucharest, the superior analytic accuracy, Professor Tismăneanu's international scientific prestige, the almost exclusive use of readily available sources ..., the democratic values at the core of the interpretations (ones which no honorable political actor could afford to contest publicly) have given these books a considerable dose of credibility ...."
Fantasies of Salvation
With Fantasies of Salvation, published in 1998, Vladimir Tismăneanu focuses on the resurgence of authoritarian, ethnocratic, demagogic and anti-capitalist tendencies in the political cultures of Post-Communism. The text, which is both a historical survey and a political essay, argues: "As the Leninist authoritarian order collapsed, societies have tended to be atomized and deprived of a political center able to articulate coherent visions of a common good." This process, he argues, favors the recourse to "mythology", and paradoxical situations such as a post-Holocaust antisemitism in the absence of sizable Jewish communities. He also focuses on the revived antisemitic conspiracy theory according to which Jews had played a leading role in setting up communist regimes (see Jewish Bolshevism).<ref name="yvdist">[http://www1.yadvashem.org/about_yad/what_new/data_whats_new/pdf/english/1.13_Distortion_Negationism_and_Minimalization.pdf Distortion, Negationism, and Minimalization of the Holocaust in Postwar Romania"], Wiesel Commission report, at Yad Vashem; retrieved February 6, 2009</ref>
Tismăneanu thus sees the political elites and the authoritarian side of the intelligentsia as responsible for manipulating public opinion and "rewriting (or cleansing) of history in terms of self-serving, present-oriented interests". He writes in support of the critical intelligentsia and former dissidents, whom he sees as responsible for resistance to both communism and the far right. Part of the volume deals with "the myth of decommunization", signifying the manner in which local elites may take hold of political discourse and proclaim lustration. Although he disagrees with the contrary notion of collective responsibility and sees calls for justice as legitimate, he notes that the special laws targeting communist officials may pose a threat to society.
Steven Fish calls the book "a major contribution to our understanding of the postcommunist political predicament" which "will stand the test of time", noting its "searching treatment of the connection between intellectual and political life", "incorporation of cultural conflict into the analysis of politics", "unabashed humanism" and "lyrical style", all of which, he argues, parallel works by Isaiah Berlin and Fouad Ajami. However, he criticizes Tismăneanu for his "not strictly correct" conclusion that intellectual former dissidents can be credited with bringing down communism and reforming their countries, replying that the "rough-hewn politicians" Lech Wałęsa and Boris Yeltsin, and the Bulgarian "pragmatic liberal centrist" Ivan Kostov, are just as important actors. A similar point is made by Cas Mudde, who contends that Tismăneanu's words display "passionate and uncritical support for the dissidents", adding: "For someone so worried about populism, it is remarkable that he does not see the clearly populist elements of the dissidents' 'anti-politics', which he so often praises." Political scientist Steven Saxonberg reserves praise for the manner in which Fantasies of Salvation is written, but objects to Tismăneanu's preference for market liberalism at the expense of any form of collectivism, and claims that his focus on new antisemitic trends overlooks the revival of antiziganism. Researchers comment favorably Tismăneanu's rejection of cultural determinism in discussing the Eastern Bloc countries' relation to the Western world and to each other.
As editor of the 1999 collection of essays The Revolutions of 1989 (Re-Writing Histories) (with contributions by Kołakowski and Daniel Chirot), Vladimir Tismăneanu was deemed by British historian Geoffrey Swain an "obvious choice to assemble the contributors." Swain, who called his preface "excellent", states: "It is difficult to argue with [Tismăneanu's] notion that 'these revolutions represented the triumph of civic dignity and political morality over ideological monism, bureaucratic cynicism and police dictatorship'." However, he disapproves of the author's decision to treat all bloc countries as if they were still a single entity: "What made historians address the diverse countries of Eastern Europe as a common unit was communism; with its collapse the logic for such an approach disappeared. ... The book works when a common approach works, and fails when a common approach fails." Between Past and Future. The Revolutions of 1989 and Their Aftermath, a 2000 collection published in collaboration with Sorin Antohi, Timothy Garton Ash, Adam Michnik, Radim Palouš, and Haraszti, is another overview of the dissidents' contribution to the end of communism.
Încet spre Europa and Scrisori din Washington
His second book of conversations with Mihăieș, titled Încet spre Europa ("Slowly toward Europe", 2000), touches on various subjects in Romanian society and world politics. Much of it deals with the events of 2000, in particular the country's management by the right-wing Romanian Democratic Convention. According to historian Victor Neumann, "[The book] suggests the measure to which the public debate needs to be fundamental in educating the elite and the public at large, in structuring civil society and in promoting an articulate discourse for the rejection of extremist political orientations. However, it also shows how such debates have not yet found the right framework or the institutions to promote it. Responsibility for the delay of [social and economic] reforms is not placed on not just the—as yet invertebrate—political class, but also on the cultural milieus and the media, which favor sterile discussions, world play, obsolete ideologies." He also notes: "The dialogue between Vladimir Tismăneanu and Mircea Mihăieș demonstrates the role of analysis and confrontation of ideas over hasty judgment or temperamental criticism, providing in the end an image as unembellished as possible. [It] places a magnifier over high-ranking institutions such as the Presidency, the Orthodox Church, the school. The observations are always based on knowledge of the facts."
Part of the volume focuses on the Holocaust, Holocaust denial, and Romania's responsibility, discussing them in relation with Stéphane Courtois' Black Book of Communism. Like Alan S. Rosembaum's Is the Holocaust Unique?, Încet spre Europa uses the polemical term "comparative martyrology" on comparisons made between the Holocaust and the Gulag (or other forms of communist repression). Although he agrees that communism is innately genocidal, Tismăneanu views the latter claims as attempts to trivialize the Holocaust. He also criticizes some versions of historical revisionism which, he argues, make it seem like the victims of communism were all "friends of democracy" and "adherents to classical liberalism", but agrees that: "The manner in which communism dealt with [its victims] is utterly illegal and this needs to be emphasized." Tismăneanu, who theorizes a "very complicated, bizarre, perverse, and well-camouflaged" relationship between communism and fascism, preserved in both national communism and the political discourse of post-communist Romania, also argues: "Romania will not un-fascify until it decommunizes, and will decommunize until it un-fascifies." Such conclusions were also present in the Spectrele Europei Centrale ("The Specters of Central Europe", 2001), where he notably argues that the popularity of fascist ideology within the defunct Kingdom of Romania was exploited by the communist regime, leading to what he calls a "baroque synthesis" of extremes (an idea later expanded upon by essayist Caius Dobrescu). Caius Dobrescu, "Barocul fascisto-comunist ca fenomen global", fragment of Gulag şi Holocaust în conştiinţa romanească, Babeş-Bolyai University Symposium, May 2007, at the Memoria Digital Library; retrieved February 6, 2008
With 2002's Scrisori din Washington, Tismăneanu constructs a retrospective overview of the 20th century, which he sees as dominated by the supremacy of communism and fascism. Structured around reviewed Deutsche Welle broadcasts, it also includes short texts on diverse subjects, such as essays about Marxist resistance to established communism, an analysis of the Western far right, conclusions about the Kosovo War, a debate around the political ideas of interwar novelist Panait Istrati, and praises of the Romanian intellectuals Virgil Ierunca and Dan Pavel. Mircea Iorgulescu criticizes the work for not discussing other relevant phenomena (such as the successes of feminism, decolonization and the environmental movement), and argues that many of the pieces seem American-centered, unfocused or outdated. Iorgulescu also objects to the book's verdict on Istrati's political choices after his split with communism, claiming that Tismăneanu is wrong in assuming that Istrati eventually moved to the far right. He nevertheless argues: "[the book] provides an impressive image of the extraordinary American effort to research, analyze and interpret communism and post-communism." Iorgulescu, who views Tismăneanu as a Romanian equivalent to Michnik, adds: "The circumstance of his living in the United States ... protects him, for it is not hard to imagine how one would have viewed and behaved toward a Romanian from Romania who has the courage to speak, for instance, about the existence of an anti-Bolshevik Bolshevism. Being himself a critical intellectual, one would understand the origin of his continuous plea for [the intellectual critics] always hunted down by the authoritarian regimes."
Stalinism for All Seasons
With Stalinism for All Seasons, Tismăneanu provides a synthesis of his views on Communist Romanian history leading back to Arheologia terorii, documenting the Romanian Communist Party's evolution from the Bolshevik wing of the Socialist Party to the establishment of a one-party state. Tismăneanu himself, reflecting on the purpose of the book, stated his vision of communism as an "eschatological" movement, adding: "Romanian communism was a subspecies of Bolshevik radicalism, itself born out of an engagement between Russian revolutionary tradition and the voluntarist version of Marxism." Adrian Cioroianu notes that "Tismăneanu was the first who could ever explain the mirage and the motivation [felt by] Romania's first communists of the '20-'30 decade." The focus on communist conspiracies and inner-Party struggles for power is constant throughout the book. In a 2004 review published by Foreign Affairs magazine, political scientist Robert Legvold sees it as "less a political history of communism than it is a thorough account of leadership battles in the Romanian Communist Party from its origins at the turn of the nineteenth century to its demise in 1989." Also according to Legvold, the author "shed[s] light on the paradoxes of Romanian communism: how a pariah party that was Stalinist to the core eventually turned on its Soviet master and embraced nationalism—how 'national Stalinism' was acceptable to the West as long as it meant autonomy from [the Soviet Union]. That is, until it became grotesque in Nicolae Ceaușescu's last decade, leading to the regime's violent death."
The book title is a direct allusion to Robert Bolt's play A Man for All Seasons. It refers to an idea discussed in previous works, that of Romania's special case: Stalinism preserved after the death of Joseph Stalin, and returning in full swing during the Ceaușescu years. Noting the role played by party purges in this process, Cioroianu stresses: "Tismăneanu was the first to ever suggest that between the communists of the '30s and those of the '60s one could hardly determine a correspondence, even if the names of some—the lucky ones!—crop up from one period and into the other." Ion Bogdan Lefter notes that it is "paradoxical—in that it is the first American book that Vladimir Tismăneanu dedicated to the subject he was most familiar with." Lefter writes that the idea of "perpetual Romanian Stalinism" is backed by "a weighty demonstration", but is reserved toward the statements according to which Ceaușescu's early "small liberalization" of the 1960s was inconsequential, arguing that, even though "Re-Stalinization" occurred with the April Theses of 1971, "[the regime] could never overturn [the phenomenon] altogether, some of its effects being preserved—at least in part—until 1989." Lefter proposes a more in-depth analysis of this situation, based on the methodology of historiography introduced by the Annales School, which, he argues, would allow more room for "small personal histories".
Initially, Vladimir Tismăneanu had planned to write a review of Romanian history covering the entire modern period, before deciding to concentrate on a more limited subject. Part of the volume relies on never-before published documents to which he had gained access as a young man, through his family connections. It also incorporates his thoughts on the communist legacy in Romania, and in particular his belief that the modified communist dogma endured as a force in Romanian politics even during the post-1989 period. Cioroianu reviews the high praise earned by the volume throughout the Romanian intellectual and educational environments, as "all the appreciations a history volume could have expected". American historian Robert C. Tucker calls it "the definitive work on Romanian communism", and Stanomir "a monument of erudition and laconicism".
Democrație și memorie and Cortina de ceață
The 2004 volume of essays, Scopul și mijloacele ("The Purpose and the Means") is largely an expansion of Noaptea totalitară. It was followed in 2006 by a collection of his press articles, carrying the title Democrație și memorie ("Democracy and Memory"), which centers on admiring portraits: those of thinkers, politicians or activists whom he credits with having provided him with an understanding of political phenomenons—Raymond Aron, Robert Conquest, Arthur Koestler, Jacek Kuroń, Czesław Miłosz, Susan Sontag, Alexander Nikolaevich Yakovlev—and those of Cold War figures such as US President Ronald Reagan and Pope John Paul II. The book also included his earlier calls to have the Securitate archives, then managed by the Romanian Intelligence Service, opened for the public, in the belief that liberal democracy has transparency as its prerequisite. Other segments of the book voiced calls for a public debate on the moral legacy of communism, and for the assumption of the "democratic ethos" by regular Romanians.
A third volume of Mihăieș-Tismăneanu dialogues was published in 2007, as Cortina de ceață ("The Fog Curtain"). According to Tudorel Urian, it is directly linked to its author's involvement in political disputes, and in particular those created around the Presidential Commission for the Study of the Communist Dictatorship in Romania. Therefore, Urian says, it "has a more accentuated polemic character, the two of them being often required to reply to the attacks on them." The volume's title is Tismăneanu's definition of political scandals and supposed media manipulation in Romania, and the book includes commentary on such events as the arrival to power and eventual breakup of the Justice and Truth alliance; the National Anticorruption Directorate's inquiry into the activities of former Premier Adrian Năstase and other PSD leaders; the revelations that Chamber representative Mona Muscă and Tismăneanu's own colleague Sorin Antohi had been informants of Communist Romania's secret police, the Securitate; and criticism of the Commission itself. The book expresses its author's support for the political agenda of Romanian President Traian Băsescu, impeached by Parliament and reinstated by an April 2007 referendum. Urian writes: "supporters of [Băsescu's] agenda will be enthusiastic about the book, and those who reject it will be searching for flaws under a microscope. All shall nevertheless have to read very carefully. This is because, beyond the generic, predictable, direction, it is rich in punctual analyses of a great finesse and in information too easily lost in the daily turmoil, but which, once brought to memory, may render things in a new light."
Refuzul de a uita and Perfectul acrobat
Points similar to those made by Cortina de ceață were present in another 2007 book, Refuzul de a uita ("Refusing to Forget"). A collection of scattered articles, it also partly responds to criticism of the Commission. Alongside such pieces stand essays which expand on earlier subjects: portraits of various intellectuals admired by the author (Michnik, Kołakowski, Jeane Kirkpatrick, Vasile Paraschiv, Jean-François Revel, Andrei Sakharov, Aleksandr Zinovyev); reflections on populism, with case studies of Hugo Chávez's Venezuela and Slobodan Milošević's Yugoslavia; and a posthumous critique of political analyst and former communist activist Silviu Brucan. A section of the volume refers to the controversy surrounding journalist Carol Sebastian, exposed as a Securitate informant after a career in the anti-communist press. Tismăneanu contrasts Sebastian with open supporters of the Ceaușescu regime, grouped around Săptămîna magazine during the 1970s and never exposed in such a manner, and concludes that Sebastian's case stands as "a warning that we must as soon as possible progress to the condemnation of the institutions who have made possible such tragic moral collapses."
With the 2008 volume Perfectul acrobat ("The Perfect Acrobat"), co-authored with Cristian Vasile, Tismăneanu returned to his study of Leonte Răutu, and, in general, to the study of links between Communist Romania's ideological, censorship and propaganda apparatuses. The book, subtitled Leonte Răutu, măștile răului ("Leonte Răutu, the Masks of Evil"), also comments on the motivations of writers in varying degrees of collaboration with the communist structures: Tudor Arghezi, George Călinescu, Ovid Crohmălniceanu, Petru Dumitriu, Paul Georgescu, Eugen Jebeleanu, and Miron-Radu Paraschivescu. It attempts to explain in detail how the regime resisted genuine De-Stalinization without meeting many public objections from the leftist intellectuals, a situation defined by Bogdan Cristian Iacob as "the painful absence of an alternative, of an anti-systemic tradition." Răutu's high-ranking career and overall guidelines, both of which survived all changes in the system under Gheorghiu-Dej and Ceaușescu, are taken by the authors as study cases in Romania's post-Stalinist Stalinism. In addition, Iacob notes, "the two authors bring forth irrefutable proof for the unshakable link between word and power in communism". He cites Răutu's own theories about the role education and agitprop had in creating the "New Man". Tismăneanu, who deems Răutu "the demiurge of the infernal system to crush the autonomy of thought in communized Romania", lists the creation of a New Man among the ideologue's main goals, alongside the atomization, mobilization, and homogenization of his target audience. According to Stanomir, "the biographical examination ... gives birth to a narrative on the rise and fall of a modern possessed man", while the documents presented reveal Răutu's willingness to show fidelity to all policies and all successive leaders, in what is "more than a survival strategy." For Stanomir, the ideologist as Tismăneanu and Vasile show him is a man who replicates religious belief, guided by the principle that "outside the Party there can be no salvation" (see Extra Ecclesiam nulla salus). In its introductory section, Perfectul acrobat includes a dialogue of the two authors with a first-hand witness to Răutu's actions, philosopher Mihai Șora. This piece, coupled with a final documentary section, are rated by Stanomir as "outstandingly innovative ... at the intersection of intellectual discourse, testimonial and the document itself."
Other contributions
Outside the realms of history, political science and political analysis, Vladimir Tismăneanu is a noted author of memoirs. This part of his work is centered on the volume Ghilotina de scrum ("The Ashen Guillotine"), also written on the basis of interviews with Mihăieș. The book offers an account of his complicating relationship with Leonte Tismăneanu, postulating a difference between the everyday father, who has earned his son's admiration for being marginalized by his political adversaries, and a "political father", whose attitudes and public actions are rejected by Vladimir Tismăneanu.
This approach earned praise from two influential intellectual figures of the Romanian diaspora, critics Monica Lovinescu and Virgil Ierunca, whose letter to the author read: "the distances you take from your own background are of most-rare authenticity and tact. You accomplish a radical break, being at the same time participative, negating things only after you have understood them, being dissociated from both roles of judge and defense counsel." Cioroianu also notes: "He is not the only son of (relatively) well-known communists; but he is one of the few to have reached the level of detachment needed in order to X-ray, in a cold and precise way, a political system. Does this seem easy to you? I do not know how many of us would be capable of introspecting with such lucidity our own parents' utopias, phantasms and disappointments". The historian opposes Tismăneanu's approach to that of Petre Roman, Romania-s first post-1989 Premier, whose attempts at discussing the public image of his father, the communist politico Valter Roman, are argued by Cioroianu to have "failed".
Tismăneanu has contributed the screenplay for Dinu Tănase's documentary film Condamnați la fericire ("Sentenced to Happiness"), released in 1992. With Octavian Șerban, he has also authored a series about Communist Romania, which was showcased by the Romanian Television Company.
2006 Final Report and related controversy
Early objections
Some who oppose or criticize Tismăneanu's appointment to head the Presidential Commission, his selection of other commission members, or the conclusions in the commission's final report, have drawn attention to several texts he authored in Romania, which they perceive as being Marxist-Leninist in content, and his activities inside the Union of Communist Youth. Among the critics of Tismăneanu's early activities was philosopher Gabriel Liiceanu, who stated that they were incompatible with the moral status required from a leader of the Commission. However, Liiceanu endorsed the incrimination of communist regime and eventually the report itself. Şerban Orescu, "De ce este nevoie de un apel la memorie?" , in Ziua, March 11, 2006
After the presentation of the Final Report and the official condemnation of the communist regime by President Traian Băsescu in a joint session of the Romanian Parliament, Liiceanu openly expressed his support for Vladimir Tismăneanu and endorsed the Presidential Commission for the Analysis of the Communist Dictatorship in Romania. In November 2007, Liiceanu's publishing house, Humanitas, published in volume format the Final Report. Furthermore, Liiceanu, in the homage to Tismăneanu, when the latter was granted the award of the Group for Social Dialogue (January 2008), openly retracted his initial statements about Tismăneanu's academic and moral stature: "Vladimir Tismăneanu was the perfect person for completing the task of coordinating the Commission, considering that those who spoke after being exposed to this ideology explained it best. Vladimir Tismăneanu, besides owning such insider knowledge on what is communism at multiple levels, he then had an ideal competence, acquired and validated within the American academic environment, in order to be able to study this subject with both familiarity and distance." Liiceanu concluded: "He is the most qualified intellectual in the world for analyzing Romanian communism. His book Stalinism for All Seasons is the classical study in the field."
Early criticism of Tismăneanu based on allegations of communism was also voiced by writer Sorin Lavric. The author revised his stance soon afterward and, in four separate articles, gave his endorsement to both the Final Report and Vladimir Tismăneanu's later publications.
Political party-level reactions
Several commentators have argued that the negative reception of the Final Report in sections of the press and the political establishment was partly due to the investigation's implications, as the latter's overall condemnation of the communist regime has opened the road for further debates regarding the links between various contemporary politicians and the former communist structures. Teodora Georgescu, "Felix, prezentat Americii", in Curentul, July 31, 2006Craig S. Smith, "Romanian Leader Condemns Communist Rule", in The New York Times, December 19, 2006 The examples cited include four Senate members: Ion Iliescu and Adrian Păunescu from the PSD, as well as Greater Romania Party leader Corneliu Vadim Tudor and Conservative Party leader Dan Voiculescu. The reading of the Final Report by President Băsescu was punctuated with heckling from among the Greater Romania Party Senate and Chamber representatives. "Huliganii PRM au transformat Parlamentul în bîlci", in Observator Cultural, Nr. 352-353, December 2006 (originally published by HotNews.ro) One televised incident saw the group making attempts to force several audience members, including intellectuals Liiceanu, Horia-Roman Patapievici and Andrei Pleșu, out of the balcony overlooking the Parliament Hall. "Vadim Tudor a încercat să-i dea afară din lojă pe Patapievici și Pleșu" , Realitatea TV release, December 18, 2006; retrieved February 6, 2009 Several commentators have described the behavior of anti-Băsesecu parliamentarians during the public reading as "a circus act" (an expression also used by Patapievici).
Although Iliescu and PSD leader Mircea Geoană abstained from participating in the session, the Final Report was soon after approved with certain reserves by Geoană. Armand Goşu, "Comunismul a fost condamnat în decembrie 1989" (interview with Vasile Puşcaş), in Revista 22, Nr. 880, January 2007 Support for the document was also voiced by academic and Social Democratic parliamentarian Vasile Pușcaș, who noted that his group's objections addressed "working methods" and the perceived notion that the Commission claimed access to an "absolute truth". Pușcaș also took his distance from Iliescu's successive negative comments on the document. Similar assessments were made by Pușcaș's party colleague, sociologist Alin Teodorescu, who called the document "the work of a lifetime, [written] for sure in a perfectible manner, but ... an exceptional study", while stating that he objected to "Băsescu [having] climbed on Tismăneanu's shoulders." According to journalist Cristian Pătrășconiu, the conflict between Iliescu and Tismăneanu explained why, in the second edition of Tismăneanu's book of interviews with Iliescu, Marele șoc din finalul unui secol scurt (tr. The Great Shock of the Twentieth Century, first edition 2004), the latter's name was removed from the cover (a decision he attributed to Iliescu himself).
Among the consequences of the scandal, Urian states, is Vladimir Tismăneanu's "descent into the arena", leading some to perceive him as "a component of the never-ending political scandal and a predilect target for the president's adversaries." Urian also notes that, before the crisis, Romanian politicians from all camps, with the exception of Corneliu Vadim Tudor's supporters, viewed Tismăneanu with an equal "distant respect", before some grew worried that the Commission was first step toward lustration. The conflict was further highlighted during early 2007 by Băsescu's preliminary impeachment by Parliament, a measure supported by the National Liberal Party of Premier Călin Popescu-Tăriceanu, the PSD, the Conservative Party, the Greater Romania Party, and the Democratic Union of Hungarians, and ultimately resolved in Băsescu's benefit by an impeachment referendum. During this crisis, Tismăneanu joined 49 other intellectuals in condemning the anti-Băsescu parliamentary opposition, signing an open letter which accused it of representing political corruption and the legacy of communism, and referred to its attitude toward the Commission.
On the anti-Tismăneanu side, the controversy involved political forces most often described as extremist, in particular the Greater Romania Party. Such groups have an ideological objection to Tismăneanu's condemnation of both fascism and national communism. Cristian Vasile, who argues that this meeting of extremes had already been predicted and verified by Tismăneanu's notion of "baroque synthesis", specifically refers to a "fowl-smelling rhetorical cocktail" of neo-fascism or "(Neo-)Legionary characteristics" (in reference to the historical Iron Guard), neo-Stalinism and protochronism, to be found at the source of "media and historiographic ambuscades". In this context, claims of an antisemitic nature were issued, targeting Tismăneanu and his family. As Tismăneanu recalls in an interview with Jim Compton from the Washington Post, "A Greater Romania Party senator made a speech in Parliament, about 'five reasons why Tismăneanu should not head the commission,' and reason number three was that I was a Jew." Despre Vladimir Tismăneanu şi scrierile sale, Political speech by Mihai Ungheanu, Romanian Senate, May 8, 2006
In July 2007, Tismăneanu sued the Greater Romania Party journals Tricolorul and România Mare, on grounds of calumny, in reference to the series of articles they published in the wake of the Commission report. "Liiceanu, Tismăneanu şi Dan Tapalagă dau în judecată Ziua şi România Mare" , in România Liberă, July 8, 2007 Tismăneanu, who demanded 100,000 Euro in compensation, indicated that he also contemplated suing the two papers in front of a United States court, were his case denied in Romania. He specified that the publications he cited were responsible for issuing "defamatory, xenophobic and antisemitic" articles targeting him personally. In addition, he referred to accusations that he had stolen archived documents from his native country and that had been enlisted by the Securitate. He had earlier recounted having received, at his College Park home, hate mail with explicit death threats and copies of Tricolorul and România Mare articles, and having informed campus police. According to Tismăneanu, such letters, using "almost identical terms", had been sent to him before 1989 by unknown antisemites. At the time of this incident, he again accused Greater Romania Party of endorsing the conspiracy theory of Jewish Bolshevism as incitement to racial hatred and violence, citing its leader's statements on Oglinda Television, which called Tismăneanu, among other things, "one of the most idiotic persons ... in Romania" and "an offspring of the Stalinist Jews who brought communism to Romania on top of Red Army tanks." Such attacks, Tismăneanu contended, "cannot but lead to polluting the public discourse and rendering hysterical those persons who belong the category of what [Romanian writer] Marin Preda called 'the basic aggressive spirit'."
Tismăneanu and Gallagher
Beginning in 2004, Tom Gallagher, a Professor of Ethnic Conflict and Peace at the University of Bradford and author of influential works on Romanian politics, expressed criticism of Vladimir Tismăneanu on various grounds. He authored a series of articles critical of Tismăneanu's involvement in local Romanian issues in the post-1989 era, and especially of his relations with Ion Iliescu. Tom Gallagher, "Politolog fără bisericuţe", in România Liberă, October 13, 2006 According to Gallagher, Tismăneanu "was useful to Iliescu in 2004 because the then President recognised the type of figure he was beneath the western reformist image he has cultivated".
Gallagher writes that Marele șoc "was ready to depict Ion Iliescu as an enlightened leader who, despite some flaws, had been instrumental in consolidating Romanian democracy", and that the volume, which he called "one of the strangest books to emerge from the Romanian transition", did not include, to Iliescu's advantage, any mentions of the controversial aspects of his presidency ("any serious enquiries about the mineriads, the manipulation of nationalism, the denigration of the historic parties [the National Peasants' Party and the National Liberal Party], civic movements and the monarchy, the explosion of corruption, or indeed the continuing political influence and fabulous wealth of the heirs of the pre-1989 intelligence service"). In addition, he wrote that, in agreeing to interview Iliescu, Vladimir Tismăneanu had come to contradict his own assessment of the post-Revolution regime, which he had earlier defined as "of a populist, corporatist and semi-fascist type". In contrast to this assessment, Ion Bogdan Lefter challenged that Tismăneanu had taken "unnecessary precautions" in stating his bias during the dialogue with Iliescu, given that the latter was "at the end of his political career", and stresses that the interviewer had preserved "a researcher's perspective" throughout the conversation. Also according to Lefter, the interest of the book does not reside with Iliescu's views on politics, which express "the already familiar 'official' version, formulated in his hardly bearable 'wooden tongue' ", but in his recollections of childhood and youth.
Gallagher expressed further criticism on Tismăneanu, writing that "he wishes to build up a vast patron-client network in contemporary history and political science not dissimilar to what the PSD did in those areas where it desired control". Referring to Tismăneanu's books, he also wrote: "But what about the role of the Securitate? In his books, [Tismăneanu] has never been especially interested in their role. Much of the time, he has seemed far more concerned with creating a psycho-biography of the life and times of his illegalist family in order to overcome the long lasting shock of having been cast into the wilderness for over twenty years when his family fell from grace under Gheorghiu-Dej." In other pieces he authored, Gallagher questioned Tismăneanu's expertise, comparing him to the Romanian-French businessman Adrian Costea, a person close to Iliescu who stood accused of encouraging political corruption, and claiming that he was using the academic environment as a venue for lobbying. He also took a negative view of his colleague's earlier collaboration with Jurnalul Național, a newspaper owned by Conservative Party leader Dan Voiculescu (who has been officially linked with the Securitate). Additionally, Gallagher complained about the publicized visit Tismăneanu paid to Gigi Becali, leader of the nationalist New Generation Party – Christian Democratic, at his residence in Pipera.
Tismăneanu replied to some of Gallagher's accusations in a manner described by Cotidianul's Cristian Pătrășconiu as "discreet". In an interview with Jurnalul Național, arguing that Marele șoc largely reflected Iliescu's own beliefs, which he had wanted to render accurately, and stating that "all I could do was to obtain the maximum of what can be obtained through dialog with [Iliescu]". He depicted Gallagher's attitude as "an outbreak of resentments", and indicated that "the only praise I could offer [Iliescu]" was in regard to the latter's respect for pluralism in front of authoritarianism. In later statements on the issue, he argued that Gallagher concerns about a supposed change in political views had been unfounded, while expressing regret over the fact that "I had not highlighted ... in those sections I authored, certain elements that would have made it clear for the reader where I stand". Elsewhere, he responded to claims made about his contacts with Becali by admitting that the visit was inappropriate. Cristian Vasile, who notes that concerns similar to those of Gallagher were expressed by historian Șerban Papacostea and by himself, argues that Tismăneanu effectively dissuaded fears of a "moral resignation" by not accepting any form of "privilege or public post" from the political sides he was alleged to favor.
By spring 2007, Gallagher and Tismăneanu reconciled, explaining that this was largely owed to their common support for Băsescu, who was then faced with impeachment. In that context, Gallagher explained his earlier position: "Marele șoc ... was published [at] a time when the Social Democratic Party were going through a lot of trouble to quiet international voices in order to cover the lack of significant reform of key state institutions. Tismăneanu argued at the time that because of agreeing to the NATO and EU accession, Iliescu was signaling his wishes of reconciliation with the democratic quarters in the country. Both the author and others gradually became convinced that Iliescu's intentions were far from targeting pluralism. He only aimed at legitimizing the elite whose leader he was and which he propelled out of communism to a new era essentially defined by violence, abuse and repression, as it was obvious already by 1990-91. For purposes of revealing such interest groups, the political scientist risked both his name and life. Both his results in the academic field and his unwavering determination must be appreciated and treasured, more so considering the insults and calumny showered upon him by the post-communist clique and their followers in the mass-media. I wish to express to Vladimir Tismăneanu my gratitude and utmost appreciation for his and the Commission's efforts, hoping that our initial disagreements are from now on belonging only to the past." Commenting on the developments following the impeachment referendum, Vladimir Tismăneanu indicated that he and Gallagher, together with British historian Dennis Deletant, had decided to campaign against the Parliament's decision and in favor of Traian Băsescu, a measure which he equated with support for "pluralism and transparency". Gallagher himself noted that the initiative was motivated by "the need to display solidarity in order to prevent the replacement of democracy with the collective autocracy of economic barons and their political allies. That would destabilize the Balkans, would discredit the EU and would place the country on the Eastern trajectory."
Ziua allegations
In 2006 and early 2007, Ziua newspaper repeatedly published accusatory claims that Tismăneanu had left with support from the Securitate, that he had settled abroad with assistance from the Communist Party of Venezuela, and that, after escaping Romania's communist censorship, he continued to publish materials supporting official communist tenets. Ovidiu Şimonca, "Dincolo de înjurătură", in Observator Cultural, Nr. 321, May 2006 Tismăneanu has rejected all allegations, indicating that they contradicted data present in, among others, files kept on him by the Securitate and the official conclusion reached by the National Council for the Study of Securitate Archives (CNSAS).
The article was also criticized by intellectuals such as Ovidiu Șimonca, Ioan T. Morar and Mircea Mihăieș. Ioan T. Morar, "Prietenul meu, Vladimir Tismăneanu", in Monitorul de Suceava, May 15, 2006 Writing for Observator Cultural, Șimonca argued that it was evidence of "defamation", that the information, which he deemed "horrific" and "hard to believe", was not substantiated by evidence, and that Ziua had vested interest in spreading rumors about Vladimir Tismăneanu. He also asked if Ziuas campaign was not itself motivated by "Securitate structures". In an editorial for the local newspaper Monitorul de Suceava, titled Prietenul meu, Vladimir Tismăneanu ("My Friend, Vladimir Tismăneanu"), Morar dismissed the article as "hogwash, egregious lies and let-ins", commenting that the claims made in regard to Tismăneanu's stay in Venezuela were "an aberration stemming from a rather obvious psychiatric diagnosis". He also made references to the fact that Ziua's editor in chief, Sorin Roșca-Stănescu, was himself a proven Securitate informant, arguing that the tactics employed by the newspaper in question were the equivalent of "blackmail". Soon afterward, Roșca-Stănescu issued a formal apology for those particular claims (while expressing further criticism of various aspects of Tismăneanu's biography). Sorin Roşca-Stănescu, "Vladimir Tismăneanu, punct şi de la căpat", in Ziua, June 22, 2006 (English-language version: "Vladimir Tismăneanu: End and Beginning" )
Based on data which he indicated formed part of his CNSAS file, Tismăneanu also specified that he was the object of constant Securitate surveillance after his departure, that his mother was subject to pressures, and that derogatory comments on him, including a coded reference to his Jewish background (tunărean), were gathered from various informants and agents. He made mention of the fact that, according to the documents (the last of which were allegedly compiled in April 1990), the post-Revolution Foreign Intelligence Directorate had continued to monitor him. Tismăneanu also indicated his belief that the author of a denunciation note, who used the name Costin and recommended himself as a Faculty of Sociology professor, was the same person who, after 1989, had sent a letter to his University of Maryland employer, in which he had called attention to the communist activities of Leonte Tismăneanu (according to Vladimir Tismăneanu, the letter was dismissed as "abject" and irrelevant by its recipient). Tismăneanu also cited Costin's report to the Securitate, which expressed concern that his doctoral thesis was a covert popularization of the Frankfurt School and its reinterpretations of Marxist thought. According to his former colleague Radu Ioanid, the Urban Sociology Department group had been under constant Securitate surveillance, especially after Tismăneanu defected. Ioanid quoted his own Securitate file, which, in a post-1981 comment, referred to his "close contacts" with Tismăneanu, defining the latter as "a sociologist of Jewish nationality, a former office colleague [of Ioanid's], presently an outstandingly hostile collaborator of Radio Free Europe [who has] settled in the USA." Ioanid also referred to Tismăneanu's family in Romania having been "heckled" by the Securitate, especially after he himself had been made suspect by his historical research into Romanian antisemitism.
In January 2007, Ziua contributor Vladimir Alexe published in facsimile a text which he considered part of a separate file kept on Tismăneanu by the Counter-Espionage unit of the Securitate, dated 1987. According to this, Tismăneanu was well appreciated for his professional and Romanian Communist Party work prior to 1981, and had held the position of lecturer on the Propaganda Commission of the Communist Party Municipal Committee for Bucharest. The same text also contradicts Tismăneanu's indication that he had not been allowed to travel to the West prior to 1981, by stating that he had been approved tourist visas for both the Eastern Bloc and "capitalist states". The facsimile was accompanied by an open letter containing similar accusatory claims made by Dan Mureșan, who recommended himself as the political consultant of a company working for the United States Republican Party, and relying on the assertion that Tismăneanu had settled in the United States only after 1985. Several months before, Alexe had himself been accused by Cotidianul newspaper of having been a Securitate informant and confronted with a CNSAS file which appeared to confirm this, but had rejected the claim as manipulative. Liviu Avram, Mirela Corlăţan, "Turnătorii din presă, de la Scînteia la Arici Pogonici", in Cotidianul, August 21, 2006
As leaders of anti-communist opinion inside the former Eastern Bloc, invited by President Băsescu the Final Report reading, Lech Wałęsa and Vladimir Bukovsky had been requested by Ziua to comment on the Commission's activities. When asked if he knew Tismăneanu, Wałęsa replied "No, I don't know, I don't have such a good memory", while Bukovsky stated "I don't know Tismăneanu, I know nothing about him. I would like people to understand what they did in the past. He too should understand the part he played".
Writing for Evenimentul Zilei in May 2007, Tismăneanu accused Ziua of "intoxication", and argued that the journal's stated anti-communism was meant to avert attention from its association with Băsescu's critics, at a time when the president was impeached and reinstated by popular suffrage. Commenting that the anti-Băsescu group was setting itself against "popular sovereignty" and ruling through a "continuous parliamentary putsch", he also accused Ziua and other press venues, including Dan Voiculescu's Jurnalul Național and Antena 1, were engaged in a campaign to discredit Băsescu. In his view, the coalition of political forces itself represented a "black quadrilateral" reuniting diverse left-wing forces and "camouflaged-green" groups inspired by the Iron Guard, whose goal he alleged was in "establishing an oligarchic-neo-Securist dictatorship". Tismăneanu stated that this was connected with earlier criticism of the Commission, arguing that, despite its editors professing anti-communism, "Ziua has been doing nothing other than throw mud at the [Commission] members and at the very purpose of the Commission." Similar accusations against such press organs, as well as against Voiculescu's newer station Antena 3, were repeated during subsequent interviews.
In July 2007, Gabriel Liiceanu and former Ziua contributor Dan Tapalagă sued the latter newspaper for calumny, referring to various allegations made against them—Liiceanu considered that, in his case, Ziua had organized a campaign of libel after he had decided to rally with supporters of the Report. According to Adevărul journal, the three argued that their initiative was an attempt "to purge the language of the Romanian press, and to put a stop to the publishing of articles that 'poison' public opinion." Patapievici also expressed his concern that the anti-Băsescu section of the Romanian public made little effort to condemn Ziua for its "mudslinging".
Michael Shafir and Iluzia anticomunismului
Repeated criticism of the Final Report was voiced by Romanian-born Israeli historian and former Radio Free Europe contributor Michael Shafir. In a January 2007 interview with Tapalagă, Shafir had expressed objections to the document's referencing a "genocide" in Communist Romania, arguing that this verdict was exaggerated and unscientific, and objected to Iron Guard activists allegedly being included among the regime's victims, in the same category as members of democratic forces. Shafir, who nevertheless also stated the existence of "chapters in the report where I wouldn't change one comma", rated the text "a seven, no more than an eight." Accusing Vladimir Tismăneanu's adversaries at Ziua of having a dissimulated far right agenda, he added: "Every time Mr. Tismăneanu was attacked unjustly, I took a stand provided I thought my word counted." In late May 2006, Shafir had joined a group of intellectuals (comprising Liviu Antonesei, Andrei Cornea, Marta Petreu, Andrei Oişteanu, Leon Volovici and others) who together issued a formal protest against Ziua journalists, in particular Dan Ciachir, Victor Roncea and Vladimir Alexe, over their treatment of figures such as Tismăneanu and Foreign Minister Mihai Răzvan Ungureanu, and over their allegedly Iron Guard-inspired and antisemitic rhetoric. "Atac la Ziua" , in Ziua, May 31, 2006 Shafir's perspective on the matter of genocide was supported early on by exiled writer Dumitru Țepeneag, who described the "far from perfect" Final Report as having the "not at all dismissible quality of being in existence", while calling its main author "an opportunist".
In 2008 Shafir joined Gabriel Andreescu, Daniel Barbu, Alex Cistelecan, Vasile Ernu, Adrian-Paul Iliescu, Costi Rogozanu, Ciprian Șiulea, Ovidiu Țichindeleanu and other intellectuals from various fields in writing a critique of the Final Report, named Iluzia anticomunismului ("The Illusion of Anti-communism"). The volume was written from both mainstream liberal and left-wing positions, and objected to parts of the report on various grounds—including its definitions of genocide, the absence of detail on Communist Romania's contribution to positive causes such as literacy campaigns, an alleged overemphasis on the intellectuals' role in the events described, and in particular the tone, which the authors perceived as indicative of bias. In addition to the critique of the text, Iluzia anticomunismului made reproaches on Tismăneanu himself. It stated that, although well-selected overall, the Commission had included Patapievici and Nicolae Manolescu for "clientelistic" reasons (Andreescu); that Tismăneanu was favorably reviewing the works of his friend Dan Pavel, who, it concluded, had lost credibility by campaigning with the New Generation Party (Rogozanu); and that he only answered to marginal and violent criticism from venues such as the Greater Romania Party, being indifferent to his peers' objections, and constructing an image of "good" vs. "bad intellectuals" (Șiulea). Lorin Ghiman, "Intelectualii invizibili şi cărţile lor minunate", in Observator Cultural, Nr. 454-455, December 2008 The group also complained that Romanian publishing houses were unwilling to endorse their critique, on account of which the work was published by Editura Cartier in neighboring Moldova.
The new book itself sparked debates in the media. Patapievici sees it as evidence of "extermination criticism, hypocritically presented as impersonal". He also reproached Șiulea his conclusions that the report was not neutrally voiced and that Tismăneanu's background made his moral standing questionable. Essayist and Idei în Dialog contributor Horațiu Pepine proposed that "beyond the visible and unrestrained resentment, it contains an emotional state and a tension that seems to speak of a certain social suffering." Pepine concluded that, among the authors, the "young revisionists" were the voice of a newer social class, which had emerged as a result of Ceaușescu's policies and was faced with becoming "déclassé". According to Pepine, at least some of the authors had already publicly objected to the idea of condemning communism before the Final Report had been issued. Iluzia anticomunismului earned the endorsement of historian Lorin Ghiman, who saw in it a correct evaluation of the Commission's actual goals, described by Ghiman as "the rhetorical and symbolical legitimation for the hegemony of an intelligentsia preoccupied with maintaining a monopoly on opinion." Ghiman also objected to Vladimir Tismăneanu's alleged refusal to engage Iluzia anticomunismului writers in a public debate, but added that he did not perceive a personal conflict, and that "all editors of the volume have publicly expressed their respect for Mr. Tismăneanu, for all the reserves they voice in respect to various of his decisions." Historian Sorin Adam Matei has also criticized the report, on editorial, legal and pragmatic grounds. He pointed to the fact that the conclusions were published before the report was even written and argued that the text incorporates verbatim sections from pre-existing works, suggesting a superficial and non-systematic approach to its writing. Matei concludes that the report generally fails to make a legal, factually grounded case for specific indictments of specific facts or individuals, under legal provisions valid at the time of commission of the acts described in the report. He called for a remake of the project, in a more legalistic and practically oriented manner.
In a December 2008 article, Tismăneanu stated that the allegation according to which he had not engaged his critics in a public debate was "completely false", and indicated several instances which he believed count as such. Tismăneanu also responded to critiques that the Commission was preparing "a sort of 'single textbook' " on Romanian communism, defining the Final Report as "a synthesis which would lead to further explorations." He summarized the topics of criticism against him and the document, arguing that they were for most connected to his person, and that they echoed accusations made against investigators of criminal regimes in Chile, Germany, Guatemala or South Africa. He also stated that, with the exception of Daniel Barbu, none of the Iluzia anticomunismului authors had cited "[scientific] literature in connection with the memory of totalitarianism .... No historical document that would contradict or disprove the conclusions of the Report was made available." Tismăneanu contended the writers' motivations were "frustrations, phobias and a desire ... for fame", and asserted that their arguments were equivalent to an "irresponsible Marxism-Leninism" he associates with Slovenian sociologist Slavoj Žižek. He later objected on principle to the implication that he was "expected to answer" to issues raised by Iluzia anticomunismului.
Ramifications of the dispute
Some criticism of Tismăneanu's leadership of the Commission was also voiced by other sections of the Romanian academic environment. One such voice was historian Florin Constantiniu, who, although viewing Tismăneanu's contributions as relevant, saw the Final Report as Tismăneanu's betrayal of his father's memory, likening him to the famed Soviet delator Pavlik Morozov. Cristian Vasile calls Constantiniu's statement "unwarranted and offensive", contrasts it with the incriminated document, where Leonte Tismăneanu is only mentioned in passing, concluding that the accuser had not read the text he was discussing. Rumors also surfaced of a clash between Tismăneanu and Marius Oprea, Commission member and head of the older Romanian Institute of Recent History, which, according to Vasile, was a method for Tismăneanu's detractors to encourage "a destructive competition". This controversy was rekindled in early 2010, when Tismăneanu replaced Oprea at the helm of the Institute for the Investigation of Communist Crimes in Romania. Oprea, who received open support from various Romanian and foreign intellectuals and political figures, claimed that Tismăneanu's term at the head of a reformed institute (which also comprised Romanian diaspora archives) was a political deal aimed at shifting focus away from criminology. Speaking at the time, Oprea mentioned that he felt "shame" for having sat on the 2006 Commission.
Tismăneanu himself referred to criticism of the Final Report from the part of several members of the Institute of the Romanian Revolution, noting that their reply, published in a special issue of the body's official journal, was prefaced by Ion Iliescu, and inferring a common political agenda. In July 2007, Cotidianul reporter Mirela Corlățan reviewed and supported accusations of censorship and pro-Iliescu bias inside the Institute, quoting Tismăneanu and other scholars critical of the body's policies. Corlățan's article cited historian Miodrag Millin, a resigned member of the Institute, who deemed the reply: "a state-sponsored 'clog' forced on the condemnation of communism, without any [of the Institute members] taking responsibility for those opinions." Millin added: "It is an institution born into old age, with no synchronization to reality, led by Ion Iliescu and his cronies." Other local academic reactions, Cristian Vasile claims, were mostly motivated by covert sympathies for communist historiography among the "spiritually aged professors"; Vasile cites one academic's comment that Tismăneanu was an unprofessional and "one of the communist regime's profiteers", calling the statement "venomous" and presuming it to display "repulsion and envy". He also identifies such historians as persons whose careers were shaped in the final decades of communism, under the influence of protochronism and other nationalist historiographic interpretations favored by Ilie Ceaușescu, a Romanian Army general and brother of Nicolae.
An extended polemic was sparked between the Tismăneanu Commission and the dissident writer Paul Goma. Goma, who initially accepted an invitation to become a Commission member, as issued by Tismăneanu himself, Adrian Văduva, "Dreptate - Goma îi scrie preşedintelui" , in Jurnalul Naţional, October 16, 2006 claims to have been excluded after a short while by "the self-styled 'eminent members of civil society'". According to Tismăneanu, this happened only after Goma engaged in and publicized personal attacks aimed at other Commission members, allegedly calling Tismăneanu "a Bolshevik offspring", based on his family history. Tismăneanu also indicated that Goma's statements had been prompted by rumors that he had sided with other intellectuals in condemning as "antisemitic" the views he had expressed on issues pertaining to the 1940 Soviet occupation of Bessarabia. He denied ever having made public his views on this particular matter, and Goma consequently apologized for not having sufficiently verified the information. The Commission justified the exclusion based on Goma's implicit and later explicit refusal to recognize the board as a valid instrument. The fact that Sorin Antohi, who was a confirmed former collaborator of the Communist regime's Securitate, and known to have falsified his academic credentials, was selected for the Commission's panel, has prompted further criticism. Antohi resigned in September 2006.
The Final Report and the activity of the Presidential Commission received endorsement from the American media and the academic community. Georgetown University professor Charles King stated the following in his review of the Commission's Report: "the report is the most serious, in-depth, and far-reaching attempt to understand Romania's communist experience ever produced. It ... marked the culmination of months of feverish research and writing. It is based on thousands of pages of archival documents, recent scholarship in several languages, and the comparative experience of other European countries, all refracted through the critical lenses provided by some of Romania's most talented, and most abrasively honest, thinkers. ... The Tismăneanu commission's chief tasks had to do with both morality and power: to push Romanian politicians and Romanian society into drawing a line between past and present, putting an end to nostalgia for an alleged period of greatness and independence, and embracing the country's de facto cultural pluralism and European future." In reply to Jim Compton's favorable review of the Commission and its early activities, Romanian-American businessman Victor Gaetan wrote a letter, originally published in the op-ed section of The Washington Post and republished by Ziua, in which he referred to the Tismăneanu family's nomenklaturist history and described Tismăneanu's doctoral thesis as "a vitriolic indictment of Western values".Victor Gaetan, "Vinegar on Old, Open Wounds", in The Washington Post, August 26, 2006
Further ramifications of the scandal came in summer 2009, when leadership of Cotidianul newspaper was taken over by Cornel Nistorescu, whose change in editorial line prompted a wave of resignations among the newspaper panelists, who identified the new policies as an unmitigated anti-Băsescu bias, and complained that Nistorescu was imposing censorship on independent contributors.Mădălina Şchiopu, "Înainte să fie prea târziu", in Dilema Veche, Vol. VI, Nr. 287, August 2009 In subsequent statements, Nistorescu alleged that his adversaries represented a pro-Băsescu "pack" led by Tismăneanu himself. Cornel Nistorescu, "Lămuriri necesare şi periculoase", in Cotidianul, August 4, 2009 Journalist Mădălina Șchiopu reacted against this perspective and other accusations aimed by Nistorescu toward his former colleagues, arguing that they amounted to "a story with little green men and flying saucers" which served to cover the "fundamental incompatibility between [Nistorescu's] decisions and the notion of decency." She viewed "the idea that the source for all that is wrong with the Romanian press can be found somewhere in Tismăneanu's entourage" as equivalent to declaring that Tismăneanu "turns into a vârcolac under the fool moon and eats the newly born". In one of his other editorials, the new Cotidianul editor revisited Tismăneanu's past, quoting statements from the 1980s which, he wrote, made Tismăneanu "a devoted communist activist" incompatible with his later appointments: "The chairman of the Presidential Commission could do anything, except condemning that which he has supported." The events also prompted an article by Tismăneanu's friend, novelist Mircea Cărtărescu. It sarcastically included Nistorescu, alongside Vadim Tudor, Roșca-Stănescu, Voiculescu, Geoană and businessman Dinu Patriciu, all of them adverse to Băsescu, among the "champions of democracy", noting that himself, Tismăneanu and other public figures who did not abandon Băsescu's cause "despite his human flaws", were being negatively portrayed as "ass-kissers" and "blind people". Mircea Cărtărescu, "Confesiunile unui învins", in Evenimentul Zilei, August 7, 2009
The implications of the scandal also involved several Wikipedia entries, particularly those on Romanian Wikipedia. In June 2007, Vladimir Tismăneanu stated: "I did not make efforts to respond to the wave of calumnies (which have infested the two Wikipedia articles about me in both English and Romanian) because I followed the precept 'You do not dignify them with an answer'." During a 2008 colloquy on "The Campaign against the Intellectuals", organized by Revista 22 and attended by several journalists and civil society members, Horia-Roman Patapievici stated: "How does one respond to the claim that one has no right condemn communism over being what one is? How come so many people are not indignant over this kind of argumentation? ... [Tismăneanu's] page on Wikipedia was vandalized and has stayed that way. Viewers of the page are okay with the tendentious information there. You were outraged, for just cause, when a Jewish cemetery was vandalized, but, please, also express public outrage toward the vandalizing of Wikipedia pages on Vladimir Tismăneanu. ... Why do those who supervise the Wikipedia franchise in Romania allow this grave disinformation of the public, by forcefully maintaining a vandalized page? The absence of such an indignation is the most significant contribution to our country's morally unbreathable air."
Allegations of intimidation and influence peddling
Tismăneanu has been accused by multiple Romanian and foreign scholars and researchers of employing dubious methods to squelch criticism of him and his works. In May 2012, the well-respected scholar Alina Mungiu-Pippidi wrote, "I hope that Volodea will once again become the spiritual creature, subtle and with a sense of humor who he used to be, and that we can forget this sinister alter-ego that he has become, telephoning newspapers and television stations to orchestrate--without being asked by anybody--pro-Băsescu propaganda and putting pressure on independent journalists." According to Michael Shafir, Tismăneanu responded to criticisms by the American researcher Richard Hall as follows: "On the one hand, the vicepresident of the Civic Alliance, Sorin Ilieşiu, a person close to Tismăneanu, reacted by putting the word "analyst" in quotes, so that the journalist Andrei Bădin could then "demonstrate" that Hall wasn't a CIA analyst, but had only served an insignificant "probationary" period of six months. The person who was the object of his criticism knew better: Hall had published in the very journal that he had previously led ("East European Politics and Societies"). So he picked up the telephone and yelled at Richard Hall's supervisor, in a scene that could have been included in "Stalinism for All Seasons." Michael Shafir detailed Tismăneanu's tactics more broadly in an article entitled suggestively, "About Questionable Clarifications, Plagiarism, Being an Imposter, and Careerism." In November 2013, Vasile Ernu told an interviewer how Editura Curtea Veche cancelled a book contract because among a handful of references to Tismăneanu one suggested that "Tismăneanu employs two different discourses, one inside Romania and one outside."
Works
Originally published in Romanian
Noua Stîngă și școala de la Frankfurt (Editura Politică, Bucharest, 1976). .
Mic dicționar social-politic pentru tineret (with various; Editura Politică, Bucharest, 1981). .
Condamnați la fericire. Experimentul comunist în România (Grup de edituri ale Fundației EXO, Bucharest, 1991). .
Arheologia terorii (Editura Eminescu, Bucharest, 1992). .
Ghilotina de scrum (Editura de Vest, Timișoara, 1992). .
Irepetabilul trecut (Editura Albatros, Bucharest, 1994). .
Fantoma lui Gheorghiu-Dej (Editura Univers, Bucharest, 1995). .
Noaptea totalitară: crepusculul ideologiilor radicale în Europa de Est (Editura Athena, Bucharest, 1995). .
Balul mascat. Un dialog cu Mircea Mihăieş (with Mircea Mihăieş; Polirom, Iași, 1996). .
Încet spre Europa. Vladimir Tismăneanu în dialog cu Mircea Mihăieș (with Mircea Mihăieș; Polirom, Iași, 2000). .
Spectrele Europei Centrale (Polirom, Iași, 2001). .
Scrisori din Washington (Polirom, Iași, 2002). .
Marele șoc din finalul unui secol scurt. Ion Iliescu în dialog cu Vladimir Tismăneanu (dialogue with Ion Iliescu; Editura Enciclopedică, Bucharest, 2004). .
Schelete în dulap (with Mircea Mihăieș; Polirom, Iași, 2004). .
Scopul și mijloacele: Eseuri despre ideologie, tiranie și mit (Editura Curtea Veche, Bucharest, 2004). .
Democrație și memorie (Editura Curtea Veche, Bucharest, 2006). .
Refuzul de a uita. Articole și comentarii politice (2006–2007) (Editura Curtea Veche, Bucharest, 2007). .
Cortina de ceață (with Mircea Mihăieș; Polirom, Iași, 2007). .
Raport final - Comisia Prezidențială pentru Analiza Dictaturii Comuniste din România (with various; Humanitas, Bucharest, 2007). .
Perfectul acrobat. Leonte Răutu, măștile răului (with Cristian Vasile; Humanitas, Bucharest, 2008). .
Originally published in English
The Crisis of Marxist Ideology in Eastern Europe: The Poverty of Utopia (Routledge, London, 1988). .
Latin American Revolutionaries: Groups, Goals, Methods (with Michael Radu; Potomac Books, Dulles, 1990). .
In Search of Civil Society: Independent Peace Movements in the Soviet Bloc (with various; Routledge, London, 1990). .
Debates on the Future of Communism (with Judith Shapiro; Palgrave Macmillan, New York, 1991) .
Uprooting Leninism, Cultivating Liberty (with Patrick Clawson; University Press of America, Lanham, 1992). .
Reinventing Politics: Eastern Europe from Stalin to Havel (Free Press, New York, 1992). .
Political Culture and Civil Society in Russia and the New States of Eurasia (M. E. Sharpe, Armonk, 1995). .
Fantasies of Salvation: Democracy, Nationalism and Myth in Post-Communist Europe (Princeton University Press, Princeton, 1998). .
The Revolutions of 1989 (Re-Writing Histories) (with various; Routledge, London, 1999). .
Between Past and Future: The Revolutions of 1989 and Their Aftermath (with Sorin Antohi; Central European University Press, New York, 2000). .
Stalinism for All Seasons: A Political History of Romanian Communism (University of California Press, Berkeley, 2003). .
World Order After Leninism (with Marc Morjé Howard, Rudra Sil, Kenneth Jowitt; University of Washington Press, Seattle, 2006). .
Stalinism Revisited: The Establishment of Communist Regimes in East-Central Europe (with various; Central European University Press, New York, 2009). .
The Devil in History: Communism, Fascism, and Some Lessons of the Twentieth Century (University of California Press, Berkeley, 2012). .
Bilingual
Vecinii lui Franz Kafka. Romanul unei nevroze/The Neighbors of Franz Kafka. The Novel of a Neurosis (with Mircea Mihăieș; Polirom, Iași, 1998). .
Citations
General references
Biography at Polirom.ro; retrieved October 3, 2007
Lucian Boia (ed.), Miturile comunismului românesc, Editura Nemira, Bucharest, 1998. .
External links
Official site and blog
Vladimir Tismăneanu, home page at the University of Maryland
Institute for the Investigation of Communist Crimes and the Memory of the Romanian Exile
Center for the Study of Post-Communist Societies
Vladimir Tismăneanu's articles in Cotidianul authorID_802-authors_details.html Vladimir Tismăneanu's articles in Observator Cultural Vladimir Tismăneanu's articles in Revista 22''
1951 births
20th-century Romanian historians
21st-century American historians
21st-century American male writers
21st-century Romanian historians
Academic journal editors
American essayists
American magazine editors
American male essayists
American male screenwriters
American people of Romanian-Jewish descent
American political scientists
Cold War historians
Historians of communism
Historians of the Holocaust
Jewish American historians
Latin Americanists
Living people
Male biographers
American male television writers
American television writers
People from Brașov
Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty people
Reagan-Fascell Democracy Fellows
Romanian biographers
Romanian columnists
Romanian defectors
Romanian emigrants to the United States
Romanian essayists
Romanian Jews
Romanian magazine editors
Romanian male writers
Romanian Marxist historians
Romanian Marxists
Romanian memoirists
Romanian political scientists
Romanian television writers
University of Bucharest alumni
University of Maryland College of Behavioral and Social Sciences people
University of Maryland, College Park faculty
University of Pennsylvania faculty
American male non-fiction writers |
4096118 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Azumanga%20Daioh%20characters | List of Azumanga Daioh characters | This is a list of characters from the manga series Azumanga Daioh by Kiyohiko Azuma, later adapted to anime.
The main cast consists of six schoolgirls and two teachers, along with a few secondary characters, the latter including Kimura-sensei, a male teacher with an obsession with teenage girls, and Kaorin, a classmate with a crush on Sakaki.
Four of the girls were included in Newtypes top 100 anime heroines of 2002: Osaka was awarded 7th, Chiyo 11th, Sakaki 21st, and Yomi 78th. Together they made Azumanga Daioh the 2nd most popular series of 2002 for female characters.
Major characters
Students
The students have a variety of different personalities.
Chiyo Mihama
(anime)
, usually called Chiyo-chan, is a child prodigy, having skipped five grades to 10th grade (the first year of high school in Japan) at the start of the series, yet she is still at the top of the class. Such grade-skipping would be unthinkable in Japan, and the series humorously explores its potential consequences. The other characters find Chiyo amazingly cute, but sometimes take advantage of both her youthfulness and her scholastic abilities. However, it seems her classmates are mostly nice to her, with the exception of Tomo, who seems to enjoy teasing her. Her diminutive stature leads to her having a lack of confidence, particularly in sports where she fears she is a burden to others. Chiyo is frequently viewed with envy by fellow students, initially because of her intelligence, but later also because of the discovery that her family is exceedingly wealthy (they own an enormous mansion and a summer house, which Chiyo invites her classmates to visit on several occasions). The stylistic rendering of Chiyo's pigtails allow for several visual gags in both the manga and anime: Osaka often imagines them to be flapping wings, that they can be detached and replaced, they control her, or even that they are entities independent of Chiyo herself. At home, she can almost always be found in the company of her Great Pyrenees dog, Mr. Tadakichi. Because of her small size, she can even ride on his back as if he were a horse. Of all of the girls, she is the only one who does not sit through college entrance exams, as she intends to study overseas in America.
Ayumu "Osaka" Kasuga
(anime)
, commonly known as , is a transfer student from Osaka. Tomo and Yukari expected her to act like the stereotypical Osakan (loud, exuberant, and fond of bawdy jokes). Tomo was quick to choose her nickname, although Ayumu's behavior could not be more different from the "typical" Osakan. Ayumu considers her label "too simple" and "icky," but she lacks the energy or motivation to dispute it. Unlike the stereotypical Osakan, she seems slow and easily distracted, but she merely has a mind that works quite differently than most people. This makes her prone to daydreaming, absentmindedness, and non-sequiturs, but it also makes her unusually good at answering very specific types of riddles. She gets very bad grades at school as she sleeps through most of her classes, much to the irritation of her homeroom teacher, Yukari. She is very bad at sports: the worst in her class and possibly the whole school. She has almost no flexibility in her body; when stretching as a warm-up exercise, she cannot bend at all. She is easily amused by things that most people would consider bizarre. During the Sports Festival, she made a big deal out of running the obstacle course because she thought the event of sticking her face in flour to get a piece of candy was funny and had a giggle fit when she got there. Additionally, when participating in a bread-eating race, her concentration was trounced when the commentator listed the flavour of breads available, causing her to spend too much time deliberating which flavour to pick and, hence, coming in last. The manga revealed that she likes to run outside and play in typhoons. Her unusual way of thinking gives her a very vivid imagination and a unique way of seeing the world. In the English adaptation of the anime, she is given a distinct Houston accent.
Tomo Takino
(anime)
is extremely energetic and competitive, despite being nonathletic and a slacker at the same time. She randomly challenges people to competitions she can't win - mostly Sakaki in sports and Chiyo in scholastics. She tends to irritate everyone around her, but especially Yomi, who has been her classmate since elementary school. Tomo's character is extremely impulsive and she never considers nor cares about the consequences of anything she says or does. She is the only one of the main cast who picks on Chiyo. During the second trip to Chiyo's summer house, Tomo actually grabbed Chiyo's house keys and threw them into the forest because she wanted to see what would happen if they had lost them; which, of course, was a very bad idea. However, on the occasions when Tomo has actually been inspired to concentrate on something, she has demonstrated that she is quite capable. She succeeded in gaining the grades needed to qualify for the same high school as Yomi, though it was only after Yomi ridiculed her and openly said that there was no way that she could do so. Once Tomo began attending high school however, she returned to her lackadaisical ways.
Koyomi "Yomi" Mizuhara
(anime)
, commonly known as Yomi, is a grade-school friend and general antithesis of Tomo. She is the voice of reason of the series, carrying herself as the most mature and sometimes bitter member of the group. Though smart and athletic, she is constantly dissatisfied with herself due to her weight and is always trying various diets in an effort to become thinner. She can never seem to stick to these diets however, as she finds herself constantly tempted by her favorite foods. Another weakness of Yomi's character is that while she is above average in everything else, she is an awful singer, yet karaoke is one of her favorite pastimes. While usually functioning as Tomo's "straight man", she sometimes manifests a rather cruel sense of humor, such as tricking the cat-tongued Osaka into eating an extremely spicy croquette. Compared to most of her peers, Yomi uses more masculine Japanese speech patterns, especially when dealing with Tomo's antics. Yomi also has an uppercut that Tomo is usually on the receiving end of whenever she pushes Yomi too far. However, even though she likes to think that she is well above the immature behavior of some of her classmates, Yomi has demonstrated on certain occasions that she can be just as childish as the rest of the characters, such as trying to get Chiyo to infuse a shrine charm with some of her intelligence so that she could pass her college entrance exams.
Sakaki
is a tall, soft-spoken girl uncomfortable with her height and busty physique. Because she is so shy, she seldom speaks, and her reticence is misinterpreted as being mysterious, or cool. This reputation has been compounded by the fact that most of the school's sports teams try to recruit her every year in the story because of her natural athletic ability (she's usually stronger and faster than most of the male students in school), but, for the most part, she has no real interest in sports. Most students think that because of her demeanor, that she dislikes anything and everything adorable and cute. In contrast to what the other students think of her, Sakaki is in reality a very emotionally sensitive person who holds a secret longing for all things cute. She loves animals, but the neighborhood cats dislike her, and her parents do not allow cats in their house because of her mother's allergies. Sakaki ends up spending a lot of time with Chiyo upon finding out that Chiyo's dog, Mr. Tadakichi, will let her pet him. This friendship actually shows the irony of their circumstances, as Sakaki wishes she looked more like Chiyo, so she could openly pursue her interest in cute things, and Chiyo wishes that she looked more like Sakaki so people would take her more seriously. Later in the series, Sakaki also befriends an Iriomote kitten that she meets on a side trip to Iriomote Island during a class trip to Okinawa. Later, the kitten loses its mother and proceeds to seek out Sakaki in Tokyo. Since Sakaki was in danger with the neighborhood's cat leader and the cat's kitty band, the kitten saves her and they soon become close friends. Kagura, at one point, drew over Sakaki's cat drawings, much to Sakaki's dismay. Sakaki is bad at art (shown by small pictures of cats in her note book) and loves neko konekos (see below).
Kagura
(anime)
is a later acquaintance, joining Yukari's class in the 2nd year (Yukari selects her as a ringer to win the school athletic competitions). She was originally in Nyamo's class and displays a very competitive spirit with her peers in all things (though she has little success in academics). She devotes most of her time to the swim team (which is why she has a tan most of the time) but is an all-around good athlete, and genuinely nice to her classmates. She has a slight obsession with Sakaki, whom she sees as an athletic rival. This is mostly due to the fact that while Kagura trains constantly to stay in shape, Sakaki is a naturally gifted athlete with no training at all. Like Tomo, Kagura tends to be quite impulsive in her actions (although unlike Tomo, Kagura is consciously aware of this and makes a genuine effort to keep it under control). With the arrival of Kagura, a trio of underachievers — together with Tomo and Osaka — is formed called the "Bonkuras" (which roughly translates to "Team Idiot" or "Blockheads"). Kagura has a sensitive side, which the audience sees in episode six of the anime following her homeroom's defeat in the sports festival, and the final episode following graduation. Kagura and Yukari enjoy playing video games. Like Sakaki, she is quite busty (and Tomo teases both of them about their large breasts), but more tomboyish (in contrast to Sakaki's more elegant nature). She has also made it perfectly clear that she will not tolerate the antics of Mr. Kimura.
Kaori
, also known as Kaorin, is a girl infatuated with Sakaki, whose unrequited feelings are a frequent source of anxiety. Her friends seem mostly unaware of her crush on Sakaki, and it is unknown whether or not Sakaki would reciprocate (in the first episode, Kaorin was put off inviting Sakaki to the astronomy club due to fear of rejection; Sakaki, however, seemed sad that Kaorin had not invited her). In the 2009 manga Azumanga Daioh: Supplementary Lessons, Osaka asks Kaori if she is homosexual. Kaori becomes embarrassed and protests that it's "one of those things peculiar to puberty". Kaori then attempts to prove Osaka wrong by saying she would feel the same way even if Sakaki were a man, which confounds Osaka.
While her given name is Kaori, she is almost always addressed by her nickname of (nicknames are often formed by changing the end of a name in this way to sound cute). Kaorin's surname is speculated to be Aida, judging from a panel in volume one of the manga, however this is still unconfirmed.
Kaorin is normally shy and sensitive to a fault, but frequently has been known to display a ferocious temper and is prone to extreme jealousy when Sakaki is involved. She can also be more than a little neurotic. She has some artistic talent, and helped design Chiyo's penguin suit.
For her first two years, she is a member of the Astronomy Club and goes to their camps during the summer break. After the main group's first visit to Chiyo-chan's summer home, she is horrified to learn that Sakaki went after seeing some rather glamorous pictures of her would-be love interest, particularly one with Tomo inadvertently sleeping with her arms around Sakaki. In her senior year, she accompanies the group to Chiyo's summer home (and is, like Chiyo, left emotionally scarred by her ride in the Yukari-mobile). Also during that year, Kimura-sensei transferred her into his class, much to Kaorin's dismay (Kaorin dreads Kimura-sensei's attention even more emphatically than her peers do). Kimura-sensei expresses more interest in her than in any other student, to the point of planting a Kimura and Kaorin garden. He also tells her to call him by a nickname when she complains that she is the only student in class being addressed by a nickname. Kaorin attempts to overlook Kimura-sensei's faults after meeting his sensitive and sweet wife, however this ends quickly. On their final day of class, to Kaorin's horror, Kimura-sensei tells the class that he and Kaorin will be together forever. She also gets to take a photo with her beloved Miss Sakaki in that episode, which she demands Tomo to send her as soon as possible.
Appearing only sparsely in the original manga, Kaorin's role was significantly increased for the anime, to the extent that she even appears with the rest of the group in the opening and closing credits. In the anime, she is notably closer to the other girls, going to Chiyo's house and preparing for the first Culture Festival with them, and accompanying them on their trip to a shrine on New Year's Day, after having an anime-exclusive New Year's dream of her own. Her involvement in existing stories and sketches from the manga is often increased for the anime, and she has several anime-exclusive skits dedicated to her, almost universally involving her pining over Sakaki or being pursued by Mr. Kimura. She is the only character to have one of their parents actually shown on-screen (not counting 'Chiyo Father'). Her mother, who bears a striking resemblance to her, appears in episode 8, waking Kaorin up from her New Year's Dream.
Character songs
"Kaze no Mon-Ami" - Words by Aki Hata, music by Masumi Itō
"Tea Rose de Nemurimashou" - Words by Aki Hata, music by Masumi Ito
Teachers
Yukari Tanizaki
, also known as Yukari-sensei, is the girls' English (Spanish in US version / French in UK version) and homeroom teacher (class 3), but a teacher with very unconventional methods and a rather close relationship with the class. Her students are casual enough to call her by her first name: Yukari-sensei, and some of them use the informal title Yukari-chan. Depending on her mood, she can be either a horrible tyrant or sweet. Like Tomo, Yukari is impulsive (stealing a bike to avoid being late), in sharp contrast to fellow teacher Nyamo's more reserved nature. Yukari is also a notoriously bad driver, as evidenced by the battered, horrid condition of her car, a silver Toyota Corolla, which the students have dubbed "The Yukari-mobile" (It belongs to her parents, and Yukari borrows it). Apparently, on the first trip to Chiyo's summer house, Yukari's driving was so bad that poor Chiyo was psychologically scarred and she has gone to enormous lengths to avoid riding with Yukari since. The only student who seems to actually enjoy the way Yukari drives is Tomo. Oddly enough, in the manga the Yukarimobile is an eighth generation Toyota Corolla, whereas in the anime it is a ninth generation Toyota Corolla, which didn't even exist during the girls' first year.
Minamo "Nyamo" Kurosawa
(anime)
, also known as Kurosawa-sensei or or "Nyamo-sensei," is a gym teacher at the girls' school. In the girls' first year of high school, she is the homeroom teacher of class 5. During their last two years, she is the homeroom teacher of class 2. She is an old high school friend and rival of Yukari. Popular with the students, Nyamo is a nice person, and unlike Yukari she is generally in control. This fact causes so much resentment in Yukari that she will go to almost any length to appear the superior teacher (including signing up Kagura for her class so Minamo would not have anyone who could challenge Sakaki in the Sports Festival). Although they do have their fights, Minamo does try her best to take the high road and not let Yukari's antics get to her. She also tries to help Yukari out from time to time and attempts to inspire her to become a better teacher (although most of her efforts are met with failure). However, Minamo has proven that she can be just as vulnerable to losing control as Yukari is. During one of their trips to Chiyo's summer house, while attempting to prevent Yukari from getting drunk and embarrassing herself in front of her students, she ends up drinking an entire bottle of sake and an unknown quantity of beer. But her plan only results in getting drunk herself and she ends up spending half the night telling the girls some unknown but clearly very risque things (shown in a montage of wholesome images with music instead of dialogue). Fortunately, Chiyo is too young to understand what she is talking about. In the next morning she asks for clarification, much to Nyamo's horror while the others girls start treating her in a very formal and respectful way.
She drives a blue Toyota Vitz.
Kimura
, also known as Mr. Kimura, is the only regular male character in the series. Kimura is a "creepy" and ephebophiliac Classical Japanese teacher, who openly admits he became a teacher to be close to high-school girls. He is constantly lewd and openly seeks excuses to "observe" girls, such as during swimming class or when they are measured and weighed by the school nurse. He especially likes Kaorin, much to her dismay. He addresses her by her nickname "Kaorin", and she feels that he takes his affections to an inappropriate level for a student-teacher acquaintance. When she voices her objections to being called "Kaorin" by him, he then asks her to address him by the similarly cutesy name "Kimurin" ("Mr. Kim-Kims" in ADV Manga's English translation), which he views as a trade off for calling her Kaorin. Not surprisingly, Kaorin rejects this offer.
Kimura habitually appears with his mouth gaping open, and his eyes cannot be seen behind his glasses. At his first appearance in the manga, Kimura seems normal, but takes on his usual expression after he was asked why he became a teacher—as if he had some sort of mental break. In the anime, he is always open-mouthed. Most female students (and some faculty) intensely loathe him, but some male students admire his "sincerity". Despite his lewd activities, outside of school Kimura appears as a responsible and kind-hearted person: he recycles littered cans, donates frequently to charities, and even offered ¥10,000 to a shrine as he prayed for world peace. He has a beautiful wife and daughter, who love him despite his strange obsession; his wife even claims to find him very handsome and thinks "he's cool!"
When Tomo finds a picture of his wife and asks who she is, he replies, in heavily accented English, "Mai waifu" ("Mein wife" in ADV Manga's English translation). "Mai waifu", sometimes shortened to just waifu, has since become a common phrase among anime fans referring to any fictional character that a fan considers their significant other, from manga and anime to video games. It is also how a Japanese native speaker would pronounce the English word for "wife". Also "husbando".
In Manga: The Complete Guide, Jason Thompson cautions that the jokes that revolve around the "vaguely pedophilic teacher" might disturb some newer readers of manga, and later suggested that he might be a parody of the readers of the magazine Azumanga Daioh ran in.
Character song
"Law of 'True Vocation is Equal to a Pleasant Feeling'" - Words by Aki Hata, music by Kosuke Kanai
Minor characters
Chihiro
is a classmate and friend of Kaorin. Little is known except her name. When she appears, she is usually keeping Kaorin company, and she collaborates with her on some projects. Once, when Chiyo-chan tutored her, Yukari assumed it was the reverse. Occasionally Chihiro bears the brunt of Kaorin's temper, without knowing why; it is unclear how aware she is of Kaorin's crush on Sakaki. Chihiro was also one of the most disgusted by the cockroach that appeared in class in Episode 2. In the manga, during the senior year sports festival Chihiro dressed as Chihiro from Spirited Away, partnered with another student (possibly Kaorin) dressed as Kaonashi from the same film. Chihiro's surname is speculated to be Inoue, judging from a panel in volume one of the manga, however this is still unconfirmed.
Chiyo-Father
is a strange-looking and even stranger-acting cat-like creature which appears in Sakaki's dreams, claiming to be Chiyo's father. (Chiyo-Father has also appeared in Osaka's dreams, with the same claim, despite the fact that Sakaki has apparently never really explained these dreams to other people.) Polite but prone to fits of unsettling anger, he may be bullet-proof, have the ability to fly, be a great baseball player, and/or be Santa Claus. Osaka gives Chiyo a stuffed animal shaped like Chiyo-Father on her birthday (which might be the original Chiyo-Father and the source of Sakaki's and Osaka's dreams after they had seen it in the store). On the day the class opens a stuffed animal café for the Culture Fest, Sakaki makes her classmates hats in the shape of Chiyo-Father. When Yukari asks why they are called "Father Hats", Osaka replies "Sakaki started calling them that". Chiyo-Father is often seen floating around in random locations in Azumanga Daioh the Animation. In addition, Chiyo-Father can levitate from place to place, finds the color red discomforting, and is inconsistent about whether he really is a cat. Fuuka has a T-shirt with Chiyo-Father on it (which is greatly mocked by Miura), and the stuffed animal Chiyo-Father also appears in Fuuka's room and as merchandise in Azuma's current manga, Yotsuba&!.
Kimura's wife
Kimura's wife is depicted, in Japanese terms, as a stereotypical beauty, having long wavy hair (other examples of this stereotype to be found in anime include Sailor Neptune and Nadeshiko Kinomoto). The incongruity of the unwholesome Kimura being married to such a beautiful (and evidently wholesome) woman is used as a humorous device, with her appearances invariably leading to bemusement and speculation amongst the other characters, who are uncertain whether they ought to conclude that she is a saint, or an idiot. Like Kimura, she also recycles frequently. She seems to have a kind and ditzy personality, such as when she chases a tin can until she hits her head on a lamp-post. She also refers to Kimura's lunch as the "", like her husband does, and when her picture is first seen by Tomo et al., Kimura refers to her as "Mai Waifu (my wife)". In the anime, when asked flat out by Tomo why she likes Kimura she responds that she likes how he's cool, causing the girls to think she has no taste. She then explains that his style of cool is just currently out of style, comparing it to how 1970s trousers are coming back in fashion, having been out of fashion for around 30 years. Tomo, Yomi, and Osaka all internally think that it's a bad and inaccurate parallel, and that she essentially has strange taste.
Miruchi and Yuka-chan
Miruchi
Yuka-chan
Miruchi and Yuka-chan are Chiyo's friends from grade school. Despite having skipped ahead into high school, Chiyo still treats them as peers. In both appearance and name, they appear designed to resemble the girls' teachers, Minamo and Yukari.
Masaaki Ohyama
(Japanese)
is the girls' bespectacled male classmate in 10th grade. In the original manga, his performance in the exam is good. His English language writing skill surpasses his teacher at the time when he first enters high school. Yukari nominates him as a class representative, judging by the fact that he wears glasses (a meganekko often appears in such a role in many manga and anime). This job continues until he resigns in September and yields the post to Chiyo Mihama. He also serves as the graduate representative in the very end. His character seldom appears in the anime.
Animals
Maru
Maru is a cat that used to live in Sakaki's neighborhood. Little is known about him, except that he was a "big, stately cat" according to Chiyo.
Kamineko
Kamineko (「噛み猫」, "Biting Cat" in Japanese) is a cute gray cat that Sakaki occasionally sees on the way to and from school. Having a great soft spot for cats, Sakaki tries to pet it, but it ends up latching its huge, beartrap-like teeth onto her hand. This becomes one of the series' biggest running gags. Kamineko seems to bear Sakaki strong malice, and at one point attempts to rally an entire neighborhood's worth of cats to attack her. Tomo has somehow managed to get her hands on a plush version of Kamineko, complete with bear trap teeth. Sometimes it runs away from Sakaki if she tries to pet it (having been chased off by Kagura at least once). Sakaki, however, was able to pet Kamineko even after it bit her hand, something which Kagura understood as "conquering her fear." At one point in the animated series, a delivery man is seen with the visage of Kamineko printed on his cap à la the Yamato Transport logo.
Mr. Tadakichi
Tadakichi-san (忠吉さん), also known as "Mr. Tadakichi," is Chiyo's pet dog, a Great Pyrenees, who has been with her for five years prior to her admission to high school. Mild-mannered and gentle, he is large enough for Chiyo to ride on his back and indulgent enough to allow her to do so. Sakaki particularly likes him because he allows her to pet him without biting her, something Kamineko has done at most, if not all opportunities. Sakaki also daydreams about being able to ride Tadakichi as Chiyo does.
Maya
is Sakaki's pet Iriomote mountain cat. His name is derived from Yamamaya, an Okinawan language name for his species. He is also known (by Osaka, at least) as "Pikameowmeow," or "Pikanya," from a corruption of yamapikarya, the Yaeyama name for the species. Sakaki met Maya on Iriomote when he was a kitten during a class trip to Okinawa, and he was the first cat to ever let Sakaki pet it. After his mother was killed by a car, he followed Sakaki home to Tokyo. Because of her mother's allergies, Sakaki cannot keep pets at her house, and Maya stays temporarily at Chiyo's house until Sakaki goes to college.
Maya can manifest an imposing "battle aura," which he used to scare off dozens of domesticated cats and protect Sakaki from Kamineko. In spite of being a wildcat, he is comfortable around people and even Tadakichi-san, and even lets Sakaki bathe him. Chiyo speculates that he imprinted on Sakaki as a surrogate mother. He once scratched Tomo because she was taunting him, but Sakaki hit him on the head and told him not to scratch people.
Notable objects
Neco Coneco
Neco Coneco is a popular stuffed animal franchise that appears frequently in the series. Neco Coneco appears to be based on the real life toy franchise Tarepanda. The typical example is a white cat with a white kitten sitting on its head. Sakaki adores it, much as she does all cats. During the class trip to Okinawa, Sakaki buys an Iriomote cat version of Neco Coneco. Conventional romanization spelling of the pronunciation yields "neko koneko" ("neko" Japanese for cat + "koneko" Japanese for "kitten"); however "Neco Coneco" is often used and creates another joke in itself, Connected Cat.
In addition, Neco Conecos are heroes of , a series of photographs formerly on Azuma's website. A Neco Coneco doll also appeared as a festival booth prize in Yotsuba&!.
References
Azumanga Daioh
Azumanga Daioh
Fictional Japanese people in anime and manga |
4096402 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acorna%3A%20The%20Unicorn%20Girl | Acorna: The Unicorn Girl | Acorna: The Unicorn Girl (1997) is a science fantasy novel by American writers Anne McCaffrey and Margaret Ball. It was the first published in the Acorna Universe series. McCaffrey and Ball wrote the sequel Acorna's Quest after which McCaffrey and Elizabeth Ann Scarborough extended the series almost annually from 1999 to 2007.
Plot summary
Synopsis
Acorna is found in an unusual escape pod by three galactic miners, Gill, Rafik, and Calum. Raised by the three unlikely foster fathers, Acorna, a unicorn girl, matures almost to adulthood within three years. While she is growing up, the miners discover that their 'daughter' has magical powers such as the ability to clean air and water, heal the sick, and detect the slightest scent. Furthermore, she is extraordinarily smart, picking up everything quickly. However, her unique looks and special powers make her an object of desire by many, be it for scientific studies or a rare-item collection, or sex. Gill, Rafik, and Calum, who are determined to protect their beloved Acorna at all cost, are forced to flee all over the galaxy to avoid her pursuers. The book chronicles their adventures together as they travel from system to system, planet to planet, eventually finding a planet that thrives on illegal child slavery. But Acorna is not about to let that continue without a fight, and she vows to free every last child on the planet.
Infancy
The story opens with Acorna's parents' spaceship being chased by the Khleevii, insect-like creatures who have preyed on the Linyaari race for some time. The little spaceship has nowhere else to run and the despairing parents take desperate measures. Knowing that the Khleevii torture their captives, they decide to take a fatal dose of the soporific , setting a compression device, that will destroy their cruiser (and anything else in its proximity), when the Khleevii spaceship comes close.
They place their sedated youngling in a lifepod and eject it just before the defensive weapon triggers. She will have a chance of rescue if the lifepod is not destroyed with her parents' spaceship and that of the attackers. Otherwise, her dose of will keep her asleep until the air supply runs out and she asphyxiates.
The lifepod is transported by the compression event to an asteroid belt which is being mined by Declan "Gill" Giloglie the Third, Rafik Nadezda and Calum Baird in their ship, the Khedive. Detecting life-signs in the lifepod, they bring it on board and open it, thus discovering the alien occupant, the Linyaari infant they name Acorna.
At this stage, none of the Federated Sentient Planets population has had contact with alien races, so although we, the readers, know of the Linyaari and Khleevi, the humans in the novel do not.
The asteroid miners elect to continue working until they have an economic payload and then return to "base", Mercantile Mining and Exploration, to whom they are contracted. This decision probably saves Acorna from a fate worse than death. Before their return to MME, it is absorbed by Amalgamated Manufacturing, a rival corporation notorious for its questionable business practices.
Acorna is found to have unique abilities: she can purify water and air, apparently through the use of her horn, a spiral protuberance in the centre of her forehead. Although she is humanoid, she has equine features, a silvery mane of hair and hoof-like feet. Her vocalisations are somewhat horse-like and her diet is exclusively vegetarian. Initially, she attempts to communicate in her native tongue, but soon adopts Basic, the standard language of the Federated Sentient Planets.
Although she asks for "Avi", which the miners realise must mean her mother, later also stating that "Lalli" was on board the spaceship from which her lifepod was ejected, her foster fathers do not realise the extent of her language development and allow her to lose her earlier vocabulary. When Acorna is given writing materials, she seems to produce similar script to that embellishing the lifepod, but the miners do not recognise the significance of this knowledge and it falls into disuse. Acorna learns to read and write Basic instead.
She matures quickly, learns rapidly and appears to have innate mathematical talents. It is discovered that she can also sense the mineral composition of the asteroids her foster fathers are mining, detecting rhenium, a desirable resource, in "Daffodil", currently being mined. This makes her contribution to the mining venture invaluable.
By the time the Khedive has a full cargo hold and the miners decide to return to "base", Acorna is an active, working member of the crew, having been with her adopted family for nearly two years when the Khedive returns to the former MME Base.
Early childhood
The Khedive docks at the Amalgamated Manufacturing Base to unload its cargo and take on supplies. The miners have notified Base of their adopted child and while they are attending to bureaucratic procedures Dr Eva Glatt, a member of the Testing, Therapy and Adjustment Department, takes charge of Acorna. Glatt makes assumptions about Acorna, based on her assessment of human children, concluding that Acorna has deformities, arrested development and mental deficiencies.
Dr Alton Forelle, a psycholinguist, recognises that Acorna may be a member of an alien species and is determined to experiment on her to further his theories on linguistic development, hoping that this work will earn him a university post. His assistant, Judit Kendoro, has sympathy for the child, but feels powerless to prevent the scientific investigations proposed.
Meanwhile, having completed the questionnaires and ancillary paperwork, the miners seek out Glatt in order to have Acorna returned to them. Glatt assures them that they are unsuitable as custodians of the child, explaining that the Personal Psychological Profiles of the miners show that Gill, Rafik and Calum are invalid guardians, based on their "obvious" problems, as evidenced by their occupation and concomitant lifestyle. Acorna, she says, needs surgical corrections for her differences and the removal of her horn is imminent.
The miners are horrified by Glatt's denial of Acorna's alien status and insistence that their ward is a retarded, deformed human in need of specialised care, with a potential future as a menial worker in a sheltered workshop. They are joined by Judit (who was listening outside the door) and Glatt is temporarily put out of commission while Acorna's rescuers hurry to the surgical unit. Dr Forelle has already rescinded the order for surgery.
Judit takes custody of the anaesthetised Acorna from the surgical team and the miners pretend to hold her hostage as they return to the Khedive. They offer to take Judit with them, but she elects to remain in her employment so that she can help her younger siblings, Mercy and Pal, escape child slavery on Kezdet, their home planet.
Late childhood
The Khedive's crew escape from Amalgamated, only to find that their ship is being claimed by the corporation as stolen. They determine to seek the assistance of Rafik's wily Uncle Hafiz Harakamian to exchange the Khedive's identity with a similar spaceship that crashed. Thus, the miners and their adopted daughter travel to Laboue, a planet known for its discretion and secrecy in such matters, taking with them the beacon exchanged with that of the dead ship.
Uncle Hafiz, an unscrupulous collector of rarities, is not to be trusted with Acorna's unusual background, so Rafik pretends to have converted to Neo-Hadithianism, a retrograde religious sect who veil their women and practice polygamy. While Gill pretends to be Rafik's business partner, an unbeliever, Acorna and Calum are represented as Rafik's wives, swathed in the hijab, voluminous white robes that make an excellent disguise. However, while grazing in Hafiz's garden, Acorna is surprised by Rafik and Hafiz, unable to cover her horn before Hafiz sees it.
The following morning, Acorna awakens before her foster fathers and returns to the garden, fascinated by the musical Singing Stones of Skarrness and attracts Hafiz's attention. He introduces her to the concept of betting odds when she reveals her mathematical understanding of fractions and is enchanted by her abilities.
Determined to acquire this rarity, Hafiz insists, with barely disguised threats, that Rafik divorce her, allowing Hafiz to marry her, as part of the business negotiations. This will provide a substantial discount on the transactions, which include re-registering the Khedive as the Uhuru, with appropriate records, converting the miners' shares in Amalgamated to Federation credits and re-supplying the ship. The miners pretend to agree to Hafiz's terms while planning their escape.
Once the economic manipulations are completed, Rafik "divorces" Acorna and a wedding banquet is embarked upon in anticipation of Hafiz's marriage to her. Hafiz provides iced juice as a celebratory drink in deference to Rafik's Neo-Hadithian non-alcoholic principles. Before any of the miners imbibe in this beverage, Hafiz is called away in response to a commotion caused by Aminah, former nurse to his grown-up son, Tapha, who has returned, minus his ears, from an unsuccessful attempt to take over the southern half of the continent.
Acorna detects that the cups provided for them are doped and purifies the drugged juice. Rafik exchanges Calum's contaminated cup for Hafiz's and when his uncle returns, the tables are turned and Hafiz falls victim to his own plot. While he snores peacefully, Rafik removes the holographic skimmer key and port pass from amongst his uncle's robes so that they can return to their renamed spaceship.
The Uhuru
Having swapped their spaceship's beacon with that of another they found crashed into an asteroid, the crew come under the notice of Ed Minkus and Lieutenant Des Smirnoff, two "Guardians of the Peace", the law-enforcement agency on Kezdet, the Uhuru's new planet of registration. The backstory is that the miners had a negative interaction with these officers and Smirnoff holds a grudge. The former owner of the beacon was Sauvignon, a member of the illegal Child Labour League (CLL), an organisation trying to end child slavery on Kezdet.
Smirnoff and Minkus were the officers who shot Sauvignon down. Their assistant is Mercy Kendoro, secretly a member of the CLL who reports to Delszaki Li, a wealthy local philanthropist who funds the CLL. Li's personal assistant is Pal Kendoro, Judit's and Mercy's younger brother. Li sends Pal to investigate if Sauvignon is still alive, so the miners now have more people hunting them than Amalgamated Manufacturing and Hafiz Harakamian.
Meanwhile, back on Laboue, Tapha learns that Hafiz plans to disinherit him in favour of Rafik. He plans to resolve this problem by killing Rafik and sends Ioannis Georghios to entice the miners into a trap, but they are suspicious and elect to go to Greifen to mine iron ore instead. Posing as Farkas Hamisen, Tapha files a damages claim against the Uhuru, so the miners travel to Nered to sell their load of titanium.
While dining out on Nered, Tapha catches up with them and shoots Rafik. Acorna revives him with her horn, witnessed by Pal, who has tracked them there. When Li learns of Acorna's action, he identifies her as a ki-lin, legendary beings revered in Li's culture and asks Pal to bring the Uhuru and its crew to Kezdet. Judit, now working for Li, is pleased to discover that Acorna is still alive, as a report to Amalgamated reported the Khedive and its crew as dead, crashed on the asteroid.
Kezdet
Shopping for clothes for Acorna on Nered the miners are rescued from their pursuers, who have been tracking their credit account, by Pal, with assistance from the shop clerk. Pal joins them on the Uhuru and releases sleep gas to render the crew unconscious after they are underway to Kezdet. Li has the mineral rights to Kezdet's moons and wants the miners to set up lunar mining operations. On arrival, Judit invites Acorna and the miners to Li's mansion. She is astonished that in the year since she last saw them, Acorna has grown from a child into a tall young woman.
Anyag
Jana, Khetala (Kheti), Chiura and other children are slaves at the Anyag mine, kept near starvation and working long hours. Cowed and beaten, the children are afraid of 'Old Black', the mythological demon of 'Below' who makes children sick and the very real 'Piper', a wealthy man in league with the 'Didis', procuresses for Kezdet's brothels.
Didi Badini and the Piper buy Kheti (now who is too big to drag ore corves) and Chiura, a very pretty little girl of about four, from Siri Teku, the shift boss. Jana is crippled by the beating from Siri Teku for trying to save Chiura and loses the will to live.
Chiura's rescue
Waking early, Acorna decides to go for a run and ends up on the other side of the river in a run-down commercial district where she encounters Chiura, who has escaped from Didi Badini with Kheti's help, but been caught stealing food. Realising, too late, that she has brought no money, Acorna is handed over to the Guardians of the Peace and insists that they take Chiura with them to Delszaki Li, who Acorna claims as her guardian.
After Li has paid off the Guardians, Pal and Acorna slowly extract her history from Chiura and resolve to track down 'Mama Jana', who cared for Chiura in the 'bad place' before the Piper and Didi Badini bought her. Acorna is horrified to learn about the conditions bonded child labourers must endure and wonders what would have happened to her if Calum, Gill and Rafik had not adopted her.
Li has already revealed his plan to rescue all the children and use the lunar mining bases as educational care facilities for the freed slaves. The three miners have undertaken the contract to implement Architect Martin Dehoney's plans for the bases, but the Kezdet authorities are obstructing progress.
The search for Jana takes them to the Tondubh Glassworks, based on Chiura's description of the 'bad place'. They are accompanied by Nadhari Kando, Mr Li's formidable bodyguard. When they draw a blank, Pal rethinks the situation and they try Anyag mine. Disguised as a new Didi, Acorna buys Jana and heals Laxme of her persistent cough, promising to return for her as soon as there is somewhere to take all the freed children.
The Piper
Delszaki Li's development of the Maganos Moon Base stalls because of obstruction at a high government level on Kezdet. He decides to introduce Acorna into society, hoping that her come-out party might throw light on the situation. All the notables are invited to a glittering gathering and the Child Labour League members circulate among the guests. Khetala (rescued from Didi Badini's 'bonk-shop'), Jana and Chiura watch the guests' arrival from concealment and Jana recognises the Piper when he arrives.
The children are terrified, but nevertheless raise the alarm by telling Calum that they can identify the Piper. When Acorna is introduced to Baron Manjari, he plants a poisoned kiss on her hand which she quickly neutralises. Calum tells Acorna that the Piper is present and she tells Uncle Hafiz, who instructs Hassim, the butler, to seal the building. Mr Li entices the baron to his study, where the children are ready to expose his identity, while Acorna pretends to be overcome by the poison.
Li's subsequent negotiations with the Piper, Baron Manjari, remove all official constraints to the Moon Base and 'Manjari Shipping would subsidise the lunar colony by providing free transport for all materials brought to the moon and all minerals mined there in the next five years' in exchange for their silence about the Piper's identity.
Manjari does not believe that the rescue of the slave children will succeed, especially since he thinks Acorna is dying, supported by mourning banners erected at the Li mansion the following day. However, he has reckoned without his host and Acorna, accompanying the fleet of skimmers and medics collecting the bond-slaves. When his portside manager calls to tell him of the children awaiting transportation to Maganos, the baron, his wife and daughter come to investigate.
Baroness Ilsfa reveals that Kisla is not the baron's natural daughter and he kills his wife in a fit of rage, then turns the on himself, leaving Kisla instantly orphaned. The rescued children are pleased, rather than traumatised, by this event and the settlement of the Moon Base goes ahead, albeit now at Li's expense. Thus, the book concludes with Acorna having redeemed her vow to free the child bond-slaves of Kezdet.
Characters
Anne McCaffrey and her collaborators have created both human and alien actors who illustrate the best and worst of social interactions. Many of the characters introduced in this novel recur in subsequent books, particularly the members of Acorna's adopted family. The following is not an exhaustive list, but highlights the major players in this story.
Acorna
Born to the fictional alien race, the Linyaari, Acorna is the beautiful heroine of the series. Gentle, intelligent, compassionate and charismatic, she has an inherent sense of justice that makes her the champion of the disenfranchised.
Alton Forelle
Dr Alton Forelle works for Amalgamated Mining and Manufacturing as a psycholinguist. He wants to experiment on Acorna and write academic papers about her. His defining statement is 'If she is a sapient alien, speaking a language totally unrelated to any human tongue, whatever we can learn of that language will be of inestimable scientific value. We can't let individual concerns stand in the way of Science'.
Baron Commodore Manjari
A wealthy and influential shipping magnate of Kezdet, he is known in the underworld as the Piper. He is described as 'a pinch-faced little gray fellow' with 'very piercing eyes' of 'medium height [and a] spare build'. He speaks in an oddly dry, whispering voice. His name is used to terrorise child-slaves by hinting at his cruelty and depravity. The Child Labour League suspects that many of the mangled children's bodies found are his personal victims. Married to Ilsfa and the father of Kisla.
Baroness Ilsfa Manjari
Born into the 'Acultanias, descended from the First Families of Kezdet' and unhappily married to Commodore Manjari, the baroness consoles herself with food.
Calum Baird
One of Acorna's adoptive fathers, he is pilot and mathematician. Physically smallest of the three miners, Calum first meets Hafiz Harakamian disguised as Rafik's ugly senior wife, covered from head to toe in a white hajib. His ethnicity is apparently Scottish, a popular theme for fictional engineers. In this first novel, Calum falls in love with Mercy Kendoro but will not act on his feelings until he has tried to reunite Acorna with her people.
Chiura
Pretty toddler girl acquired by Siri Teku at the Anyag mine on Kezdet and sold to Didi Badini for the Piper's immoral purposes. She has dark curly hair and is described as having 'chubby' legs, so it is to be surmised that she is recently orphaned. She is deeply attached to her 'Mama Jana', who cares for her when she is thrown into the nightmare of the mine environment.
Delszaki Li
Native of Kezdet, which was colonised by many humans of Hungarian descent, his father's line was of Chinese extraction. Multilinguial and well-educated, Li inherited his family fortune and is head of the Li Consortium. Afflicted with a degenerative disease, he lives in his mansion with a staff that includes the Kendoro siblings. He is a major player in the Child Labour League, dedicated to the elimination of child slavery on Kezdet.
Des Smirnoff
Lieutenant in the Kezdet Guardians of the Peace, Smirnoff is corrupt, vengeful and devious. He is also skilled at defusing tungston bombs and becomes a 'Hero of the Republic' for this feat after Tapha Harakamian's attempted assassination of Rafik.
Didi Badini
Brothel owner and one of the few Kezdetians who knows the true identity of the Piper, Badini buys Chiura and Khetala from Siri Teku. She has a plump face, cold eyes, soft, silky, curly hair, has her toenails painted and wears beautiful clothes. She wants to capture Acorna to sell her horn to the Piper and her body to Tapha Harakamian in his disguise as Farkis Hamisen.
Ed Minkus
Fellow Kezdet Guardian of the Peace, Minkus is Des Sminoff's workmate and sub-ordinate associate in Smirnoff's corrupt activities.
Eva Glatt
Dr Eva Glatt is a member of the Testing, Therapy and Adjustment Department at Amalgamated Mining and Manufacturing's Base. She almost succeeds in having Acorna's horn removed as a 'deformity' before Judit helps the miners rescue the child.
"Gill" Giloglie
One of Acorna's adoptive fathers, Declan "Gill" Giloglie the Third is described as having 'Viking-ancestors', he is nominally Christian. His appearance is variously described as large, red-haired and straightforward in manner. Popular with children, Gill becomes the consort of Judit Kendoro and foster father to the children of the lunar mining base. One of his favourite epithets is acushla, a term derived from Irish, meaning 'darling'.
Hafik Harakamian
Rafik's uncle on his mother's side, father of Tapha, leading citizen of Laboue, secretive planet with minimal regulatory systems and no taxation. Head of House Harakamian, galactically recognised mercantile empire.
Jana
One of the orphans of Kezdet, bonded to the Anyag mine in Siri Teku's day-shift gang. Jana, although a child herself, becomes foster mother to Chiura when the toddler is acquired by Siri Teku. She is one of the children who identify the Piper, arch-villain of the Kezdet underworld.
Judit Kendoro
Oldest of the Kendoro siblings, Judit won a scholarship and escaped the barrios of Kezdet to attend university. She worked for Amalgamating Mining and Manufacturing before becoming Li's personal assistant and finally, married to Gill, becoming house-mother and education administrator on Maganos Moon Base. She is described as having a 'wrist-thick braid of dark hair'.
Khetala
Orphaned at eleven years of age, Khetala (Kheti) has more education than most of the Anyag children. She is raped by Siri Teku, then sold to Didi Badini, who plans to have Tapha 'break her in' to brothel work. When the character is introduced, she is 'two years older than Jana, broad-shouldered and black-browed' and 'unofficial leader of their gang'.
Lady Kisla Manjari
Adopted daughter of Baroness Ilsfa and Baron Commodore Manjari, Kisla was obtained by Ilsfa from a Didi in East Celtalan on Kezdet while the baron was on an extended business trip. She is anorexic and friendless, with a small fleet of personal space vehicles given to her by the baron in compensation for being denied a career as a pilot.
Laxmi
Child slave at Anyag, she has a cough which Acorna cures on her first visit to the mine. She is Siri Teku's best ore sorter.
Mercy Kendoro
The younger Kendoro sister, Mercy 'has an advanced degree in linear systems optimisation theory'. She worked as female assistant to Des Smirnoff and Ed Minkus at the Kezdet Guardians of the Peace office before becoming Li's personal assistant. She and Calum form an attachment.
Pal Kendoro
Youngest of the Kendoro siblings, he is introduced as Delszaki Li's personal assistant. He is attracted to Acorna and is the subject of her first crush on a member of the opposite sex.
Pedir
Skimmer taxi driver who allied himself with Acorna and assists the Child Labour League to free the child slaves on Kezdet. He is recognised by Li to be a 'source of much local knowledge and gossip'. He is the driver who transports Hafiz, on arriving in Celtelan on Kezdet, to the Li mansion.
Rafik Harakamian
One of Acorna's foster fathers, dark-haired and dark-eyed, Rafik is descended from Earth's Middle-Eastern people. His is tri-lingual, speaking Basic, Armenian and Arabic. Son of Hafik Harakamian's favourite sister. Rafik is the negotiator and usually does the 'logical setting out of facts' when a decision must be reached. His character can be devious, but he is also an honourable man, when appropriate.
Siru Teku
Controller of a gang of bonded child labourers (effectively slaves) at the Anyag coal mine on Kezdet. Brutal, perverted and unscrupulous, he beats the children, starves them and apparently tales delight in their subjugation. He is a known associate of both Didi Badini and the Piper (pseudonym of Baron Commodore Manjari).
Tapha Harakamian
Son of Hafiz Harakamian by his 'deceased' wife Yasmin, Tapha is incompetent, perverted and stupid. Delegated by his father to 'take over the southern half of the continent [on Labue from] Yukata Batsu', Tapha is captured and his ears are sent to his father. When he is returned home, Hafiz decides to disinherit his son in favour of his nephew, Rafik. Tapha then makes unsuccessful attempts to assassinate Rafiz until his demise at the hands of Des Smirnoff when he tried to kill Rafiz with a tungsten bomb, a weapon of mass destruction.
Themes
The Unicorn Girl explores mining, business ethics, corruption, child slavery and paedophilia in a postulated future where humans have colonised the galaxy. Some readers have found this disappointing as the book does not focus exclusively on the title character.
References
External links
1997 American novels
1997 fantasy novels
1997 science fiction novels
Novels by Anne McCaffrey
Acorna |
4096460 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1998%E2%80%9399%20in%20English%20football | 1998–99 in English football | The 1998–99 season was the 119th season of competitive football in England.
Overview
Premier League
Manchester United overcame close competition from Arsenal and Chelsea to win their fifth Premiership title in seven seasons. They went on to win the treble of the Premiership title, FA Cup and European Cup, an achievement which gained manager Alex Ferguson a knighthood.
Nottingham Forest went down to Division One just one season after winning promotion. They had started the season terribly after manager Dave Bassett was sacked and Dutch striker Pierre van Hooijdonk refused to play after a dispute with the club. Experienced Ron Atkinson was brought in on a temporary contract but could not stave off relegation. Joining Forest in the Premiership drop zone were Blackburn Rovers, who had been Premiership champions just four years earlier, and Charlton Athletic. Southampton avoided relegation on the last day of the season, and their survival also signalled the go-ahead for a new stadium which would be in use for the 2001–02 season.
Division One
Sunderland were crowned Division One champions with a record 105 points, having lost just three games all season. The two other promotion places were secured by two of the division's least fancied sides – runners-up Bradford City, back in the top division for the first time in 77 years, and playoff winners Watford, who thus won their second successive promotion during Graham Taylor's second spell as manager.
Bury, Oxford United and Bristol City occupied the three relegation places in Division One. Oxford's dismal season was mainly down to debts of £10 million which were putting the club in real danger of closure and had also resulted in the suspension of construction of their new stadium near the Blackbird Leys estate.
Division Two
Kevin Keegan completed his spell as Fulham manager before taking the England job by guiding the Cottagers to the Division Two championship with 101 points. Following them up were runners-up Walsall and playoff winners Manchester City.
Going down were York City, Northampton Town, Lincoln City and Macclesfield Town. Narrowly avoiding the drop to Division Three were Oldham Athletic, who just five years earlier had been a Premiership side and FA Cup semi-finalists.
Division Three
Brentford, Cambridge United, Cardiff City and Scunthorpe United occupied the four promotion places in Division Three.
Carlisle United secured their league status with seconds to spare in their final game. They entered the game in bottom place, and with 90 minutes on the clock in their home game against Plymouth Argyle they were drawing 1–1 and needed a win to stay up. The referee then allowed four minutes of stoppage time and with just seconds to go, goalkeeper Jimmy Glass came upfield and scored from a rebounded corner to preserve his club's place in the league, which had been held since 1928. Scarborough, who had only joined the league in 1987, were relegated instead. Glass, 25, had been signed on loan from Swindon Town after the transfer deadline because an injury crisis had left Carlisle without a goalkeeper for the final few games of the season.
FA Cup
Manchester United beat Newcastle United 2–0 to secure their third double triumph in six seasons and completed the second part of their treble.
League Cup
Tottenham Hotspur, under the management of George Graham, won the League Cup by defeating Leicester City in the final. On the way they knocked out Manchester United, stopping Scotsman Alex Ferguson emulating his fellow countrymen Celtic's quadruple success of 1967.
Individual awards and records
Tottenham's French midfielder David Ginola was voted PFA Players' Player of the Year and FWA Footballer of the Year after helping his club win the League Cup.
19-year-old Arsenal and France striker Nicolas Anelka was voted PFA Young Player of the Year.
David Seaman became the most successful goalkeeper in English league history after conceding just 17 league goals in a season with Arsenal.
Successful managers
Alex Ferguson was knighted after guiding Manchester United to the treble of the Premiership title, FA Cup and European Cup.
George Graham gave Tottenham Hotspur their first successful season for almost a decade by guiding them to League Cup glory.
Peter Reid took Sunderland into the Premiership as Division One champions with 105 points.
Harry Redknapp guided West Ham United to fifth place in the Premiership to secure their first European qualification for nearly 20 years.
Paul Jewell ended Bradford City's 77-year wait for a return to the top division.
Graham Taylor took Watford into the Premiership as they won the Division One playoffs and secured their second successive promotion.
Kevin Keegan finished his spell as Fulham manager by guiding them to the Division Two title with 101 points, before quitting to concentrate on his role as England manager.
Ray Graydon pulled off a major surprise in his first season as Walsall manager by gaining promotion to Division One.
Steve Cotterill, 35, guided Cheltenham Town into the Football League as Conference champions.
Brian Laws took Scunthorpe United out of the league's basement division for the first time in more than a decade after they won the Division Three playoffs.
Events
Ferguson knighted after United's treble
Manchester United completed the treble of the Premiership title, FA Cup and European Cup.
Part one of United's treble was completed when they beat Tottenham 2–1 on the last day of the season to ensure that Arsenal did not retain the Premiership title. A week later they completed the second part of the treble with a 2–0 victory over Newcastle United in the FA Cup final.
United's treble aspirations seemed to have been thwarted in the European Cup final at Barcelona's Nou Camp stadium, with Bayern Munich leading 1–0 at the end of normal time. Referee Pierluigi Collina allowed three minutes of stoppage time and within the first minute, substitute Teddy Sheringham forced an equaliser. Sheringham's goal looked to have forced extra time, but with the last kick of the game Ole Gunnar Solskjær scored a winner and United fans and players went wild.
On 12 June, Alex Ferguson received a knighthood in recognition for his services to football, making him the seventh knight of English football and the third knight to be associated with Manchester United after Matt Busby and Bobby Charlton.
Hoddle ousted
On 2 February, the FA terminated Glenn Hoddle's contract as England manager after he appeared in The Times and suggested that disabled people were being "punished for sins in previous lives". His comments had sparked outrage amongst disabled people to such an extent that the FA felt they had no option but to sack him.
The search began for his successor. A month later, former Newcastle manager Kevin Keegan agreed to take charge of the England team but stayed on as Fulham manager until the end of the season, guiding them to the Division Two title.
New arrivals in Premiership
A year after their playoff final defeat to Charlton Athletic in a penalty shoot-out, Peter Reid's Sunderland returned to the Premiership after winning the Division One championship with a record 105 points. Sunderland, who had moved into their new home, the Stadium of Light, two years earlier, had been widely tipped for promotion to the top flight.
Bradford City, led by manager Paul Jewell, had been outside the top division since 1922. Their only silverware had been an FA Cup triumph in 1911. But the inexperienced Jewell surprised many observers by putting together a strong Bradford side who cruised to second place in Division One and booked their place in the Premiership.
The third and final place in the Premiership went to playoff winners Watford, managed by Graham Taylor for the second time (he had previously been in charge from 1976 until 1987). Taylor had finally achieved some success the previous year in form of the Division Two championship, having endured a torrid time with England and then Wolves. Watford secured a second successive promotion by beating Bolton Wanderers 2–0 in the playoff final.
Glass's last gasp goal keeps Carlisle in league
Carlisle United went into the final game of the 1998–99 Division Three campaign knowing that they had to beat Plymouth Argyle to hang on to the Football League place they had held since 1928. In April, an injury crisis had forced Carlisle to bring in goalkeeper Jimmy Glass on loan from Swindon Town and the Football League gave permission for the transfer to go ahead despite the transfer deadline having already passed.
With 90 minutes on the clock for Carlisle's home fixture against Plymouth, the referee allowed four minutes of stoppage time. Ten seconds before the end of stoppage time, Jimmy Glass ran upfield after a corner was given and slammed the ball into the back of the net to keep Carlisle in the league and send Scarborough down to the Conference.
Blackburn go down
Blackburn Rovers, Premiership champions in 1995, were relegated from the Premiership in 1999 with a side which had lost almost all of its title winning players. Roy Hodgson had arrived as manager in 1997 and achieved UEFA Cup qualification in his first season as manager, only to be sacked the following November as Blackburn found themselves caught up in a relegation battle. Manchester United's successful assistant manager Brian Kidd was brought in as his successor. But Blackburn's relegation fight was finally lost after they drew 0–0 at home to Manchester United in the penultimate game of the season. Chairman Jack Walker was now faced with finding the funds to build a side that could win promotion back to the Premiership, 12 months after he handed an open cheque book to Roy Hodgson in hope of winning the league.
Cheltenham promoted
Cheltenham Town won the Conference with Steve Cotterill guiding the Robins to the Football League. They had won the FA Trophy the previous season but were beaten to promotion by Halifax Town. They replaced Scarborough.
League tables
FA Premier League
The seventh season of the FA Premier League saw Manchester United finish champions for the fifth time, one point ahead of the previous season's champions Arsenal. United also ended Arsenal's defence of the FA Cup, going on to defeat Newcastle United in the final to become the first English team to win the league title and FA Cup double on three occasions, having already won the double in 1994 and 1996. They then went on to win the Champions League to become only the second English club to win three major trophies in the same season. This made them the first English club to win the Champions League in fifteen years, and manager Alex Ferguson was knighted.
Chelsea's revival continued with a third-place finish in the league, although they failed to add any more silverware to the three cups won in the previous two seasons. Following the loss of manager George Graham to Tottenham in the autumn, Leeds United finished fourth under their new manager David O'Leary. Fifth place went to West Ham United, who qualified for Europe for the first time in nearly twenty years. Aston Villa, who had topped the table for much of the first half of the season, could only finish sixth, while Liverpool's seventh-place finish was a disappointing start for new manager Gérard Houllier.
Tottenham Hotspur finished 11th under new manager George Graham but won the League Cup to end their eight-year wait for a major trophy and a place in Europe. They also reached the semi-finals of the FA Cup.
Newly promoted Nottingham Forest were relegated in bottom place, their third relegation in seven seasons prompting manager Ron Atkinson (only appointed in January) to announce his retirement from management. Blackburn Rovers, league champions just four years earlier, were the next team to go down; the appointment of long-serving Manchester United assistant Brian Kidd as manager appeared to have turned the corner after a terrible start to the season, but a failure to win any of their final eight matches saw them relegated. Newly promoted Charlton Athletic were the last side to lose their top flight status, going down on the final day of the season as Southampton survived.
Leading goalscorer: Jimmy Floyd Hasselbaink (Leeds), Michael Owen (Liverpool) and Dwight Yorke (Manchester United) – 18
Division One
After the play-off final disappointment of the previous year, Sunderland returned to the top-flight in record breaking fashion, earning 105 points, setting a new record under the three points for a win system. Bradford City, who had only narrowly avoided relegation in the previous two seasons, returned to the top-flight for the first time in over 75 years, as Paul Jewell enjoyed a highly successful first full season as manager. Watford beat out pre-season favourites Bolton Wanderers in the play-off final, earning them their second successive promotion and also earning manager Graham Taylor the joint record for most promotions earned by a single manager.
Wolverhampton Wanderers just missed out on the playoffs after the dismissal of Mark McGhee in November paved the way for his assistant Colin Lee to take over and oversee a strong run of form which lifted the side into the top half of the table to finish seventh. Steve Bruce began his managerial career by guiding Sheffield United to an 8th-place finish before succeeding Peter Jackson at Huddersfield Town. Mark Goldberg's dream of turning Crystal Palace into a major footballing force quickly turned into a nightmare as financial problems almost put the club out of business, with head coach Terry Venables quitting halfway through the season and Steve Coppell taking charge for the fourth time in fifteen years to steer Palace to 14th place.
Bristol City finished bottom and suffered immediate relegation back to Division Two, as the club's decision to replace promotion-winning manager John Ward with Benny Lennartsson just a few weeks into the season failed to pay off. Oxford United finished second bottom amid increasing financial turmoil, and Bury were relegated on the last day due to the League's usage of goals scored over goal difference to separate sides on the same number of points (Port Vale would otherwise have been relegated due to their considerably worse goal difference). Adding to Bury's frustration, goal difference was reinstated the following season.
Leading goalscorer: Lee Hughes (West Bromwich Albion) – 31
Division Two
Despite manager Kevin Keegan juggling his job with the England manager's job for the second half of the season, Fulham won the Division Two title and earned their second promotion in three seasons, though Keegan departed after the season ended. Walsall proved the surprise package of the division and entered the second tier for only the third time in their history. Manchester City, who had suffered a spectacular fall from grace over the last few years, immediately won promotion during their first ever season at this level, defeating Gillingham in a dramatic play-off final.
Ambitious Reading could only manage an 11th-place finish in their first season at the impressive new Madejski Stadium, while Stoke City's early promise under Brian Little was short-lived and an 8th-place finish was not enough for even a playoff place. Stoke then turned to Gary Megson in their quest to get back into Division One.
This season proved a step too far for Macclesfield, who had been promoted from the Conference and Division Three in successive years, and they were relegated in bottom place. Lincoln City were unable to recover from a dreadful start to the season and occupied the second bottom spot, also returning to Division Three after just a year. Northampton Town suffered a massively disappointing season after finishing fourth the previous year, and were relegated in third-bottom place. York City cruelly went down on the last day, after experiencing a disastrous second half of the season and falling into the relegation zone with mere seconds remaining of their final match.
Oldham Athletic finished one place and point clear of the relegation zone and avoided a third relegation in six seasons.
Leading goalscorer: Jamie Cureton (Bristol Rovers) – 25
Division Three
Brentford chairman Ron Noades' unorthodox decision to appoint himself as manager paid off in surprising fashion, and they won promotion back to Division Two as champions. Cambridge United had actually led the division for most of the season but suffered from drawing too many games in the final months of the season and thus had to settle for second place. Cardiff City took the final automatic promotion spot, as Frank Burrows brought immediate success to the club in his second spell as manager. Scunthorpe United won the play-offs, earning their first promotion since 1983, giving them football above the fourth tier for the first time at Glanford Park.
In one of the most dramatic ends to a season in recent memory, Scarborough were relegated to the Football Conference. They had been bottom for most of the second half of the season, but appeared to have turned the corner by earning two wins and a draw from their last three matches. Carlisle United, who had been below them prior to the final match of the season, earned a shock injury time winner through goalkeeper Jimmy Glass, saving their League status and sending Scarborough down.
Hull City were in the relegation battle up to the penultimate game of the season, soon after Southend United won their battle against a third successive relegation.
Leading goalscorer: Marco Gabbiadini (Darlington) – 24
Diary of the season
16 July 1998 – Former French national coach Gérard Houllier is appointed joint manager of Liverpool to work alongside Roy Evans. It is the first time in the club's 106-year history that two managers have been placed in charge of the first team.
19 July 1998 – Manchester United deny reports that they will be joining a proposed European Super League of up to 32 clubs.
3 August 1998 – Newcastle United pay £5.25million for Germany midfielder Dietmar Hamann from Bayern Munich.
9 August 1998 – Arsenal claim their third trophy of 1998 with a 3–0 win over Manchester United in the Charity Shield.
12 August 1998 – Newcastle United sign Nolberto Solano, the Peruvian midfielder, from Boca Juniors for £2.48million.
15 August 1998 – The Premier League season begins with champions Arsenal beating newly promoted Nottingham Forest 2–1 at Highbury. Chelsea begin with a surprise 2–1 defeat at Coventry City. Manchester United are held to a 2–2 home draw by Leicester City. Wimbledon take the lead of the Premier League on the opening day with a 3–1 home win over Tottenham Hotspur. Charlton Athletic mark their return to the elite by drawing 0–0 at Newcastle.
20 August 1998 – Manchester United pay a club record £12.6million for Aston Villa striker Dwight Yorke.
22 August 1998 – Charlton Athletic demolish Southampton 5–0 at The Valley. Tottenham's dismal start continued when they lose 3–0 at home to Sheffield Wednesday. Manchester United are held to a draw again, this time 0–0 against West Ham United at Upton Park. Newcastle United lose 4–1 at home to Liverpool.
27 August 1998 – Kenny Dalglish is sacked after 19 months as manager of Newcastle United.
31 August 1998 – Newcastle United appoint Ruud Gullit as their new manager, the day before his 36th birthday. The first month of the league season ends with newly promoted Charlton Athletic top of the Premier League, but the end-of-month table has little significance as only two games have been played so far. Sunderland head the race for a place in next season's Premier League as Division One leaders, with Wolverhampton Wanderers in second place. Hopes are high of a successful season for Midlands clubs as West Bromwich Albion are third and Birmingham City stand fourth. Norwich City, rebuilding under new manager Bruce Rioch occupy fifth, while the top six is completed by a Watford side who are searching for a second successive promotion. Just outside the playoff zone are Bury, whose excellent start to the season has sparked speculation that they might match Swansea City and Wimbledon's record of three promotions in four seasons.
6 September 1998 – Christian Gross is sacked after nine months as manager of Tottenham Hotspur.
8 September 1998 – Aston Villa pay Middlesbrough £6.75million for midfielder Paul Merson.
9 September 1998 –
– An inquest records a verdict of suicide on former Norwich City and Nottingham Forest striker Justin Fashanu, who was found hanged at a lock-up garage in London four months ago.
– Manchester United record a Premier League win at the fourth attempt by beating Charlton Athletic 4–1 at Old Trafford. Wimbledon continue their recent resurgence with a 4–3 win at West Ham.
– Manchester United accepts a £623.4million takeover bid from BSkyB.
12 September 1998 –
-Arsenal sign Swedish midfielder Freddie Ljungberg from Halmstad for £3million.
– Tottenham's dismal start to the season continues as they lose 3–0 at home to newly promoted Middlesbrough.
19 September 1998 – Newcastle United show signs of a return to their old form with a 5–1 away win over Coventry City. Newly promoted Charlton Athletic hold Liverpool to a 3–3 draw at Anfield.
20 September 1998 – Arsenal beat Manchester United 3–0 in the league at Highbury – the fourth defeat they have inflicted upon Alex Ferguson's team in less than a year.
23 September 1998 – Everton sign 22-year-old goalkeeper Steve Simonsen from Tranmere Rovers for £3.3million.
30 September 1998 – September ends with Aston Villa as Premier League leaders 5 points above second-placed Derby County are putting up a surprise title challenge after being predicted by many to struggle in the battle against relegation. Manchester United, Liverpool and Wimbledon complete the top five. Southampton prop up the top flight with one point from their opening six games, while Coventry City and Blackburn Rovers completing the relegation zone. Sunderland remain top of Division One, level on points with surprise promotion challengers Huddersfield Town. Bolton Wanderers, Watford, Birmingham City and Norwich City occupy the playoff places, while surprise promotion contenders Bury are keeping up the pressure on the top six.
1 October 1998 – George Graham quits Leeds United after two years as manager to take over at Tottenham Hotspur.
3 October 1998 – Middlesbrough's return to the top flight continues with a 4–0 home win over Sheffield Wednesday.
9 October 1998 – Everton sign Ivorian striker Ibrahima Bakayoko from Montpellier for £4.5million.
15 October 1998 – Steve Watson, Newcastle United's longest serving player (who joined the club on leaving school in 1990), is sold to Aston Villa for £4.5million.
25 October 1998 – Leicester City confirm that manager Martin O'Neill will not be moving to Leeds United. Caretaker David O'Leary, formerly assistant manager at Elland Road, gets the manager's job on a permanent basis.
28 October 1998 – Chelsea player-manager Gianluca Vialli scores a hat-trick in the 4–1 League Cup third round win over Aston Villa. Making his debut as a late substitute is 17-year-old defender John Terry. On the same day, striker Brian Laudrup's departure from Chelsea is announced after just four months at the club.
31 October 1998 – Ron Reeves, a 55-year-old steward, is killed outside Highfield Road stadium after being crushed by the Arsenal team coach just before a game with Coventry City. The month ends with Aston Villa still top, a point ahead of second placed Manchester United, while Arsenal are close behind in third place. A wide gap is beginning to open up between the top three and the rest of the division, with Liverpool, Middlesbrough, Chelsea, Leicester City and West Ham United putting up the nearest competition. Southampton, still only with one win to their name, occupy bottom place and are joined in the relegation zone by Coventry City and Nottingham Forest. Sunderland and Huddersfield Town continue to head the race for Premier League football, with the top six being completed by Birmingham City, Ipswich Town, Watford and Norwich City. Grimsby Town (eighth) have emerged as surprise contenders for a second successive promotion, but Bury's challenge is falling away and they now occupy 15th place. Wolverhampton Wanderers fare little better after their dismal start to the season, now occupying 12th place.
5 November 1998: Wolverhampton Wanderers sack manager Mark McGhee after three years at the helm.
12 November 1998 – Peter Schmeichel, goalkeeper of Manchester United since 1991, announces his intention to leave the club at the end of this season. Roy Evans resigns as joint manager of Liverpool after nearly five years in charge and more than 30 years on the club's payroll, leaving Gérard Houllier in sole charge.
14 November 1998 – Colchester United fall victim to arguably the biggest upset of the FA Cup fourth round when they are defeated 4–1 by non-league Bedlington Terriers. Other Football League clubs to be eliminated by non-league counterparts include Barnet, Southend United and Shrewsbury Town.
21 November 1998 – Blackburn Rovers lose 2–0 at home to Southampton, leaving them bottom of the Premier League with a mere nine points from their opening 14 games. Manager Roy Hodgson resigns within hours of the defeat. Long-serving coach Tony Parkes is put in charge of the first team on a temporary basis. On the same day, Manchester United suffer a shock 3–1 defeat at Sheffield Wednesday.
30 November 1998 – November draws to a close with Aston Villa still leading Manchester United by a single point, but a surprise title challenge is creeping upon them from a West Ham United side with no previous top division titles to their name, and who have not finished in the top five for more than a decade. Arsenal and Chelsea complete the top five. Blackburn Rovers now prop up the top flight, having started the season among the teams tipped by many to challenge for the title. Southampton and Nottingham Forest remain in the drop zone. Sunderland continue to lead Division One, their nearest threat coming from Ipswich Town. Watford, Birmingham City, Bolton Wanderers and Sheffield United complete the top six, with Wolverhampton Wanderers providing the closest competition for the top six after a rejuvenation under new manager Colin Lee.
4 December 1998 – Brian Kidd steps down as Manchester United assistant manager to succeed Roy Hodgson as manager of Blackburn Rovers.
5 December 1998 – Blackburn beat Charlton 1–0 in their first game under Brian Kidd at Ewood Park.
8 December 1998 – Five years after leaving them from Blackburn Rovers, David Batty returns to Leeds United in a £4.4 million move from Newcastle United.
16 December 1998 – Brian McClair, who was among the names linked with succeeding Brian Kidd as assistant manager at Manchester United, is appointed as Kidd's assistant at Blackburn.
19 December 1998 – Manchester United lost 3–2 at home to Middlesbrough – their first home defeat for nine months. United are managed by coach Jimmy Ryan, as Alex Ferguson misses the game on compassionate grounds following the death of his sister-in-law, and United have yet to find a permanent successor to Brian Kidd as assistant manager.
23 December 1998 – The Independent reports that up to ten Premier League clubs could break away to join a European Super League if the Premier League loses its forthcoming High Court case with the Office of Fair Trading. The case will see the Office of Fair Trading bring a case against the Football League, BSkyB and the BBC in the hope of ending collective bargaining for television deals by Premier League clubs.
26 December 1998 – The key drama on Boxing Day sees defender Ronny Johnsen score twice in Manchester United's 3–0 home win over Nottingham Forest,
30 December 1998 – French defender Didier Domi joins Newcastle United in a £4 million move from Paris Saint-Germain.
31 December 1998 – 1998 draws to a close with Aston Villa still leading the Premier League, but with Chelsea, Manchester United, Arsenal, Leeds United and West Ham United all posing a fairly close threat. Nottingham Forest, Southampton and Charlton Athletic occupy the bottom three places. Sunderland and Ipswich Town continue to lead the way in the race for a Premier League place, with the playoff zone being occupied by Birmingham City, Bolton Wanderers, Watford and an ever-improving Bradford City.
4 January 1999 – Arsenal began their defence of the FA Cup by beating Preston North End 2–0 in the third round at Deepdale, while last year's runners-up Newcastle United win 2–1 at home to Crystal Palace. Manchester United, many people's favourites for the trophy, get off to a good start in the competition by beating Middlesbrough 3–1 at Old Trafford. However, Leeds United are held to a goalless draw at Conference side Rushden & Diamonds.
5 January 1999 – Nottingham Forest, bottom of the Premier League and winless for 17 games, sack manager Dave Bassett after less than two years in charge. Micky Adams, former Swansea City and Brentford manager, is placed in temporary charge of Forest.
8 January 1999 – 15-year-old Notts County schoolboy forward Jermaine Pennant signs for Arsenal's academy in a £2 million deal.
9 January 1999 – The first Premier League games of 1999 include Coventry City's 4–0 home win over Nottingham Forest – the 18th successive league game that the visitors have failed to win. Southampton beat fellow relegation strugglers Charlton Athletic 3–1 at The Dell.
11 January 1999 – Ron Atkinson is appointed manager of Nottingham Forest until the end of the season.
13 January 1999 – Leeds United avoid what would have been one of the biggest FA Cup upsets of modern times and beat Rushden and Diamonds 3–1 in the third round replay at Elland Road.
14 January 1999 – Wimbledon pay a club record £7.5 million for West Ham United striker John Hartson, who six months ago was a transfer target for Manchester United.
16 January 1999 – Two high scoring games in the Premier League sees Dwight Yorke and Robbie Fowler score hat tricks for their respective clubs as Manchester United thrash Leicester City 6–2 at Filbert Street, while Liverpool crush Southampton 7–1 at Anfield.
18 January 1999 – Bryan Kidd boosts his Blackburn Rovers side in their battle against relegation by signing Crystal Palace striker Matt Jansen for £4.1 million.
23 January 1999 – Aston Villa suffer a shock FA Cup exit at home to Division Two leaders Fulham in the fourth round.
24 January 1999 – Two late goals see Manchester United overturn Liverpool's 1–0 lead and win 2–1 in the fourth round tie at Old Trafford.
25 January 1999 – Cash-strapped Division One strugglers Oxford United hold Chelsea to an impressive 1–1 draw at the Manor Ground.
27 January 1999 – Two midfielders change clubs for £4 million – Marc-Vivien Foé from Lens to West Ham United and Jason McAteer from Liverpool to Blackburn Rovers.
28 January 1999 – Steve McManaman agrees to sign for Real Madrid from Liverpool at the end of the season.
30 January 1999 – Glenn Hoddle appears in an interview in The Sunday Times in which he suggests that disabled people are paying for their sins in a previous life. Nottingham Forest end their 19-match winless run in the league with a 1–0 away win over Everton.
31 January 1999 – January ends with Manchester United now top of the Premier League, but former leaders Aston Villa still only a point behind bracketed on points with Chelsea. Arsenal, meanwhile, have crept into the title frame and now stand fourth – just two points off the top. West Ham United's challenge has crumbled and they now stand ninth, with 11 points separating them from top spot. Nottingham Forest, meanwhile, have gone from bad to worse and now prop up the table. They are joined in the drop zone by Southampton and Charlton Athletic after Brian Kidd guided Blackburn Rovers out of the bottom three. Sunderland and Bradford City lead the way in Division One, with Bolton Wanderers, Ipswich Town, Watford and Birmingham City completing the top six. Grimsby Town are back in form and giving the top six a serious run for their money.
2 February 1999 – Glenn Hoddle is sacked as England manager two days after his controversial remarks.
3 February 1999 – Oxford United's luck in the FA Cup runs out: 17-year-old Mikael Forssell bags a brace on his first start for 4–2 victors Chelsea in the fourth round replay at Stamford Bridge.
4 February 1999 - Tim Sherwood signs for Tottenham Hotspur from Blackburn Rovers for £4 million, and Silvio Marić joins Newcastle United from Croatia Zagreb for $5.8 million.
5 February 1999 - Derby County assistant manager Steve McClaren is named as Manchester United's new assistant manager.
6 February 1999 – Manchester United record the highest ever away win in the Premier League by beating Nottingham Forest 8–1 at the City Ground. Substitute Ole Gunnar Solskjær scores four times.
28 February 1999 – February draws to a close with Manchester United now top of the Premier League four points, although nearest rivals Chelsea have a game in hand. Arsenal, Aston Villa and Leeds United complete the top five. Nottingham Forest remain bottom and are now ten points adrift of safety, while Southampton remain in the bottom three but Charlton Athletic have jumped clear at the expense of Blackburn Rovers. Sunderland are still top of Division One, their nearest competition coming from Bradford City and Ipswich Town who are level on points. Bolton Wanderers, Birmingham City and Watford complete the top six. Wolverhampton Wanderers, Grimsby Town and West Bromwich Albion continue to keep up the pressure in the push for a playoff place.
5 March 1999 – Former Doncaster Rovers chairman Ken Richardson is sentenced to four years in prison for paying a friend to start a fire at the club's Belle Vue ground in 1995. The arsonist, 41-year-old Alan Kristiansen, receives a one-year prison sentence, while two other men receive suspended sentences for their part in the fire, which caused £100,000 worth of damage.
7 March 1999 – Manchester United draw 0–0 with Chelsea in the FA Cup quarter-final at Old Trafford, with Paul Scholes being sent off for United and Roberto Di Matteo for Chelsea in a game which kicked off just hours after the death was announced of legendary former United striker Dennis Viollet from cancer at age 65.
10 March 1999 – Dwight Yorke keeps Manchester United in line for the treble as he scores both their goals in the 2–0 quarter-final replay win at Chelsea.
11 March 1999 – Aston Villa sign midfielder Steve Stone from Nottingham Forest for £5.5 million.
13 March 1999 – Nottingham Forest keep their faint survival hopes alive with a 3–1 away win over Wimbledon, only their third league win of the season.
16 March 1999 – Barnsley, the only non-Premier League team to reach the FA Cup quarter-finals, bow out at Oakwell when David Ginola scores the only goal of the game for Tottenham Hotspur, who remain in contention for a cup double.
17 March 1999 – The Monopolies and Mergers Commission vetoes BSkyB's takeover of Manchester United.
21 March 1999 – Tottenham Hotspur end their eight-year wait for a major trophy (and European qualification) thanks to a 1–0 win over Leicester City in the League Cup final.
22 March 1999 – Blackburn Rovers pay Derby County £3.4 million for midfielder Lee Carsley.
31 March 1999 – March ends with Manchester United still top of the Premier League by a four-point margin, with Arsenal and Chelsea as their nearest contenders. Leeds United, occupying fourth place, are still within a shout of the league title. West Ham United complete the top five, competing with most of the rest of the "safe" Premier League teams for a UEFA Cup place. Nottingham Forest's dreadful run of form has continued and they now need a miracle to escape relegation. Charlton Athletic and Southampton complete the bottom three. Sunderland are now 12 points ahead of their nearest rivals Ipswich Town at the top of Division One. Bradford City, Birmingham City and Bolton Wanderers remain in the playoff zone, where they are joined by a Wolverhampton Wanderers side whose form is continuing to improve.
3 April 1999 – Both league-leaders Manchester United and second-placed Arsenal drop points as they are both held, by Wimbledon and Southampton respectively. Elsewhere, Liverpool win the Merseyside derby 3–2, and Leeds United rack up their seventh win on the bounce–a club record–by beating Nottingham Forest.
11 April 1999 – Manchester United and Arsenal, competing head to head for both the Premier League title and the FA Cup, draw 0–0 at Villa Park in the FA Cup semi-final. In other semi-final, at Old Trafford, two goals in extra time from Alan Shearer send Newcastle United through to the final for the second year running and spell an end to Tottenham's hopes of a cup double.
14 April 1999 – One of the most thrilling games so far this season sees Manchester United beat Arsenal 2–1 in extra time in the FA Cup semi-final replay. United had taken the lead after 17th minutes thanks to David Beckham, only for Dennis Bergkamp to equalise after 69 minutes. Bergkamp could have won the game for Arsenal with just a minute remaining, but Peter Schmeichel saved his penalty shot and forced extra time, in which Ryan Giggs won it for United with a spectacular 109th-minute goal.
21 April 1999 – Manchester United reach their first European Cup final for 31 years – and only their second of all time – by recording a 4–3 aggregate win over Juventus. They won 3–2 in tonight's clash in Turin, having been 2–0 down at half-time. They drew 1–1 in the first leg at Old Trafford on 7 April.
23 April 1999 – UEFA rejects calls from English clubs for four, rather than three, Champions League qualification places to be available for next season's competition – this will only happen in the unlikely event of Manchester United winning the European Cup next month and finishing outside the top three of the Premier League.
24 April 1999 – Nottingham Forest's Premier League relegation is confirmed with a 2–0 defeat to Aston Villa, after which manager Ron Atkinson announces that he will retire at the end of this season.
30 April 1999 – April draws to a close with Arsenal now leading the Premier League, but Manchester United are a point behind with a game in hand. Chelsea and Leeds United remain in distant contention, while the final European place is being contested by Aston Villa, West Ham United, Middlesbrough, Derby County, Liverpool and Leicester City. Nottingham Forest's inevitable relegation has now been confirmed, with Southampton, Charlton Athletic, Blackburn Rovers, Coventry City, Everton and Sheffield Wednesday all in the battle of avoid going down as well. Sunderland are definitely in the Premier League next season, as champions of Division One. Bradford City and Ipswich Town are level on points in the race for second place, with Birmingham City now the only team who can catch either of them. Bolton Wanderers and Wolverhampton Wanderers complete the top six, but Watford are pushing hard for a playoff place.
6 May 1999 – Blackburn Rovers are relegated to Division One just four years after being Premier League champions.
8 May 1999 – On-loan goalkeeper Jimmy Glass scored an injury-time winner for Carlisle United on the final day of the season to save their Football League status, and relegate Scarborough to the Conference.
9 May 1999 – Sunderland's 2–1 win over Birmingham City on the final day of the Division One season has given them an English league record of 105 points this season. They will be joined in the elite next season by Bradford City, whose second-place finish has given them top flight football for the first time since 1922. Ipswich Town, Birmingham City, Watford and Bolton Wanderers will contest the playoffs. Meanwhile, Manchester United go back on top of the Premier League with a 1–0 win at Middlesbrough.
11 May 1999 – Arsenal lose their penultimate league game of the season 1–0 at Leeds United, losing their chance to go top of the Premier League – meaning that a win for Manchester United against Blackburn Rovers on Thursday will make it almost certain (regardless of final day results) that the league title will return to Old Trafford.
13 May 1999 – Manchester United are held to a goalless draw by former assistant manager Brian Kidd's Blackburn at Ewood Park – a result which confirms Blackburn's relegation (just four years after being champions) and allows the title destiny to remain firmly in United's hands.
16 May 1999 – Manchester United clinch their fifth Premier League title in seven seasons after beating Tottenham 2–1 at home on the final day of the season, rendering Arsenal's 1–0 home win over Aston Villa useless. Third placed Chelsea beat Derby County 2–1, while Leeds United end David O'Leary's first season in management in fourth place with a 2–2 draw at Coventry. West Ham's 4–0 home win over Middlesbrough secures them a fifth-place finish and a place in the 1999–2000 UEFA Cup, their highest finish for 13 years and their first European campaign in 19 years. The last relegation place goes to Charlton Athletic, who lose 1–0 at home to 12th placed Sheffield Wednesday, while Southampton confirm their survival with a 2–0 win over Everton.
18 May 1999 – Liverpool sign Finnish defender Sami Hyypiä from Dutch side Willem II for £3 million.
22 May 1999 – Manchester United complete a unique third 'double' of the league title and FA Cup with a 2–0 win over Newcastle United at Wembley. Teddy Sheringham opens the scoring in the 11th minute and Paul Scholes adds to United's tally in the 53rd minute. In four days' time, they will be competing in the European Cup final to challenge for a unique treble.
26 May 1999 – Two late goals (the equaliser from Teddy Sheringham and the winner from Ole Gunnar Solskjær) save Manchester United from the jaws of defeat and they beat Bayern Munich 2–1 in the Champions League final at the Camp Nou to complete a unique treble.
30 May 1999 – Watford seal promotion to the Premier League with a 2–0 win over Bolton Wanderers in the Division One playoff final at Wembley. They are first team since Notts County in 1991 to reach the top flight with two successive promotions.
31 May 1999 – Two late goals save Manchester City from the jaws of defeat as they pull Gillingham back to 2–2 in the Division Two Play-off Final at Wembley. They go on to win 3–1 on penalties to attain their first promotion in ten years.
12 June 1999 – Alex Ferguson receives a knighthood just over two weeks after guiding Manchester United to the treble.
Famous debutants
The season saw several future England players make their first-team debuts.
Steven Gerrard, 18, appeared as a late substitute for Liverpool in their win over Blackburn Rovers in November 1998, starting a long career at the heart of the Reds' first-team.
Future England defender Wayne Bridge made his first-team debut for Southampton in their 2–1 home loss to Liverpool in August 1998.
19-year-old Leeds United goalkeeper Paul Robinson enjoyed several first-team appearances, the first being a goalless draw with Chelsea in October 1998.
Robinson's Leeds teammate Alan Smith, 18, made an immediate impact at Liverpool the following month, coming off the bench to score almost instantly.
Jonathan Woodgate, 18, played for Leeds in their 1–1 draw with Nottingham Forest in October 1998 and ended the season as part of the England side.
Defender John Terry, 17, played for Chelsea for the first time in the final minutes of a League Cup win over Aston Villa in October 1998.
17-year-old Joe Cole made his debut for West Ham United in a 4–1 defeat to Manchester United
Retirements
Steve Nicol, 37, retired from playing after a season at Doncaster Rovers, after his efforts to get them back into the Football League from the Conference proved unsuccessful.
Ian Rush, 37, retired from playing after a season at Wrexham in Division Two.
Steve Bruce, 38, Sheffield United player-manager, made his last professional appearance on 28 November 1998 and officially announced his retirement as a player on 24 May 1999.
Chris Waddle, 37, left Torquay United on 3 November 1998 after a seven-match spell with the Division Three club.
Steve Bull, 34, retired from playing after 13 years and a club record 306 goals at Wolverhampton Wanderers, where he was the longest serving player by the time he announced his retirement on 13 July 1999.
Deaths
2 September 1998: Jackie Blanchflower, 65, was a Manchester United and Northern Ireland centre-half during the 1950s. He suffered a fractured pelvis in the Munich air disaster of 1958 and retired from football following medical advice a year later. He was the younger brother of former Tottenham Hotspur captain Danny Blanchflower (1926–1993).
23 September 1998: Ray Bowden, 89, was the last surviving member of Arsenal great interwar side, having played for them as an inside-forward from 1933 and 1937, during which time he collected three league titles and an FA Cup winner's medal.
18 October 1998: Dick Sheppard, 53, played 39 league games in goal for West Bromwich Albion during the 1960s before a six-year spell at Bristol Rovers which yielded 151 league appearances. He later served the West Country club as a goalkeeping coach.
7 November 1998: John Osborne, 57, who died of cancer, kept goal for West Bromwich Albion in their 1968 FA Cup triumph. He began his career with Chesterfield and after reaching the pinnacle of his career with Albion he wound up with Walsall.
24 December 1998: Matt Gillies, 77, managed Leicester City to their first major trophy in 1964 when they won the League Cup during his club record 10-year spell as manager. They also reached two FA Cup finals when he was in charge, losing both times. He had also played more than 100 league games for the club as a player in the 1950s, signing from Bolton Wanderers after starting his career with Motherwell in his native Scotland.
25 December 1998: John McGrath, 60, was manager of Preston North End when they won promotion to the Third Division in 1987. As a player, he was centre-half for clubs including Newcastle United and Southampton. He died of a heart attack on Christmas Day, six years after leaving his final managerial post at Halifax Town.
18 January 1999: Horace Cumner, 80, who was capped three times as a forward for Wales in the late 1930s, starting his playing career at Arsenal, playing 14 league games and scoring three goals before signing for Notts County after the end of World War II. He later turned out for Watford, Scunthorpe United and Bradford City in a career which continued into the 1950s.
4 February 1999: Arthur Mann, 51, began his footballing career at Hearts before moving south of the border to play for Manchester City and later Notts County, Shrewsbury Town, Mansfield Town and finally non-league Kettering Town. Was later assistant manager to Alan Buckley at Grimsby Town (1989–1994) and later West Bromwich Albion (1994–1997). Died in an accident at a scrapyard in Birmingham.
23 February 1999: Les Howe, 86, scored 26 league goals in 165 appearances for Tottenham Hotspur as a wing-half in the 1930s before his career was effectively ended by the war.
1 March 1999: Albert "Digger" Kettle, 76, was a defender in the Colchester United side which was elected to the Football League in 1950, and played a total of 145 games for the club in the Southern League and Football League.
6 March 1999: Dennis Viollet, 65, was another former Manchester United player (centre-forward) and Munich air disaster survivor. He continued playing after the tragedy and remained on United's payroll until he joined Stoke City in 1962, by which time he had scored 179 goals in all competitions for the club and scored 32 league goals in the 1959–60 season, a club record. At the time of his death from cancer, he was living in the United States of America, having coached various teams there since the 1970s. Despite his goalscoring success at the highest level, he was only capped twice by England.
16 March 1999: John Liddell, 65, had a prolific start to his senior career in his native Scotland after joining St Johnstone in his mid twenties, scoring 32 goals in 35 league games before moving south of the border to Oldham Athletic in 1961, where he played 23 league games and scored 10 goals before joining non-league Mossley a year later. He then turned out for Worcester City.
28 April 1999: Sir Alf Ramsey, 79, managed England to their finest moment – World Cup glory in 1966. Had played for Tottenham and England during the postwar years and had proved himself as a club manager by winning the league title for Ipswich Town in 1962 – at the end of their first season as a top division club. Remained at the helm with England until 1974, and later had a brief spell as manager of Birmingham City.
29 April 1999: Les Bennett, 81, played 272 league games at inside-forward for Tottenham Hotspur between 1946 and 1954, and was a key player in the title winning side of 1951. He completed his senior career with West Ham United before playing for a further five years at non-league level, finally hanging up his boots in 1960 at the age of 42.
14 May 1999: Bobby Veck, 79, played 23 league games for Southampton in the immediate postwar years before signing for Gillingham on their return to the Football League in 1950, playing 36 league games and scoring 12 goals for them before retiring from senior football to play in the non-league divisions.
2 June 1999: Ron Reynolds, 71, began his career as a goalkeeper at Aldershot at the end of World War II, playing 114 games in the Third Division North before signing for Tottenham Hotspur in 1950. He was at White Hart Lane for 10 years and played 86 league games for the club. He then signed for Southampton and made 90 league appearances for the Saints before his career was ended by injury in 1963.
References |
4096625 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2000%20Zimbabwean%20parliamentary%20election | 2000 Zimbabwean parliamentary election | Parliamentary elections were held in Zimbabwe on 24 and 25 June 2000 to elect members of the House of Assembly. The electoral system involved 120 constituencies returning one member each, elected by the First Past the Post system, with the President of Zimbabwe then nominating 20 members and ten further members from the Tribal Chiefs sitting ex officio. This was the first national election in which Zimbabwe's ruling ZANU-PF party had faced any real opposition since the 1980s. The newly formed Movement for Democratic Change challenged Mugabe's control of parliament. The MDC won 57 of the 120 elected seats, with 47% of the popular vote. Zanu-PF won 63 seats and carried approximately 48% of the popular vote.
According to international observers, extensive electoral fraud and intimidation of voters occurred during this election. Political violence increased during the month of June, resulting in thousands of unsolved murders and abductions.
Results
By constituency
Harare Province
BUDIRIRO: Gilbert Mutimutema Shoko (MDC) 21,058; Gladys Hokoyo (ZANU (PF)) 4,410; Nyorovai Tafaranarwo (UP) 96; Aaron Magama (Ind) 93.
CHITUNGWIZA: Fidelis Mhashu (MDC) 15,480; Endy Mhlanga (ZANU (PF)) 6,057; Mhonda Tahwinei Chitongo (NDU) 164; Chiwetu Nyika (UP) 101.
DZIVARASEKWA: Edwin Mushoriwa (MDC) 18,516; Omega Hungwe (ZANU (PF)) 6,083; Wailes Chapariza Nyaguhwa (Ind) 584; Paddington Japajapa (Ind) 173; Edson Wadyehwata (Ind) 122; Nyasha Chikoore (UP) 120.
GLEN NORAH: Priscilla Misihairambwi (MDC) 17,866; Thomas Magwirokona Mapanzure (ZANU (PF)) 3,517; Jonathan Marimbire (UP) 159; Nogget Martha Muchenje (ZUD) 147; Davison Mandega (ZANU (Ndonga)) 119; Admire Denenga (Ind) 0.
GLEN VIEW: Paul Madzorere (MDC) 16,470; Sabina Mangwende (ZANU (PF)) 3,443; Clive Makusha Chimbi (Ind) 209; Netsai Godwin Matambirwa (UP) 100; Fatima Mbizi (ZUD) 48; Pearson Musakwa (ZCP) 16.
HARARE EAST: Tendai Laxton Biti (MDC) 18,129; Stalin Maumau (ZANU (PF)) 4,391; Heneri Dzinotyyiwei (ZIP) 140.
HARARE CENTRAL: Michael Theodore Hayes Auret (MDC) 14,207; Winston Dzawo (ZANU (PF)) 3,620; Obey Mudzingwa (Ind) 76; Charles David Mukome (UP) 39.
HARARE NORTH: Getrude Bavier Lottie Stevenson (MDC) 18,976; Nyasha Chikwinya (ZANU (PF)) 4,852; Nhamo Chester Mhende (Ind) 707; Justin Chiota (ZPP) 222; Lily Angela Anne Murapa (Ind) 202.
HARARE SOUTH: Gabriel Chaibva (MDC) 12,430; Vivian Mwashita (ZANU (PF)) 4,730; Margaret Dongo (ZUD) 951; Fisher Albert Aldridge Timothy (Ind) 0.
HATFIELD: Tapiwa Mashakada (MDC) 11,740; Irene Zindi (ZANU (PF)) 5,413; David Farai Muzorewa (UP) 124; Dambudzo Frank Heart Jangano (Ind) 111; Mike Nedi Duro (Ind MDC) 62; Tafadzwa Abel Savanhu (Ind) 58; White Robson (Ind) 39; Tarupiwa Conrad (Ind) 0.
HIGHFIELD: Munyaradzi Gwisai (MDC) 12,616; Ida Mashonganyika (ZANU (PF)) 3,234; Richard Shambambeva-Nyandoro (Ind) 1,120; Phillip Zulu (UP) 185; Shakespeare Mudzingwa (ZUD) 139.
KAMBUZUMA: Willias Madzimure (MDC) 13,722; Oliver Chidwao (ZANU (PF)) 2,542; Jaison Chandavengerwa Munyki (UP) 101; Kingstone Dutiro (Ind) 77; Charles Mushore Manyonga (Ind) 77; Jane Madzongwe (ZUD) 74.
KUWADZANA: Learnmore Jongwe (MDC) 15,691; Clifford Mumbengegwi (ZANU (PF)) 4,349; Zebron Chawaipira (Ind) 155; Henry Struck Mahlangu (ZANU (Ndonga)) 144; Elizabeth Masvikenyi (UP) 67; Mathias Kufandimbwa (Ind) 0.
MABVUKU: Justin Mutendadzamera (MDC) 17,495; Pamela Tungamirai (ZANU (PF)) 5,572; Mukandira Raphael (UP) 264.
MBARE EAST: Tichaona Jephta Munyanyi (MDC) 10,754; Tony Gara (ZANU (PF)) 4,265; Robert Godfrey Musasiwa (Ind) 232; Stephen Guvira (ZUD) 109.
MBARE WEST: Donemore Sasi Makuvaza (MDC) 13,118; Tendai Savanhu (ZANU (PF)) 3,078; Agnes Muremberi (Ind) 312; Verna Chitumba (UP) 88.
MUFAKOSE: Paurina Mpariwa (MDC) 15,233; Sabina Zvenando Thembani (ZANU (PF)) 3,965; Lovemore Chenai Moyo Mutete (UP) 350.
ST MARY: Job Sikhala (MDC) 17,740; Christopher Pasipamire (ZANU (PF)) 6,135.
ZENGEZA: Tafadzwa Basilo Musekiwa (MDC) 14,814; Christopher Chikavanga Chigumba (ZANU (PF)) 5,330; Evelyn Chimwaya (ZANU (Ndonga)) 172; Gideon Chinoyerei (PDF) 90.
Bulawayo Province
BULAWAYO NORTH EAST: Welshman Ncube (MDC) 21,100; Joshua Malinga (ZANU (PF)) 2,864; Sikhumbuzo Ncube (ZAPU) 227; Arnold Payne (Ind) 87; Eliakimo Ncube (Liberty Party) 37.
BULAWAYO SOUTH: David Coltart (MDC) 20,781; Callistus Ndlovu (ZANU (PF)) 3,193; Charles Mpofu (Ind) 281; Done Dhlmini (ZAPU) 34; Shadreck Ndlovu (UP) 25.
PELANDABA: Jeffrey Khumalo (MDC) 16,462; Edward Simela (ZANU (PF)) 2,696; Stephen Nkomo (ZAPU) 270; Victor Chipanga (UP) 57; Canaan Zinothi Moyo (Liberty Party of Zimbabwe) 54; Jele Ndimande (Liberty Party) 35.
PUMULA-LUVEVE: Esafu Mdhlongwa (MDC) 18,901; Norman Zikhali (ZANU (PF)) 3,020; Jethro Mkwananzi (ZAPU) 263; Zakhele Mpofu (Ind) 127; Jeremiah Michael Ndlovu (UP) 61; Beauty Sidambe (LPZ) 53; Elizabeth Mudanda (LP) 50.
MAKOKOBA: Thokozani Khuphe (MDC) 12,901; Sithembiso Nyoni (ZANU (PF)) 2,196; Matson Hlalo (Ind) 1,773; Mutandazo Ndlovu (ZAPU) 113; Thokozile Mbewe (LPZ) 43; Rachel Munetsi (UP) 34.
MPOPOMA: Milton Gwetu (MDC) 14 813; Sikanyiso Ndlovu (ZANU (PF)) 2,540; Paul Siwela (ZAPU) 146; Rachal Mpala (Liberty Party) 83.
LOBENGULA: Fletcher Dulini (MDC) 17,041; Isaac Nyathi (ZANU (PF)) 2,197; Elliot Dube (ZAPU) 177; Florence Ndebele (LPZ) 119; Stephen Mpofu (Ind) 60; Joshua Mgutshini (LP) 32.
NKULUMANE: Gibson Sibanda (MDC) 20,380; Dumiso Dabengwa (ZANU (PF)) 3,644; Mike Parira Mpofu (Ind) 417; Mqondobanzi Progress Nduna Magonya (ZAPU) 205; Shortie Ncube (UP) 63; Mandhlaenkosi Nkala (LPZ) 36; Ernerst Moyo (Ind) 25; Twoboy Jubane (Liberty Party) 18.
Mashonaland East
SEKE: Tumbare Mutasa (MDC) 10,821; Phineas Chihota (ZANU (PF)) 9,236; Beta Zvanyanya Dongo (ZUD) 2,047; Peter Mashumba (Ind MDC) 703; Abraham Mombeshora (Ind MDC) 388; Gerald Mubaira (Ind) 320; Ronald Sadomba (UP) 133.
MARONDERA WEST: Rufaro Gwanzura (ZANU (PF)) 11,221; Shadreck Chipangura (MDC) 4,570; John Tsimba (Ind) 728; Ernest Shora (ZUD) 0.
MARONDERA EAST: Sydney Sekeramayi (ZANU (PF)) 10,692; Didymus Munenzva (MDC) 10,629; Sekai Tungai (UP) 248; Pascal Dangwa (Ind) 205.
CHIKOMBA: Chenjerai Hunzvi (ZANU (PF)) 13,417; Peter Kaunda (MDC) 6,776; Moses Jiri (UP) 362; Julia Kunzekwenyika (Ind) 161; Leticia Mujeyi (ZIP) 103; Charles Patrick (Ind) 0.
UZUMBA MARAMBA PFUNGWE: Kenneth Mutiwokuziva (ZANU (PF)) 27,748; Bonomali Marere (MDC) 2,128; Moses Madakuenda (UP) 560.
MUREHWA NORTH: Victor Chitongo (ZANU (PF)) 13,694; Musarurwa Mudzingwa (MDC) 4,104; Josiah Mujuru (UP) 461.
MUREHWA SOUTH: Joel Biggie Matiza (ZANU (PF)) 13,895; Ward Nezi (MDC) 4,426; Edson Chiwara (UP) 505.
MUTOKO SOUTH: Olivia Muchena (ZANU (PF)) 19,228; Derek Muzira (MDC) 1,177; Patrick Chabvamuperu (Ind) 627; David Mahachi (UP) 129.
MUDZI: Ray Joseph Kaukonde (ZANU (PF)) 27,149; Israel Karonga (MDC) 2,371; Simon Chikazi (UP) 690.
MUTOKO NORTH: David Chapfika (ZANU (PF)) 17,374; Gents Chinomona (MDC) 2,447; Leon Chiimba (UP) 372.
GOROMONZI: Herbert Murerwa (ZANU (PF)) 14,459; Leonard Chiutsi Mapuranga (MDC) 9,489; David Chikaka (Ind MDC) 1,102; Nyembesi Musanduri (UP) 319.
HWEDZA: Aeneas Chigwedere (ZANU (PF)) 18,044; Pearson Tachiveyi (MDC) 6,049; Catherine Kafunda (UP) 351; Wilson Muzondo (Ind) 161.
Mashonaland West
CHINHOYI: Phillip Chiyangwa (ZANU (PF)) 8,176; Silas Matamisa (MDC) 7,602; Eugene Nyahundi (UP) 99.
ZVIMBA NORTH: Ignatius Chombo (ZANU (PF)) 16,175; Hamilton Gomba (MDC) 5,872; William Chirambasukwa (Ind) 0.
ZVIMBA SOUTH: Sabina Mugabe (ZANU (PF)) 16,508; Titus Nheya (MDC) 4,689; Forgiveness Pasimupindu Manika (Ind) 2,195; Chipembere Muzondiwa (UP) 334.
MHONDORO: Hilda Mafudze (MDC) 10,783; Mavis Chidzonga (ZANU (PF)) 9,118; Shakespeare Maya (Ind) 1,210; Titus Mukarati (UP) 543.
KADOMA WEST: Zachariah Urayayi Ziyambi (ZANU (PF)) 11,758; Edward Ngoma (MDC) 4,581; Chikomborero Dhliwayo (ZUD) 451; Stephen Manyange (UP) 373.
KADOMA EAST: Munyaradzi Paul Mangwana (ZANU (PF)) 11,678; Richard Emmanuel Moyo (MDC) 3,362.
KADOMA CENTRAL: Austin Wilson Mupandawana (MDC) 12,049; Israel Mukwesha (ZANU (PF)) 5,666; John Zhoya (UP) 166.
CHEGUTU: Charles Ndlovu (ZANU (PF)) 12,169; Philemon Thambatshira (MDC) 10,412; Shadreck Karuwa (UP) 485; Cleopas Sibanda (Ind) 0.
MAKONDE: Swithun Mombeshora (ZANU (PF)) 13,066; Robert Ruzivo (MDC) 3,294; Casper Masikini (UP) 728.
KARIBA: Isaac Mackenie (ZANU (PF)) 15,048; Lucas Gombe Sigobole (MDC) 7,332; Cephas Duwira Ndoro-Mazasi (UP) 560.
HURUNGWE EAST: Reuben Marumahoko (ZANU (PF)) 14,814; Richard Chaza (MDC) 4,415; Council Nziramasanga (NPA) 617.
HURUNGWE WEST: Mark Madiro (ZANU (PF)) 18,931; Tsvangwa Kanhema (MDC) 4,532; Luckson Shereni Magara (UP) 929.
Mashonaland Central
SHAMVA: Nicholas Tasunungurwa Goche (ZANU (PF)) 19,460; Joseph Mashinya (MDC) 5,621.
MAZOWE WEST: Christopher Tachiona Kuruneri (ZANU (PF)) 14,024; Biggie Township Chigonero (MDC) 7,085; Florence Chimunda (Ind) 414.
MAZOWE EAST: Chenhamo Chimutingwende (ZANU (PF)) 18,824; Shepherd Leonard Mushonga (MDC) 7,473; Gibson Madombwe (UP) 533.
BINDURA: Border Gezi (ZANU (PF)) 13,328; Elliot Pfebve (MDC) 11,257; Florence Mudyavanhu (UP) 334.
MOUNT DARWIN NORTH: Joyce Mujuru (ZANU (PF)) 20,629; Ephraim Hondo Pfebe (MDC) 2,037; John Fanuel Dzvingwa (ZANU (Ndonga)) 717; Derry John Katimba (UP) 411.
MOUNT DARWIN SOUTH: Saviour Kasukuwere (ZANU (PF)) 22,733; Godfrey Donnie Mumbamarwo (MDC) 2,295; Michael Gomo (UP) 406.
GURUVE NORTH: Paul Mazikana (ZANU (PF)) 20,513; Allan McCormick (MDC) 2,370; Margaret Chagadama (UP) 668.
GURUVE SOUTH: Edward Chindori-Chininga (ZANU (PF)) 19,988; Gift Chimankire (MDC) 3,239.
RUSHINGA: Lazarus Dokora (ZANU (PF)) 20,027; Joel Mugariri (MDC) 2,438; Michael Chin'ono (UP) 439.
MUZARABANI: Nobbie Dzinzi (ZANU (PF)) 19,441; Timoth Mukwengwe (MDC) 3,727.
Manicaland
BUHERA NORTH: Kenneth Vhundukai Manyonda (ZANU (PF)) 12,850; Morgan Tsvangirai (MDC) 10,316.
BUHERA SOUTH: Kumbirai Manyika Kangai (ZANU (PF)) 14,016; Stephen Seven Maambire (MDC) 7,821.
CHIMANIMANI: Roy Leslie Bennett (MDC) 11,410; Munacho Thomas Mutezo (ZANU (PF)) 8,072; Hardwell Dumisani Kundhlande (ZANU (Ndonga)) 543.
CHIPINGE SOUTH: Tarugarira Wilson Khumbula (ZANU (Ndonga)) 10,248; Enock Porusingazi (ZANU (PF)) 4,086; Elijah Magaa (MDC) 3,283; Piko Hlahla (Ind) 182.
CHIPINGE NORTH: Messias Matewu (MDC) 9,283; Gideon Chinosara Goko (ZANU (PF)) 3,728; Vesta Zvamwaida Sithole (ZANU (Ndonga)) 2,925; Margie Mungwari (ZUD) withdrawn.
MAKONI EAST: Tongesayi Shadreck Chipanga (ZANU (PF)) 7,509; Nicholas Mudzengere (MDC) 7,391; Phineas Nyagura (UP) 212.
MAKONI NORTH: Didymus Noel Edwin Mutasa (ZANU (PF)) 14,835; Valentine Tinodyanavo Ziswa (MDC) 3,357; Elton Steers Mangoma (Ind ZIP) 1,330.
MAKONI WEST: Moven Enock Mahachi (ZANU (PF)) 11,138; Elisha Remus Makuwaza (MDC) 7,356; Abel Tendekai Muzorewa (UP) 923; Egypt Dzinemunenzva (ANP) 862.
MUTARE CENTRAL: Innocent Tinashe Gonese (MDC) 17,706; Christopher Peter Chingosho (ZANU (PF)) 3,091; Patrick Chitaka (Ind) 985; Felix Murimi (Ind) 754; Moses Jackson Mvenge (Ind) 324; Munhu Haashati Naison Sithole (ZANU (Ndonga)) 83.
MUTARE NORTH: Giles Mutsekwa (MDC) 15,500; Oppah Chamu Zvipange Muchinguri (ZANU (PF)) 5,564; Justin Nyatoti (UP) 235.
MUTARE SOUTH: Sydney Mukwecheni (MDC) 7,273; Michael MADIRO (ZANU (PF)) 6,673; Lazarus Gumisai Nzarayebani (Ind) 637; Washington Pfupajena (Ind) 238; Denniford Musiyarira (ZANU (Ndonga)) 218.
MUTARE WEST: Christopher Mushowe (ZANU (PF)) 11,498; Tambaoga Nyazika (MDC) 5,818; Shepherd Mkwekwezeke (Ind) 622; Tobias Nemasasi (Ind) 341.
MUTASA: Evelyn Masaiti (MDC) 9,278; Mandi Mandiita Wepi Chimene (ZANU (PF)) 5,281; Noah Chitungo (UP) 268; Abel Samanga (ZUD) 262; Dzawanda John Nyamunda (Ind) 0.
NYANGA: Leonard Ringisai Chirewamangu (MDC) 10,016; Paul Kadzima (ZANU (PF)) 8,891; David Cozai Hamunakwadi (UP) 701.
Midlands
GOKWE SOUTH: Jaison Machaya (ZANU (PF)) 12,644; Lameck Muyambi (MDC) 3,615; Witness Foyo (Ind ZANU (PF)) 1,490.
GWERU RURAL': Renson Gasela (MDC) 10,190; Makumucha Mbulawa (ZANU (PF)) 6,889; Similo Moyo (LPZ) 264; Canaan Moyo (Liberty Party of Zimbabwe) 0.
GWERU URBAN: Timothy Lancaster Mukahlera (MDC) 12,172; Richard Chemist Hove (ZANU (PF)) 3,877; Ruyedzo Mutizwa (Ind) 1,019; Sylvester Bennard Mutesera (UP) 117.
KWEKWE: Blessing Chebundo (MDC) 15,388; Emmerson Dambudzo Mnangagwa (ZANU (PF)) 8,352; Milton Chinamasa (Ind) 227; Cuthbert Mwenye Chidava (UP) 176.
ZHOMBE: Daniel Mackenzie Ncube (ZANU (PF)) 10,757; Anna Mtisi (MDC) 8,165; Gibson Dhuza (UP) 539; Albert Charles Moyo Madambe (Ind) 386; Ganagana Wilbroad (Ind) 0.
ZVISHAVANE: Pearson Meeting Mbalekwa (ZANU (PF)) 13,971; Farai Maruzane (MDC) 10,373; Misheck Hogwe (Ind) 1,028; Emmie Ncube (UP) 256.
MBERENGWA EAST: Rugare Gumbo (ZANU (PF)) 23,595; Sekai Holland (MDC) 3,117.
MBERENGWA WEST: Jorum Gumbo (ZANU (PF)) 18,315; Mufandaedza Hove (MDC) 3,889; Lyton Shumba (Ind) 968; Edwin Nyathi (Ind) 667.
CHIRUMANZU: Innocent Wilson Chikiyi (ZANU (PF)) 10,708; Gideon Makumbe (MDC) 5,185; Chawawona Wilbroad Kanoti (Ind) 1,052; Edward Mhaka Chiropa (UP) 238.
GOKWE CENTRAL: Lovemore Mupukuta (ZANU (PF)) 11,082; Edson Nyathi (MDC) 5,987; Ernest Nkomazana (Ind) 436; Pio Poteredzai Paraffin (Ind) 364; Christopher Sibindi (Ind) 0; Samson Muchimwe (Ind) 0.
GOKWE NORTH: Elick Mkandla (ZANU (PF)) 15,923; Sibangani Malandu (MDC) 3,967; Javen Chibendure (ZUD) 1,152; Timothy Mpofu (UP) 360.
GOKWE EAST: Flora Bhuka (ZANU (PF)) 17,088; Timothy Madzori (MDC) 3,674; Clever Gombo (Ind) 1,202; Fiso Sibindi (Ind) 738; Silas Makuva Mutendi (Ind) 2,534; William Muzenda (ZUD) 619.
GOKWE WEST: Esther Nyauchi (ZANU (PF)) 14,956; Edgar Sithole (MDC) 3,240; Colleen Nyoni (ZUD) 0.
MKOBA: Stanley Bethel Makwembere (MDC) 14,587; Federick Shava (ZANU (PF)) 4,840; Lot Macharaga (ZUD) 1,011; Alois Matsika Mudhavanhu (ZIP) 72; John Samubvu (Ind) 64; Maxwell Mupukuta (UP) 0.
SHURUGWI: Francis Nhema (ZANU (PF)) 14,891; Lucia Gladys Matinenga (MDC) 6,524; Maria Stella Rusere (ZUP) 523.
SILOBELA: Abednico Mathe Malinga (MDC) 15,985; Tommy Moyo (ZANU (PF)) 5,848; Godfrey Viki (ZAPU) 481; Priscilla Mangena (UP) 393.
Masvingo
BIKITA EAST: Walter Mutsauri (ZANU (PF)) 7,047; Edmore Marima (MDC) 5,015; Mathew Makaza (Ind MDC) 212; Julias Chapungu (Ind) 0.
BIKITA WEST: Amos Munyaradzi Mutongi (MDC) 7,726; Rtd. Col. Cladius William Makova (ZANU (PF)) 7,441.
CHIREDZI NORTH: Elliot Marilele Chauke (ZANU (PF)) 10,154; Moses Mare (MDC) 8,674; Abel Peter Miller (ZANU (Ndonga)) 530.
CHIREDZI SOUTH: Aaron Baloyi (ZANU (PF)) 11,611; Patrick Mapengo,(MDC) 6,414; Joel Kenneth Sithole (ZANU (Ndonga)) 794.
CHIVI NORTH: Samuel Creighton Mbengegwi (ZANU (PF)) 10,947; Bennard Chiondengwa (MDC) 3,938; Albert Meke, alias Chamwadoro (Ind) 3,762.
CHIVI SOUTH: Charles Majange (ZANU (PF)) 12,056; Alex Elias Mashamhanda (MDC) 4,312; Paradza Mandebvu (Ind) 1,683; Lawson Mapfaire, alias Sithole (Ind MDC) 0.
GUTU NORTH: Simon Vengai Murefu Muzenda (ZANU (PF)) 14,867; Chrispen Zvouno Musoni (MDC) 8,179; Tirivanhu Fanuwere Mufandaedza (UP) 678.
GUTU SOUTH: Shuvai Mahofa (ZANU (PF)) 11,434; Rensom Makamure (MDC) 6,606; Vengai Greeley Guni (Ind) 3,070; Jefta Abraham Mukombe (Ind) 1,200; Luckmore Masarira (Ind) 843; Gracious Zinyeka (Ind MDC) 84; Cyprene Jacob Matanga (UP) 25.
MASVINGO CENTRAL: Silas Joseph Man'ono (MDC) 12,417; Dzikamai Calisto Mavhaire (ZANU (PF)) 8,023; Kudzai Savious Mbudzi (Ind) 314; Mbengo Nason Mhlanga (ZANU (Ndonga)) 0; Ray Muzanda (Ind MDC) 0.
MASVINGO NORTH: Gorerazvo Stan Mudenge (ZANU (PF)) 8,146; Joseph Mutema (MDC) 7,224; Sylvester Beji (Ind) 1,050.
MASVINGO SOUTH: Edson Jonasi Zvobgo (ZANU (PF)) 14,954; Zachariah Isaac Rioga (MDC) 5,544.
MWENEZI: Isaiah Shumba, alias Mwasvayamwando (ZANU (PF)) 22,676; Kudakwashe Bhasikiti (Ind) 2,643; Luciah Masekesa (MDC) 1,881; Godfrey Halimani (Ind MDC) 917.
ZAKA EAST: Tinos Rusere (ZANU (PF)) 12,730; Ratidzo Richard Mugwagwa (MDC) 6,778.
ZAKA WEST: Jefta Johnson Chindanya (ZANU (PF)) 10,928; Charles Musimiki (MDC) 7,444; Mapetere Vincent Dziva Mawere (Ind) 3,890.
Matabeleland North
BUBI-MGUZA: Jacob Thabani Mabikwa (MDC) 12,837; Obert Mpofu (ZANU (PF)) 6,645; Rueben Donga (ZAPU) 1,272; Mark Harold Ncube (LPZ) 889; Canaan Calisto Ndebele (Liberty Party) 223.
HWANGE EAST: Cephas Nyoni (MDC) 15,271; Jacob Mudenda (ZANU (PF)) 3,617; Khumbulani Ncube (ZAPU) 384; George Ncube (Ind) 339.
HWANGE WEST: Jealous Sansole (MDC) 15,132; Sphiwe Mafuwa (ZANU (PF)) 2,445; Gifton Ndumani (ZAPU) 429.
BINGA: Joel Gabhuza (MDC) 19,894; Joshua Muzamba (ZANU (PF)) 2,678; Leonard Ndlovu (ZAPU) 594.
LUPANE: David Mpala (MDC) 14,439; Headman Moyo (ZANU (PF)) 3,300; Kenneth Mhlanga (ZAPU) 972.
Matabeleland South
BEITBRIDGE: Kembo Mohadi (ZANU (PF)) 12,988; Seyiso Moyo (MDC) 7,686; Malobeli Smith Mbedzi (ZAPU) 1,084.
BULILIMA-MANGWE NORTH: Moses Mzila Ndlovu (MDC) 11,767; Richard Ndlovu (ZANU (PF)) 8,679.
BULILIMA-MANGWE SOUTH: Edward Tshotsha Moyo Mkhosi (MDC) 11,761; Simon Khaya Moyo (ZANU (PF)) 5,617; Callistus Dube (ZAPU) 556; Cosmos Ncube (LPZ) 253; Pharaoh Hezekiya Tusi (UP) 233.
GWANDA NORTH: Paul Themba Nyathi (MDC) 13,039; Thenjiwe Lesabe (ZANU (PF)) 4,358; Agrippa Hlangabeza Madlela (ZAPU) 299; Jabulani Ndlovu (LPZ) 242; Patrick Moyo (ZAPU) 221.
GWANDA SOUTH: Abednico Ncube (ZANU (PF)) 9,913; Paulos Matjaka Nare (MDC) 7,944; Mchasisi Nare (Ind) 674.
INSIZA: George Joe Ndlovu (MDC) 12,049; Naison Ndlovu (ZANU (PF)) 5,304; Albert Ncube (ZAPU) 974.
MATOBO: Lovemore Moyo (MDC) 14,701; Ananias Sitomi Nyathi (ZANU (PF)) 6,219; Andrew Ngwenya (LPZ) 419; Augustine Mbelekwa Tinaye Dube (Ind) 213.
UMZINGWANE: Nomalanga Mzilikazi Khumalo (MDC) 12,878; Tomas Dube (ZANU (PF)) 2,887; Albert Ndlovu (Ind) 437; Elias Njani (ZAPU) 282; Christopher Dube (LPZ) 176; Rev. Albert Ncube (ZIP) 118; Florence Ngwenya (LPZ) 45.
TSHOLOTSHO: Mtoliki Sibanda (MDC) 12,318; Ndabazekaya Mathema (ZANU (PF)) 5,634; George Moyo (LPZ) 0.
NKAYI: Abednico Bhebhe (MDC) 15,701; Obidiah Moyo (ZANU (PF)) 5,746; Maploti Donga (ZAPU) 2,047; Nelson Moyo (LPZ) 404; Clerk Mpofu (LP) 313.
Byelections
29. Marondera West byelection
Held following the death of Rufaro Gwanzura (ZANU (PF)) in a car crash in August 2000. The poll was held on 25–26 November 2000. The result was: Ambrose Mutinhiri (ZANU (PF)) 7,376; Shadreck Chipangura (MDC) 4,366; Egypt Dzinemunenzva (African National Party) 377.
93. Bikita West byelection
Held following the death of Amos Mutongi (MDC). The poll was held on 13–14 January 2001. The result was: Cladius Makova (ZANU (PF)) 12,993; Boniface Pakai (MDC) 7,001.
55. Bindura byelection
Held following the death of Border Gezi (ZANU (PF)) in a car crash on 28 April 2001. The poll was held on 27–28 July 2001. The result was: Elliot Manyika (ZANU (PF)) 15,864; Elliot Pfebve (MDC) 9,456.
69. Makoni West byelection
Held following the death of Moven Mahachi (ZANU (PF)). The poll was held on 8–9 September 2001. The result was: Gibson Munyoro (ZANU (PF)) 10,610; Remus Makuwaza (MDC) 5,841; Egypt Dzimunhenzva (African National Party) 665.
31. Chikomba byelection
Held following the death of Chenjerai Hunzvi (ZANU (PF)) on 4 June 2001. The poll was held on 22–23 September 2001. The result was: Bernard Makokove (ZANU (PF)) 15,570; Oswald Toendepi Ndanga (MDC) 5,207; Thomas Mudzinga (ZANU (Ndonga)) 347; Takaindisa Gilbert Muzondo (United Parties) 165.
51. Hurungwe West byelection
Held following the death of Mark Madiro (ZANU (PF)) in May 2002. The poll was held on 28–29 September 2002. The result was: Phone Madiro (ZANU (PF)) 15,882; Justin Dandawa (MDC) 2,665.
116. Insiza byelection
Held following the death of George Ndlovu (MDC) on 11 August 2002. The poll was held on 26–27 October 2002. The result was: Andrew Langa (ZANU (PF)) 12,115; Siyabonga Ncube (MDC) 5,102.
11. Highfield byelection
Held following the expulsion of Munyaradzi Gwisai from the MDC. The poll was held on 29–30 March 2003. The result was: Pearson Mungofa (MDC) 8,759; Joseph Chinotimba (ZANU (PF)) 4,844; African National Party 272; Munyaradzi Gwisai (International Socialist Organisation) 73; United Parties 34; Zimbabwe Democratic Party 8.
13. Kuwadzana byelection
Held following the death of Learnmore Jongwe (MDC) on 22 October 2002. The poll was held on 29–30 March 2003. The result was: Nelson Chamisa (MDC) 12,548; David Mutasa (ZANU (PF)) 5,002; Kempton Chihuhute (National Alliance for Good Governance) 82; United Parties 12.
48. Makonde byelection
Held following the death of Swithun Mombeshora (ZANU (PF)). 17 March 2003. The poll was held on 30–31 August 2003. The result was: Kindness Paradza (ZANU (PF)) 11,223; Japhet Karemba (MDC) 1,769.
7. Harare Central byelection
Held following the resignation of Mike Auret (MDC) due to ill health, on 27 February 2003. The poll was held on 30–31 August 2003. The result was: Murisi Zwizwai (MDC) 2,707; Wilson Nhara (ZANU (PF)) 1,304.
46. Kadoma Central byelection
Held following the death of Austin Mupandawana (MDC) on 9 August 2003. The poll was held on 29–30 November 2003. The result was: Tichafa Mutema (ZANU (PF)) 9,282; Charles Mupandawana (MDC) 6,038.
98. Gutu North byelection
Held following the death of Simon Muzenda (ZANU (PF)) in September 2003. The poll was held on 2–3 February 2004. The result was: Josiah Tungamirai (ZANU (PF)) 20,699; Crispa Musoni (MDC) 7,291.
110. Lupane byelection
Held following the death of David Mpala (MDC) on 2 February 2004. The poll was held on 15–16 May 2004. The result was: Martin Khumalo (ZANU (PF)) 10,069, Njabuliso Mguni (MDC) 9,186.
19. Zengeza byelection
Held following the resignation of Tafandwa Musekiwa (MDC). The poll was held on 27–28 March 2004. The result was: Christopher Chigumba (ZANU (PF)) 8,447; James Makore (MDC) 6,706; Gideon Chinogurei (ZANU (Ndonga)) 96; Tendayi Chakanyuka (National Alliance for Good Governance) 37.
28. Seke byelection
Held following the death of Bennie Tumbare-Mutasa (MDC). The MDC decided to boycott the poll and therefore on 5 September 2004, Phineas Chihota (ZANU (PF)) was declared elected unopposed.
102. Masvingo South byelection
Held following the death of Edson Zvobgo (ZANU (PF)) on 22 August 2004. On 9 October 2004, Walter Mzembi (ZANU (PF)) was declared elected unopposed. A candidate from Zimbabwe Youth in Alliance had submitted nomination papers which were technically deficient.
Footnotes
Elections in Zimbabwe
Zimbabwe
2000 in Zimbabwe |
4096659 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nursing%20credentials%20and%20certifications | Nursing credentials and certifications | Nursing credentials and certifications are the various credentials and certifications that a person must have to practice nursing legally. Nurses' postnominal letters (abbreviations listed after the name) reflect their credentials—that is, their achievements in nursing education, licensure, certification, and fellowship. The letters usually appear in the following order:
Highest earned academic degree in or related to nursing (e.g. "DNP" or "PhD")
Nursing licensure (e.g. "RN," "LPN")
Nursing certification (e.g. "CCRN")
Nursing fellowship (e.g. "FAAN")
Generally, credentials are listed from most to least permanent. A degree, once earned, cannot, in normal circumstances, be taken away. State licensure is active until retirement and otherwise only revoked in cases of serious professional misconduct. Certifications generally must be periodically renewed by examination or the completion of a prescribed number of continuing education units (CEUs). This is often called maintenance of certification.
Nurses may also hold non-nursing credentials including academic degrees. These are usually omitted unless they are related to the nurse's job. For instance, those with master's degrees usually do not list their bachelor's degrees (only the highest earned degree), and a staff nurse would likely not list an MBA, but a nurse manager might choose to do so.
Some nurses who achieve a master's degree (MSN) leave the patient-care aspect of nursing, and practice in a more managerial role. An example would be earning an MSN in healthcare risk management. Such a nurse, while still fully an accredited nurse, will likely become the risk manager for a hospital, working in health administration rather than direct care and perhaps even becoming the director or manager of the risk-management department. In this role, he or she may never see another patient except while doing hospital inspections, or perhaps talking to a patient or the patient's family about a quality-of-care concern. In this role, the nurse becomes something similar to an auditor and a teacher of patient care quality and risk for the entire hospital staff. This nurse likely will also get the certification CPHQ: Certified Professional in Healthcare Quality.
Nursing credentials are separated from the person's name (and from each other) with commas. Usually, no periods are placed within the credentials (e.g. "BSN" not "B.S.N.")
Nursing certifications
In the United States and Canada, many nurses who choose a specialty become certified in that area, signifying that they possess expert knowledge. Over 200 nursing specialties and subspecialties are available. Studies from the Institute of Medicine have demonstrated that specialty-certified nurses have higher rates of patient satisfaction and lower rates of work-related errors in patient care.
Registered nurses (RNs) are not required to be certified in a certain specialty by law. For example, it is not necessary to be a certified medical-surgical registered nurse (CMSRN) (the Academy of Medical-Surgical Nurses [AMSN] certification, administered by the Medical-Surgical Nursing Certification Board [MSNCB]) to work on a medical-surgical floor, and most medical-surgical nurses are not CMSRNs. Certifications do, however, instill professionalism and make the nurse more attractive to prospective and current employers. Certified nurses may earn a salary differential over their uncertified colleagues, but this is rare.
Some hospitals and other health-care facilities are willing to pay certified nurses extra when they work within their specialties. Also, some hospitals may require certain nurses, such as nursing supervisors or lead nurses, be certified. Certification instills confidence in the nurses. Magnet hospitals advocate certifications.
Alphabetical listing of nursing and related credentials and certifications
Key
Throughout the list, the following credentialing organizations are mentioned:
AACN: American Association of Critical-Care Nurses (http://www.aacn.org)
AHNCC: American Holistic Nurses Credentialing Corporation (http://www.ahncc.org)
ANCC: American Nurses Credentialing Center (https://www.nursingworld.org/ancc/)
AANPBC: American Academy of Nurse Practitioners Certification Board (http://www.aanpcert.org)
ONCC: Oncology Nursing Certification Corporation (http://www.oncc.org)
A
AAS: Associate of Applied Science
AAN: Associate of Arts in Nursing
ABLS: Advanced Burn Life Support (not intended for postnominal use)
ABQAURP: CHCQM - Board Certification in Health Care Quality and Management
ACCNS-AG: Adult-Gerontology Acute Care Clinical Nurse Specialist (Certified by AACN)
ACCNS-N: Neonatal Acute Care Clinical Nurse Specialist (Certified by AACN)
ACCNS-P: Pediatric Acute Care Clinical Nurse Specialist (Certified by AACN)
ACHPN: Advanced Certified Hospice and Palliative Nurse
ACHRN: Advanced Certified Hyperbaric Registered Nurse
ACLS: Advanced Cardiac Life Support (not intended for postnominal use)
ACM-RN: Accredited Case Manager-Registered Nurse
ACNP-BC: Acute Care Nurse Practitioner-Board Certified
ACNPC: Acute Care Nurse Practitioner Certification (Certified by AACN)
ACNPC-AG: Adult-Gerontology Acute Care Nurse Practitioner Certification (Certified by AACN)
ACNS-BC: Adult Clinical Nurse Specialist - Board Certified
ACRN: AIDS Certified Registered Nurse
ADLS: Advanced Disaster Life Support
ADN: Associate Degree in Nursing
AFN-BC: Advanced Forensic Nursing–Board Certified (http://nursecredentialing.org/ForensicNursing-Advanced)
AGACNP-BC: Adult-Gerontology Acute Care Nurse Practitioner-Board Certified (certified by ANCC)
AGPCNP-BC: Adult-Gerontology Primary Care Nurse Practitioner-Board Certified (certified by ANCC)
AGNP-C: Adult-Gerontology Primary Care Nurse Practitioner-Certified (certified by AANPBC)
AHN-BC: Advanced Holistic Nurse-Board Certified (certified by AHNCC)
ALNC: Advanced Legal Nurse Consultant
ANEF: Academy of Nursing Education Fellow
ANLC: Advanced Nurse Lactation Consultant
ANP-BC: Adult Nurse Practitioner-Board Certified (certified by ANCC)
ANP-C: Adult Nurse Practitioner-Certified (certified by AANPBC)
ANVP: Advanced Neurovascular Practitioner
AOCN: Advanced Oncology Certified Nurse
AOCNP: Advanced Oncology Certified Nurse Practitioner
AOCNS: Advanced Oncology Certified Clinical Nurse Specialist
APHN-BC: Advanced Public Health Nurse-Board Certified (changed to PHNA-BC)
APHN-BC: Advanced Practice Holistic Nurse-Board Certified (certified by AHNCC)
APN: Advanced Practice Nurse
APNP: Advanced Practice Nurse Prescriber
APP: Advanced Practice Provider
APRN: Advanced Practice Registered Nurse
ARNP: Advanced Registered Nurse Practitioner
ASN: Associate of Science in Nursing
ATCN: Advanced Trauma Care for Nurses course
B
BLS: Basic Life Support (not intended for postnominal use)
BDLS: Basic Disaster Life Support
BCEN: Board of Certification for Emergency Nursing (not intended for postnominal use)
BM: Bachelor of Midwifery
BMTCN: Blood and Marrow Transplant Certified Nurse
BN: Bachelor of Nursing
BNSc: Bachelor of Nursing Science
BPS: Bachelor of Professional Studies with a concentration in Nursing
BS: Bachelor of Science with Nursing Major
BScN: Bachelor of Science in Nursing (Canada)
BHSc Nsg: Bachelor of Health Science—Nursing Nursing Qualification for RNs in Australia
BSN: Bachelor of Science in Nursing
C
CANP: Certified Adult Nurse Practitioner
CAPA: Certified Ambulatory Perianesthesia nurse
CARN: Certified Addictions Registered Nurse
CATN-I: Course in Advanced Trauma Nursing -Instructor (not intended for postnominal use)
CATN-P: Course in Advanced Trauma Nursing -Provider (not intended for postnominal use)
CBCN: Certified Breast Care Nurse
CBN: Certified Bariatric Nurse
CCCI: Canadian Certified Clinical Instructor
CCCN: Certified Continence Care Nurse
CCDS: Certified Clinical Documentation Specialist
CCE: Certified Childbirth Educator
CCM: Certified Case Manager
CCNS: Acute Care Clinical Nurse Specialist
CCRN: Certification in Acute/Critical Care Nursing
CCTC: Certified Clinical Transplant Coordinator
CCTN: Certified Clinical Transplant Nurse
CDAL: Certified Director of Assisted Living
CDDN: Certified Developmental Disabilities Nurse
CDCES: Certified Diabetes Care and Education Specialist
CDMS: Certified Disability Management Specialist
CDN: Certified Dialysis Nurse
CDONA/LTC: Certified Director of Nursing Administration/Long Term Care
C-EFM: Certified in Electronic Fetal Monitoring
CEN: Certified Emergency Nurse
CENP: Certified Executive in Nursing Practice
CETN: Certified Enterostomal Therapy Nurse
CFCN: Certified Foot Care Nurse
CFN: Certified Forensic Nurse
CFNP: Certified Family Nurse Practitioner
CFRN: Certified Flight Registered Nurse
CGN: Certified Gastroenterology Nurse
CGRN: Certified Gastroenterology Registered Nurse
CHES: Certified Health Education Specialist
CHN: Certified Hemodialysis Nurse
CHPLN: Certified Hospice and Palliative Licensed Nurse
CHPN: Certified Hospice and Palliative Nurse
CHPNA: Certified Hospice and Palliative Nursing Assistant
CHPPN: Certified Hospice and Palliative Pediatric Nurse
CHRN: Certified Hyperbaric Registered Nurse
CHSE: Certified Healthcare Simulation Educator
CHSE-A: Certified Healthcare Simulation Educator-Advanced
CHSOS: Certified Healthcare Simulation Operations Specialist
CIC: Certified in Infection Control
CLC: Certified Lactation Counselor
CLNC: Certified Legal Nurse Consultant
CLS: Clinical Laboratory Scientist
CM: Certified Midwife
CMA: Certified Medical Assistant
CMAS: Certified Medical Audit Specialist
CMC: Cardiac Medicine Certification
CMCN: Certified Managed Care Nurse
CMDSC: Certified MDS Coordinator
CMSRN: Certified Medical—Surgical Registered Nurse
CNA: Certified Nursing Assistant
CNCC(C): Certified Nurse in Critical Care (Canada)
CNE: Certified Nursing Educator
CNE: Chief Nurse Executive
CNeph(C): Certified in Nephrology Nursing (Canada)
CNL: Clinical Nurse Leader
CNLCP: Certified Nurse Life Care Planner
CNM: Certified Nurse Midwife
CNML: Certified Nurse Manager and Leader
CNN: Certified in Nephrology Nursing
CNO: Chief Nursing Officer
CNOR: Certified Perioperative Nurse
CNP: Certified Nurse Practitioner
C-NPT: Certified in Neonatal Pediatric Transport
CNRN: Certified Neuroscience Registered Nurse
CNS: Clinical Nurse Specialist
CNSC: Certified Nutrition Support Clinician (Formerly CNSN: Certified Nutrition Support Nurse)
COCN: Certified Ostomy Care Nurse
COHC: Certified Occupational Hearing Conservationist
COHN: Certified Occupational Health Nurse
COHN/CM: Certified Occupational Health Nurse/Case Manager
COHN-S: Certified Occupational Health Nurse—Specialist
COHN-S/CM: Certified Occupational Health Nurse—Specialist/Case Manager
CORLN: Certified Otorhinolaryngology Nurse
CPAN: Certified Post Anesthesia Nurse
CPDN: Certified Peritoneal Dialysis Nurse
CPEN: Certified Pediatric Emergency Nurse
CPHON: Certified Pediatric Hematology Oncology Nurse
CPHQ: Certified Professional in Healthcare Quality
CPLC: Certified in Perinatal Loss Care
CPN: Certified Pediatric Nurse or Community Psychiatric Nurse (United Kingdom)
CPNA: Certified Pediatric Nurse Associate
CPNL: Certified Practical Nurse, Long-term care
CPNP: Certified Pediatric Nurse Practitioner
CPON: Certified Pediatric Oncology Nurse
CPSN: Certified Plastic Surgical Nurse
CRN: Certified Radiologic Nurse
CRNA: Certified Registered Nurse Anesthetist
CRNFA: Certified Registered Nurse First Assistant
CRNI: Certified Registered Nurse Infusion
CRNL: Certified Registered Nurse, Long-term care
CRNO: Certified Registered Nurse in Ophthalmology
CRNP: Certified Registered Nurse Practitioner
CRRN: Certified Rehabilitation Registered Nurse
CRRN-A: Certified Rehabilitation Registered Nurse—Advanced
CS: Clinical Specialist
CSC: Cardiac Surgery Certification
CSHA: Certified Specialist in Hospital Accreditation
CSN: Certified School Nurse
C-SPI: Certified Specialist in Poison Information
CT: Certified in Thanatology (dying, death and bereavement)
CTN: Certified Transcultural Nurse
CTRN: Certified Transport Registered Nurse
CTRS: Certified Therapeutic Recreational Specialist
CUA: Certified Urologic Associate
CUCNS: Certified Urologic Clinical Nurse Specialist
CUNP: Certified Urologic Nurse Practitioner
CURN: Certified Urologic Registered Nurse
CVICU: Cardiovascular Intensive Care Unit
CVN: Certified Vascular Nurse
CVOR: Cardiovascular Operating Room
CVRN-BC: Cardiovascular Nurse-Board Certified.
CWCN: Certified Wound Care Nurse
CWOCN: Certified Wound, Ostomy, Continence Nurse
CWS: Certified Wound Specialist
D
DCNP: Dermatology Certified Nurse Practitioner
DipNAdmin: Diploma in Nursing Administration
DN: Doctor of Nursing
DNP: Doctor of Nursing Practice
DrNP: Doctor of Nursing Practice
DNS: Doctor of Nursing Science also seen as DNSc
DSN: Diabetes Specialist Nurse
DWC: Diabetic Wound Certified
DVNE: Domestic violence nurse examiner
E
ECRN: Emergency Communications Registered Nurse (not intended for postnominal use)
ED: Emergency Department
EdD: Doctor of Education
EN: Enrolled Nurse
ENC(C): Emergency Nurse Certified (Canada)
ENP-BC: Emergency Nurse Practitioner-Board Certified (certified by ANCC)
ENP-C: Emergency Nurse Practitioner- Certified (certified by AANPBC)
ENPC: Emergency Nursing Pediatric Course (not intended for postnominal use)
ENPC-I: Emergency Nursing Pediatric Course Instructor (not intended for postnominal use)
ENPC-P: Emergency Nursing Pediatric Course Provider (not intended for postnominal use)
ET: Enterostomal Therapist
F
FAADN: Fellow, Academy of Associate Degree Nursing
FAAN: Fellow, American Academy of Nursing
FAANA: Fellow, American Association of Nurse Anesthesiology
FAANP: Fellow, American Association of Nurse Practitioners
FAAOHN: Fellow, American Association of Occupational Health Nurses
FAAPM: Fellow, American Academy of Pain Management
FACCWS: Fellow, American College of Certified Wound Specialists
FACHE: Fellow, American College of Healthcare Executives
FAEN: Fellow, Academy of Emergency Nursing
FAHA: Fellow, American Heart Association
FNC: Family Nurse Clinician
FNP-C: Family Nurse Practitioner - Certified (Certified by AANPBC)
FNP-BC: Family Nurse Practitioner - Board Certified (Certified by ANCC)
FPNP: Family Planning Nurse Practitioner
FRCN: Fellow, Royal College of Nursing
FRCNA: Fellow, Royal College of Nursing, Australia
FT: Fellow in Thanatology, Association of Death Educators and Counselors
G
GN: Graduate Nurse (awaiting RN licensure)
GNP: Gerontological Nurse Practitioner
GPN: General Pediatric Nurse
GPN: Graduate Practical Nurse
GRN: Graduate Registered Nurse
H
HACP: Hospital Accreditation Certified Professional
HNB-BC: Holistic Nurse Baccalaureate-Board Certified (certified by AHNCC)
HNC: Holistic Nurse, Certified (changed to HN-BC)
HN-BC: Holistic Nurse-Board Certified (certified by AHNCC)
HWNC-BC: Health and Wellness Nurse Coach-Board Certified (certified by AHNCC)
I
IBQH: International Board for Quality in Healthcare
IBCLC: International Board-Certified Lactation Consultant
ICC: Intensive Care Certification
ICU: Intensive Care Unit
INC: Intensive Neonatal Care certification
INS: Informatics Nurse Specialist
IPN: Immunisation Program Nurse: Queensland Australia specialist qualification / endorsement
IR: Interventional Radiology
L
LCCE: Lamaze Certified Childbirth Educator
LGN: Licensed Graduate Nurse(British Columbia, Canada)
LGN(P): Licensed Graduate Nurse, Provisional</ref>(British Columbia, Canada)
LNC: Legal Nurse Consultant
LNCC: Legal Nurse Consultant, Certified
LNP: Licensed Nurse Practitioner—Used by the Commonwealth of Virginia, Board of Nursing, as a license status
LPN: Licensed Practical Nurse
LPT: Licensed Psychiatric Technician
LSN: Licensed School Nurse
LTAC: Long Term Acute Care
LTC: Long Term Care (LPN Specific)
LVN: Licensed Vocational Nurse
M
MA: Master of Arts
MACN: Member, Australian College of Nursing, Australia
MAN: Master of Arts in Nursing
MICT: Master of Information and Communication Technology
MICU: Medical intensive care unit
MICU: Mobile intensive care unit
ME: Menopause Educator
MEd: Master of Education
MEmerg Nsg: Master's degree in Emergency Nursing Australia
MENP: Master of Entry to Nursing Practice (for any non-nursing bachelor's degree)
MHN: Mental Health Nurse—Registered Nurse Endorsed to practice Advanced nursing in Mental Health
MICN: Mobile Intensive Care Nurse
MN: Master of Nursing
MPH: Master of Public Health
MRCN: Member, Royal College of Nursing (UK)
MS: Master of Science
MSA: Medicare Set-Aside
MSN: Master of Science in Nursing
MSN/Ed: Master of Science in Nursing Education
MSN-NLM: Master of Science in Nursing, Nursing Leadership and Management.
N
NC-BC: Nurse Coach-Board Certified (certified by AHNCC)
NCMP: Certified Menopause Practitioner
NCSN: National Certified School Nurse
NE-BC: Nurse Executive-Board Certified
NEA-BC: Nurse Executive Advanced-Board Certified
NHDP-BC: National Healthcare Disaster Professional-Board Certified
NICU: Neonatal Intensive Care Unit
NNP-BC: Neonatal Nurse Practitioner
NP(A): Nurse Practitioner, Adult(British Columbia, Canada)
NP(F): Nurse Practitioner, Family(British Columbia, Canada)
NP(P): Nurse Practitioner, Pediatrics(British Columbia, Canada)
NP-C: Nurse Practitioner, Certified (certified by AANPBC)
NPP: Nurse Practitioner, Psychiatric
NSE: Nursing Student Extern
NSWOC: Nurses Specialized in Wound, Ostomy and Continence
NRP: Neonatal Resuscitation Program (not intended for postnominal use)
NVRN: Neurovascular Registered Nurse
NZCFN: New Zealand Certified Flight Nurse
NPS: Neonatal / Pediatric Specialty
O
OCN: Oncology Certified Nurse
OMS: Ostomy Management Specialist
ONC: Orthopaedic Nurse Certified
P
PACU: Post-anesthesia care unit
PALS: Pediatric Advanced Life Support (not intended for postnominal use)
PCCN: Progressive Care Certified Nurse
PCNS: Pediatric Clinical Nurse Specialist
PhD: Doctor of Philosophy
PHN: Public Health Nurse
PHNA-BC: Advanced Public Health Nurse
PHRN: Pre-Hospital Registered Nurse
PICU: Pediatric Intensive Care Unit
PMH-BC: Psychiatric Mental Health Nurse
PMHNP-BC: Psychiatric Mental Health Nurse Practitioner
PMHCNS-BC: Psychiatric Mental Health Clinical Nurse Specialist
PNP-BC: Pediatric Nurse Practitioner - Board Certified
PNP-AC: Pediatric Nurse Practitioner - Acute Care
PNP-PC: Pediatric Nurse Practitioner - Primary Care
Q
QN: Queen's Nurse
R
RAC-CT: Resident Assessment Coordinator
RCP: Respiratory Care Practitioner
RDN: Registered Dental Nurse (United Kingdom)
RIN: Rural and Isolated Practice Registered Nurses (RIPRN) (Queensland, Australia)
RM: Registered Midwife
RMN: Registered Mental Nurse (United Kingdom)
RN: Registered Nurse
RN-BC: Registered Nurse, ANCC Board Certified
RN(C): Registered Nurse, Certified Practice(British Columbia, Canada)
RN(P): Registered Nurse, Provisional(British Columbia, Canada)
RN(T): Registered Nurse, Temporary(British Columbia, Canada)
RNC: Registered Nurse, Certified: American Academy Certified Nurse
RNC-LRN: Registered nurse certified in low-risk neonatal nursing
RNC-MNN: Registered nurse certified in maternal newborn nursing
RNC-NIC: Registered nurse certified in neonatal intensive care
RNC-OB: Registered nurse certified in inpatient obstetrics
RNCS: Registered Nurse Clinical Specialist
RNCS: Registered Nurse Certified Specialist
RNFA: Registered Nurse First Assistant
RNM: Registered Nurse-Midwife
RNLD: Registered Nurse Learning Disabilities
RPN: Registered practical nurse
RPN: Registered Psychiatric Nurse (Western Canada)
RRT: Registered Respiratory Therapist
S
SANE: Sexual Assault Nurse Examiner
SANE-A: Certified Sexual Assault Nurse Examiner-Adult/Adolescent
SANE-P: Certified Sexual Assault Nurse Examiner-Pediatric
SCN: Supervisory Clinical Nurse
SCRN: Stroke Certified Registered Nurse
SEN: State Enrolled Nurse
SHN: Sexual and Reproductive Health endorsed RN—Queensland Australia
SN: Student Nurse (RN preparation)
SNSC: School Nurse Services Credential (California CTC)
SPN: Student Nurse (LPN preparation)
SRNA: Student Registered Nurse Anesthetist(CRNA preparation)
SVN: Student Nurse (LVN preparation)
T
TCAR: Trauma Care After Resuscitation course
TCRN: Trauma Certified Registered Nurse
TNCC: Trauma Nursing Core Course (not intended for postnominal use)
TNCC-I: Trauma Nursing Core Course Instructor (not intended for postnominal use)
TNCC-P: Trauma Nursing Core Course Provider (not intended for postnominal use)
TNP: Telephone Nursing Practitioner
TNS: Trauma Nurse Specialist
V
VA-BC: Vascular Access Board Certified
W
WCC: Wound Care Certified
WHNP-BC: Women's Health Care Nurse Practitioner
CWOCN: Certified Wound, Ostomy, and Continence Nurse
WTA-C: Certified Wound Treatment Associate
References
External links
Professional titles and certifications |
4096743 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1999%E2%80%932000%20in%20English%20football | 1999–2000 in English football | The 1999–2000 season was the 120th season of competitive football in England.
Overview
Premier League
Manchester United were crowned FA Premier League champions with an 18-point margin over runners-up Arsenal and with just 3 league defeats all season. This was despite their failure to retain the European Cup and withdrawal from the FA Cup in order to compete in the FIFA Club World Championship – a campaign which was short lived. Andy Townsend also once said in The Sun that Manchester United should be "banned for life" from the FA Cup. Their season after the domination of 1998–99 was seen as a relative failure by the tabloids. Man United's failure in the FIFA Club World Championship, was surprisingly compounded by the press even more when David Beckham's wife Victoria, admitted on The Big Breakfast that he enjoys wearing her thongs. It was during this tournament he was sent off against Mexican team Club Necaxa, which was seen as the starting point in his team's first-round exit.
Sunderland made an impressive Premiership comeback by finishing seventh and just missing out on a UEFA Cup place, in part due to 30 goals from prolific striker Kevin Phillips.
Watford went down in bottom place with a record Premiership low of 24 points. Sheffield Wednesday were next to go down. On the last day of the season, Wimbledon lost 2–0 at Southampton and Bradford City achieved a shock 1–0 home win over Liverpool thanks to a goal by David Wetherall. This meant that Bradford had survived the drop and Liverpool had surrendered a UEFA Champions League place to Leeds United. It also meant that Wimbledon's 14-year spell in the top flight was over and they were relegated to Division One 12 years to the day that they had beaten Liverpool to achieve a shock FA Cup triumph.
Division One
The three promotion places in Division One went to league champions Charlton Athletic, runners-up Manchester City and playoff champions Ipswich Town.
1999–2000 also saw some of Division One's biggest clubs miss out on promotion—the biggest of these were Blackburn Rovers (11th) and Nottingham Forest (14th). Steve Coppell ended his fourth spell as Crystal Palace manager after doing wonders to keep a virtually bankrupt club clear of the Division One relegation zone.
Going down were Walsall, Port Vale and Swindon Town. West Bromwich Albion just missed out on the drop zone thanks to a late turn-around in form during the final weeks of the season which followed the appointment of Gary Megson as manager.
Division Two
David Moyes, 37, showed promise as one of the league's most highly rated young managers after he guided Preston North End to the Division Two championship. Stan Ternent's two-year rebuilding project at Burnley paid off as they finished runners-up in the division. Joining them in Division One were Peter Taylor's Gillingham, who had reached the upper half of the league for the first time in their history.
Going down were Cardiff City, Blackpool, Scunthorpe United and Chesterfield. Narrowly avoiding the drop were Oxford United, who struggled all season long despite the club's financial crisis being eased by the arrival of new Tanzanian chairman Firoz Kassam.
Division Three
Swansea City, Rotherham United, Northampton Town and Peterborough United occupied the four promotion places in Division Three.
Chester City were relegated on the last day of the season, ending their 69-year league career while Shrewsbury Town and Carlisle United saved themselves from Conference football.
FA Cup
Chelsea beat Aston Villa 1–0 in the last FA Cup final at Wembley before its redevelopment. The competition was played despite the absence of holders Manchester United due to FIFA Club World Championship commitments. Their absence meant that in the 3rd round of the competition, there was an uneven number of teams, and so Darlington were picked out of a hat of "lucky losers" and played against Aston Villa despite having lost in the 2nd round of the competition. Villa beat them 2–1.
In a one-off season, most FA Cup rounds were played a few weeks earlier than their traditional dates. For example, the first round was played in late October (rather than mid-November) and the third round was held on the second Saturday in December (instead of its annual place at the start of the new year). The experiment has not been repeated since.
League Cup
Leicester City beat Tranmere Rovers 2–1 to yield their second League Cup in four seasons.
Events
United retain their title
Manchester United retained their Premiership title after losing just three league games all season and finishing 18 points ahead of runners-up Arsenal. Roy Keane was voted Player of the Year by both the PFA and FWA and Dwight Yorke finished as the club's top scorer with 20 Premiership goals. United lost their defence of the European Cup after losing to eventual winners Real Madrid in the quarter-finals. Along the way they suffered an embarrassing 5–0 domestic loss to Chelsea, the biggest ever defeat for a British team defending the European Cup.
Chelsea triumph in Wembley finale
Chelsea beat Aston Villa 1–0 in the last FA Cup final at Wembley before the stadium was closed for reconstruction. Robert di Matteo, who had scored in the 1997 final, scored the only goal of the 2000 final to give Chelsea their third FA Cup triumph and end Villa's hopes of winning the trophy for the first time since 1957.
O'Neill lured to Celtic
Martin O'Neill guided Leicester City to their second League Cup triumph in four seasons before moving north of the border to Celtic, whose 'dream team' partnership of Director of Football Kenny Dalglish and Head Coach John Barnes had ended a nightmare as they finished 21 points behind champions Rangers in the SPL title race and had suffered a shock SFA Cup exit at the hands of Inverness Caledonian Thistle, which had inspired The Sun newspaper headline: "Super Caley Go Ballistic, Celtic Are Atrocious".
England blow it at Euro 2000
England overcame Scotland in the qualification playoffs to qualify for Euro 2000, and beat Germany in the group stages. But they surrendered a two-goal lead to lose 3–2 to Portugal and lost by the same scoreline to Romania, and thus failed to reach the quarter-finals. This dismal showing saw continued calls for the F.A. to terminate Kevin Keegan's contract.
Veteran Robson takes over on Tyneside
Bobby Robson, 66, became the oldest manager ever to take charge of a Premiership club when he succeeded 37-year-old Ruud Gullit as manager of Newcastle United.
Chester out, Kidderminster in
Chester City were relegated to the Conference after 69 years of Football League membership. They were replaced by Conference champions Kidderminster Harriers, who had won the Conference title six years earlier but had been refused promotion because their Aggborough ground did not meet capacity requirements.
Coppell quits Palace again
Steve Coppell was sacked as Crystal Palace manager, having been in charge of the club four times in 16 years. New owner Simon Jordan brought in Alan Smith (who had managed Palace between 1993 and 1995) as Coppell's successor. The change of hands gave Palace fans hope for the future after a financial crisis had almost put the club out of business.
Shearer quits the international stage
Alan Shearer retired from international football after playing for England at Euro 2000, much to the dismay of many fans who felt that he still had a few years left in him at the highest level.
Wimbledon relegated after 14 years
Wimbledon were relegated from the Premiership after 14 years in the top flight. Their fate was sealed on 14 May 12 years to the day that they had achieved their famous FA Cup victory over Liverpool.
Awards
Roy Keane captained Manchester United to another Premiership title triumph and was credited with the PFA Players' Player of the Year and FWA Footballer of the Year awards.
Leeds United's 22-year-old Australian midfielder Harry Kewell was voted PFA Young Player of the Year after helping to secure a Champions League place for his side.
Kevin Phillips scored 30 Premiership goals for Sunderland to win the Premier League Golden Boot and making him the season's highest scorer among all four English professional divisions.
Successful managers
Sir Alex Ferguson guided Manchester United to their sixth Premiership title in eight years.
Gianluca Vialli won his fourth major trophy in two-and-a-half seasons by winning the FA Cup for Chelsea.
David O'Leary ended his first full season as Leeds United manager with a run to the semi-finals of the UEFA Cup and qualification for next season's Champions League.
Peter Reid achieved a remarkable seventh-place finish for Sunderland in their Premiership comeback season.
Martin O'Neill ended his spell at Leicester City by achieving the Foxes' highest ever Premier League finish and by winning a second League Cup in four seasons.
Joe Royle took Manchester City into the Premiership after winning a second successive promotion.
Alan Curbishley guided Charlton Athletic to promotion back to the Premiership at the first attempt after they finished champions of Division One.
George Burley finally got Ipswich Town into the Premiership when they triumphed in the Division One playoffs after three successive seasons of failure.
David Moyes continued Preston North End's revival by guiding them to title success in Division Two.
Stan Ternent guided Burnley to runners-up spot in Division Two and secured their promotion to Division One.
John Hollins brought success to Swansea City, who won the Division Three title.
League tables
FA Premier League
Manchester United retained the Premier League title, winning it for the sixth time in eight seasons, and finished the season as champions by a record 18-point margin; while their season was marred by faltering results in the early stages, a struggle to replace long-serving goalkeeper Peter Schmeichel, and their controversially withdrawing from the FA Cup in favour of an ultimately fruitless entry into the 2000 FIFA Club World Championship, they made up for this in style by winning all but three games (only one of which ended in defeat) after Christmas.
Arsenal finished runners-up for the second successive season, having spent much of the season well off the pace of the Champions League spots before a strong run in the late stages saw them clinch second place. Leeds United's season was essentially the opposite of those of the two teams above them, leading the table for much of the first half of the season, only for their form to completely implode in the final months, with only Liverpool's failure to win on the final day securing them a Champions League spot; their third-place finish was nonetheless their highest since title glory in 1992.
Liverpool's fourth-place finish meant that they had to settle for a UEFA Cup place, a shock defeat to Bradford City (who defied all the odds to avoid relegation in their first top-flight season for nearly 80 years) preventing them from qualifying for the Champions League on the final day. Joining Liverpool in the UEFA Cup were fifth placed FA Cup Winners Chelsea, and League Cup winners Leicester City. Newly promoted Sunderland just missed out on Europe, with a winless run from Boxing Day to mid-March ending their hopes, but their seventh-place finish was their highest for decades, and star striker Kevin Phillips bagged both the Golden Boot and the European Golden shoe, scoring 30 goals.
Ruud Gullit stepped down as Newcastle manager after one point from the first five games of the league campaign, paving the way for 66-year-old former England manager Bobby Robson to take up his first post in England since leaving the England job in 1990, and his first at club level since 1982. Robson steered Newcastle to an 11th-place finish and they also reached the FA Cup semi-finals.
Bradford's escape from relegation meant that Wimbledon, who were beaten by Southampton on the final day of the season, were relegated from the Premiership after 14 successive seasons of top-flight football. Sheffield Wednesday went down after three seasons of steady decline, having been in the top flight for all but one season since 1984, as a horrific first half of the season, which saw them bottom with a paltry 6 points at Christmas, ultimately proved too much to recover from. Watford's first top-flight season for more than a decade ended in relegation, being undone by a poor run of form from late September onwards which saw them slip into the bottom three, where they couldn't recover, ultimately resulting in them posting the lowest-ever points total for a Premier League team until that point.
Leading goalscorer: Kevin Phillips (Sunderland) – 30
Football League Division One
Charlton Athletic won the division with greater ease than the final table suggested – they were in fact the first team in the country to win promotion, but a return of just 4 points from their last 7 matches allowed the pursuing teams to close the gap. Manchester City won their second successive promotion in the runners-up spot, well and truly putting the memories of their relegation to the Second Division behind them. Ipswich Town finished in the play-offs for the fourth season in a row, but this time they were successful as they triumphed over Barnsley at Wembley and won promotion back to the Premier League after a five-year absence.
Wolves narrowly missed out on the playoffs for the third season running, while Huddersfield Town's eighth-place finish was perhaps the closest they had come to returning to the top flight since losing their top-flight place in 1972. Fulham finished ninth as their recent revival continued, but a failure to win a second successive promotion saw Paul Bracewell sacked as manager and replaced with Jean Tigana, who had won a French league title and reached a European Cup semi-final with AS Monaco.
Swindon suffered from a financial crisis and a transfer embargo for most of the season, and the effect on the pitch was obvious as they were relegated in bottom place. Port Vale, who had only survived the previous season due to the League's short-lived usage of Goals Scored over Goal Difference, went down with them. Walsall took their survival battle to the final day of the season, but were unable to avoid an immediate relegation back to Division Two.
Leading goalscorer: Andy Hunt (Charlton Athletic) – 24
Football League Division Two
Preston won the division title after 19 years away from the top two divisions, showing great progress under promising young manager David Moyes. Burnley, who were unfancied and even tipped for relegation by some owing to two unimpressive previous seasons, achieved promotion in the second automatic spot. After losing in the previous year's play-off final, Gillingham won promotion via the Division Two playoffs to reach the upper half of the English league for the first time in their history, their opponents in the play-off final being a Wigan Athletic side playing their first season in the impressive new 25,000-seat JJB Stadium.
Chesterfield started the season well enough, but a dreadful run of 2 wins in 20 games mid-season consigned them to relegation and spelled the end as manager for John Duncan after seven years. Scunthorpe, who had won promotion via the play-offs the previous year, never achieved enough wins to have a serious chance of survival, and went straight back down. Blackpool had been coping well in previous seasons despite financial problems, but they finally took their toll this season and helped send the club down. Cardiff were the final relegated team, eventually proving the weakest of a group of sides that could have easily gone down in the last weeks of the season. The highlight of their season was their game against Cambridge United, where they drew despite being a player down after 45 minutes, two players down after 63 minutes and 3 players down after 75 minutes. Oxford United finished one point clear of a second successive relegation, their future secured after being taken over by hotelier Firoz Kassam, who enabled construction work to resume on the club's long-awaited new stadium.
Leading goalscorer: Andy Payton (Burnley) – 27
Football League Division Three
Swansea and Rotherham, both of whom had been dumped out in the play-off semi-finals the previous year, led the table for virtually the entire season. Swansea eventually won the title by drawing a stormy last game of the season between the two sides. The third automatic spot was won by Northampton, who were led to promotion by new manager Kevin Wilson after a poor start to the season under previous manager Ian Atkins. Peterborough won the play-offs, returning to Division Two after an absence of three years.
A four-way relegation scrap took place throughout most of the season, involving Chester, Shrewsbury, Carlisle and York. York eventually pulled away to safety with some good results in the final weeks of the season, leaving the other three to face a final-day relegation battle. In the end, Chester, who had spent virtually the entire season rooted to the bottom of the table and only had the chance of a last-day escape because of similarly poor campaigns by Carlisle and Shrewsbury, were relegated to the Conference.
Leading goalscorer: Marco Gabbiadini (Darlington) – 25
Diary of the season
17 June 1999 – David James leaves Liverpool after seven years in a £1.7 million move to Aston Villa.
21 June 1999 – France national football team captain Didier Deschamps joins Chelsea in a £3 million move from Juventus.
30 June 1999 – Bradford City prepare for their first time top division season for nearly 80 years with a club record £1.4 million move for Leeds United defender David Wetherall.
5 July 1999 – Chelsea pay a club record £10 million for Blackburn Rovers striker Chris Sutton.
14 July 1999 – Newcastle United pay Ipswich Town £6.5 million for midfielder Kieron Dyer and Everton pay Trabzonspor £3 million for on-loan striker Kevin Campbell (who scored eight goals in seven games for them late last season).
23 July 1999 – Leeds United sign striker Michael Bridges from Sunderland for £5 million.
29 July 1999 – Four years after leaving Arsenal, Stefan Schwarz returns to English football in a £4 million move to Sunderland from Valencia.
31 July 1999 – Middlesbrough sign German international midfielder Christian Ziege from AC Milan for £4 million.
1 August 1999 – Arsenal lift the Charity Shield thanks to a 2–1 victory over Manchester United at Wembley.
2 August 1999 – Arsenal sell Nicolas Anelka to Real Madrid for £23 million – the highest fee involving a British club.
3 August 1999 – Arsenal sign Thierry Henry for an estimated fee of £11 million, reuniting with his former manager Arsène Wenger.
4 August 1999 – Leeds United sell Jimmy Floyd Hasselbaink to Atlético Madrid of Spain for £12 million.
7 August 1999 – Wigan Athletic mark their first game at the JJB Stadium with a 3–0 win over Scunthorpe United in Division Two. The first Premier League games of the season include Chelsea's 4–0 home win over newly promoted Sunderland and Watford's return the top flight being soured by a 3–2 home defeat against Wimbledon. Bradford, meanwhile, mark their first top-flight game since 1922 with a 1–0 away win over Middlesbrough, in which Dean Saunders scores a last gasp winner.
10 August 1999 – Kevin Phillips scores his first two Premier League goals in Sunderland's 2–0 home win over his old club Watford.
11 August 1999 – Manchester United beat Sheffield Wednesday 4–0 at Old Trafford. Michael Bridges scores a hat-trick for Leeds United in their 3–0 away win over Southampton. Leeds United sign Coventry City striker Darren Huckerby for £4.4 million.
14 August 1999 – Tommy Mooney scores for Watford in their shock 1–0 league win at Liverpool.
18 August 1999 – 19-year-old Wolverhampton Wanderers striker Robbie Keane becomes Coventry City's record signing in a £6 million deal.
21 August 1999 – Manchester United captain Roy Keane scores twice as Manchester United beat Arsenal 2–1 in the league at Highbury.
25 August 1999 – Kevin Phillips and Niall Quinn plunge Newcastle United into crisis as they score in Sunderland's 2–1 derby win at St. James' Park,
27 August 1999 – Lazio beat Manchester United 1–0 in Monaco to win the European Super Cup.
28 August 1999 – Ruud Gullit resigns after one year as manager of Newcastle United.
30 August 1999 – Andy Cole scores four goals against his old club Newcastle United as Manchester United beat them 5–1 at Old Trafford.
31 August 1999 – The first month of the league season ends with treble winners Manchester United looking well placed for retaining their league title as Premier League leaders with five wins and a draw from their first six games. Aston Villa are their nearest contenders, while Chelsea, West Ham United and Leicester City complete the top five. Sheffield Wednesday and Newcastle United, both winless, prop up the rest of the top flight, while Bradford City occupy the final bottom three position at the end of the first month of their first top division season for nearly 80 years. Ipswich Town are hopeful of making it back to the Premier League after five seasons away (during which time they have suffered three playoff disappointments) as they finish the first month of the season as Division One leaders. Stockport County have emerged as surprise contenders for a Premier League place as they stand second in Division One. The playoff zone is occupied by West Bromwich Albion, Manchester City, Birmingham City and Fulham.
3 September 1999 – Newcastle United appoint Bobby Robson as their new manager. The former England manager, 66, is the oldest manager in all four division of the English league – and almost 30 years older than his predecessor Ruud Gullit.
7 September 1999 – Ade Akinbiyi becomes the most expensive Division Two player when he leaves Bristol City for Division One promotion hopefuls Wolverhampton Wanderers.
11 September 1999 – Jamie Carragher scores two own goals as Liverpool lose 3–2 at home to Manchester United in the league.
17 September 1999 – Former England and Liverpool full-back Rob Jones retires from football at the age of 28 after failing to recover from a succession of injuries.
18 September 1999 – Newcastle United record the second highest win in FA Premier League history when they beat Sheffield Wednesday 8–0. Alan Shearer scores five goals in this game, while Kevin Phillips scores a hat-trick in Sunderland's 5–0 win at Derby County. In a rare appearance for Manchester United, Jordi Cruyff scores a late equaliser in their 1–1 home draw with Wimbledon.
30 September 1999 – Manchester United retain their lead of the Premier League, with Leeds United now their nearest contenders by a two-point margin. Arsenal, Sunderland and Chelsea complete the top five. Sheffield Wednesday remain bottom after a terrible first two months of the season, while Newcastle United remain second from bottom despite that record-breaking victory 12 days ago, and Wimbledon now occupy the final remaining relegation position. Ipswich Town and Birmingham City are level on points at the top of Division One. Charlton Athletic, Manchester City, Fulham and Barnsley complete the top six.
2 October 1999 – Sheffield Wednesday pull together with a 5–1 home win over Wimbledon.
3 October 1999 – Chelsea crush Manchester United 5–0 – the first domestic competitive game that United have lost for nearly nine months. Alan Shearer scores twice as Newcastle beat Middlesbrough 2–1.
24 October 1999 – A Premier League thriller at Goodison Park sees Everton and Leeds United draw 4–4, a result that ends the Yorkshire club's 10-match winning streak. Elsewhere, a late Trevor Sinclair equalizer for West Ham stops ten-man Sunderland's ascension to the top; the Black Cats instead rise to third.
31 October 1999 – October draws to a close with Leeds United as the new Premier League leaders, with Manchester United in second place and trailing them by two points. Arsenal, Sunderland and Leicester City complete the top five. Sheffield Wednesday remain bottom, with Watford and Bradford City completing the bottom three. Manchester City lead Division One, with Ipswich Town, Charlton Athletic and Birmingham City level on points as their nearest rivals. Huddersfield Town and Fulham complete the top six.
13 November 1999 – Paul Scholes scores twice as England beat Scotland 2–0 at Hampden Park in the Euro 2000 qualifying playoff first leg.
17 November 1999 —
– Arsenal announce plans to move to a new 60,000-seat stadium at Ashburton Grove near Highbury – their home since 1913. They hope to be in their new home for the 2003–04 season.
– England qualify for Euro 2000 despite a 1–0 second leg defeat by Scotland at Wembley.
20 November 1999 – Marc Overmars scores a hat-trick in Arsenal's 5–1 home league win over Middlesbrough.
30 November 1999 – Manchester United are back on top of the Premier League as November draws to a close, with former leaders Leeds United now bracketed on points with Arsenal as their nearest rivals. Newly promoted Sunderland's excellent start to the season sees them still in fourth place, with a resurgent Liverpool standing fifth. Sheffield Wednesday and Watford continue to prop up the rest of the Premier League, accompanied in the drop zone by a Derby County side who had spent the previous two seasons chasing a place in Europe. Manchester City remain top of Division One, with Huddersfield Town now second and in the hunt for top division for the first time in nearly 30 years. Charlton Athletic, Ipswich Town, Barnsley and Fulham occupy the playoff places.
1 December 1999 – Film producer and actor Bill Kenwright, 54, completes a takeover of Everton after buying out former owner Peter Johnson.
4 December 1999 – Ole Gunnar Solskjaer scores four goals in Manchester United's 5–1 home league win over Everton.
31 December 1999 – 1999 draws to a close and as the new millennium approaches, Leeds United are back on top though with just a one-point lead over Manchester United who have a game in hand. Arsenal, Sunderland and Liverpool are the only three teams still posing a reasonable threat to the top two. Sheffield Wednesday's terrible season has continued as they remain bottom with a mere two wins and nine points from their first 20 games, while Watford and Derby County remain in the bottom three. The race for promotion to the Premier League is still headed by Manchester City and Huddersfield Town, while Charlton Athletic, Ipswich Town, Barnsley and Stockport County complete the top six.
8 January 2000 – Liverpool suffer a shock 1–0 home defeat to Blackburn Rovers (now in Division One) in the FA Cup fourth round. Tranmere Rovers, on a good run in the League Cup, progress to the fifth round of the FA Cup after a surprise 1–0 win at home to Sunderland in the fourth round. There is a major shock also for Bradford City, who are crushed 3–1 by Division Two Gillingham at Priestfield.
12 January 2000 – Liberian striker George Weah, 31, joins Chelsea on a six-month loan from A.C. Milan.
19 January 2000 – Arsenal's hopes of FA Cup glory are ended in a replay penalty shoot-out defeat by Leicester City, who boost their own bid for a cup double.
29 January 2000 – The FA Cup fifth round brings some surprise results as Gillingham's giant-killing run continues with a 3–1 home win over Sheffield Wednesday and Charlton Athletic win at Coventry City to give the rest of the Premier League some idea of what they will be performing like when inevitable promotion is achieved. Leicester City's hopes of a domestic cup double are ended when they lose 2–1 at Chelsea, while Cambridge United's impressive run ends in a 3–1 home defeat by Bolton Wanderers. On the transfer front, Division One strugglers West Bromwich Albion sell Italian midfielder Enzo Maresca to Juventus for £4 million.
30 January 2000 – Blackpool striker Martin Aldridge, 25, on loan to Rushden & Diamonds, dies in an Oxford hospital after being injured in a car crash in Northamptonshire.
31 January 2000 – Struggling Sheffield Wednesday complete the month unbeaten in the FA Premier League. Danny Wilson is named FA Premier League Manager of the Month, but the club are still in the relegation zone, though no longer in the bottom place (now occupied by a Watford side whose form in last four months has been little short of hopeless). Bradford City occupy the other bottom three position. Manchester United now lead at the top on goal difference ahead of Leeds United, with Arsenal and Liverpool still posing a threat but Sunderland's challenge is ebbing away. Charlton Athletic have taken over from Manchester City as Division One leaders. Ipswich Town, Barnsley, Huddersfield Town and Wolverhampton Wanderers complete the top six.
12 February 2000 – Manchester United suffer their first Premier League defeat in four months, and only their third of the season, as they lose 3–0 at Newcastle United. A Premier League thriller at Upton Park sees West Ham United beat Bradford City 5–4.
19 February 2000 – Bolton Wanderers reach the FA Cup semi-finals with a 1–0 win over Charlton Athletic as they hope to challenge for a "Wembley double" of the FA Cup final and Division One play-off final.
20 February 2000 – Gillingham's FA Cup dreams are ended with a 5–0 defeat at Chelsea, while a 2–1 defeat at home to Aston Villa resigns Everton to another season of disappointment in Walter Smith's second season as manager. Tranmere Rovers are eliminated by Newcastle United after a brave 3–2 defeat.
23 February 2000 – Stanley Matthews, one of the greatest English footballers of all time, dies at the age of 85.
26 February 2000 – Wimbledon become the first team this season to be unbeaten twice in the league by Manchester United after holding them to a 2–2 draw at Selhurst Park.
29 February 2000 – Manchester United have now extended their Premier League lead to six points as February ends, with Leeds United posing the closest threat, while Arsenal and Liverpool (along with a resurgent Chelsea) pose a more distant threat, and Sunderland are now focused on qualifying for the UEFA Cup rather than challenging for the league title. Sheffield Wednesday and Watford continue to prop up the Premier League, with Bradford City joining them in the drop zone. Charlton Athletic and Manchester City continue to head the Division One promotion race, with Ipswich Town, Barnsley, Huddersfield Town and Birmingham City completing the top six.
4 March 2000 – Debutant striker Stan Collymore scores a hat-trick for Leicester City in their 5–2 win over Sunderland in the Premier League, just days after his transfer from Aston Villa.
7 March 2000 – John Hartson's proposed move from Wimbledon to Tottenham Hotspur collapses after he fails a medical.
10 March 2000 – Liverpool pay a club record £11 million for Leicester City striker Emile Heskey.
11 March 2000 – Steffen Iversen scores a hat-trick in Tottenham's 7–2 home league win over Southampton.
22 March 2000 – Dean Windass scores a hat-trick in Bradford City's 4–4 relegation crunch thriller with Derby County at Valley Parade.
31 March 2000 – Manchester United are now looking all set for title glory as they head the table by a seven-point margin with Leeds United as their closest rivals. Liverpool, Chelsea and Arsenal are looking more and more distant a threat in the race to prevent the Premier League trophy from remaining at Old Trafford. At the other end of the table, Sheffield Wednesday and Watford are looking doomed, with Bradford City occupying the final relegation position and Derby County hovering dangerously close to the drop zone. The race for Premier League football next season is headed by Charlton Athletic and Ipswich Town. Barnsley, Manchester City, Huddersfield Town and Birmingham City complete the top six.
2 April 2000 – Aston Villa beat Bolton Wanderers on penalties after a goalless draw in the FA Cup semi-final at Wembley, to reach their first FA Cup final for 43 years.
5 April 2000 – Two Leeds United Fans, Chris Loftus and Kevin Speight are killed on the eve of the club's UEFA Cup Semi-final against Galatasaray.
9 April 2000 – Two goals from Gus Poyet give Chelsea a 2–1 win over Newcastle United in the FA Cup semi-final.
10 April 2000 – A late surge by Middlesbrough is unable to prevent Manchester United from winning a thrilling Premier League 4–3 at the Riverside Stadium.
15 April 2000 – All Premier League matches kicked off at 3.06 pm, to commemorate the 96 Liverpool supporters who lost their lives in the Hillsborough disaster.
19 April 2000 – Derby County bring Georgi Kinkladze back to England after two years with Ajax after agreeing a £3 million deal. Manchester United surrender their defence of the European Cup after losing 3–2 at home to Real Madrid in the quarter-final second leg.
21 April 2000 – Charlton Athletic win promotion back to the Premier League after one season away.
22 April 2000 – Manchester United seal their sixth Premier League title in eight seasons with a 3–1 win at Southampton.
29 April 2000 – Bradford City boost their survival bid and dent Wimbledon's with a 3–0 win at Valley Parade.
30 April 2000 – April draws to a close with champions Manchester United an incredible 19 points ahead of second placed Arsenal, who have two games in hand. Liverpool are looking set for the third Champions League place, while Chelsea head the UEFA Cup race. Leeds United meanwhile have fallen to fifth place after a disastrous run of results, and now look unlikely to even qualify for European competition at all. Aston Villa, Sunderland and West Ham United remain in with a slim chance of taking the league's UEFA Cup slot. Charlton Athletic have been confirmed as Division One champions, but the race for second place is still being contested by Manchester City and Ipswich Town.
7 May 2000 – Chester City are relegated to the Football Conference after 69 years of Football League membership. On the same day, Manchester City secure promotion to the Premier League as Division One runners-up (their second successive promotion), Walsall suffer relegation to Division Two, Burnley secure promotion to Division One as Division Two runners-up, and Northampton seal the third and final automatic promotion place in Division Three. Chester City's place in the Football League will be taken by Conference champions Kidderminster Harriers.
9 May 2000 – Sheffield Wednesday are relegated from the Premier League after nine successive seasons of top-flight football, but go down fighting with a 3–3 draw against Arsenal.
14 May 2000 – Wimbledon lose 2–0 at Southampton and are relegated to Division One after 14 years in the top flight. Bradford City, meanwhile, confirm their survival with a 1–0 win over Liverpool who surrender a Champions League place that instead went to Leeds United. Ironically, this came 12 years to the day that Wimbledon achieved their famous FA Cup triumph over Liverpool.
14 May 2000 – ITV announces a £500 million bid to bring live Premier League matches onto terrestrial television for the first time. If the deal goes ahead, it will be the first time since 1992 (when the Premier League was created from the old Football League First Division) that live top division football has been shown on any terrestrial television channel.
18 May 2000 – West Ham United sell Marc-Vivien Foé to Olympique Lyonnais for £6 million.
20 May 2000 – Chelsea beat Aston Villa 1–0 in the last FA Cup final to be played at Wembley before the 77-year-old stadium is rebuilt. Roberto Di Matteo, who scored for Chelsea in the opening minute of their 1997 triumph, scores the only goal of the game.
29 May 2000 – Ipswich Town seal promotion to the Premier League after a five-year exile by defeating Barnsley 4–2 in the Division One playoff final at Wembley. It is their first win at Wembley since they won the FA Cup in 1978.
30 May 2000 – Arsenal sign Cameroon defender Lauren for £7.2 million from Mallorca.
31 May 2000 – Manchester United pay a national record fee for a goalkeeper when they sign AS Monaco and France goalkeeper Fabien Barthez for £7.8 million.
1 June 2000 – Martin O'Neill leaves Leicester City to take over as manager of Celtic. Tottenham Hotspur pay a club record £11 million for Dynamo Kiev striker Serhii Rebrov.
2 June 2000 – Chelsea equal the national transfer record (set by Alan Shearer four years ago) with a £15 million move for Jimmy Floyd Hasselbaink.
14 June 2000 – Match of the Day, the longest-running and most popular football programme on British television, is set to end after next season as a result of ITV's £183 million deal to show highlights from Premier League games.
20 June 2000 – Chelsea sign Icelandic striker Eiður Guðjohnsen from Bolton Wanderers for £5 million.
Famous debutants
Ashley Cole, 18, was involved in Arsenal's League Cup tie at Middlesbrough in November 1999, with his first taste of league action following in a loan spell at Crystal Palace.
A future rival of Cole's for the England left-back slot, Nicky Shorey, 18, is brought on as substitute for Leyton Orient at Shrewsbury Town in February 2000.
Shaun Wright-Phillips helps Manchester City win at Burnley in the League Cup in August 1999, two months before his 18th birthday.
Michael Carrick makes his professional debut, for West Ham United, in the Intertoto Cup in the 1–1 draw with FC Jokerit in August 1999.
Retirements
David Hirst, 32, retired after a spell at Southampton which lasted for more than two years but was disrupted by a series of injuries.
Peter Beardsley, 38, finished his professional career on 28 October 1999 after spending 10 months at Hartlepool United, but prolonged his playing career at non-league level with Doncaster Rovers in the Football Conference until finally retiring on 30 November.
Jim Leighton, 41, who was in the English league with Manchester United as a goalkeeper from 1988 to 1992 (being first choice in his first two seasons there), finished his career in his native Scotland with Aberdeen.
Ian Wright, 36, retired at the end of the season after a four-month spell with Burnley, in which his four goals from 15 games helped them win promotion from Division Two.
Nigel Spink, 41, one of the oldest and longest serving players in the English leagues, finally retired at professional level after a three-year spell at Millwall, though he would continue at non-league level for a year as player-manager of Forest Green Rovers.
Deaths
6 July 1999: Johnny Campbell, 89, who was born in Ayrshire, Scotland, moved south of the border in 1931 to begin his professional career with Leicester City. He played 21 league games in attack over the next two years, scoring 12 goals, before transferring to Lincoln City in 1933. He managed 104 goals in 184 league games before his professional career was ended by World War II. He then continued his playing career at non-league level.
18 August 1999: Alf Kirchen, 85, was a prolific right-winger who started his career in style with 11 goals in 14 league games at Norwich City in the mid-1930s before he signed for Arsenal. He was then capped three times by England, scoring twice, and managed 38 goals in 92 league games for Arsenal before the outbreak of war. His career was ended by an injury suffered in a wartime match in 1943.
17 September 1999: Fred Avey, 90, had a promising start to his professional career with Fulham in the late 1920s, scoring 28 goals in 62 league games as a forward, but lost his place in the team and was transferred to Torquay United, playing just three league games and dropping out of league football at the age of 24.
29 September 1999: Walter Joyce, 62, played 70 league games at wing-half for Burnley between 1954 and 1964, later turning out for Blackburn Rovers and finally his hometown club Oldham Athletic before retiring from playing in 1970. He was the father of fellow footballer Warren Joyce, who played 70 league games for Burnley between 1993 and 1996 and moved into management with Hull City in November 1998.
16 October 1999: Bill Dodgin senior, 90, played at wing-half for Huddersfield Town, Lincoln City, Charlton Athletic, Bristol Rovers and Orient in the 1930s. He then managed Southampton, Fulham, Brentford and then returned to Bristol Rovers in a managerial career which stretched from 1946 to 1972, with a 13-year interval between his departure from Brentford and appointment at Bristol Rovers. His son, Bill junior, played under him at Southampton and Fulham.
27 October 1999: Johnny Byrne, 60, was a striker who played for Crystal Palace, before commanding a British transfer record fee to go to West Ham United, playing in the side that won the FA Cup and the Cup Winners' Cup in the mid-1960s. He also played for the England team, scoring 8 goals in 11 appearances, including a hattrick against a Portugal side that featured Eusébio. He later went back to Palace, then to Fulham, before rounding out his career in South Africa, with Durban City. "Budgie" would spend the rest of his life there.
1 November 1999: Dave Bickles, 55, was a full-back in the same 1960s West Ham United side. He too later played for Crystal Palace and then Colchester United before retiring from football to become a P.E. teacher in 1979. He was also a part-time coach for West Ham United.
23 December 1999:
– Stan Flashman, 69, rescued near-bankrupt non-league Barnet with a takeover deal in 1985. He made funds available to manager Barry Fry in hope of building a quality side, and this paid off with promotion to the Football League in 1991, but he had quit within two years with the club knee deep in financial problems once again. Although Flashman's rash attitude (which saw him sack and reinstate Fry eight times) made him unpopular with most Barnet fans, it is unlikely that Barnet would have experienced league football without his takeover – they could well have gone out of business.
– Billy McGlen, 78, played 122 league games at wing-half for Manchester United in the six seasons after the end of World War II. He later played for Lincoln City and Oldham Athletic.
7 January 2000: Ken Keyworth, 65, scored 63 goals in 177 league games for Leicester City after joining them from his hometown club Rotherham United, collecting a League Cup winner's medal at Filbert Street in 1964, and scoring their consolation goal in the 1963 FA Cup final defeat to Manchester United. He was also on the losing side to Tottenham Hotspur in the 1961 final. He finished his playing career with brief spells at Coventry City and Swindon Town.
30 January 2000: Martin Aldridge, 25, Blackpool striker on loan to Rushden & Diamonds, died in an Oxford hospital from injuries sustained in a car crash in Northamptonshire. He had been a fairly consistent goalscorer for Northampton Town and Oxford United earlier in his career, and was a regular striker for Oxford during their 1996–97 Division Two promotion campaign.
23 February 2000: Sir Stanley Matthews, 85, one of the greatest footballers England ever produced, died in his native Stoke-on-Trent three weeks after his 85th birthday. Despite his on-the-field brilliance, he only ever won one major trophy – the 1953 FA Cup with Blackpool. That game was dubbed 'The Matthews Final' because he had so influenced his side's dramatic recovery from almost certain defeat at the hands of Bolton Wanderers.
14 April 2000: Wilf Mannion, 81, died just a few weeks after his old England teammate Sir Stanley Matthews. Mannion had played 26 times for England in the immediate postwar years, and was a regular goalscorer for Middlesbrough at club level.
16 April 2000: Harry Clarke, 77, was ever-present in the title winning team of 1951 for Tottenham Hotspur, his only club. He played 295 league games at full-back for the North Londoners between 1949 and 1956, and won an England cap in 1954. After retiring as a player, he served the club as a coach.
9 June 2000: Shay Brennan, 63, made his Manchester United debut as a left-winger in February 1958 in the first game after the Munich air disaster, the position left vacant by the death of David Pegg and injury to Albert Scanlon. He was soon converted to a left-back and remained at United until 1970, collecting two league title medals, an FA Cup winner's medal and a European Cup winner's medal as well as playing 355 league games. Despite being born in Manchester, he qualified for play for the Republic of Ireland due to his ancestry and was capped 19 times. He later managed Waterford in the Irish leagues and lived in Ireland until his sudden death from a heart attack.
References
External links |
4096888 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2006%20United%20States%20elections | 2006 United States elections | The 2006 United States elections were held on Tuesday, November 7, 2006, in the middle of Republican President George W. Bush's second term. In a political revolution that broke twelve years of Republican rule, the Democratic Party was swept into majorities in Congress, the governorships, and state legislatures across the country. This marked the first and only time either party achieved such a feat since the 1994 elections. These elections were widely categorized as a Democratic wave.
In the Senate, Democrats won a net gain of six seats to secure a narrow majority in that chamber. Democrats also gained 31 seats in the House of Representatives, and following the election, Nancy Pelosi became the first female Speaker of the House. In the gubernatorial elections, Democrats achieved a net gain of six seats. Nationwide, Republicans failed to win any congressional or gubernatorial seat that was held by a Democrat before the election. This was also the first time since 1994 where a party did not lose a single incumbent in a gubernatorial or congressional election.
Reasons for the Democratic Party's victory included the decline of the public image of George W. Bush, dissatisfaction of his administration's handling of both Hurricane Katrina and the War in Iraq, the beginning of the collapse of the United States housing bubble, Bush's legislative defeat regarding Social Security Privatization and immigration reform, the Republican-controlled Congress's unprecedented and unpopular involvement in the Terri Schiavo case, and a series of scandals in 2006 involving Republican politicians.
Background
In March 2003, President George W. Bush ordered an invasion of Iraq, a state which the Bush administration claimed was linked to the September 11 attacks in 2001, and claimed was producing weapons of mass destruction. In May, just two months after the initial invasion, Bush announced the end of major combat operations in Iraq. In the following months, insurgents began resisting the American occupation. Additionally, religious tensions between majority Shiite and minority Sunni Muslims, tensions which had been suppressed under the grip of Saddam's regime, resulted in violence.
By the end of 2003, despite the war's initial popularity, the post-war occupation was losing support from the American public. A November 2003 Gallup poll showed that Bush's job approval rating had fallen to 50% from a high of 71% at the outset of the war.
The next year, Bush won reelection over Democratic nominee Senator John Kerry with less than 51% of the popular vote and 286 electoral votes (only 16 votes ahead of the 270 votes needed), marking the smallest winning margin for an incumbent president since Woodrow Wilson in the 1916 election. However, it was the first time since 1988 that a winner garnered a popular majority.
Terrorism and the war in Iraq dominated the election, with domestic issues taking a secondary role. Bush began his second term with a continuation of the occupation and a push to overhaul Social Security with his privatization plan. Both policies proved unpopular, and violence in Iraq continued to increase. Compounding the unpopularity of the war was the fact that no weapons of mass destruction were found. August 2005 was the last time any major public opinion poll recorded majority approval of Bush's job. Negative perceptions of Bush, following the slow governmental response to Hurricane Katrina, further weighed on his popularity.
Simultaneously, the popularity of the Republican-controlled 109th Congress was also on the decline. A series of notable congressional scandals also took place in Washington, D.C., including the ongoing Jack Abramoff lobbying scandal, as well as the Mark Foley scandal and the Cunningham scandal, both in October 2006. Throughout 2006, sectarian violence persisted in Baghdad and other areas of Iraq; many claimed that the conflict was evolving into a civil war.
President Bush's job approval rarely rose above 40%. Perceptions of Congress and Republicans in general, remained highly negative. Additionally, the Congress had a smaller than average list of major accomplishments (considering that the Party in charge of both the House and Senate also had control of the White House) and was not in session for a larger than average number of days. This allowed Democrats and others to characterize it as a "Do-Nothing" Congress and blame the Republican leadership for the lack of progress.
Summary of results
The Democratic Party won a majority of the state governorships and the U.S. House and Senate seats, each for the first time since 1994, an election-year commonly known as the "Republican Revolution." For the first time since the creation of the Republican Party in 1854, no Republican captured any House, Senate, or gubernatorial seat previously held by a Democrat.
Democrats took a 233–202 advantage in the House of Representatives, and achieved a 49–49 tie in the United States Senate. The Senate figure is sometimes quoted in the media as 51–49, which includes two members who ran as independent candidates: Bernie Sanders and Joe Lieberman, who promised to caucus with the Democrats. The final Senate result was decided when Democrat Jim Webb was declared the winner in Virginia against incumbent George Allen, as reported by the Associated Press. On November 9, 2006, Allen and fellow Republican incumbent Sen. Conrad Burns of Montana both conceded defeat, ceding effective control of the Senate to the Democrats.
The election made Nancy Pelosi (D-California) the first-ever female, first-ever Italian-American, and first-ever Californian Speaker of the House and Harry Reid (D-Nevada) the first Mormon Senate Majority Leader. Keith Ellison (D-Minnesota) became the first Muslim ever elected to the U.S. Congress and Mazie Hirono (D-Hawaii) and Hank Johnson (D-Georgia) became the first Buddhists in a United States governing body. Although seven states banned recognition of same-sex marriage, Arizona became the first state to reject such a ballot initiative. South Dakota rejected a ban on abortion under almost any circumstances, intended to overturn federal constitutional abortion-rights nationwide by setting up a strong test case that proponents hoped would lead to the overruling of Roe v. Wade. This result would eventually happen in 2022, with a Mississippi state law that imposed a 15 week ban on abortion leading to the case Dobbs v. Jackson, which then led to Roe’s overturning.
Some of the Republican House and Senate seats lost by the Republicans belonged to members of the Republican Revolution of 1994. Senators Rick Santorum of Pennsylvania and Mike DeWine of Ohio, and Representatives Charlie Bass of New Hampshire, John Hostettler of Indiana, Gil Gutknecht of Minnesota, and J. D. Hayworth of Arizona all won previously Democratic seats in 1994 elections and were defeated in 2006. Representative Sue Kelly of New York, also first elected in 1994, was defeated as well. The Democrats also won back the Kansas 2nd and Ohio 18th, both of which they had lost in 1994.
In the 2006 elections, the Democratic Party also claimed a majority of state governorships, gaining control of Republican-held governorships in New York, Massachusetts, Colorado, Arkansas, Maryland, and Ohio, giving the party a 28–22 advantage in governorships.
Various scandals, including the Mark Foley congressional page scandal, the Jack Abramoff scandal, and various allegations of marital infidelity and abuse, doomed certain candidates, especially incumbents in PA-10 and NY-20, which hosted one of the most negative campaigns in the country. Virginia Senator George Allen, a potential Republican 2008 Presidential candidate, saw his chances for reelection disappear when he was caught on video using a racial slur to describe a young Indian-American who worked for his opponent's campaign.
Federal elections
Democrats won control of Congress for the first time since the 1994 election, which is commonly known as the "Republican Revolution." For the first time since the creation of the Republican party in 1854, no Republican captured any House, Senate, or Gubernatorial seat previously held by a Democrat.
United States Senate
The 33 seats in the United States Senate Class 1 were up for election. The Democrats gained six Senate seats by defeating Republican Senators in the states of Missouri, Montana, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, and Virginia. Including Bernie Sanders and Joe Lieberman, two independents who caucused with the Democrats, Democrats won a 51-to-49 majority in the Senate.
United States House of Representatives
All 435 seats in the United States House of Representatives were up for election. The Democrats won the national popular vote by a margin of eight percentage points and gained thirty-one seats from the Republicans.
The election made Nancy Pelosi (D-California) the first-ever female, first-ever Italian-American, and first-ever Californian Speaker of the House Keith Ellison (D-Minnesota) became the first Muslim ever elected to the U.S. Congress and Mazie Hirono (D-Hawaii) and Hank Johnson (D-Georgia) became the first Buddhists in a United States governing body.
State elections
Governors
Of the 50 United States governors, 36 were up for election. Twenty two of those contested seats were held by Republicans, and the remaining 14 were held by Democrats. Of the 36 state governorships up for election, ten were open due to retirement, term limits, or primary loss. Democrats won open Republican-held seats in New York, Massachusetts, Ohio, Arkansas and Colorado, in addition to defeating incumbent Bob Ehrlich in Maryland and holding their sole open seat in Iowa. As a result of the 2006 gubernatorial elections, there were 28 Democratic governors and 22 Republican governors, a reversal of the numbers held by the respective parties prior to the elections.
Additionally, governorships were up for election in the U.S. territories of Guam, held by a Republican, and the U.S. Virgin Islands, where the Democratic governor was retiring. In each location, the incumbent party maintained control of the governorship.
State legislatures
Nearly all state legislatures were up for election. Prior to the general elections, with the exception of the nonpartisan Nebraska Legislature, 21 legislatures were controlled by Republicans, 19 by Democrats, and 9 were split legislatures (where each house is controlled by a different party). As a result of the 2006 elections, 23 legislatures were carried by Democrats, 16 by Republicans, and 10 legislatures were split. In all, Republicans lost, and Democrats gained more than 300 state legislative seats.
Democrats flipped ten legislative chambers, while Republicans gained control of one. In total, Democrats gained or retained control of the state legislatures and governorships of 15 states, thus creating a unified government in Arkansas, Colorado, Illinois, Iowa, Louisiana, Maine, Maryland, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New Mexico, North Carolina, Oregon, Washington and West Virginia, although the governorship of Louisiana reverted to the Republicans with the October 2007 election of Bobby Jindal. Republicans now control ten state governments, these being, Florida, Georgia, Idaho, Missouri, North Dakota, South Carolina, South Dakota, Texas and Utah.
Democrats flipped ten legislative chambers. Democrats gained control of the Oregon House of Representatives, the Minnesota House of Representatives, both houses of the Iowa General Assembly, and both houses of the New Hampshire General Court- for the first time since 1875, giving them complete legislative control over those states. The Iowa Senate was previously tied. Democrats also won majorities in the Wisconsin Senate, the Michigan House of Representatives, the Pennsylvania House of Representatives, and the Indiana House of Representatives, turning those legislatures into split bodies. Additionally, a Democratic-led coalition was created in the Alaska Senate, which was previously a Republican majority. Democrats won a majority of state legislative chambers for the first time since 1995.
Conversely, Republicans gained control of the Montana House of Representatives with the lone Constitution Party representative voting for Republican control of that body.
Democrats won a veto-proof supermajority in both houses of the Connecticut General Assembly, with Democrats holding a commanding 131–56 majority. The most dramatic change in party control occurred with the New Hampshire General Court, where Republicans held a 92-seat majority in the House and an eight-seat majority in the Senate prior to the election. Ultimately, Republicans were down 81 seats in the House and five in the Senate, giving control of the General Court to the Democrats. This coincided with the landslide reelection of Democratic Governor John Lynch, the takeover of both of New Hampshire's U.S. House seats by Democrats, and New Hampshire's unique Executive Council gaining a Democratic majority.
Third parties
Third parties received largely mixed results in the 2006 elections. In the Maine House of Representatives, Green State Representative John Eder was narrowly defeated by Democratic rival Jon Hinck in a bitterly contested campaign over Portland's 118th District. Eder's loss deprived the U.S. Green movement's highest elected position in any state office.
In the Vermont House of Representatives, the Vermont Progressive Party successfully maintained its six seats within the chamber. The Vermont Progressive Party has in recent years become one of the most consistently successful third parties in the U.S. to be elected to higher office.
In Illinois, seemingly out of dissatisfaction with both the candidacies of Democratic Governor Rod Blagojevich and Republican candidate Judy Baar Topinka resulted in 10% of the electorate voting for the Green Party candidate Rich Whitney, an accomplishment, by all means, considering Whitney did not campaign on television or radio.
In Montana, Rick Jore made history by becoming the first candidate of the right-wing Constitution Party to be elected to a state legislature, elected to the 12th District in the Montana House of Representatives. Jore initially won in 2004 by three votes, only to see the courts throw out enough ballots to give the Democrats the victory. In the 2006 elections, Jore won convincingly, garnering 56.2% of the vote. However, the Montana Constitution Party is no longer chartered under the national party, denying the United States Constitution Party the claim of holding a higher office.
Neither the Libertarian nor the Reform Parties gained any state legislative seats.
Ballot initiatives
Voters weighed in on various ballot initiatives. These included:
In a hotly contested referendum that inspired a widely publicized feud between conservative radio talk show host Rush Limbaugh and actor Michael J. Fox, Missouri voters narrowly passed an initiative to allow funding for embryonic stem cell research. The presence of the referendum on the ballot may also have aided Democrat Claire McCaskill in her victory over incumbent senator Jim Talent, who had opposed the measure.
An amendment to the Missouri Constitution that would have levied a Tobacco Tax was defeated 51 to 48.
Raising the minimum wage, which passed in all six states with such referendums (AZ, CO, MO, MT, NV, OH)
In Washington an initiative to repeal the estate tax failed.
State constitutional amendments prohibiting same-sex marriage are passed in seven out of eight states: Colorado, Idaho, South Carolina, South Dakota, Tennessee, Virginia, Wisconsin, with Arizona voting against the proposition that would ban same-sex marriage and civil unions, the first state in the nation to do so. The measures in Colorado and Tennessee bans same-sex marriage only, while Idaho, South Carolina, South Dakota, and Wisconsin bans both same-sex marriage and civil unions and Virginia bans granting any benefits whatsoever to same-sex couples.
Colorado voters narrowly rejected an amendment to establish domestic partnerships by a margin of 53% to 47%.
Legalizing cannabis, failing in both states with such referendums for use for unconditional reasons (Colorado, Nevada) as well as for medical use only (South Dakota)
Restricting affirmative action, passing in Michigan
Requiring parental notification before an abortion for minors, failing in both states with such referendums (California, Oregon)
Banning nearly all abortions, including those for victims of rape and incest, which failed in South Dakota
Instant-runoff voting, which passed in the city of Minneapolis, Minnesota
A referendum to ease restrictions on wine sales in Massachusetts, which failed.
Rhode Island voters approved a constitutional amendment to reextend the franchise to former criminals following their release, effectively enfranchising individuals on parole or probation.
In California, voters endorsed a $37 billion package of bonds (Propositions 1A through 1E) to pay for transportation projects, housing, levee repairs and other infrastructure—said to be the largest program of its kind in U.S. history.
Local elections
Numerous other elections for local, city, and county public offices were held.
An unusual local election occurred in South Dakota; Marie Steichen was elected to Jerauld County Commissioner, despite the fact that she died two months before the election. Her name was never replaced on the ballot, and voters who chose her were aware of her death.
In Richmond, California, a city of more than 100,000 residents, the Green Party challenger, City Councilperson Gayle McLaughlin, unseated Democratic incumbent Irma Anderson and became the first Green Party Mayor of a city of that size.
Two candidates in Nevada's branch of the Constitution Party, called the Independent American Party (Nevada), were also elected to office. Jackie Berg was elected Eureka County Clerk with 54.1% of the vote, easily topping Republican and Libertarian opposition. Also, Cel Ochoa will be the new Constable in Searchlight, Nevada by virtue of winning 54.93% of the vote to defeat her Republican rival. Another Nevada Independent Party member, Bill Wilkerson, was elected to the Elko, Nevada, School Board, in a non-partisan race.
In Missoula County, Montana, residents passed a measure to encourage the County Sheriff's Department to make marijuana enforcement a last priority.
In Dallas County, Texas, Democrats regained control in 41 out of 42 contested GOP judgeships, as well as the district attorney's office and the county judge's seat.
Reasons for Democratic win
Beginning just after George W. Bush's reelection, political analysts point to a number of factors and events that led to the eventual Republican defeat in 2006. It is generally agreed that the single most important issue during the 2006 election was the war in Iraq, and more specifically President Bush's handling of it and the overall public weariness over it.
Public opinion polling conducted during the days just before the election and the weeks just after it showed that the war in Iraq was considered the most important election issue by the largest segment of the public. Exit polling showed that relatively large majorities of voters both fell into the category of disapproving of the war or expressing the desire to withdraw troops in some type of capacity. Both brackets broke extremely heavily for Democrats. The issue of the war seemed to play a large part in the nationalization of the election, a departure from previous midterm elections, which tended to be about local, district-centric issues. The effect of this was a general nationwide advantage for Democrats, who were not seen as being as tied to the war as Republicans, led by George Bush, were.
President Bush himself, seen as the leader and face of the Republican party, was a large factor in the 2006 election. Exit polls showed that a large block of the electorate had voted for Democrats or for third parties specifically because of personal opposition to or dislike for Bush. The size of the segment that said it had voted specifically to support Bush was not as large. Opposition to Bush was based on a number of factors, these not limited to opposition to his Social Security privatization plan, the slow response of his administration to Hurricane Katrina, his perceived inaction in the face of and association with rising gas prices, and as mentioned above, his continued commitment to the war.
Congressional approval, which had been slightly negative since before the 2004 election, began a steady drop beginning in March 2005. Congress's unprecedented and unpopular involvement in the Terri Schiavo controversy is often pointed to as the catalyst for this drop. Congressional scandals, such as the Jack Abramoff lobbying scandal, the sentencing of Duke Cunningham to over eight years in prison, the indictment of then House majority leader Tom DeLay, the corruption of William J. Jefferson and Bob Ney, the misconduct of Cynthia McKinney, and the Mark Foley scandal all continued to pull down congressional popularity. In the months leading up to the election, congressional approval ratings flirted with all-time historical lows. Because congress was controlled by Republicans, this high disapproval affected Republicans much more negatively than it did Democrats.
Democrats were successful in portraying the congress as a lazy, greedy, egotistical and inefficient "Do-Nothing Congress.", which they contrasted with their "New Direction for America" campaign. Indeed, the congress had been in session much less than previous ones had (including those under Republican control), and numerous public opinion polls showed that large majorities believed that the congress had accomplished less than normal. This too, took a toll on Republicans (as the leaders of the government).
The listed scandals were all dwarfed by the highly publicised Mark Foley scandal, which broke in late September and rapidly metastasized to include the House Republican leadership. Florida Representative Mark Foley, who ironically headed the House Caucus on Missing and Exploited Children, was found to have been making sexually lewd and highly inappropriate contacts online with male congressional pages, and it was soon found that members of the Republican leadership knew in some capacity of Foley's advances, yet took little action. The scandal allowed Democrats to adopt corruption as a campaign issue, and exit polls on election day showed that corruption remained an important issue, one that Democrats held an advantage on. In addition, many (at the time and after the fact) cited the scandal as an event that sealed the fate of the Republican congress. After the election, top Republican strategist Karl Rove specifically named the Foley scandal as the cause of the Republicans' loss of congress.
The result was that on election day, many congressional seats had been touched by Republican scandals and were easier to pick up for Democrats than under normal conditions. These include but are not limited to the Montana Senate, Virginia Senate, CA-11, PA-07, PA-10, TX-22, OH-18, FL-16 and NY-20 races.
Almost all of the gains made by Democrats came from large gains among independents, not Republicans. Democrats, Republicans, and independents all accounted for proportions of the electorate similar to what they did in 2004. Democrats and Republicans voted nearly as loyally for their parties in 2006 as they did in 2004, but independents exhibited a large swing towards Democrats. In 2004, independents split 49–46, slightly in favor of Democrats, but in 2006 they voted 57–39 for Democrats, a fifteen-point swing and the largest margin among independents for Democrats since the 1986 elections.
Voting issues
There were scattered reports of problems at polling places across the country as new electronic voting systems were introduced in many states. The problems ranged from voter and election official confusion about how to use new voting machines to apparent political dirty tricks designed to keep certain voters from casting their votes to inclement voter suppressing turnout.
Some reported problems:
Millions of allegedly harassing and deceptive "robo-calls" were reported or placed in at least 53 house districts. The vast majority of the calls were reported to begin with the message "Hello, I'm calling with information about (Democratic candidate)" and continue with a negative message concerning the candidate. Regulatory statements concerning the sponsor of the message (usually the NRCC) allegedly did not come until after the message, instead of before, as the FCC mandates. Citizens reported receiving calls several times an hour and as late as 2:30 AM, and many held the mistaken belief that the calls were from Democratic campaigns.
Massive undervoting in several Florida counties, likely caused by bad ballot design. An analysis from the Orlando Sentinel claims the undervoting swung an election to the GOP in Florida's 13th congressional district. Democratic candidate Christine Jennings brings a lawsuit to court.
In Gateway, Arkansas, an 80% turnout was recorded, including two towns where the number of votes surpassed the estimated number of voters from the previous year's census.
Waldenburg, Arkansas mayoral candidate, Randy Wooten, gets no votes despite claiming he voted for himself and "at least eight or nine people who said they voted for [him]."
In the Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania area, officials could not print reports to verify that voting machines were secure and did not already have votes in them.
Voting-machine problems kept polls open until 9:00 PM, an hour later than scheduled, in Lebanon County, Pennsylvania.
A man in Allentown, Pennsylvania smashed an electronic voting machine with a paperweight. The votes were recovered.
In a small town in Oklahoma, a power outage in a polling station was caused by a squirrel gnawing on a power cable.
Officials and experts reported electronic voting machine malfunctions in Indiana, Ohio, New Jersey, Colorado and Florida.
A bomb threat at East High School caused a voting shutdown in Madison, Wisconsin.
A Kentucky poll worker was charged with choking a voter.
Vandals chained the main door and broke keys into the locks of New Jersey Republican candidate for Senate Tom Kean Jr.'s headquarters. Accusations have been made towards Democratic incumbent Bob Menendez, but they deny any involvement in the situation.
Disabled voters were asked by election officials in Bonneville County, Idaho to use punch card ballots.
Irregularities with Diebold and other voting machines have been reported in the early elections.
The Chicago Board of Elections has been running a Web site that has allowed, by a simple programming hack, the exposure of personal information of a million registered voters (fixed on October 21, 2006).
Reports from Virginia:
FBI looking into possible Virginia voter intimidation.
Calls that voting will lead to arrest.
Telling voters that their polling location has changed.
Fliers in Buckingham county say "Skip the election"
Voting machine problems.
On Election day November 7, talk show host Laura Ingraham prompted listeners to jam the Democratic Voter Protection hotline where voting problems were to be reported, reminiscent of the 2002 New Hampshire Senate election phone jamming scandal.
In Maryland, some voters were given sample ballots by Republican supporters that incorrectly listed Republicans Robert Ehrlich and Michael Steele as Democrats.
Electronic voting machine problems in Kane County, Illinois kept the polls open until 8:30pm CST, an hour and a half later than scheduled.
In western Washington, flooding from heavy rainfall interfered with the elections.
In Denver, Colorado, the computer system containing the voter registration rolls slowed down and crashed on several occasions during the day causing lines that were over two hours long at some vote centers. Some vote centers ran out of provisional ballots, and sample ballots had to be used instead.
Also in Denver, 44,000 absentee ballots were misprinted with the "yes" and "no" positions on a ballot issue reversed. Also, the bar code designating the ballot style was misprinted, requiring the ballots to be hand sorted which delayed results by over a week. The problem is blamed on ballot misprints by Sequoia Voting Systems. Some ballots had to be hand-copied onto other ballots before they could be counted.
A new voter ID law in Maricopa County, Arizona was subject to a lawsuit, Purcell v. Gonzalez, in which the Supreme Court established the Purcell Principle against changing rules very close to an election.
Ramifications
Many political analysts concluded that the results of the election were based around President George W. Bush's policies in the War in Iraq and corruption in Congress. At a press conference given to address the election results, President Bush called the cumulative results of the election a "thumpin'" by the Democrats.
Democratic agenda
Democrats promised an agenda that included raising the minimum wage, implementing all of the 9/11 Commission recommendations, eliminating subsidies for oil companies, restricting lobbyists, repealing tax cuts for the wealthiest Americans, lowering interest rates on college loans, expanding stem-cell research, investigating political appointees for actions taken during and leading to the war in Iraq, allowing current tax cuts to expire, and negotiating Medicare prescription drug prices. They planned to legislate these issues within their first 100 legislative hours of power in January 2007. According to Brian Wright, president of Democrasource, LLC (an Ohio-based national political consulting group), "There's no question, the administration and Iraq set the tone for this year. This new balance of power can be a true catalyst to get the country back on track."
Six-point plan
Prior to the election in July 2006 Democrats unveiled a six-point plan they promised to enact if elected with congressional majorities. The plan was billed the "Six for 06 agenda" and officially called "A New Direction For America" and compared to the 1994 Republican "Contract with America". The six-points of the plan include: "honest leadership and open government, real security, energy independence, economic prosperity and educational excellence, a healthcare system that works for everyone, and retirement security".
Real security
In regards to "real security" they propose a "phased redeployment" of U.S. forces from Iraq, doubling the size of U.S. military special forces to capture Osama bin Laden and destroy terrorist groups such as al Qaeda, and implementing the 9/11 Commission proposals to secure the national borders of the United States and screen every container arriving at U.S. ports.
Economic prosperity and educational excellence
Democratic plans for economic prosperity include ending the congressional pay raise until the federal minimum wage is raised and withholding tax breaks from U.S. companies that outsource jobs to foreign countries. Within education they plan to cut college loan rates, expand federal grants, and ensure that funds used for college tuition are not taxed.
Energy independence
The Democratic plan for achieving an end to American dependence on foreign countries for oil consists of repealing tax incentives given to oil companies, higher penalties for price gouging gasoline products, increasing tax incentives and funding for the research and development of technologies intended to improve fuel-efficiency and creating viable alternative fuel supplies such as biofuels.
Domestic
Donald Rumsfeld
With apparent reference to the impact of the Iraq war policy, in a press conference held on November 8, Bush talked about the election and announced the resignation of Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld. Bush stated, "I know there's a lot of speculation on what the election means for the battle we're waging in Iraq. I recognize that many Americans voted last night to register their displeasure with the lack of progress being made there." Prior to the election, Bush had stated that he intended to keep Rumsfeld on as Secretary of Defense until the end of his presidency. However, Bush then went on to add Rumsfeld's resignation was not due to the Democratic victories on November 8. Rumsfeld's job reportedly had been on the line for several months prior to the election, and the decision for him to stay until after the election, if he was going to be let go at all, was also reportedly made several months earlier. All this led to his resignation.
Republican leadership
On the same day, then Speaker of the House, Representative Dennis Hastert of the 14th Congressional District of Illinois, said he would not seek the Minority Leader position for the 110th Congress.
Voting trends
In the aftermath of the election The Weekly Standard published a number of articles highly critical of how the Republican Party had managed the United States Congress. It called the electoral defeat for the G.O.P. "only a little short" of "devastating" saying the "party of reform ... didn't reform anything" and warned that the Democratic Party has expanded its "geographical sphere of Democratic power" to formerly Republican-held states such as Montana, Colorado, Arizona, Wyoming, Pennsylvania, Indiana, Ohio, Michigan, Wisconsin and Minnesota, while it solidified former swing states like Illinois as Democratic strongholds. In the New England region, popular Republican Senator Lincoln Chafee of Rhode Island was defeated, despite having approval ratings near 60% and Republicans now only control a single district, the CT-04 seat held by Chris Shays, out of 22 congressional districts. The Democrats also became the clear majority in the Mid Atlantic region as well. Two Republican incumbent Congressmen were defeated in New York state and the Democrats picked up a Republican open seat, all from Republican regions upstate, and four Republican Congressmen were defeated in Pennsylvania. Democrats picked up seats in all Northeastern state legislatures holding elections, except Rhode Island, which remained unchanged (and Democrats clearly in the majority), winning a supermajority in both the Connecticut House and Senate, and winning both houses of the New Hampshire legislature for the first time since 1874. Democrats kept both vulnerable Senate seats in Maryland and New Jersey, winning them by wider margins than predicted, and they won the heavily contested Senate seats in Missouri and Virginia.
The Democratic expansion into Indiana, Virginia and Ohio has "seriously diminished the chances for future Republican success" it claimed. The paper, which has been described as the "quasi-official organ of the Bush Administration" also stated that more people would have to "bendover" to get anywhere in a political office and has called on Republicans to move to the center for the sake of the party's future viability saying "conservatives won't want to hear this, but the Republican who maneuvered his way into the most impressive victory ... won ... after moving to the center" and that "the South is not enough space to build a national governing majority".
International
Asia
The government of the People's Republic of China is said to be nervous about the effect a Democratic-led Congress might have on its exports to the United States market and the possible controversy that could result because of the country's human rights record. Nancy Pelosi, who became the Speaker of the House, is a noted critic of Chinese policy. Concerns likely to be raised include the undervalued Chinese currency, blamed by some for the recent losses in the American manufacturing industry, and issues such as internet censorship, piracy, limited market access within China itself for companies based in the U.S., and religious freedom. The Chinese Foreign Ministry spokeswoman Jiang Yu stated that she hoped the United States would play a "constructive role" in maintaining "sound, healthy and stable relations between China and the U.S.".
Europe
Belgian Minister of Defence André Flahaut expressed his approval of Rumsfeld's resignation. He said Rumsfeld was "obstinate", and he hoped that the elections would bring upon a change in the United States' foreign policy.
Danish Prime Minister Anders Fogh Rasmussen said he hoped that President Bush and the newly elected Congress could find common ground and resolve issues regarding the War in Afghanistan and the War in Iraq. Rasmussen also said Denmark would keep its troops in Iraq and neither the election nor the resignation of Donald Rumsfeld would change government foreign policies.
France's Minister of Defence Michele Alliot-Marie said that her American counterpart, Donald Rumsfeld, had "taken the consequences" of an election in which voters punished the government over the war in Iraq. The former Socialist Prime Minister of France, Laurent Fabius, was quoted as saying, ""A lot of Americans have realised that Mr. Bush has lied to them."
The German Foreign Office's coordinator for German-American cooperation, Karsten D. Voigt, said that he believed that the Democratic-controlled Congress will be more cooperative with the world, but he expects that Europeans will have to carry more influence on such foreign issues of importance, such as the war in Iraq and in Afghanistan, and the nuclear weapon programs of North Korea and Iran. Voigt further stated that Europe needed to develop a stronger relationship with the United States, especially with newly elected Congressional politicians. Voigt went on to say that doing so would help "better convey European positions on major international issues and make concerted efforts to find constructive political solutions for the future."
Labour Party Member of Parliament John McDonnell, a critic of United Kingdom Prime Minister Tony Blair, said, "the message of the American people is clear – there needs to be a major change of direction in Iraq. Just as in Britain, people in the U.S. feel that they have been ill advised, misled and ignored." McDonnell, who became the first Labour Party MP to announce that he would stand for leadership in 2007, also said, "These election results have not only damaged Bush, they mean that Blair is now totally isolated in the international community."
Prime Minister of Italy, Romano Prodi, believed that it was Bush's Iraq policy that had led to the complete turnover in the elections. He said that Bush would "have to negotiate with the opposition on all issues."
The ruling Spanish Socialist Workers' Party responded to the elections stating that they hoped the elections "would help to change the course of U.S. foreign policy."
Middle East
Iran's Supreme Leader Ayatollah Ali Khamenei on Friday called U.S. President George W. Bush's defeat in congressional elections a victory for Iran. "This issue (the elections) is not a purely domestic issue for America, but it is the defeat of Bush's hawkish policies in the world", Khamenei said in remarks reported by Iran's student news agency ISNA on Friday. "Since Washington's hostile and hawkish policies have always been against the Iranian nation, this defeat is actually an obvious victory for the Iranian nation." "The result of this election indicates that the majority of American people are dissatisfied and are fed up with the policies of the American administration", the IRNA state news agency quoted Ahmadinejad as saying.
In a letter to the American people released on Wednesday, November 29, 2006, via Iran's Permanent Mission to the United Nations in New York City, Mahmoud Ahmadinejad wrote:
Notes
References
Further reading
Jacobson, Gary C. A Divider, Not a Uniter: George W. Bush and the American People: The 2006 Election and Beyond (Longman Publishing Group, 2008)
External links
E-voting state by state: What you need to know, Computerworld, 1 November 2006
Election coverage on the Tavis Smiley show
U.S. Midterm Election News Coverage – Comprehensive news coverage of all election campaigns and candidates
BSRS Newsservice Coverage of US Midterm Elections – Humorous coverage of the all national and statewide races in the 2006 midterm elections
United States Election 2006 Web Archive from the U.S. Library of Congress
2006
2006
November 2006 events in the United States |
4096976 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nostradamus%20in%20popular%20culture | Nostradamus in popular culture | The prophecies of the 16th-century author Nostradamus have become a part of the popular culture of the 20th and 21st centuries. Nostradamus' life has been depicted in both fiction and non-fiction books as well as several films, and made-up prophecies that were said to be his were circulated online in several well-known hoaxes, where quatrains in the style of Nostradamus have been circulated by e-mail. The most well-known hoax claims that he predicted the attack on New York City's World Trade Center on September 11, 2001.
Supposed prophecies
Nostradamus enthusiasts have often credited him with predicting numerous events in world history, supposedly including the French Revolution, the rise of Napoleon Bonaparte, the atomic bomb, the rise of Adolf Hitler, the September 11 attacks on the World Trade Center, and the last pope. Indeed, they regularly make similar claims regarding each new world crisis as it comes along as there is a tendency to claim that "Nostradamus predicted whatever has just happened." These claims rely heavily on the role of interpretation.
Great King out of the Sky
One well-known supposed prophecy is that "a great and terrifying leader would come out of the sky" in 1999 and 7 months "to resuscitate the great King from Angoumois." But the phrase d'effraieur (of terror) in fact occurs nowhere in the original printing, which merely uses the word deffraieur (defraying, hosting), and Nostradamus sometimes uses the word ciel simply to mean 'region', rather than 'sky'. On the basis of Nostradamus's by now well-known technique of projecting past events into the future, Lemesurier suggests that X.72 therefore refers to the restoration to health of the captive Francis I of France (who was Duke of Angoulême) following a surprise visit to his cell by his host, the then Holy Roman Emperor Charles V in 1525. No fewer than five of the planets were in the same signs on both occasions.
Author and researcher Ove von Spaeth on his work Nostradamus, the New Millennium and the Basilisk notes that "numerous attempts of interpretation" of Nostradamus texts do not take into consideration that he was also an astrologer.
Von Spaeth also denotes that the interpretation of deffraieur as "horror" is misleading, and suggests a new approach to interpret the text:
The Nostradamus words, roy de deffraieur is a special, old French spelling of ‘the king of the horrible’. If the word is changed a tiny bit, e.g. def(f)rayer - meaning something financial, ‘to lend money’, ‘to exempt from expenses’, as well as something entirely different, i.e. ‘to be the subject/matter/entertainment in a conversation’, a new possibility appears. People who have tried to interpret his prophecies have had problems in fitting this in, unless they have suggested a financial world crisis.
Some astrologers has considering that this prophecy could be related to the ongoing events in the world that began in the 2020s, with the COVID-19 pandemic, which caused a global economic recession, global inflation disruption and a global supply chain crisis.
These events could be associated with a possible transition from the Age of Pisces to the Age of Aquarius, in which the interpretation of the prophecy would be: "from heaven (i.e. divine guided) shall come a great sovereign financer"; and this financer, whom in turn would be someone exceedingly wealth, would represent the figure of the water-bearer, symbol of Aquarius, which is also associated with the biblical verse in Luke 22:10 in the New Testament.
September 11, 2001
The September 11, 2001 attacks on New York City's World Trade Center led to immediate speculation as to whether Nostradamus had predicted the event. Almost as soon as the event had happened, the relevant Internet sites were deluged with inquiries. In response, Nostradamus enthusiasts started searching for a Nostradamus quatrain that could be said to have done so, coming up with interpretations of Quatrains I.87, VI.97 and X.72. However, the various ways in which the enthusiasts chose to interpret the text were not supported by experts on the subject. In addition, Nostradamus himself in his dedicatory letter to King Henri II states that his prophecies were about Europe, North Africa and part of Asia Minor only.
The nearest that the former could come up with was quatrain VI.97, which in the original 1557 edition ran:
Cinq & quarante degrés ciel bruslera,Feu approucher de la grand cité neufve,Instant grand flamme esparse saultera,Quant on voudra des Normans faire preuve :With instant evidently a version of the Latin instanter ("violently, vehemently"), a reasonable English translation (after Lemesurier) would thus appear to be:
Five and forty degrees, the sky shall burn:
To the great new city shall the fire draw nigh.
With vehemence the flames shall spread and churn
When with the Normans they conclusions try.
"Five and forty degrees" was said to be the latitude of New York City (New York's latitude is 40°47'), and was interpreted as "40.5 degrees" (even though the decimal point had not yet come into use in the Europe of Nostradamus' day). "New City", similarly, was claimed to be New York (even though Nostradamus refers in this way to various "New Cities" whose names, unlike "New York", literally mean "New City", and especially Naples – from Greek Neapolis, "new city"); and most of the attempts to fit in the "Normans" of line 4 seemed contrived at best. While it is true that New York State, which has the same name as New York City, crosses 45° latitude, it cannot, of course, be described as a "new city", and so doesn't fit line 2 of the verse.
Lemesurier suggests that the verse is merely an undated projection into the future of the capture of Naples by the Normans in 1139 during a year marked by a notably violent eruption of nearby Mount Vesuvius that is recorded in the contemporary Annales Cassini.But compare In this case, the first expression may simply be a version ofCinq[ante minutes] & quarante degrés– which is indeed the latitude of Naples.
Another quatrain which came under the scrutiny of enthusiasts was quatrain I.87, which in the original 1555 edition (Albi copy) ran:Ennosigée feu du centre de terreFera trembler au tour de cité neufve:Deux grands rochiers long temps feront la guerrePuis Arethusa rougira nouveau fleuve.or, in a possible English translation:
Earth-shaking fires from the world’s centre roar:
Around "New City" is the earth a-quiver.
Two nobles long shall wage a fruitless war,
The nymph of springs pour forth a new, red river.
Here, once again, the cité neufve was claimed to be New York; au tour de had to refer to the Twin Towers (even though, in French, the word tour in the masculine – as it is here – has absolutely nothing to do with towers, but is part of a phrase meaning "around"); the Deux grands rochiers had to be the Twin Towers themselves; and Arethusa was said to be an anagram of "the USA". Once again, however, a rather more sober investigation by Brind'Amour had already revealed (bearing in mind that, in French, faire la guerre aux rochers, or "to make war on the rocks", simply means "to struggle fruitlessly") that the reference was probably to Naples and its nearby volcano. Subsequent investigation by Lemesurier and his colleague Gary Somai suggested that it applied particularly to the Annales Cassinis report of its lava eruption of 1036, at a time when the Lombards of Capua and the Byzantine dukes of Naples were constantly at war over the city prior to the decisive intervention of the Normans. For 968, similarly, Leo Marsicanus had reported in the same annals that "Mount Vesuvius exploded into flames and sent out huge quantities of sticky, sulfurous matter that formed a river rushing down to the sea". Thus, given that Arethusa was the classical nymph of springs and rivers, with a well-known "spring of Arethusa" still visible today in the Sicilian port of Syracuse, the case for a "9/11" interpretation was evidently unfounded.
The Julian Calendar was indeed the calendar system used during Nostradamus' lifetime. In his Almanachs, Nostradamus published at least eleven Julian calendars of his own – but all of them in fact started on January 1, and in all of them the seventh month was consequently July. Lemesurier consequently suggests that X.72 does not predict the 9/11 attacks at all, but refers back to the allegedly "miraculous" restoration to health of the captive Francis I of France in August 1525 by his then Roy deffraieur ("host-king") Charles V, and then projects it forwards into the future as a prophecy.
As for the various interpretations of the line usually rendered as "To resuscitate the great king of the Mongols", the verse in fact contains no such line (the word mongolais which, since Leoni [1961] has often been proposed as an anagram for Angolmois, doesn't exist in French anymore), but merely refers to the well-known French region of Angoumois, of whose capital (Angoulême) Francis I was duke: he was thus, as the verse states, Le grand Roy d'Angolmois ("the great King from Angoumois") of Nostradamus's own day.
In these and other ways, Nostradamus's statement in his open letter to his son Cesar that his quatrains were "written in a nebulous rather than plainly prophetic form" is widely taken by enthusiasts as carte blanche for suggesting that they can mean almost anything that they want them to say.
Hoaxes
"Mabus" as Antichrist
Some have interpreted the writings as predicting a series of three antichrists. However, the name "Mabus" as a synonym for or embodiment of the third antichrist is allegedly not suggested by any of the Prophecies. In fact the verse in question (II.62) merely states that a character of a similar-sounding name (according to Lemesurier [op. cit.], an alleged reference to the Flemish painter Jan Mabuse, contemporary with Nostradamus) will die. Otherwise, the reference says nothing about what "Mabus" will do or what he will be like. However, parts of Nostradamus Quantrain 2.61-62 state that "Mars at the port of the arrow. Behind the river the ladder put to the fort, Points to fire great murder on the breach. Mabus then will soon die, there will come Of people and beasts a horrible rout"
More recently attempts have been made to link the name "Mabus" anagrammatically with "Obama", as previously with "Saddam", "Osama" and "Bush". This tendency to attempt to adapt quatrains to fit current events can be traced all the way back to Nostradamus' own time. However, Mabus is also acknowledged to be the surname of longtime U.S. political figure Ray Mabus.
Village idiot hoax
Following the contentious 2000 U.S. presidential election wherein George W. Bush was elected president, this text was widely circulated:
Come the millennium, month 12
In the home of greatest power
The village idiot will come forth
To be acclaimed the leader.
As with other hoaxes, only the purported English translation was given. It is likely that this verse was written as a joke.
World Trade Center prophecy hoax
Shortly after the September 11 attacks on the World Trade Center, the following spoof text was circulated on the Internet, along with many more elaborate variants (one of them signed 'Nostradamus 1654' – when he would have been 150 years old):
In the City of God there will be a great thunder,
Two brothers torn apart by Chaos,
while the fortress endures,
the great leader will succumb,
The third big war will begin when the big city is burning.
As it turns out, the first four lines were indeed written before the attacks, but by a Canadian graduate student named Neil Marshall as part of a research paper in 1997. The research paper included this poem as an illustrative example of how the validity of prophecies is often exaggerated. For example, the phrases "City of God" (New York has never held the title of "City of Angels"), "great thunder" (this could apply to many disasters), "Two brothers" (many things come in pairs), and "the great leader will succumb" are so vague as to be meaningless. The fifth line was added by an anonymous Internet user, completely ignoring the fact that Nostradamus wrote his Propheties in rhymed four-line decasyllables called quatrains. Nostradamus also never referred to a "third big war".
Psy hoax
Towards mid-December 2012, an internet hoax related to South Korean singer and rapper Psy being one of the Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse was widely circulated around social media platforms. The hoax text, purportedly written by Nostradamus in 1503, is as follows:
From the calm morning,
the end will come
when of the dancing horse
the number of circles will be nine
"Calm morning" is said to be in reference to Psy's birth country – South Korea, derived from the characters for one of its older names, Joseon (조선/朝鮮). "Dancing horse" refers to Psy's Gangnam Style "dancing horse" routine, whereas the "nine circles" refer to the number of zeroes in one billion (1,000,000,000), which is nine. It was believed that once Psy's Gangnam Style video on YouTube amassed a billion views, the world would end.
The music video did reach one billion views on December 21, 2012, a popular date for which the world was predicted to end. However, the quatrain could not have been written by Nostradamus in 1503; he was born in December of that year.
Political and military manipulation
During World War II, leaflets with false Nostradamus quatrains predicting the defeat of France were launched by German planes over European skies. It seems that this operation was mastered by Nazi political secretary Rudolf Hess, and that even Adolf Hitler believed in Nostradamus' quatrains. Certainly his propaganda Minister Joseph Goebbels did, under the influence of his wife Magda. Subsequently, the Allies responded in kind, both with air-dropped leaflets and via the American film Nostradamus Says So.
After Rudolf Hess left Nazi Germany in a solitary flight to Scotland, seeking a peace agreement with the United Kingdom, Hitler issued the Aktion Hess, a mandatory prosecution of any divinator or future-teller in all Nazi-occupied countries.
Entertainment
Film
Nostradamus is the subject of many films and videos, including:
Nostradamus (1925) Italian silent film directed by Mario Roncoroni.
More About Nostradamus (1941) (Nominated for the 1941 Academy Awards in the Short Subject category)
Nosutoradamusu no daiyogen (1974) Japanese film by Toshio Masuda.
The Man Who Saw Tomorrow (1981), a documentary-style movie hosted, narrated by Orson Welles.
Nostradamus (1994) depicts Nostradamus's rise in influence, because of both his success in treating plague and his predictions, culminating in his appointment as court physician to Charles IX of France (son of Henry II of France).
Before Twilight (2008) Polish film directed by Jacek Bławut.
Farewell to Nostradamus is an anime film based around the prophecies of Nostradamus.
Mention is made of Nostradamus in the 1985 Italian horror film Demoni, directed by Lamberto Bava and produced by Dario Argento. According to the characters of the film shown at the fictional Metropol movie theater, Nostradamus predicted the spawning of demons that will "spread pestilence" and be "instruments of evil".
Television
The television series Alias prominently features the character Milo Rambaldi, a fictional prophet who seems to be an amalgam of Nostradamus and the non-prophetic but visionary inventor, artist, and genius Leonardo da Vinci. In the science fiction series First Wave, the protagonists use a previously unknown book of quatrains of Nostradamus to fight back against an alien invasion. Nostradamus was also a regular character on This Morning With Richard Not Judy, played by Emma Kennedy. Nostradamus appeared semi-regularly on the Warner Bros. animated series Histeria! as an eccentric red-bearded man in stereotypical wizard garb.
On Mr. Show with Bob and David, an episode contains a sketch called "Nostradamus and his Companion". In it, Nostradamus (played by Bob Odenkirk) is a gay man who falls in love with a fashion designer, played by David Cross. Nostradamus is left behind by his constant chum, who goes on to achieve fame and fortune in the fashion industry. The sketch ends with a school being named after them: "Nostradamus and His Constant Chum Elementary School."
On Chappelle's Show, the sketch comedy show hosted by Dave Chappelle, there is a character named Negrodamus (played by comedian Paul Mooney), an African-American version of Nostradamus who makes various predictions in response to questions.
In the Nickelodeon cartoon CatDog, the title characters find a prediction in a book by the fictitious prophet "Nostradummy" that they interpret as predicting the imminent end of the world.
In The Simpsons episode "Thank God, It's Doomsday", Homer Simpson is sarcastically called "Nostradumbass" by Comic Book Guy after his initial prophecy of the end of the world is incorrect.
In the Hong Kong ATV series My Date with a Vampire (series 1), Nostradamus (also referred to as the "French Guy") was held to have made a prophecy of the end of world in 1999, with a third of the world's population turning into monsters or vampires and the rest perishing. The antagonist, vampire Yamamoto Kazuo (portrayed by Kenneth Chan) and later Yu Meng Sap Sam or his true identity—Lo Hau (portrayed by Wai Lit), sought to make the prophecy come true and rule the world, but the protagonists Fong Tin Yau (portrayed by Eric Wan) and Ma Siu Ling (portrayed by Joey Meng) were able to stop this from occurring. The anime Occult Academy revolves around an artifact called the Nostradamus Key, an object that will open a dimensional rift on July 21, 1999, that would trigger an alien invasion in the year 2012. In fact, it seems that the survivors of the 2012 invasion used alien technology to send someone to tell Nostradamus as part of a plan to prevent the invasion.
Bob Bainborough portrayed Nostradamus in an episode of History Bites, appearing in an infomercial to sell his books, referencing C1Q35, among others, as an example of his prophecy. A two-hour documentary on Nostradamus first aired by the History Channel on 28 October 2007 suggests that a book of paintings in the National Library at Rome is The Lost Book of Nostradamus.
In an episode of The Sopranos, Bobby Baccalieri gets Nostradamus mixed up with Quasimodo, saying that Quasimodo predicted 9/11 and the end of the world.
He also appears in various episodes of the MTV animated show Clone High as a teenaged clone of the original Nostradamus.
The Doctor Who Past Doctor Adventures novel The King of Terror features the Fifth Doctor and UNIT dealing with a group of terrorists called the Sons of Nostradamus who consider it their duty to ensure that his prophecies-apparently predicting the end of the world in 1999-come true, but the prophecies are eventually revealed to have been part of the efforts of the alien race known as the Canavatchi to retard humanity's development.
The History Channel periodically airs a series of films on supposedly apocalyptic prophecies under the general title The Nostradamus Effect, but in his book 2012: It's Not the End of the World, Nostradamus specialist Peter Lemesurier describes them as 'largely fiction' and 'lurid nonsense'.
In Hetalia: Axis Powers, Germany and Japan worry about the end of the World due to one of Nostradamus's prophecies. However, Britain and France ignore this warning, due to having lived through another supposed apocalypse, and instead tell Japan and Germany not to worry.
Nostradamus is featured in CW's drama Reign.
Nostradamus is featured in the Robot Chicken episode "Petless M in: Cars Are Couches of the Road", voiced by Alfred Molina.
Nostradamus was mentioned in Celebrity Deathmatch as the intended opponent for John Edward in one episode. However, he predicted he would lose the fight and refused to show up.
BooksFiction' In Phil Rickman's historical novel The Bones of Avalon, Nostradamus appears at the end as the major villain who must be opposed by this novel's hero John Dee. The book describes his contemporary influence and depicts him as a master of propaganda and psychological warfare.
In Alexander Kuprin's short story "The Blue Star", published in 1927, it is mentioned that Nostradamus has composed a horoscope for one of the main characters, a French prince.
Music
British singer/songwriter Al Stewart's album Past, Present and Future was a concept album including a song about every decade of the 20th century. As Stewart wrote the album in 1973, events from the latter years of the century were covered by the song "Nostradamus", in which some of the prophecies are quoted. One of the prophecies appears to refer to the future fall of the Berlin Wall and the unnatural death of a Pope named Pol; events which might have been considered predictable, even if the date was not.
1977 Moody Blues member Justin Hayward wrote a song on his album Songwriter called "Nostrodamus".
Iron Maiden's "Die With Your Boots On" from the 1983 album Piece of Mind pokes fun at Nostradamus and his believers.
In 1984, Manfred Mann's Earth Band released the album Somewhere in Afrika, which contains a cover of the Al Stewart song, mistitled as "Eyes of Nostradamus".Project Driver is a studio album by the heavy metal supergroup M.A.R.S., released in 1986 that contains the song "Nostradamus" about the prophet.
Composer Robert Steadman has twice used Nostradamus' prophecies in pieces of music: in 1987, quatrains by Nostradamus were juxtaposed with the Latin Requiem Mass text and poems on environmental issues. And in 1999, he set what was thought by some to be Nostradamus's prediction of the end of the world for soprano and chamber ensemble in The Final Prophecy.
The 1993 album The Window of Life by Pendragon includes a song entitled "Nostradamus (Stargazing)".
Marilyn Manson said that his Antichrist Superstar CD, which came out in 1996, was an answer to the Nostrandamus prophecy in which he said that "The 3rd. Antichrist was going to come to the earth in the year 1996".
Haggard produced two albums dealing with the seer Michel de Notredame in the dark days of The Black Plague in Europe: And Thou Shalt Trust... the Seer in 1997 and Awaking the Centuries in 1998.
Darkane's Song "July 1999" from Rusted Angel, is all about the Nostradamus dated prophecy.
Rapper Nas refers to himself as Nastradamus and released an album titled Nastradamus along with its first single titled the same name in 1999.
Bulgarian guitarist Nikolo Kotzev released a rock opera called Nikolo Kotzev's Nostradamus in 2001, based on the life and times of Nostradamus. In 2005, Dutch band Kayak released a rock opera called Nostradamus – Fate of Man.
German power metal band Helloween's 1996 album The Time of the Oath is based on Nostradamus' supposed prophecy of a world war between 1994 and 2000.
In 1997, Finnish metal band Stratovarius recorded a concept album loosely based on the life and prophecies of Nostradamus. The album was called Visions.
In 2008, the British heavy metal band Judas Priest released a concept album based on the life of Nostradamus. Simply named Nostradamus, the album itself focuses on Nostradamus' life and his prophecies.
"Nostradamus said 'I predict that the world will end at half past six' / What he didn't say was exactly when" are the opening lyrics of "Tinderbox", penned by Bernie Taupin and sung by Elton John.
Modest Mouse vocalist Isaac Brock seems to take a stab at Nostradamus in a song called "Education" from the band's fifth studio album, We Were Dead Before the Ship Even Sank. The verse is as follows: "Good old Nostradamas / he knew the whole damn time / there would always be an east from west / and someone in there fighting".
In the bonus track of Dane Cook's "Harmful If Swallowed" he speaks of how a person would wake up and think he is late, then look at his clock to find out that he is in fact late. He would yell "I HATE it when I'm like Nostradamus and I predict that I'm late!"
Several songs by The Stranglers contain references to Nostradamus' prophecies: "Goodbye Toulouse" (1977), "Shah Shah a go go" (1979), "Four Horsemen" (1980), "Top Secret" (1981), "It's a Small World" (1983).
Comics
In an Italian Mickey Mouse story (Topolino e la Piramide Impossible), Mickey and Goofy travel back in time and by accident a young boy followed them back to the present. The boy had to go back to his own time and his memory of the future was erased, but before that he grabbed pieces of books. The boy of course became Nostradamus and the ripped pages from books explained his visions of the future. The story was made by Massimo Marconi and Massimo De Vita.
In the 1989 Scrooge McDuck story "The Curse of Nostrildamus" by Don Rosa (AR 143), Scrooge enters the prophet's tomb to take the amulet that was the source of his power. However, whoever wears the amulet also attracts disasters – though Donald Duck ends up as the victim of the disasters instead of Scrooge. In author's commentary in the Finnish album release, Don Rosa says he was inspired to write the story based on the legend that whoever drank from Nostradamus's skull would be given the gift of prophecy.
A Phantom story from 1983 by Ulf Granberg and Jaime Vallvé featured an appearance by Nostradamus.
In the DC Comics Universe, Nostradamus was an ancestor of Zatara and Zatanna.
In the Marvel Comics series S.H.I.E.L.D., Nostradamus is held prisoner of Isaac Newton and kept alive for centuries using the Fountain of Youth so he can read the future for him.
In Scott Adams's comic strip Dilbert, "Nostradogbert" is a pseudonym of Dogbert.
In Mad magazine's section entitled the "strip club", a comic strip entitled Middle School Nostradamus appears every so often. Nostradamus is depicted as a preteen in wizard garb who makes predictions of impending despair for the people he is around at inopportune times.
Mangas
In Record of Ragnarok, thirteen historical humans are chosen to fight thirteen mythological gods in a tournament for humanity's survival. Nostradamus is one of the human fighters.
In Chainsaw Man, the prophecy’s of Nostradamus are used to predict the end of the world by the hands of demonic entities.
Games
Face released an arcade game called Nostradamus. Though the game itself had nothing to do with Nostradamus, the game's title screen showed a resemblance to his son's portrait of him, however he is facing the other direction and looks older.
In Castlevania: Aria of Sorrow, the prophecy of 1999 was used as the resurrection of Dracula and added that all born of the day of Dracula's demise are "Dark Candidates" meaning that they have the potential to become the next Dark Lord. This prophecy is referenced again in Portrait of Ruin; the Belmonts cannot wield the Vampire Killer whip until 1999, when Dracula is revived.
In the eroge Nostradamus ni Kiite Miro♪, a girl named Stra (a shortened form of Nostradamus) claims to be the writer of Nostradamus' predictions.
The prophet Nostradamus appears in the 2003 video game Lionheart: Legacy of the Crusader.
In Nostradamus: The Last Prophecy, Nostradamus appears as an adviser to his daughter during the game.
In Super Ninja Boy for the Super NES, there is a prophet named Notruedamus.
In Ninja Gaiden, the hero is a nameless ninja on a quest to defeat an evil cult led by a fictional descendant of Nostradamus.
In SpyHunter, the hero, Alec Sects, has to stop an organization called Nostra, led by Daemon Curry, who believes in the prophecies of Nostradamus, thinks he is the figure mentioned in several religions and plans to stop all the world's electricity.
In Assassin's Creed Unity, there are Nostradamus riddles hidden in Paris for Arno to solve.
In the PopCap game Insaniquarium, there is an obtainable pet with the ability to postpone alien attacks named Nostradamus.
Theatre
The soothsayer Thomas Nostradamus is a main character in the musical Something Rotten!'', where he was originally portrayed by actor Brad Oscar.
Notes
External links
Snopes: False claims of Nostradamus predicting the World Trade Center attacks on September 11, 2001
Investigation of the predictions of Nostradamus. Hypothesis about dating quatrains. Predictions for the coming year.
Literary forgeries
Popular culture
Topics in popular culture
ru:Предсказания Мишеля Нострадамуса |
4097343 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rex%20Ryan | Rex Ryan | Rex Ashley Ryan (born December 13, 1962) is an American former football coach and analyst. Ryan was formerly the head coach of the New York Jets and Buffalo Bills of the National Football League (NFL), and also held various coaching positions with seven other NFL and college teams.
He and his fraternal twin brother Rob Ryan are sons of former head coach Buddy Ryan. From a young age, Ryan aspired to follow in his father's footsteps and become a professional football coach. After spending the majority of his youth in Canada, he returned to the United States as a teenager where he attended college at Southwestern Oklahoma State University. Upon graduating, Ryan spent the next 22 years serving as an assistant coach on different teams at both the college and professional level.
At the behest of their head coach Brian Billick, Ryan joined the Baltimore Ravens in 1999 and spent ten years there. In 2005, he became the defensive coordinator, and later was promoted to be the team's assistant head coach in 2008. Ryan later accepted a contract offer from the Jets for their vacant head coaching position for the 2009 season. During his tenure, Ryan became well known throughout the league for his outspoken manner, boisterous attitude, and initial success with the Jets. In his first two seasons as the Jets' head coach, he led the team to back-to-back AFC Championship Game appearances. Ryan's subsequent tenure was a period of struggles, as the Jets were unable to finish with a record above a .500 winning percentage. After a career worst 4–12 record at the conclusion of the 2014 season, Ryan was fired as the team's head coach. Shortly after his firing from the Jets, Ryan was hired to be the Bills' head coach, where he lasted two years with the team before being fired at the end of the 2016 season. Afterwards, he was hired by ESPN, where he currently serves as an analyst, including on Sunday NFL Countdown.
Early life
Rex Ryan and his fraternal twin, Rob, were born in Ardmore, Oklahoma, on December 13, 1962, to Doris and Buddy Ryan. When the boys were aged two, their parents amicably divorced. Following the divorce, their mother attended the University of Chicago to earn her doctorate. Rex, Rob, and their older brother Jim moved with her to Toronto, Ontario, Canada, where she secured an administrative position at the University of Toronto. During the course of his upbringing, Rex wanted to follow in the footsteps of his father, a defensive pioneer in the NFL known for developing the 46 defense, and by the age of six, Rex and Rob knew they wanted to pursue coaching careers.
In Canada, there was little emphasis on football, much to the disappointment of Rex. By the time Rex was a teenager, Doris realized he and his brothers were too much to handle for a single mother trying to advance her career. She decided it was in the best interest of the brothers to send them to live with their father, who was the defensive line coach for the Minnesota Vikings at the time. The reasons behind this were to keep them out of trouble and to help them expand their knowledge of the game of football where it was more prevalent.
In 1978, when Buddy was hired by the Chicago Bears as their defensive coordinator, Rex, Rob, and Jim followed their father to Illinois where the family settled in Lincolnshire, Illinois. The brothers attended Stevenson High School in Lincolnshire.
Rex went on to attend Southwestern Oklahoma State University in Weatherford, Oklahoma, alongside Rob, and played for the football team as a defensive end. He graduated from Southwestern Oklahoma in 1986, and in 2011 was inducted into the university's Hall of Fame.
Collegiate coaching
Upon graduating from Southwestern in 1986, with the help of his father, Ryan secured a job as a graduate assistant on the Division I-AA (now Division I FCS) Eastern Kentucky Colonels football team. At Eastern Kentucky, he had a multitude of responsibilities which ranged from making copies of game plans to picking players up at the airport. The Colonels won the Ohio Valley Conference title in the two years Ryan served as an assistant. At the age of 26, Ryan became the assistant head coach and defensive coordinator at Division II New Mexico Highlands for a year, during which the team led the league in defensive turnovers. After his stint with New Mexico Highlands, Ryan joined Division I Morehead State as the defensive coordinator, where he remained for four years. During his tenure, the defense was ranked among the highest in the nation.
After working for his father for two years with the NFL's Arizona Cardinals, Ryan returned to college coaching as the defensive coordinator for the Cincinnati Bearcats. The Bearcats won the first Humanitarian Bowl over Utah State in Ryan's final year, marking the team's first bowl appearance in fifty years. Ryan was the Oklahoma Sooners' defensive coordinator for a year in which the defense was ranked sixth in the nation. However, head coach John Blake failed to achieve a winning record for a third straight year and subsequently, the entire staff was fired. Ryan served as defensive coordinator at Kansas State for a month in 1999 under head coach Bill Snyder.
National Football League
Assistant coach
When his father was hired as the head coach of the Arizona Cardinals in 1994, he offered Rex his first job in the NFL as a defensive assistant, working with the team's linebackers and defensive linemen. After nine straight losing seasons prior to Buddy's arrival, the Cardinals produced an 8–8 record in Buddy's first year as head coach. However, in his second season, the team went 4–12 and subsequently, the entire staff was fired despite the positive performance of the defense.
Ryan went on to coach at three different colleges following his tenure with the Cardinals, though by the time he joined Kansas State in 1999, he was hopeful of a return to the NFL. Ryan received a call from newly named head coach Brian Billick of the Baltimore Ravens, who wanted to interview him for the defensive line coaching position. Having visited a class Ryan was teaching earlier in his career, Billick had been so impressed by Ryan's passion for the game of football that he decided to hire Ryan if he ever attained a head coaching position. When offered the position, Ryan accepted.
In his first year, the defense was ranked second overall in the NFL and second in rushing yards allowed. By his second year, in 2000, the Ravens' defense set NFL records for fewest rushing yards allowed. The defense allowed a combined 23 points in four playoff games en route to a Super Bowl XXXV victory, Ryan's only Super Bowl ring, over the New York Giants. The defense consistently performed well in the following years. As a result, Ryan was promoted to defensive coordinator in 2005 following the departure of Mike Nolan, who became the head coach of the San Francisco 49ers. In 2006, Ryan received Assistant Coach of the Year awards from Pro Football Weekly and the Pro Football Writers Association.
Upon the conclusion of the Ravens' 5–11 performance in 2007, the entire staff was dismissed on New Year's Eve. Ryan was one of the candidates interviewed by the Ravens for their head coaching vacancy; however, the Ravens chose to name John Harbaugh as the team's new head coach. Ryan also interviewed with Miami and Atlanta about filling their head coaching vacancies, but the offers went to Tony Sparano and Mike Smith respectively.
Ryan was disappointed by his failure to obtain a head coaching job, but he agreed to return to Baltimore under the direction of Harbaugh, who retained Ryan as defensive coordinator and promoted him to assistant head coach. In 2008, Ryan's final year with the team, the defense was ranked second overall in the NFL. The Ravens lost by a score of 23–14 in the AFC Championship Game against the Pittsburgh Steelers. Ryan's nine-year tenure with the Ravens, during which the defense never ranked lower than sixth overall in the NFL, concluded an hour later when he accepted the head coaching position with the New York Jets.
New York Jets
Following a late season collapse in which the Jets missed the playoffs after losing four of their final five games, the team fired head coach Eric Mangini on December 29, 2008. The team interviewed a host of candidates, including Ryan, Jeff Jagodzinski, Russ Grimm, Bill Callahan, and Brian Schottenheimer; however, the contract, which was valued at approximately $11.5 million over the course of four years, was ultimately offered to Ryan.
Accepting the offer on January 19, 2009, Ryan immediately began to carry out a plan of action that he had outlined for the franchise's future. He planned to remove the players from distractions on and off the field and allow them get to know one another to build team chemistry. Thus, training camp was moved to the campus of SUNY Cortland, where the team would be relatively secluded from the media and any other distractions. Ryan and general manager Mike Tannenbaum were also determined to draft a quarterback who could lead and be the face of the franchise. As a result, the team traded up to select Mark Sanchez of USC in the first round with the fifth overall pick in the 2009 NFL Draft.
2009 season
The Jets opened their season against the Houston Texans. Ryan began his head coaching career with a 24–7 victory over the Texans in which the Jets' defense shut out their opponents' offense. Houston's lone score came on a fumble return for a touchdown. The following week, the defense did not allow a touchdown against the New England Patriots in a 16–9 victory at home, marking the Jets' first home victory over New England since 2000. Ryan and the Jets went on to defeat the Tennessee Titans in Week 3, marking the first time the Jets opened the season at 3–0 since 2004. The victory also allowed Ryan to become the Jets' first rookie head coach to win his first three games since Al Groh did so in 2000. Despite their hot start, New York went on to lose six of their next seven games save for a shutout victory over the Oakland Raiders, 38–0.
The team eventually recovered and won five of their final six games despite Ryan mistakenly stating the Jets had been eliminated from playoff contention following a loss to the Atlanta Falcons. The Jets defeated a previously unbeaten Indianapolis Colts—a game not without controversy following Jim Caldwell's decision to pull Indianapolis' starters with the Colts leading. The Colts, who had already clinched a playoff berth, had little to play for aside from a perfect record. In the final game of the season, the Jets defeated the Cincinnati Bengals 37–0 at Giants Stadium, the final sporting event to be held at the venue, as the defense held Cincinnati to 72 total rushing yards, and 0 total yards passing. The victory secured the Jets' playoff berth as a wild card team. Under Ryan, the Jets finished the regular season ranked first overall in the NFL in rushing yards and total defense. New York defeated Cincinnati again the following week, this time at Paul Brown Stadium, in the AFC Wild Card playoff round by a score of 24–14. On January 17, 2010, Ryan coached the Jets in an upset over the San Diego Chargers, 17–14, on their way to the AFC Championship Game. The Jets subsequently lost to the Colts, 30–17, after leading in the first half of the game. Ryan became embroiled in controversy a few days later when he made an obscene gesture towards heckling Dolphins fans who spat on him during a Strikeforce mixed martial arts event at BankAtlantic Center in Sunrise, Florida. Ryan apologized for his action, stating that it was "stupid and inappropriate." Ryan was fined $50,000 by the Jets.
2010 season
As Ryan headed into his second year as the team's head coach, the club announced he had been given a two-year contract extension. Ryan continued to exude confidence in the team, writing on ESPN's training camp tour bus "Soon To Be Champs" in August, referencing that the Jets would make it to the Super Bowl and become the eventual champions. Ryan had been asked to sign the Jets' logo on the back of the bus but included the message with his signature. The prediction was met with some criticism while others praised his brashness, something that was felt to be lacking in the NFL at the time. When the team appeared on the television series Hard Knocks that same month, Ryan was criticized, particularly by former head coach Tony Dungy, for his use of foul language. Dungy and Ryan later met in person to reconcile their differences. Ryan's championship claims were nearly proven correct as the Jets opened the season with the best record in the NFL at 9–2. This set the stage for a Monday Night Football matchup with their division rival, the Patriots, who were also 9–2. The Patriots, behind the strong performance of quarterback Tom Brady, defeated the Jets 45–3. However, the Jets finished the season with an 11–5 record and qualified as a wild card team in the playoffs. The Jets were one win short of tying the franchise record in wins set by the 1998 team led by Bill Parcells.
In the wild-card round, the sixth-seeded Jets beat the AFC South champion and third-seeded Colts 17–16 on January 8, 2011, at the Colts' home field, Lucas Oil Stadium, to qualify for the Divisional Playoffs. The following week, on January 16, they defeated the AFC East champion and first-seeded Patriots 28–21, ending New England's eight-game winning streak. The victory made the Jets the first team to win back-to-back road playoff games in consecutive seasons, and qualified them to advance to the AFC Championship Game for the second consecutive season, where they lost on the road to the AFC North champion Pittsburgh Steelers 24–19.
2011 season
The Jets opened their 2011 campaign with a 2–3 record, leading to discontent within their clubhouse. The team had begun to stray from its philosophy of consistently running the ball and began to pass more often, but the offense struggled with this adjustment. Wide receivers Plaxico Burress, Santonio Holmes, and Derrick Mason reportedly approached coach Ryan to question offensive coordinator Brian Schottenheimer's system. Ryan, meanwhile, had begun to isolate himself from the rest of the team as he became less "hands-on" and opted to have his assistants coach the players at their respective positions. Ryan attracted further attention to the team during a Sunday Night Football game against the New England Patriots when he responded to a heckling fan with an obscene remark and was fined $75,000 by the league. Despite struggling to an 8–7 record, the Jets still had the ability to attain a playoff berth if they won their regular season finale against the Miami Dolphins in combination with the outcome of three other games played that day.
However, the discontent within the locker room and the team's overall struggles culminated with Holmes criticizing and arguing with teammates in the huddle against Miami. Holmes was benched in the fourth quarter while the Jets subsequently lost 19–17, ending their postseason pursuit. After the Jets finished the season with a disappointing 8–8 record, Ryan admitted to having lost the pulse of the team. Then free agent running back LaDainian Tomlinson remarked that Ryan's Super Bowl predictions had an adverse effect on the locker room by placing undue pressure on the players. Ryan conceded this point and announced that he would refrain from making such statements publicly in the future.
2012 season
Through 11 weeks in 2012, the Jets struggled to a 4–7 record. The presence of quarterback Tim Tebow created a controversy as the media and fans called for Ryan to bench the inconsistent Mark Sanchez in favor of Tebow. Ryan was criticized for his decision to keep Tebow activated during the Jets' Thanksgiving Day contest against the New England Patriots despite Tebow playing with two broken ribs, leading to questions about his job security. With Tebow inactive for the Jets' following contest against the Arizona Cardinals, Ryan made the decision to bench Sanchez, who threw three interceptions, in favor of Greg McElroy. McElroy threw a touchdown pass to tight end Jeff Cumberland to score the team's only points in a 7–6 victory over Arizona.
Ryan renamed Sanchez the starting quarterback the following Wednesday after seeking out multiple opinions within the organization. In a must win game against the Tennessee Titans to remain in playoff contention, Sanchez struggled; he completed 13 of his 28 passes for 131 yards while throwing four interceptions and fumbling the ball in Titans territory in the closing minutes of the Jets' 14–10 defeat. A day later, Ryan announced McElroy would start. Sanchez started the final game of the season after McElroy suffered a concussion in his lone start. Sanchez's struggles continued as the Jets fell to the Buffalo Bills and ended their year with a 6–10 record, their first losing season under Rex Ryan. On December 31, 2012, the Jets fired general manager Mike Tannenbaum, but announced that Ryan would return for the 2013 season.
2013 season
For the 2013 campaign, Ryan overhauled his coaching staff, promoting Dennis Thurman to defensive coordinator while adding several new coaches including offensive coordinator Marty Mornhinweg. Newly hired general manager John Idzik emphasized there would be competition at all positions including quarterback. The Jets drafted Geno Smith in the second round of the 2013 NFL Draft to compete with Sanchez. Ryan was widely criticized for his decision to insert Sanchez late in a preseason game against the New York Giants after Sanchez suffered a season-ending shoulder injury which led to Smith being named the starter.
Through their first nine games of the year, the Jets went 5–4 and earned Ryan some early Coach of the Year consideration. The team proceeded to lose their next three contests as the rookie Smith committed eight turnovers while failing to score during that stretch. This prompted speculation by analysts as to whether or not Ryan would be fired. The Jets broke their losing streak with a 37–27 win over the Raiders that kept them in playoff contention. The following week, the Jets played the Carolina Panthers and trailed by three points heading into the fourth quarter. In the span of five minutes, the Panthers scored twice and the Jets were unable to complete a comeback attempt, losing 20–30. The loss eliminated the Jets from playoff contention.
New York played the Cleveland Browns a week later. In a meeting before the game, Ryan told his players that he expected to be fired at the end of the year. The Jets defeated Cleveland, 24–13, and despite the uncertainty, the players and coaches were in high spirits. Several players including Antonio Cromartie, Calvin Pace, and Willie Colon went on to publicly express their support for Ryan to return as coach. In the season finale, the Jets defeated the Miami Dolphins 20–7, eliminating them from playoff contention. In the locker room after the game, owner Woody Johnson and Idzik announced Ryan would return for the 2014 season much to the delight of the players. Ryan was praised for keeping his team competitive after being eliminated from playoff contention and keeping their spirits high throughout the year despite their inconsistency.
2014 season
The Jets opened the 2014 season with a 19–14 win over the Oakland Raiders but proceeded to lose their next eight games. Geno Smith, who started the year at quarterback, was replaced by veteran Michael Vick midway through the season. Vick helped to snap the losing streak in a Week 10 win over the Pittsburgh Steelers. Despite the victory, Ryan was seen cursing at an unidentified person and was subsequently fined $100,000 by the league. The team continued to struggle with Smith eventually being reinserted into the lineup. The Jets went on to win two of their last three games to finish with a 4–12 record, their worst finish under Ryan. Despite players again expressing their desire for Ryan to remain the coach, he was dismissed on December 29, 2014.
Buffalo Bills
Ryan was hired as the 18th head coach of the Buffalo Bills on January 12, 2015, agreeing to a five-year, $27.5 million contract.
2015 season
The Bills opened the 2015 season with a 27–14 win over the Indianapolis Colts. Frustrated by the Bills leading the NFL in penalties heading into their Week 5 game against the Tennessee Titans, Ryan gave the entire team wristbands with the message "Yes sir". These were the only words he wanted his players to use with officials if they were flagged. After being flagged 17 times in Week 4 loss against the New York Giants, the Bills were penalized only seven times in their 14–13 victory over the Titans. The Bills entered their bye week with a 3–4 record after losing in London to the Jacksonville Jaguars.
Ryan gave the whole team the week off during the bye, and he himself found a secluded beach to "get away and focus". The Bills came out of their bye week and defeated the Miami Dolphins by a score of 33–17, improving their season record to 4–4. Ryan is now 2–5 all time following a bye week. Ryan returned to MetLife Stadium in Week 10 for a much anticipated Thursday Night Football game against the Jets. The Bills won the game by a score of 22–17, and improved to 5–4 on the season. Ryan faced questions before and after the game about his decision to name IK Enemkpali, who had been released by the Jets in preseason after breaking quarterback Geno Smith's jaw in an altercation, as Buffalo's captain for the game.
The Bills were unable to make the playoffs in their first season with Ryan as coach, as they were eliminated in Week 15 with a 35–25 loss to the Washington Redskins on December 20, extending their drought to 16 seasons, the NFL's longest active drought. They finished the season with an 8–8 record.
2016 season
On January 10, 2016, it was announced that Ryan had hired his twin brother. Rob, to the Bills coaching staff. Rob served as an assistant head coach and also worked with the defense. Three days later, Ryan hired former NFL standout Ed Reed to be an assistant defensive backs coach.
The Bills opened the 2016 season with a 13–7 loss against the Baltimore Ravens. On September 16, 2016, less than 24 hours after losing 37–31 to the Jets in their home opener and falling to 0–2, Ryan fired offensive coordinator Greg Roman and promoted running backs coach Anthony Lynn to offensive coordinator.
On December 27, after a Christmas Eve loss to the Miami Dolphins in Week 16 that eliminated the team from playoff contention, Ryan was relieved of his duties as head coach, and offensive coordinator Anthony Lynn was named as interim head coach for the final game of the season. Rob Ryan was dismissed as well. Many players were unable to thrive under Ryan's defensive scheme, which was described as complicated. The Bills' defense finished the 2016 season 15th in points allowed and 24th in rushing yards allowed. Following the season, Ryan went on a profane tirade against the team for allegedly quitting on him.
Ryan was replaced on a full-time basis by Sean McDermott in Buffalo, who proceeded to lead the Bills to the postseason in his first season in 2017.
Television career
Following his dismissal season with the Bills In 2016, Ryan signed an agreement with ESPN to provide analysis for the network's Super Bowl LI pregame and postgame shows. The one-game agreement, in which ESPN beat out game rightsholder Fox (as well as CBS and NFL Network), left the possibility open for Ryan to continue with ESPN through the 2017 season. In April, it was announced that Ryan would officially join ESPN's Sunday NFL Countdown as an analyst. In 2022, Ryan competed on the thirty-fourth season of the CBS reality competition show The Amazing Race, where he was eliminated in the second leg.
Coaching philosophy
Ryan stresses that coaches are essentially supposed to be open and communicative with the players and management, who in turn will reciprocate the same attitude. By connecting with his associates, Ryan states, it's "valuable when it comes to figuring out how to motivate somebody (...) because I want that guy to fight for me, just like I want to fight for him." Fullback Tony Richardson, in an interview, stated Ryan "loves his football team, loves his players" and does as much as he possibly can to ensure their success. Despite his boisterous and brash comments that have caused increased media coverage of the team, Ryan has taken the attention and has managed to "[put] it on himself" so the players can focus on their tasks. Ryan has also stressed that the teaching process is an important one, particularly when it comes to providing a player information and building chemistry. However, there has to be flexibility as the process must also be insightful and positive. Ryan states that coaches are responsible for providing players with information that is vitally important otherwise "if you emphasize everything, you've emphasized nothing."
Coaching strategy
With extensive knowledge regarding the intricacies of the defense, Ryan has been criticized for not devoting similar time and effort into coaching the offense. Ryan refuted this, stating his goal is to implement a proficient running game, citing a desire to "get after" the opponent through running the ball. Ryan has also stated that passing the ball is important but should not be used incessantly as there should be a balance between both aspects of the offense. In 2009 and 2010, the Jets were ranked first and fourth overall in the league in rushing which coincided with their two playoff appearances. In 2011, the Jets attempted to convert to a more pass-oriented offense, which have become more widely used in the NFL, however, the team struggled with this adjustment and reverted to their former run-oriented offense by the middle of the season. His defensive strategy, in contrast, tends to be more elaborate taking into consideration his experience in the field. There are six different defensive formations utilized in football, but the two commonly used formations are the 3–4 formation, with three defensive lineman and four linebackers, and the 4–3 formation, with four defensive lineman and three linebackers. The Jets utilized the former of the two popular formations; however, Ryan tended to employ all six formations in varying forms. Furthermore, he often calls audibles that have the defense line up in one formation and switch to another so as to cloak their intentions and confuse and pressure the opponent.
As a testament to this philosophy, Ryan is often willing to defer the coin toss to the opponent so his team can begin the game playing on defense in order to "set the tone" and generate turnovers. This concept has been criticized by ESPN reporter John Clayton, who has found the method to be ineffective league-wide. Mark Kriegel, an analyst for the NFL Network, found that between 2005 and 2012, during his tenure with both the Ravens and Jets, Ryan's defenses have never been ranked lower than sixth overall in the NFL and have allowed an average of 281 yards per game from scrimmage, second to Dick LeBeau's 277.4 yards per game. LeBeau is generally regarded as one of the best defensive coordinators in the history of the NFL.
Personal life
Ryan and his wife, Michelle, met at Southwestern Oklahoma State. When Rex accepted his position as a graduate assistant at Eastern Kentucky, he proposed to Michelle by phone; she accepted and they were married in 1987. They have two sons, Seth, an assistant for the Detroit Lions, and Payton. Ryan earned a Bachelor of Science and a Master's degree in physical education from Eastern Kentucky University. He resided in Summit, New Jersey, during his tenure with the Jets.
Health
Ryan publicly announced in 2009 that he had been battling dyslexia for his entire life. During his early years, Ryan struggled to read and write in school; however, he was not formally diagnosed until testing confirmed he had the disorder in 2007. Ryan utilizes color-coded playbooks and game plans when coaching on the sidelines to aid his comprehension.
Ryan underwent lap-band surgery at NYU Medical Center in March 2010 in an effort to battle his obesity. Ryan also had a hernia repaired during the procedure. He was able to return to his home that same day to recover. Following a three-week period, he had lost 40 pounds and as of July 2012, Ryan had lost 106 pounds.
On September 13, 2016, it was revealed that Ryan underwent a procedure to remove the lap band. He lost a total of 120 pounds during the 6-year span since he had the surgery.
Car crash
Ryan was involved in a three-car crash in eastern Pennsylvania on January 14, 2013. A witness said Ryan ran his Ford Mustang through a red light and collided with another driver which caused the unidentified driver to hit a third car. Ryan was issued a warning, but no citation.
Media
Ryan released Play Like You Mean It, an autobiography and a conversational about football strategy. The book, which was published by Doubleday in the spring of 2011, was co-written by Don Yaeger, a former Sports Illustrated editor who has co-authored the autobiographies of former NFL players Walter Payton and Warren Moon.
Ryan played a lawyer in Adam Sandler's film That's My Boy, which was released on June 15, 2012.
Internet video
In late 2010 as the Jets were preparing for the playoffs, a foot fetish video of a woman appearing to be Ryan's wife Michelle surfaced on various internet outlets. Judging by the video background, it appears to have been taken at the teachers parking lot at Whippany Park High School in New Jersey. The video features a clothed Michelle having her bare feet handled and commented on by an unseen camera operator with a voice similar to Rex's. The Jets released a press statement saying that Ryan and the organization considered the situation a private matter and would provide no comment. Multiple media reports soon linked the Ryans to a user profile named "ihaveprettyfeet" on a site for alternative sexual lifestyles, and more videos of Michelle emerged in the following months. In September 2015, a photo of Ryan surfaced showing him sitting at his desk with a framed photo of a person's feet behind him.
Sports allegiances
Ryan is an avid hockey fan and developed a notoriety of being a bandwagon jumper. Ryan admitted to being a fan of the Toronto Maple Leafs, as a result of growing up in the city, but upon taking the Jets head coaching job, he was often seen cheering for all three of the New York metropolitan area franchises. During the New Jersey Devils run to the 2012 Stanley Cup Finals, Ryan was seen sporting the team's attire, and he was seen donning the attire of the New York Rangers two years later, during their run to the Stanley Cup Finals. Outside of the playoff runs, Ryan performed a ceremonial puck drop at Nassau Veterans Memorial Coliseum on October 9, 2010, wearing a vintage New York Islanders Billy Smith jersey.
Ryan was known for a notorious incident at a Carolina Hurricanes game, as he attended the matchup with the Florida Panthers wearing a throwback Philadelphia Flyers jersey. Upon being recognized by the fans at the arena, the team's cheerleaders approached him with a Hurricanes alternate jersey sported by the team. The incident was noted as he was seen taking off the jersey and baring his chest for the crowd to see.
Upon taking the Buffalo Bills head coaching job, Ryan changed his allegiance to the Buffalo Sabres, and he was often seen at the team's home games and sporting the team's attire. Months after being fired by the Bills, Ryan would later be seen during the Nashville Predators run to the 2017 Stanley Cup Finals, wearing the team's jersey.
Political views
On April 18, 2016, Ryan introduced Republican presidential candidate front-runner Donald Trump at one of his rallies held at the First Niagara Center in Buffalo. Ryan had told the Associated Press he was supporting Chris Christie for the nomination, but when Christie dropped out of the race, Ryan endorsed Trump. During the rally, Ryan praised Trump's 'courage' to "say what's on his mind."
In September 2017, Ryan stated on ESPN that President Trump's comments about how NFL owners should fire players who kneel during the national anthem were appalling to almost any citizen in our country, it should be. You know, calling our players, SOBs and all that kind of stuff, that's not the–that's not the men that I know. The men that I know in the locker room I'm proud of. I'm proud to be associated with those people. I apologized for being pissed off but guess what? That's it, because right away I'm associated with what Donald Trump stands for and all that because I introduced him. I never signed up for that, I never wanted that. That doesn't mean I support 100 percent of the things he says.
The Amazing Race
In 2022, Ryan competed on the 34th season of The Amazing Race with his golf buddy, Tim Mann. His team was the second to be eliminated in Innsbruck, Austria and finished in 11th place.
Head coaching record
References
Bibliography
External links
Coaching statistics at Pro-Football-Reference.com
1962 births
Living people
Arizona Cardinals coaches
Baltimore Ravens coaches
Buffalo Bills head coaches
Cincinnati Bearcats football coaches
Eastern Kentucky Colonels football coaches
ESPN people
Kansas State Wildcats football coaches
Morehead State Eagles football coaches
National Football League announcers
National Football League defensive coordinators
New Mexico Highlands Cowboys football coaches
New York Jets head coaches
Oklahoma Sooners football coaches
Southwestern Oklahoma State Bulldogs football players
People from Ardmore, Oklahoma
People from Lake County, Illinois
Sportspeople from Summit, New Jersey
Sportspeople from Toronto
American twins
21st-century American journalists
Participants in American reality television series
Sportspeople with dyslexia |
4097799 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/An%20Inconvenient%20Truth | An Inconvenient Truth | An Inconvenient Truth is a 2006 American documentary film directed by Davis Guggenheim about former United States Vice President Al Gore's campaign to educate people about global warming. The film features a slide show that, by Gore's own estimate, he has presented over 1,000 times to audiences worldwide.
The idea to document Gore's efforts came from producer Laurie David, who saw his presentation at a town hall meeting on global warming, which coincided with the opening of The Day After Tomorrow. Laurie David was so inspired by his slide show that she, with producer Lawrence Bender, met with Guggenheim to adapt the presentation into a film. Premiering at the 2006 Sundance Film Festival and opening in New York City and Los Angeles on May 24, 2006, the film was a critical and commercial success, winning two Academy Awards for Best Documentary Feature and Best Original Song. The film grossed $24 million in the U.S. and $26 million at the international box office, becoming the 11th highest grossing documentary film to date in the United States.
Since the film's release, An Inconvenient Truth has been credited for raising international public awareness of global warming and reenergizing the environmental movement. The documentary has also been included in science curricula in schools around the world, which has spurred some controversy. A sequel to the film, titled An Inconvenient Sequel: Truth to Power, was released on July 28, 2017.
Synopsis
An Inconvenient Truth presents in film form an illustrated talk on climate by Al Gore, aimed at alerting the public to an increasing "planetary emergency" due to global warming, and shows re-enacted incidents from his life story which influenced his concerns about environmental issues. He began making these presentations in 1989 with flip chart illustrations; the film version uses a Keynote presentation, which Gore refers to as "the slide show".
The former vice president opens the film by greeting an audience with his well-known line about his campaign in 2000: "I am Al Gore. I used to be the next President of the United States." He is shown using his laptop to edit his presentation, and pondering the difficulty he has had in awakening public concern: "I've been trying to tell this story for a long time and I feel as if I've failed to get the message across."
Gore then begins his slide show on Global Warming; a comprehensive presentation replete with detailed graphs, flow charts and stark visuals. Gore shows off several photographs of the Earth taken from multiple space missions, as Earthrise and The Blue Marble. Gore notes that these photos dramatically transformed the way we see the Earth, helping spark modern environmentalism.
Following this, Gore shares anecdotes that inspired his interest in the issue, including his college education with early climate expert Roger Revelle at Harvard University, his sister's death from lung cancer and his young son's near-fatal car accident. Gore recalls a story from his grade-school years, where a fellow student asked his geography teacher about continental drift, whether the coastlines of South America and Africa might fit together; in response, the teacher called the concept the "most ridiculous thing [he'd] ever heard." Gore ties this conclusion to the assumption that "the Earth is so big, we can't possibly have any lasting, harmful impact on the Earth's environment." For comic effect, Gore uses a clip from the Futurama episode "Crimes of the Hot" to describe the greenhouse effect. Gore refers to his loss to George W. Bush in the 2000 United States presidential election as a "hard blow" yet one which subsequently "brought into clear focus, the mission [he] had been pursuing for all these years."
Throughout the movie, Gore discusses the scientific consensus on global warming, as well as the present and future effects of global warming and stresses that global warming "is really not a political issue, so much as a moral one," describing the consequences he believes global warming will produce if the amount of human-generated greenhouse gases is not significantly reduced in the very near future. Gore also presents Antarctic ice coring data showing CO2 levels higher now than in the past 650,000 years.
The film includes segments intended to refute critics who say that global warming is unproven or that warming will be insignificant. For example, Gore cites the retreat of nearly all glaciers caused by melting over recent decades, showing nine cases, such as the Grinnel and Boulder Glaciers and Patagonia. He discusses the possibility of the collapse and melting of a major ice sheet in Greenland or in West Antarctica, either of which could raise global sea levels by approximately 20 feet (6m), flooding coastal areas and producing 100 million refugees. Melt water from Greenland, because of its lower salinity, could then halt the currents that keep northern Europe warm and quickly trigger dramatic local cooling there. It also contains various short animated projections of what could happen to different animals more vulnerable to global warming.
Call to action
The documentary ends with Gore arguing that if appropriate actions are taken soon, the effects of global warming can be successfully reversed by releasing less CO2 and planting more vegetation to consume existing CO2. Gore calls upon his viewers to learn how they can help him in these efforts. Gore closes the film by saying:
During the film's end credits, several calls to action pop up on screen suggesting to viewers things at home they can do to combat global warming, including "recycle", "speak up in your community", "try to buy a hybrid vehicle" and "encourage everyone you know to watch this movie."
Background
Origins
Gore became interested in global warming when he took a course at Harvard University with Professor Roger Revelle, one of the first scientists to measure carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.
Later, when Gore was in Congress, he initiated the first congressional hearing on the subject in 1981. Gore's 1992 book, Earth in the Balance, dealing with a number of environmental topics, reached the New York Times bestseller list.
As Vice President during the Clinton Administration, Gore pushed for the implementation of a carbon tax to encourage energy efficiency and diversify the choices of fuel better reflecting the true environmental costs of energy use; it was partially implemented in 1993.
He helped broker the 1997 Kyoto Protocol, an international treaty designed to curb greenhouse gas emissions. The treaty was not ratified in the United States after a 95 to 0 vote in the Senate. The primary objections stemmed from the exemptions the treaty gave to China and India, whose industrial base and carbon footprint have grown rapidly, and fears that the exemptions would lead to further trade imbalances and offshoring arrangement with those countries.
Gore also supported the funding of the controversial, and much-delayed satellite called Triana, which would have provided an image of the Earth 24 hours a day, over the internet and would have acted as a barometer measuring the process of global warming. During his 2000 presidential campaign, Gore ran, in part, on a pledge to ratify the Kyoto Protocol.
The slide show
Following his defeat in the 2000 presidential election by George W. Bush, Gore returned his focus to the topic. He edited and adapted a slide show he had compiled years earlier, and began featuring the slide show in presentations on global warming across the U.S. and around the world. At the time of the film, Gore estimated he had shown the presentation more than one thousand times.
Producer Laurie David saw Gore's slide show in New York City at a global warming town-hall meeting after the May 27, 2004 premiere of The Day After Tomorrow. Gore was one of several panelists and he showed a ten-minute version of his slide show.
Inspired, David assembled a team, including producer Lawrence Bender and former president of eBay Jeffrey Skoll, who met with Gore about the possibility of making the slide show into a movie. It took some convincing. The slide show, she says, "was his baby, and he felt proprietary about it and it was hard for him to let go."
David said the box office returns were not important to her, and that what was at stake was the planet, saying "none of us are going to make a dime."
David and Bender later met with director Davis Guggenheim, to have him direct the film adaptation of his slide show. Guggenheim, who was skeptical at first, later saw the presentation for himself, stating that he was "blown away," and "left after an hour and a half thinking that global warming [was] the most important issue ... I had no idea how you'd make a film out of it, but I wanted to try," he said.
In 2004 Gore enlisted Duarte Design to condense and update his material and add video and animation. Ted Boda described the tools that went into designing the project: "Gore's presentation was in fact using Apple's Keynote presentation software (the same software Steve Jobs presents from) and did so for a number of reasons. As a designer for the presentation, Keynote was the first choice to help create such an engaging presentation."
Initially reluctant of the film adaptation, Gore said after he and the crew were into the production of the movie, the director, Guggenheim, earned his trust.
Production
When Bender first saw Gore's visual presentation he had concerns about connection with viewers, citing a "need to find a personal way in." In the string of interviews with Gore that followed, Gore himself felt like they "were making Kill Al Vol. 3". Bender had other issues including a time frame that was "grueling" and needed to be done in "a very short period of time" despite many filming locations planned. These included many locations throughout the United States and also included China. "It was a lot of travel in a very short period of time. And they had to get this thing edited and cut starting in January, and ready to screen in May. That's like a seriously tight schedule. So the logistics of pulling it off with a low budget were really difficult, and if there's one person who gets credit, it's Leslie Chilcott, because she really pulled it together."
"Most of my movies take a year and a half, if not two and a half," Guggenheim said. "We all felt like we were on a mission from God just to make it as fast as we could. We just felt like it was urgent. The clock was ticking, and people had to see it."
Title
The producers struggled to find an effective title for the film. "We had a lot of really bad titles," Guggenheim recalled. "One was The Rising. I remember Al talking about whether he should give Bruce Springsteen a call, because he had an album out called The Rising. It had a great triple-entendre, because it was like the sea-level rising and the idea of people rising. So we got excited about that for a while." "There were also some really bad ones like Too Hot to Handle," he added. "Maybe that's not right, but it was something with 'hot,' ya know? We had a lot of hot puns."
Guggenheim said that he asked Gore why climate change was "so hard for people to grasp," to which Gore replied, "Because it's an inconvenient truth, ya know." "[...] In the back of my head, I go, that's the title of our movie," Guggenheim said.
Initially, the title was not a popular choice. Gore recalled saying "Nah, I don't think so" but Guggenheim "defended it vigorously against other titles." "People thought it was hard to say, people thought it wasn't fun, it wasn't sexy," Guggenheim remembered. "Days before we went to Sundance and had to decide, there was a large group of people who did not like the title."
Technical aspects
The majority of the movie shows Gore delivering his lecture to an audience at a relatively small theater in Los Angeles. Gore's presentation was delivered on a 70-foot (21 m) digital screen that Bender commissioned specifically for the movie.
While the bulk of the film was shot on 4:4:4 HDCAM, according to director Guggenheim, a vast array of different film formats were used: "There's 35mm and 16mm. A lot of the stuff on the farm I just shot myself on 8mm film. We used four Sony F950 HDCAMs for the presentation. We shot three different kinds of prosumer HD, both 30 and 24. There's MiniDV, there's 3200 black-and-white stills, there's digital stills, some of them emailed on the day they were taken from as far off as Greenland. There was three or four different types of animation. One of the animators is from New Zealand and emailed me his work. There's JPEG stuff."
Guggenheim said that while it would have been a lot easier to use one format, it would not have had the same impact. "Each format has its own feel and texture and touch. For the storytelling of what Gore's memory was like of growing up on the farm, some of this 8mm stuff that I shot is very impressionistic. And for some of his memories of his son's accident, these grainy black-and-white stills ... have a feel that contrasted very beautifully with the crisp hi-def HD that we shot. Every format was used to its best potential. Some of the footage of Katrina has this blown-out video, where the chroma is just blasted, and it looks real muddy, but that too has its own kind of powerful, impactful feeling."
Scientific basis
The film lays out the scientific consensus that global warming is real, potentially catastrophic, and human-caused. Gore presents specific
data to support this, including:
The Keeling Curve, which depicts the long-term increase in atmospheric CO2 concentration as measured from the Mauna Loa Observatory.
The retreat of numerous glaciers is shown with before-and-after photographs.
A study by researchers at the Physics Institute of the University of Bern and the European Project for Ice Coring in Antarctica (EPICA) presenting data from Antarctic ice cores showing carbon dioxide concentrations higher than at any time during the past 650,000 years.
Data from the atmospheric instrumental temperature record showing that the ten hottest years ever measured had all occurred in the previous fourteen years.
A 2004 survey by Naomi Oreskes of 928 peer-reviewed scientific articles on global climate change published between 1993 and 2003. The survey, published as an editorial in the journal Science, found that every article either supported the human-caused global warming consensus or did not comment on it. Gore also presents a 2004 study by Max and Jules Boykoff showing 53% of articles that appeared in major US newspapers over a fourteen-year period gave roughly equal attention to scientists who expressed views that global warming was caused by humans as they did to climate change deniers (many of them funded by carbon-based industry interests), creating a false balance.
The Associated Press contacted more than 100 climate researchers and questioned them about the film's veracity. All 19 climate scientists who had seen the movie or had read the homonymous book said that Gore accurately conveyed the science, with few errors.
William H. Schlesinger, dean of the Nicholas School of Environment and Earth Sciences at Duke University, said "[Gore] got all the important material and got it right." Robert Corell, chairman of the Arctic Climate Impact Assessment, was also impressed. "I sat there and I'm amazed at how thorough and accurate. After the presentation I said, 'Al, I'm absolutely blown away. There's a lot of details you could get wrong.'...I could find no error." Michael Shermer, scientific author and founder of The Skeptics Society, wrote in Scientific American that Gore's slide show "shocked me out of my doubting stance." Eric Steig, a climate scientist writing on RealClimate, lauded the film's science as "remarkably up to date, with reference to some of the very latest research." Ted Scambos, lead scientist from the National Snow and Ice Data Center, said the film "does an excellent job of outlining the science behind global warming and the challenges society faces in the coming century because of it."
One concern among scientists in the film was the connection between hurricanes and global warming, which at the time was contentious in the scientific community. Gore cited five recent scientific studies to support his view. "I thought the use of imagery from Hurricane Katrina was inappropriate and unnecessary in this regard, as there are plenty of disturbing impacts associated with global warming for which there is much greater scientific consensus," said Brian Soden, professor of meteorology and oceanography at the University of Miami. Gavin Schmidt, climate modeler for NASA, thought Gore appropriately addressed the issue. "Gore talked about 2005 and 2004 being very strong seasons, and if you weren't paying attention, you could be left with the impression that there was a direct cause and effect, but he was very careful to not say there's a direct correlation," Schmidt said. "There is a difference between saying 'we are confident that they will increase' and 'we are confident that they have increased due to this effect,'" added Steig. "Never in the movie does he say: 'This particular event is caused by global warming.'"
Gore's use of long ice core records of CO2 and temperature (from oxygen isotope measurements) in Antarctic ice cores to illustrate the correlation between the two drew some scrutiny; Schmidt, Steig and Michael E. Mann back up Gore's data. "Gore stated that the greenhouse gas levels and temperature changes over ice age signals had a complex relationship but that they 'fit'. Both of these statements are true," said Schmidt and Mann. "The complexity though is actually quite fascinating ... a full understanding of why CO2 changes in precisely the pattern that it does during ice ages is elusive, but among the most plausible explanations is that increased received solar radiation in the southern hemisphere due to changes in Earth's orbital geometry warms the southern ocean, releasing CO2 into the atmosphere, which then leads to further warming through an enhanced greenhouse effect. Gore's terse explanation does not delve into such complexities, but the crux of his point—that the observed long-term relationship between CO2 and temperature in Antarctica supports our understanding of the warming impact of increased CO2 concentrations—is correct. Moreover, our knowledge of why CO2 is changing now (fossil fuel burning) is solid. We also know that CO2 is a greenhouse gas, and that the carbon cycle feedback is positive (increasing temperatures lead to increasing CO2 and CH4), implying that future changes in CO2 will be larger than we might anticipate." "Gore is careful not to state what the temperature/CO2 scaling is," said Steig. "He is making a qualitative point, which is entirely accurate. The fact is that it would be difficult or impossible to explain past changes in temperature during the ice age cycles without CO2 changes. In that sense, the ice core CO2-temperature correlation remains an appropriate demonstration of the influence of CO2 on climate."
Steig disputed Gore's statement that one can visibly see the effect that the United States Clean Air Act has had on ice cores in Antarctica. "One can neither see, nor even detect using sensitive chemical methods any evidence in Antarctica of the Clean Air Act," he said, but did note that they are "clearly recorded in ice core records from Greenland." Despite these flaws, Steig said that the film got the fundamental science right and the minor factual errors did not undermine the main message of the film, adding "An Inconvenient Truth rests on a solid scientific foundation."
Lonnie Thompson, Earth Science professor at Ohio State University, whose work on retreating glaciers was featured in the film, was pleased with how his research was presented. "It's so hard given the breadth of this topic to be factually correct, and make sure you don't lose your audience," Thompson said. "As scientists, we publish our papers in Science and Nature, but very few people read those. Here's another way to get this message out. To me, it's an excellent overview for an introductory class at a university. What are the issues and what are the possible consequences of not doing anything about those changes? To me, it has tremendous value. It will reach people that scientists will never reach."
John Nielsen-Gammon from Texas A&M University said the "main scientific argument presented in the movie is for the most part consistent with the weight of scientific evidence, but with some of the main points needing updating, correction, or qualification." Nielsen-Gammon thought the film neglected information gained from computer models, and instead relied entirely on past and current observational evidence, "perhaps because such information would be difficult for a
lay audience to grasp, believe, or connect with emotionally."
Steven Quiring, a climatologist from Texas A&M University, added that "whether scientists like it or not, An Inconvenient Truth has had a much greater impact on public opinion and public awareness of global climate change than any scientific paper or report."
Reception
Box office
The film opened in New York City and Los Angeles on May 24, 2006. On Memorial Day weekend, it grossed an average of $91,447 per theater, the highest of any movie that weekend and a record for a documentary, though it was only playing on four screens at the time.
At the 2006 Sundance Film Festival, the movie received three standing ovations. It was also screened at the 2006 Cannes Film Festival and was the opening night film at the 27th Durban International Film Festival on June 14, 2006.
An Inconvenient Truth was the most popular documentary at the 2006 Brisbane International Film Festival.
The film has grossed over $24 million in the U.S., making it the eleventh-highest-grossing documentary in the U.S. (from 1982 to the present). It grossed nearly $26 million in foreign countries, the highest being France, where it grossed $5 million. According to Gore, "Tipper and I are devoting 100 percent of the profits from the book and the movie to a new bipartisan educational campaign to further spread the message about global warming." Paramount Classics committed 5% of their domestic theatrical gross from the film to form a new bipartisan climate action group, Alliance for Climate Protection, dedicated to awareness and grassroots organizing.
Critical response
The film received a positive reaction from film critics and audiences. It garnered a "certified fresh" 93% rating at Rotten Tomatoes, based on 166 reviews, and an average rating of 7.74/10. The website's critical consensus states, "This candid, powerful and informative documentary illuminates some of the myths surrounding its dual subjects: global warming and Al Gore". At Metacritic, which assigns a weighted average score out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics, the film has received an average score of 75, based on 32 reviews, indicating "generally favorable reviews".
Film critics Roger Ebert and Richard Roeper gave the film "two thumbs up". Ebert said, "In 39 years, I have never written these words in a movie review, but here they are: You owe it to yourself to see this film. If you do not, and you have grandchildren, you should explain to them why you decided not to," calling the film "horrifying, enthralling and [having] the potential, I believe, to actually change public policy and begin a process which could save the Earth."
New York Magazine critic David Edelstein called the film "One of the most realistic documentaries I've ever seen—and, dry as it is, one of the most devastating in its implications." The New Yorker David Remnick added that while it was "not the most entertaining film of the year ... it might be the most important" and a "brilliantly lucid, often riveting attempt to warn Americans off our hellbent path to global suicide."
The New York Times reviewer A. O. Scott thought the film was "edited crisply enough to keep it from feeling like 90 minutes of C-SPAN and shaped to give Mr. Gore's argument a real sense of drama," and "as unsettling as it can be," Scott continued, "it is also intellectually exhilarating, and, like any good piece of pedagogy, whets the appetite for further study."
Bright Lights Film Journal critic Jayson Harsin declared the film's aesthetic qualities groundbreaking, as a new genre of slideshow film.
NASA climatologist James Hansen described the film as powerful, complemented by detail in the book. Hansen said that "Gore has put together a coherent account of a complex topic that Americans desperately need to understand. The story is scientifically accurate and yet should be understandable to the public, a public that is less and less drawn to science." He added that with An Inconvenient Truth, "Al Gore may have done for global warming what Silent Spring did for pesticides. He will be attacked, but the public will have the information needed to distinguish our long-term well-being from short-term special interests."
In "extensive exit polling" of An Inconvenient Truth in "conservative suburban markets like Plano and Irvine (Orange County), as well as Dallas and Long Island", 92 percent rated "Truth" highly and 87 percent of the respondents said they'd recommend the film to a friend. University of Washington professor Michele Poff argued that Gore was successful in communicating to conservative-leaning audiences by framing the climate crisis as apolitical. "Gore's and the environment's identification with the Democratic Party posed a significant challenge to reaching Republicans and conservatives, as well as those disgruntled with politics in general," Poff wrote. "To appeal to such individuals, Gore framed the matter as distinctly apolitical – as an issue both outside politics and one that was crucial regardless of one's ideological leanings. These explicit attempts to frame the issue as apolitical take on further gravitas when we consider how Gore infused the film with reflections of conservative values. Indeed, Gore reached deeply into the value structure of American conservatives to highlight ideals that suggested his cause was not liberal, but rather was beyond politics, beyond ideology."
A small number of reviews criticized the film on scientific and political grounds. Journalist Ronald Bailey argued in the libertarian magazine Reason that although "Gore gets [the science] more right than wrong," he exaggerates the risks. MIT atmospheric physicist Richard S. Lindzen was vocally critical of the film, writing in a June 26, 2006 op-ed in The Wall Street Journal that Gore was using a biased presentation to exploit the fears of the public for his own political gain.
A few other reviewers were also skeptical of Gore's intent, wondering whether he was setting himself for another Presidential run. The Boston Globe writer Peter Canellos criticized the "gauzy biographical material that seems to have been culled from old Gore campaign commercials." Phil Hall of Film Threat gave the film a negative review, saying "An Inconvenient Truth is something you rarely see in movies today: a blatant intellectual fraud."
Others felt that Gore did not go far enough in depicting the threat Indigenous peoples faced with the dire consequences of climate change. "An Inconvenient Truth completely ignores the plight of Arctic indigenous peoples whose cultures and landscapes are facing profound changes produced by melting polar ice," argued environmental historian Finis Dunaway.
Accolades
An Inconvenient Truth has received many different awards worldwide. The film won two awards at the 79th Academy Awards: Best Documentary Feature and Best Original Song for Melissa Etheridge's "I Need to Wake Up". It is the first documentary to win 2 Oscars and the first to win a best original song Oscar. After winning the 2007 Academy Award for Documentary Feature, the Oscar was awarded to director Guggenheim, who asked Gore to join him and other members of the crew on stage. Gore then gave a brief speech, saying:
For Gore's wide-reaching efforts to draw the world's attention to the dangers of global warming which is centerpieced in the film, Al Gore, along with the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), won the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize. Gore also received the Prince of Asturias Prize in 2007 for international cooperation. The related album, which featured the voices of Beau Bridges, Cynthia Nixon and Blair Underwood, also won Best Spoken Word Album at the 51st Grammy Awards.
The film received numerous other accolades, including a special recognition from the Humanitas Prize, the first time the organization had handed out a Special Award in over 10 years, the 2007 Stanley Kramer Award from The Producers Guild of America, which recognizes "work that dramatically illustrates provocative social issues" and the President's Award 2007 from the Society for Technical Communication "for demonstrating that effective and understandable technical communication, when coupled with passion and vision, has the power to educate—and change—the world."
The film won many other awards for Best Documentary:
Impact
[[File:20200112 "Climate crisis" vs "Climate emergency" - Google search term usage.png |thumb | Google Trends data shows that, following the 2006 release of An Inconvenient Truth, there was an increase in the number of Google searches for the term climate crisis, which Gore often used instead of the more neutral climate change. Also graphed: searches for climate emergency.]]
The documentary has been generally well-received politically in many parts of the world and is credited for raising further awareness of global warming internationally. The film inspired producer Kevin Wall to conceive the 2007 Live Earth festival and influenced Italian composer Giorgio Battistelli to write an operatic adaptation, entitled "CO2," premiering at La Scala in Milan in 2015.
According to the Encyclopædia Britannica, in response to the documentary, "Pro-industry conservative politicians and their supporters (many of whom saw global warming as a hoax designed to bilk taxpayers out of their money) lined up on one side, while scientists and more-liberal politicians (who pressed that global warming was among the most important issues humanity would face) teamed up on the other", adding that "Most remember the film as part motivational science lecture with slick graphics and part self-reflection."
Activism
Following the film, Gore founded The Climate Reality Project in 2006 which trained 1,000 activists to give Gore's presentation in their communities. Presently, the group has 3,500 presenters worldwide. An additional initiative was launched in 2010, called "Inconvenient Youth". "'Inconvenient Youth' is built on the belief that teens can help lead efforts to solve the climate crisis," said Gore. The project was inspired by Mary Doerr, a 16-year-old who trained as presenter for the organization.
University of Scranton professor Jessica Nolan found in a 2010 study published for Environment and Behavior that people became more informed and concerned about climate change right after seeing the film but that these concerns did not translate into changed behavior a month later. On the contrary, in a 2011 paper published in the Journal of Environmental Economics and Management, University of Oregon professor Grant Jacobsen found in the two months following the release of the film, zip codes within a 10-mile (16 km) radius of a zip code where the film was shown experienced a 50 percent relative increase in the purchase of voluntary carbon offsets.
Public opinion
In a July 2007 47-country Internet survey conducted by The Nielsen Company and Oxford University, 66% of those respondents who said they had seen An Inconvenient Truth stated that it had "changed their mind" about global warming and 89% said it had made them more aware of the problem. Three out of four (74%) said they had changed some of their habits because of seeing the film.
Governmental reactions
Then-President George W. Bush, when asked whether he would watch the film, responded: "Doubt it." "New technologies will change how we live and how we drive our cars, which all will have the beneficial effect of improving the environment," Bush said. "And in my judgment we need to set aside whether or not greenhouse gases have been caused by mankind or because of natural effects and focus on the technologies that will enable us to live better lives and at the same time protect the environment". Gore responded that "The entire global scientific community has a consensus on the question that human beings are responsible for global warming and he [Bush] has today again expressed personal doubt that that is true." White House deputy press secretary Dana Perino stated that "The president noted in 2001 the increase in temperatures over the past 100 years and that the increase in greenhouse gases was due to a certain extent to human activity".
Several United States Senators screened the film. New Mexico Democratic Senator Jeff Bingaman and Nevada Democratic Senator Harry Reid saw the movie at its Washington premiere at the National Geographic Society. New Mexico Democratic Senator Tom Udall planned to see the film saying "It's such a powerful statement because of the way the movie is put together, I tell everybody, Democrat or Republican, they've got to go see this movie." Former New Mexico Republican Senator Pete Domenici thought Gore's prominence on the global warming issue made it more difficult to get a consensus in Congress. Bingaman disputed this saying, "It seems to me we were having great difficulty recruiting Republican members of Congress to support a bill before Al Gore came up with this movie."
Oklahoma Republican Senator Jim Inhofe, then-chairman of the Senate Environment and Public Works Committee, said that he did not plan to see the film (which he appears in), and compared it to Adolf Hitler's book Mein Kampf. "If you say the same lie over and over again, and particularly if you have the media's support, people will believe it," Inhofe said, adding that he thought Gore was trying to use the issue to run for president again in 2008. In contrast to Inhofe, Arizona Republican Senator John McCain, did not criticize Gore's efforts or the movie, which he planned to see. Tennessee Republican Senator Lamar Alexander, said "Because (Gore) was a former vice president and presidential nominee, he brings a lot of visibility to (the issue)," Alexander said. "On the other hand it may be seen as political by some, and they may be less eager to be a part of it." Alexander also criticized the omission of nuclear power in the film. "Maybe it needs a sequel: 'An Inconvenient Truth 2: Nuclear Power.'"
In September 2006, Gore traveled to Sydney, Australia to promote the film. Then-Australian Prime Minister John Howard said he would not meet with Gore or agree to Kyoto because of the movie: "I don't take policy advice from films." Former Opposition Leader Kim Beazley joined Gore for a viewing and other MPs attended a special screening at Parliament House earlier in the week. After winning the general election a year later, Prime Minister Kevin Rudd ratified Kyoto in his first week of office, leaving the United States the only industrialized nation in the world not to have signed the treaty.
In the United Kingdom, Conservative party leader and future Prime Minister David Cameron urged people to watch the film in order to understand climate change. In Belgium, activist Margaretha Guidone persuaded the entire Belgian government to see the film.
200 politicians and political staff accepted her invitation, among whom were Belgian prime minister Guy Verhofstadt and Minister-President of Flanders, Yves Leterme. In Costa Rica, the film was screened by president Óscar Arias. Arias's subsequent championing of the climate change issue was greatly influenced by the film.
Industry and business
The Competitive Enterprise Institute released pro-carbon dioxide television ads in preparation for the film's release in May 2006. The ads featured a little girl blowing a dandelion with the tagline, "Carbon dioxide. They call it pollution. We call it life."
In August 2006, The Wall Street Journal revealed that a YouTube video lampooning Gore and the movie, titled Al Gore's Penguin Army, appeared to be "astroturfing" by DCI Group, a Washington public relations firm.
Use in education
Several colleges and high schools have featured the film in science curricula. In Germany, German Environment Minister Sigmar Gabriel bought 6,000 DVDs of An Inconvenient Truth to make it available to German schools. Prime Minister José Luis Rodríguez Zapatero distributed 30000 copies to the Spanish schools in October 2007. In Burlington, Ontario, Canada, the Halton District School Board made An Inconvenient Truth available at schools and as an educational resource.
In the United Kingdom
As part of a nationwide "Sustainable Schools Year of Action" launched in late 2006, the UK Government, Welsh Assembly Government and Scottish Executive announced between January–March 2007 that copies of An Inconvenient Truth would be sent to all their secondary schools. The film was placed into the science curriculum for fourth and sixth-year students in Scotland as a joint initiative between Learning and Teaching Scotland and Scottish Power.
Dimmock case
In May 2007, Stewart Dimmock—a school governor from Kent, England and member of the right-wing New Party—challenged the UK Government's distribution of the film in a lawsuit, Dimmock v Secretary of State for Education and Skills, with help from political ally and New Party founder Viscount Monckton, who notably pointed out "35 serious scientific errors". The plaintiffs sought an injunction preventing the screening of the film in English schools, arguing that by law schools are forbidden to promote partisan political views and, when dealing with political issues, are required to provide a balanced presentation of opposing views.
On October 10, 2007, High Court Justice Michael Burton, after explaining that the requirement for a balanced presentation does not warrant that equal weight be given to alternative views of a mainstream view, ruled that it was clear that the film was substantially founded upon scientific research and fact, albeit that the science had been used, in the hands of a "talented politician and communicator", to make a political statement and to support a political program. The judge ruled that An Inconvenient Truth contained nine scientific errors and thus must be accompanied by an explanation of those errors before being shown to school children. The judge said that showing the film without the explanations of error would be a violation of education laws.
The judge concluded "I have no doubt that Dr Stott, the Defendant's expert, is right when he says that: 'Al Gore's presentation of the causes and likely effects of climate change in the film was broadly accurate.'" On the basis of testimony from Robert M. Carter and the arguments put forth by the claimant's lawyers, the judge also pointed to nine "errors", i.e. statements the truth of which he did not rule on, but that he found to depart from the mainstream scientific positions on global warming. He also found that some of these departures from the mainstream arose in the context of alarmism and exaggeration in support of political theses. Since the government had already accepted to amend the guidance notes to address these along with other points in a fashion that the judge found satisfactory, no order was made on the application.
Government Minister of Children, Young People and Families, Kevin Brennan stated: "We have updated the accompanying guidance, as requested by the judge to make it clearer for teachers as to the stated Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change position on a number of scientific points raised in the film." Plaintiff Dimmock complained that "no amount of turgid guidance" could change his view that the film was unsuitable for the classroom.
In the United States
In January 2007, the Federal Way (Washington State) School Board voted to require an approval by the principal and the superintendent for teachers to show the film to students and that the teachers must include the presentation of an approved "opposing view". The moratorium was repealed, at a meeting on January 23, after a predominantly negative community reaction. Shortly thereafter, the school board in Yakima, Washington, calling the film a "controversial issue", prevented the Environmental Club of Eisenhower High School from showing it, pending review by the school board, teachers, principal, and parents. It lifted the stay a month later, upon the approval by a review panel.
National Science Teachers Association
In the United States, 50,000 free copies of An Inconvenient Truth were offered to the National Science Teachers Association (NSTA), which declined to take them. Producer David provided an email correspondence from the NSTA detailing that their reasoning was that the DVDs would place "unnecessary risk upon the [NSTA] capital campaign, especially certain targeted supporters," and that they saw "little, if any, benefit to NSTA or its members" in accepting the free DVDs. In public, the NSTA argued that distributing this film to its members would have been contrary to a long-standing NSTA policy against distributing unsolicited materials to its members. The NSTA also said that they had offered several other options for distributing the film but ultimately "[it] appears that these alternative distribution mechanisms were unsatisfactory."
David has said that NSTA Executive Director Gerry Wheeler promised in a telephone conversation to explore alternatives with NSTA's board for advertising the film but she had not yet received an alternative offer at the time of NSTA's public claim. She also said that she rejected their subsequent offers because they were nothing more than offers to sell their "commercially available member mailing list" and advertising space in their magazine and newsletter, which are available to anyone. The American Association for the Advancement of Science publication ScienceNOW published an assessment discussing both sides of the NSTA decision in which it was reported that "David says NSTA's imprimatur was essential and that buying a mailing list is a nonstarter. 'You don't want to send out a cold letter, and it costs a lot of money,' she says. 'There are a thousand reasons why that wouldn't work.'"
A The Washington Post editorial called the decision "Science a la Joe Camel", citing for example that the NSTA had received $6 million since 1996 from ExxonMobil, which had a representative on the organization's corporate board. David noted that in the past, NSTA had shipped out 20,000 copies of a 10-part video produced by Wheeler with funding provided by ConocoPhillips in 2003. NSTA indicated that they retained editorial control over the content, which David questioned based on the point of view portrayed in the global warming section of the video.
In New Zealand
Former ACT New Zealand Member of Parliament Muriel Newman filed a petition to have New Zealand schoolchildren be protected from political indoctrination by putting provisions that resembled those in the UK to the Education Act. The petition was in response to concerned parents who talked with Newman after An Inconvenient Truth was shown in schools in 2007. The parents were apparently worried that teachers were not pointing out supposed inaccuracies in the film and were not explaining differing viewpoints.
Music An Inconvenient Truth was scored by Michael Brook with an accompanying theme song played during the end credits by Melissa Etheridge. Brook explained that he wanted to bring out the emotion expressed in the film: "... in An Inconvenient Truth, there's a lot of information and it's kind of a lecture, in a way, and very well organized and very well presented, but it's a lot to absorb. And the director, Guggenheim, wanted to have – sort of give people a little break every once in a while and say, okay, you don't have to absorb this information, you can just sort of – and it was more the personal side of Al Gore's life or how it connected to the theme of the film. And that's when there's music."
Etheridge agreed to write An Inconvenient Truth theme song, "I Need to Wake Up" after viewing Gore's slide show. "I was so honored he would ask me to contribute to a project that is so powerful and so important, I felt such a huge responsibility," she said. "Then I went, 'What am I going to write? What am I going to say?' " Etheridge's former partner, Tammy Lynn Michaels, told her: "Write what you feel, because that's what people are going to feel." Of Etheridge's commitment to the project, Gore said, "Melissa is a rare soul who gives a lot of time and effort to causes in which she strongly believes." Etheridge received the 2006 Academy Award for Best Original Song for "I Need to Wake Up." Upon receiving the award, she noted in her acceptance speech:
Book and documentary
Gore's book of the same title was published concurrently with the theatrical release of the documentary. The book contains additional information, scientific analysis, and Gore's commentary on the issues presented in the documentary. A 2007 documentary entitled An Update with Former Vice President Al Gore features Gore discussing additional information that came to light after the film was completed, such as Hurricane Katrina, coral reef depletion, glacial earthquake activity on the Greenland ice sheet, wildfires, and trapped methane gas release associated with permafrost melting.
Sequel
When asked during a Reddit "Ask Me Anything" in October 2013 whether there were plans for a follow-up film, Guggenheim said, "I think about it a lot – I think we need one right now." In 2014, The Hollywood Reporter reported that the producers of the film were in talks over a possible sequel. "We have had conversations," co-producer Bender said. "We've met; we've discussed. If we are going to make a movie, we want it to have an impact." Co-producer David also believed a sequel was needed. "God, do we need one," David said. "Everything in that movie has come to pass. At the time we did the movie, there was Hurricane Katrina; now we have extreme weather events every other week. The update has to be incredible and shocking."
In December 2016, Al Gore announced that a follow-up to An Inconvenient Truth would open at the 2017 Sundance Film Festival. The film was screened in the Climate section, a new section for films featuring themes of climate and the environment. It was released by Paramount on July 28, 2017.
See also
CO2 (opera) Human impact on the environment
Hurricane Katrina
Extinction risk from climate change
Racing Extinction Catching the Sun''
References
External links
official website
2006 documentary films
2006 films
2006 in the environment
Al Gore
American documentary films
Best Documentary Feature Academy Award winners
Documentary films about global warming
Films adapted into operas
Films directed by Davis Guggenheim
Films produced by Lawrence Bender
Films produced by Scott Z. Burns
Films scored by Michael Brook
Films that won the Best Original Song Academy Award
Paramount Vantage films
Participant (company) films
2000s English-language films
2000s American films |
4099213 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20nursing%20schools%20in%20the%20United%20States | List of nursing schools in the United States | This is a list of nursing schools in the United States of America, sorted by state. A nursing school is a school that teaches people how to be nurses (medical professionals who care for individuals, families, or communities in order to attain or maintain health and quality of life).
Alabama
Alaska
University of Alaska Anchorage School of Nursing, Anchorage
Arizona
Arizona College, Mesa
Arizona State University, Phoenix
Arizona Western College, Yuma
Brookline College School of Nursing, Phoenix
Brown Mackie College, Phoenix
Carrington College, Phoenix
Central Arizona College, Coolidge
Chamberlain College of Nursing, Phoenix
Chandler-Gilbert Community College, Chandler
Cochise Community College, Sierra Vista
Coconino Community College, Flagstaff
Eastern Arizona College, Thatcher
Estrella Mountain Community College, Avondale
Everest College, Phoenix
GateWay Community College, Phoenix
Glendale Community College, Glendale
Grand Canyon University, Phoenix
ITT Technical Institute, Phoenix
Mesa Community College, Mesa
Mohave Community College, Lake Havasu City
Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff
Northland Pioneer College, Holbrook
Paradise Valley Community College, Phoenix
Phoenix College, Phoenix
Pima Community College, Tucson
Pima Medical Institute, Mesa and Tucson
Scottsdale Community College, Scottsdale
University of Arizona, Tucson
University of Phoenix, Phoenix
Yavapai College, Prescott
Arkansas
Arkansas State University School of Nursing, Jonesboro
Baptist Health School of Nursing, Little Rock
Jefferson Regional Medical Center School of Nursing, Pine Bluff
Southeast Arkansas College Allied Health & Nursing, Pine Bluff
University of Arkansas at Monticello, Monticello
University of Arkansas at Pine Bluff School of Nursing, Pine Bluff
University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences College of Nursing, Little Rock
University of Central Arkansas, Conway
California
American National University, eUniversity California
Azusa Pacific University School of Nursing, Azusa
California Baptist University College of Nursing, Riverside
California State University, Bakersfield Department of Nursing, Bakersfield
California State University, Chico
California State University, Dominguez Hills School of Nursing, Carson
California State University, East Bay
California State University, Fresno
California State University, Fullerton School of Nursing, Fullerton
California State University, Long Beach School of Nursing, Long Beach
California State University, Los Angeles School of Nursing, Los Angeles
California State University, Northridge
California State University, Sacramento
California State University, San Bernardino Department of Nursing, San Bernardino
California State University, Stanislaus
Chaffey College Nursing Program, Rancho Cucamonga
Chamberlain University, Rancho Cordova, California
East Los Angeles Community College, Monterey Park
Glendale Community College, Glendale
Loma Linda University School of Nursing, Loma Linda
Los Angeles City College, Los Angeles
Los Angeles County College of Nursing and Allied Health, Los Angeles
Los Angeles Trade Technical College, Los Angeles
Mount St. Mary's College Department of Nursing, Los Angeles
Mount San Antonio College, Walnut
Pasadena City College, Pasadena
Rio Hondo College, Whittier
Riverside City College School of Nursing, Riverside
Samuel Merritt University, Oakland
San Bernardino Valley College Nursing Department, San Bernardino
San Diego State University College of Health & Human Services School of Nursing, San Diego
San Francisco State University
San José State University
Sonoma State University, Rohnert Park
University of California, Davis School of Nursing, Sacramento
University of California, Irvine Sue and Bill Gross School of Nursing
University of California, Los Angeles School of Nursing, Los Angeles
University of California, San Francisco School of Nursing, San Francisco
University of San Francisco
University of Southern California Keck School of Medicine
Victor Valley College, Victorville
West Coast University
West Hills College Lemoore, Lemoore
Western University of Health Sciences College of Graduate Nursing, Pomona
Colorado
Adams State University, Alamosa
American National University, eUniversity Colorado
Beth-El College of Nursing & Health Sciences, Colorado Springs
Colorado State University–Pueblo
Denver School of Nursing
Regis University, Denver
University of Colorado Denver College of Nursing, Aurora
University of Northern Colorado, Greeley
Connecticut
American National University, eUniversity Connecticut
Central Connecticut State University, New Britain
Fairfield University School of Nursing, Fairfield
Quinnipiac University, Hamden
Sacred Heart University, Fairfield
St. Vincent's College, Bridgeport
Southern Connecticut State University, New Haven
University of Connecticut School of Nursing, Storrs
University of Saint Joseph, West Hartford
Western Connecticut State University, Danbury
Yale School of Nursing, New Haven
Delaware
Beebe School of Nursing, Lewes
Delaware State University, Dover
Delaware Technical Community College, Georgetown, Dover, and Stanton
University of Delaware, Newark
Florida
Adventist University of Health Sciences, Orlando
American National University, eUniversity Florida
Barry University (BSN), Miami Shores
Florida Atlantic University (BSN, MSN, DNP, & Ph.D.), Boca Raton
Florida Education Institute (ASN, LPN), Miami
Florida International University (BSN), University Park
Hillsborough Community College (ADN), Hillsborough County
Jacksonville University (BSN, MSN), Jacksonville
Keiser University (ADN), Jacksonville and multiple other campuses
Mercy Hospital College of Nursing (ASN), Miami
Nova Southeastern University (BSN, MSN), Davie
Polk State College (ADN), Winter Haven
Rasmussen College (ADN, BSN), Fort Myers
Santa Fe College (ASN, RN-BSN), Gainesville
State College of Florida, Manatee-Sarasota, (ASN, BSN), Bradenton
St. Johns River State College (ASN), Orange Park and Palatka
St. Petersburg College (BSN), St. Petersburg
Southwest Florida Technical Institute (CNA, LPN, RN, BSN), Bradenton
South University (BSN), Tampa and West Palm Beach
University of Central Florida (BSN), Orlando
University of Florida College of Nursing (BSN, RN-BSN, MSN, DNP, and Ph.D.), Gainesville
University of Miami (BSN, MSN, DNP, Ph.D.), Coral Gables
University of South Florida (BSN, MSN), Tampa
University of Tampa (BSN, MSN), Tampa
University of West Florida (BSN), Pensacola
Utica University (accelerated BSN), St. Petersburg
Georgia
Abraham Baldwin Agricultural College Division of Nursing and Health Sciences, Tifton
Albany State University Darton College of Health Professions, Albany
Armstrong Atlantic State University Department of Nursing, Savannah
Athens Technical College Associate Degree Nursing Program, Athens
Augusta State University Department of Nursing, Augusta
Brenau University Department of Nursing, Gainesville
Clayton State University School of Health Sciences Department of Nursing, Morrow
Coastal Georgia Community College Department of Nursing, Brunswick
Columbus State University Department of Nursing, Columbus
Columbus Technical College Associate Degree Nursing, Columbus
Dalton State College Nursing Department, Dalton
Emory University, Nell Hodgson Woodruff School of Nursing, Atlanta
Floyd College Division of Nursing Education, Rome
Georgia Baptist College of Nursing of Mercer University, Atlanta
Georgia College and State University School of Health Sciences, Milledgeville
Georgia Gwinnett College School of Health Sciences, Lawrenceville
Georgia Perimeter College Associate Degree Nursing Department, Clarkston
Georgia Regents University College of Nursing, Augusta (satellite campuses in Athens and Columbus)
Georgia Southern University School of Nursing, Statesboro
Georgia Southwestern State University School of Nursing, Americus
Georgia State University, Byrdine F. Lewis School of Nursing and Health Professions, Atlanta
Gordon College Division of Nursing and Health Sciences, Barnesville
Kennesaw State University Wellstar School of Nursing, Kennesaw
LaGrange College Division of Nursing, LaGrange
Middle Georgia State University Department of Nursing, Cochran and Division of Nursing, Macon
North Georgia College and State University Department of Nursing, Dahlonega
Northwestern Technical College Associate Degree Nursing Program, Rock Spring
Piedmont University R. H. Daniel School of Nursing, Demorest
South Georgia College Division of Nursing, Douglas
Southwest Georgia Technical College Associate Degree Nursing Program, Thomasville
Thomas University Department of Nursing, Thomasville
University of West Georgia Department of Nursing, Carrollton
Valdosta State University College of Nursing, Valdosta
West Central Technical College Associate Degree Nursing Program, Waco
Hawaii
Chaminade University of Honolulu School of Nursing, Honolulu
Hawaii Community College Division of Nursing and Allied Health, Hilo
Hawaii Pacific University, Honolulu
Kapiolani Community College Nursing Program, Honolulu]
Kauai Community College Nursing Program, Līhu'e
Maui Community College Nursing Career Ladder, Kahului
Idaho
Boise State University, Boise
Brigham Young University–Idaho, Rexburg
College of Eastern Idaho, Idaho Falls, Idaho
College of Southern Idaho, Twin Falls
College of Western Idaho, Nampa, Idaho
Idaho State University, Pocatello
Lewis–Clark State College, Lewiston
North Idaho College, Coeur d' Alene, Idaho
Illinois
ATS Institute of Technology, Chicago
Aurora University, Aurora
Bradley University, Peoria
Capitol Area School of Nursing, Springfield
Chamberlain College of Nursing, Downers Grove, Illinois
DePaul University Department of Nursing, Chicago
Elgin Community College Nursing Program, Elgin
Graham Hospital School of Nursing, Canton
Harper College Nursing Program, Palatine
Harry S Truman College, Chicago
Heartland Community College, Bloomington
Lewis University Online, Romeoville
Loyola University Chicago
Mennonite College of Nursing at Illinois State University, Normal
Millikin University, Decatur
North Park University, Chicago
Northbrook College of Health Care, Wheeling
Northern Illinois University, DeKalb
Omega Health Care Technical School, Evanston
PCCTI, Chicago
Prairie State College, Chicago Heights
Resurrection University, Chicago
Richland Community College, Decatur
Saint Anthony College of Nursing, Rockford
Saint Francis Medical Center College of Nursing, Peoria
Saint Xavier University, Chicago
St. John's College of Nursing, Springfield
South Suburban College, South Holland
Southern Illinois University Edwardsville, Edwardsville
University of Illinois at Chicago
Indiana
Ball State University School of Nursing, Muncie
Goshen College Nursing Department, Goshen
Indiana State University, Terre Haute
Indiana University, Bloomington
Indiana University, Kokomo
Indiana University East, Richmond
Indiana University Northwest, Gary
Indiana University-Purdue University, Indianapolis
Marian University School of Nursing, Indianapolis
Purdue University, West Lafayette
Saint Mary's College Nursing School, Notre Dame
University of Indianapolis School of Nursing, Indianapolis
University of Southern Indiana College of Nursing, Evansville
Valparaiso University College of Nursing, Valparaiso
University of Saint Francis School of Nursing, Fort Wayne
Iowa
Allen College School of Nursing, Waterloo
Des Moines Area Community College School of Nursing, Ankeny
Luther College Nursing Program, Decorah
Mercy College of Health Sciences College of Nursing, Des Moines
Signature Healthcare, Des Moines
University of Iowa College of Nursing, Iowa City
Kansas
Baker University School of Nursing, Baldwin City
Barton Community College, Great Bend
Benedictine College, Department of Nursing, Atchison
Bethel College, North Newton
Butler Community College, El Dorado
Cloud County Community College, Nursing Department, Concordia
Coffeyville Community College, Coffeyville
Colby Community College, Department of Nursing, Colby
Dodge City Community College, Dodge City
Donnelly College, Kansas City
Emporia State University, Department of Nursing, Emporia
Fort Hays State University, Department of Nursing, Hays
Fort Scott Community College, Nursing Department, Fort Scott
Garden City Community College, Garden City
Hesston College, Hesston
Highland Community College Technical Center, Atchison
Hutchinson Community College, Hutchinson
Johnson County Community College School of Nursing, Overland Park
Kansas City Kansas Community College, Division of Allied Health & Nursing, Kansas City
Kansas Wesleyan University, Division of Nursing Education and Health Science, Salina
Labette Community College, Nursing Department, Parsons
Manhattan Area Technical College, Manhattan
MidAmerica Nazarene University, School of Nursing, Olathe
Neosho County Community College, Mary Grimes School of Nursing, Chanute and Ottawa
Newman University, School of Nursing and Allied Health, Wichita
North Central Kansas Technical College, Hays
Ottawa University, RN to BSN, Ottawa
Pittsburg State University School of Nursing, Pittsburg
Pratt Community College, Pratt
Rasmussen University, Overland Park
Salina Area Technical College, Salina
Seward County Community College, Liberal
Southwestern College Professional Studies, RN to BSN, Wichita
University of Kansas School of Nursing, Kansas City
University of Saint Mary, Division of Nursing, Leavenworth
Washburn University School of Nursing, Topeka
Wichita State University School of Nursing, Wichita
Kentucky
American National University, Pikeville
University of Pikeville, Pikeville
Big Sandy Community and Technical College, Prestonsburg
Galen College of Nursing, Louisville
Northern Kentucky University Department of Nursing, Highland Heights
Eastern Kentucky University Department of Nursing, Richmond
Spalding University School of Nursing, Louisville
University of Kentucky College of Nursing, Lexington
University of Louisville School of Nursing, Louisville
Western Kentucky University Department of Nursing, Bowling Green
Louisiana
Baton Rouge Community College, Baton Rouge
Baton Rouge General Hospital School of Nursing (Diploma in Nursing), Baton Rouge
Bossier Parish Community College, Bossier City
Delgado Community College Charity Hospital School of Nursing (now called Charity-Delgado) (ADN), New Orleans
Dillard University Division of Nursing (BSN), New Orleans
Fletcher Technical Community College, Houma
Grambling State University School of Nursing (BSN, MSN), Grambling
Louisiana Christian University Division of Nursing, Pineville
Louisiana Delta Community College, Monroe
Louisiana State University at Alexandria, Alexandria
Louisiana State University at Eunice School of Nursing (ADN), Eunice
Louisiana State University Health Science Center, School of Nursing, New Orleans
Louisiana Tech University, Ruston
Loyola University School of Nursing (BSN, MSN), New Orleans
McNeese State University College of Nursing (BSN, MSN), Lake Charles
Nicholls State University, Thibodaux
Northwestern State University College of Nursing, Natchitoches and Shreveport
Our Lady of Holy Cross College School of Nursing, New Orleans
Our Lady of the Lake University, Baton Rouge
Southeastern Louisiana University School of Nursing, Hammond
Southern University and A&M College, Baton Rouge
Southern University at Shreveport School of Nursing, Shreveport
University of Louisiana at Lafayette School of Nursing, Lafayette
University of Louisiana at Monroe School of Nursing, Monroe
William Carey University, Joseph and Nancy Fail School of Nursing, New Orleans
Maine
Central Maine Community College, Auburn
Central Maine Medical Center College of Nursing and Health Professions, Lewiston
Eastern Maine Community College, Bangor
Husson University, Bangor
Kennebec Valley Community College, Fairfield
Maine College of Health Professions, Lewiston
Northern Maine Community College, Presque Isle
Saint Joseph's College of Maine, Standish
Southern Maine Community College, South Portland
University of Maine School of Nursing, Orono
University of Maine at Augusta, Augusta
University of Maine at Fort Kent, Fort Kent
University of New England, Biddeford and Portland
University of Southern Maine School of Nursing, Portland and Lewiston
Maryland
Bachelor's degree programs or higher:
Bowie State University Bachelor's degree Nursing Program, Bowie
Coppin State University Bachelor's degree Nursing Program, Baltimore
Hood College, Bachelor's degree Nursing Program, Frederick
Johns Hopkins School of Nursing Second Degree Bachelor/Master/Doctorate Degree Nursing Program, Baltimore
Morgan State University Bachelor's degree Nursing Program, Baltimore
Notre Dame of Maryland University Bachelor's degree Nursing Program, Baltimore
Salisbury University Bachelor/Master's degree Nursing Program, Salisbury
Stevenson University Bachelor/Master's degree Nursing Program, Stevenson
Towson University Bachelor/Master's degree Nursing Program, Towson
University of Maryland at Baltimore Bachelor/Master/Doctorate Degree Nursing Program, Baltimore
Washington Adventist University Bachelor's degree Nursing Program, Takoma Park
Associate degree programs:
Allegany College of Maryland, Associate Degree Nursing Program, Cumberland
Anne Arundel Community College Associate Degree Nursing Program, Arnold
Baltimore City Community College Associate Degree Nursing Program, Baltimore
Carroll Community College Associate Degree Nursing Program, Westminster
Cecil College, Associate Degree Nursing Program, North East
Chesapeake College Associate Degree Nursing Program, Wye Mills
College of Southern Maryland Associate Degree Nursing Program, La Plata
Community College of Baltimore County Associate Degree Nursing Program, Essex and Catonsville
Frederick Community College, Associate Degree Nursing Program, Frederick
Hagerstown Community College, Associate Degree Nursing Program, Hagerstown
Harford Community College Associate Degree Nursing Program, Bel Air
Howard Community College, Associate Degree Nursing Program, Columbia
Montgomery College Associate Degree Nursing Program, Takoma Park/Silver Spring
Prince George's Community College Associate Degree Nursing Program, Largo
Wor-Wic Community College Associate Degree Nursing Program, Salisbury
Massachusetts
Anna Maria College, Paxton
Becker College, Worcester
Boston College Connell School of Nursing, Boston
Brockton Hospital School of Nursing/Fisher College
Curry College, Milton
Elms College, Chicopee
Emmanuel College, Boston
Endicott College, Beverly
Framingham State University. Framingham
Fitchburg State University, Fitchburg
Holyoke Community College, Holyoke
Lawrence Memorial/Regis College Nursing Program, Medford
Massachusetts Bay Community College, Wellesley
MGH Institute of Health Professions, Boston
Mount Wachusett Community College, Nursing Department, Gardner
Northeastern University Bouvé College of Health Sciences, Boston
Quinsigamond Community College, Worcester
Regis College School of Nursing, Science and Health Professions, Weston
Salem State University, Salem
Simmons College, Boston
Springfield Technical Community College, Springfield
University of Massachusetts
Amherst
Boston
Dartmouth
Lowell
Graduate School of Nursing (Worcester)
Worcester State University, Worcester
Michigan
Eastern Michigan University College of Health and Human Services School of Nursing, Ypsilanti
Grand Valley State University Kirkhof College of Nursing, Allendale
Kirtland Community College, Roscommon
Lake Superior State University School of Nursing, Sault Sainte Marie
Macomb Community College, Warren
Michigan State University College of Nursing, East Lansing
Mid Michigan Community College, Harrison
Northern Michigan University School of Nursing, Marquette
Oakland Community College, Waterford
Oakland University School of Nursing, Rochester
University of Detroit Mercy College of Health Professions McAuley School of Nursing, Detroit
University of Michigan School of Nursing, Ann Arbor
Washtenaw Community College, Ann Arbor
Wayne State University College of Nursing, Detroit
Western Michigan University Bronson School of Nursing, Kalamazoo
Minnesota
Alexandria Technical College Associate Degree Nursing Program, Alexandria
Anoka-Ramsey Community College Associate Degree Nursing Program, Coon Rapids
Bemidji State University Baccalaureate Nursing Program Department of Nursing, Bemidji
Bethel University Nursing Department, St. Paul
Central Lakes College Associate Degree Nursing Program, Brainerd
College of St. Benedict/St. John's University Department of Nursing, St. Joseph
College of St. Catherine Associate Degree Nursing Program, Minneapolis
College of St. Catherine Department of Nursing, St. Paul
The College of St. Scholastica Department of Nursing, Duluth
Concordia College, Moorhead Nursing Program, Moorhead
Crown College Baccalaureate Nursing Program, St. Bonifacius
Fond du Lac Tribal and Community College/Lake Superior College Nursing Program, Cloquet
Gustavus Adolphus College and St. Olaf College Minnesota Intercollegiate Nursing Consortium
Northfield
St. Peter
Hibbing Community College Program in Nursing, Hibbing
Itasca Community College, Grand Rapids
Rainy River Community College, International Falls
Vermilion Community College, Ely
Inver Hills-Century Colleges Associate Degree Nursing Program
Century College, White Bear Lake
Inver Hills Community College, Inver Grove Heights
Lake Superior College Associate Degree Nursing Program, Duluth
Metropolitan State University School of Nursing, St. Paul
Minneapolis Community and Technical College Associate Degree Nursing Program, Minneapolis
Minnesota State College Southeast - Southeast Technical Associate in Science - Nursing Mobility Program (RN)
Red Wing Satellite site, Red Wing
Winona Campus, Winona
Minnesota State Community and Technical College Associate Degree Nursing Program
Detroit Lakes
Fergus Falls
Moorhead
Wadena
Minnesota State University, Mankato School of Nursing, Mankato
Minnesota State University Moorhead Baccalaureate Nursing Program, Moorhead
Minnesota West Community and Technical College Associate Degree Nursing
Pipestone
Worthington
Normandale Community College Nursing Program, Bloomington
North Hennepin Community College Nursing Program
Brooklyn Park
St. Cloud
Northland Community and Technical College Associate in Science Degree - Nursing Program
East Grand Forks
Thief River Falls
Owatonna College and University Center, Owatonna
Pine Technical College, Pine City
Presentation College (South Dakota) Baccalaureate Nursing Program
Aberdeen, South Dakota
Fairmont
Richfield Campus-Globe University/Minnesota School of Business Bachelor of Science in Nursing Program (BSN), Richfield
Ridgewater College Associate Degree Nursing Program
Hutchinson
Willmar
Riverland Community College Associate Degree Nursing Program
Albert Lea
Austin
Rochester Community and Technical College Associate Degree Nursing Program, Rochester
St. Cloud State University Department of Nursing Science, St. Cloud
South Central College Associate Degree Nursing Program
Faribault
North Mankato
University of Minnesota School of Nursing, Minneapolis
University of Minnesota Rochester, Rochester
White Earth Tribal and Community College, Mahnomen
Winona State University College of Nursing and Health Sciences Department of Nursing
Rochester
Winona
Mississippi
Delta State University, Cleveland
Mississippi College, Clinton
Mississippi Gulf Coast Community College, multiple locations
Mississippi University for Women, Columbus
University of Mississippi Medical Center, Jackson
University of Southern Mississippi, Hattiesburg
Alcorn State University, Lorman
Missouri
Avila University School of Nursing - College of Science & Health, Kansas City
Columbia College Nursing Department, Columbia
Crowder College, Neosho
Cox College, Springfield
East Central College, Union
Goldfarb School of Nursing at Barnes-Jewish College, St. Louis
Hannibal–LaGrange University Craigmiles School of Nursing, Hannibal
Jefferson College, Hillsboro
Lincoln University, Fort Leonard Wood
Maryville University School of Nursing, St. Louis
Metropolitan Community College Penn Valley, Kansas City
Mineral Area College, Park Hills
Missouri State University School of Nursing, West Plains
Moberly Area Community College, Moberly
North Central Missouri College, Trenton and Maryville
Ozarks Technical Community College, Springfield
Research College of Nursing, Kansas City
Rockhurst University Saint Luke's College of Nursing and Health Sciences, Kansas City
Southeast Missouri Hospital College of Nursing and Health Sciences, Cape Girardeau
Southwest Baptist University College of Health Professions, Springfield
St. Charles Community College, St. Peters
St. Louis Community College, St. Louis
State Fair Community College, Sedalia
State Technical College of Missouri, Linn
University of Missouri Sinclair School of Nursing, Columbia
University of Missouri–Kansas City School of Nursing, Kansas City
University of Missouri–St. Louis School of Nursing, St. Louis
Three Rivers College, Poplar Bluff
Truman State University School of Nursing, Kirksville
Montana
Carroll College, Helena
Montana State University College of Nursing, Bozeman
Salish Kootenai College, Pablo
Nebraska
Clarkson College, Omaha
College of Saint Mary, Nursing Program, Omaha
Creighton University, Omaha
Nebraska Methodist College, Omaha
Nebraska Wesleyan University, Nursing Program, Lincoln
University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha
Nevada
Arizona College School of Nursing, Las Vegas
College of Southern Nevada, Clark County
Great Basin College, Elko
Roseman University of Health Sciences, Accelerated BSN, Las Vegas
Truckee Meadows Community College, Reno
UNLV School of Nursing, Las Vegas
University of Nevada, Reno, Reno
Western Nevada College, Carson City
New Hampshire
Colby-Sawyer College, New London
Great Bay Community College, Portsmouth
Keene State College, Keene
Lakes Region Community College, Laconia
Manchester Community College, Manchester
Massachusetts College of Pharmacy and Health Sciences, Manchester
Nashua Community College, Nashua
NHTI, Concord's Community College, Concord
Plymouth State University, Plymouth
River Valley Community College, Claremont
Rivier University, Nashua
Saint Anselm College, Goffstown
Saint Joseph School of Nursing, Nashua
University of New Hampshire Department of Nursing, Durham
White Mountains Community College, Berlin
New Jersey
County College of Morris, Nursing Department, Randolph
Mountainside Hospital School of Nursing, Montclair
Rutgers Biomedical and Health Sciences, several locations
Seton Hall University, College of Nursing, South Orange
The College of New Jersey School of Nursing, Ewing
The William Paterson University School of Nursing, Wayne NJ
Ramapo College of New Jersey, School of Nursing, Mahwah, New Jersey
New Mexico
Eastern New Mexico University Nursing Department, Roswell
New Mexico State University School of Nursing, Las Cruces
University of New Mexico College of Nursing, Albuquerque
New York
Adelphi University School of Nursing, Garden City
Binghamton University, SUNY, Decker School of Nursing, Binghamton
Broome Community College, SUNY, Binghamton
D'Youville University, Buffalo
Ellis School of Nursing, Schenectady
Excelsior College School of Nursing, Albany
Farmingdale State College, SUNY, Department of Nursing, Farmingdale
Fulton-Montgomery Community College, Johnstown
Hartwick College, Oneonta
Molloy University, Barbara Hagan School of Nursing, Rockville Centre, New York
Mount Saint Mary College Newburgh
Pomeroy College of Nursing at Crouse Hospital, Syracuse
Roberts Wesleyan College School of Nursing, Rochester, New York
Russell Sage College School of Nursing, BSN and MSN programs, Troy
St. John Fisher University, Rochester
Saint Joseph's University, MS and BSN Nursing programs, Brooklyn and Patchogue
St. Joseph's College of Nursing, Syracuse
St. Peter’s Hospital College of Nursing, Albany
Samaritan Hospital School of Nursing, Albany
Stony Brook University, SUNY, School of Nursing, Stony Brook
Trocaire College, Catherine McAuley School of Nursing Buffalo
University at Buffalo, SUNY, School of Nursing, Buffalo
University of Rochester, Helen Wood Hall School of Nursing, Rochester
Utica University Accelerated Second Degree (BS), Syracuse
New York City
Bronx Community College CUNY, New York City
College of Mount Saint Vincent, Riverdale, Bronx, New York City
Columbia University School of Nursing, New York City
CUNY Lehman College School of Nursing, The Bronx, New York City
CUNY School of Professional Studies Online, New York City
Helene Fuld College of Nursing, New York City
Hunter-Bellevue School of Nursing, Hunter College, CUNY, New York City
Long Island College Hospital School of Nursing, Brooklyn, New York City
New Age Training Business School, New York City
New York University College of Nursing, New York City
Pace University School of Nursing, New York City and Pleasantville
Phillips Beth Israel School of Nursing, New York City
Touro School of Nursing, Brooklyn, New York City
Defunct in New York (state)
Harlem Hospital, Harlem Hospital School of Nursing, New York City
Lincoln Hospital, Lincoln School for Nurses, New York City
North Carolina
Appalachian State University School of Nursing, Boone
Cabarrus College of Health Sciences Louise Harkey School of Nursing, Concord
Cape Fear Community College, Wilmington
Duke University School of Nursing, Durham
East Carolina University College of Nursing, Greenville
Fayetteville Technical Community College, Fayetteville
North Carolina Central University School of Nursing, Durham
University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill School of Nursing, Chapel Hill
University of North Carolina at Charlotte School of Nursing, Charlotte
University of North Carolina at Greensboro School of Nursing, Greensboro
University of North Carolina at Wilmington School of Nursing, Wilmington
Wake Forest University Department of Health and Exercise Science, Winston-Salem
Wake Technical Community College Health Sciences Department, Raleigh
Watts School of Nursing, Durham
Winston Salem State University School of Nursing, Winston-Salem
North Dakota
Dickinson State University Department of Nursing, Dickinson
University of Jamestown Department of Nursing, Jamestown
Lake Region State College Dakota Nursing Program, Devils Lake
Medcenter One College of Nursing, Bismarck
Minot State University College of Nursing, Minot
North Dakota State College of Science, Wahpeton
North Dakota State University, Fargo
Tri-College University Nursing Consortium
Concordia College, Moorhead, Minnesota
Minnesota State University Moorhead, Moorhead, Minnesota
North Dakota State University, Fargo
United Tribes Technical College, Bismarck
University of Mary Division of Nursing, Bismarck
University of North Dakota College of Nursing, Grand Forks
Ohio
Ashland University School of Nursing, Ashland
Case Western Reserve University Frances Payne Bolton School of Nursing, Cleveland
Cedarville University School of Nursing, Cedarville
Christ College of Nursing and Health Sciences, Cincinnati
Clark State Community College, Springfield
Cleveland State University School of Nursing, Cleveland
Columbus State Community College, Columbus
Franciscan University of Steubenville, Steubenville
Hiram College School of Nursing, Hiram
Kent State University College of Nursing, Kent
Kent State University at Ashtabula, Ashtabula
Kent State University at East Liverpool, East Liverpool
Kent State University at Salem, Salem
Kent State University at Stark, Jackson Township
Kettering College, Kettering
Lorain County Community College, Elyria
Lourdes University, Sylvania
MedCentral College of Nursing, Mansfield
Miami University, Oxford
Mount Carmel College of Nursing, Columbus
Notre Dame College, South Euclid
Ohio Northern University, Ada
Ohio State University College of Nursing, Columbus
Ohio University School of Nursing, Athens
Otterbein University, Westerville
Sinclair Community College, Dayton
Springfield Regional School of Nursing, Springfield
University of Akron, Akron
Walsh University, North Canton
Wright State University College of Nursing and Health, Dayton
!-- Please use proper formatting when adding to this list. (see Kentucky for example) -->
Oklahoma
Cameron University Bachelor's degree with OU College of Nursing, Lawton
Cameron University Associate Degree with Western Oklahoma State College, Lawton
Oklahoma City University, Kramer School of Nursing, Oklahoma City
Oklahoma Wesleyan University School of Nursing, Bartlesville
University of Central Oklahoma Edmond
University of Oklahoma College of Nursing, Oklahoma City
Western Oklahoma State College, Altus
Tulsa Community College, Tulsa
Rogers State College, Claremore
Oklahoma State University Institute of Technology, Okmulgee
Northeastern State University, Tahlequah
Oregon
Concordia University, Portland School of Nursing, Portland
George Fox University, School of Nursing, Newberg
Linfield University-Good Samaritan School of Nursing, Portland
Oregon Health & Science University School of Nursing, Portland
University of Portland School of Nursing, Portland
Walla Walla University, School of Nursing, Portland
Pennsylvania
Carlow University College of Health & Wellness, Pittsburgh, PA
Drexel University College of Nursing and Health Professions Nursing Program, Philadelphia
Duquesne University School of Nursing Nursing Program, Pittsburgh
Gannon University Nursing Program, Erie
Gwynedd Mercy University, Gwynedd Valley, Pennsylvania
Holy Family University Nursing Program, Northeast Philadelphia
Jefferson Abington Hospital Dixon School of Nursing, Willow Grove
Methodist Hospital School of Nursing, Philadelphia
Mount Aloysius College, Cresson
Northeastern Hospital School of Nursing part of the Temple University Health System, with science courses provided through the Community College of Philadelphia, Philadelphia
Ohio Valley Hospital School of Nursing, Kennedy Township
Pennsylvania College of Health Sciences, Lancaster
Pennsylvania State University School of Nursing, Hershey and University Park
Pottsville Hospital School of Nursing, Pottsville
Roxborough Memorial Hospital School of Nursing, Philadelphia
St. Luke's School of Nursing, Bethlehem
Thomas Jefferson University, Jefferson College of Health Professions Department of Nursing, Philadelphia
University of Pennsylvania School of Nursing, Philadelphia
University of Pittsburgh School of Nursing, Pittsburgh
UPMC Shadyside School of Nursing, Pittsburgh
Villanova University College of Nursing, Villanova
Widener University Online RN-BSN, Chester
York College of Pennsylvania, York
Rhode Island
Community College of Rhode Island, Warwick
New England Institute of Technology School of Nursing, East Greenwich
Rhode Island College School of Nursing, Providence
Saint Joseph School of Nursing, North Providence
Salve Regina University School of Nursing, Newport
University of Rhode Island School of Nursing, Kingston
South Carolina
Clemson University College of Nursing, Clemson
Francis Marion University College of Liberal Arts: Department of Nursing, Florence
Medical University of South Carolina School of Nursing, Charleston
University of South Carolina College of Nursing, Columbia
University of South Carolina Aiken School of Nursing, Aiken
University of South Carolina Upstate Mary Black School of Nursing, Spartanburg
The Citadel Swain Department of Nursing, Charleston
South Dakota
Dakota Wesleyan University Department of Nursing, Mitchell
Mount Marty University, Yankton
Oglala Lakota College Nursing Program, Kyle
Presentation College Nursing Program, Aberdeen
Sisseton Wahpeton College Nursing Program, Sisseton
South Dakota State University, College of Nursing, Brookings
University of South Dakota, Department of Nursing, Vermillion
Tennessee
Austin Peay State University, School of Nursing (BSN, MSN, FNP), Clarksville
East Tennessee State University, College of Nursing (BSN, MSN, DNP), Johnson City
King College School of Nursing, Bristol
Marian University Accelerated BSN, Nashville
Middle Tennessee State University School of Nursing, Murfreesboro
South College School of Nursing (BSN), Knoxville
Tennessee State University College of Nursing, Nashville
Tennessee Technological University, School of Nursing (BSN, MSN), Cookeville
University of Memphis Loewenberg College of Nursing (BSN, MSN, FNP), Memphis
Vanderbilt University School of Nursing, Nashville
Texas
Utah
Brigham Young University College of Nursing, Provo
Eagle Gate College
Fortis College
Nightingale College, Salt Lake City
Provo College
Roseman University of Health Sciences, Accelerated BSN, South Jordan
Salt Lake Community College
Snow College, Ephraim
Southern Utah University, Cedar City
University of Utah School of Nursing, Salt Lake City
Utah State University
Utah Tech University, St. George
Utah Valley University, Orem
Weber State University, Ogden
Western Governors University, online, based in Salt Lake City, available nationwide
Westminster University School of Nursing, Salt Lake City
Defunct in Utah
Broadview University aka Utah Career College
Dee Hospital School of Nursing, Ogden
Everest College, West Valley City
Dr. Groves LDS Hospital School of Nursing, Salt Lake
Stevens Henager College
Vermont
Norwich University, Northfield
Southern Vermont College, Bennington
University of Vermont School of Nursing, Burlington
Vermont State University, Castleton
Vermont State University, Randolph Center
Virginia
Eastern Mennonite University School of Nursing, Harrisonburg
George Mason University School of Nursing, Fairfax
Hampton University School of Nursing, Hampton
James Madison University School of Nursing, Harrisonburg
Jefferson College of Health Sciences, Department of Nursing, Roanoke
Liberty University School of Nursing, Lynchburg
Lynchburg College School of Nursing, Lynchburg
Marymount University School of Nursing, Arlington
Norfolk State University School of Nursing, Norfolk
Old Dominion University School of Nursing, Norfolk
Radford University School of Nursing, Radford
Shenandoah University School of Nursing, Winchester
University of Virginia School of Nursing, Charlottesville
Virginia Commonwealth University School of Nursing, Richmond
Washington
Gonzaga University Department of Nursing, Spokane
MediCare Professionals, Training in Mental Development Online Nursing and Child Care Education Center
Northwest University Buntain School of Nursing, Kirkland
Pacific Lutheran University School of Nursing, Tacoma
Seattle University College of Nursing, Seattle
University of Washington School of Nursing, Seattle
Walla Walla University, School of Nursing, College Place
Washington State University College of Nursing, Spokane
West Virginia
Alderson-Broaddus College Department of Nursing, Philippi
Bluefield State University School of Nursing & Allied Health, Bluefield
Davis & Elkins College RN program & RN to BSN, Elkins
Fairmont State University School of Nursing & Allied Health Administration, Fairmont
Marshall University School of Nursing & Health Professions, Huntington
Shepherd University School of Nursing Education, Shepherdstown
West Liberty University Department of Nursing, West Liberty
West Virginia University Health Services Center School of Nursing, Morgantown
Wisconsin
Alverno College, School of Nursing, Milwaukee
Bellin College, School of Nursing, Green Bay
Blackhawk Technical College, Nursing Department, Janesville
Bryant & Stratton College, Glendale
Cardinal Stritch University, Ruth S. Coleman College of Nursing, Milwaukee
Chippewa Valley Technical College, Eau Claire
Concordia University Wisconsin, Mequon
Fox Valley Technical College, Appleton
Gateway Technical College, Burlington
Herzing University, 5 locations
Lakeshore Technical College, Cleveland
Madison Area Technical College, Madison
Marquette University, College of Nursing, Milwaukee
Mid-State Technical College, Wisconsin Rapids
Milwaukee Area Technical College, Milwaukee
Milwaukee School of Engineering, School of Nursing, Milwaukee
Moraine Park Technical College, Fond du Lac
Mount Mary College, Department of Nursing, Milwaukee
Nicolet Area Technical College, Rhinelander
Northcentral Technical College, Wausau
Northeast Wisconsin Technical College, multiple campuses
Southwest Wisconsin Technical College, Fennimore
University of Wisconsin–Eau Claire, College of Nursing and Health Sciences, Eau Claire
University of Wisconsin–Green Bay, Professional Program in Nursing, Green Bay
University of Wisconsin–Madison, School of Nursing, Madison
University of Wisconsin–Milwaukee, College of Nursing, Milwaukee
University of Wisconsin–Oshkosh, College of Nursing, Oshkosh
University of Wisconsin–Parkside, College of Nursing, Kenosha
Viterbo University, School of Nursing, La Crosse
Waukesha County Technical College, Pewaukee
Western Technical College, La Crosse
Wisconsin Indianhead Technical College, Superior
Wisconsin Lutheran College, Milwaukee/Wauwatosa
Wyoming
Casper College, Casper
Central Wyoming College, Riverton
Laramie County Community College, Cheyenne
Northern Wyoming Community College District, Gillette
Northern Wyoming Community College, Sheridan
Northwest College, Powell
University of Wyoming Fay W. Whitney School of Nursing, Laramie
Western Wyoming Community College, Rock Springs
District of Columbia
Catholic University of America School of Nursing
Georgetown University School of Nursing and Health Studies
George Washington University Graduate School of Nursing
Howard University Division of Nursing
Radians College
Misericordia University Nursing Program,
Trinity Washington University
University of the District of Columbia School of Nursing
Guam
University of Guam School of Nursing and Health Sciences, Mangilao
U.S. Virgin Islands
University of the Virgin Islands Nursing Division, St. Thomas
Puerto Rico
University of Puerto Rico Nursing School, San Juan, Puerto Rico
Ana G. Mendez University - Universidad Metropolitana Nursing School, Cupey, San Juan; Bayamon
References
See also
List of nursing schools in Europe
List of nursing schools in Malaysia
Nursing
United States |
4099456 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guibord%20case | Guibord case | Brown v Les Curé et Marguilliers de l'Œuvre et Fabrique de Notre Dame de Montréal, better known as the Guibord case, was a decision in 1874 by the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council in an early Canadian legal dispute over the relationship between church and state.
The question was whether the church officials of the Parish of Montréal could refuse to bury a deceased member of the Church because of his political beliefs. Joseph Guibord had been a member of the Institut Canadien de Montréal, an association dedicated to the principles of liberalism. The Institut was at odds with the Roman Catholic church, at that time very powerful in Quebec and very conservative. When he died, the church officials of the Parish of Montréal refused to allow his widow, Henriette Brown, to have his remains buried in the section of the Côte des Neiges Cemetery reserved for Roman Catholics.
Brown brought a petition in the Quebec courts to require the church officials to allow her to bury her husband in the cemetery. The case was ultimately decided by the Judicial Committee, at that time the court of last resort for Canada within the British Empire. The Judicial Committee ruled that the church officials had to allow Guibord's remains to be buried in the Roman Catholic section of the cemetery, although without full religious rites. The case caused great political and religious controversy in Quebec.
Background
The case centred on a man named Joseph Guibord, a member of the Institut Canadien. The Institut was a liberal association with a public library and debating room for literary and scientific discussions. The views of its members, who tended to support the Rouges in Quebec politics, brought them into conflict with the Roman Catholic Church, which at that time had significant influence in Quebec society and with the Quebec government. Eventually, the Bishop of Montreal, Ignace Bourget, issued a pastoral letter forbidding membership in the Institut, and stating that no absolution was possible for member, "même à l'article de la mort."
Guibord died suddenly in 1869. His widow, Henriette Brown, sought to have him buried in the Côte des Neiges Cemetery, at that time the only cemetery for Roman Catholics in Montreal. The Church refused to permit the burial, except in the portion of the cemetery reserved for non-Roman Catholics and unbaptised infants, and without religious rites. Brown was willing to forego the religious ceremony, but insisted that her husband be buried in the Roman Catholic portion of the cemetery. The church officials refused. Brown and her supporters argued that the Church's decision contradicted its role under the civil law to give burial, but the Church argued it would permit the civil burial, and that Guibord not being buried in holy ground was a question of religious freedom.
After two attempts to have Guibord buried in the Côte-des-Neiges Cemetery, his remains were temporarily lodged in the neighbouring Mount Royal cemetery, a Protestant cemetery.
Decisions of the Quebec Courts
Superior Court
Brown then applied to the Superior Court of Quebec for an order of mandamus compelling the church officials to provide a burial for her husband in the Côte des Neiges Cemetery. The pleadings filed by both sides were complex, with several supplemental pleadings from both sides. Brown sought to have Guibord's remains buried in the Roman Catholic portion of the cemetery, "conformably to custom and law," and argued that her husband had been a practising Roman Catholic at the time of his death, filing his baptismal certificate and their wedding certificate. The church officials challenged the availability of the remedy of mandamus, as well as denying that they had refused civil burial to Guibord. They asserted that they were prepared to carry out their civil duty to bury the remains, but as a matter of religious freedom, the Church had the right to decide whether to bury him in the portion of the cemetery reserved for Roman Catholics. They also alleged that Guibord had been a "pécheur public" (i.e. - a public sinner), and therefore could be denied burial under Roman Catholic doctrine.
The petition was argued on 17 March 1870, before Mr Justice Mondelet. On 2 May 1870, Mondelet J. granted Brown's petition and ordered the burial of the deceased by the church officials, according to custom and law in the same way as any other parishioner who dies with the status of a Roman Catholic, and to enter his name in the parochial register according to law. He also ordered that the church officials pay Brown's court costs.
Court of Review
The church officials then appealed to the Court of Review, which heard argument on 23 June 1870. On 10 September 1870, that Court allowed the appeal and dismissed the widow's petition. Speaking for the Court, Mr Justice Mackay held that the pleadings and judgment below were both defective. A writ of mandamus is only available to give specific, defined relief. The order to have Guibord buried "according to custom and law" was not a specific remedy, as it did not make clear where the burial was to take place. The church officials could comply with it by burying him in the portion for non-Roman Catholics, which would not be satisfactory to the widow. As well, the order to fill out the parochial records was defective, since the church officials named in the petition did not have custody of the parochial records. Finally, the decision below was bad for dismissing the church officials' plea of their religious freedom.
Court of Queen's Bench
Brown then appealed to the Quebec Court of Queen's Bench (Appeal Side).
When the matter first came on for argument, on 2 December 1870, Brown's counsel applied to have four of the judges who were about to hear the appeal recuse themselves under s. 176 of the Code of Civil Procedure. They argued that one of the points in issue was the extent of the civil courts' power over the church, which was denied by Roman Catholic church doctrine under pain of anathema and excommunication. Since the four judges (Chief Justice Duval and Justices Caron, Badgley and Monk) were Roman Catholics, counsel argued that they "acknowledged the authority of the Roman power" and could be under the threat of excommunication if they did not rule in favour of the church officials. The Court heard argument on the motion for recusation and reserved their decision. A week later, on 9 December 1870, they gave their decision, refusing to receive the petitions for recusation, or to allow them to be entered in the register of the Court. The Court, composed of Duval C.J., Caron, Drummond, Badgely and Monk, then heard the appeal.
On 7 September 1871, the Queen's Bench unanimously dismissed Brown's appeal and upheld the decision of the Court of Review, but on divided grounds, with each judge giving reasons:
Caron J. held that the original writ was void for not containing a command; that it was defective in being addressed to both the curé and the fabrique, as only the curé had superintendence of burials and entries in the register; that the petition was only for civil burial, which the church officials had offered to perform; and that the church officials' condition that the burial be in a particular part of the burial ground was reasonable.
Duval C.J. agreed with Caron J., but based his judgment on the defect in the form of the writ.
Drummond J. held that the writ was right in form, but agreed that the appeal should be dismissed because the civil courts had no jurisdiction to order ecclesiastical burial when refused by the ecclesiastical authorities.
Badgley J. held that the writ was right in form, and that the courts did have the power to order the performance of the duties although affecting spiritual rights, but agreed that the appeal should be dismissed because the writ commanded the performance of two duties, the burial and the entry into the parochial register, and the church officials named in the petition had no power to carry out the command to enter the burial in the parochial register.
Monk J. held that the writ and all proceedings were regular and sufficient, but agreed that the appeal should be dismissed because the courts had no jurisdiction over the matters in dispute.
The Court ordered Brown to pay the church officials' court costs.
Appeal to the Judicial Committee
Standing of the Institut to Appeal following Brown's Death
Brown then applied successfully for leave to appeal to the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council, at that time the court of last resort within the British Empire. However, before her appeal could be heard, Brown died on 24 March 1873. In her will, she left all that she had to the Institut Canadien. The Institut then applied to be allowed to prosecute the appeal, on the basis that as Brown's heir, the Institut was liable to pay the court costs in the Quebec courts and therefore had a legitimate interest in the litigation. In an interim decision in 1873, the Judicial Committee gave the Institut standing to carry the appeal, without prejudice to the church officials' right to challenge the standing at the hearing of the appeal.
Decision: Appeal Allowed
The Judicial Committee heard the appeal in the early summer of 1874, devoting seven sitting days to the hearing. The Institut was represented by Mr Doutre, Q.C., of the Quebec Bar, and Mr Bompas, of the English Bar. The church officials were represented by Mr Matthews, Q.C., and Mr Westlake, Q.C., both of the English Bar. On 21 November 1874, the Judicial Committee gave its decision, allowing the appeal and ordering the church officials to provide a burial for the deceased in the area of the cemetery reserved for Roman Catholics.
The judgment of the Committee was given by Sir Robert Phillimore, a noted expert in ecclesiastical law in England. He addressed the various procedural issues which had been raised by the case, beginning by noting that the church officials had not pressed their objections to the Institut's standing to carry on the appeal, since the Institut was Brown's universal legatee and therefore had an interest in having the order to pay costs overturned. He also confirmed that the Committee did not think the argument for recusation of the Queen's Bench judges could be sustained. As well, he ruled that the original writ for mandamus was in proper form and gave the court sufficient discretion to craft the remedy sought.
Turning to the merits of the appeal, Phillimore J. declined to rule on the precise status of the Roman Catholic Church in Quebec, such as whether it should be considered an established church, and also declined to rule on whether the civil courts of Quebec retained the jurisdiction over the church which the courts of New France had held before the Conquest. Instead, he based his decision on the principle that even if churches are merely voluntary and private organisations, the members of church are entitled to have the church administered according to the church's own internal laws and rules. In this case, the issue was whether the deceased had forfeited the right to ecclesiastical burial according to the church's own internal laws.
Phillimore J. then reviewed the pre-Conquest Quebec Ritual dealing with refusal of ecclesiastical burial. The three possibilities under the Ritual cited by counsel for the church officials in support of the refusal were that Guibord had been excommunicated as a result of his membership in the Institut; that he had failed to take communion at Easter-tide; and that he was a "pecheur public" as a result of belonging to the Institut. Phillimore J. ruled that to come under the category of excommunication, it would have been necessary for the Bishop of Montreal to excommunicate Guibord by name. Phillimore J. acknowledged that such an action was solely within the power of the Bishop, and if it had occurred, would not have been reviewable by the courts. However, the evidence showed that there had been no such explicit excommunication of Guibord. Phillimore J. also dismissed the argument based on Guibord's failure to take Easter communion since Guibord had sought to partake of the sacrament, but the church had denied him because of his membership in the Institut.
Finally, Phillimore J. reviewed the category of a "pecheur public," which was defined in the Ritual by reference to activities such as prostitution and usury. Counsel for the church officials argued that this category was very broad, and could include any activities which the Bishop defined to be public sins. Phillimore J. rejected that interpretation of the Ritual and concluded that while it might be broadened beyond the specific examples of public sinners given in the Ritual, it could not be expanded indefinitely by the Bishop. The Bishop could not unilaterally dispense with the application of the general ecclesiastical law and prohibit ecclesiastical burial of a parishioner on whatever grounds the Bishop personally thought sufficient. Phillimore J. held that there was no indication in the record that the members of the Roman Catholic Church in Quebec had at any time consented to such an expansion of the Bishop's authority. Phillimore J. concluded that Guibord had not been a "pécheur public" as defined by the Ritual and so the church officials did not have the power under their own Ritual to deny him ecclesiastical burial.
In conclusion, Phillimore J. noted that the Committee was not deciding whether the civil courts could order that the burial be accompanied by the usual ecclesiastical rites because Brown had forewent that demand and counsel for the Institut had not requested it in the appeal to the Committee. Instead, the Committee's judgment was that the orders of the Court of Review and Court of Queen's Bench be reversed and that an order issue, requiring the church officials to allow the burial of the deceased in the section of the cemetery reserved for Roman Catholics, upon payment of all the usual fees. The Committee also ordered costs to the Institut in all of the lower courts and the appeal to the Committee, except for the costs of the motion to recuse the judges in the Queen's Bench.
Aftermath
Following the court ruling, two attempts were needed to perform the burial of Guibord's remains in Côte-des-Neiges Cemetery. The first attempt was on 2 September 1875, but the burial party was turned away by an angry crowd. On the second, successful, attempt, on 16 November 1875, the burial party was accompanied by an armed police and military escort, numbering approximately 2,500 men. He was buried in the same plot as the remains of his widow, Henriette Brown. The coffin was encased in a mixture of cement and metal scraps to prevent disinterment by irate Catholics.
Following the burial, Bishop Bourget deconsecrated the ground in which Guibord lay, declaring the place of burial forever "under an interdict and separate from the rest of the cemetery."
Some years after the decision of the Judicial Committee, the Legislature of Quebec responded to the decision by enacting a law which stated that the Catholic church officials had sole authority to determine whether a person could be buried in consecrated ground, effectively changing the law as determined by the Judicial Committee. The law is still in force today, as part of the Burial Act of Quebec.
Analysis
Professor Rainer Knopff argues the Judicial Committee compromised between two decisions of the lower courts: that the religious freedom argument was frivolous on one hand; or that the courts, not being a Catholic leadership, could not rule on whether a burial should be carried out in accordance with religious procedure on the other. The Judicial Committee, conversely, concluded that while the courts were not Catholic leaders, they could uphold the people's rights and Guibord was entitled to a burial in holy ground. However, the Court did not compel other religious ceremonies to be performed because it was not a Catholic institution. Although burial anywhere could theoretically be justified under the law, the Judicial Committee ruled burial in holy ground was appropriate in this case and advised the other ceremonies to be performed. The reasoning was that if Guibord was not buried in holy ground, his reputation would be damaged. As Guibord was a good person, he should not be defamed while a terrible person, on the other hand, probably could be denied religious burial.
The Judicial Committee's decision has been cited in subsequent court decisions. The case has also been referred to recently in a law journal article dealing with a similar issue of the relationship between the civil courts and religious authorities, in the context of civil and Jewish divorces.
References
Judicial Committee of the Privy Council cases on appeal from Canada
Canadian freedom of religion case law
History of Catholicism in Quebec
1874 in Canadian case law |
4100225 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waterfowl%20hunting | Waterfowl hunting | Waterfowl hunting (also called wildfowling or waterfowl shooting in the UK) is the practice of hunting aquatic birds such as ducks, geese and other waterfowls or shorebirds for food and sport.
Many types of ducks and geese share the same habitat, have overlapping or identical hunting seasons, and are hunted using the same methods. Thus it is possible to take different species of waterfowl in the same outing. Waterfowl can be hunted in crop fields where they feed, or, more frequently, on or near bodies of water such as rivers, lakes, ponds, wetlands, sloughs, or sea coasts.
History
Prehistoric waterfowl hunting
Wild waterfowl have been hunted for food, down, and feathers worldwide since prehistoric times. Ducks, geese, and swans appear in European cave paintings from the last Ice Age, and a mural in the Ancient Egyptian tomb of Khnumhotep II ( BCE) shows a man in a hunting blind capturing swimming ducks in a trap. Muscovy ducks were depicted in the art of the Moche culture of ancient Peru by 200 BCE, and were likely hunted by many people of the Americas before then.
Rise of modern waterfowl hunting
Hunting with shotguns began in the 17th century with the matchlock shotgun. Later flintlock shotguns and percussion cap guns were used. Shotguns were loaded with black powder and lead shot through the muzzle in the 17th century to the late 19th century. The transition from flint to "detonating" or percussion lock firearms and from muzzle to breech loading guns was largely driven by innovations made by English gun makers such as Joseph Manton, at which time wildfowling was extremely popular in England both as a pastime and as a means of earning a living, as described by Col. Peter Hawker in his diaries. Damascus barrels are safe to shoot (where proofed) only with black powder charges. When smokeless powder was invented in the late 19th century, steel barrels were made. Damascus barrels which were made of a twisted steel could not take the high pressure of smokeless powder. Fred Kimble, Tanner, and Adam, duck hunters from Illinois, invented the shotgun choke in 1886. This is a constriction at the end of the barrel. This allowed for longer range shooting with the shotgun and kept the pattern of shot tighter or looser according to which type of choke is being used. Until 1886, shotguns had cylinder bore barrels which could only shoot up to 25 yards, so duck hunting was done at close range. After 1886, market hunters could shoot at longer ranges up to forty five yards with a full choke barrel and harvest more waterfowl. Shotguns became bigger and more powerful as steel barrels were being used, so the range was extended to sixty yards.
Pump shotguns were invented in the late 19th century, and the semi-automatic 12 gauge shotgun was developed by John Browning in the very early 20th century, which allowed commercial hunters to use a four-shell magazine (five including the one in the chamber) to rake rafts of ducks on the water or kill them at night, in order to kill larger numbers of waterfowl for the commercial markets. Even during the Great Depression years, a brace of canvasbacks could be sold to restaurants before legislation and hunting organizations pushed for greater enforcement. Once waterfowlers had access to these guns, this made these men more proficient market hunters. These guns could fire five to seven shots, therefore hunters were having bigger harvests.
Early European settlers in America hunted waterfowl with great zeal, as the supply of waterfowl seemed unlimited in the coastal Atlantic regions. During the fall migrations, the skies were filled with waterfowl. Places such as Chesapeake Bay, Delaware Bay, and Barnaget Bay were hunted extensively.
As more immigrants came to America in the late 18th and 19th centuries, the need for more food became greater. Market hunting started to take form, to supply the local population living along the Atlantic coast with fresh ducks and geese. Men would go into wooden boats and go out into the bays hunting, sometimes with large shotguns. They would bring back a wooden barrel or two of ducks each day. Live ducks were used as decoys as well as bait such as corn or other grain to attract waterfowl.
The rise of modern waterfowl hunting is tied to the history of the shotgun, which shoots a pattern of round pellets making it easier to hit a moving target. In the 19th century, the seemingly limitless flocks of ducks and geese in the Atlantic and Mississippi Flyways of North America were the basis for a thriving commercial waterfowl hunting industry. With the advent of punt guns – massive, boat-mounted shotguns that could fire a half-pound of lead shot at a time – hunters could kill dozens of birds with a single blast. This was the four and six gauge shotgun. This period of intense commercial waterfowl hunting is vividly depicted in James Michener's historical novel Chesapeake.
Although edible, swans are not hunted in many Western cultures due to hunting regulations, and swans were historically a royal prerogative. Swans are hunted in the Arctic regions.
Conservation and the Duck Stamp Act
Around the start of the 20th century, commercial hunting and loss of habitat due to agriculture led to a decline in duck and goose populations in North America, along with many other species of wildlife. The Lacey Act of 1900, which outlawed transport of poached game across state lines, and the Migratory Bird Treaty Act of 1918, which prohibited the possession of migratory birds without permission (such as a hunting license), marked the dawn of the modern conservation movement.
In 1934, at the urging of editorial cartoonist and conservationist J.N. "Ding" Darling, the United States government passed the Migratory Bird Hunting Stamp Act, better known as the Federal Duck Stamp Act. This program required hunters to purchase a special stamp, in addition to a regular hunting license, to hunt migratory waterfowl. This stamp cost two dollars in 1934 but today the price is twenty-five dollars. As of 2007 there is also an "E-duck" stamp available for seventeen dollars where duck hunting is immediately authorized and the physical stamp is mailed later. The stamp is valid from July 1 to June 30 of each year. The stamp may be raised to twenty dollars in the near future.
Revenues from the stamp program provided the majority of funding for conservation for many decades. The stamp funded the purchase of 4.5 million acres (18,000 km2) of National Wildlife Refuge land for waterfowl habitat since the program's inception in 1934. The Duck Stamp act has been described as "one of the most successful conservation programs ever devised." Duck stamps have also become collectible items in their own right. Stamps must not be signed to be of value.
England sold its first duck stamp in 1991, featuring ten pintails flying along the coast of England. The stamp cost five pounds sterling.
Species of waterfowl hunted
In North America a variety of ducks and geese are hunted, the most common being mallards, Canada geese, snow geese, canvasback, redhead, northern pintail, gadwall, ruddy duck, coots, common, hooded and red-breasted merganser (often avoided because of its reputation as a poor-eating bird with a strong flavor). Also hunted are black duck, wood duck, blue-winged teal, green-winged teal, bufflehead, northern shoveler, American wigeon, and goldeneye. Sea ducks include oldsquaw (long tailed duck), eider duck, and scoter.
Swans are hunted in only a few states in the United States, but are hunted along with other wildfowl in many other countries. In the UK, swan hunting is illegal because they are considered property of the queen.
In the Australian states of Tasmania, Victoria, South Australia and the Northern Territory, species hunted under permit include the Pacific black duck, Australian wood duck, chestnut teal, grey teal, pink-eared duck and mountain duck.
Since 1990, recreational duck hunting on public land has been banned in Western Australia but it still allows Australian wood ducks to be shot on private property throughout the year with few restrictions.
Modern hunting techniques
The waterfowl hunting season is generally in the autumn and winter. Hunting seasons are set by the US Fish and Wildlife Service in the United States. In the autumn, the ducks and geese have finished raising their young and are migrating to warmer areas to feed. The hunting seasons usually begin in October and end in January. Extended goose seasons can go into April, the Conservation Order by the U.S.F.W.S.
There are four large flyways in the United States that the waterfowl follow: the Atlantic, Mississippi, Central and Pacific Flyways.
There are several items used by almost all waterfowl hunters: a shotgun, ammunition, a hunting blind, decoys, a boat, and a duck or goose call. Unless float hunting or jump shooting—decoys are used to lure the birds within range, and the blind conceals the hunter. When a hunter or hunters sees the waterfowl, he or she begins calling with the duck or goose call. Once the birds are within range, the hunters rise from the blind and quickly shoot the birds before they are frightened off and out of shooting range. Duck or goose calls are often used to attract birds; sometimes calls of other birds will also be simulated to convince the birds that there is no danger.
Hunters position themselves in blinds near rivers, lakes, ponds or in agriculture fields planted with corn, barley, wheat or millet. Hunters build blinds to conceal themselves from waterfowl, as waterfowl have sharp eyes and can see colors. That is why hunters use camouflage. Waterfowl hunters also often use dogs to retrieve dead or injured birds in the water. There are many retriever breeds, such as Labrador Retrievers and Chesapeake Bay Retrievers, specifically bred for the task. Hunters also may use a boat to get downed birds.
Some hunters use boats as blinds or float rivers in search of waterfowl. When the ducks see the hunters in the boat, ducks flush off the water and hunters shoot. Then birds are collected and placed in the boat.
Each hunter prefers a certain type of weather condition, depending on the type of hunting setting. Some hunters prefer sunny days vs cloudy or rainy days. However, ducks and geese fly more extensively and actively on cloudy days, rain or snow. There is an old hunters tale that if you see swans flying, ducks will be close behind.
Shotguns
While hunting of waterfowl was on the rise in America and Europe, hunters used a wide array of shotguns. Shotguns used included 4 gauge, 6 gauge, 8 gauge, 10 gauge, 12 gauge, 16 gauge, 18 gauge, 20 gauge, 24 gauge, 28 gauge and .410. The 12 gauge turns out to be the most popular with hunters then and now due to its weight to firepower ratio. Punt guns, along with both the four and six gauge, were mounted to small boats due to their weight and recoil. The eight gauge was hand held at about fourteen pounds in weight with approximately 2.5 ounces of shot. The largest gun used today in the United States is the 10 gauge shotgun, shooting a 3.5 inch shell that holds up to 2.5 ounces of shot. These shotguns can kill ducks at up to 60 yards. By far the most common modern shotgun used for waterfowl hunting is the twelve gauge. With the development of higher-pressure 3.5 inch shells, 12 gauge shotguns can deliver close to the power and shot load of a ten gauge out of a lighter gun with less recoil. Modern 16 gauge shotguns are rare, with more people choosing the higher power twelve gauge or lower recoil of the 20 gauge. 20 gauge shotguns are less commonly used for long-range waterfowl hunting, but are preferred by hunters who do not like the weight of the twelve gauge. 28 gauge and .410 bore shotguns are rarely used due to the gun's inability to ensure clean kills at ranges of 40 to 50 yards. Some hunting guns have camouflage-patterned stocks and low-gloss finishes on the metal to reduce their visibility to waterfowl.
Although it is legal to use a bow to take migratory waterfowl in many areas, most hunters prefer taking migratory birds with a shotgun because of the great difficulty of striking a moving bird with an arrow. Taking migratory birds with a handgun, carbine, or rifle is illegal due to the great distances that bullets travel, making them unsafe.
Shotgun ammunition
Since the 16th century, lead shot has been used in waterfowl hunting. Lead shot was originally poured down the barrel. Later, shells were made of paper and brass in the late 19th century and the first half of the 20th century. In the early 1960s, manufacturers began making shot-shells of plastic. In the late 1960s, it was determined that lead shot poisoned waterfowl eating in shallow water areas where there was heavy hunting. In 1974, steel shot shells were offered for sale to hunters at the Brigantine Waterfowl Refuge in southern New Jersey, and at Union County State Fish & Wildlife area in Union County, Illinois, by Winchester at five dollars a box. These shells were marked "Experimental" and were orange in color.
Prior hunting with lead shot, along with the use of lead sinkers in angling, has been identified as a major cause of lead poisoning in waterfowl, which often feed off the bottom of lakes and wetlands where lead shot collects. In the United States, UK, Canada, and many western European countries (), all shot used for waterfowl must now be non-toxic, and therefore may not contain any lead. Steel is the cheapest alternative to lead. However, some hunters do not like its shooting properties, as steel is significantly less dense than lead. Therefore, its effective range is decreased due to rapidly decreasing velocity of the shot: thirty to forty yards is considered its maximum effective range for duck hunting. Many companies have improved steel shot by increasing muzzle-velocity, by using fast burning powder such as rifle powder thus making more consistent 'shot' or pellet patterns. Steel shot now travels at 1400 to 1500 feet per second. However, any use of steel shot requires a shotgun barrel with thicker walls and a specially-hardened bore, resulting in a heavier gun.
Within recent years, several companies have created "heavier than lead" non-toxic shot out of tungsten, bismuth, or other elements with a density similar to or greater than lead. These shells have more consistent patterns and greater range than steel shot. The increase in performance comes at a higher cost. Shell boxes often cost more than thirty dollars a box for twenty five shells.
Hunters use pellet sizes 4, 3, and 2 for ducks, and 2, BB, BBB and T shot for geese. Buckshot is illegal.
Blinds
A hunting blind is a structure intended to conceal hunters, dogs, and equipment from the intended prey. Blinds can be temporary or permanent.
A blind may be constructed out of plywood, lumber, large logs or branches, burlap fiber, plastic or cotton camouflage, or natural vegetation. Many of these permanent blinds look like a small shack with an opening that faces the water and a portion of the sky. Blinds can be as simple as natural vegetation piled onto branches, or they can be small outbuildings with benches, tables, heaters, and other conveniences.
Temporary blinds are common in protected and public areas where permanent fixture blinds are forbidden. Many are tent-like "pop-up" blinds which are quick and easy to erect. Boat blinds are used to conceal a hunter while hunting from a boat. Boat blinds can be handmade or are available from manufacturers.
There are two common types of blinds for land and field-based waterfowl hunting: pit blinds and layout blinds. The pit blind can be a solid structure that is placed into a hole in the ground or on the bank of a waterbody. Since pit blinds rest below the top of the surrounding soil, some structural strength is required to prevent the soil from collapsing into the blind. Commercially available blinds can be made from fiberglass, polyethylene or even lightweight metals. Homemade blinds can also be constructed of wood, but typically cannot withstand the moisture of an underground habitat. Concrete walls are also constructed to form pit blinds typically on land owned or controlled by hunt clubs since this creates a permanent structure.
Pit blind amenities can vary greatly from a basic blind with sticks or other temporary camouflage to elaborate multi-level blinds with small quarters for sleeping or cooking. Most pit blinds will have some form of movable door or slide that can be opened quickly when waterfowl are approaching while still allowing the hunters a good view while closed. Camouflage netting or screens are common materials for the movable top. One common drawback to pit blinds is their propensity to accumulate water. Especially in marsh or wetland areas, the soil can hold a large amount of moisture. Pit blinds are sometimes fitted with sump pumps or even hand-operated pumps to assist the hunters in draining any water that has invaded the blind.
Layout blinds allow a hunter to have a low profile in a field without digging a hole. They are made of an aluminum metal frame and a canvas cover. Most modern commercial layout blinds are fitted with spring-loaded flaps on top that retract when the hunter is ready to fire. The layout blind allows the hunter to lie prone in the blind with only the head or face exposed to allow good visibility. Newer blinds also have a screen that provides a one-way view outside the blind to conceal the hunter, but allow him/her to observe the waterfowl. When birds are in range, the hunter can open the flaps and quickly sit up to a shooting position. Layout blinds come in many different colors and patterns from plain brown to new camouflage patterns that simulate forage found in typical hunting locations. A favorite trick of savvy hunters is to use loose forage found in the specific field being hunted to camouflage the layout blind. Most blinds are fitted with canvas loops designed to hold stalks, grass or other material.
Blinds are known by different names in different countries. In New Zealand, for instance, the term maimai (possibly from the Australian term "mia-mia" for a temporary shelter) is used for a permanent or semi-permanent hide or blind.
Decoys
Decoys are replica waterfowl that are used to attract birds to a location near the hunters; an important piece of equipment for the waterfowler. Using a good spread of decoys and calling, an experienced waterfowl hunter can successfully bag ducks or geese if waterfowl are flying that day. The first waterfowl decoys were made from vegetation such as cattails by Native Americans. In the 18th century, duck decoys were carved from soft wood such as pine. Many decoys were not painted. Live birds were also used as decoys. They were placed in the water and had a rope and a weight at the end of the rope so the duck could not swim or fly away. This method of hunting became illegal in the 1930s. By the end of the 20th century, collectors started to search for high quality wooden duck decoys that were used by market hunters in the late 19th century or early 20th century. Decoys used in Chesapeake Bay, Delaware Bay, Barnegat Bay, and North Carolina's Core Sound, and the famous Outerbanks (OBX) are highly sought after. Most decoys were carved from various types of wood that would withstand the rigors of many seasons of hunting. Highly detailed paint and decoy carvings that even included the outlines of tail or wing feathers turned the duck decoy into a work of art. Today, many collectors search estate sales, auctions, trade shows, or other venues for vintage duck decoys. In the historic Atlantic Flyway, North Carolina's "Core Sound Decoy Festival" draws in excess of 40,000 visitors to the little community of Harker's Island, NC the first weekend in December each year, and Easton, MD with their Wildfowl Festival in the month of November draws a great many people to that old goose hunting community on the Eastern Shore.
Modern decoys are typically made from molded plastic; that began in the 1960s. Making decoys of plastic, decoys can be made many times faster than carving from wood. The plastic allows a high level of detail, a resilient product and reasonable cost. Most are still hand painted. Most modern decoys are fitted with a "water keel" which fills with water once the decoy is immersed in water or a "weighted keel" filled with lead. Both types of keel help the decoy stay upright in wind or high waves. Weighted keel decoys look more realistic by sitting lower in the water.
This also allows for decoys to be thrown into the water and the decoy to float upright. The obvious drawback to weighted keels are the added weight when carrying decoys for long distances. Decoys are held in place by some type of sinker or weight and attached via line to the decoy. Various weight designs allow the line to be wrapped around the decoy when not in use and secured by folding or attaching the lead weight to the decoy.
Decoys are placed in the water about 30 to 35 yards from the hunters. Usually a gap is in the decoy spread to entice live ducks to land in the gap.
Recently, decoys have been introduced that provide lifelike movement that adds to the attraction for waterfowl. Shakers are decoys with a small electric motor and an offset weighted wheel. As the wheel turns it causes the decoy to "shake" in the water and create realistic wave rings throughout the decoy spread. Spinning wing decoys are also fitted with an electric motor and have wings made of various materials. As the wings spin an optical illusion is created simulating the wing beats for landing birds. These decoys can be quite effective when hunting waterfowl and have been banned in some states. Other types of movement decoys include swimming decoys and even kites formed like geese or ducks. The use of UV paint has also been suggested for decoys. Unlike humans, it is possible for wildlife to see UV colors and decoys so patterned may appear more authentic.
Boats
Boats are used while hunting to set up decoys, pick up birds, or travel to and from hunting areas. For general camouflage, boats are often painted some combination of brown, tan, green, and black. They can also be covered with grass or burlap and used as a hunting blind, known as sneak boat hunting. Boats for hunting are generally either propelled by motor or with oars. Most popular are flat-bottomed boats (usually jon boats) for increased stability, with keels made of wood or aluminum between long. Painted kayaks or canoes made of aluminum or fiberglass reinforced with Kevlar are also used; these can navigate shallow streams or small narrow rivers in search of waterfowl. Care must be taken when shooting from boats as hunters may fall overboard due to loss of balance when shooting at waterfowl. Pursuing diving ducks in lakes, bays or sounds in the United States requires larger and more stable boats, as small boats have been known to capsize, wherein hunters can drown by hypothermia. Sink boxes, boats that conceal the hunter under the water surface, are illegal to use in the United States, but technically legal in Canada.
Clothing
Duck season takes place in the fall and winter where the weather can be harsh. Waterproof clothing is critical to duck hunting. Most duck hunters hunt over water, and they stand in water or in a boat. In order to stand in the water and stay dry the hunter must wear waders. Waders are waterproof pants (usually made of a neoprene-like material) that have attached boots and are completely waterproof. Typical waders are chest-high, but waist-high and knee-high waders are sometimes used in shallow water. Duck hunting is a cold sport and the hunter must be well insulated from the cold. Ducks also have superior vision and can see color, which is why hunters must wear clothing that is well camouflaged. Camouflage clothing is various shades of brown or green or brown and green combined. Therefore, hunters wear camouflage similar to the area they are hunting so the ducks do not see the hunters. Face masks are often worn so the ducks do not see the hunters' faces, and camouflage gloves are also worn.
Dogs
Duck hunters quite often employ a dog to retrieve downed birds. Most often hunters use a Labrador Retriever, Golden Retriever or Chesapeake Bay Retriever to retrieve waterfowl. The use of a dog provides a number of advantages. As duck hunting often takes place in cold wet locations, the use of a dog frees the hunter from potentially dangerous forays into cold water to retrieve the bird. Such efforts can be dangerous for the hunter, but are managed by a dog quite easily. It also allows for the recovery of wounded birds that might otherwise escape. A dog's acute sense of smell allows them to find the wounded birds in swamps or marshes where weeds can allow a duck to hide. The use of a dog ensures that a higher percentage of the birds shot end up on the table.
A disadvantage of having dogs in the duck blind, is that some dogs are not well-trained to sit still and can potentially ruin a good hunt. Dogs that run into the water looking for birds when guns are fired, rather than waiting until sent or released create a hazard to the dog and hunters. Nevertheless, dogs are considered the greatest conservation tool known to waterfowlers.
Binoculars
Duck hunting is an exhilarating experience, but without the right equipment, it can be challenging to spot and aim at your target. A good pair of binoculars can make all the difference in the success of your hunt. They allow hunters to scout distant areas such as lakes, ponds, rivers, and wetlands to locate ducks and assess their numbers. This is especially useful for identifying potential hunting spots without disturbing the ducks. It is also very important to note that binoculars also provide clearer and closer views of ducks, enabling hunters to identify different species and genders accurately. This is crucial for complying with hunting regulations and ethical hunting practices, as bag limits and species restrictions often apply. Not only in spotting the ducks, but they also help hunters gauge the distance between themselves and the ducks accurately. This is important for determining the appropriate shooting range and selecting the right ammunition for an ethical and effective shot.
Hunting guides
In the United States, professional hunting guides are used by waterfowlers who do not know the local area. They are paid to take clients to hunt on leased, or private property, or hunting in local areas in which these professional guides know where to hunt in large public waterfowl hunting areas. If they use an outboard engine on their boat, they must be registered by the USCG as an OUPV operator in all fifty states, and have that license in their boat during the time of operation, and many states require all waterfowl guides to be registered via the state DNR hunting license. Waterfowlers normally employ a guide for a half-day or a whole day of hunting. The cost of hiring a guide varies from one hundred fifty dollars for a half day to four hundred dollars for a day. Guides have boats, blinds, decoys, and dogs for retrieving ducks or geese. They know the flight patterns of the game and know how to call ducks or geese in. They know how to set up decoys. Some guides specialize in certain types of waterfowl while others will be more generalists. Some guides specialize in sea hunting while others will specialize in bay hunting, river hunting, lake hunting, or swamp hunting. Guides may have houses for hunters to sleep in for the night. They may provide the service of cleaning the game and keeping it on ice in coolers or refrigerators. Guides may have coffin blinds or more fancy house blinds, that provide seats and heating. Guides are usually registered with the state that they guide in.
Wildfowling in the UK
In Britain, the term "hunting" is generally reserved for the pursuit of game on land with hounds, so the sport is generally known as "wildfowl shooting" or "wildfowling" rather than "hunting."
Wild ducks and geese are shot over foreshores and inland and coastal marshes in Europe. Birds are shot with a shotgun, and less commonly, a large single barreled gun mounted on a small boat, known as a punt gun. Due to the ban on the use of lead shot for hunting wildfowl or over wetlands, many wildfowlers are switching to modern guns with stronger engineering to allow the use of non-toxic ammunition such as steel or tungsten based cartridges. The most popular bore is the 12-gauge.
Only certain 'quarry' species of wildfowl may legally be shot in the UK, and are protected under the Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981. These are mallard, Eurasian wigeon, teal, pochard, shoveler, pintail, gadwall, goldeneye, tufted duck, Canada goose, greylag goose and pink-footed goose. Other common quarry targets for the wildfowler include the common snipe.
An intimate knowledge of the quarry and its habitat is required by the successful wildfowler. Shooting will normally occur during the early morning and late afternoon 'flights', when the birds move to and from feeding and roosting sites. The wildfowler is not looking for a large bag of quarry, and his many hours of effort are rewarded by even a single bird. It is recommended that wildfowlers always shoot with a dog, or someone with a dog, to retrieve shot birds on difficult estuarine terrain. The favourites on the table are mallard, wigeon and teal.
Wildfowling has come under threat in recent years through legislation. Destruction of habitat also has played a large part in the decline of shooting areas, and recently in the UK "right to roam" policies mean that wildfowlers' conservation areas are at risk. However, in most regions, good relationships exist between wildfowlers, conservationists, ramblers and other coastal area users.
In the UK wildfowling is largely self-regulated. Their representative body, WAGBI (Wildfowlers Association of Great Britain and Ireland), was founded in 1908 by Stanley Duncan in Hull. This Association changed its name in 1981 to become the British Association for Shooting and Conservation (BASC) and now represents all forms of live quarry shooting at European, national and local levels. There are also many wildfowling clubs around the coast of Great Britain, often covering certain estuary areas where wildfowl are found in large numbers.
Waterfowl hunting in Australia
Hunting waterfowl with firearms didn't reach Australia until the 19th century in the southern part of Australia, although aboriginals adjusted their prior methods and started using firearms. Hunting waterfowl was considered sport to Australians in the 19th century up to today. The magpie goose was considered the best table fare of all the birds hunted in Australia, was hunted to near extinction, and is now only allowed to be hunted in the Northern Territory.
In Australia, only three states and one territory permit the hunting of waterfowl using firearms. Hunting with a permit is allowed in the Northern Territory, South Australia, Tasmania and Victoria. Unlike in the U.S., the species a hunter is allowed to kill varies widely between states. There are currently eleven native species of waterfowl that are permitted to be hunted, though no single region permits the hunting of all eleven. In addition to the native species, the Mallard is a feral species in Australia and is permitted to be hunted.
Penalties apply for hunters who kill or injure protected (non-listed) species. Waterfowl that are fully protected in all Australian states and territories and therefore must not be shot include: the Cape Barren goose, Black swan, Freckled duck, Blue-billed duck and Burdekin duck. There are a few species of waterfowl listed as endangered or "vulnerable" under various legislation in Australia.
Waterfowl hunting in Canada
Hunting waterfowl in Canada originated with native Canadians, but was modernized in the late 1700s around the same time the US declared independence. The use of shotguns was introduced by immigrants from Europe. Once it became more modern, rules and regulations were implemented and change yearly due to the flight patterns of birds and endangered species.
Waterfowl is plentiful in Canada, and there is a wide range of birds that are legal to hunt. Geese are a plentiful and popular quarry, and are split into two groups: "dark geese" such as Canada, white front, Brant, and cackling geese, and "white geese", such as snow, blue, and Ross's geese. It is permitted to hunt for ducks such as mallards, blue and green-wing teal, and Northern pintails. One may also hunt ducks like redheads, blackducks, canvasbacks, buffleheads, wood ducks, ringneck or ring-billed ducks, greater or lesser scaup, common goldeneye, cinnamon teal, and American widgeon. Other fowl such as coot, snipe, woodcock, and sandhill cranes also generally fall under "waterfowl" legislation and any related permit and/or license systems. Additional provincial restrictions may exist for specific species beyond what is restricted by federal legislation.
To hunt waterfowl in Canada, one must first obtain a valid Canada Migratory Game Bird Hunting Permit with a Wildlife Habitat Conservation stamp affixed to or printed on the permit, as well as any additional licenses and certificates which may be required at the provincial level. There is also a bag limit and a possession limit, based on species of group. The bag limit is the total number of individuals of a specific species or group that one is allowed to harvest within a given hunting day (generally considered to run 30 minutes after sunrise to 30 minutes before sunset), and the possession limit is how many birds one may legally have has in one's possession including those in one's game bag, vehicle, at home, etc. For example, if there is a bag limit of 8 and a possession limit of 24, you may harvest 8 individuals in any single day, but you may only possess a total of 24 individuals at any one time. It is important to stay current on regulations as they are frequently updated based on target species population trends. This close monitoring and regulation adjustment ensures the sustainability of waterfowl hunting in Canada for many generations to come by supporting healthy populations of desirable game species and their habitats.
Regulations, sportsmanship, and safety
Waterfowl hunting is highly regulated in most western countries. Hunters are required to obtain a hunting license and face strict limits on the number of birds that can be taken in a day (bag limits), and the total number of birds a hunter can possess (possession limits).
There were no regulations on waterfowl hunting from when the Paleo Indians arrived in North America to the early 20th century. In the early 20th century large bore shotguns and rifles were used. Traps were used. Live decoys were used in front of blinds, as well as shotguns holding many shells. Hunting was done throughout the year. In 1913 the United States Congress passed the Weeks–McLean Act regulating waterfowl hunting; however, the states were successful in arguing that the constitution gave no such regulatory power to the federal government, and the statute was struck down. In response, the United States negotiated the Migratory Bird Treaty Act of 1918 with the United Kingdom (which at the time was largely responsible for Canada's foreign affairs) covering the same substance, but would be constitutional because of the Supremacy Clause. The treaty was upheld by the Supreme Court in Missouri v. Holland.
In the United States, hunters must also purchase a federal duck stamp and often a state stamp. It is illegal to shoot ducks from a motor vehicle or a moving boat. Shooting sitting or swimming ducks is considered unsportsmanlike by some and possibly unsafe. Many practices that were once common in commercial duck hunting before the start of the 20th century, including laying baits such as corn, use of live ducks as "decoys," and use of guns larger than a 10-gauge, are now prohibited. In most areas, shotguns that can hold more than three shells must be modified to reduce their magazine size. A wooden plug is installed in the hollow magazine of the shotgun. Legal hunting is limited to a set time period (or "season"), which generally extends from fall to early winter, while birds are migrating south.
The Conservation Order established by the USF&WS allows for hunting snow geese in March and April. The reason for this is that snow geese populations have become so large that more hunting is needed to control their populations, as they are destroying their habitat. Shotguns can be loaded to full capacity for hunting these geese.
It is also considered good sportsmanship to make every possible attempt to retrieve dead or injured waterfowl the hunter has shot (In the Australian state of Victoria it is required by law). Birds are shot within range to prevent cripples. Shooting before birds are within range is also considered poor sportsmanship, as this often merely injures the birds and may drive them away before other hunters can fire.
Many provinces in Canada and all states require hunters, including waterfowl hunters, to complete hunter safety courses before they can obtain a license. Waterfowl hunters fire short-range shotgun rounds into the air over often deserted bodies of water, so accidental injuries are rarer than in other hunting activities such as big game or deer hunting.
Hunting areas
All states except Hawaii have public land for waterfowl hunting. Some states might refer to them as fish and game lands or Wildlife Management Areas (WMAs). Every state's DNR has a website, and each has a link to their licenses and regulations and WMAs, as well as information on various draw and public hunts. Some states call them fish and wildlife management areas. These are lands purchased from hunting license revenue. Water in bays or ocean are open area to hunting, as no one can own these areas, although some counties in North Carolina and Virginia still allow a limited number of Registered Blinds in public waters of certain coastal counties. The Mississippi Flyway is a very famous waterfowling community. The Central Flyway has the highest numbers of waterfowl migrating south from Canada in the Great Southern Migration. The Pacific Flyway is an exceptional hunting area for migratory waterfowl today, although their WMAs can be quite crowded from Washington State all the way south to California rice fields which used to see Hollywood's great hunters flock to Tulle Lake, and Sacramento private duck hunting clubs.
The problem for the average waterfowler is getting access to the ocean, bay, marsh, or lake to hunt public access waters. Hunters usually need large boats, and motors to travel safely to and in these areas. Many people will set up hunting blinds on the shoreline of water unless it is private property. Many states across the United States are not allowing the building of hunting blinds on any public waters. Such action therefore allows more use of boat blinds, and therefore no permanent water hazards of blinds in public waters such as lakes, bays or sounds allows all waterfowl hunters to hunt all public waters. This can be very successful if they know how to use a duck call, and proper use of decoy placement and wind direction, and can call ducks in towards their decoys. Most sportsmen know to stay at least 500 yards from anyone else that may be hunting nearby them in public waters. More waterfowlers today should learn from their elders the importance of "ethical sportsmanship", whenever gunning on public waters hunting ducks and geese today and in the future.
Flyways
In North America, the routes used by migratory waterfowl are generally divided into four broad geographical paths known as flyways. Each flyway is characterized by a different composition of species and habitat. The U.S. fish and wildlife service established the flyways to help with the management of migratory birds. They studied all migratory birds and established the Mississippi, Atlantic, Mountain, and Pacific flyway, all holding different species of migratory birds.
Mississippi flyway
The Mississippi flyway is a migration route used by waterfowl to travel from central Canada to the Gulf of Mexico, flying along the route of the Mississippi River and its tributaries.
In the Midwest and central United States, wildfowl hunting generally occurs on lakes, marshes, swamps, or rivers where ducks and geese land during their migration. Cornfields and rice paddies are also common hunting grounds, since geese and ducks often feed on the grain that remains in the field after harvest. In some areas, farmers rent or lease hunting rights. Some farmers or hunters form hunt clubs, which can cover thousands of acres and have resort-like amenities, or be as simple as a shallow pit blind dug into a field. On the East and West Coast of America and many parts of Europe, waterfowl hunters often focus on the seashore.
The United States Fish and Wildlife Service maintains millions of acres as National Wildlife Refuges open to public hunting. All states have public hunting and fishing areas. States publish maps of these areas.
Atlantic flyway
The Atlantic Flyway is a migration route used by waterfowl flying from northern Quebec to Florida in the autumn and back in the springtime. This is where duck hunting first started some of the largest and grandest waterfowl hunting clubs and clubhouses in North America. Look at photos of the "Whalehead Club in the Outer Banks of North Carolina" which is no longer a hunting club, but is a historical building today, built in the grand style of the gilded age of waterfowling. North Carolina waterfowl guide and writer Joe Guide states, "some of the greatest and grandest of Waterfowl Clubs along the famous Atlantic flyway developed following the Civil War era, and the largest ones were financed by Northerners loaded with money due to the great industrial revolution period beginning around the mid 1870s—and most of the grand waterfowl clubs ended due to the great depression years due to economic conditions. It might surprise you that a majority of the grand Atlantic Seaboard Waterfowl Hunt Clubs did not have southerners as "members" until well into the 1950s, however, they all used locals as caretakers, guides, paddlers, and cooks". Diver hunting is the major waterfowl activity along the coastal regions of the Atlantic, however, local populations of greater snow geese seem to be increasing in number, as they have started breeding with lesser snow geese and their migration range is ever increasing.
Ducks and geese are born in the tundra of Quebec, and fly south in autumn to Chesapeake Bay and Virginia's famous Back Bay, and the James River, and then move southward through North and South Carolina, Georgia and Florida for the winter. Northeast and northwest Florida get a great number of teal and divers as the winter progresses. In the northeastern states the Saint Lawrence River, the coast of Maine, Long island harbors, Barnegat Bay, Great Egg Harbor, Little Egg Harbor, Absecon Bay, Delaware Bay, Chesapeake Bay, Virginia's Eastern Shore and Back Bays saw presidents and captains of great industry spend part of their winters at their wildfowling clubs. North Carolina's Outer Banks, and the Core and Pamlico Sounds have been known for centuries for great waterfowl hunting drawing people from throughout the big cities of the northeastern states. In South Carolina there was Georgetown's and Charleston's old rice fields, and backcountry marshes and freshwater rivers and lakes that continued to draw ducks in great numbers until the Santee National Wildlife Refuge stopped feeding the ducks in the winter months of the 1980s due to the economy and changes in National Wildlife Refuge policy across the nation. In the 1960s to the mid-1980s the upper Santee swamp's upper Lake Marion region used to winter over 150,000 mallards each and every winter's duck count.
In the Chesapeake Bay area well into the 1930s one of the biggest threats to waterfowl was "local poachers" using flat boat boats, mounting huge 12 foot black powder swivel guns. Most of these ancient weapons have been confiscated and are in museums, although a few families have hidden theirs as family keepsakes.
Mountain (Central) Flyway
The Rocky Mountain Flyway is used by waterfowl of that region to fly from Alberta and Saskatchewan Canada to Texas, the Gulf Coast, and western Mexico.
Pacific flyway
The Pacific flyway is a migration route from central Alaska to southern Mexico. It is used by nearly all waterfowl species in that region.
Waterfowl conservation
Due to extensive market hunting from the 18th century to the early 20th century, waterfowl populations dropped drastically. In the 1930s there was a severe drought, in which waterfowl populations declined severely.
Waterfowl are indigenous to marsh and wetland areas, which are shrinking at alarming rates due to the drought and farmers draining wetland areas to plant crops. Wetland conservation and restoration is critical for the continuance of waterfowl hunting. Organizations such as Ducks Unlimited are making a concerted effort to maintain and expand waterfowl and marshland conservation to ensure safety and expansion of the sport. Ducks Unlimited buys land or converts land into waterfowl habitat. Ducks Unlimited started in 1937 in Sullivan County, New York when a hunter went hunting along a river and could not find any wood ducks. This hunter and others formed Ducks Unlimited. Now Ducks Unlimited has thousands of members that donate millions of dollars for buying waterfowl habitat in the United States, Canada and Mexico. Ducks Unlimited has many dinners and other fund raisers throughout the year in each state.
See also
British Association for Shooting and Conservation
Decoy
Delta Waterfowl Foundation
Duck
Ducks Unlimited
Field and Game Australia
Game bird
Hunting
Muttonbirding
Sneak boat hunting
Waterfowl
Wetland
Whiffling
Wildfowl and Wetlands Trust
References
External links
Flyways.us – United States Fish & Wildlife Service, Flyway Councils, waterfowl hunting management in North America
Delta Waterfowl Foundation – Waterfowl hunting
Ducks Unlimited – Hunting and Wetlands and Waterfowl Conservation
The Book of Duck Decoys – Sir Ralph Payne-Gallwey, 1886 (full text)
British Duck Decoys of To-Day, 1918 – Joseph Whitaker (full text)
Midwest Decoy Collectors Association – The de facto international collectors group
"Hide And Seek With The Mallards", October 1931, Popular Mechanics
British Association for Shooting and Conservation – Covering wildfowling in the UK
Duckr – Application devoted to identifying waterfowl
Waterfowl Craft – Hub dedicated to bringing awareness to Waterfowl Hunting
Fowling
Hunting in the United States
Winter sports
Bird mortality
Hunting by game |
4100315 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gothic%20double | Gothic double | The Gothic double is a literary motif which refers to the divided personality of a character. Closely linked to the Doppelgänger, which first appeared in the 1796 novel Siebenkäs by Johann Paul Richter, the double figure emerged in Gothic literature in the late 18th century due to a resurgence of interest in mythology and folklore which explored notions of duality, such as the fetch in Irish folklore which is a double figure of a family member, often signifying an impending death.
A major shift in Gothic literature occurred in the late 18th and early 19th centuries, where evil was no longer within a physical location such as a haunted castle, but expanded to inhabit the mind of characters, often referred to as "the haunted individual." Examples of the Gothic double motif in 19th-century texts include Charlotte Brontë's novel Jane Eyre (1847) and Charlotte Perkins Gilman's short story The Yellow Wallpaper (1892), which use the motif to reflect on gender inequalites in the Victorian era, and famously, Robert Louis Stevenson's novella Strange Case of Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde (1886).
In the early 20th century, the Gothic double motif was featured in new mediums such as film to explore the emerging fear of technology replacing humanity. A notable example of this is the evil mechanical double depicted in the German expressionist film Metropolis by Fritz Lang (1927). Texts in this period also appropriate the Gothic double motif present in earlier literature, such as Daphne du Maurier's Gothic romance novel Rebecca (1938), which appropriates the doubling in Jane Eyre. In the 21st century, the Gothic double motif has further been featured in horror and psychological thriller films such as Darren Aronofsky's Black Swan (2010) and Jordan Peele's Us (2019). In addition, the Gothic double motif has been used in 21st century Anthropocene literature, such as Jeff VanderMeer's Annihilation (2014).
Origins
The emergence of the Gothic novel in the 18th century coincided with a renewed interest in Celtic folklore and pagan mythology, which is abundant with supernatural double figures. The period from 1750 to 1830 is known as the “Gothic and Celtic revival” in which the Irish, Scottish, and Welsh folklore which had previously become absorbed into British literature as a result of colonial expansion into these territories began to influence the development of the Gothic genre. For example, the doppelgänger motif was inspired by the Celtic double figure called the fetch or Macasamhail, a lookalike of a relative or friend who would appear as an omen of death if encountered at night, according to Irish and Scottish superstition.
Short stories detailing encounters with fetches began to appear in the early 19th century, such as the tale The Fetches (1825) published by Irish brothers John Banim and Michael Banim, and the collection of ghost-sightings The Night Side of Nature (1848) published by Catherine Crowe. Crowe's collection of tales featured a chapter detailing encounters with double figures, including John Donne's claim that he saw a double of his wife holding a dead child in Paris at the same moment she gave birth to their stillborn child in London. In these early Gothic tales, the double was believed to be a sentient spirit which had the ability to leave the physical body and travel to communicate with family members.
18th century
Siebenkas (1796)
The German Romantic novel Siebenkas features the first appearance of the term doppelgänger, meaning double-walker. A footnote in the novel which first coins the term defines doppelgänger as “the name for people who see themselves.” Unlike the supernatural fetch in Celtic folklore, in Siebenkas the doppelgänger is initially not a supernatural apparition or hallucination but Siebankas’ friend Leibgeber who looks very similar to Siebenkas except for his limp. However, later in the novel the term doppelgänger begins to take on the meaning of a hallucination when Leibgeber is represented as Siebenkas’ alter ego or spectre rather than just his lookalike friend. This novel marked the beginning of the Gothic double motif as a sinister split personality.
19th century
Victorian Gothic literature altered depictions of evil to explore the potential darkness of the human mind. Rather than evil being an external force such as a ghost haunting a castle, as apparent in early Gothic texts such as Horace Walpole's The Castle of Otranto (1764), Victorian Gothic literature examined how evil can exist within the minds of individuals. As a result, the double motif was heavily featured in Victorian Horror to explore the innate darkness of humanity rather than just the presence of external sources of evil. Manifestations of the double motif in this period include mirrors, shadows, reflections, and automatons.
Novels
Jane Eyre (1847)
Charlotte Brontë's novel Jane Eyre uses the Gothic double motif to mirror the protagonist Jane Eyre with Mr Rochester's wife Bertha Mason who is imprisoned in the attic of Thornfield Hall due to an unidentified mental illness. This doubling between the identities of Jane and Bertha is used to challenge the expected roles of women regarding marriage and sexuality in the Victorian era. In the novel, Bronte alters the typical use of the double figure by placing the motif into a domestic rather than supernatural context which addresses marriage issues, as Jane is the second wife of Mr Rochester who replaces his first wife, Bertha Mason. While Jane is initially represented as Bertha's replacement and therefore her opposite, their identities are doubled in the novel to represent the powerlessness of women during this era, as both characters are imprisoned within gender stereotypes imposed on them by Mr Rochester. Bertha symbolises Jane's repressed desires for freedom and independence in a context which restricts women's lives through marriage, as evident in the chapter describing the night before Jane's wedding where Bertha appears in her bedroom and rips her wedding veil, as shown in the quote below.“But presently she took my veil from its place; she held it up, gazed at it long, and then she threw it over her own head, and turned to the mirror. At that moment I saw the reflection of the visage and features quite distinctly in the dark oblong glass…Sir, it removed my veil from its gaunt head, rent it in two parts, and flinging both on the floor, trampled on them.” This quote uses the mirror motif commonly featured in 19th century Gothic literature to enhance the doubling of Jane and Bertha's identities. Through staring at herself in the mirror while wearing Jane's wedding veil and ripping the veil in half, Bertha embodies Jane's repressed anger and her desire to escape the confines of marriage. Jane's longing for independence is finally enacted by Bertha at the end of the novel when she burns down Thornfield Hall, which symbolises a destruction of Mr Rochester's dominance over her identity.
Short stories
The Strange Case of Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde (1886)
Robert Louis Stevenson's novella The Strange Case of Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde is a famous example of the Gothic double motif which explores the duality of man and the inner struggle between good and evil within the mind of an individual. In the novella, the physician Dr Henry Jekyll invents a medicine which allows one to separate their good and bad selves from each other, transforming into the evil and grotesque Mr Hyde when he takes the drug. Notably, Dr Jekyll's transformation into his evil double is not supernatural, but rather facilitated by a scientific experiment, reflecting the growing interest in science and psychology in the 19th century. However, much like the monstrous creation in Mary Shelley's Frankenstein, this ambition of scientific discovery and advancement has disastrous consequences for Dr Jekyll as he is consumed by the evil within him. Stevenson's novella suggests that the desire to solve mysteries of the human condition through science are impossible, as Dr Jekyll is unable to control the evil aspect of his identity and his experiment ultimately fails.
The novella also comments on the awareness of drug addiction which emerged in the late 19th century, which was viewed as a mental and moral deficiency linked to the pursuit of vice. Mr Hyde is represented in the novella as the embodiment of addiction, a destructive and evil figure who unleashes chaos upon the life of Dr Jekyll, resulting in his suicide. Some interpretations argue that Mr Hyde is not a real figure but a hallucination of Dr Jekyll's, caused by his addiction to drugs and deviant behaviour which has resulted in psychological damage.
The Yellow Wallpaper (1892)
Charlotte Perkins Gilman's Gothic short story The Yellow Wallpaper utilises the double motif to explore the impact of patriarchal authority on the freedom of women. The Yellow Wallpaper is an example of the Female Gothic sub-genre through its use of the double motif to expose the fragmented and divided identities that women experience as a result of societal limitations in the 19th century. Written in an epistolary structure as a series of diary entries, the story is narrated by a woman who has been confined to an isolated manor in order to recover from postpartum depression, cared for by her physician husband who frequently dismisses her illness as trivial and made-up. Echoing Bertha Mason's imprisonment in the attic in Jane Eyre, the narrator of The Yellow Wallpaper is similarly confined to an upper room of the manor which features a bright yellow Arabesque patterned wallpaper that she becomes increasingly obsessed with, spending hours trying to make sense of the confusing pattern. The narrator begins to experience hallucinations that the figure of a woman is creeping behind the wallpaper and shaking it as if she is trying to escape, as shown in the quotes below."This wallpaper has a kind of sub-pattern in a different shade, a particularly irritating one, for you can only see it in certain lights, and not clearly then. But in the places where it isn't faded and where the sun is just so – I can see a strange, provoking, formless sort of figure, that seems to skulk about behind that silly and conspicuous front design."
“The faint figure behind seemed to shake the pattern, just as if she wanted to get out.” The narrator's schizophrenic hallucination is a metaphor for her divided identity controlled by the authority of her husband, in which the woman behind the wallpaper symbolises her repressed self, imprisoned within the patriarchal institution of marriage and motherhood. At the end of the story the narrator begins to identify herself with the figure behind the wallpaper so that their identities merge and become indistinguishable from one another, confirming that the figure represents her repressed double. This is shown when the narrator locks herself in the room and rips the wallpaper off the walls in an attempt to free the imprisoned woman, preparing a rope so that she can tie the woman up when she emerges from behind the wallpaper."I've got a rope up here that even Jennie did not find. If that woman does get out, and tries to get away, I can tie her!" This statement indicates that the narrator still views herself and the woman as separate people as she plans to tie the woman up, however, this distinction is soon blurred once she succeeds in ripping off the wallpaper. The quotes below demonstrate this final merging of identities between the narrator and the woman behind the wallpaper, in which her repressed self is liberated."I don't like to look out of the windows even – there are so many of those creeping women, and they creep so fast. I wonder if they all come out of that wall-paper as I did? But I am securely fastened now by my well-hidden rope...I suppose I shall have to get back behind the pattern when it comes night, and that is hard!"
"'I've got out at last,' said I, 'in spite of you and Jane. And I've pulled off most of the paper, so you can't put me back!'"
20th century
Novels
Rebecca (1938)
Daphne du Maurier's Gothic romance novel Rebecca uses the double motif to explore the inability of women to fulfil gender expectations in the 20th century, particularly the idea of a perfect wife. This is explored in the struggles of the unnamed narrator who, after impulsively marrying the aristocrat Maxim de Winter, experiences feelings of inadequacy when trying to measure up to the esteemed reputation of his deceased wife Rebecca. As the novel progresses, the narrator becomes increasingly obsessed with the ghostly memory of Rebecca, who she views as the embodiment of an ideal wife. Echoing the doubling of wives in Jane Eyre, Rebecca centres on a doubling of identities between the timid and obedient second wife and the rebellious first wife, Rebecca. While the narrator views Rebecca as her rival, she is simultaneously her alter ego, embodying the rebelliousness and freedom that the narrator is unable to obtain in her marriage to Maxim. This doubling is represented using the mirror motif, much like in Jane Eyre, as evident in the following quote where the narrator dreams that she is Rebecca. “I got up and went to the looking glass. A face stared back at me that was not my own. It was very pale, very lovely, framed in a cloud of dark hair. The eyes narrowed and smiled. The lips parted. The face in the glass stared back at me and laughed…Maxim was brushing her hair. He held her hair in her hands, and as he brushed it he wound it slowly into a thick rope. It twisted like a snake, and he took hold of it with both hands and smiled at Rebecca and put it round his neck.”
Films
Metropolis (1927)
Silent German Expressionist film Metropolis, directed by Fritz Lang, uses the motif of a mechanical double to reflect concerns about the growing influence of technology in Germany's Weimar Republic. Depicting a hierarchical society dominated by technology where the lower class workers live below ground and operate machinery to keep the city above ground functioning, the film exposes the dehumanisation that lower-class people are subject to, as the workers are represented as part of the machinery itself through their synchronised, rhythmic movements. This is emphasised when the scientist Rotwang creates an evil automaton double of the character Maria, a maternal Madonna-like figure who symbolises purity, goodness, and liberation from oppressive class hierarchies. The robotic double of Maria is her demonic opposite, embodying promiscuity and chaos, as evident in the dark eyeliner she wears which distinguishes her from the purity of the real Maria, and in the scene where robot Maria performs a seductive dance at the Yoshiwara nightclub in front of a male audience who gaze at her with desire. While Maria symbolises the Madonna, her cyborg double symbolises the Whore of Babylon, emphasising the virgin-whore binary that women are often subjected to in literature. Metropolis captures the emergence of interest in the 20th century to create an artificial human using science and technology, however it simultaneously represents the fear of the cyborg as humanity's monstrous other.
21st century
Films
Black Swan (2010)
Darren Aronofsky's psychological thriller film Black Swan uses the Gothic double motif to portray the protagonist Nina Sayers' descent into madness as a result of the extreme perfectionism and competitiveness of the New York ballet world. Nina becomes obsessed with obtaining the role of Odette/Odile in a ballet production of Tchaikovsky's Swan Lake, pushing herself to her physical and psychological limits in order to achieve her ideal of artistic perfection. Nina's rival Lily is represented as her alter ego or shadow self who symbolises repressed aspects of her identity such as her sexuality. While Nina desires to play Odette, the white swan who embodies purity, Lily plays Odile, the evil black swan and dark doppelganger of Odette. The costumes featured in the film enhance the duality between Nina and Lily, as Nina wears childlike white and pink clothes in the beginning of the film whereas Lily wears black clothes. As Nina becomes further absorbed into Lily's identity, she begins to wear darker clothing, as shown in the scene where Nina wears Lily's black lingerie top when they go to a nightclub together, embracing a wild, sexual lifestyle which Nina previously repressed.
Subtle references to the Gothic double motif are also present in the film through fragmented images of Nina in mirrors, and Nina encountering doppelgängers of herself on the street, in the bath, and in her bedroom. Nina's split personality between the Black Swan and the White Swan has destructive consequences at the end of the film, where she hallucinates in her dressing room before the performance that Lily is taking over the role of Swan Queen, and stabs the double with a shard of mirror, only to realise that she has stabbed herself.
Us (2019)
Jordan Peele's horror film Us portrays the Wilson family on a vacation near Santa Cruz Beach, whose holiday home is invaded by four intruders who are their exact doubles, wearing red jumpsuits and carrying large scissors. These doubles are called 'the Tethered,' a class of rebels who live in subterranean tunnels and plan to take the place of their middle-class counterparts who live above ground. This Gothic double motif is used in the film to comment on societal inequality and the illusory nature of the American dream, indicating that affluence and success are often achieved at the expense of lower-class people in America, as symbolised by the Tethered who seek revenge on their more prosperous doppelgängers. The Tethered represent the dark Other, or the 'Us and Them' mentality which drives America's societal inequalities. The Tethered also symbolise the fear, hatred, dehumanisation, and negative stereotypes that people of a high socioeconomic status project onto lower-class people, particularly African-Americans.
Racial inequality is a prominent theme in the film, shown when the African-American Wilson family attempt to compete with the status of the white Tyler family. While both families are middle class and both fathers, Gabe Wilson and Josh Tyler, work at the same company, the Tyler family has a higher economic status due to racial privilege. This is shown in the scene where Gabe buys a used boat in an attempt to compete with Josh's private yacht. The Tethered are also used to expose how racism creates a divided identity or split self in African-American people, through the difference between how they perceive themselves and how they are viewed by white people. While the Wilson family attempts to live a conventional middle-class life and live up to the status of the white Tyler family, the invasion of the Tethered, who are their monstrous, grunting lookalikes, represents the shadow of underlying racial bias and reveals how they are perceived by others - monstrous intruders into a social and economic class that people of colour are typically excluded from.
Literature
Annihilation (2014)
Jeff VanderMeer’s novel Annihilation, the first in the Southern Reach trilogy, utilizes the Gothic double motif in its portrayal of its characters, particularly the Biologist, to show how Area X has ensnared and entangled them, leading to the character’s physical and mental transformation throughout the novel. As a result of traveling down the Tower, as the Biologist describes it, she becomes contaminated by Area X and begins to experience changes, such as having her senses heightened, and being able to resist the Psychologist’s hypnosis that she continually places on the rest of the group. As these changes happen, the Biologist describes herself as no longer being a biologist but something new, and she asserts that she sees “with such new eyes.” This use of Gothic doubling is unique in that it also connects with the Anthropocene epoch and what has been called Anthropocene literature or the Anthropocene genre. Rather than a physical double that stands separate from her, the Biologist’s doubling is entirely psychological and internal, with Area X’s minuscule bacteria changing her and projecting back onto her. This leads to a division in the Biologist, between that of her ‘human’ identity/personality, and the way she views the world and environment. Later in the novel, when the Biologist finds and reads from her dead husband’s journal, she notes his recount of seeing someone who was not him but resembled him coming out of the Tower. This doppelganger, a physical embodiment of the Gothic double motif, is assumed to be who came back home from Area X, not actually her husband, and is suggested to be how Area X defends itself against humans. By transforming humans that cross its borders, and sending doppelgangers back in their place, Area X continues to survive and grow with each passing year.
The Gothic motif of doubling that is used in Annihilation also connects closely with real and new scientific discoveries regarding bacteria and DNA. In the book, Arts of Living on a Damaged Planet: Ghosts and Monsters of the Anthropocene, it is described how horizontal DNA has shown that “genetic material from bacteria sometimes ends up in the bodies of beetles, that of fungi in Aphids, and that of humans in malaria” and that only about half of the cells in human’s bodies contain a so-called ‘human genome.’ Taking these scientific breakthroughs with the way that the Gothic motif is represented in Annihilation, doubling is represented in the novel as being a tool to show the interconnection between humans and the environment, as well as potentially argue for the environment as holding more power and control over humans than previously thought.
See also
Doppelgänger
Alter ego
Gothic fiction
References
External links
Gothic doubling definition
Doppelgänger definition
British Library Gothic Motifs
Gothic Poets and Writers Literary Club
Gothic Romance Forum
Literary concepts |
4101418 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conditional%20preservation%20of%20the%20saints | Conditional preservation of the saints | The conditional preservation of the saints, or conditional perseverance of the saints, or commonly conditional security, is the Arminian Christian belief that believers are kept safe by God in their saving relationship with him upon the condition of a persevering faith in Christ. Arminians find the Scriptures describing both the initial act of faith in Christ, "whereby the relationship is effected", and the persevering faith in him "whereby the relationship is sustained." The relationship of "the believer to Christ is never a static relationship existing as the irrevocable consequence of a past decision, act, or experience." Rather, it is a living union "proceeding upon a living faith in a living Savior." This living union is captured in the simple command by Christ, "Remain in me, and I in you" ().
According to Arminians, biblical saving faith expresses itself in love and obedience to God (Galatians 5:6; Hebrews 5:8–9). In the Remonstrant Confession of 1621, the first Remonstrants affirmed that true or living faith operates through love, and that God chooses to give salvation and eternal life through his Son, "and to finally glorify all those and only those truly believing in his name, or obeying his gospel, and persevering in faith and obedience until death".
Arminians believe that "It is abundantly evident from the Scriptures that the believer is secure." Furthermore, believers have assurance in knowing there is no power or circumstance that can separate them from the love of God they enjoy in union with Christ (Romans 8:35–39; John 10:27–29). Nevertheless, Arminians see numerous warnings in Scripture directed to genuine believers about the possibility of falling away in unbelief and thereby becoming severed from their saving union with God through Christ. Arminians hold that if a believer becomes an unbeliever (commits apostasy), they necessarily cease to partake of the promises of salvation and eternal life made to believers who continue in faith and remain united to Christ.
Therefore, Arminians seek to follow the biblical writers in warning believers about the real dangers of committing apostasy. A sure and Biblical way to avoid apostasy is to admonish believers to mature spiritually in their relationship with God in union with Christ and through the power of the Spirit. Maturity takes place as Christ-followers keep on meeting with fellow believers for mutual encouragement and strength; exhorting each to love God and others; to continue growing in the grace and knowledge of their Lord and Savior Jesus Christ; and to persevere in faith in prayerful dependence upon God through various trials and temptations.
Historical background
Free Will Baptist scholar Robert Picirilli states:
Appropriately last among the points of tension among Calvinism and Arminianism is the question whether those who have been regenerated must necessarily persevere (or be preserved) or may apostatize and be lost. ... Arminius himself and the original Remonstrants avoided a clear conclusion on this matter. But they raised the question. And the natural implications of the views at the heart of Arminianism, even in its early stages as a formal movement, tended to question whether Calvinism's assumptions of necessary perseverance was truly Biblical. Those tendencies indicated by the questions raised did not take long to reach fruition, and thus Calvinism and Arminianism have come to be traditionally divided on this issue.
Prior to the time of the debate between Calvinists and the Arminians at the Synod of Dort (1618–1619), the view in the early church appears to be on the side of conditional security. From his research of the writings of the early church fathers (AD 90–313), patristic scholar David W. Bercot arrived at this conclusion: "Since the early Christians believed that our continued faith and obedience are necessary for salvation, it naturally follows that they believed that a 'saved' person could still end up being lost."
Arminius and conditional security
Jacobus Arminius (1560–1609) arrived at the same conclusion in his own readings of the early church fathers. In responding to Calvinist William Perkins arguments for the perseverance of the saints, he wrote: "In reference to the sentiments of the [early church] fathers, you doubtless know that almost all antiquity is of the opinion, that believers can fall away and perish." On another occasion he notes that such a view was never "reckoned as a heretical opinion," but "has always had more supporters in the church of Christ, than that which denies its possibility." Arminius' opinion on the subject is clearly communicated in this relatively brief statement:
My sentiments respecting the perseverance of the Saints are, that those persons who have been grafted into Christ by true faith, and have thus been made partakers of his life-giving Spirit, possess sufficient powers [or strength] to fight against Satan, sin, the world and their own flesh, and to gain the victory over these enemies—yet not without the assistance of the grace of the same Holy Spirit. Jesus Christ also by his Spirit assists them in all their temptations, and affords them the ready aid of his hand; and, provided they stand prepared for the battle, implore his help, and be not wanting to themselves, Christ preserves them from falling. So that it is not possible for them, by any of the cunning craftiness or power of Satan, to be either seduced or dragged out of the hands of Christ. But I think it is useful and will be quite necessary in our first convention, [or Synod] to institute a diligent inquiry from the Scriptures, whether it is not possible for some individuals through negligence to desert the commencement of their existence in Christ, to cleave again to the present evil world, to decline from the sound doctrine which was once delivered to them, to lose a good conscience, and to cause Divine grace to be ineffectual. Though I here openly and ingenuously affirm, I never taught that a true believer can, either totally or finally fall away from the faith, and perish; yet I will not conceal, that there are passages of scripture which seem to me to wear this aspect; and those answers to them which I have been permitted to see, are not of such a kind as to approve themselves on all points to my understanding. On the other hand, certain passages are produced for the contrary doctrine [of unconditional perseverance] which are worthy of much consideration.
For Arminius the believer's security is conditional—"provided they stand prepared for the battle, implore his help, and be not wanting to themselves." This complements what Arminius says elsewhere in his writings: "God resolves to receive into favor those who repent and believe, and to save in Christ, on account of Christ, and through Christ, those who persevere [in faith], but to leave under sin and wrath those who are impenitent and unbelievers, and to condemn them as aliens from Christ." In another place he writes: "[God] wills that they, who believe and persevere in faith, shall be saved, but that those, who are unbelieving and impenitent, shall remain under condemnation."
The Remonstrants and conditional security
After the death of Arminius in 1609, the Remonstrants maintained their leader's view on conditional security and his uncertainty regarding the possibility of apostasy. This is evidenced in the fifth article drafted by its leaders in 1610:
That those who are incorporated into Christ by a true faith, and have thereby become partakers of his life-giving Spirit, have thereby full power to strive against Satan, sin, the world, and their own flesh, and to win the victory; it being well understood that it is ever through the assisting grace of the Holy Ghost; and that Jesus Christ assists them through his Spirit in all temptations, extends to them his hand, and if only they are ready for the conflict, and desire his help, and are not inactive, keeps them from falling, so that they, by not craft or power of Satan, can be misled nor plucked out of Christ's hand, according to the Word of Christ, John 10:28: 'Neither shall any man pluck them out of my hand.' But whether they are capable, through negligence, of forsaking again the first beginnings of their life in Christ, of again returning to this present evil world, of turning away from the holy doctrine which was delivered them, of losing a good conscience, of becoming devoid of grace, that must be more particularly determined out of the Holy Scripture, before we ourselves can teach it with full persuasion of our minds.
Sometime between 1610, and the official proceeding of the Synod of Dort (1618), the Remonstrants became fully persuaded in their minds that the Scriptures taught that a true believer was capable of falling away from faith and perishing eternally as an unbeliever. They formalized their views in "The Opinion of the Remonstrants" (1618). Points three and four in the fifth article read:
True believers can fall from true faith and can fall into such sins as cannot be consistent with true and justifying faith; not only is it possible for this to happen, but it even happens frequently. True believers are able to fall through their own fault into shameful and atrocious deeds, to persevere and to die in them; and therefore finally to fall and to perish.
Picirilli remarks: "Ever since that early period, then, when the issue was being examined again, Arminians have taught that those who are truly saved need to be warned against apostasy as a real and possible danger."
Other Arminians who affirmed conditional security
John Goodwin (1593–1665) was a Puritan who "presented the Arminian position of falling away in Redemption Redeemed (1651)" which drew a lot of attention from Calvinists. In his book, English bishop Laurence Womock (1612–1685) provides numerous scriptural references to the fifth article concerning perseverance delivered by the later Remonstrants. Philipp van Limborch (1633–1712) penned the first complete Remonstrant Systematic Theology in 1702 that included a section on apostasy. In 1710, a minister in the Church of England, Daniel Whitby (1638–1726), published a major work criticizing the five points of Calvinism—which involves their doctrine of unconditional perseverance.
John Wesley (1703–1791), the founder of Methodism, was an outspoken defender of conditional security and critic of unconditional security. In 1751, Wesley defended his position in a work titled, "Serious Thoughts Upon the Perseverance of the Saints." In it he argued that a believer remains in a saving relationship with God if he "continue in faith" or "endureth in faith unto the end." Wesley affirmed that a child of God, "while he continues a true believer, cannot go to hell." However, if he makes a "shipwreck of the faith, then a man that believes now may be an unbeliever some time hence" and become "a child of the devil." He then adds, "God is the Father of them that believe, so long as they believe. But the devil is the father of them that believe not, whether they did once believe or no." Like his Arminian predecessors, Wesley was convinced from the testimony of the Scriptures that a true believer may abandon faith and the way of righteousness and "fall from God as to perish everlastingly."
From John Wesley onward, it looks as if every Methodist/Wesleyan pastor, scholar, or theologian in print has opposed unconditional perseverance: Thomas Olivers (1725–1799); John William Fletcher (1729–1783); Joseph Benson (1748–1821); Leroy M. Lee (1758–1816); Adam Clarke (1762–1832); Nathan Bangs (1778–1862); Richard Watson (1781–1833); Thomas C. Thornton (1794–1860) Samuel Wakefield (1799–1895); Luther Lee (1800–1889); Amos Binney (1802–1878); William H. Browning (1805–1873); Daniel D. Whedon (1805–1885); Thomas N. Ralston (1806–1891); Thomas O. Summers (1812–1882); Albert Nash (1812–1900); John Miley (1813–1895); Philip Pugh (1817–1871); Randolph Sinks Foster (1820–1903); William Burt Pope (1822–1903); B. T. Roberts (1823–1893); Daniel Steele (1824–1914); Benjamin Field (1827–1869); John Shaw Banks (1835–1917); and Joseph Agar Beet (1840–1924).
Apostasy: definition and dangers
The definition of apostasy
Apostasy "means the deliberate disavowal of belief in Christ made by a formerly believing Christian." "Cremer states that apostasia is used in the absolute sense of 'passing over to unbelief,' thus a dissolution of the 'union with God subsisting through faith in Christ'." Arminian scholar Robert Shank writes,
The English word apostasy is derived from the Greek noun, apostasia. Thayer defines apostasia as 'a falling away, defection, apostasy; in the Bible sc. from the true religion.' The word appears twice in the New Testament (Acts 21:21, 2 Thessalonians 2:3). Its meaning is well illustrated in its use in Acts 21:21, ... "you are teaching apostasy (defection) from Moses." ... A kindred word is the synonym apostasion. Thayer defines apostasion, as used in the Bible, as "divorce, repudiation." He cites and , ... "a bill of divorce [apostasion]." He also cites Matthew 5:31, ... "let him give her a bill of divorce [apostasion]." He cites the use of apostasion by Demosthenes as "defection, of a freedman from his patron." Moulton and Milligan cite the use of [apostasion] as a "bond of relinquishing (of property sold) ... a contract of renunciation ... the renunciation of rights of ownership." They also cite the use of apostasion "with reference to 'a deed of divorce.'" The meaning of the [related] verb aphistēmi ... is, of course, consonant with the meaning of the nouns. It is used transitively in Acts 5:37, ... "drew away people after him." Intransitively, it means to depart, go away, desert, withdraw, fall away, become faithless, etc.
I. Howard Marshall notes that aphistemi "is used of giving up the faith in Luke 8:13; 1 Timothy 4:1 and Hebrews 3:12, and is used of departure from God in the LXX [i.e., Septuagint, the Greek translation of the Old Testament]." Marshall also notes that "the failure to persist in faith is expressed by [other Greek] words which mean falling away, drifting and stumbling." Of particular theological significance are the verb skandalizō ("fall away from faith") and the noun skandalon ("enticement to unbelief, cause of salvation's loss, seduction").
Shank concluded: "An apostate, according to the New Testament definition, is one who has severed his union with Christ by withdrawing from an actual saving relationship with Him. Apostasy is impossible for men who have not entered into a saving relationship with God... The warnings against succumbing to the ugly peril of apostasy are directed ... to men who obviously are true believers." J. Rodman Williams adds,
One of the mistakes made by those who affirm the invariable continuance of salvation is the viewing of salvation too much as a "state." From this perspective, to be saved is to enter into "a state of grace." However true it is that one moves into a new realm—whether it is called the kingdom of God, eternal life, or other like expression—the heart of the matter is the establishment of a new relationship with God. Prior to salvation, one was "without God" or "against God," cut off from His presence. Now through Jesus Christ reconciliation—"at-one-ment with God"—has occurred. Moreover, the Holy Spirit, who becomes present, is not merely some force or energy but God Himself in a new and intimate relationship. Hence, if a person begins to "drift away," it is not from some static condition or "state" but from a Person. It is a personal relationship that thereby is betrayed, broken, forfeited; this is the tragic meaning of apostasy. It is not so much giving up something, even so marvellous as salvation, but the forsaking of a Person. Surely through such an action salvation too is forfeited. But the critical matter is the severing of a relationship with the personal God.
The dangers of apostasy
Marshall finds four biblical dangers that could serve as precursors to committing apostasy:
Marshall concludes: "The New Testament contains too many warnings about the danger of sin and apostasy for us to be complacent about these possibilities. ... These dangers are real and not 'hypothetical.'" Methodist scholar Ben Witherington would add: "The New Testament suggests that one is not eternally secure until one is securely in eternity. Short of that, there is the possibility of apostasy or rebellion against God by one who has believed in Christ. Apostasy, however, is not to be confused with the notion of accidentally or unconsciously "falling away." Apostasy is a conscious, wilful rebellion against God ... Unless one commits such an act of apostasy or rebellion, one need not worry about one's salvation, for God has a firm grip on the believer."
With apostasy being a real possibility for Christians, Arminians seek to follow the example that New Testament writer's provide in urging Christians to persevere. Scot McKnight clarifies what perseverance means and doesn't mean for Arminians:
It doesn't mean sinlessness; it doesn't mean that we are on some steady and never-failing incline up into pure sanctification; it does not deny stumbling or messy spirituality; it doesn't deny doubt and problems. It simply means that the person continues to walk with Jesus and doesn't walk away from him in a resolute manner. ... What it means is continuing trust in God.
Since Arminians view sin as "an act and attitude which ... constitutes a denial of faith", believers who persist in acting like unbelievers will eventually become one of them and share in their same destiny and doom. Therefore, "the only people who need perseverance are Christians," and "the only people who can commit apostasy are Christians. Non-Christians have nothing to persevere toward or apostatize from." Thus, when Christians are appropriately warned about the dangers of committing apostasy, such warnings "can function as a moral injunction that strengthens commitment to holiness as well as the need to turn in complete trust to God in Christ through his Spirit."
Biblical support
Below are many key Scriptures that Arminians have used to defend conditional security and the possibility of apostasy.
Conditional security in the Old Testament
Deuteronomy 29:18–20 – "Make sure there is no man or woman, clan or tribe among you today whose heart turns away from the LORD our God to go and worship the gods of those nations; make sure there is no root among you that produces such bitter poison. When such a person hears the words of this oath, he invokes a blessing on himself and therefore thinks, 'I will be safe, even though I persist in going my own way.' ... The LORD will never be willing to forgive him; his wrath and zeal will burn against that man. All the curses written in this book will fall upon him, and the LORD will blot out his name from under heaven." (NIV)
Joseph Benson comments that no one among the people of God are to "revolt" from the Lord "to serve other gods." The person who does so is an "apostate from the true God" who is "spreading his poison to infect others." This apostate flatters himself into thinking that he is safe from the judgment of God while he does not "follow God's command," but his own devices. Moses warns the Israelites that their hopes of peace and safety will not "avail them at all if they forsook the law of God, and apostatized from his worship and service."
2 Chronicles 15:1–2 – The Spirit of God came upon Azariah the son of Oded, and he went out to meet Asa and said to him, "Hear me, Asa, and all Judah and Benjamin: The LORD is with you while you are with him. If you seek him, he will be found by you, but if you forsake him, he will forsake you. (ESV)
"This is the settled and eternal purpose of God; to them who seek him he will ever be found propitious, and them alone will he abandon who forsake him. In this verse the unconditional perseverance of the saints has no place."
Ezekiel 18:20–24 – "The soul who sins shall die. The son shall not bear the guilt of the father, nor the father bear the guilt of the son. The righteousness of the righteous shall be upon himself, and the wickedness of the wicked shall be upon himself. But if a wicked man turns from all his sins which he has committed, keeps all My statutes, and does what is lawful and right, he shall surely live; he shall not die. None of the transgressions which he has committed shall be remembered against him; because of the righteousness which he has done, he shall live. Do I have any pleasure at all that the wicked should die?" says the Lord GOD, "and not that he should turn from his ways and live? But when a righteous man turns away from his righteousness and commits iniquity, and does according to all the abominations that the wicked man does, shall he live? All the righteousness which he has done shall not be remembered; because of the unfaithfulness of which he is guilty and the sin which he has committed, because of them he shall die." (NKJV)
Can a man who was once holy and pure fall away so as to perish everlastingly? YES. For God says, "If he turn away from his righteousness;" . . . And he tells us, that a man may so "turn away from this," and so "commit iniquity," and "act as the wicked man," that his righteousness shall be no more mentioned to his account, than the sins of the penitent backslider should be mentioned to his condemnation; and "in the sin that he" this once righteous man, "hath sinned, and in the trespass that he hath trespassed, in them shall he die." . . . So then, God himself informs us that a righteous man may not only fall foully, but fall finally.
Conditional security in the teachings of Jesus
Matthew 5:27–30 – [Jesus said] "You heard that it was said, 'You shall not commit-adultery'. But I say to you that everyone looking at a woman so as to desire her already committed adultery with her in his heart. And if your right eye is causing you to fall [skandalizō], tear it out and throw it from you. For it is better for you that one of your body-parts perish and your whole body not be thrown into Gehenna. And if your right hand is causing you to fall [skandalizō], cut it off and throw it from you. For it is better for you that one of your body-parts perish and your whole body not go into Gehenna. (Disciples' Literal New Testament or DLNT)
The idea of gouging out [your right eye] and cutting off [your right hand], needless to say, demands a violent, decisive measure for removing the source of temptation. The reason is seen in "to fall away" [skandalizō], a strong term that does not simply indicate temptation to general sin but that which leads one virtually into apostasy. ... The seriousness of the sin is made even more so by the reference to "Gehenna" ... which implies the final judgment and eternal torment. Jesus wants to make certain that the disciples realize the importance of the issue. ... [I]t is far better to suffer in losing your most important appendage than to lose everything at the final judgment. ... [O]ne must violently throw away everything that causes the lust, lest their spiritual life and ultimately their eternal destiny be destroyed in the process.
Matthew 7:21 – [Jesus said] "Not everyone saying to Me, 'Lord, Lord', will enter into the kingdom of the heavens, but the one doing the will of My Father in the heavens." (DLNT)
"[L]iving under the obedience to 'the will of [the] Father' (this is especially God's will as unfolded in the Sermon itself = the love commandments 22:37–40) is not an option but a necessity for entering the kingdom. A life of obedience ([note the] present tense [verb 'doing,' referring to] ... continuous action) to his will is, in fact, the definition of the 'greater righteousness' of 5:20."
Matthew 10:16–17, 21–22 – [Jesus is speaking to his twelve disciples] "Behold, I am sending you out as sheep in the midst of wolves, so be wise as serpents and innocent as doves. Beware of men, for they will deliver you over to courts and flog you in their synagogues, and you will be dragged before governors and kings for my sake, to bear witness before them and the Gentiles. ... Brother will deliver brother over to death, and the father his child, and children will rise against parents and have them put to death, and you will be hated by all for my name’s sake. But the one who endures to the end will be saved." (ESV)
"[B]e not discouraged at the prospect of these trials, for he that perseveres in the faith and practice of the gospel, and who bears constantly and with invincible patience these persecutions, (which my grace is sufficient to enable you all to do,) shall be finally and eternally saved from all sin and misery, into the kingdom and glory of God."
Matthew 10:32–33 – [Jesus is speaking to his disciples] "Therefore everyone who confesses Me before men, I will also confess him before My Father who is in heaven. But whoever denies Me before men, I will also deny him before My Father who is in heaven." (NASB)
"The term 'confess' ... here has the idea of public proclamation of allegiance to Jesus. ... Here the Son of Man on the throne confesses or denies people before the heavenly court.... [v. 33] But whoever denies me before people, I will also deny before my Father in heaven. ... This is a strong warning, for 'to deny' ... here means to renounce Christ and is language of apostasy. In this persecution passage, it means that people cave in to pressure and renounce Christ to avoid beating or death."
Matthew 18:6-9 – [Jesus is speaking to his disciples] "But whoever causes one of these little ones believing in Me to fall [skandalizō]—it would be better for him that a donkey’s millstone be hung around his neck and he be sunk in the deep part of the sea. Woe to the world because of the causes-of-falling [skandalon]. For it is a necessity that causes-of-falling [skandalon] should come; nevertheless, woe to the person through whom the cause-of-falling [skandalon] comes. But if your hand or your foot is causing you to fall [skandalizō], cut it off and throw it from you. It is better for you to enter into life crippled or lame than to be thrown into the eternal fire having two hands or two feet. And if your eye is causing you to fall [skandalizō], tear it out and throw it from you. It is better for you to enter into life one-eyed than to be thrown into the Gehenna of fire having two eyes." (DLNT)
On the basis of the present context . . . it appears that the "little ones" are particularly vulnerable to temptation and apostasy. . . . [These] "little ones" are believers who are in danger of being "scandalized," that is, fall away from Christ (skandalizō is so used in 13:21; 24:10). Those responsible for causing little ones to fall away are threatened with eternal perdition. No hint is given concerning whether the skandalon (stumbling block) of verse 7 is laid before the humble believers by an outsider or an insider. Presumably both possibilities are in view; a vulnerable Christian can be drawn away by a non-Christian or driven away by a fellow believer. . . . Believers are here warned [in verses 8-9] to exercise proper self-discipline, since the end result of continually yielding to various temptations may well be turning away from Christ.
Matthew 18:10-14 – [Jesus is speaking to his disciples] "Take heed that you do not despise one of these little ones, for I say to you that in heaven their angels always see the face of My Father who is in heaven. What do you think? If a man has a hundred sheep, and one of them goes astray, does he not leave the ninety-nine and go to the mountains to seek the one that is straying? And if he should find it, assuredly, I say to you, he rejoices more over that sheep than over the ninety-nine that did not go astray. Even so it is not the will of your Father who is in heaven that one of these little ones should perish." (NKJV)
Jesus delivers a parable about "believers . . . who can wander off into sin or false belief [cf. Matt. 18:6-9]." Jesus's disciples are to seek out and find a lost sheep (believer) who have gone astray from the flock (God's people) because God the Father values them and does not want them to ultimately "be lost forever" or perish. Lost/Perish (apollymi) in this context refers to falling into "eternal perdition," or "eternal doom because of apostasy." The wandering sheep needs to be "rescued before they commit apostasy" (i.e., become an unbeliever). But, "If he should find it," (v. 14) is significant here. Calvinist Craig Blomberg says, "'If' in v. 13 introduces a [Greek] third-class condition, which allows for the possibility that the shepherd will not find the sheep." "Verse 14 brings the parable to a conclusion with a dramatic theological assertion—the heavenly Father is not willing that any of these little ones be lost [eternally as unbelievers]. This shows God's concern that apostasy not happen to any of the followers of Jesus, but it also stresses that going astray is possible for the followers of Jesus."
Matthew 24:9–14 – [Jesus said to his disciples] "Then they will deliver you up to tribulation and put you to death, and you will be hated by all nations for my name's sake. And then many will fall away [skandalizō] and betray one another and hate one another. And many false prophets will arise and lead many astray. And because lawlessness will be increased, the love of many will grow cold. But the one who endures to the end will be saved. And this gospel of the kingdom will be proclaimed throughout the whole world as a testimony to all nations, and then the end will come." (ESV)
Jesus "predicts that many will fall away (... [skandalizō], 24:10a). ... Betrayals, hatred, deception, and failed love all characterize the ways believers will fall away from their faith." The future "forecast is bleak: many Christians will be deceived and become apostate. They will turn away from Jesus' command to love God and love their neighbor as themselves; they will 'hate one another' instead. The followers of Jesus must therefore persevere in faith to the end of the age or the end of their physical life, whichever comes first. Failure to do so would constitute apostasy and loss of eternal salvation."
Matthew 24:42–51 – [Jesus is speaking to his disciples] "Therefore keep watch, because you do not know on what day your Lord will come. But understand this: If the owner of the house had known at what time of night the thief was coming, he would have kept watch and would not have let his house be broken into. So you also must be ready, because the Son of Man will come at an hour when you do not expect him. Who then is the faithful and wise servant, whom the master has put in charge of the servants in his household to give them their food at the proper time? It will be good for that servant whose master finds him doing so when he returns. Truly I tell you, he will put him in charge of all his possessions. But suppose that servant is wicked and says to himself, 'My master is staying away a long time,' and he then begins to beat his fellow servants and to eat and drink with drunkards. The master of that servant will come on a day when he does not expect him and at an hour he is not aware of. He will cut him to pieces and assign him a place with the hypocrites, where there will be weeping and gnashing of teeth." (NIV)
Jesus' teaching in Matthew 24:45–51 illustrates how "a servant who is left in charge of the master's home" can become unprepared for the master's return. Lutheran scholar Dale Bruner says:
Jesus is not talking about two kinds of servants in our parable – one faithful, another unfaithful. The word "that" in the phrase "that wicked servant" certifies that we are dealing with the same servant, the one who was good in the preceding verses . . . and is therefore a warning: "Watch out, 'good servant,' for you can turn bad very quickly" (cf. Davies and Allison, 3:386). Jesus is talking about two possibilities (faithfulness or unfaithfulness) open to one servant (Jeremias, Par., 55; Schweizer, 463). He is talking about every Christian!
"The faithful and wise servant who devotedly feeds the household spiritual bread" does not need to worry about the time of Jesus' return. But that same servant may become "an apostate" by acting "in an unfaithful way, violating Jesus' love commandment by physically abusing fellow servants (cf. 22:37-41; 18:28-30) and getting drunk instead of staying alert (cf. Luke 21:34-36; 1 Thess 5:7; 1 Cor 6:10)." That servant will not be ready for his master's return and will be assigned a place with the hypocrites "where there is 'weeping and gnashing of teeth' (Matt 24:51b), a phrase in Matthew representing hell (Matt 8:12; 13:42, 50; 22:13; 25:30; cf. Luke 13:28)."
Mark 8:34–38 – And He summoned the crowd with His disciples, and said to them, "If anyone wishes to come after Me, he must deny himself, and take up his cross and follow Me. For whoever wishes to save his life will lose it, but whoever loses his life for My sake and the gospel's will save it. For what does it profit a man to gain the whole world, and forfeit his soul? For what will a man give in exchange for his soul? For whoever is ashamed of Me and My words in this adulterous and sinful generation, the Son of Man will also be ashamed of him when He comes in the glory of His Father with the holy angels." (NASB)
In this teaching Jesus warns against an apostasy that is tied to persecution. He commands his disciples (and anyone who would want to be his disciple) to take up their cross in self-denial and to keep on following him (8:34). Jesus expects his disciples to follow him "on his journey to Jerusalem, and that path will involve suffering and death, but it will eventually produce new life when Jesus is raised from the dead." Jesus goes on to elaborate "on what cross-bearing entails: 'for whoever wishes to save his life will lose it, but whoever loses his life for my sake and the gospel's will save it' (Mark 8:35; cf. Matt 10:39; 16:25; Luke 9:24; 17:33; John 12:25). Here 'life' ... refers to the essential person that survives death. ...The saying in 8:35 encourages the disciples, especially when facing persecution and martyrdom, to look beyond the temporal life and receive eternal life, and conversely, it warns them against keeping their temporal life at the expense of losing eternal life. If a person should gain the entire world this would not be worth the value of his or her life in the age to come (8:36–37)."
Mark 9:42–50 – [Jesus is talking to his disciples] "And whoever causes one of these little ones believing in Me to fall [skandalizō]—it would be better for him if instead a donkey's millstone were lying around his neck, and he had been thrown into the sea. And if your hand should be causing you to fall [skandalizō], cut it off. It is better that you enter into life crippled than go into Gehenna having two hands—into the inextinguishable fire. And if your foot should be causing you to fall [skandalizō], cut it off. It is better that you enter into life lame than be thrown into Gehenna having two feet. And if your eye should be causing you to fall [skandalizō], throw it out. It is better that you enter into the kingdom of God one-eyed than be thrown into Gehenna having two eyes—where their worm does not come to an end, and the fire is not quenched." (DLNT)
"Jesus pronounces an ominous warning against influencing a believing child . . . to commit apostasy (v. 42)." Jesus does not specify "whether the person envisioned as causing this [skandalizō] is a believer or an unbeliever. ... [He] simply emphasize[s] that 'whoever' . . . causes a believer to ... lose his/her faith is in danger of being cast into hell" Jesus moves from warning anyone who is involved with causing believers to fall away, to warning His disciples that if their hand, foot, or eyes causes them to fall away (skandalizō) they are to "sever the member from their body rather than be thrown into Gehenna." This amputation of body parts "could hardly be more shocking . . . . Nothing less than eternal life and death are at stake" (entering into [eternal] life/the kingdom of God or being cast into hell). "Jesus . . . deliberately chose harsh, scandalous imagery to alert disciples that their lives tremble in the balance. ... [And] a lackadaisical disregard for sin in one's own life imperils one's salvation."
Luke 8:11–13 – [Jesus said] "Now the parable is this: The seed is the word of God. The ones along the path are those who have heard; then the devil comes and takes away the word from their hearts, so that they may not believe and be saved. And the ones on the rock are those who, when they hear the word, receive it with joy. But these have no root; they believe for a while, and in time of testing fall away." (ESV)
The seed is the word of God, and the first place it has fallen is along the path. The initial group hear, but get no real hold on the word of God. The Devil has no difficulty in extricating it from their hearts. In their case, no response of faith has bound the message to their hearts ... which could have brought them salvation (cf. Acts 15:11; 16:31). The second group have a different problem. They "receive the word"—a mode of expression that indicates a right believing response to the gospel (Acts 8:14; 11:1; etc.). ... The real potential of these newly germinated plants will only come to light when the pressures come on in some kind of trial. Just as the true deep loyalties of Jesus were put on trial in Luke 4:1–13, so will those of every respondent to the Christian gospel also be. If the rootedness is not there, the new life will wither away. Apostasy is the outcome.
Luke 12:42–46 – The Lord said [to his disciples], "Who then is the faithful and wise manager, whom the master will put in charge of his servants to give them their food allowance at the proper time? Blessed is that servant whom his master will find doing so when he comes. Truly I tell you: He will put him in charge of all his possessions. But if that servant says in his heart, 'My master is staying away for a long time.' And he begins to beat the male and female servants, to eat and drink and become drunk, then the master of that servant will arrive on a day when he was not expected and at an hour that his servant does not know. The master will cut him in two and assign him a place with the unbelievers. (EHV)
Some argue "that the unfaithful servant of verses 45, 46 was never a true disciple." However, this argument rests upon a false assumption. "First, it must be assumed that two different servants are in view in the parable, one of whom proves faithful, and the other of whom proves unfaithful. But Jesus did not speak of two servants. Rather, He spoke only of 'that servant' ho doulos ekeinos [in verses 43, 45, 46]. The demonstrative pronoun ekeinos ['that'] is emphatic. Language forbids any assumption that more than one servant is in view in the parable." Therefore, "Jesus' parable . . . concerns only men who know Him and to whom He commits solemn responsibilities as His true disciples."
An accurate analysis of the parable is as follows:
The Question (v. 42): “Who then is the faithful and wise manager” whom his Lord will reward for giving His servants “their food allowance at the proper time?”
The Answer (v. 43): “that servant whom the master finds doing so when he returns.”
The Reward (v. 44): “he will put him in charge of all his possessions.”
The Peril (v. 45): “That servant” may act unfaithfully during his master’s long absence by beating other servants and getting drunk.
The Penalty (v. 46): The master will come unexpectedly and “will cut him in two and assign him a place with the unbelievers” (or “unfaithful,” ESV, NET, CSB).
The final destiny of the unbeliever/unfaithful is nothing other than "eternal damnation" in "hell." If a disciple of Jesus persists in acting like an unbeliever while their master is gone, they will eventually become an unbeliever and share in their same fate when the master returns. This is a strong warning to the disciples of Jesus about the possibility of becoming "an apostate" through unfaithfulness manifested in selfish and sinful behavior.
John 12:24–26 – [Jesus said] "Truly, truly, I say to you, unless a grain of wheat falls into the earth and dies, it remains alone; but if it dies, it bears much fruit. Whoever loves his life loses it, and whoever hates his life in this world will keep it for eternal life. If anyone serves me, he must follow me; and where I am, there will my servant be also. If anyone serves me, the Father will honor him." (ESV)
"After Jesus speaks about his upcoming death (12:23–24) he proclaims in 12:25, 'the one who loves his life loses it; the one who hates his life in this world will keep it for life eternal.'" Like "in the Synoptic texts. . . the saying is relevant to persecution and martyrdom, and a true disciple of Jesus must be willing to 'hate' his/her life in the sense of be willing to lose it for the sake of Jesus." Those "followers of Jesus who 'hate' their life keep it for eternal life." Those followers who wind up loving their life more than following Jesus during times of persecution will "fall away" and forfeit "eternal life." Thus, "Jesus warns his faithful followers against committing apostasy" in 12:25.
John 15:1–6 – [Jesus is speaking to his eleven disciples minus Judas] "I am the true vine, and My Father is the vineyard keeper. Every branch in Me that does not produce fruit He removes, and He prunes every branch that produces fruit so that it will produce more fruit. You are already clean because of the word I have spoken to you. Remain in Me, and I in you. Just as a branch is unable to produce fruit by itself unless it remains on the vine, so neither can you unless you remain in Me. I am the vine; you are the branches. The one who remains in Me and I in him produces much fruit, because you can do nothing without Me. If anyone does not remain in Me, he is thrown aside like a branch and he withers. They gather them, throw them into the fire, and they are burned." (HCSB)
"Jesus speaks of two categories of branches: fruitless and fruitful. ... The branches that cease to bear fruit are those who no longer have the life in them that comes from enduring faith in and love for Christ. These "branches" the Father severs from the vine [v. 2], i.e., he separates them from vital union with Christ. When they stop remaining in Christ, they cease having life; thus they are severed and thrown into the fire (v. 6). "This verse shows ...there may therefore occur ... a real apostasy of such as have been really disciples of Jesus. ... He who apostatizes [i.e., becomes an unbeliever] is cast out, namely, out of the vineyard of the kingdom of God. The casting comes only after the apostasy, but it comes surely. But cut from the vine and thrown away, the branch has but for a short time the life-sap in itself; it will at once be said ... ('it is withered'). ... The rest, then, is the ... ('gathering,' 'throwing into the fire,' and 'burning'), that is, the final judgment." Jesus "makes it unmistakably clear" that he "did not believe 'once in the vine, always in the vine.' Rather, ... Jesus gave his disciples a solemn but loving warning that it is indeed possible for true believers to ultimately abandon the faith, turn their backs on Jesus, fail to remain in him, and thus be thrown into the everlasting fire of hell."
Conditional security in the book of Acts
Acts 14:21–22 – They [Paul and Barnabas] preached the gospel in that city and won a large number of disciples. Then they returned to Lystra, Iconium and Antioch, strengthening the disciples and encouraging them to remain true to the faith. "We must go through many hardships to enter the kingdom of God," they said. (NIV)
Paul's follow-up care with new Christians involved warning them about necessity of enduring hardships. "Hardship is a key ingredient of discipleship. Paul also teaches this in his letters (; ), and Jesus mentioned it in his basic call to discipleship ()." Paul asserts that enduring hardships "is a condition for entrance into the kingdom of God." All the "strengthening" and "encouraging them to remain true to the faith" was for the purpose of enabling them to persevere in faith through the coming hardships that Jesus and Paul said was a normal part of being a follower of Jesus.
Acts 20:28–32 – Watch out for yourselves and for all the flock of which the Holy Spirit has made you overseers, to shepherd the church of God that he obtained with the blood of his own Son. I know that after I am gone fierce wolves will come in among you, not sparing the flock. Even from among your own group men will arise, teaching perversions of the truth to draw the disciples away after them. Therefore, be alert, remembering that night and day for three years I did not stop warning each one of you with tears. And now I entrust you to God and to the message of his grace. This message is able to build you up and give you an inheritance among all those who are sanctified. (NET)
Paul warns the elders in Ephesus to be on the alert and to watch out for yourselves and for God's flock, for there is coming a time when fierce wolves will come to prey upon God's people from without and from within. These false teachers will pervert the truth of the gospel message in hopes of drawing away "Christian believers (from the faith)"—persuading them to "apostatize." Shockingly, some of the elders "will become apostate" "false teachers" who "seduce their congregation members away from the Christian message." Luke's "inclusion of the warning in Acts 20" would have put his readers on high alert regarding the "dangerous teachers situated within the Christian community that lead believers away from apostolic faith."
Conditional security in the writings of the apostle Paul
Romans 8:12–13 – So then, brethren, we are under obligation, not to the flesh, to live according to the flesh—for if you are living according to the flesh, you must die; but if by the Spirit you are putting to death the deeds of the body, you will live. (NASB)
"Paul here directs this warning specifically to his 'brothers' (v. 12). He is not speaking of an anonymous 'anyone' (v. 9) who is not a true Christian, but is speaking directly to these brothers in second person plural: 'If you live according to the flesh, you will die.' 'Die' cannot mean die physically, for that will happen regardless. Thus it means die spiritually by reverting to an unsaved condition; or die eternally in hell. Actually these cannot be separated." "If the believer allow flesh's impulses to get the upper hand again, he faces the awful prospect of apostasy and eternal death (cf. 2 Peter 2:19–22)."
Romans 11:19–22 – Then you will say, "Branches were cut off so that I could be grafted in." That's right! They were broken off because of their unbelief, but you remain only because of faith. Do not be arrogant, but be afraid! For if God did not spare the natural branches, he certainly will not spare you either. Consider, then, the kindness and severity of God: his severity toward those who fell, but God's kindness toward you—if you continue in his kindness. Otherwise, you too will be cut off. (ISV)
verses 20—22 involve clearly an emphatic contradiction of the teaching, by Calvin and others, that all who have been justified will ultimately be saved. For Paul assumes throughout that his readers are already justified, are adopted as sons and heirs of God, and possess the Spirit of God as a firstfruit of their inheritance: see chapters 5:9-11; 6:18, 22; 8:2, 15, 16, 23. Yet he solemnly and emphatically warns them that unless they continue in the kindness of God they will be cut off. This last can be no less than the punishment already inflicted on the unbelieving Jews who have been broken off, and who are held up in verse 20, 21 as a warning to the believing Gentiles. For Paul's deep sorrow for the unbelieving Jews proves clearly that in his view they are on the way to the destruction (chapter 2:12) awaiting unrepentant sinners. His warning to Gentiles who now stand by faith implies clearly that unless they continue in faith they will experience a similar fate. We therefore accept the words before us in their simple and full meaning. Although salvation, from the earliest good desire to final victory, is entirely a work of God, a gift of His undeserved favor, and a realisation of His eternal purpose, it is nevertheless, both in its commencement and in its continuance, altogether conditional on man's faith.
Romans 14:13–23 – Therefore, let us stop passing judgment on one another. Instead, make up your mind not to put any stumbling block or obstacle in your brother's way. As one who is in the Lord Jesus, I am fully convinced that no food is unclean in itself. But if anyone regards something as unclean, then for him it is unclean. If your brother is distressed because of what you eat, you are no longer acting in love. Do not by your eating destroy your brother for whom Christ died. Do not allow what you consider good to be spoken of as evil. For the kingdom of God is not a matter of eating and drinking, but of righteousness, peace and joy in the Holy Spirit, because anyone who serves Christ in this way is pleasing to God and approved by men. Let us therefore make every effort to do what leads to peace and to mutual edification. Do not destroy the work of God for the sake of food. All food is clean, but it is wrong for a man to eat anything that causes someone else to stumble. It is better not to eat meat or drink wine or to do anything else that will cause your brother to fall. So whatever you believe about these things keep between yourself and God. Blessed is the man who does not condemn himself by what he approves. But the man who has doubts is condemned if he eats, because his eating is not from faith; and everything that does not come from faith is sin. (NIV, 1984)
The strong Christian is warned not to place a stumbling block (. . . proskomma) or an obstacle (... skandalon) in a brother's path…. The stumbling in this verse is spiritual … it refers to stumbling and falling into sin…. It refers to ... a true "spiritual downfall" (Moo, 851). The cause for such spiritual stumbling would be an act on the part of the strong brother that is not wrong in itself, but which is perceived as wrong by a weak brother. Such an act becomes a stumbling block when the weak brother observes it and is influenced there by to do the same thing, even though in his heart he believes it is wrong, which is sin (v. 23). In this way the strong brother has inadvertently influenced the weak brother to "fall into sin and potential spiritual ruin" (Moo, 852), just by exercising his Christian liberty. The point is that we must be sensitive to how our conduct is affecting others, and we must be willing to forgo perfectly legitimate behavior if it has the potential of causing someone to sin against his conscience…. In v. 13 Paul urges the strong Christian to not put a stumbling block in the way of the weak; here in v. 15 he gives one reason for this, i.e., it is not consistent with love. ... To the one who loves, a weak brother's spiritual well-being is always more important than indulging the right to eat whatever one likes…. [O]ne is not acting in love if his exercise of liberty influences a weak brother to follow his example and thus fall into sin by violating his own conscience. [Paul goes on to write:] Do not by your eating destroy your brother for whom Christ died. The Greek word for "destroy" is ... (apollymi), a very strong word …. Just how serious is this destruction? Is Paul referring to a loss of salvation, and condemnation to hell? … I must conclude … that this strong warning does imply that the careless and unloving exercise of Christian liberty can lead to actual loss of salvation for a weak brother. Apollymi is frequently used in the sense of eternal destruction in hell (e.g., Matt 10:28; Luke 13:3; John 3:16; Rom 2:12). The reference to the fact that Christ died for these weak brethren supports this meaning here. I.e., the destruction in view would negate the very purpose of Christ's death, which is to save them from eternal condemnation…. The verse cannot be reconciled with "once saved, always saved."
Romans 16:17–20 – I urge you, brothers, to watch out for those who cause divisions and put obstacles in your way that are contrary to the teaching you have learned. Keep away from them. For such people are not serving our Lord Christ, but their own appetites. By smooth talk and flattery they deceive the minds of naive people. Everyone has heard about your obedience, so I am full of joy over you; but I want you to be wise about what is good, and innocent about what is evil. The God of peace will soon crush Satan under your feet. The grace of our Lord Jesus be with you. (NIV, 1984)
Paul warns the Roman Christians about false teachers before they ever appear in the community. ... He commands them to watch out or maintain constant vigilance regarding the dangerous heretics who may come at any time. The first problem with these people is that they cause divisions or "dissension" in the community. ... Second they put obstacles or "stumbling blocks" before believers. ... these are forces [i.e., teachings] that destroy one's faith and can lead to apostasy. This is in fact a primary characteristic of heresy. It ... actually destroys the core doctrines of the Christian faith.
1 Corinthians 3:16–17 – Don't you know that you yourselves are God's temple and that God's Spirit dwells in your midst? If anyone destroys God's temple, God will destroy that person; for God's temple is sacred, and you together are that temple. (NIV)
Since this community building is the temple of God, where the Spirit of God dwells, Paul introduces a new, more serious threat. While some builders may do a lousy job of building on the foundation and their work will be consumed, some work moves beyond mere shoddiness and becomes destructive. Paul assumes that the community can be destroyed by insiders, not by outsiders... It is a severe warning. He has real destruction in mind, and those who destroy God's temple will also be destroyed…. Paul does not describe how the temple is destroyed, but it is undoubtedly relates in some way to their boastful arrogance, their eagerness to appraise others, and their competitive partisanship—all the things that divide Christ... Paul allows the readers to imagine that their petty jealousies (3:3), boasting (1:29; 3:21; 4:7), arrogance (4:6, 18, 19), and quarrels (1:11; 3:3) might qualify for this bleak judgment. The survival of the church and their salvation is at risk.
1 Corinthians 6:7–11 – The very fact that you have lawsuits among you means you have been completely defeated already. Why not rather be wronged? Why not rather be cheated? Instead, you yourselves cheat and do wrong, and you do this to your brothers. Do you not know that the wicked will not inherit the kingdom of God? Do not be deceived: Neither the sexually immoral nor idolaters nor adulterers nor male prostitutes nor homosexual offenders nor thieves nor the greedy nor drunkards nor slanderers nor swindlers will inherit the kingdom of God. And that is what some of you were. But you were washed, you were sanctified, you were justified in the name of the Lord Jesus Christ and by the Spirit of our God. (NIV, 1984)
The 'wicked' will not inherit the kingdom of God." This is of course refers to the eschatological [i.e., future and final] consummation of the kingdom…. Paul's point in all this it to warn "the saints," … that if they persist in the same evils as the "wicked" they are in the same danger of not inheriting the kingdom. Some theologies have great difficulty with such warnings, implying that they are essentially hypothetical since God's children cannot be "disinherited." But such a theology fails to take seriously the genuine tension of texts like this one. The warning is real; the wicked will not inherit the kingdom…. Paul's concern is that the Corinthians must "stop deceiving themselves" or "allowing themselves to be deceived." By persisting in the same behavior as those already destined for judgment they are placing themselves in the very real danger of that same judgment. If it were not so, then the warning in no warning at all.
1 Corinthians 8:9–13 – But be watching-out that this right of yours does not somehow become an opportunity-for-stumbling to the weak ones. For if someone sees you, the one having knowledge, reclining [to eat] in an idol-temple, will not his conscience, being weak, be built-up so as to eat the foods-sacrificed-to-idols? For the one being weak is being destroyed by your knowledge— the brother for the sake of whom Christ died! And in this manner sinning against the brothers and striking their conscience while being weak, you are sinning against Christ. For-this-very-reason, if food causes my brother to fall, I will never eat meats, ever—in-order-that I may not cause my brother to fall. (DLNT)
Paul solemnly warns [Christians] of the danger of dabbling with idolatrous practices. Verse 10–12 offer a specific description of how Paul imagines the possible damage inflicted on the community by those who want to eat the idol meat. The weak will see the gnōsis [knowledge]-boasters eating in the temple of an idol and be influenced, contrary to their own consciences, to participate in the same practice (v. 10)…. [Paul] is concerned … about weaker believers … being drawn … back into idol worship…. In verse 11 Paul states the dire consequences of such cultural compromise: The weak will be "destroyed" [apollymi]. This language should not be watered down.
David Garland states: "Paul always uses the verb [apollymi] to refer to eternal, final destruction ([So] Barrett 1968: 196; Conzelmann 1975: 149 n. 38; Fee 1987: 387-88; Schrage 1995: 265; Cheung 1999: 129). If salvation means that God has 'rescued us from the power of darkness and transferred us into the kingdom of his beloved Son' (Col. 1:13), then returning to idolatry and the regime of darkness means eternal ruin." Robert Picirilli notes that "the verb [apollymi] is present tense ... 'Your brother is perishing.' (This use of the present is futuristic, of course, but it puts the future into the present time as something already in process.) Paul does not mean that this weak brother has perished yet; but he does mean that the outcome of his falling into sin, if the process is not reversed in some way, is certain to be his eternal ruin." Picirilli concludes: "Sin persisted in, on the part of a Christian, can lead to a retraction of faith in Christ and thus to apostasy [i.e., becoming an unbeliever] and eternal destruction."
1 Corinthians 9:24–27 – Do you not know that the runners in a stadium all race, but only one receives the prize? Run in such a way that you may win. Now everyone who competes exercises self-control in everything. However, they do it to receive a perishable crown, but we an imperishable one. Therefore, I do not run like one who runs aimlessly, or box like one who beats the air. Instead, I discipline my body and bring it under strict control, so that after preaching to others, I myself will not be disqualified. (HCSB)
Paul issues an imperative "Be running in such a way that you may win [the prize]" (9:24b, DLNT), which controls the whole paragraph. The command ("be running") suggests that some believers are not running the Christian race in such a way to win the prize. Specifically, some are not "exercising proper self-control (the emphasis in vv. 25-27)" in their Christian walk. Some Christians are demonstrating a lack of self-control in regards to knowingly eating food offered to idols in a pagan temple and influencing other Christians to engage in such idolatry as well (see 1 Cor. 8:7-13). This passage "serves as a clear warning if they fail to 'run' properly," and anticipates the warnings found in 10:1-22. The goal of running with self-control for the believer is an imperishable prize which commentators and scholars identify as: "final salvation" or "eternal life" with God, or more specifically, "eternal life in an imperishable new body (15:42, 50, 53-54)." Gregory Lockwood concludes:
Buy thus disciplining himself, Paul's faith was active in loving service to all. If he were to live a life of self-indulgence, he would endanger not only the salvation of others, but also his own. The danger of being disqualified is real. Disqualification would mean nothing less than missing out on the crown of [eternal] life, as the context makes clear (1 Cor 9:24–27). ... The implication for the Corinthians should be obvious: it would be a tragedy if they forfeited their salvation by ceasing to exercise self-control and thus relapsing into idolatry. Paul will now elaborate that message in 1 Corithians 10. Christians must constantly exercise self-discipline, restraining their sinful nature and putting it to death by the power of the Spirit, so that they may live for God—now and in eternity (Rom 8:13).
1 Corinthians 10:1-12 – For I do not want you to be ignorant, brothers, that our fathers were all under the cloud and all went through the sea, and all were baptized into Moses in the cloud and in the sea, and all ate the same spiritual food, and all drank the same spiritual drink. For they drank from the spiritual rock that followed them, and the rock was Christ. But God was not pleased with the majority of them, for they were struck down in the desert. Now these things happened as examples for us, so that we should not be desirers of evil things, just as those also desired them, and not become idolaters, as some of them did, just as it is written, "The people sat down to eat and drink, and stood up to play," nor commit sexual immorality, as some of them committed sexual immorality, and twenty-three thousand fell in one day, nor put Christ to the test, as some of them tested him, and were destroyed by snakes, nor grumble, just as some of them grumbled, and were destroyed by the destroyer. Now these things happened to those people as an example, but are written for our instruction, on whom the ends of the ages have come. Therefore, the one who thinks that he stands must watch out lest he fall. (Lexham English Bible)
The connecting word "For" is significant because it links "the argument of chapter 10 to chapter 9. The danger of being 'disqualified' from salvation (9:27) is real, as the history of Israel proves." Both 1 Cor. 9:24–27 and 10:1–12 convey "the necessity for self-control and [warn of] the danger of apostasy," via idolatry. Paul "appeals to ... the history of Israel as directly applicable to Christians in Corinth. The example of 'the fathers' horrifying end highlights the peril in which the Corinthians place themselves by consorting with idols." "Paul's purpose in drawing the parallel is this: just as many Israelites were disqualified because of their unfaithfulness and false worship, Christians too face the danger of being disqualified from salvation if they engage in false worship and fail to remain in repentance and faith worked by the Holy Spirit." "Paul uses the Israelite examples so that the Corinthians will repent and not perish" due to their idolatrous actions. Paul gives a "climatic" and "chilling warning" to his readers in verse 12, "Therefore, the one who thinks that he stands must watch out lest he fall" (LEB). In Pauline usage "stand" (Greek: histēmi) refers to "the idea of one's standing in faith and grace or in the message of the Gospel (1 Cor. 15:1f; 16:13; 2 Cor. 1:24; Rom. 5:2; 11:20; Phil. 4:1 cf. 1 Pet. 5:12)." Here, in light of "the divine privileges found in 10:1–4" that the Christians in Corinth already partake of, histēmi conveys in v. 12 that they are presently "standing in a salvific relationship" with Christ and enjoy "the blessings of divine graces." Unfortunately, some Christians are "forgetting that their standing is not indelible [i.e., permanent] but depends on a continuing faithfulness to God." "If Paul thinks that he could fall (9:27), how much more, then, could the Corinthians fall. Their security rests on their continuing fidelity [i.e., faithfulness] to God and God alone (cf. Rom. 11:22)." "When congregants have an overinflated view of salvific assurance . . . Paul is quick to deflate them by warning that they may not achieve final salvation if they persist in ways that displease God (e.g., 1 Cor 10:1–12)." Indeed, "The sins specified by Paul are ... those peculiarly besetting the Church at Corinth. They are to be interpreted as sins through which apostasy and destruction were likely to result. Hence Paul warns them (verse 12) against a fall." This "fall" is not merely "a falling ... into a state of sin" since some Christians in Corinth have already been committing the sins mentioned in 10:6-10, specifically, idolatry and sexual immorality. Since "fall" is the opposite of standing in faith, Paul is referring to a "catastrophic fall" from faith whereby the believer commits apostasy (i.e., becomes an unbeliever). Even Calvinist Thomas Schreiner acknowledges that "the verb 'fall' (piptō) often designates apostasy – falling away from the faith," but does not believe that this can happen to Christians. Calvinist Andrew Wilson says, "Standing and falling, for Paul, appear to be common metaphors for perseverance and apostasy," and goes on to conclude: "Paul's use of the Israelites to warn the Corinthians about 'standing' and 'falling' suggests that he has this polarity in mind: perseverance [in faith] leading to eternal salvation, or idolatry resulting in eschatological [i.e., future and final] condemnation. Paul holds that eating food known to have been offered to idols as nothing less than "idolatry," and he states emphatically that "no-one who makes a practice of committing idolatry will inherit God's kingdom (1 Cor. 6:9; Gal. 5:20–21; Eph. 5:5)." Therefore, if a Christian persists in such idolatrous behavior they will eventually "fall" or commit apostasy (i.e., become an unbelieving idolater) and be prevented "from entering the kingdom of God,", forfeiting eternal "salvation" with God for "eternal destruction" or "damnation" from God. "Given the close connection between 9:27 and this passage [10:12], one might very well find in this entire section (9:24–10:14) one of the best N.T. passages warning about apostasy."
1 Corinthians 15:1–2 – Now I would remind you, brothers, of the gospel I preached to you, which you received, in which you stand, and by which you are being saved, if you hold fast to the word I preached to you—unless you believed in vain. (ESV)
The Corinthians are being saved by means of the gospel and can confidently expect final salvation if in fact … they go on holding fast to such good news as Paul announced to them. … Paul is confident that they are holding fast to the gospel … even so, he feels it necessary to attach an exception clause. They are holding fast—except for the possibility that if they are not they placed their [original] faith (in Christ) in vain. … There is really no reason to doubt that ... the reference to believing in vain reflects the real possibility of apostasy from faith. Apparently Paul regards their doubts about the resurrection of believers seriously enough that his usual confidence in his converts must be qualified at least this much.
2 Corinthians 11:1–5, 13–15 – I wish that you would be patient with me in a little foolishness, but indeed you are being patient with me! For I am jealous for you with godly jealousy, because I promised you in marriage to one husband, to present you as a pure virgin to Christ. But I am afraid that just as the serpent deceived Eve by his treachery, your minds may be led astray from a sincere and pure devotion to Christ. For if someone comes and proclaims another Jesus different from the one we proclaimed, or if you receive a different spirit than the one you received, or a different gospel than the one you accepted, you put up with it well enough! 5 For I consider myself not at all inferior to those "super-apostles." ... For such people are false apostles, deceitful workers, disguising themselves as apostles of Christ. And no wonder, for even Satan disguises himself as an angel of light. Therefore, it is not surprising his servants also disguise themselves as servants of righteousness, whose end will correspond to their actions. (NET)
The Christians in Corinth are "being seduced and defiled by double agents of Satan (11:2–3)" proclaiming a "false gospel." These false teachers "have snaked their way into the Corinthians' affection and captured their minds" by preaching "a different Jesus, Spirit, and gospel—that can only lead Christians away from Christ" and into "spiritual apostasy." These "false apostles" disguise themselves as servants of God but they are really servants of Satan. "Their … 'end,' in the sense of 'destiny,' or 'fate,' will correspond to what they have done, specifically in introducing alien [i.e., false] teaching (11:4) and seducing the congregation (11:3, 20). ... They have done Satan's work, to Satan's fate they will go. ... (v. 15; cf. Matt 25:41, 46)." Therefore, "'To follow them is to risk damnation.' Such language may sound harsh, but Paul judges the situation to be perilous, calling for sharp warnings to jar the Corinthians awake."
Galatians 1:6–9 – I am astonished that you are so quickly deserting the one who called you to live in the grace of Christ and are turning to a different gospel—which is really no gospel at all. Evidently some people are throwing you into confusion and are trying to pervert the gospel of Christ. But even if we or an angel from heaven should preach a gospel other than the one we preached to you, let them be under God's curse! As we have already said, so now I say again: If anybody is preaching to you a gospel other than what you accepted, let them be under God's curse! (NIV)
Paul writes to the churches in Galatia who have a large number of uncircumcised Gentiles already standing in a saving relationship with Christ, but are repeatedly warned by him that they are in danger of existing out of this relationship. Simply put, "the Galatians are in danger of apostasy" (i.e., becoming unbelievers). Rival teachers, whom Paul refers to "as 'agitators' or 'troublemakers' (1:7; 5:10b, 12)," have infiltrated the churches and are "leading astray Gentile believers" by "preaching a false gospel of circumcision (1:7; 4:17; 5:7; 6:12)." "The Galatians Christians . . . appear to be giving them a careful and attentive hearing, even standing on the verge of being persuaded by them (1:6; 5:1)." These rival teachers are "persuading gentile converts to receive circumcision . . . (explicitly in 5:2; 6:12-13; indirectly in 5:11-12), probably as a means of securing their place in the family of Abraham, the line of promise (3:6-29), and as a means of combating the power of the flesh (indirectly, 5:13–6:10) and thus experiencing freedom from its power over them so that they can make progress in their new life of godliness (3:3)." These false teachers likely pushed other Torah-prescribed observances (see 4:10), but it was getting the Galatians to take "the final plunge of circumcision" which aligned oneself with the Torah commandments as "the surest path to aligning oneself with God's standards and thus being 'justified' before God ('being deemed to be righteous' or 'brought into line with God's righteous demands by means of the law,' 5:4)." Paul views such teaching as a "different gospel" (1:6)—a perverting of the gospel of Christ (1:7) that he originally preached to them. "He stands amazed at how quickly the Galatians are deserting God to follow a false gospel." This desertion "was not just an intellectual one. Rather, it was a desertion of God as made known in Christ; it was abandoning of their personal relationship with God." The verb for "deserting" (metatithēmi) is in the present tense and "indicates clearly that when the apostle wrote [this letter] the apostasy of the Galatians was as yet only in process." The Gentile believers "were in danger of apostasy" or "a reverse conversion, although they had not yet 'become apostate.' But Paul considered this a real possibility (see 5:4)." Paul passionately declares that if anyone (including himself) was to preach to others this different gospel, "let them be under God's curse!" (v. 8, 9, NIV). Scot McKnight states: "This word ['curse' anathema] is used in the Old Testament for something consecrated to God for his destruction (cf. Deut. 7:26; Josh. 6:17-18). Paul is not talking here about church discipline; his language is far too strong for that. He is invoking God's final damnation and wrath on people who distort the gospel of grace in Christ." Lyons states that "this conditional curse" would carry the meaning: "may he be condemned to hell!" (GNT [cf. NET]). This shocking wish was occasioned by the seriousness of the Agitators' crime. They had perverted the gospel, preached a substitute nongospel, confused his converts, and led them to consider turning away from Christ .... He put those terrifying the Galatians on notice: Beware of divine judgment. And he warned the Galatians that surrender to the Agitators meant placing "themselves 'under the curse'" (Betz 1979, 250). If the Christians in Galatia go on to fully embrace the false gospel of these false teachers they will "fall into apostasy [i.e., become unbelievers] and stop being a Christian." As unbelievers, the false teachers and their followers can expect to receive "eternal punishment at the last judgment."
Galatians 4:9–11 – But now that you have come to know God (or rather to be known by God), how can you turn back again to the weak and worthless basic forces? Do you want to be enslaved to them all over again? You are observing religious days and months and seasons and years. I fear for you that my work for you may have been in vain. (NET)
"Paul warns the Galatians" that if they "turn back" again to the weak and elemental spirits "they are on the verge of deconverting." "The looming threat of his convert's apostasy (4:8-10; 5:2-4) is now expressed in distress (4:11) .... This is not the only place where Paul warns his converts that if they pursue the wrong path their faith and his work will have been in vain (1 Cor. 15:2, 10, 14; 2 Cor. 6:1; cf. Phil. 2:16) or the only place where he fears the possibility (1 Thess. 3:5)."
Galatians 5:1–6 – It was for freedom that Christ set us free; therefore keep standing firm and do not be subject again to a yoke of slavery. Behold I, Paul, say to you that if you receive circumcision, Christ will be of no benefit to you. And I testify again to every man who receives circumcision, that he is under obligation to keep the whole Law. You have been severed from Christ, you who are seeking to be justified by law; you have fallen from grace. For we through the Spirit, by faith, are waiting for the hope of righteousness. For in Christ Jesus neither circumcision nor uncircumcision means anything, but faith working through love. (NASB)
Paul warns Gentile Christians that if they follow the demands of the false teachers in seeking to be justified by the law through circumcision then Christ will be of no saving benefit to them (v. 2). Furthermore, they will become "severed from Christ" and will have "fallen from grace" (v. 4). "No doubt the rival teachers had assured them that keeping the law was not abandoning their faith in Christ; it was the way to "attain your goal" (3:3)—perfection—in Christian life." But
For Paul, Christ is everything or nothing. Either God has inaugurated the new, eschatological age of the Spirit through Christ, or not. Either justification, or life in the Spirit, is received by faith, or not. Either cruciform faith expressing itself through cruciform love is the essence of covenantal existence, or not. Either this is all of grace, or not. Whereas for the circumcisers Christ is necessary but not sufficient, for Paul Christ is either sufficient or else not necessary.... Circumcision is a gate into a way of life—obedience to the entire Law (5:3)—that has had its day but has ended with the coming of the Messiah and his Spirit (3:24). Now anyone—a Gentile or Jew—who is in Christ, by faith, shares in the hope of future righteousness (5:5) and expresses that faith, as Christ did (2:20), in love (5:6). Circumcision counts for nothing because ‘having’ it (or not) neither enables or prevents entry into the realm of Christ and the Spirit. Seeking it, however, betrays a lack of confidence in the power of grace and faith, the sufficiency of Christ and the Spirit.
Therefore, submitting to circumcision would indicate "a cessation of faith in Christ," "an act of repudiation of God's grace manifested in Christ." The circumcised end up "returning to their former state of slavery, (4:9; 5:1)," having severed their saving union with Christ, and fallen from grace. Such persons necessarily "cease to be Christians" and will not receive "a favorable verdict at the final judgment (5:5)." "Paul could hardly have made any clearer that a person who chooses to submit to the Law," (specifically, circumcision as commanded in the Law), and "who seeks final justification" before God "by means of the Law, has in effect committed apostasy, has fallen from grace, has even severed themselves from relationship with Christ." "The danger of apostasy, falling away from grace, must have been very real, or Paul would not have used such strong language." "Paul certainly did not teach the popular doctrine today of 'once saved, always saved.'"
Galatians 5:16,19–21 – But I say, walk by the Spirit, and you will not gratify the desires of the flesh.... Now the works of the flesh are evident: sexual immorality, impurity, sensuality, idolatry, sorcery, enmity, strife, jealousy, fits of anger, rivalries, dissensions, divisions, envy, drunkenness, orgies, and things like these. I warn you, as I warned you before, that those who do such things will not inherit the kingdom of God. (ESV)
Paul calls Christians in Galatians chapters 5-6 to be "living under the guidance of the Spirit and following the law of love." Paul's opponents, who insist that Gentiles believers must keep the works of the Law (specifically, circumcision), are "condemning uncircumcised Christians," and using "the Law . . . to exclude faithful Gentiles from inheriting God's promises (1:6; 4:17; 5:10)." "The works of the Law, then, when imposed on the Gentile Christ-followers," wind up causing "divisions" among those in the Christian community. "It is not by coincidence that Paul includes vices of division in his list of 'works of the flesh' (5:19-21). For Paul the 'works of the flesh' are deeds associated with" unbelievers (i.e., "the pre-converted status of individuals void of God's Spirit and subject to the evil era"). "To indulge in these works is to commit vices and live in a manner incompatible with the leading of God's Spirit (5:16-18, 22-25)." The "threat of apostasy" "is a real danger" in Paul’s "warning in 5:21b," which is directed specifically "to the believers" in Galatia. Paul's "emphasis here, as in 1 Cor 6:9-11 and Eph 5:5, is to warn believers not to live as unbelievers, those who are destined to experience the wrath of God (Col 3:6)." If believers persist in living according to the flesh like unbelievers, they will eventually become an unbeliever (i.e., commit "apostasy") and "be excluded" from "inheriting God's kingdom." To not inherit (klēronomeō) the kingdom of the God means to fail to "partake of eternal salvation in the Messiah's kingdom" when it becomes fully manifested in the new heaven and new earth described in Revelation 21-22 (cf. Rev. 21:7-8 with Gal. 5:19-21).
Galatians 6:7–10 – Do not be deceived: God is not mocked, for whatever one sows, that will he also reap. For the one who sows to his own flesh will from the flesh reap corruption, but the one who sows to the Spirit will from the Spirit reap eternal life. And let us not grow weary of doing good, for in due season we will reap, if we do not give up. So then, as we have opportunity, let us do good to everyone, and especially to those who are of the household of faith. (ESV)
Paul issues "a solemn warning based on an agricultural principle: Do not be deceived: God cannot be mocked. A man reaps what he sows (v. 7 [NIV]). When people think and act as if they will not reap what they have sown, or as if they will reap something different from what they have sown, they are deceiving themselves and mocking God." In verse 8, Christians "are faced with a decision, a decision" that will determine their eternal destiny—"sowing to the flesh" or "sowing to the Spirit." Sowing to the flesh would refer to practicing "the works of the flesh" already warned about in 5:19-21. Sowing to the Spirit "is exactly the opposite in every respect and means doing things to or with one another that stem from the Spirit's impulses. And so here we come to 'the fruit of the Spirit' listed in 5:22, 23." Paul spells out the contrasting harvests or destinies: sowing to the Spirit = "eternal life," while sowing to the flesh = "corruption." This warning in Galatians 6:8 is parallel "to the warning about the possibility of not inheriting the Kingdom of God set out in 5.21," for those practicing the works of the flesh. Therefore, this "corruption" or "destruction" (NIV, CSB, NASB2020) can mean nothing less than "eternal destruction" or "eternal death" for sowing to the flesh since it is explicitly contrasted with "eternal life." For any believer overtaken by any sin related to the works of the flesh in 5:19-21, "there is a potential recovery in 6:1." This trespass (paraptōma) "is considered by Paul as a sin or an immoral act (cf. Rom 4:25; 11:11-12; 2 Cor 5:19; Col 2:13; cf. Matt 6:15). Those who operate in the fruit of the Spirit . . . are to restore such individuals, being mindful that they themselves are susceptible to temptations." If a believer were to continue practicing/sowing to the flesh, this would lead to their "apostasy" (i.e. becoming an unbeliever), with the outcome being "eternal destruction and exclusion from God's kingdom (Gal 5:21; 6:7-8)." Hence, Paul holds that believers who are engaged in sowing to the flesh are "headed towards apostasy if not restored." "A real danger exists that believers in Christ may apostatize, falling away from faith, and miss out on eternal life. ... For some Christians the doctrinal slogan is 'once saved, always saved.' Paul would not agree."
Ephesians 5:1–11 – Therefore be imitators of God, as beloved children. And be walking in love, just as Christ also loved us and handed Himself over for us—an offering and a sacrifice to God for an aroma of fragrance. But let sexual-immorality and all impurity or greed not even be named among you, as is proper for saints—and filthiness and foolish-talk or coarse-joking, which are not fitting, but rather thanksgiving. For you know this—recognizing that every sexually-immoral or impure or greedy person (that is, an idolater) does not have an inheritance in the kingdom of Christ and God. Let no one deceive you with empty words, for because of these things the wrath of God is coming upon the sons of disobedience. Therefore, do not be fellow-partakers with them. For you were formerly darkness, but now you are light in the Lord. Be walking as children of light (for the fruit of the light is in all goodness and righteousness and truth), approving what is pleasing to the Lord. And do not be participating in the unfruitful works of darkness, but rather even be exposing them. (DLNT)
Paul is "warning" believers in Ephesus about "the danger to faith inherent in falling back into the pagan lifestyle." The command, "Let no one deceive you with empty words" warns the Ephesians "against allowing themselves to be led astray by the specious arguments of antinomians" who "pervert the grace of our God into a license for immorality" (Jude 4, NIV), and who promise those engaging in the same sins as the "sons of disobedience" (i.e., unbelievers) as still having an inheritance in the kingdom of Christ and escaping the wrath of God on judgment day. "The reason" believers "should not act like unbelievers is because unbelievers are not going to inherit the kingdom of Christ and God." Paul could not be clearer, Christians must not be fellow-partakers in the sinful way of life of the "sons of disobedience," lest they become one of them and "participate with them in their destiny." Believers "who take a cavalier attitude toward sin are playing games with their eternal destiny."
Colossians 1:21–23 – Once you were alienated from God and were enemies in your minds because of your evil behavior. But now he has reconciled you by Christ's physical body through death to present you holy in his sight, without blemish and free from accusation—if you continue in your faith, established and firm, and do not move from the hope held out in the gospel. (NIV)
In the first half of verse 23 Paul breaks with tradition to address his readers in a more intimate way. His exhortation to them expresses a condition of their reconciliation, which includes both a positive and a negative element. This exhortation has caused problems for those who think of Paul's idea of salvation in terms of God's unconditional grace. However, Paul's understanding of God's salvation is profoundly Jewish and therefore covenantal. The promise of the community's final justification is part of a covenant between God and the "true" Israel. Even the idea of God's faithfulness to a promise made is modified by the ideals of a covenantal relationship: God's fulfillment is conditioned upon a particular response. According to Paul's gospel, getting into the faith community, which has covenanted with God for salvation, requires the believer's confidence in the redemptive merit of Christ's death (as defined in vv. 21–22). And staying in that community requires the believer to keep the faith. Paul does not teach a "once saved, always saved" kind of religion; nor does he understand faith as a "once for all" decision for Christ. In fact, apostasy (loss of faith) imperils one's relationship with God and with the community that has covenanted with God for salvation. So he writes that the community's eschatological fitness holds if you continue in your faith... The negative ingredient of the passage envisions the very real possibility that the community may indeed [move] from the hope held out in the gospel, risking God's negative verdict at Christ's parousia.
1 Thessalonians 3:1–5 – So when we could stand it no longer, we thought it best to be left by ourselves in Athens. We sent Timothy, who is our brother and God's fellow worker in spreading the gospel of Christ, to strengthen and encourage you in your faith, so that no one would be unsettled by these trials. You know quite well that we were destined for them. In fact, when we were with you, we kept telling you that we would be persecuted. And it turned out that way, as you well know. For this reason, when I could stand it no longer, I sent to find out about your faith. I was afraid that in some way the tempter might have tempted you and our efforts might have been useless. (NIV, 1984)
The possibility of apostasy is expressed in the final part of the verse: I was afraid that in some way the tempter might have tempted you and our efforts might have been useless. ... Paul expresses apprehension, which was rooted in his knowledge of Satanic activity. Although the Thessalonians' contemporaries were driving the persecution forward, the power of the tempter orchestrated this battle for their souls (cf. Eph. 6:11–12). ... The temptation of the tempter was ... to commit the sin of apostasy (Luke 8:12; 1 Pet. 5:8), which is implied in this context by the references to their stability and continuance in the faith (3:3, 6, 8). The issue is not moral lapse but continuance in faith. What was at stake was the salvation of the Thessalonians. Paul knew the machination of Satan (2 Cor. 2:11), the tempter, but he was unsure whether he had met success in Thessalonica (and out efforts might have been useless). The temptation, while inevitable, was resistible. But the possibility of apostasy was clear a clear and present danger.
1 Timothy 1:18–20 – This charge I commit to you, Timothy, my son, in accordance with the prophetic utterances which pointed to you, that inspired by them you may wage the good warfare, holding faith and a good conscience. By rejecting conscience, certain persons have made shipwreck of their faith, among them Hymenaeus and Alexander, whom I have delivered to Satan that they may learn not to blaspheme. (RSV)
"Central to this charge is the defense and preservation of the true faith, which is currently under attack" from false teachers. Paul depicts Timothy's role "as a warrior in service to his or her king. This is wholly appropriate following a doxology to 'the eternal King' (1:17)." "Timothy is to wage warfare, not by using violence, but by holding on to faith and a good conscience (v. 19)." "Faith involves here the act of trusting in God" "A good conscience is the state where one's own moral self-evaluation says that one has been obedient to God." "The conscience functions as the Christian's moral compass" and "is guided in its everyday life by faith, trust in the living God, to guide and to teach one." Holding on to a good conscience would thus entail being committed to following the Christian faith proclaimed by Christ's apostles as the basis for godly living. "Without a good conscience, Timothy could end up like Hymenaeus (cf. 2 Tim 2:17) and Alexander (cf. 2 Tim 4:14) who had shipwrecked their faith (1:19-20)." Paul, "as a warning, cites two tragic examples of men whose moral laxity has led to their faith being ruined." They have "rejected" (apōtheō) or better "'thrust away from themselves' a good conscience." The verb expresses "a willful and violent act," "a conscious, deliberate rejection . . . not a passive, careless slipping away from faith." By willfully thrusting away a good conscience they have made "shipwreck of their faith." "The metaphoric use of the word [shipwreck] conveys a complete loss of the ship," a "total disaster," and serves as a fitting "metaphor for apostasy" since these men have "lost their faith altogether." Thus, Hymenaeus and Alexander "were once true believers" who "had personal faith comparable to Timothy's (1:18-19a), but that faith was destroyed,", and thus they became "apostates" (i.e., unbelievers).
1 Timothy 4:1-5 – Now the Spirit clearly says that in the last times some of the faith will apostatize by being devoted to deceitful spirits and teachings of demons, by the hypocrisy of liars whose own consciences have been seared, forbidding to marry, demanding abstinence from foods that God created to be received with thanksgiving by those who are faithful and know the truth, since all of God's creation is good, and nothing is unclean if it is received with thanksgiving; for it is sanctified through [the] word of God and prayer. (Mounce Reverse-Interlinear New Testament)
The Spirit has given a clear "warning" about "the sober" reality "of apostasy" that will take place within the church. "The ultimate cause of this apostasy is that people pay attention to deceitful spirits and teachings of demons.” The verb aphistēmi means to "fall away, apostatize," in three theologically significant passages in the New Testament (Lk. 8:13; 1 Tim. 4:1; Heb. 3:12), and "often conveys apostasy" in the Old Testament and other literature. In each of these NT references we find aphistēmi conveying "the serious situation of becoming separated from the living God after a previous turning towards him, by falling away from the faith. It is a movement of unbelief and sin." Paul says in verse 1, "some of the faith will fall away or apostatize." William Mounce's translation brings this out and is more accurate than other renderings. When Mounce examined the NT occurrences of aphistēmi, he says "in the vast majority of cases if there is a recipient of the verb's action, it will most likely be indicated by a preposition and will immediately follow the verb."
Hence, in 1 Tim 4:1, which has no preposition following [aphistēmi, fall away], "the faith" would seem to modify the indefinite pronoun "some" rather [than] the verb "fall away." If so, then the "some" who will fall away are identified as faithful church members. These ones who apostatize are not fake believers but real Christians. The nature of their apostasy involves devoting themselves to deceitful spirits and demonic teachings. These teachings are no doubt promulgated by the false teachers (4:2-5). Satanic spiritual forces are viewed as being the inspiration of their false teachings, and these powers are mentioned as a way to vilify the teachers (1 Tim 5:15; 2 Tim 2:25-26). Some of the believers will fall away by following the opponents' teachings that have been influenced by anti-god powers (1 Tim 4:1-3). It is affirmed here that more apostasies of those who possessed faith will take place similar to the defections of Hymenaeus and Alexander (1 Tim 1:19; cf. 1:6). In the Pastoral Letters, then, final salvation is futuristic, with the real potential to have one’s faith undermined, making it all the more important for these Christians to take seriously the need to endure through potential deception.
1 Timothy 4:13, 15-16 – Until I come, give your attention to public reading, exhortation, and teaching. . . . Practice these things; be committed to them, so that your progress may be evident to all. Pay close attention to your life and your teaching; persevere in these things, for by doing this you will save both yourself and your hearers. (HCSB)
In Paul's final exhortation to Timothy in v. 16, he gives "the reason why" he "is so persistent and concerned, because what is at stake is salvation for Timothy and his hearers." Traditional Calvinist George Knight observes that some commentators take save (sōzō, v. 16) in the sense of to preserve or be kept safe from the doctrinal error of the false teachers "(Bengel, Gromacki, Vine, Wuest)," but most commentators understand save "soteriologically and eschatologically (Alford, Bernard, Brox Bürki, Calvin, Earle, Ellicott, Fairbairn, Gealy, Guthrie, Hendriksen, Hiebert, Huther, Kelly, Kent, Lenski, Moellering, Robertson, Scott, Simpson, van Oosterzee, and White; also J. Schneider, NIDNTT 3:215; W. Foerster, TDNT 7:995)." Knight goes on to note: "The other occurrences of [sōzō, save] in the PE (1 Tim. 1:15; 2:4, 15; Tit. 3:5; 2 Tim. 1:9; 4:18) are clearly soteriological [i.e., salvation] in orientation. It is true that [didaskalia, teaching] does deliver from error and bring to truth, but that seems to be included in the ultimate goal expressed in [sōzō, save] (cf. 2:4; so also Oosterzee). The salvation of the hearers is elsewhere depicted by Paul as the central goal of the ministry (cf. especially 1 Cor. 15:1, 2; 9:22; 2 Ti. 2:10; 4:5), and it is that hope in the living God who is the Savior of all believers that Paul has presented as the centerpiece of encouragement for Timothy in this section." Gordon Fee would agree, and thus writes: "Salvation involves perseverance; and Timothy's task in Ephesus is to model and teach the gospel in such a fashion that it will lead the church to perseverance in faith and love and hence to final . . . salvation." Therefore, "Ultimate salvation is not automatic, even for Timothy. He must persevere in the faith to be saved eternally, and to be the instrument to save others."
2 Timothy 2:10–13 – For this reason, I am enduring all things for the sake of the chosen ones, in order that they also may obtain salvation in Christ Jesus with eternal glory. The saying is trustworthy— for if we died-with Him, we will also live-with Him; if we are enduring, we will also reign-with Him; if we shall deny Him, that One also will deny us; if we are faithless, that One remains faithful, for He cannot deny Himself. (DLNT)
Paul suggests in 2 Timothy 2:10, that if he faithfully endures suffering and hardship to the end of life, this will provide "a good witness to others and is done for the sake of the chosen ones," in order that they, "will persevere and go on to receive eschatological [i.e., future and final] salvation." "The implicit negative corollary is that if Paul" fails to persevere and apostatizes, then "surely that would have led to the . . . apostasy by others" in the church. "The potential for apostasy" among believers in Ephesus "is clearly evident in the hymn found in 2 Tim 2:11–13." This trustworthy saying has four "if" clauses that describe a believer's action that are followed by "then" clauses that describe Christ's action taken in response. The "we" throughout this hymn applies first to Paul and Timothy, and then "equally to all believers." The hymn begins with: "if we died with him (Christ), we will also live with him (2:11b)." This line "portrays the entire scope of Christian existence, from conversion to glorification, in terms of 'dying and rising' with Christ." The next clause says "enduring" leads to "reigning with" Christ. The word enduring (hupomenō) means "to persevere: absolutely and emphatically, under misfortunes and trial to hold fast to one's faith in Christ." The present tense verb conveys the meaning "keep on enduring" or "persevering." Thus, a persevering faith "is to be a normal way of life" for Timothy and other Christ-followers. Paul and Timothy "must endure in spite of every adversity, including suffering and/or imprisonment, so that others 'may also obtain the salvation that is in Christ Jesus with eternal glory.'" Believers who faithfully keep on enduring will "reign together with" (symbasileuō) Christ. This means that they will "share in the 'kingdom of God' (basileia tou theou), the traditional symbol of God's eschatological [i.e., future and final] reign (see 4:1, 18), the focus of Jesus' own preaching of the good news (see Mark 1:15)." "The causal connection between perseverance in the present age of suffering and the future attainment of salvation is expressly stated in 2 Tm. 2:12." The third clause contains a definite "warning against apostasy." "If we deny Him, He will also deny us" certainly recalls "Jesus' warning that if his followers deny him publicly before outsiders he will deny them before his Father at the eschatological [i.e., future and final] judgment (cf. Matt 10:33; Mark 8:38; Luke 9:36). This type of denial (ἀρνέομαι [arneomai]) refers to apostasy resulting from persecution, and this is almost certainly what it means here in 2 Tim 2:12." To deny Jesus is the opposite of enduring/persevering (in faith) and "means the surrender of faith, 'to apostatize.'" Such denial reverses conversion so that Christ disowns the person who denies him, and as with the Synoptic sayings this leads to eternal judgment. This warning is definitely directed toward Timothy, "Paul and all believers." "If it is not possible to disown faith in Christ, there is no need for these words. The possibility of Timothy and others disowning the faith is real."
Conditional security in the book of Hebrews
"Hebrews contains what are perhaps the most severe warnings against apostasy in the entire New Testament."
Hebrews 2:1–4 – We must pay the most careful attention, therefore, to what we have heard, so that we do not drift away. For since the message spoken through angels was binding, and every violation and disobedience received its just punishment, how shall we escape if we ignore so great a salvation? This salvation, which was first announced by the Lord, was confirmed to us by those who heard him. God also testified to it by signs, wonders and various miracles, and by gifts of the Holy Spirit distributed according to his will. (NIV)
The expression "what we have heard" refers to God's revelation in his Son about salvation (cf. 2:3a). Here the danger of drifting away ... [is] a carelessness about the commitment to Christ that it requires. The verb prosecho (lit., "to give heed") means not only "pay attention" with the mind to what one hears, but also "to act upon what one perceives" (Morris, 1981, 21). This verb is analogous to katecho in 3:6, 14; 10:23, where the readers are admonished to "hold fast to their confession of faith, without which the goal of salvation cannot be reached" (Lane, 1991, 37). The Greek word translated "drift away" (pararreo) has nautical overtones, as when a ship drifts past a harbor to shipwreck.
"The danger of drifting away is a potential one for his [the author's] audience, which, if not corrected, may lead to their being spiritually lost at sea or shipwrecked." The danger of apostasy is also understood as ignoring the "great salvation" spoken through the Son. The implied answer to "'How shall we escape if we ignore such a great salvation?'—is obvious: No escape is possible. In Hebrews "salvation" (soteria) … is fulfilled by Jesus in the present time (2:3, 10; 5:9), and will be consummated in his future coming (cf. 1:14; 6:9; 9:28; see TDNT, 7:989–1012). ... The emphasis here and elsewhere in Hebrews is on the inescapable, terrible, and eternal consequences for apostasy (cf. 6:4–6; 10:26–31)." "Not escaping looks ahead to punishment in hellfire (6:8; 10:26-31; 12:29)" for believers who "apostatize" by drifting away from Christ (2:1) and ignoring God's glorious salvation in his Son (2:3a). "What Christian apostates stand to lose, then, is eternal salvation." "The author identifies his readers as fellow believers by using the pronoun 'we' in 2:1, 3a and 'us' in 2:3. ... By using ... 'we,' our author ... includes himself and all other believers in the same warning (cf. 3:6, 14; 10:26–27; 12:25)," and implies, "'I, too, am susceptible to these dangers of apostasy.'"
Hebrews 3:7–19 – So, as the Holy Spirit says: "Today, if you hear his voice, do not harden your hearts as you did in the rebellion, during the time of testing in the desert, where your fathers tested and tried me and for forty years saw what I did. That is why I was angry with that generation, and I said, 'Their hearts are always going astray, and they have not known my ways.' So I declared on oath in my anger, 'They shall never enter my rest.'" See to it, brothers, that none of you has a sinful, unbelieving heart that turns away ["falls away," NASB] from the living God. But encourage ["exhort," ESV] one another daily, as long as it is called Today, so that none of you may be hardened by sin's deceitfulness. We have come to share in Christ if we hold firmly till the end the confidence we had at first. As has just been said: "Today, if you hear his voice, do not harden your hearts as you did in the rebellion." Who were they who heard and rebelled? Were they not all those Moses led out of Egypt? And with whom was he angry for forty years? Was it not with those who sinned, whose bodies fell in the desert? And to whom did God swear that they would never enter his rest if not to those who disobeyed? So we see that they were not able to enter, because of their unbelief. (Heb. 3:7-19, NIV 1984)
The author of Hebrews holds out to his readers the choice of either persevering in faith or abandoning faith. Readers are directed to the rebellious Israelites who are an example of those who abandoned faith and were destroyed in the desert after experiencing a miraculous deliverance from Egypt (3:7–19). The author does not want his readers to develop an unbelieving heart like the people of God of old (Israel). Chapter 3, verse 6 ["And we are God's house, if indeed we hold firmly to our confidence and the hope in which we glory"] provides a transition to the strong warning and exhortation found in 3:7–19. The author made a comparison between Moses and Jesus in 3:1–6, and now he makes a parallel between (1) the response of unbelief and disobedience by the people of God of old (Israel) who experienced redemption out of Egypt under the leadership of Moses (3:7–11), and (2) the possibility of the identical response by the people of God (believers) who have experienced redemption through Christ under the new covenant (3:12–19). "Moses had been faithful to the end (3:2, 5), but most of those who left Egypt with him were unfaithful. They all shared by faith in the first great Passover deliverance but afterward because of unbelief hardened their hearts against God and perished in the desert (cf. Num. 13:26–14:38)." Likewise, Jesus, whose superiority far exceeds Moses, is also faithful (Heb. 3:2, 6), but the author of Hebrews has deep concerns that some believers were moving dangerously toward hardening their hearts and committing apostasy (i.e., becoming unbelievers) through unbelief. William Lane made this observation: "The warning against unbelief in vv. 12 and 19 provides a literary and theological frame for the admonition to maintain the basic position of faith, which is centrally placed in v. 14." The warning of Hebrews 3:7–19 is a serious exhortation calling believers to maintain their faith commitment lest they relationally fall away from God. The author views his readers as genuine Christians when he identifies them as "brothers" (3:12, cf. 3:1). It is these believers who are in danger of developing an unbelieving heart that leads to departing/apostatizing from the living God and forfeiting God's promised rest. Like the people of God of old (Israel)
mentioned in Psalm 95:7–11, God's people under the new covenant "sometimes turn away from God in apostasy.... This may be provoked by suffering or persecution or by the pressures of temptation, but the root cause is always unbelief" (Peterson, 1994, 1330). ... As with the desert generation, apostasy is not so much a decision of the moment as it is the culmination of a process of hardening the heart (3:8, 13, 15) in unbelief (3:12, 19; cf. 4:2), resulting in the end in rebellion against God (3:8, 15, 16), disobedience (3:18; cf. 4:6), and finally turning away from God (3:12; cf. 3:10). An important safeguard against apostasy is a loving, nurturing community of true believers, who "encourage one another daily" in the Lord (3:13).
Hebrews 4:1–11 – Therefore, since the promise of entering his rest still stands, let us be careful ["let us fear lest," ESV; cf. NASB, HCSB] that none of you be found to have fallen short of it. For we also have had the gospel preached to us, just as they did; but the message they heard was of no value to them, because those who heard did not combine it with faith. Now we who have believed enter that rest, just as God has said, "So I declared on oath in my anger, 'They shall never enter my rest.'" And yet his work has been finished since the creation of the world. For somewhere he has spoken about the seventh day in these words: "And on the seventh day God rested from all his work." And again in the passage above he says, "They shall never enter my rest." It still remains that some will enter that rest, and those who formerly had the gospel preached to them did not go in, because of their disobedience. Therefore, God again set a certain day, calling it Today, when a long time later he spoke through David, as was said before: "Today, if you hear his voice, do not harden your hearts." For if Joshua had given them rest, God would not have spoken later about another day. There remains, then, a Sabbath-rest for the people of God; for anyone who enters God's rest also rests from his own work, just as God did from his. Let us, therefore, make every effort to enter that rest, so that no one will fall by following their example of disobedience. (NIV 1984)
On the heels of describing the wilderness generations "dire consequences for apostasy" in 3:16-19, the author connects what he had just written to his forthcoming teaching in 4:1-11 with "an in inferential particle (oun, Therefore)." "Therefore—In view of the fearful examples of apostasy in the last chapter. Let us fear" of being found to have fallen short of God's promised rest. This implies "a belief in its practical possibility and an earnest desire to avoid it." "By including himself in 'let us fear,' the author enlists the audience to share his concern that some of them might apostatize and thus not only fail to enter into God's rest but also influence others not to." Both the wilderness generation and the believers the author is addressing "are part of the one people of God called by his word to the same kind of faith and obedience in anticipation of the same 'rest.'" The "wilderness generation’s apostasy" and consequent exclusion from entering into God's promised rest "poses the sternest warning to contemporary believers. On the basis of this continuity the pastor urges his hearers to separate themselves from their predecessors by persevering in faithful obedience." "The wilderness generation came all the way to the border of the Promised Land but 'fell short' of entrance through refusal to trust God. . . . The opposite of falling short is perseverance in the life of faith and obedience until final entrance into God's rest (cf. 11:1-38)." God's people have the opportunity of entering into God's promised rest through a persevering faith, or of being found/judged by God on judgment day to have fallen short of it through unbelief and disobedience. "God's 'rest' is available and its loss a true possibility." Note how complementary warnings bracket verses 1-11.
Therefore, let us fear, since a promise remains of entering his rest,
lest any of you should be found to have fallen short. (v. 1)
Let us be diligent, then, to enter into this rest,
lest anyone fall by the same example of disobedience. (v. 11)
This promised rest (katapausis) which believers are to be diligent to enter requires "diligent faith" and "is not the same as entering the Promised Land of Canaan. Joshua led them into that land, yet we are told here that Joshua did not lead them in the promised rest. If he had, the author claimed, the door to rest would still not be open (4:8)." Thus, as J. Ramsey Michaels states, entering God's rest "is not an earthly rest . . . but a heavenly rest in the sense of eternal salvation or life with God after death." Many commentators and scholars (Calvinist and Arminian) interpret God's rest in this manner, as do several Greek reference works. Furthermore, many commentators and scholars mention how
"Rest" correlates with other images of salvation described as future ("to come") or transcendent ("heavenly") in Hebrews. There are future realities such as "the world to come" (2:5), powers of the age to come (6:5), good things to come (10:1), and the city to come (13:14). Their transcendent character is expressed in references to the heavenly call (3:1), "heavenly gift" (6:4), heavenly sanctuary (8:5), "heavenly things" (9:23), heavenly homeland (11:16), and "heavenly Jerusalem" (12:22).
The rest may be compared with "the promised eternal inheritance" (9:15; see 6:12; 10:36) or salvation (1:14; see 9:28). It is an entrance into glory (2:10) or into "the inner sanctuary behind the curtain" (6:19), where Jesus has already entered as our forerunner (6:20) and champion (2:9-10; 12:2). The rest fulfilled in the unshakable kingdom (12:28), that "enduring city" (13:14) with solid foundations, whose "architect and builder is God" (11:10). Rest, then, is one of the many images that display the multifaceted character of our eschatological [i.e., future and final] hope.
God's rest is "the final goal of the Christian pilgrimage" where believers who persevere in faith experience "final entrance into God's presence at Christ's return." Since this heavenly rest can be forfeited through unbelief and disobedience, believers must diligently strive by faith to enter this rest, "lest anyone fall by the same example of disobedience" displayed by the wilderness generation. This "fall" (piptō) means to "commit apostasy" and corresponds to the use of "fall" (piptō) "in 1 Cor 10:12, another passage that uses the example of the wilderness generation's defection to warn believers." In both passages "the audience is warned against committing apostasy and falling into eschatological [i.e., future and final] ruin." Both "of these verses makes clear that the apostasy threatening the audience follows after the rebellion of Israel in the wilderness. The Christ-followers in Hebrews are identified as God's people in the last days, and they are in danger of rejecting God and failing to enter the promised eschatological rest. . . . They are in danger of abandoning God and the final salvation that comes at the end of their journey. Their potential rejection of God would happen through disobedience and unbelief.
Hebrews 5:8-9 - "[Jesus] learned obedience from [the things] which he suffered. And having been made perfect, he became to all the ones obeying him [the] source of eternal salvation" (Heb 5:8-9).
"This wonderful accomplishment of eternal salvation applies . . . literally 'to all those who keep on obeying him' (Greek present participle)." This "eternal salvation" (aiōnios sōtēria) refers to "Messianic and spiritual salvation" and includes "deliverance from punishment and misery as the consequence of sin, and admission to eternal life and happiness in the kingdom of Christ the Savior." "The implication is clear. Those who do not continue to obey him . . . forfeit their eternal salvation."
Hebrews 6:4–8 – For it is impossible, in the case of those who have once been enlightened, who have tasted the heavenly gift, and have shared in the Holy Spirit, and have tasted the goodness of the word of God and the powers of the age to come, and then have fallen away, to restore them again to repentance, since they are crucifying once again the Son of God to their own harm and holding him up to contempt. For land that has drunk the rain that often falls on it, and produces a crop useful to those for whose sake it is cultivated, receives a blessing from God. But if it bears thorns and thistles, it is worthless and near to being cursed, and its end is to be burned. (ESV)
Hebrews 10:26–31 – For if we go on sinning deliberately after receiving the knowledge of the truth, there no longer remains a sacrifice for sins, but a fearful expectation of judgment, and a fury of fire that will consume the adversaries. Anyone who has set aside the law of Moses dies without mercy on the evidence of two or three witnesses. How much worse punishment, do you think, will be deserved by the one who has spurned the Son of God, and has profaned the blood of the covenant by which he was sanctified, and has outraged the Spirit of grace? For we know the One who has said, Vengeance belongs to Me, I will repay, and again, The Lord will judge His people. It is a terrifying thing to fall into the hands of the living God! (ESV)
Hebrews 10:37–39 – For in just a little while: "The one who is coming will come and will not delay. And my righteous one will live by faith, but if he shrinks back, my soul takes no pleasure in him." Now we are not part of those who shrink back, resulting in destruction, but of those who have faith, resulting in the soul's salvation. (EHV)
The coming one is Christ and the phrase "my righteous one" is "the person of faith." "This supports the author's presupposition that his readers are all believers (and thus 'righteous'), but that some of them are in danger of shrinking back from the life of faith." The person of faith is confronted with "two contrasting courses of action . . . living by faith or shrinking back" "by unfaith." Shrinking back involves "timidity or cowardice" and refers to "not keeping faith" and leads to "apostasy." These contrasting actions lead to corresponding destinies: "living by faith" results in "the soul's salvation," while shrinking back in unbelief leads to "destruction." This destruction (apōleia) is "eternal destruction" since it is the opposite of "the soul's salvation." The writer in this passage is trying to "head off apostasy" by warning believers "about the dire consequences of apostasy."
Hebrews 12:1–13 – Therefore, since we are surrounded by such a great cloud of witnesses, we must get rid of every weight and the sin that clings so closely, and run with endurance the race set out for us, keeping our eyes fixed on Jesus, the pioneer and perfecter of our faith. For the joy set out for him he endured the cross, disregarding its shame, and has taken his seat at the right hand of the throne of God. Think of him who endured such opposition against himself by sinners, so that you may not grow weary in your souls and give up. You have not yet resisted to the point of bloodshed in your struggle against sin. And have you forgotten the exhortation addressed to you as sons? “My son, do not scorn the Lord’s discipline or give up when he corrects you. “For the Lord disciplines the one he loves and chastises every son he accepts.” Endure your suffering as discipline; God is treating you as sons. For what son is there that a father does not discipline? But if you do not experience discipline, something all sons have shared in, then you are illegitimate and are not sons. Besides, we have experienced discipline from our earthly fathers and we respected them; shall we not submit ourselves all the more to the Father of spirits and receive life? For they disciplined us for a little while as seemed good to them, but he does so for our benefit, that we may share his holiness. Now all discipline seems painful at the time, not joyful. But later it produces the fruit of peace and righteousness for those trained by it. Therefore, strengthen your listless hands and your weak knees, and make straight paths for your feet, so that what is lame may not be put out of joint but be healed. (NET)
"Since the believers have so many previous examples of faith who stand as a cluster of spectators or "cloud of witnesses," they are encouraged to run their metaphoric footrace of life with endurance (Heb 12:1; cf. ch. 11; 1 Cor 9:24–27)." The footrace imagery is just one more example of the people of God on the move towards the goal of final salvation with God. With this race metaphor, the author is concerned that all the participants "run until reaching the finish line. Once that has been achieved, the location is transformed from a stadium to the heavenly Jerusalem (12:22). Hence, the footrace concerns the participants' endurance, and apostasy would seem to be the outcome for those who do not finish the race. The runners are to mimic the attitude of the faithful champions who are now watching them in the stadium as the runners participate in the contest." Running the race appropriately involves laying "aside every impediment and easily obstructing sin, similar to a runner who loses excess body weight and sets aside heavy clothes or anything else that would hinder the athlete's speed." The sin which clings so closely is left unspecified. Even though some commentators hold that "it is the sin of apostasy (cf. Heb 3:13; 10:26)," this is unlikely the case here. "The closest prior mention of sin is in 11:25, which speaks of Moses choosing mistreatment with God's people over the temporary pleasures of sin." Since this sin is connected with pleasure (apolausis) in a negative sense, this "often refers to enticements related to forbidden foods and sensual vices, and this comes close to the meaning of sin in 12:16. The imagery of laying aside excess impediments in 12:1 is something normally done before the race starts, which tend to make the "sin" relevant to pre-conversion impediments that would hinder the participants during their new course of life if they are not discarded. The sin in 12:1 therefore refers to pre-converted sins or sin in general (cf. 9:26). Sin can "ensnare easily any runner (cf. 12:1, 14-16)," and therefore must be discarded. As runners believers are to keep their eyes focused on Jesus who is "seated in the place of honor." Jesus has completed the race by enduring hostility from sinners and "great suffering to the shedding of blood, something the believers have not yet experienced (12:2–4). Jesus is thus the ultimate exemplar of faithfulness as well as the object of faith for the runners." By fixing their eyes on Jesus and what he did for them on the cross, believers will be inspired "not to grow fatigued and "give up" on the race." As good athletes believers are to endure the Lord's discipline (paideia)—the stringent training that enables running a good race (12:5–11). This paideia is "a non-punitive discipline in Heb 12. The discipline and suffering the believer's experience, in other words, are not the result of divine punishment. Rather, the training and suffering fosters virtuous living with the special qualities of holiness and righteousness (12:10–11)." "Submission to divine training requires confident, enduring faith." If a believer endures and submits to divine discipline they will "receive life," (zaō, 12:9, NET), that is, they will "enjoy eternal life, and be admitted to . . . Christ's kingdom." The racing "imagery turns to a fatigued or crippled runner who needs reviving so as to continue advancing: 'Therefore strengthen your drooping hands and your feeble knees and make straight paths for your feet so that what is crippled may not be dislocated [ektrepō] but rather be healed' (Heb 12:12–13/Prov 4:26)." A dislocated joint would prevent the runner from finishing the race. "Thus committing apostasy is implied as a negative outcome of what might happen if the runner is not healed and strengthened once again. The exhortation delivered by the author here is intended to strengthen and renew his readers who have become "spiritually fatigued and about to give up the metaphoric race" that leads to the eternal life in the presence of God in his heavenly kingdom.
Hebrews 12:14–17 – Make every effort to live in peace with everyone and to be holy; without holiness no one will see the Lord. See to it that no one falls short of the grace of God and that no bitter root grows up to cause trouble and defile many. See that no one is sexually immoral, or is godless like Esau, who for a single meal sold his inheritance rights as the oldest son. Afterward, as you know, when he wanted to inherit this blessing, he was rejected. Even though he sought the blessing with tears, he could not change what he had done. (NIV)
As holiness belongs to the essence of God and is his highest glory, so it is to characterize God's people. We were chosen in Christ to be holy (Eph. 1:4), and God disciplines us as his children so "that we may share in his holiness" (12:10). ... Lane observes that "in Hebrews 'pure' and 'holy' are interchangeable terms because those who have been made holy are those for whom Christ has made purification. ... Christians have within their reach the holiness that is indispensable for seeing God" (1991, 451). Holiness "is not an optional extra in the Christian life but something which belongs to its essence. It is the pure in heart, and none but they, who shall see God Matt. 5:8). Here [Heb. 12:14], as in v. 10, practical holiness of life is meant" (Bruce, 1990, 348). Thus 12:14 begins by exhorting believers to earnestly pursue peace and holiness as a way of life. "Make every effort" (dioko) conveys diligence in the pursuit of peace and holiness. ... Peace is viewed as an objective reality tied to Christ and his redemptive death on the cross, which makes possible harmony and solidarity in Christian community (cf. Col. 1:20). Similarly, "holiness" is essential to Christian community (cf. 12:15). Sin divides and defiles the body of Christ, just as cancer does a human body. To pursue holiness suggests a process of sanctification in which our life and manner of living are set apart for God as holy and God-honoring. Verse 14 concludes that "without holiness no one will see the Lord." To "see" the Lord and "know" him intimately are closely related. To see the Lord "is the highest and most glorious blessing mortals can enjoy, but the beatific vision is reserved for those who are holy in heart and life" (Bruce, 1990, 349). Things that are unholy effectively block seeing and knowing God and in the end keep the person from inheriting the kingdom of God (cf. 1 Cor. 6:9–10). Believers must be vigilantly watchful over the spiritual well-being of each member of the church. The verb translated "see to it" (episkopeo; 12:15a) conveys the idea of spiritual oversight and is related to the function of "overseers" or elders. This verb is a present active participle with the force of an imperative and carries the sense of "watching continually." Three subordinate clauses of warning follow this verb, each one introduced by the words "that no one" (me tis): Watch continually—"that no one misses the grace of God" (12:15a) "that no bitter root grows up ..." (12:15b) "that no one is sexually immoral or ... godless" (12:16a). This appeal to spiritual watchfulness is a call to the church as a whole. The exhortation "see to it that no one misses the grace of God" (12:15a) is a key statement. Remaining steadfast in faith (10:19–11:40), enduring discipline as children (12:1–13), and pursuing peace and holiness (12:14) are all related to the grace of God, as is everything involving our salvation. If entrance into the Christian life is by the grace of God, even so the continuance and completion of it is by the grace of God. The dreadful possibility of missing God's grace is not because his grace is inaccessible, but because some may choose not to avail themselves of it. For this reason it is possible for a person (though once a believer) not to reach the goal that is attainable only by his grace operating through faith (cf. 3:12; Bruce, 1990, 349). Marshall makes several observations concerning this warning passage (1969, 149–51). (1) It is possible for a believer to draw back from the grace of God (12:15a; cf. 2 Cor. 6:1; Gal. 5:4). The context of the warning here, as elsewhere in Hebrews (e.g., Heb. 2:1–4; 6:4–8; 10:26–31), indicates that a true believer is meant. (2) Where the grace of God is missed, bitterness will take root and potentially defile other members in the church (12:15b). The deadly sins of unbelief and a poisonous root of bitterness function like a fatally contagious disease that can "defile many" in the community. (3) No one should be "sexually immoral [pornos; lit., fornicator] or ... godless like Esau." Esau was a sensual man rather than a spiritual man—entirely earthly-minded rather than heavenly-minded—who traded away "his inheritance rights as the oldest son" (12:16b) for the momentary gratification of his physical senses. He represents those who would make the unthinkable exchange of long-range spiritual inheritance (i.e., things hoped for but not yet seen, 11:1) for present tangible and visible benefits, momentary though they be. Afterwards, when Esau realized the foolishness of his choice, he wanted to inherit his blessing but could not since "he was rejected" by God (12:17a). Attridge notes that the comment on Esau "conveys the sharpest warning" of this passage (1989, 369). Though some have understood verse 17b to mean that Esau could not change Isaac's mind, the more likely sense is that of rejection by God—that is, repentance was not granted by God. "God did not give Esau the opportunity of changing his mind and gaining what he had forfeited. The author intends his readers to apply this story to themselves and their salvation. Just as Esau was rejected by God, so can they be rejected if they spurn their spiritual birthright" (Marshall, 1969, 150). Bruce concurs that this example of Esau "is a reinforcement of the warning given at an earlier stage in the argument, that after apostasy no second repentance is possible" (1990, 352). Esau's "tears" represent regret for having lost his birthright, not repentance for having despised and shown contempt for God's gift of a birthright and for the covenant by which it was secured. This is all immediately applicable to the readers of this book, for Esau represents "apostate persons who are ready to turn their backs on God and the divine promises, in reckless disregard of the blessings secured by the sacrificial death of Jesus" (Lane, 1991, 455). In other words, a person may miss the grace of God and the spiritual inheritance of eternal life that he or she might have received. In such cases "God may not permit ... an opportunity of repentance. Not all sinners go this far; but an apostate may well find that he has stretched the mercy of God to its limit, so that he cannot return" (Marshall, 1969, 150–51).
Hebrews 12:18–29 – You haven’t come, after all, to something that can be touched – a blazing fire, darkness, gloom and whirlwind, the sound of a trumpet and a voice speaking words which the hearers begged not to have to listen to any more. (They couldn’t bear the command that ‘if even a beast touches the mountain, it must be stoned’.) The sight was so terrifying that even Moses said, ‘I’m trembling with fear.’ No: you have come to Mount Zion – to the city of the living God, the heavenly Jerusalem. You have come to where thousands and thousands of angels are gathered for a festival; to the assembly of the firstborn, whose names are written in heaven. You have come to God the judge of all, to the spirits of righteous people who have been made perfect, and to Jesus the mediator of the new covenant, and to the sprinkled blood which has better words to say than the blood of Abel. Take care [“Watch out,” LEB] that you don’t refuse the one who is speaking. For if people didn’t escape when they rejected the one who gave them earthly warnings, how much more if we turn away from the one who speaks from heaven! At that point, his voice shook the earth; but now he has issued a promise in the following words: ‘One more time I will shake not only the earth but heaven as well.’ The phrase ‘one more time’ shows that the things that are to be shaken (that is, the created things) will be taken away, so that the things that cannot be shaken will remain. Well, then: we are to receive a kingdom which cannot be shaken! This calls for gratitude! That’s how to offer God true and acceptable worship, reverently and with fear. Our God, you see, is a devouring fire. (New Testament for Everyone)
The author issues a warning here "that if the fearful presence and voice of God from the heavenly city is greater than the theophany at Sinai, then how much greater and terrifying will be the judgment of God on those who reject God's voice in the new covenant era?" The author "masterfully recapitulates previous warnings" regarding the dangers of apostasy in the letter (2:1–4; 3:7–4:13; 10:26–31). The readers are to "watch out" (blepō) that they do not "refuse God who now speaks from heaven. The author and the community to whom he writes ("we") will not be able to escape the final judgment if they turn away [apostrephō] from the one who warns from heaven (12:25, 29). God is viewed as a consuming fire, a thought that alludes to his judgment against enemies and those who violate his covenant (cf. Deut 4:23–24; 9:3; Isa 33:14). Our author has in mind a burning judgment and picture of final destruction akin with early apocalyptic traditions (Isa 66:16, 24; Zeph 1:18; 1 En. 91.9; 4 Ezra 7.38; 2 Bar. 44.15). Put differently, if the malaise Christian community that suffers from dullness of hearing commit apostasy by rejecting God's message, then God will consume them with a fiery punishment at the eschaton." Since the believing community is "in the process of inheriting an unshakable kingdom, the appropriate way to worship God, then, is for all believers to show gratitude (Heb 12:28)," and render service that is pleasing to God with "godly fear" and "reverence/awe". "Again the author uses fear as a strategy in his warning (4:1; 10:27, 31; 12:21; cf. 11:7). The believers are exhorted to worship God acceptably and not commit apostasy” so they can finally enter into God's presence in his future heavenly kingdom.
Conditional security in the book of James
James 1:12 – Blessed is the one who perseveres under trial because, having stood the test, that person will receive the crown of life that the Lord has promised to those who love him. (NIV)
"[T]he word "blessed" has both present and future connotations." "[T]hose who have persevered in trusting and loving" the Lord "in the face of trials" are "qualified to be called 'blessed'." For the Lord has promised to give them "the crown of life," which means "'the crown that consists in eternal life'"— "the life of the age to come" which is equivalent to inheriting the kingdom of God in James 2:5. "Their love for God is the outcome of their faith in him which produces willing endurance for him (1:2-4). Love is the essence of true faith" and trials have a way of testing a Christians "love as well as faith."
James 5:19–20 – My brothers, if anyone among you wanders from the truth and someone brings him back, let him know that whoever brings back a sinner from his wandering will save his soul from death and will cover a multitude of sins. (ESV)
It was customary to end such a letter with a summary (James 5:7–11), an oath (James 5:12), a health wish (James 5:13–18) and a purpose statement (James 5:19–20). This verse, then, should be part of the statement of the purpose of the whole letter. That in itself is reason enough to assign it great importance. The condition this verse speaks to is described in James 5:19. A Christian ("one of you") has erred. James gives us plenty of illustrations of this in the letter. The errors he addresses are those of partiality and greed, of anger and jealousy. All of them are found within the church. Such error calls for another Christian ("someone") to point it out so that the person can repent and be restored ("bring him back"). That, of course, is what the entire letter is about, bringing the Christians he addresses back to proper Christian behavior. This is indeed the purpose statement of James. Therefore, the sinner in this verse is a Christian who has fallen into sin, such as greed or criticism of others. This Christian brother or sister has erred or gone the wrong way—the text is not talking about an individual sin, however "serious" we may consider it, from which the believer quickly repents. As Jesus points out in Matthew 7:13–14 . . . there are two ways. The way that leads to life is narrow and difficult, while the one leading to death is broad and easy. Unfortunately there are many ways to get from the narrow to the broad way. This Christian (the sinner) has taken one of them and is observed by another, whom we shall call the rescuer. The question is, Who is saved from death—the sinner or the rescuer? . . . It seems to me that James's message is that the sinner is the one rescued from death by the rescuer's efforts. There are four reasons for this. First, the fact that sins are covered (an adaptation of Proverbs 10:12: "Love covers all wrongs") seems to refer to the sinner's sins, not the potential sin of the rescuer. Only the sinner has erred in the context. Second, the word order in the Greek text makes it more likely that it is the sinner who is delivered from death. Third, the very picture of turning a person from his wandering way . . . suggests that it is the error that is putting the individual in danger of death. . . . What, then, is the death that the person is saved from?
A few commentators suggest that this death refers to "physical death," But most commentators see death in James 5:20 as referring to spiritual or eternal death.
Both testaments view death as the end result of sin, usually referring to death in terms of eternal death or condemnation at the last judgment (Deut. 30:19; Job 8:13; Psalm 1:6; Psalm 2:12; Jeremiah 23:12; Jude 23; Rev. 20:14). James has already mentioned this in James 1:15: desire gives birth to sin, which results in death. That death is contrasted with the life that God gives (James 1:18). Since death and life are parallel ideas, it is likely that they are not physical but eternal . . . . This parallel, plus the seriousness of the tone in James 5, indicates that it is this sort of death, the ultimate death that sin brings about, which is in view. What James is saying, then, is that a Christian may err from the way of life. When another Christian attempts to rescue him or her, it is not a hopeless action. Such a rescue effort, if successful, will deliver [i.e., save, sōzō] that erring person from eternal death. That is because the sins will be covered (the language is that of the Old Testament sacrifice; when atonement was made the sin was said to be covered as if literally covered by the blood). It may be one simple action of rescue, but it can lead to the covering of "a multitude of sins." In stating this, James shows his own pastor's heart and encourages all Christians to follow in his footsteps, turning their erring brothers and sisters back from the way of death.
Conditional security in the books of 2 Peter and Jude
2 Peter 1:3–11 – His divine power has given us everything required for life and godliness through the knowledge of him who called us by his own glory and goodness. By these he has given us very great and precious promises, so that through them you may share in the divine nature, escaping the corruption that is in the world because of evil desire. For this very reason, make every effort to supplement your faith with goodness, goodness with knowledge, knowledge with self-control, self-control with endurance, endurance with godliness, godliness with brotherly affection, and brotherly affection with love. For if you possess these qualities in increasing measure, they will keep you from being useless or unfruitful in the knowledge of our Lord Jesus Christ. The person who lacks these things is blind and shortsighted and has forgotten the cleansing from his past sins. Therefore, brothers and sisters, make every effort to confirm your calling and election, because if you do these things you will never stumble [or "fall," ESV, "fall away," NLT]. For in this way, entry into the eternal kingdom of our Lord and Savior Jesus Christ will be richly provided for you. (CSB)
"In 2 Peter 1:5–7 we discover a chain of virtues that Christians are strongly encouraged … to develop" (i.e., "make every effort," CSB, NET, NIV). This encouragement to moral effort is not surprising since the false teachers in 2 Peter are false precisely because they are not making any effort to live morally, and are setting "a wrong moral example" that encourages Christians to follow in their footsteps. Of significance in this list of virtues is that faith is first. "Trusting God is the root from which all the other virtues spring." Peter's theology here agrees "with Paul's, who said that faith expresses itself in love (Gal. 5:6). All the godly virtues find their source in faith" and culminate in love. If Christians "keep on doing" (v. 10, ISV) these godly virtues, they "will never fall [ptaiō]" (v. 10, ESV) or "fall away" (NLT, GOD’S WORD), 'that is, they will never forsake God, abandon him, and commit apostasy." Notice that v. 10 is connected to v. 11 by "For in this way." "The 'way,' of course, is the pathway of virtue, the keeping of the qualities in vv. 5–7, which were mentioned again in v. 10." By living godly lives through God's power Christ "will provide entrance into the kingdom for believers." For Peter, "the ethical fruits of Christian faith are objectively necessary for the attainment of final salvation." This teaching on the importance of moral living was needed since "His readers were in danger of moral apostasy, under the influence of [false] teachers who evidently held that immorality incurred no danger of [eternal] judgment." Peter believes "that without moral living one will not enter the kingdom which is precisely what Paul also believed (1 Cor 6:9–10; Gal 5:21)." Thus, according to Peter, "A person cannot sit around … after conversion … and assume 'once saved, always saved' regardless of one's postconversion conduct." "Peter assumes the possibility of their apostasy" with the consequent "forfeiture of eternal life" that is experienced in the kingdom ruled by the Lord Jesus. "But the apostle insists that such apostasy ... does not have to happen to any Christian. And it will never happen if we live each day by an abiding faith in Christ." A "faith that is demonstrated by growth in the Christian" virtues mentioned here.
2 Peter 2:18–22 – For speaking out arrogant words of vanity they entice by fleshly desires, by sensuality, those who barely escape from the ones who live in error, promising them freedom while they themselves are slaves of corruption; for by what a man is overcome, by this he is enslaved. For if, after they have escaped the defilements of the world by the knowledge of the Lord and Savior Jesus Christ, they are again entangled in them and are overcome, the last state has become worse for them than the first. For it would be better for them not to have known the way of righteousness, than having known it, to turn away from the holy commandment handed on to them. It has happened to them according to the true proverb, "A dog returns to its own vomit," and, "A sow, after washing, returns to wallowing in the mire." (NASB 1995)
This passage follows "a relatively simple outline: verses 18, 19 [deals with] the attempts of the false teachers to lure believers astray; verses 20, 21 [deals with] the apostasy which they [the false teachers] exemplify; verse 22 [is] an illustrative analogy." "Peter warns" that these false teachers "will lure those who are still weak in faith back into sin. These Christians ... had begun to put lives that were mired in sin behind them," but now they are being "seduced by these teachers" to "go right back to the filth from which they had so recently been cleansed." Notice, the false teachers "promise the new converts freedom in a lustful life, but they themselves were slaves of the very moral corruption they were enticing others to embrace." How deceitful it is to tell Christians "'You can believe in Jesus and be free to live an immoral life.'" "The key verses to consider, in discussing apostasy … are verses 20, 21. … That these whom Peter regards as apostates had a genuine Christian experience is seen in at least three ways."
First, they "escaped [apopheugō] the defilements of the world," which recalls 2 Peter 1:4 ("having escaped [apopheugō] the corruption that is in the world"). David Kuske notes that "they escaped" (apopheugō) with "The preposition [apo] used as a prefix makes [pheugō] a perfective verb, that is, it stresses not only that people escaped but that they made a complete, total escape. As Christians, they turned their back completely on the sinful actions of their former way of life." at "the time of their conversion." Second, this escape was accomplished "by the knowledge [epignōsis] of the Lord and Savior, Jesus Christ." Peter's use of epignōsis here and in 2 Peter 1:2, 3, leave us in no doubt about whether they were once saved, for "he uses this compound [word] for knowledge consciously as a way of representing the saving knowledge of Christ one gains at conversion." "Third, they 'have come to know the way of righteousness'" ("meaning a righteous lifestyle"). "The verb [epiginōskō] 'have come to know' is cognate to the noun epignōsis just referred to." It "refers to saving knowledge, to the experience of coming to know this 'way.' The tense of the verb (Greek perfect) indicates a continuing state that is a result of a prior act. They entered into this knowledge at conversion and continue to possess that knowledge afterward." With all these in mind, "it would be hard to find a better description of what it means to become a Christian." Indeed, "There can be little doubt that the false teachers had once been orthodox Christians;" "true followers of Jesus Christ." "The 'way of righteousness' [which the false teachers had at one time fully embraced] is obviously the same as 'the way of truth' in verse 2 and 'the straight way' in verse 15." Furthermore, it is equivalent to "the holy commandment" passed on to them. Unfortunately, these once orthodox Christians have "turned away" (hupostrephō) from following the way of righteousness or holy commandments delivered to them. This "implies that they have returned to their former way of life and thus committed … apostasy" (i.e. become unbelievers). This is an "ethical apostasy," which is an act of "deconversion." Finally, Peter illustrates what has happened to these former Christians with two proverbs that convey the same point. "Like a dog that comes back to lick up the spoiled vomit that sickened him in the first place, like a sow that gets a bath and goes back to the mud from which she had been cleansed, these apostates return to the enslaving, polluting wickedness from which they had been delivered." Calvinists try to get around Peter's teaching here "by suggesting that the real nature of the sow or the dog had not been changed, and that this implies that these apostate false teachers were never regenerated" or saved to begin with. But this is simply "pressing the illustration beyond what they are intended to convey. Indeed, the proverbs must be interpreted by the clearer words that precede them and not the other way around. The previous paragraph [i.e., verses 20–21] expresses precisely what the proverbs are intended to convey. … Peter is describing a real apostasy from genuine Christianity." "If all we had of the New Testament was 2 Peter, then there would be no question about the possibility of true believers abandoning the faith. The author of 2 Peter seems to leave no doubt about the initial conversion of the false-teachers (v. 20—they came to the saving knowledge—epignosis) who have now, according to his estimation, left the faith and are in danger of eternal damnation." Indeed, "Peter has already told us of their end: 'Blackest darkness is reserved for them' (2 Pet 2:17)." Based on this passage, "Our author does not believe in eternal security."
2 Peter 3:16–18 – Some things in them [Paul's letters] are hard to understand, which ignorant and unstable people distort, leading to their own destruction, as they do the rest of the Scriptures. And so, dear friends, since you already know these things, continually be on your guard not to be carried away by the deception [or “error,” ESV, NET] of lawless people. Otherwise, you may fall from your secure position. Instead, continue to grow in the grace and knowledge of our Lord and Savior Jesus, the Messiah. Glory belongs to him both now and on that eternal day! Amen. (ISV)
"Instead of being faithful to Paul and his presentation of the gospel, the false teachers have distorted his message." "They twist his teaching ... as even the other Scriptures," and they do this to their own "eternal destruction" (Greek: apōleia), which entails "the loss of eternal life" and "the final loss of salvation." "The problem of the false teachers is not that they have poorly understood portions of divine revelation but that they use their twisted interpretation to justify their immorality (e.g., 2:19; 3:3-4). Twisted teaching and twisted practice go hand in hand." Peter's "dear friends" have been forewarned in advance—they are to continually be on guard against being "carried away" (Greek: synapagō) by the error and deception of the false teachers who are already "seducing the unstable" in the congregation. David Kuske says the verb synapagō "means 'to drag away together with others," and the passive voice indicates that this action would be done to Peter's readers" by the false teachers. If a believer winds up embracing the heretical beliefs and practices of these false teachers, they will "apostatize," or "fall" (Greek: ekpiptō) from their secure position. Jörg Frey says the word fall (ekpiptō) is likely used here because piptō, fall, "and other composites are conventionally used for apostasy and ethical decline (cf. Rom 11:11, 22; 1 Cor 10:12; Gal 5:4; Heb 4:11; Rev 2:5; 1 Clem. 59:4; 2 Clem. 2.6; 5.7)." Peter is issuing a "severe warning." His readers have been "informed in advance about the nature of the false teachers and the danger they pose, and should therefore be on guard against the temptation to apostasy from the true faith and the ethical way of life, because this would inevitably entail the loss of salvation and destruction." He "has clarified in the entire letter that those who fall away" (or commit apostasy, like the false teachers have done), "are destined for eternal destruction. Believers maintain their secure position ... by heeding warnings, not by ignoring them." "The apostle recognizes that the best antidote against apostasy is a Christian life that is growing." Therefore, Peter urges them in his final exhortation to "continue to grow in the grace and knowledge of our Lord and Savior Jesus, the Messiah." This growth in grace and knowledge "is the strongest antidote against the destructive lures of the false teachers."
Jude 20–21 – But you, beloved, building yourselves up in your most holy faith and praying in the Holy Spirit, keep yourselves in the love of God, waiting for the mercy of our Lord Jesus Christ that leads to eternal life. (ESV)
Conditional security in the epistles of John
1 John 2:15-17 – Do not be loving the world, nor the things in the world. If anyone is loving the world, the love of the Father is not in him. Because everything in the world—the desire of the flesh, and the desire of the eyes, and the boastful-pride of life—is not from the Father, but is from the world. And the world is passing-away, and its desire. But the one doing the will of God abides ["remains," CSB, NET; "lives," NIV, GOD’S WORD] forever. (DLNT)
The addresses are explicitly commanded and "warned not to love the world" because "everything in it [i.e., the desire of the flesh, desire of the eyes, and the boastful-pride of life ] is dangerous" and "can lead a person to fall away from God." A believer cannot love the world and love God the Father at the same time. "Loving the world leads to falling away from God, the most serious thing that can happen to a believer." The young believers are identified by the writer as "victors over the evil one" in 2:13-14. They are victors because they are "holding fast to God's word" (2:14) and "their faith in Jesus as the messiah, the son of God (4:4)." However, if they allow themselves to be seduced by the allurements of the world, they will "fall away from this faith, [and] they will go lost [eternally]. The world is passing away (v. 17)" but "eternal life belongs to those who do God's will, to those who love the Father and follow his commandments (v. 17)."
1 John 2:18–27 – Children, it is the last hour. And as you have heard, "Antichrist is coming," even now many antichrists have come. We know from this that it is the last hour. They went out from us, but they did not belong to us; for if they had belonged to us, they would have remained with us. However, they went out so that it might be made clear that none of them belongs to us. But you have an anointing from the Holy One, and all of you have knowledge. I have not written to you because you don't know the truth, but because you do know it, and because no lie comes from the truth. Who is the liar, if not the one who denies that Jesus is the Messiah? This one is the antichrist: the one who denies the Father and the Son. No one who denies the Son can have the Father; he who confesses the Son has the Father as well. What you have heard from the beginning must remain in you. If what you have heard from the beginning remains in you, then you will remain in the Son and in the Father. And this is the promise that He Himself made to us: eternal life. I have written these things to you about those who are trying to deceive you. The anointing you received from Him remains in you, and you don't need anyone to teach you. Instead, His anointing teaches you about all things and is true and is not a lie; just as He has taught you, remain in Him. (HCSB)
2 John 7–11 – Many deceivers have gone out into the world; they do not confess the coming of Jesus Christ in the flesh. This is the deceiver and the antichrist. Watch yourselves so you don't lose what we have worked for, but that you may receive a full reward. Anyone who does not remain in Christ's teaching but goes beyond it, does not have God. The one who remains in that teaching, this one has both the Father and the Son. If anyone comes to you and does not bring this teaching, do not receive him into your home, and don't say, "Welcome," to him; for the one who says, "Welcome," to him shares in his evil works. (HCSB)
Conditional security in the book of Revelation
A major theme in the book of Revelation concerns the Greek word nikaō which means "to … conquer, overcome, prevail, get the victory." Its meaning is reflected in modern translations of Rev. 2:7,
"To the one who overcomes, I will grant to eat from the tree of life, which is in the Paradise of God." (NASB 2020)
"To the one who conquers …." (NET, ESV, CSB)
"To the one who is victorious …." (NIV; EHV)
The Greek verb nikaō appears eight times (2:7, 11, 17, 26; 3:5, 12, 21; 21:7) as a present participle which is translated "literally [as] the one overcoming or conquering." "The present participle implies continuous victory, 'keeps on overcoming' or 'continues to be victorious.'" Thus, Christians are "in the process of conquering" and will receive the promises only if they "carry out the process to its completion."
Overcoming/conquering in these verses refers to "Christians that hold fast their faith even unto death against the power of their foes, and their temptations and persecutions." Overcoming/Conquering simply "means persevering in faith," which entails an "active trust in God that leads to faithfulness in the difficult situations of life lived for Christ." Each of the seven churches are given a promise on the condition of overcoming/conquering that differs from one another, but "each contains in some form the anticipation of eternal life" or "final salvation [with God] in the time of the new Jerusalem." This is confirmed by the final promise found in Revelation 21:7, "The one overcoming will inherit these things, and I will be God to him and he will be a son to Me" (DLNT). "The pronoun . . . 'these things,' refers to the blessings of eschatological [i.e., future and final] salvation enumerated in v. 4 (i.e., no sorrow, death, mourning, tears, or pain)." Alexander Stewart states, "Each of the seven initial promises [proclaimed to the seven churches] point forward to the visions of final salvation at the end of the Apocalypse (Revelation 20–22). Altogether they illustrate one of John's primary motivational strategies: hearers should strive to overcome in order to gain final salvation. Final salvation is dependent upon a human response of overcoming." Christians must be conquering/overcoming, that is, "remaining faithful [to Jesus], even to death, in order to experience glorious, everlasting life with God, the Lamb, and all the redeemed in God's new heaven and earth." Of course, the "Failure to overcome necessarily entails failure to receive the promises and the resultant exclusion from God's new creation."
Revelation 2:10–11 – "Do not fear what you are about to suffer. Behold, the devil is about to cast some of you into prison, so that you will be tested, and you will have tribulation for ten days. Be faithful until death, and I [Jesus] will give you the crown of life. He who has an ear, let him hear what the Spirit says to the churches He who overcomes will not be hurt by the second death." (NASB)
"The persecution would be a time for testing of the church's faith. The time of affliction would be brief ("ten days," that is, an indeterminate, short period) but may result in death for some of the faithful. They were not to fear," but "Keep on being faithful" in the midst of the devils efforts "to lead the faithful into apostasy." If they "Keep on proving faithful unto death" Christ will give them "the 'crown' which consists in eternal life," "eternal life … in the coming Kingdom." Jesus calls "all [Christians] to faithfulness, which is what it means to conquer" in the book of Revelation. Therefore, those who "Continue to be faithful" to Jesus until death consist of those who are presently "conquering" "all the godless and antichristian powers" waring against them. Christians who are conquering (i.e., "persevering in faith") are promised to never experience "the second death" (2:11) which entails "exclusion from participation in God's final kingdom” and "eternal damnation in hell" (cf. 20:6, 14; 21:8).
Revelation 3:4–5 – "But you have a few people in Sardis who have not soiled their garments; and they will walk with Me in white, for they are worthy. He who overcomes will thus be clothed in white garments; and I will not erase his name from the book of life, and I will confess his name before My Father and before His angels." (NASB)
Revelation 3:10–11 – And to the angel of the church in Philadelphia write: "This is what the holy one, the true one, the one who has the key of David, the one who opens and no one can shut, and who shuts and no one can open, says: I know your works (behold, I have put before you an opened door that no one is able to shut) that you have a little strength, and have kept my word, and did not deny my name. Behold, I am causing those of the synagogue of Satan, the ones who call themselves Jews and are not, but are lying—behold, I will make them come and kneel down before your feet and acknowledge that I have loved you. Because you have kept the word of my patient endurance [or "perseverance," NASB 1995] I also will keep you from the hour of testing that is about to come upon the whole inhabited world, to put to the test those who live on the earth. I am coming quickly! Hold fast [or "Hold on," NET, NIV] to what you have, so that no one may take away your crown. The one who conquers, I will make him a pillar in the temple of my God, and he will never go outside again, and I will write on him the name of my God and the name of the city of my God, the new Jerusalem that comes down from heaven from my God, and my new name." (Lexham English Bible)
The Philadelphian Christians are praised by Jesus: they "did not deny my name" (3:9), but "kept my word" (3:8), and "kept the word of my patient endurance" or perseverance (3:10). "This passage assumes that those who identify with Jesus' 'name' are being pressured to deny their faith" "Despite Jesus' praises for the Philadelphian Christians' perseverance to this point, however, 'it's not over till it's over.' They must continue to hold fast what they have (3:11), that is, to continue to keep the message that demands their perseverance (3:10), lest their persecutors seize from them their crown (3:11; cf. 2:25)." "[T]he crown of life in Revelation 2:10 is … eternal life itself" which Christ gives to those who remain faithful to Jesus until death. In 3:11, this "crown" also represents "eternal life," as a present possession that Christians must "be holding-on-to" (Disciples Literal New Testament) in light of Jesus's second coming. They must "'hold fast' to their present faith [in Christ] . . . in the face of coming difficulties" or else they will have their crown "taken away." This "is a metaphor for being disqualified in a contest." "The athletic metaphor is appropriate in this letter, since Philadelphia was noted for its [athletic] games and festivals (Mounce 104; Hemer, Letters 165)." The Christian athlete can become disqualified from keeping possession of the crown "of eternal life" through a variety of ways in the book of Revelation. Gwyn Pugh explains,
Jesus alerts believers [throughout the seven letters to the churches] to spiritual enemies that are aggressive, militant, and opportunistic. Believers must be on guard against any temptation, whether imperial pressure to deny Christ, social pressure to compromise with the pagan and idolatrous environment around them, or persecution from unbelieving Jews—not to mention false doctrine, indifference, and spiritual inertia within the churches. Any of these might overcome the believer and have the effect of taking one’s crown. (The Book of Revelation, 196)
Christians are warned, they must be holding fast to one's faith in Christ despite present opposition or else they will find the crown of eternal life they currently possess being "forfeited." "Through unfaithfulness this crown, which includes the blessing of everlasting life, is lost," and one is excluded from entering the kingdom of God along with all the rest who are "unfaithful" (Rev. 21:8, ISV). The doctrine of once saved, always saved "is here clearly denied."
Revelation 21:7–8 – The person who overcomes ["conquers," ESV, NET] will inherit these things. I will be his God, and he will be my son. But people who are cowardly, unfaithful, detestable, murderers, sexually immoral, sorcerers, idolaters, and all liars will find themselves in the lake that burns with fire and sulfur. This is the second death. (ISV)
Revelation 21:8 concludes this section (vv. 1–8) with a "warning" to Christians about succumbing to temptations that could keep them from being faithful to Jesus until the end as overcomers/conquers. Since "cowardly" is the opposite of the "conqueror," Christians must "decide whether to be a 'conqueror' (21:7) or a 'coward' (21:8)" and share in each of their corresponding destines. In this context, "cowards" are Christians who lack the "courage to offer faithful witness in following the Lamb wherever he might go, specifically to death," and who ultimately relinquish "one’s faith in the battle against evil," and become "apostates" (i.e., unbelievers) "The term unfaithful ... stands with the" term coward. Unfaithful [Greek: apistos] "is the opposite of faith [Greek: pistos], which includes loyalty to God and Christ (Rev 2:10; 17:14). If Jesus (1:5; 3:14; 19:11) and Antipas (2:13) were faithful and resist evil," the unfaithful "are the opposite" (cf. Luke 12:46). The book of Revelation calls "all [Christians] to faithfulness, which is what it means to conquer" (see Rev. 2:10-11). Therefore, for a Christian to become unfaithful to Jesus means that they have "turned their backs on him" and failed "to offer the faithful witness that reflects their Lord and his followers." Thus, "When Rev. 21:8 places" the cowardly and the unfaithful "in the lake of fire, it has in view Christians during times of persecution who, out of a fear of suffering, renounce their faith" and become "apostates" (i.e., unbelievers) Since "John's audience is Christians under pressure and threat of persecution, cowardice and faithlessness to the Lord, either spiritually or ethically," must be condemned in the strongest possible manner. "The intended rhetorical effect of this verse was ... to warn the faithful of the dangers of spiritual and moral apostasy."
Revelation 22:18–19 – I testify to everyone who hears the words of the prophecy contained in this book: If anyone adds to them, God will add to him the plagues described in this book. And if anyone takes away from the words of this book of prophecy, God will take away his share in the tree of life and in the holy city that are described in this book. (NET)
Whether it is Jesus or the author John who is speaking authoritatively as a prophet on behalf of God (commentators differ here), we have in these verses a "severe warning" against distorting or "falsifying the message of Revelation through one's teaching and manner of life." These warnings are meant for "everyone" who "hears" the message of Revelation and "especially … for the seven churches" who were its original recipients. Craig Koester says,
Hearers have already been told to "keep" what is written in the book and that they are blessed through faithfulness to God and Christ (1:3; 22:7, 9). Since "keeping" means obeying the message, then "adding and taking away" are the opposite and connote disobedience.
The words adding/taking away "echoes Moses' teaching in Deuteronomy" (4:2; 12:32), which in context, contain commands against committing idolatry and warn of false prophets who would encourage Israel to worship other gods (Deut. 13:1-5). Since false teachers/prophets are already active in at least two of these churches, enticing God's people to participate in idolatry and immorality (2:14-15, 20), Revelation 22:18-19 also serves as a "warning [to them] that God will punish interpretations of the Christian faith that allow the idolatry, immorality, and compromise with evil that Revelation condemns." Since the warning is addressed to "everyone who hears," it would therefore discourage both Christians and non-Christians "from attempting to tamper with the book's contents." Nevertheless, it must be remembered that this warning was originally given to believers, and thus, if a believer adds/takes away, that is, "change[s] the message God has communicated in the book or prophecy of Revelation" to allow themselves or others to disobey God, they will commit "apostasy" (i.e., "the believer will become an unbeliever") and "will have the plagues of the book added to them; that is, they will be treated as unbelievers and suffer the punishments to be inflicted on the wicked." "Even more severe is the warning that they will lose their share in the tree of life" and the holy city which are references to final salvation with God and His people in the New Jerusalem (Rev. 21–22). "Clearly, failure to keep the prophecy … disqualifies one from the eternal life that awaits in New Jerusalem." In light of these verses, "It is hard to deny … that the author believed that a person could commit apostasy … and so have the privilege of eternal salvation taken away from him. John was not an advocate of 'once saved, always saved' theology."
New Testament Greek in support of conditional security
Arminians find further support for conditional security from numerous Scriptures where the verb "believes" occurs in the Greek present tense. Greek scholars and commentators (both Calvinist and non-Calvinist) have noted that Greek present tense verbs generally refer to continuous action, especially present participles. For example, In his textbook, Basics of Biblical Greek Grammar, Calvinist William D. Mounce writes: "The present participle is built on the present tense stem of the verb. It describes a continuous action. It will often be difficult to carry this 'on-going' nuance into your translation, but this must be the foremost consideration in your mind." Calvinist Daniel Wallace brings out this "on-going" nuance for the present participle "believes" in John 3:16, "Everyone who [continually] believes in him should not perish. ... In this Gospel, there seems to be a qualitative distinction between the ongoing act of believing and the simple fact of believing." He argues for this understanding not simply because believes is in the present tense, "but to the use of the present participle of πιστεύων [pisteuōn, believing], especially in soteriological [i.e., salvation] contexts in the NT." Wallace goes on to elaborate,
The aspectual force of the present [participle] ὁ πιστεύων [the one believing] seems to be in contrast with [the aorist participle] ὁ πιστεύσας [the one having believed]. ... The present [participle for the one believing] occurs six times as often (43 times) [in comparison to the aorist], most often in soteriological contexts (cf. John 1:12; 3:15, 16, 18; 3:36; 6:35, 47, 64; 7:38; 11:25; 12:46; Acts 2:44; 10:43; 13:39; Rom 1:16; 3:22; 4:11, 24; 9:33; 10:4, 11; 1 Cor 1:21; 1 Cor 14:22 [bis]; Gal 3:22; Eph 1:19; 1 Thess 1:7; 2:10, 13; 1 Pet 2:6, 7; 1 John 5:1, 5, 10, 13). Thus, it seems that since the aorist participle was a live option to describe a "believer," it is unlikely that when the present was used, it was aspectually flat. The present was the tense of choice most likely because the New Testament writers by and large saw continual belief as a necessary condition of salvation. Along these lines, it seems significant that the promise of salvation is almost always given to ὁ πιστεύων [the one believing] (cf. several of the above cited texts), almost never to ὁ πιστεύσας [the one having believed] (apart from Mark 16:16, John 7:39 and Heb 4:3 come the closest . . .).
Arminian Greek scholar J. Harold Greenlee supplies the following literal translation of several verses where the Greek word translated "believes" (in our modern translations) occurs in the tense of continuous action.
Of further significance is that "In many cases the results of the believing are also given in a continuous tense. As we keep believing, we keep on having eternal life (John 3:15, 16, 36; 20:31)." It is this type of evidence which leads Arminians to conclude that "eternal security is firmly promised to 'the one believing'—the person who continues to believe in Christ—but not to "the one having believed,"—the person who has merely exercised one single act of faith some time in the past." Indeed, "Just as becoming saved is conditioned upon faith, staying saved is conditioned upon continuing to believe."
Scriptures that appear to contradict conditional security
Those who hold to perseverance of the saints cite a number of verses to support their view. The following are some of the most commonly cited:
John 5:24 – Truly, truly, I say to you, whoever hears my word and believes him who sent me has eternal life. He does not come into judgment, but has passed from death to life. (ESV)
John 6:35, 37–40 – Jesus said to them, "I am the bread of life; whoever comes to me shall not hunger, and whoever believes in me shall never thirst. . . . All that the Father gives me will come to me, and whoever comes to me I will never cast out. For I have come down from heaven, not to do my own will but the will of him who sent me. And this is the will of him who sent me, that I should lose nothing of all that he has given me, but raise it up on the last day. For this is the will of my Father, that everyone who looks on the Son and believes in him should have eternal life, and I will raise him up on the last day. (ESV)
John 10:27–29 – My sheep hear my voice, and I know them, and they follow me. I give them eternal life, and they will never perish, and no one will snatch them out of my hand. My Father, who has given them to me, is greater than all, and no one is able to snatch them out of the Father's hand. (ESV)
John 17:12 – While I was with them, I kept them in your name, which you have given me. I have guarded them, and not one of them has been lost except the son of destruction, that the Scripture might be fulfilled. (ESV)
Romans 8:1 – There is therefore now no condemnation for those who are in Christ Jesus. (ESV)
Romans 8:35, 37–39 – Who shall separate us from the love of Christ? Shall tribulation, or distress, or persecution, or famine, or nakedness, or danger, or sword? ... No, in all these things we are more than conquerors through him who loved us. For I am sure that neither death nor life, nor angels nor rulers, nor things present nor things to come, nor powers, nor height nor depth, nor anything else in all creation, will be able to separate us from the love of God in Christ Jesus our Lord. (ESV)
1 Corinthians 1:8–9 – [God] who will sustain you to the end, guiltless in the day of our Lord Jesus Christ. God is faithful, by whom you were called into the fellowship of his Son, Jesus Christ our Lord. (ESV)
1 Corinthians 10:13 – No temptation has overtaken you that is not common to man. God is faithful, and he will not let you be tempted beyond your ability, but with the temptation he will also provide the way of escape, that you may be able to endure it. (ESV)
Ephesians 1:13–14 – In him you also, when you heard the word of truth, the gospel of your salvation, and believed in him, were sealed with the promised Holy Spirit, who is the guarantee of our inheritance until we acquire possession of it, to the praise of his glory. (ESV)
Philippians 1:6 – And I am sure of this, that he who began a good work in you will bring it to completion at the day of Jesus Christ. (ESV)
2 Timothy 4:18 – The Lord will rescue me from every evil deed and bring me safely into his heavenly kingdom. To him be the glory forever and ever. Amen. (ESV)
Hebrews 7:25 – Therefore, He is able also to save forever those who draw near to God through Him, since He always lives to make intercession for them. (NASB)
1 Peter 1:5 – ... who are protected by the power of God through faith for a salvation ready to be revealed in the last time. (NASB)
1 John 3:9 – No one who is born of God will continue to sin, because God's seed remains in him; he cannot go on sinning, because he has been born of God. (NIV)
Jude 24–25 – To him who is able to keep you from falling and to present you before his glorious presence without fault and with great joy—to the only God our Savior be glory, majesty, power and authority, through Jesus Christ our Lord, before all ages, now and forevermore! Amen. (NIV)
Arminians would argue that they have adequately provided explanations for how these verses and others can be easily reconciled with conditional security.
Agreements and disagreements with opposing views
A major difference between traditional Calvinists and Arminians is how they define apostasy (see Perseverance of the saints for the definition as it is referred to here).
Traditional Calvinist view
Traditional Calvinists say apostasy refers to people who fall away (apostatize) from a profession of faith, but who have never actually entered into a saving relationship with God through Christ. As noted earlier, Arminians understand that apostasy refers to a believer who has departed from a genuine saving relationship with God by developing "an evil, unbelieving heart." (Hebrews 3:12)
In traditional Calvinism the doctrine of the perseverance of the saints "does not stand alone but is a necessary part of the Calvinistic system of theology." The Calvinist doctrines of Unconditional Election and Irresistible Grace "logically imply the certain salvation of those who receive these blessings." If God has eternally and unconditionally elected (chosen) some men to eternal life, and if His Spirit irresistibly applies to them the benefits of salvation, then the inescapable conclusion is that these persons will be saved forever. Arminians acknowledge that the Calvinistic system is logically consistent if certain presuppositions are true, but they do not agree with these presuppositions, which include the Calvinist doctrines of unconditional election and irresistible grace.
Traditional Calvinists agree with Arminians on the need for persevering in faith
Baptist scholar James Leo Garrett says it is important for people recognize that traditional Calvinist and Arminians "do not differ as to whether continuing faith in Jesus Christ will be necessary for final or eschatological salvation. Both agree that it is so. Rather, they differ as to whether all Christians or all true believers will continue in faith to the end." For example, Anthony Hoekema, longtime Professor of Calvin Theological Seminary, stated: "Peter puts it vividly: We are kept by the power of God through faith [1 Peter 1:5]—a living faith, which expresses itself through love (Galatians 5:6). In other words, we may never simply rest on the comfort of God's preservation apart from the continuing exercise of faith." Hoekema even writes that he agrees with Arminian writer Robert Shank when he says,
There is no warrant in the New Testament for that strange at-ease-in-Zion definition of perseverance which assures Christians that perseverance is inevitable and relieves them of the necessity of deliberately persevering in faith, encouraging them to place confidence in some past act or experience.
Reformed Presbyterian James Denney stated:
And there is nothing superficial in what the New Testament calls faith . . . it is [man's] absolute committal of himself for ever to the sin-bearing love of God for salvation. It is not simply the act of an instant, it is the attitude of a life; it is the one right thing at the moment when a man abandons himself to Christ, and it is the one thing which keeps him right with God for ever. . . . Grace is the attitude of God to man which is revealed and made sure in Christ, and the only way in which it becomes effective in us for new life is when it wins [from] us the response of faith. And just as grace is the whole attitude of God in Christ to sinful men, so faith is the whole attitude of the sinful soul as it surrenders itself to that grace. Whether we call it the life of the justified, or the life of the reconciled, or the life of the regenerate, or the life of grace or of love, the new life is the life of faith and nothing else. To maintain the original attitude of welcoming God's love as it is revealed in Christ bearing our sins—not only to trust it, but to go on trusting—not merely to believe in it as a mode of transition from the old to the new, but to keep on believing—to say with every breath we draw, "Thou, O Christ, art all I want; more than all in Thee I find"—is not a part of the Christian life, but the whole of it.
Free Grace or non-traditional Calvinist view
The non-traditional Calvinist or Free Grace view disagrees with Traditional Calvinists and Arminians in holding that saving faith in Christ must continue in order for a person to remain in their saving relationship with God. For example, Zane Hodges says: "... We miss the point to insist that true saving faith must necessarily continue. Of course, our faith in Christ should continue. But the claim that it absolutely must ... has no support at all in the Bible" Joseph Dillow writes:
Even though Robert Shank would not agree, it is definitely true that saving faith is "the act of a single moment whereby all the benefits of Christ's life, death, and resurrection suddenly become the irrevocable possession of the individual, per se, despite any and all eventualities."
Any and all eventualities would include apostasy—falling away or walking away from the Christian faith and to "cease believing." What a Christian forfeits when he falls away is not his saving relationship with God but the opportunity to reign with Christ in his coming kingdom.
Lewis Sperry Chafer, in his book Salvation, provides a concise summary of the Free Grace position: "Saving faith is an act: not an attitude. Its work is accomplished when its object has been gained."
Traditional Calvinists agree with Arminians against the Free Grace view
Traditional Calvinists and Arminians disagree with the Free Grace view on biblical and theological grounds. For example, Calvinist Tony Lane writes:
The two historic views discussed so far [Traditional Calvinism and Arminianism] are agreed that salvation requires perseverance [in faith]. More recently, however, a third view has emerged [i.e., non-traditional Calvinist or Free Grace], according to which all who are converted will be saved regardless of how they then live. They will be saved even if they immediately renounce their faith and lead a life of debauched atheism. Many people today find this view attractive, but it is blatantly unbiblical. There is much in the New Testament that makes it clear that discipleship is not an optional extra and that remaining faithful is a condition of salvation. The whole letter to the Hebrews focuses on warning Jewish believers not to forsake Christ and so lose their salvation. Also, much of the teaching of Jesus warns against thinking that a profession of faith is of use if it is not backed up by our lives. Apart from being unbiblical, this approach is dangerous, for a number of reasons. It encourages a false complacency, the idea that there can be salvation without discipleship. ... Also it encourages a 'tip and run' approach to evangelism which is concerned only to lead people to make a 'decision', with scant concern about how these 'converts' will subsequently live. This is in marked contrast to the attitude of the apostle Paul, who was deeply concerned about his converts' lifestyle and discipleship. One only needs to read Galatians or 1 Corinthians to see that he did not hold to this recent view. The author of Hebrews was desperately concerned that his readers might lose their salvation by abandoning Christ. ... These three letters make no sense if salvation is guaranteed by one single 'decision for Christ'. This view is pastorally disastrous.
Scot McKnight and J. Rodman Williams represent the opinion of Arminians on this view:
"Christians of all sorts tend to agree on this point: to be finally saved, to enter eternally into the presence of God, the new heavens and the new earth, and into the [final eternal] 'rest,' a person needs to persevere. The oddest thing has happened in evangelicalism though. It [i.e., non-traditional Calvinism] has taught ... the idea of 'once saved, always saved' as if perseverance were not needed. This is neither Calvinism nor Arminianism but a strange and unbiblical hybrid of both. ... [Non-traditional Calvinists] have taught that if a person has crossed the threshold by receiving Christ, but then decides to abandon living for him, that person is eternally secure. This is rubbish theology because the New Testament does not hold such cavalier notions of security."
"Any claim to security by virtue of the great salvation we have in Christ without regard to the need for continuing in faith is totally mistaken and possibly tragic in its results. ... A doctrine of 'perseverance of the saints' that does not affirm its occurrence through faith is foreign to Scripture, a serious theological misunderstanding, and a liability to Christian existence."
Harry Jessop succinctly states the Arminian position: "Salvation, while in its initial stages made real in the soul through an act of faith, is maintained within the soul by a life of faith, manifested in faithfulness."
Christian denominations that affirm the possibility of apostasy
The following Christian denominations affirm their belief in the possibility of apostasy in either their articles or statements of faith, or by way of a position paper.
Anabaptist Churches
Mennonite Church
Missionary Church
Eastern Orthodox Church
Evangelical Congregational Church
General Baptists
General Association of General Baptists
National Association of Free Will Baptists
Lutheran Churches
Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod
Methodist Churches (Wesleyan-Arminianism)
Evangelical Wesleyan Church
The United Methodist Church
Free Methodist Church
The Salvation Army
Church of the Nazarene
Church of God (Anderson, Indiana)
Pentecostal Churches
Assemblies of God
Quakerism
Evangelical Friends Church - Eastern Region
Restorationist Churches
Churches of Christ
Roman Catholic Church
See also
Antinomianism
Apostasy in Christianity
Backsliding
Corporate election
Eternal sin
Perseverance of the saints has articles in the external links that support its position
Notes
References
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Williams, J. Rodman. Renewal Theology: Systematic Theology from a Charismatic Perspective, 3 Vols. in One (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1996).
Witherington, Ben. John's Wisdom: A Commentary on the Fourth Gospel (Louisville: Westminster John Knox Press, 1995).
Yocum, Dale. Creeds in Contrast: A Study in Calvinism and Arminianism (Salem: Schmul Publishing Co., 1986).
Further reading
Multiple views
J. Matthew Pinson, ed. (2002). Four Views on Eternal Security. Zondervan.
Herbert W. Bateman IV, ed. (2007). Four Views on the Warning Passages in Hebrews. Kregel Publications.
Arminian view
W. T. Purkiser (1956, 1974 2nd ed.). Security: The False and the True. Beacon Hill Press.
Robert Shank (1960). Life in the Son: A Study of the Doctrine of Perseverance. Bethany House Publishers.
I. Howard Marshall (1969, 1995 Rev. ed.). Kept by the Power of God: A Study of Perseverance and Falling Away. Paternoster Press.
Dale M Yocum (1986). Creeds in Contrast: A Study in Calvinism and Arminianism. Schmul Publishing Co.
David Pawson (1996). Once Saved, Always Saved? A Study in Perseverance and Inheritance. Hodder & Stoughton.
B. J. Oropeza (2000, 2007). Paul and Apostasy: Eschatology, Perseverance, and Falling Away in the Corinthian Congregation. Wipf & Stock Publishers.
B. J. Oropeza (2011). In the Footsteps of Judas and Other Defectors: Apostasy in the New Testament Communities, Volume 1: The Gospels, Acts, and Johannine Letters. Wipf & Stock Publishers.
B. J. Oropeza (2012). Jews, Gentiles, and the Opponents of Paul: Apostasy in the New Testament Communities, Volume 2: The Pauline Letters. Wipf & Stock Publishers.
B. J. Oropeza (2012). Churches under Siege of Persecution and Assimilation: Apostasy in the New Testament Communities, Volume 3: The General Epistles and Revelation. Wipf & Stock Publishers.
Scot McKnight (2013). A Long Faithfulness: The Case for Christian Perseverance, Patheos Press. .
Robert E. Picirilli (2002). Grace, Faith, Free Will. Contrasting Views of Salvation: Calvinism and Arminianism. Randall House Publications.
Frederick W. Claybrook, Jr. (2003) Once Saved, Always Saved? A New Testament Study of Apostasy. University Press of America.
French L. Arrington (2005). Unconditional Eternal Security: Myth or Truth? Pathway Press.
Traditional Calvinist view
G. C. Berkouwer (1958). Studies in Dogmatics: Faith and Perseverance. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Company.
D. Martyn Lloyd-Jones (1976). Romans 8:17-39: The Final Perseverance of the Saints. Banner of Truth.
Judith M. Gundry (1991). Paul and Perseverance: Staying in and Falling Away. Westminster/John Knox.
Anthony A. Hoekema (1994). Saved by Grace. Wm. B. Eerdmans.
A. W. Pink (2001). Eternal Security. Sovereign Grace Publishers.
Thomas R. Schreiner & Ardel B. Caneday (2001). The Race Set Before Us: A Biblical Theology of Perseverance and Assurance. Inter-Varsity Press.
Alan P. Stanley (2007). Salvation is More Complicated Than You Think: A Study on the Teachings of Jesus. Authentic Publishing.
Non-traditional Calvinist or free grace view
R. T. Kendall (1983, 1995). Once Saved, Always Saved. Authentic Media.
Zane C. Hodges (1989). Absolutely Free! A Biblical Reply to Lordship Salvation. Zondervan Publishers.
Charles C. Ryrie (1989, 1997). So Great Salvation: What it Means to Believe in Jesus Christ. Moody Publishers.
Charles Stanley (1990). Eternal Security: Can You Be Sure?. Oliver-Nelson Books.
Joseph C. Dillow (1992). The Reign of the Servant Kings: A Study of Eternal Security and the Final Significance of Man. Schoettle Publishing Company.
Norman L. Geisler (1999, 2001). Chosen But Free: A Balanced View of Divine Election, 2nd ed. Bethany House Publishers.
Tony Evans (2004). Totally Saved. Moody Publishers.
External links
"Perseverance of the Saints: A History of the Doctrine" by John Jefferson Davis (a Traditional Calvinist)
"Early Christian Writers on Apostasy and Perseverance" by Steve Witzki
James Arminius: The Security of the Believer
The Opinions of the Remonstrants (1618)
The Arminian Confession of 1621 and Apostasy
"Serious Thoughts Upon the Perseverance of the Saints" by John Wesley
Arminian Responses to Key Passages Used to Support Perseverance of the Saints
Arminian Responses to Calvinist Arguments for Perseverance of the Saints
Scriptures Used to Support Conditional and Unconditional Security
Saving Faith: Is it Simply the Act of a Moment or the Attitude of a Life?
Saving Faith: The Attitude of a Life—the Scholarly Evidence
Saving Faith According to the Greek New Testament
See 13 part series on "Perseverance of the Saints" by Ben Henshaw
The Orthodox Church Affirms Conditional Security
Messianic Jewish theologian David Stern Affirms the Conditional Security of the Believer
Messianic Jewish Scholar Dr. Michael Brown Affirms Conditional Security
"A Synthetic Look at the Warning Passages in Hebrews" by New Testament Scholar Scot McKnight
"Christian Apostasy and Hebrews 6" by Methodist Scholar Ben Witherington
Hebrews 6:4-6 and the Possibility of Apostasy by Free Will Baptist Scholar Robert Picirilli
Vic Reasoner: "Does God have an Eraser," Part 1
Vic Reasoner: "Does God have an Eraser," Part 2
See "The Society of Evangelical Arminians" for more articles dealing with the Calvinist and Arminian debate
Arminianism
Salvation in Protestantism
Methodism
Apostasy |
4101904 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flux%20balance%20analysis | Flux balance analysis | Flux balance analysis (FBA) is a mathematical method for simulating metabolism in genome-scale reconstructions of metabolic networks. In comparison to traditional methods of modeling, FBA is less intensive in terms of the input data required for constructing the model. Simulations performed using FBA are computationally inexpensive and can calculate steady-state metabolic fluxes for large models (over 2000 reactions) in a few seconds on modern personal computers. The related method of metabolic pathway analysis seeks to find and list all possible pathways between metabolites.
FBA finds applications in bioprocess engineering to systematically identify modifications to the metabolic networks of microbes used in fermentation processes that improve product yields of industrially important chemicals such as ethanol and succinic acid. It has also been used for the identification of putative drug targets in cancer and pathogens, rational design of culture media, and host–pathogen interactions. The results of FBA can be visualized using flux maps similar to the image on the right, which illustrates the steady-state fluxes carried by reactions in glycolysis. The thickness of the arrows is proportional to the flux through the reaction.
FBA formalizes the system of equations describing the concentration changes in a metabolic network as the dot product of a matrix of the stoichiometric coefficients (the stoichiometric matrix S) and the vector v of the unsolved fluxes. The right-hand side of the dot product is a vector of zeros representing the system at steady state. Linear programming is then used to calculate a solution of fluxes corresponding to the steady state.
History
Some of the earliest work in FBA dates back to the early 1980s. Papoutsakis demonstrated that it was possible to construct flux balance equations using a metabolic map. It was Watson, however, who first introduced the idea of using linear programming and an objective function to solve for the fluxes in a pathway. The first significant study was subsequently published by Fell and Small, who used flux balance analysis together with more elaborate objective functions to study the constraints in fat synthesis.
Simulations
FBA is not computationally intensive, taking on the order of seconds to calculate optimal fluxes for biomass production for a typical network (around 2000 reactions). This means that the effect of deleting reactions from the network and/or changing flux constraints can be sensibly modelled on a single computer.
Gene/reaction deletion and perturbation studies
Single reaction deletion
A frequently used technique to search a metabolic network for reactions that are particularly critical to the production of biomass. By removing each reaction in a network in turn and measuring the predicted flux through the biomass function, each reaction can be classified as either essential (if the flux through the biomass function is substantially reduced) or non-essential (if the flux through the biomass function is unchanged or only slightly reduced).
Pairwise reaction deletion
Pairwise reaction deletion of all possible pairs of reactions is useful when looking for drug targets, as it allows the simulation of multi-target treatments, either by a single drug with multiple targets or by drug combinations. Double deletion studies can also quantify the synthetic lethal interactions between different pathways providing a measure of the contribution of the pathway to overall network robustness.
Single and multiple gene deletions
Genes are connected to enzyme-catalyzed reactions by Boolean expressions known as Gene-Protein-Reaction expressions (GPR). Typically a GPR takes the form (Gene A AND Gene B) to indicate that the products of genes A and B are protein sub-units that assemble to form the complete protein and therefore the absence of either would result in deletion of the reaction. On the other hand, if the GPR is (Gene A OR Gene B) it implies that the products of genes A and B are isozymes. Therefore, it is possible to evaluate the effect of single or multiple gene deletions by evaluation of the GPR as a Boolean expression. If the GPR evaluates to false, the reaction is constrained to zero in the model prior to performing FBA. Thus gene knockouts can be simulated using FBA.
Interpretation of gene and reaction deletion results
The utility of reaction inhibition and deletion analyses becomes most apparent if a gene-protein-reaction matrix has been assembled for the network being studied with FBA. The gene-protein-reaction matrix is a binary matrix connecting genes with the proteins made from them. Using this matrix, reaction essentiality can be converted into gene essentiality indicating the gene defects which may cause a certain disease phenotype or the proteins/enzymes which are essential (and thus what enzymes are the most promising drug targets in pathogens). However, the gene-protein-reaction matrix does not specify the Boolean relationship between genes with respect to the enzyme, instead it merely indicates an association between them. Therefore, it should be used only if the Boolean GPR expression is unavailable.
Reaction inhibition
The effect of inhibiting a reaction, rather than removing it entirely, can be simulated in FBA by restricting the allowed flux through it. The effect of an inhibition can be classified as lethal or non-lethal by applying the same criteria as in the case of a deletion where a suitable threshold is used to distinguish “substantially reduced” from “slightly reduced”. Generally the choice of threshold is arbitrary but a reasonable estimate can be obtained from growth experiments where the simulated inhibitions/deletions are actually performed and growth rate is measured.
Growth media optimization
To design optimal growth media with respect to enhanced growth rates or useful by-product secretion, it is possible to use a method known as Phenotypic Phase Plane analysis. PhPP involves applying FBA repeatedly on the model while co-varying the nutrient uptake constraints and observing the value of the objective function (or by-product fluxes). PhPP makes it possible to find the optimal combination of nutrients that favor a particular phenotype or a mode of metabolism resulting in higher growth rates or secretion of industrially useful by-products. The predicted growth rates of bacteria in varying media have been shown to correlate well with experimental results, as well as to define precise minimal media for the culture of Salmonella typhimurium.
Host-pathogen interactions
The human microbiota is a complex system with as many as 400 trillion microbes and bacteria interacting with each other and the host. To understand key factors in this system; a multi-scale, dynamic flux-balance analysis is proposed as FBA is classified as less computationally intensive.
Mathematical description
In contrast to the traditionally followed approach of metabolic modeling using coupled ordinary differential equations, flux balance analysis requires very little information in terms of the enzyme kinetic parameters and concentration of metabolites in the system. It achieves this by making two assumptions, steady state and optimality. The first assumption is that the modeled system has entered a steady state, where the metabolite concentrations no longer change, i.e. in each metabolite node the producing and consuming fluxes cancel each other out. The second assumption is that the organism has been optimized through evolution for some biological goal, such as optimal growth or conservation of resources. The steady-state assumption reduces the system to a set of linear equations, which is then solved to find a flux distribution that satisfies the steady-state condition subject to the stoichiometry constraints while maximizing the value of a pseudo-reaction (the objective function) representing the conversion of biomass precursors into biomass.
The steady-state assumption dates to the ideas of material balance developed to model the growth of microbial cells in fermenters in bioprocess engineering. During microbial growth, a substrate consisting of a complex mixture of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen sources along with trace elements are consumed to generate biomass.
The material balance model for this process becomes:
If we consider the system of microbial cells to be at steady state then we may set the accumulation term to zero and reduce the material balance equations to simple algebraic equations. In such a system, substrate becomes the input to the system which is consumed and biomass is produced becoming the output from the system. The material balance may then be represented as:
Mathematically, the algebraic equations can be represented as a dot product of a matrix of coefficients and a vector of the unknowns. Since the steady-state assumption puts the accumulation term to zero. The system can be written as:
Extending this idea to metabolic networks, it is possible to represent a metabolic network as a stoichiometry balanced set of equations. Moving to the matrix formalism, we can represent the equations as the dot product of a matrix of stoichiometry coefficients (stoichiometric matrix ) and the vector of fluxes as the unknowns and set the right hand side to 0 implying the steady state.
Metabolic networks typically have more reactions than metabolites and this gives an under-determined system of linear equations containing more variables than equations. The standard approach to solve such under-determined systems is to apply linear programming.
Linear programs are problems that can be expressed in canonical form:
where x represents the vector of variables (to be determined), c and b are vectors of (known) coefficients, A is a (known) matrix of coefficients, and is the matrix transpose. The expression to be maximized or minimized is called the objective function (cTx in this case). The inequalities Ax ≤ b are the constraints which specify a convex polytope over which the objective function is to be optimized.
Linear Programming requires the definition of an objective function. The optimal solution to the LP problem is considered to be the solution which maximizes or minimizes the value of the objective function depending on the case in point. In the case of flux balance analysis, the objective function Z for the LP is often defined as biomass production. Biomass production is simulated by an equation representing a lumped reaction that converts various biomass precursors into one unit of biomass.
Therefore, the canonical form of a Flux Balance Analysis problem would be:
where represents the vector of fluxes (to be determined), is a (known) matrix of coefficients. The expression to be maximized or minimized is called the objective function ( in this case). The inequalities and define, respectively, the minimal and the maximal rates of flux for every reaction corresponding to the columns of the matrix. These rates can be experimentally determined to constrain and improve the predictive accuracy of the model even further or they can be specified to an arbitrarily high value indicating no constraint on the flux through the reaction.
The main advantage of the flux balance approach is that it does not require any knowledge of the metabolite concentrations, or more importantly, the enzyme kinetics of the system; the homeostasis assumption precludes the need for knowledge of metabolite concentrations at any time as long as that quantity remains constant, and additionally it removes the need for specific rate laws since it assumes that at steady state, there is no change in the size of the metabolite pool in the system. The stoichiometric coefficients alone are sufficient for the mathematical maximization of a specific objective function.
The objective function is essentially a measure of how each component in the system contributes to the production of the desired product. The product itself depends on the purpose of the model, but one of the most common examples is the study of total biomass. A notable example of the success of FBA is the ability to accurately predict the growth rate of the prokaryote E. coli when cultured in different conditions. In this case, the metabolic system was optimized to maximize the biomass objective function. However this model can be used to optimize the production of any product, and is often used to determine the output level of some biotechnologically relevant product. The model itself can be experimentally verified by cultivating organisms using a chemostat or similar tools to ensure that nutrient concentrations are held constant. Measurements of the production of the desired objective can then be used to correct the model.
A good description of the basic concepts of FBA can be found in the freely available supplementary material to Edwards et al. 2001 which can be found at the Nature website. Further sources include the book "Systems Biology" by B. Palsson dedicated to the subject and a useful tutorial and paper by J. Orth. Many other sources of information on the technique exist in published scientific literature including Lee et al. 2006, Feist et al. 2008, and Lewis et al. 2012.
Model preparation and refinement
The key parts of model preparation are: creating a metabolic network without gaps, adding constraints to the model, and finally adding an objective function (often called the Biomass function), usually to simulate the growth of the organism being modelled.
Metabolic network and software tools
Metabolic networks can vary in scope from those describing a single pathway, up to the cell, tissue or organism. The main requirement of a metabolic network that forms the basis of an FBA-ready network is that it contains no gaps. This typically means that extensive manual curation is required, making the preparation of a metabolic network for flux-balance analysis a process that can take months or years. However, recent advances such as so-called gap-filling methods can
reduce the required time to weeks or months.
Software packages for creation of FBA models include: Pathway Tools/MetaFlux, Simpheny, MetNetMaker, COBRApy, CarveMe, MIOM, or COBREXA.jl.
Generally models are created in BioPAX or SBML format so that further analysis or visualization can take place in other software although this is not a requirement.
Constraints
A key part of FBA is the ability to add constraints to the flux rates of reactions within networks, forcing them to stay within a range of selected values. This lets the model more accurately simulate real metabolism. The constraints belong to two subsets from a biological perspective; boundary constraints that limit nutrient uptake/excretion and internal constraints that limit the flux through reactions within the organism. In mathematical terms, the application of constraints can be considered to reduce the solution space of the FBA model. In addition to constraints applied at the edges of a metabolic network, constraints can be applied to reactions deep within the network. These constraints are usually simple; they may constrain the direction of a reaction due to energy considerations or constrain the maximum speed of a reaction due to the finite speed of all reactions in nature.
Growth media constraints
Organisms, and all other metabolic systems, require some input of nutrients. Typically the rate of uptake of nutrients is dictated by their availability (a nutrient that is not present cannot be absorbed), their concentration and diffusion constants (higher concentrations of quickly-diffusing metabolites are absorbed more quickly) and the method of absorption (such as active transport or facilitated diffusion versus simple diffusion).
If the rate of absorption (and/or excretion) of certain nutrients can be experimentally measured then this information can be added as a constraint on the flux rate at the edges of a metabolic model. This ensures that nutrients that are not present or not absorbed by the organism do not enter its metabolism (the flux rate is constrained to zero) and also means that known nutrient uptake rates are adhered to by the simulation. This provides a secondary method of making sure that the simulated metabolism has experimentally verified properties rather than just mathematically acceptable ones.
Thermodynamical reaction constraints
In principle, all reactions are reversible however in practice reactions often effectively occur in only one direction. This may be due to significantly higher concentration of reactants compared to the concentration of the products of the reaction. But more often it happens because the products of a reaction have a much lower free energy than the reactants and therefore the forward direction of a reaction is favored more.
For ideal reactions,
For certain reactions a thermodynamic constraint can be applied implying direction (in this case forward)
Realistically the flux through a reaction cannot be infinite (given that enzymes in the real system are finite) which implies that,
Experimentally measured flux constraints
Certain flux rates can be measured experimentally () and the fluxes within a metabolic model can be constrained, within some error (), to ensure these known flux rates are accurately reproduced in the simulation.
Flux rates are most easily measured for nutrient uptake at the edge of the network. Measurements of internal fluxes is possible using radioactively labelled or NMR visible metabolites.
Constrained FBA-ready metabolic models can be analyzed using software such as the COBRA toolbox (available implementations in MATLAB and Python), SurreyFBA, or the web-based FAME. Additional software packages have been listed elsewhere. A comprehensive review of all such software and their functionalities has been recently reviewed.
An open-source alternative is available in the R (programming language) as the packages or sybil for performing FBA and other constraint based modeling techniques.
Objective function
FBA can give a large number of mathematically acceptable solutions to the steady-state problem . However solutions of biological interest are the ones which produce the desired metabolites in the correct proportion. The objective function defines the proportion of these metabolites. For instance when modelling the growth of an organism the objective function is generally defined as biomass. Mathematically, it is a column in the stoichiometry matrix the entries of which place a "demand" or act as a "sink" for biosynthetic precursors such as fatty acids, amino acids and cell wall components which are present on the corresponding rows of the S matrix. These entries represent experimentally measured, dry weight proportions of cellular components. Therefore, this column becomes a lumped reaction that simulates growth and reproduction. Therefore, the accuracy of experimental measurements plays an essential role in the correct definition of the biomass function and makes the results of FBA biologically applicable by ensuring that the correct proportion of metabolites are produced by metabolism.
When modeling smaller networks the objective function can be changed accordingly. An example of this would be in the study of the carbohydrate metabolism pathways where the objective function would probably be defined as a certain proportion of ATP and NADH and thus simulate the production of high energy metabolites by this pathway.
Optimization of the objective/biomass function
Linear programming can be used to find a single optimal solution. The most common biological optimization goal for a whole-organism metabolic network would be to choose the flux vector that maximises the flux through a biomass function composed of the constituent metabolites of the organism placed into the stoichiometric matrix and denoted or simply
In the more general case any reaction can be defined and added to the biomass function with either the condition that it be maximised or minimised if a single “optimal” solution is desired. Alternatively, and in the most general case, a vector can be introduced, which defines the weighted set of reactions that the linear programming model should aim to maximise or minimise,
In the case of there being only a single separate biomass function/reaction within the stoichiometric matrix would simplify to all zeroes with a value of 1 (or any non-zero value) in the position corresponding to that biomass function. Where there were multiple separate objective functions would simplify to all zeroes with weighted values in the positions corresponding to all objective functions.
Reducing the solution space – biological considerations for the system
The analysis of the null space of matrices is implemented in software packages specialized for matrix operations such as Matlab and Octave. Determination of the null space of tells us all the possible collections of flux vectors (or linear combinations thereof) that balance fluxes within the biological network. The advantage of this approach becomes evident in biological systems which are described by differential equation systems with many unknowns. The velocities in the differential equations above - and - are dependent on the reaction rates of the underlying equations. The velocities are generally taken from the Michaelis–Menten kinetic theory, which involves the kinetic parameters of the enzymes catalyzing the reactions and the concentration of the metabolites themselves. Isolating enzymes from living organisms and measuring their kinetic parameters is a difficult task, as is measuring the internal concentrations and diffusion constants of metabolites within an organism. Therefore, the differential equation approach to metabolic modeling is beyond the current scope of science for all but the most studied organisms. FBA avoids this impediment by applying the homeostatic assumption, which is a reasonably approximate description of biological systems.
Although FBA avoids that biological obstacle, the mathematical issue of a large solution space remains. FBA has a two-fold purpose. Accurately representing the biological limits of the system and returning the flux distribution closest to the natural fluxes within the target system/organism. Certain biological principles can help overcome the mathematical difficulties. While the stoichiometric matrix is almost always under-determined initially (meaning that the solution space to is very large), the size of the solution space can be reduced and be made more reflective of the biology of the problem through the application of certain constraints on the solutions.
Extensions
The success of FBA and the realization of its limitations has led to extensions that attempt to mediate the limitations of the technique.
Flux variability analysis
The optimal solution to the flux-balance problem is rarely unique with many possible, and equally optimal, solutions existing. Flux variability analysis (FVA), built into some analysis software, returns the boundaries for the fluxes through each reaction that can, paired with the right combination of other fluxes, estimate the optimal solution.
Reactions which can support a low variability of fluxes through them are likely to be of a higher importance to an organism and FVA is a promising technique for the identification of reactions that are important.
Minimization of metabolic adjustment (MOMA)
When simulating knockouts or growth on media, FBA gives the final steady-state flux distribution. This final steady state is reached in varying time-scales. For example, the predicted growth rate of E. coli on glycerol as the primary carbon source did not match the FBA predictions; however, on sub-culturing for 40 days or 700 generations, the growth rate adaptively evolved to match the FBA prediction.
Sometimes it is of interest to find out what is the immediate effect of a perturbation or knockout, since it takes time for regulatory changes to occur and for the organism to re-organize fluxes to optimally utilize a different carbon source or circumvent the effect of the knockout. MOMA predicts the immediate sub-optimal flux distribution following the perturbation by minimizing the distance (Euclidean) between the wild-type FBA flux distribution and the mutant flux distribution using quadratic programming. This yields an optimization problem of the form.
where represents the wild-type (or unperturbed state) flux distribution and represents the flux distribution on gene deletion that is to be solved for. This simplifies to:
This is the MOMA solution which represents the flux distribution immediately post-perturbation.
Regulatory on-off minimization (ROOM)
ROOM attempts to improve the prediction of the metabolic state of an organism after a gene knockout. It follows the same premise as MOMA that an organism would try to restore a flux distribution as close as possible to the wild-type after a knockout. However it further hypothesizes that this steady state would be reached through a series of transient metabolic changes by the regulatory network and that the organism would try to minimize the number of regulatory changes required to reach the wild-type state. Instead of using a distance metric minimization however it uses a mixed integer linear programming method.
Dynamic FBA
Dynamic FBA attempts to add the ability for models to change over time, thus in some ways avoiding the strict steady state condition of pure FBA. Typically the technique involves running an FBA simulation, changing the model based on the outputs of that simulation, and rerunning the simulation. By repeating this process an element of feedback is achieved over time.
Comparison with other techniques
FBA provides a less simplistic analysis than Choke Point Analysis while requiring far less information on reaction rates and a much less complete network reconstruction than a full dynamic simulation would require. In filling this niche, FBA has been shown to be a very useful technique for analysis of the metabolic capabilities of cellular systems.
Choke point analysis
Unlike choke point analysis which only considers points in the network where metabolites are produced but not consumed or vice versa, FBA is a true form of metabolic network modelling because it considers the metabolic network as a single complete entity (the stoichiometric matrix) at all stages of analysis. This means that network effects, such as chemical reactions in distant pathways affecting each other, can be reproduced in the model. The upside to the inability of choke point analysis to simulate network effects is that it considers each reaction within a network in isolation and thus can suggest important reactions in a network even if a network is highly fragmented and contains many gaps.
Dynamic metabolic simulation
Unlike dynamic metabolic simulation, FBA assumes that the internal concentration of metabolites within a system stays constant over time and thus is unable to provide anything other than steady-state solutions. It is unlikely that FBA could, for example, simulate the functioning of a nerve cell. Since the internal concentration of metabolites is not considered within a model, it is possible that an FBA solution could contain metabolites at a concentration too high to be biologically acceptable. This is a problem that dynamic metabolic simulations would probably avoid. One advantage of the simplicity of FBA over dynamic simulations is that they are far less computationally expensive, allowing the simulation of large numbers of perturbations to the network. A second advantage is that the reconstructed model can be substantially simpler by avoiding the need to consider enzyme rates and the effect of complex interactions on enzyme kinetics.
See also
Isotopic labeling
Metabolomics
Metabolic engineering
Metabolic network modelling
References
Bioinformatics
Systems biology
Computational biology |
4101984 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Chaser%27s%20War%20on%20Everything | The Chaser's War on Everything | The Chaser's War on Everything is an Australian television satirical comedy series broadcast on the Australian Broadcasting Corporation (ABC) television station ABC1. It has won an Australian Film Institute Award for Best Television Comedy Series. The cast perform sketches mocking social and political issues, and often feature comedic publicity stunts. The series is produced by The Chaser, an Australian satirical group consisting of Chris Taylor, Julian Morrow, Craig Reucassel, Andrew Hansen, and Chas Licciardello. Fellow Chaser members Dominic Knight and Charles Firth are not part of the regular on-screen cast. However, Knight is a writer, and Firth compiled roving reports for the show from the United States, until he left the group to start a satirical newspaper in mid-2007.
The show premiered on 17 February 2006 and has since produced 58 episodes, broadcast over three seasons between 2006 and 2007 as well as during 2009. The first season was broadcast at an unstable late timeslot on Friday nights. The second and third seasons were broadcast in a more favourable timeslot of Wednesdays at . The show did not return in 2008, but returned on 27 May 2009 for the third season featuring only ten episodes. Following the controversy of the "Make a Realistic Wish Foundation" sketch, the third season was reduced to 8 episodes, being suspended for 2 weeks.
The stunts displayed on the show have often been controversial. For example, on 14 July 2006, Licciardello was charged (being later acquitted) after selling fake knives to Canterbury-Bankstown Bulldogs fans outside one of their rugby league games. Licciardello was again arrested, alongside Morrow and nine crew members, on 6 September 2007 after breaching security at the 2007 APEC summit.
The last episode of the series was aired on 29 July 2009, and rated an average national audience of 1.45 million.
Origins
The Chaser was formed by Dominic Knight, Charles Firth, Craig Reucassel, and Julian Morrow, and in 1999 ran a fortnightly newspaper entitled The Chaser. The group later added Chas Licciardello, Andrew Hansen, and Chris Taylor, to assist with its publication. Through the help of Andrew Denton, the Chaser team produced various shows for the Australian Broadcasting Corporation, most notably CNNNN. In 2005, The Chaser began filming a pilot for a new television series for the ABC, with the working title The Age of Terror Variety Hour. The Chaser team signed a contract with the ABC to produce 27 half-hour episodes for 2006, which would be based on news reviews, studio monologues and confrontations with politicians, celebrities, and business leaders. The show was to be presented by Morrow, Hansen, Reucassel, Taylor and Licciardello.
The ABC rejected the name The Age of Terror Variety Hour and other names including Thank Allah It's Friday. ABC did accept The Chaser is Right, although it was later rejected by Morrow, while the title Hey Hey, it's the Chaser was rejected after a pilot under that name was filmed in 2005. They eventually selected The Chaser's War on Everything as the title. The show was to be performed in front of a live audience, in a more relaxed format than CNNNN and other Chaser television productions.
Release and popularity
Broadcast
The first season of The Chaser's War on Everything premiered on ABC1 on 17 February 2006 at . The series aired late on Friday evenings where it developed a cult following, getting an average national audience of between 591,000 and 821,000 viewers each episode. The show broadcast two 'best of' shows in the mid-year. The last episode of the 2006 season was broadcast on 8 September 2006.
Due to its popularity, The Chaser's War on Everything timeslot changed to Wednesday for the 2007 season. In the lead-up to the second season, The Chaser team produced a live webcast of people counting down to the first episode of the season. New segments had been developed and the opening sequence was reworked. After the move to prime time the ratings increased to almost 1.5 million viewers each week. This was despite direct competition with well-rated programs on commercial networks. The Chaser finished their 24th and final episode of the show for the 2007 season on 14 November 2007. They then produced The Chaser Decides for the remaining two episodes of the 26-episode production, based on the 2007 Australian federal election.
After the controversial APEC motorcade stunt, the show's profile was greatly increased and international broadcasts expanded. Countries which broadcast the show include Finland, Israel, New Zealand, United Kingdom, Norway, Belgium, South Korea, and Poland.
After the last episode of The Chaser Decides, The Chaser ruled out doing any television productions in the first half of 2008. This included The Chaser's War on Everything, with the group opting to do a stage production of their antics around Australia, called The Chaser's Age of Terror Variety Hour.
The American cable network G4 acquired the rights to the program in the United States, and premiered it on 28 January 2009 at 9PM ET. The show then was aired every Wednesday night at 11PM ET within the network's international block of programming called Duty Free TV. Ads of the program have capitalised on its controversial nature in Australia, with the tagline "Do you know what it takes to be controversial in Australia?"
Similarly, in the United Kingdom, BBC Four was airing six compilation episodes, taking sketches and highlights from the first two series from 23 June 2009.
A third season of The Chaser's War on Everything began airing on 27 May 2009, returning to its timeslot of Wednesday at 9:00pm on ABC1. The third series consists of only 10 episodes and is the final series of the program.
The final episode was broadcast on ABC1 on 29 July 2009.
The entire catalogue of the Chaser's War on Everything was secured by the Comedy Channel Programming Director Darren Chau in 2009 and premiered on 3 December 2009 as part of the channel's Biggest Thursday Ever.
DVD release
The first 13 episodes of the first season were released on DVD on 17 August 2006. The release included commentary by The Chaser and the show's crew. Bonus features and unaired scenes were also included.
The second DVD for the first season contained the latter thirteen episodes. It was in the same format of the first DVD, containing commentary and unaired scenes, and was released on 1 November 2006. The first thirteen episodes of the second season were released on DVD on 14 August 2007, with similar features to the two prior releases.
The second DVD set for the later half of the second season was released on 7 August 2008. It contains similar features to the previous DVD releases.
The third and last season was released on DVD on 5 November 2009.
Vodcast
On 27 July 2006, the ABC announced that entire episodes of The Chaser's War on Everything, along with jtv, would be made available for download via a vodcasting system. Just 45 days after appearing on the Australian iTunes podcasting directory, the show took the number one position. The last four episodes of the first season averaged approximately 175,000 viewers of the vodcast, and 25,000 downloads, which ABC stated was a success.
The episodes of the second series of The Chaser's War on Everything were the most popular downloaded vodcasts in 2007. Almost nine million vodcasts were downloaded, more than half of the ABC's online vodcasts served in the year.
Season one of The War on Everything is now also available for purchase and download from the iTunes Store in Australia and is one of the first TV shows the Australian Broadcasting Corporation added to iTunes.
Show format
Credits – The opening credits show the five starring members of the show, but through that there are images of notable politicians and celebrities which are targeted in the titles. The titles are always the same except for two changeable titles, which targets persons in recent events. The closing credits simply read all the cast and crew of the show, though commonly a video is played over half the credits, which is explained in the Conclusion. The closing credits are a frequent (if bizarre) source of humour. For example, Andrew Hansen once sang a song during the credits about how the credits are always played over his song. Another time the credits were shown in Ukrainian. On one episode the credits of the show were replaced with the credits of The New Inventors. In another episode from Season 3, Chas Licciardello, who in a sketch had changed his name to Gvhftr Kijl, was credited as such in the closing credits for that episode, and in the opening credits of the following episode.
Introduction – Each episode begins with Reucassel and Taylor opening the show. The pair discuss the major recent events, present their opinions, and often show a pre-produced stunt or sketch.
Andrew Hansen's hair – Each episode starting from the last episode of season 1, member Andrew Hansen changes his hair weekly for the show (e.g. Mohawks, coloured hair and at one instance, a small clock)
Name changes – During season 2, the credits of names as displayed during the program have been replaced in various manners. Normally they were changed to people in recent events or a simple addition to the name. Examples included "Julian bin Morrow" and "Posh Chaser" and even the translation of the boys names in Arabic.
Dialogues – In almost every episode, the Chaser members discuss a various recent event or generalised stunt. Most of these dialogues lead to a pre-produced stunt, ad or trailer. Most of this material doesn't fall into one of the various Segments, where most of their recurring material is shown. In the first season, Monologues were also common.
Old Woman – As a running gag during Season 3, a photo of an old woman with a trolley would appear during sketches. Originally appeared during a stunt during Season 2, during an Ad Road Test for Riva Coffee, the footage subsequently placed occasionally in segments during Season 3. However, after the final episode was broadcast, she came in contact with The Chaser and requested her image be removed from future broadcasts. Images of Dom Knight now appear as such in the DVD of Season 3.
ABC Complainer (Dear ABC) – This segment began in the third season. After one of the sketches, Andrew Hansen, dressed as his persona Philip Harley, writes an angry letter to the ABC with a typewriter. The letter always begins with the phrase "Dear ABC", followed by a complaint about the latest sketch. Harley then presents his (usually biased) opinion, and concludes with "What a waste of taxpayer's money! Philip Harley, Adelaide." Harley appeared four times in episode 5 – the highest to date.
Conclusion – To end each episode the whole team gathers together, with one of the group members saying the closing joke. And Chris would read a Webpoll for their site.
Primary segments
The primary segments form the backbone of the show. These segments normally focus on key issues in a range of topics. They are generally presented by the cast members, live in front of the audience, and may be accompanied with pre-produced stunts and sketches relating to the topics.
"What Have We Learned from Current Affairs This Week?" – Presented by Hansen and Licciardello, the segment pokes fun at the sensationalism used in competing weeknight current affairs programs Today Tonight and A Current Affair. All segments feature a lesson on their reporting techniques, such as how to spot "dodgy" guys and how to identify the different types of "experts". Both shows are regularly criticised for their tendency to come to fast and inaccurate conclusions.
"Firth in the USA" – Firth, now living in the United States, performs a stunt or conducts an interview, with obvious references to USA culture. Stunt examples include meeting Hillary Clinton to offer his services as her presidential intern; a satire of the Lewinsky scandal.
"The Ad Road-Test" – The team recreate situations shown in television advertisements to see if they would work in real life. Examples include whether male cheerleaders can convince a random person to stop smoking.
"In Other News ..." – A former segment, presented by Morrow and Reucassel, which focused on current news stories and events, and sometimes showed a pre-produced stunt related to the news item. This was the only segment to appear in every episode of Season One.
The following segments were introduced in Season Two.
"The Fixers" – Seeming to replace "In Other News ...", Morrow and Reucassel examine problems in the community, and present their idea for a fix. This is usually accompanied by a pre-produced item.
Supporting segments
The supporting segments are usually pre-produced stunts and sketches, supplementing the primary segments of the show. They are generally much shorter in length.
"Surprise Spruiker" – Hansen plays a shop "spruiker" who attempts to help various institutions having trouble selling a particular item or idea. The stunt usually concludes when he is ordered by security guards to switch off his speakers.
"Scenes from the Life of the Crazy Warehouse Guy" – Hansen plays a stereotypical announcer from a warehouse television advertisement uses his unique speaking style in everyday situations, such as ordering McDonald's. Hansen originally performed the character that would become the Crazy Warehouse Guy in parodies of frantic rug warehouse commercials.
"Pursuit Trivia" – Morrow tests the general knowledge of a politician or celebrity by asking a Trivial Pursuit question from a game card in his hand at an interview or press conference. Prominent in the first season though not in the second.
"Mr Ten Questions" – Hansen poses as a journalist at a press conference and, when prompted, proceeds to ask ten questions without letting the interviewee speak until he has read out all ten. Questions can relate to the subject or be about completely obscure topics, such as Peru's industrial output and the makeup of the Czech Legislature.
"A Message From Osama Bin Laden" / Subtitles – An existing video of the infamous terrorist Osama bin Laden is subbed with incorrect and humorous subtitles, often declaring a Jihad on various people for arbitrary irritations. Videos of Saddam Hussein, Abu Bakar Bashir and Kevin Rudd (Chinese speech) have also been used in a similar manner, but not as common.
"Citizens' Infringement Officer" – Morrow pretends to be an officer and hands out fake fines to people for absurd reasons; such as "wanker" number plates, "low-strung pants", parking inspectors being annoying due to giving out fines themselves, inappropriate babies' names, and wearing clothes (including hats and shoes) at nude beaches.
The following segments were introduced in Season Two.
"If Life Were A Musical" – Members of the cast go to the public, targeting a specific person in an everyday life scenario, and behave as though they are in a Broadway-esque musical. The segment is referred to as a "Taylor Hansen Morrow" production, a spoof of Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer.
"Clive The Slightly-Too-Loud Commuter" – Hansen plays Clive, a man who travels on public transport and talks loudly on his mobile phone about very personal or taboo issues.
Occasional segments
These segments support the show, however do not feature prominently.
"What Have We Learnt From History?" – In this segment Hansen, Taylor and Reucassel test whether people today have learnt a lesson from events in the past; for example the Trojan Horse.
"Famous Face Off" – A former segment, presented by Hansen, in which two "masters" in a particular field competed to be the best in an endeavour such as tongue-twisting newsreading or sportscasting.
"The 2:30 Report" – A former segment, presented by Licciardello and Morrow, which reviewed the worst of late-night television, including late night game shows such as Quizmania and early morning Christian programmes.
The following segments were introduced in Season Two.
"The News According To Fox" – Licciardello and Hansen criticise the bias of the popular American Fox News Channel.
"What You Missed on Cable" – Presented by Licciardello and Morrow, this segment highlights the oddities on pay television programs, and occasionally compares them to the bland programming on ABC1. Licciardello and Morrow pointed out that it was intended to replace the 2:30 Report segment from Season One.
"Anna Coren's Segue/Meaningless Gibberish of the Week" – Integrated into "What Have We Learnt from Current Affairs This Week?", this segment looks at either Coren's extremely complicated transitions between unrelated stories, or the strange and meaningless introductions she says on Today Tonight.
"Nut Job of the Week" – Licciardello and Taylor take a look at the "special people in our society"; people who have "alternative views". For example, The Secret's theory on how to acquire your deepest desires by the Law of Attraction was examined.
"Open Mic" – A segment, derived from a stunt from the first half of the second series, where Morrow goes to various businesses and uses their Public Address Systems to make humorous community announcements or random statements.
"Election Watch" – Licciardello and Taylor observe a certain topic in relation to the federal election. This segment was only seen in the weeks leading up to the 2007 federal election and often made reference to subjects not related to the election.
"Middle east TV" – Licciardello and Taylor take a look at Middle Eastern T.V. This Segment only appeared in season 3.
Traditional segments were incredibly rare in episodes of the third season, with no 'What Have We Learnt from Current Affairs This Week?' or 'Ad Road Test' segments, despite them being the most popular. An online blog written by the Chaser said they wanted to try new things and they thought they would just be repeating themselves.
Segments appearing once or twice
"Say What?!" - In Season 1, Andrew Hansen did a short segment of a few photos that had swear words in them from other countries which involved food.
"Rudd.I.Am song" - In Season 3, The Chaser did a music video on speeches from Kevin Rudd, like American celebrities did a song on Barack Obama's speech "Yes We Can".
Recurring material
Stunts – A staple of the show, stunts can vary from confronting celebrities or politicians to testing staff reactions in shops and department stores. The stunts must be approved by the ABC Legal Department, to prevent breach of the law. In the 2007 DVD of the first half of the season, it is stated that the basic formula for the stunts is "go in, get our footage and get kicked out".
Sketches – These include fake ads, longer mockumentaries or traditional comedy sketches.
Songs – Hansen, or sometimes other members, perform songs with a humorous theme. The songs are usually written by Hansen, with Taylor providing lyrics for many songs.
Television Advertisements – Throughout the series the team create satirical television advertisements, which either advertise a false item or mock existing ads.
Movie Trailers – The team creates parody trailers for existing movies or new movie ideas.
Vox Pop – One of the team members conduct vox pops with people on the street asking for their opinions.
Controversies and well-known stunts
The Chaser has been regularly criticised by tabloids such as Today Tonight, A Current Affair and some talkback radio stations for displaying stunts and sketches that they claim are dangerous, unfunny, cruel, offensive and tasteless. Many of the pieces below have had significant news coverage and been the subject of debates and opinion pieces.
Julian Morrow's novelty cheque
On 8 February 2006, before the first episode of the show had screened, Morrow approached Australian Wheat Board executive Charles Stott with a fake novelty cheque made out to Saddam Hussein and asked Stott to sign it. Stott's lawyer said his client felt intimidated by the stunt and the footage of it was not shown in the first episode as scheduled due to "legal reasons". In the first episode to go to air, Morrow responded by raising the point that Stott has done business with Saddam Hussein, a brutal dictator, yet he is intimidated by a novelty cheque. The footage of this stunt does appear as a bonus on the show's first DVD.
Chris Taylor on Sunrise
On the ninth episode of the show, Taylor announced that he planned to break up with his partner of seven years, but he did not want to ask her "the usual boring way", but do "something special, something she'll remember". The segment shows several of Taylor's attempts to "pop the question", including hanging a sign over a freeway and "proposing" on a big screen at an outdoor festival. For the finale, Taylor introduces the interview of him on the morning television program Sunrise. In the interview, Taylor asks the hosts if he can send a quick message to his partner, proceeding to say "Jo, get the fuck out of my life. And if you don't get this fucking message right now, you never will." This finale from the segment was leaked onto the internet without the break-up plan and has been widely distributed online as a viral video. Many viewers believed the segment was actually real but Taylor admitted on national radio station Triple J that it was set up. It was actually filmed after Sunrise went to air, with Channel Seven editing on screen graphics with current news at the time for realism. The hosts of Sunrise admitted it was a set up and apologised. However, they did not know what Taylor was going to say because he only asked if he could do a bit for the show and as a result, their interaction with Taylor was unscripted, as well as their reaction to his profane message.
Chas Licciardello's Bulldogs incident
On 14 July 2006, Licciardello was charged with offensive conduct after attempting to sell fake Canterbury Bulldogs merchandise outside an NRL game. The merchandise included plastic knuckledusters and balaclavas in the Bulldogs' colours, and was supposed to satirise the anti-social and hooligan behaviour of some Bulldogs fans. Several Bulldogs fans took offence and as a result he was charged for offensive behaviour. On the broadcast following his arrest, Licciardello appeared onstage in handcuffs and within an iron cage. On that same episode, he apologised for his actions, claiming to understand why the Bulldogs fans were offended: because Canterbury Bulldogs fans much prefer to use their fists. This statement was accompanied by footage of Bulldogs supporters assaulting an opposing team's supporters during a match. After appearing in court with Morrow, Licciardello pleaded not guilty and the matter was adjourned. On 23 January 2007, Licciardello was found not guilty of the offensive behaviour charge. He was interviewed after the case draped in an Australian flag, and said he would appeal "to the Supreme Court, to the High Court, to the UN, to the Jedi Council and the Snickometer." After being reminded he had won, he said "I didn't actually prepare any material for the off-chance that we won."
Craig Reucassel's axe stunt
On 2 August 2006, Reucassel responded to a news story about a private school student who had hugged then-prime minister John Howard while holding a screwdriver during one of the PM's morning walks. To test his security arrangements, Reucassel approached the prime minister during a morning walk and asked for a hug while holding a large plastic battle axe. Howard obliged, but a later approach while holding a running chainsaw was not so successful. Cut out from this segment was an unsuccessful attempt that took place between the axe and the chainsaw, in which Reucassel was holding a four-point-star mace.
Julian Morrow's ticket prank
On 16 August 2006, Morrow purchased two airline tickets on the airline Virgin Blue under the names "Al Kyder" and "Terry Wrist", checked in using the automated check-in at Sydney Airport, and then deliberately failed to show up for boarding, so that the names would be broadcast in a final boarding call over the public address system. The prank was acknowledged by Virgin Blue who criticised the use of taxpayer dollars in the "childish humour".
Craig Reucassel's speedos
On 19 March 2007, during a campaign appearance for the New South Wales State Election, the then opposition leader Peter Debnam was confronted by Reucassel wearing nothing but Speedos and a baseball cap, making fun of Debnam's campaign appearances in the swimwear. When TV cameras remained focused on Reucassel rather than Mr Debnam, he said, "Sorry, I'm not Peter Debnam, he's over there. Just because I'm wearing this doesn't mean I'm Peter Debnam". Reucassel stuck around for the press conference but failed to draw a response from the opposition leader, and was again ignored when he went to shake Mr Debnam's hand.
APEC prank and arrest
During the APEC Leaders Summit in Sydney, on 6 September 2007, Morrow and Licciardello along with nine other production crew members were arrested after they drove a fake Canadian motorcade down Macquarie Street and successfully breached the APEC restricted zone. Police only realised that the motorcade was a hoax when Licciardello, dressed as Osama bin Laden, stepped out of the car replete with bonnet-mounted Canadian flag and complained in-character about not being invited.
Licciardello, Morrow and the nine others were immediately detained by the NSW Police, questioned and charged with entering a restricted area without special justification under the APEC Meeting (Police Powers) Act 2007. All were released on bail to appear in court on 4 October 2007; and subsequently ABC lawyers requested for all matters to be adjourned until 5 December 2007. If they were found guilty they could have faced a maximum penalty of six months' imprisonment, or up to two years if they were in possession of a "prohibited item". NSW Police Commissioner Andrew Scipione stated that the Chaser stars risked being targeted by snipers during the prank.
The stunt was planned and approved by ABC lawyers under the assumption that the motorcade would be stopped and discovered at the first security checkpoint. However, they managed to pass through two police security checkpoints, using a fake convoy of hired limousines. According to Licciardello, he "never intended to get that far" but played along with it to make their stunt better. The footage of the prank, which was seized by the police, was returned to the ABC and featured in their next episode the following week.
Despite condemnations by various public officials, the Sydney correspondent of the BBC reported that the Chaser team had become 'folk heroes' following the stunt. Indeed, Alexander Downer, the minister for foreign affairs, appeared amused when asked to comment.
Later on 7 September 2007, three members of the Chaser and their film crew were questioned and released over a follow-up stunt involving running near the protected APEC zone dressed in cardboard cars topped with Canadian flags. The following Chaser episode ended up giving The Chaser's War on Everything their highest ever ratings for an episode with 2.245 million viewers tuning in across Australia.
On 28 April 2008, the charges against all 11 were dropped by the New South Wales Director of Public Prosecutions (DPP) as it was considered that the police gave "tacit" permission for the group to enter the restricted zone by failing to identify the fake security badges. The ABC welcomed the dropping of the charges, with Morrow saying "I think it's just great that justice hasn't been done". The police were unapologetic for their actions.
"The Eulogy Song"
On 17 October 2007 episode, Hansen sang a song which satirised the lives of several deceased celebrities, including Peter Brock, Princess Diana, Donald Bradman, Steve Irwin, Stan Zemanek, Jeff Buckley, John Lennon, and Kerry Packer, expressing the view that people with flaws during life are often disproportionately hailed as "top blokes" after death. He also sang that mass murderer Martin Bryant would look a saint after death. The song, whose lyrics were written by Chris Taylor, became the target of significant media attention, with several radio and television personalities saying the song was in "bad taste", and both then prime minister John Howard and then opposition leader Kevin Rudd expressed negative views. A few days later, the team approached John Howard on his morning walk, dressed as rabbits, and sparked a reaction from the prime minister, with him saying: "You blokes are a lot funnier when you pick on someone who's alive".
A number of news programs reported that the ABC's switchboard was jammed with calls from "disgusted viewers" immediately following the show. It was later revealed that only six calls had been made that night about the show, three of them in a positive light. Although a number of complaints were received the next day, the ABC alleged that a large number were listeners of a Melbourne radio show, and that, when asked, many said they hadn't seen the show. In response, some shows such as Today Tonight claimed many more complaints would follow.
In response to the attention, Taylor defended his song, stating that it was a legitimate skit and that although the song mentioned recently deceased breast cancer victim Belinda Emmett, the rest of the cast pretending to cut off Hansen before he completed his verse was "making a joke about the inappropriateness of making a joke about Belinda Emmett." He also revealed it was a "watered-down" version of the song, which was previously performed twice on stage in his musical Dead Caesar.
Seven Network Injunction
On 14 November 2007, The Chaser made an attempt to poke fun at Today Tonight and the way that they re-enact procedures and events which they base their stories on. As they had done several times before, they infiltrated the Seven Network's news headquarters at Martin Place and asked for the Today Tonight presenter Anna Coren, where they came dressed as pretend cameos for the re-enactment segments. However, within the headquarters, they were confronted by the staff of the building for alleged trespassing. Both Today Tonight and their rival A Current Affair broadcast reports of the stunt, the Today Tonight broadcast claiming that they had finally caught the Chaser red-handed. However, A Current Affair did a relatively lighter report on the incident, seeming to take side with the Chaser. Channel Seven got an injunction to stop The Chaser showing the segment; however, The Chaser planned on challenging the injunction. In place of their planned stunt, they shot a "hasty and dubious" reenactment of it. Channel 7 boss David Leckie exclaimed in an outburst at waiting photographers outside Channel 7's offices that The Chaser were "... nothing but a bunch of tossers, they're fucking wankers". Morrow responded, "I interpret those comments as David making overtures to us. Calling us wankers and tossers must mean he wants [to hire] us."
'Make a Realistic Wish Foundation' skit
On 3 June 2009 episode, Taylor and Hansen were involved in a skit which was set in a terminally ill children's ward of a hospital, which centred around a spokesman (Taylor) portraying himself along with a doctor (Hansen), from the fictional 'Make a Realistic Wish Foundation' (a spoof of the Make-a-Wish Foundation). The premise of the skit was that if the terminally ill children are only going to live for a few more months before passing away, it is not worth spending money on lavish gifts for them. The one-minute-long sketch featured Taylor giving one girl a pencil case instead of a trip to Disneyland. Then along the same lines, Hansen gave another girl a stick instead of a meeting with Zac Efron. The skit concluded with Taylor stating "Why go to any trouble, when they're only gonna die anyway".
The publicised reaction to the sketch the next day from the general public and media commentators was almost universally negative. Among widespread reported disapproval from the public, especially from the families that the Make-a-Wish Foundation has helped, prime minister Kevin Rudd stated that The Chaser team "should hang their heads in shame". He went on to say that "I didn't see that but it's been described to me ... But having a go at kids with a terminal illness is really beyond the pale, absolutely beyond the pale." That morning, the Chaser team along with the ABC managing director Mark Scott apologised for airing the skit, with Scott stating that "We have unreservedly apologised for airing that skit, ... It's very clear today from the reaction that it's caused considerable offence and distress, particularly to parents of children that are seriously ill ... I've spoken to Julian Morrow from The Chaser and my understanding is that certainly wasn't the intention of the script, but that's the consequences of it." The ABC will now change their procedures for reviewing episode content which gets broadcast. Scott continued, "We're going to look at those processes ... I mean we all know that The Chaser push the edges and it's a tightrope that we walk, and I suppose there are many, many skits that they've put to air that have offended someone along the way – that's part of the nature of the satirical and black comedy that they do," The full episode was initially available for downloading or online viewing from the official website but was taken down while the skit was edited out of the episode, the edited version was then made available for download. The skit has also been cut from any further television airings and DVD releases. The ABC suspended The Chaser's War on Everything for two weeks. This was relayed via a message by The Chaser on their website, who stated that whilst they disagree with the decision to suspend the show, they apologise for making the skit, acknowledging that it went too far. When the show returned two weeks later, the controversy was referenced by the show being introduced as "The Chaser's Waste of Taxpayers' money", a reference to the fact that the show is on the government-funded ABC channel.
Reception and impact
Current affairs programs
Current affairs programs, notably Channel 7's Today Tonight and Channel 9's A Current Affair, have run pieces critical of The Chaser team. A Current Affair ran segments covering rumours of the program moving to a commercial network, and the use of Osama bin Laden for humour, highlighting dangerous stunts and overstepping the mark.
Today Tonight ran segments demonstrating contrivances in Chaser's stunts and criticising their breakthrough of APEC's security. However, when Today Tonight asked if they could follow The Chaser team on one of their stunts, The Chaser agreed. The Chaser chose a stunt that would embarrass the Channel 7 television program. They did so by having a "Meakin Booze Bus"; in reference to Channel 7 boss Peter Meakin, who had recently been convicted of driving whilst under the influence of alcohol. In the shoot, The Chaser members repeatedly raised the topic of Peter Meakin to reporter James Thomas. It was revealed later that The Chaser did eventually answer enough of Thomas' questions so that Today Tonight received what they wanted, but Today Tonight did not end up running that footage. Channel 7 broadcast scenes that they judged made the Chaser crew look arrogant, although it was stated in The Chaser's season 2 DVD commentary that James Thomas later called The Chaser team and apologised for the way Today Tonight depicted them in the report.
Channel 7 began airing repeats of The Chaser in September 2011.
Awards
In December 2006 The Chaser's War on Everything won an Australian Film Institute (AFI) Award for 'Best Television Comedy Series' and Hansen won an AFI Award for 'Best Performance in a Television Comedy.' Hansen also won the APRA / AGSC award for 'Best Television Theme' for his original theme on The Chaser's War on Everything.
In May 2007, the program was nominated for the TV Week Logie award "Most Outstanding Comedy Program" for the 2006 series. The show was nominated for the 2007 AFI award in the category of 'Best Television Comedy Series' for the 2007 series. In late February 2008, the show was nominated for the Rose D'Or international television award for Comedy.
In June 2008, The Chaser received the Atheist Foundation of Australia's Tom Paine Award for "Exemplary service to humanity", and "... outstanding promotion of ideals conducive to human contentment and survivability".
In 2010, the program was nominated for the TV Week Logie award "Most Outstanding Light Entertainment Program" for the 2009 series.
See also
The Chaser
Mark Thomas
Robert Newman
The Yes Men
References
External links
The Chaser's official American website G4TV
APRA Award winners
2000s Australian comedy television series
Television controversies in Australia
Australian satirical television shows
The Chaser
Australian Broadcasting Corporation original programming
2006 Australian television series debuts
2009 Australian television series endings
Television shows set in New South Wales
Culture jamming |
4102264 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evan%20Whitton | Evan Whitton | Evan Whitton (5 March 1928 – 16 July 2018) was an Australian journalist.
Whitton was raised in Murgon in Queensland, and went away to boarding school at age eight. He worked as a teacher for 14 years in Toowoomba before securing a ful-time role as a journalist with The Toowoomba Chronicle. He then worked as a reporter for the Melbourne newspaper Truth before working briefly for the new Sunday Australian in 1971. During the 1970s Whitton worked for The National Times where he became assistant editor from 1975 to 1978 and editor from 1978 to 1981. He then moved to the Sydney Morning Herald as chief reporter. After a period as Reader in Journalism at the University of Queensland from 1990, he was a columnist with the online legal journal Justinian. Much of his later writing focussed on analysis and comparison of the investigative and adversarial systems of justice.
Whitton won five Walkley Awards, for Best Newspaper Feature Story in 1967 and 1975, Best Piece of Newspaper Reporting in 1970, and Best Story Published in an Australian Magazine in 1973 and 1974.
In 1983 he was awarded the Graham Perkin Australian Journalist of the Year award and in 2011 was made an inaugural member of the Australian Media Hall of Fame.
Whitton died on 16 July 2018, aged 90.
Early life and education
Whitton was born in Muswellbrook NSW on 5 March 1928 to Thomas Evan Whitton and Bernice Collopy.
Whitton’s father had been among the earliest volunteers to sign up to serve in World War 1, fighting at Gallipoli and at Pozieres on the Western Front where he was badly wounded, eventually requiring the amputation of both legs.
On his eventual repatriation to Australia and recuperation, he purchased, with his backpay, the Muswellbrook Chronicle newspaper in partnership with his brother-in-law and remained the joint owner of the newspaper from 1921 to 1936.
Whitton’s mother, a nurse, had cared for his father through his recuperation before marrying him in 1925.
In 1936 Whitton’s father moved the family to Murgon, a small town 270 km north-west of Brisbane where he ran a newsagency and stationery store. From 1938 to 1946 Whitton attended Downlands College, a Catholic boarding school in Toowoomba run by the Missionaries of the Sacred Heart.
Teaching career and rugby involvement
On completing his studies at Downlands, Whitton attended Queensland Teachers College and, in the early 1950’s, returned to Downlands teaching mainly English and social studies eventually becoming senior English master. He also coached the college’s senior rugby union team. Whitton remained as a teacher at the college for 14 years. Whitton was a keen rugby union player, administrator and coach and, along with a few others, is credited with keeping the game alive in what is a rugby league stronghold. Whitton was involved in Toowoomba rugby in the 1950’s as a player and official before the game folded in the area in 1960. In 1963, he was part of a group that reformed the Toowoomba Rangers club side to play in the Brisbane competition and then, from 1964, in the newly established Darling Downs Risdon Cup competition. During this period Whitton also began writing as a stringer for the Toowoomba Chronicle. He lived near Downlands and was seen as something of an eccentric in regional Queensland terms, driving a red Mini Minor, frequently sporting a woollen flat cap, scarf and coat with leather elbow patches and carrying an old leather brief case. He wrote on rugby union for The Chronicle under the nom de plum “Twickers” (a popular name for Twickenham Stadium, the English Rugby Football Union’s headquarters in London). His writing differed to the formularised sports writing of the time showing a little of the sardonic style that was to become his trademark. For instance, he wrote of new players recruited for the Rangers thus: “Some are a little vague as to how to comport themselves in the rucks, but this is no reason for despair – not too many of the club’s senior team have a profound grasp of the technique either”.
He also established a rugby library at Downlands and had it opened by the president of the Australian Rugby Union.
Journalism
In 1964 Whitton joined the staff of The Chronicle as a full-time journalist and in January 1966 he took up a position with the newspaper, Truth, in Melbourne. At Truth, a weekly tabloid devoted to smut and scandal, he worked under the editorship of Fleet Street veteran Solly Chandler. Mark Day, a columnist for The Australian and former part-owner of Truth, said Whitton regarded the tabloid as a place where he could do “something noble in the art of muckraking and shedding light”.
Whitton wrote about the corrupt underbelly of Victoria during the Liberal premiership of Henry Bolte and his deputy Sir Arthur Rylah, winning two Walkley awards for his work. Whitton won his first Walkley for Best Newspaper Feature story in 1967 for a report on living as a pensioner in Melbourne and his second, in 1970, for his 1969 coverage of Bertram Wainer’s allegations of police extortion from abortion clinics which led to the 1970 Board of Inquiry into Allegations of Corruption in the Police Force in Connection with Illegal Abortion headed by William Kaye AO QC. Whitton also wrote on the disappearance of the, then, Liberal Prime Minister, Harold Holt in 1967 and on the hanging of Ronald Ryan, Australia’s last execution.
While the story of police corruption and abortion for Truth made Whitton’s name, he also, when not busy with more significant matters, wrote what he called soft porn for the paper that thrived on both substance and sex.
In 1971 he moved briefly to News Ltd’s short lived The Sunday Australian in Sydney. While there he and his second wife, Noela, combined to produce an expose of the political dealings behind the case of Rupert Maxwell Stuart, an indigenous man who was wrongly convicted of the rape and murder of a nine year old girl in South Australia and, at one stage, sentenced to death. Unable to interest his editors in the story, he travelled to South Australia with his wife at his own expense where, with some difficulty, he managed to secure an interview for them both with Stuart. However, Whitton could still not convince the editors of The Sunday Australian nor his former editors at Truth to publish a story on the case and instead it was offered to The Digger, a new, alternative journal. The front page report in the inaugural issue drew national interest. The story appeared under the by line of “Nola McMahon” a pseudonym for his wife, Noela, and Whitton’s presence at the interview was made invisible. Stuart was eventually freed by the Don Dunstan government in 1973.
Around the same time Whitton wrote, seeking employment, to an old rugby union opponent from his time in the Brisbane competition, V J Carrol, who was then the editor-in-chief of the Australian Financial Review and the nascent National Times. Carroll, took him on and Whitton commenced under the editorship of M.V. (Max) Suich at the National Times and Carroll more broadly.
At the National Times, a weekly paper focussing on politics, social mores, and corruption, Whitton produced acclaimed post-mortems on the Petrov Affair, the HMAS Voyager disaster and the Vietnam war. The latter, his most significant work during this time, was “a three part, 25,000 word dissection of the disastrous decision-making and rhetorical casuistry that led to Australia’s military involvement in the Vietnam War”. His exhaustive research was published in April 19, 1975 just as Saigon was about to fall to the National Liberation Front and the North Vietnamese Army. The investigation exploded the myth that then prime minister, Robert Menzies had sent his troops to war as a loyal US ally. Damning diplomatic documents confirmed it was Menzies who had pushed the US into war.
Whitton went on to become assistant editor of the National Times from 1975 to 1978 and editor from 1978 to 1981.
In 1981 he moved to the Sydney Morning Herald as Chief Reporter. While there he covered what was referred to as the Wran Royal Commission which inquired into corruption allegations surrounding the then NSW Chief Stipendiary Magistrate, Murray Farquhar.
In 1983 Whitton won the Melbourne Press Club’s Graham Perkin Australian Journalist of the Year Award for “courage and innovation” in his reporting on the Commission.
Whitton became the Sydney Morning Herald’s European correspondent in 1984 and on returning to Australia covered Queensland’s Fitzgerald Inquiry, 1987 to 1989.
After retiring from the Sydney Morning Herald he became, in 1990, Reader in Journalism at the University of Queensland. He also continued to cover legal affairs for the online legal journal, Justinian, and wrote extensively on the relative merits of the adversarial and inquisitorial systems of justice.
In 2011 Whitton was made an inaugural member of the Australian Media Hall of Fame.
Journalistic style
Whitton was known for his long-form narrative journalism – writing non-fiction as meticulously researched narrative, linking detail of characters and events into patterns with dialogue, atmosphere and tone. His stories, while often challengingly long, were deftly enlivened with humour. Whitton’s view was that “so long as you insert a joke every 30 or so paragraphs you may be able to persuade the reader to struggle on through a long piece”.
Whitton’s initial experience writing for newspapers was with The Toowoomba Chronicle to which he first contributed as a stringer with pieces on rugby union and then as a full time reporter in 1964. His background of 15 years teaching English served him well in his new employment and his work, at least in relation to his pieces on rugby, reflected a unique, often sardonic style stirring the curiosity of readers used to a more formularised style of sports writing.
On commencing with Truth in Melbourne in 1966 he came to thrive under the influence of Stanley Cecil ‘Sol’ Chandler, hired from Fleet Street to assist in the start-up of Rupert Murdoch’s The Australian and then repositioned by Murdoch to maximise the profits of Truth.
“My old master, Sol Chandler, observed that the first task of the reporter is to interest the customer” said Whitton in 1987 at the launch his book, Amazing Scenes.
Chandler came to have a deep and lasting influence on Whitton’s career both in terms of writing style and his approach to gathering content.
Chandler’s adamant demand for every detail was famously illustrated when the lover of the drowned Prime Minister, Harold Holt, secured the right to vet the copy of her description, given to Whitton, of Holt’s last hours. Whitton recalls that “the only thing Chandler told me to fight for was that a tame rabbit nibbled the grass outside her Portsea window”.
Whitton saw this demand for detail as squaring with what came to be known as neo-journalism, most clearly evidenced in the work of Tom Wolfe which he admired. Wolfe had successfully employed what Whitton regarded as simply the techniques of fiction: “scene by scene construction, lots of dialogue and yards of description in the style of Balzac or, come to that, Raymond Chandler”.
Chandler had also influenced Whitton in how he gathered information, once advising him that “A journalist should drink and go to the races. Harold Holt has told me things in the gentleman’s urinal at Flemington he would never have dreamed of telling me sober.”
In this regard Whitton came to epitomise “old school” gumshoe reporting and eye-witness observation; “he worked the cafes, pubs, clubs, watch-houses and courthouses chatting, listening and taking notes”.
David Hickie, a Sydney Morning Herald contemporary who later became editor-in-chief of that paper and The Sun Herald, described him as a “formidable investigative journalist who insisted on forensic research and scrupulous fact-checking accuracy". Whiton preferred the term “disclosure” rather than investigative journalism. He referred to his particular style within this field as “pattern journalism”. The technique was, in Whitton’s view , most simply summed up in the dictum of investigative reporter James B Steele of The Philadelphia Inquirer: “The challenge is to gather, marshal, and organise vast amounts of data already in the public domain, and see what it adds up to.”.
Whitton used a story telling style, establishing boxes with details of time and place meticulously laid out and, putting new fact within the context of what had gone before, would then go on to reveal the connections he had established between the boxes and show a previously unapparent reality.
Whitton saw the key to the pattern emerging as being a strict chronology quoting his former editor at The National Times, V J Carrol: “ Once you get the chronology right, everything falls into place.”.
Personal life
Whitton first encountered his second wife, then Noela McMahon, in Murgon as a young boy of eight. Whitton left Murgon shortly after to board at Downlands College in Toowoomba but as teenagers he and Noela exchanged letters and went out in the holidays. Whitton then went to Teachers College and began teaching at Downlands College while Noela had left Murgon to teach speech and drama. Both started separate relationships during this period.
Whitton endeavoured to stay in touch with Noela by letters sent to the Kingaroy Hotel where she was staying several days a week to teach in the town. The publican, who knew Noela’s then partner’s family, opened the letters and destroyed them. Whitton thought Noela had lost interest but, before marrying, Noela phoned Whitton from a garage while visiting Toowoomba. Although they spoke and Whitton asked her to wait for him at the garage, she was with others and couldn’t wait.
Noela married her husband, Des, a World War II veteran, at 21 and had four children by the time she was 26. Noela reflects that her, then, husband suffered from undiagnosed post-traumatic stress and drank very heavily. Their marriage began to break down but it was only when she unexpectedly met Whitton again at his mother’s house in Brisbane that she thought of leaving. She moved to Melbourne with her children where she worked two jobs to support them.
Whitton, meanwhile, had married Irene Patricia Wilkes, also a school teacher, and had three children. However, when he met Noela again in Brisbane the flame was relit and they stayed in contact.
Whitton says that his decision to quit teaching and take a job on The Toowoomba Chronicle in 1964 was stage one of his plan to leave the marriage. This avoided what would have been a scandal for his employer, a Catholic college. The second stage, in 1965, was to secure a position with Truth, in Melbourne, where Noela was living. This perhaps also had the advantage of avoiding the opprobrium that would have likely arisen in Toowoomba.
After leaving Truth and moving to the Sunday Australian Whitton could not interest that paper in covering the Rupert Stuart case. He took leave and drove with Noela to Adelaide and completed an interview with Stuart and further research. Whitton was advised against writing on the case given his employers would not publish it. Instead Noela compiled a report on the background to the case and the interview and got it printed in The Digger thus setting in train the events that led to Stuart’s eventual release.
While Whitton was working as the Sydney Morning Herald’s European correspondent in 1984 he and Noela finally married. The ceremony was held at the Australian embassy in Paris, with Gough Whitlam, former Prime Minister and then ambassador to UNESCO, as best man and Margaret Whitlam matron of honour.
Bibliography
Can of Worms: A Citizen's Reference Book to Crime and the Administration of Justice (1986)
Can of Worms II: A Citizen's Reference Book to Crime and the Administration of Justice (1986)
Amazing Scenes (1987)
The Hillbilly Dictator: Australia's Police State (1989)
Trial by Voodoo: Why the Law Defeats Justice & Democracy (1994)
The Cartel: Lawyers and their Nine Magic Tricks (1998)
Serial Liars: How Lawyers Get the Money and Get the Criminals Off (2005)
Our Corrupt Legal System (2010)
References
External links
Evan Whitton online books and articles
Amazing Scenes by Evan Whitton
Journalists from Queensland
1928 births
2018 deaths
Walkley Award winners
21st-century Australian journalists
20th-century Australian journalists
The Australian journalists
Academic staff of the University of Queensland
Australian non-fiction crime writers
The Sydney Morning Herald people
People from Murgon
People educated at Downlands College |
4102452 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Devdas%20%282002%20Hindi%20film%29 | Devdas (2002 Hindi film) | Devdas is a 2002 Indian Hindi-language period romantic drama film directed by Sanjay Leela Bhansali and produced by Bharat Shah under his banner, Mega Bollywood. It stars Shah Rukh Khan, Aishwarya Rai and Madhuri Dixit in lead roles, with Jackie Shroff, Kirron Kher, Smita Jaykar, and Vijayendra Ghatge in supporting roles. Based on the 1917 novel of the same name by Sarat Chandra Chattopadhyay, the film narrates the story of Devdas Mukherjee (Khan), a wealthy law graduate who returns from London to marry his childhood friend, Parvati "Paro" (Rai). However, the rejection of their marriage by his own family sparks his descent into alcoholism, ultimately leading to his emotional deterioration and him seeking refuge with the golden-hearted courtesan Chandramukhi (Dixit).
Bhansali was inspired to remake the novel into a film after reading it for a second time, and announced the project in November 1999. The screenplay was written by him and Prakash Ranjit Kapadia, who also wrote the dialogue. Nitin Chandrakant Desai built the sets between August 2000 and May 2001 and spent . Along with Bhansali and other crews, he did extensive research on Calcuttan building design from the period of the British Raj. Principal photography was handled by Binod Pradhan from November 2000 to April 2002, taking place in Bikaner, Film City, and Filmistan. While Ismail Darbar and Birju Maharaj composed the soundtrack, Monty Sharma composed the background score.
Devdas is featured in Out of Competition section at the 2002 Cannes Film Festival on 23 May 2002 and was released worldwide on 12 July that year. It was the most expensive Indian film ever made at the time, with a budget of . The film received mixed reviews when it premiered at Cannes, but was better received when it was theatrically released. The film was a major commercial success and emerged as the highest-grossing Indian film of the year, earning approximately () worldwide. It won several accolades, including 5 awards at the 50th National Film Awards, including Best Popular Film Providing Wholesome Entertainment and Best Female Playback Singer (Shreya Ghoshal for "Bairi Piya"). At the 48th Filmfare Awards, it won a record-setting 11 awards, including Best Film, Best Director (Bhansali), Best Actor (Khan), Best Actress (Rai) and Best Supporting Actress (Dixit). It was also nominated for the BAFTA Award for Best Film Not in the English Language.
Plot
In the 1900s, Kausalya Mukherjee is happy to receive a letter about her son Devdas's arrival from London after his stay there for ten years for law school. Kausalya informs her neighbour and close friend Sumitra, whose daughter Parvati "Paro" shared an close cordial relationship with Devdas when they were kids. When Devdas was sent to London, Paro was advised to light a lamp to bring about his return and never permitted it to extinguish. Devdas arrives and his and Paro's friendship transforms into deep love; Kausalya disapproves, owing to Paro's maternal lineage of nautch girls and nautanki performers, which she considers inappropriate for a Zamindari family like hers. Kumud, Devdas's manipulative sister-in-law, fuels her mother-in-law's thoughts.
During Kumud's baby shower, Sumitra publicly puts forth a proposal for Paro-Devdas's wedding but Kausalya discards the proposal with patronizing arrogance, remarks that Sumitra belongs to a lower-class family and hurls accusations at the mother-daughter duo. Sumitra vows to find a wealthier alliance for Paro. Paro later sneaks into Devdas' mansion to meet him but Narayan Mukherjee, Devdas's father, spots them and humiliates her and Sumitra. Devdas angrily leaves home but fails to muster courage to oppose his parents. He writes to Paro, requesting her to forget him and falsely states that love never existed between them. Broken, Paro agrees to marry an aristocrat: Bhuvan Choudhry, a forty-year-old widower with three grown-up children. Devdas's friend Chunnilal gets him to visit a brothel, where Devdas chances upon a generous courtesan named Chandramukhi, who falls in love with him. Devdas realizes his mistake, visits Paro on her wedding day, and persistently requests her to marry him but she reprimands him for abandoning her.
Paro marries Bhuvan and departs to her in-laws' where Bhuvan confesses that their marriage was required to fulfill the position of Lady of the Estate and that his love is only for his late wife. Devdas walks towards anguish and alcoholism, permanently moving into Chandramukhi's brothel. Paro performs her duties sincerely, but is unable to forget Devdas. Narayan, on his deathbed, seeks apology from Paro and yearns to see Devdas, who arrives at his funeral and passes out. Devdas begins to stay with his family while Kumud steals the vault's keys; Devdas demands her to return them but Kumud accuses him of thievery, causing Kausalya to disown him.
Paro visits Chandramukhi and holds her responsible for Devdas's addiction to alcohol but discovers that Chandramukhi loves Devdas. She invites her to Durga Puja at her in-laws' manor and introduces Chandramukhi as her friend, concealing her profession to avoid disputes. Nevertheless, Bhuvan's son-in-law Kalibabu intends to avenge an earlier encounter with Chandramukhi that had gone wrong. He exposes her and humiliates her publicly. Chandramukhi takes a stand for herself, slaps Kalibabu and states that the visit of people like him to her brothel makes it successful. Kalibabu discloses to Bhuvan and his mother about Paro's previous affair with Devdas. Paro is forbidden from stepping out of the manor by Bhuvan.
Devdas falls ill and journeys on a train, where he stumbles upon Chunnilal, who urges him to drink. A severely ill Devdas, wanting to stand by a promise he made to Paro that he would visit her before his death, travels to Paro's in-laws' village. Devdas is dropped in front of Bhuvan's manor; Paro runs to meet him but Bhuvan opposes this, asking all the doors of exit from the manor to be closed and Paro to be restrained. The manor's gates close just before Paro can reach Devdas. Devdas only sees a blurred image of Paro running toward him. Paro sobs while Devdas whispers her name and dies, prompting the lamp to flicker out.
Cast
The cast is listed below:
Production
Development
Devdas is the third Hindi remake of the 1917 Bengali novel of the same name by Sarat Chandra Chattopadhyay, following the 1936 and 1955 versions. The director Sanjay Leela Bhansali read the novel for a second time and decided to adapt it. When asked by a Times of India interviewer about why he based the film on the novel, he said that it was "the most widely read story", and added, "I thought it would be a fascinating challenge for me [...] to present already known and loved characters, in my very own way, with my perspective." He wanted to make this remake was "bigger, better and more spectacular than any classical movie made in Indian cinema". He explained how the novel Devdas has "a simple story [and] a soul which was so big", and confessed that he was motivated "to do justice to this, it had to be made with grandeur and opulence". He stated that it was his interpretation of the novel and "a tribute to a great story that transcends sexual love and makes emotion its hero."
Bhansali, who had wanted to make a film that has grandeur and grace, spoke of his love to the film "as much as Devdas loved his Paro. I have put more sincerity and passion into Devdas than my other two films [Khamoshi: The Musical (1996) and Hum Dil De Chuke Sanam (1999)] put together". He described the novel's main character, also named Devdas, as "the paradox of a man who was [...] like a child, utterly lovable", believing that it "exists in every male, especially every Indian male". In an interview with Man's World magazine, he found a resemblance between the character and his father, who directed the 1965 action film Lootera, starring Dara Singh. He saw Devdas "as a man who is so passionate about his love that it eventually consumes his entire being". He revealed that his father often narrates the novel's story to him, and he read it entirely for the first time at the age of 17. Furthermore, Bhansali claimed that he only altered the presentation style of the 1955 version by the director Bimal Roy, with retaining its essence.
The first news about Devdas appeared in an article written by Bhawana Somaaya for The Hindu in November 1999. It was produced (and financed) by the industrialist Bharat Shah under his production company, Mega Bollywood. The screenplay was written by Bhansali with Gujarati playwright and television series writer Prakash Ranjit Kapadia, who also wrote the dialogue. The distribution was handled by Eros International directly in India, the United Kingdom and the United States. In May 2002, after negotiations with companies such as Pathé and Fortissimo Films for world sales and Miramax Films for distribution rights in the United States and United Kingdom, Eros assigned Focus Features as the sales agent outside the United States and India, including the United Kingdom and France in collaboration with Eros. However, in November the same year, Eros reclaimed these rights from Focus after months of negotiations for them and planned to sell remaining rights at the MIFED market; the companies had jointly handled sales in France, Switzerland, Greece, Australia and North Korea in the interim. Bhansali included several novelties on its plot, as he had a desire to make it different from its predecessors; for instance, in the novel, Devdas returns from his studies in Calcutta (present-day Kolkata), while in the film's version, he is shown finishing his studies in London. In June 2000, the film faced controversy when another producer, K. Chopra, had registered a film with the same title. Bhansali, however, was able to successfully get the title.
Casting
Shah Rukh Khan, Aishwarya Rai, and Madhuri Dixit were cast as the lead actors. At the same time when the film's first report appeared, it was reported that Bhansali tried to offer Dixit the role of Chandramukhi, a part written specifically for her. She declined it because of her marriage to the cardiovascular surgeon Shriram Madhav Nene on 17 October 1999, but eventually accepted it in September 2000. She said of her excitement about the collaboration: "Working with Sanjay was a dream. He gives you a lot of scope and leeway with the role's interpretation. Since he has the whole film worked out in his mind, he is aware of the length of the scene. He knows exactly what he wants from each scene in order to keep the storyline crisp."
Devdas marked the third film between Khan and Rai, after the romantic films Josh (2000) and Mohabbatein (2000). The former features as Devdas, a Bachelor of Law student who later being an alcoholic, which was originally offered to Govinda and Salman Khan. Bhansali approached him in February 2000, following the release of Khan's Phir Bhi Dil Hai Hindustani (2000). Having watched his performances while assisting Vidhu Vinod Chopra in 1942: A Love Story (1994), Bhansali stated that he was "extremely happy" after Shah Rukh Khan accepted to star in the film. Meanwhile, the latter was given with the role of Paro, Devdas' childhood friend, the next month; this was the second collaboration between her and Bhansali, following Hum Dil De Chuke Sanam. She first heard the story of the novel when he narrated the film's script to her. Prior to her, several actresses were offered to play the role, including Kajol and Kareena Kapoor. Working with Bollywood well-known stars was a new experience for her, who was a newcomer at the time after debuted in Mani Ratnam's Tamil political film Iruvar (1997) and she said, "[...] so the fact that this was an opportunity to work with them on a big scale was one of the immediate attractions."
The supporting cast includes Kirron Kher, Smita Jaykar, and Vijayendra Ghatge. In August 2000, Kher was cast as Paro's mother, Sumitra. She had always wanted to work with Bhansali after sees his work in Khamoshi: The Musical and Hum Dil De Chuke Sanam, and met him at the 50th Berlin International Film Festival when the screening of her film, the drama Bariwali, in 2000. He offered Kher two roles, Sumitra and Devdas' mother Kaushalya, but the director suggested her to choose the former role. In an interview with Rediff.com, she described the role as "a very definite character, never seen on the big screen before", and found it to be different compared with other mother roles from any films. She also felt that it gave her "a lot of scope to perform—from a flamboyant, young and larger-than-life character." Kher later positively spoke of her rapport with him: "What made me keen on working with him was the bound script that he gave me and the unusual characterisation of Sumitra."
Jaykar, who was also offered with both roles, chose to play Kaushalya. Jaykar explained that she had portrayed similar roles before, and believed that they were "very bechari [hopeless] [...] lots of soulful crying". A second collaboration with Bhansali subsequent to his previous venture, she confessed, "The look of this film is different from that of Hum Dil De Chuke Sanam. It is richer, more opulent." Ghatge portrays Paro's husband Bhuvan, a forty-old-year zamindar; he said that Bhansali initially wanted him to play a role opposite Kher (he did not mention specifically). Discussing his role, Ghatge stated, "What I like about my character is that he comes from a noble lineage. There is a dignity, a grace in him that appealed to me." Ghatge compared the film to two Kamal Amrohi's historical films—Pakeezah (1972) and Razia Sultan (1983)—and noted how Devdas "is the only other lavish film I have ever seen". Vijay Chrisna got the role of Narayan, Devdas' father, and he was sure Bhansali offered him it because of his age factor.
In October 2000, Jackie Shroff joined the cast and made a extended cameo appearance, playing Devdas' friend Chunnilal (a role that was declined by Govinda, Manoj Bajpayee, and Saif Ali Khan).
Sets
The production design of Devdas led by Nitin Chandrakant Desai (Bhansali's collaborator in Hum Dil De Chuke Sanam), with between sixty and one hundred assistants, including Pune-based architect Dheeraj Alkokar, helped him in several constructions. Bhansali wanted the sets to be different from the novel's 1936 and 1955 Hindi remakes and, to fulfill his request, Desai visited the National Film Archive of India to collect the photographs of the previous remake versions and "to be sure that there is no duplication". As the film is set in the 1900s, Bhansali, Desai and other crews did extensive research and discussions on house design from the period of the British Raj in Calcutta and Indian culture at the time. After this research, Desai came up with the first four different set designs: Paro's haveli and mansion, Devdas' house, and Chandramukhi's brothel.
Desai started building the sets in August 2000—two months before the shooting began—and finished in May 2001 in Film City, a film studio complex in Mumbai. For representing an aristocratic family, he was predominantly used the colors yellow and green for Devdas' no-walls in-between house to make it a 1911 British-styled home, and used between 128 and 180 pillars (this was inconsistently reported), each high. The building had a total area of , and was constructed on a budget.
For Paro's haveli, the place where she lives before marriage, Desai spent and used pink and blue as the main colors. He told Anita Aikara of The Indian Express in a 2011 interview, "[...] I spend so much time in the details of the home that Bhansali asked me to rework Devdas' house. It looked very small when compared to Paro's [haveli]." According to India Today journalists, 1.22 million pieces for Paro's bedroom's stained glass were continuously made in ten days; Alkokar claimed that it is aimed to "reflect her fragile beauty". A number of painted walls with standstill figures were created for Paro's mansion, features in the film post her marriage to Bhuvan, and, this time for the primary color, Desai chose "claustrophobic" red. Both Devdas' and Paro's house were done in November 2000.
The brothel of Chandramukhi was the most expensive set among others, with was spent; The Times of India called it "the costliest set of made in the history of Hindi cinema", while Alkokar said that it was "the most challenging job". A multidimensional set with a temple city and an artificial lake around it, the construction was inspired by the Dilwara Temples located in Rajasthan. With the major color of festive gold, the set had 60 explicitly-carved domes and a chandelier. For the song "Dola Re Dola", Desai (without Alkokar's help) used twenty-five pieces of glass for the floor and added a layer to prevent actors from getting injured when they dance on it. The media estimated the total budget of the film's entire sets to be , and reported that it took nearly nine months to build them. Desai recalled the experiment as "a beautiful challenge, as a classic masterpiece had to be recreated with precision and opulence".
Characters
Abu Jani, Neeta Lulla, Reza Shariffi, and Sandeep Khosla designed the costumes. Lulla claimed to be a fan of the duo Jani and Khosla, adding that "I do not know them on a personal level, but I received positive vibes. We were competing among ourselves not with each other." In preparation, the crews watched a number of Bengali films based on Kolkata, talking to locals, and did research on the Bengali culture, including traditional wear and dress patterns at that time. They visited several museums, and made intensive discussions on the costumes that, according to The Times of India, "... would be a blend of [a look] from the magical period and a look that today's audience could relate to". All of the clothes by Jani and Khosla were inspired by traditional Bengali clothes from the 1930s and 1940s. Beside that, Lulla bought 600 saris from the city and mix-and-matched them: "Sometimes, I mixed two saris in one, sometimes three." Designing the jewellery as well, she chose kundan and garnet, which she found to be "suited the [film's] era", and added stones in them.
Khan had read the novel version several years before the shooting, however, confessing that he did not want to watch the two remakes, starring K. L. Saigal and Dilip Kumar as his character. He said, "I did not want my own interpretation to be influenced by what he had done." Devdas, a part that required Khan to drink, has two different appearances—the first was a western look, while the second was a typical alcoholic look. For the former, which features in the film following the character's study in London, Jani and Khosla bought vintage suits, including cravat, handkerchief, and shoes, from old-clothing stores in the same city. For the latter, they dressed him in beige, white, and off-white, although Khan wanted the character to wear black clothes. They also gave Khan an angvastra, chikan, dhoti, and kurta, and a short-hair cut to show his nonchalant nature.
Same as Khan, Rai decided to not watch the earlier remakes and wanted "to go in to this project with no mental frame of reference whatsoever, I wanted my Paro to be Sanjay's interpretation of the character and to do that, I needed to stay free of any conceptions based on what previous actresses had done with the role." Lulla gave the mix-and-match product of 600 saris—with traditional motifs of Kantha and traditional-striped borders, called chudipaard and aashpaard—to her for the film's first half; according to reports from the media, it was revealed that each saris took around three hours to drape on a mannequin. While for the second half, Rai wore dhakais with eight to nine meters long, which was different from the regular size of six meters. Furthermore, Lulla used tangails, ashpards, chudipards, and Chinese brocades. She used traditional print valkalams for Jaykar and Banarasi sari for Ananya Khare, playing Devdas' sister-in-law.
Dixit believed that Devdas and the two previous versions "are entirely different", and commended Bhansali's "mounting, eye for detail [and] passion" for "[helping] raise the movie to an absolutely [dissimilar] level altogether". Describing Chandramukhi as "a very poignant, very feminine character", she compared her part to Rekha's role in Muqaddar Ka Sikandar (1978). Dixit, who portrayed a courtesan for the first time, admitted that it was "a very challenging role, especially since Sanjay does not compromise with quality". She added, "Still she has much resilience. She belongs to a relegated category but she possesses a golden heart. Playing such a role was an excellent experience." She wore ghagra cholis, Banarasi saris, brocades, and silk saris that have a total weight of approximately thirty kilograms and costed , making its designers Jani and Khosla were initially reluctant to give her the costumes. Moreover, Dixit experienced difficulty when she wore the dress for publicity stills, leading the duo to create a new lighter version, weighted sixteen kilograms. The lengha was described as a 'marvel of mirrors which took a team of skilled artisans two months to put together and featured as part of 'The Fabric of India' exhibit held in 2015 at the Victoria & Albert Museum in London.
Meanwhile, Lulla worked on Rai's and Dixit's saris in the song "Dola Re Dola", along with Shariffi who helped to design the latter actress' costume. Jani and Khosla designed Shroff's costumes as well; an open-collared sherwani, dhoti, and kurta were employed. Interviewed by the journalist Aseem Hattangady of Rediff.com, they complained that "the biggest challenge was, we had to avoid having the ensembles look fresh and unworn. This was achieved by selective washing."
Filming
Binod Pradhan served as the cinematographer for Devdas. He met Bhansali when the shooting of 1942: A Love Story and supposed to filmed Khamoshi: The Musical, but he was replaced by Anil Mehta for an unknown reason. Pradhan said, "It took time to adjust to Sanjay's style of work. I am known to be a slow cameraman. Initially, we would discuss camera angles and how he wanted a scene shot. But now, I can read his mind. I know exactly what he wants." He praised Bhansali for "handles love stories with a sensitivity that I have never seen on screen before". While working with Bhansali, Pradhan found the director to be "meticulous and painstaking" and it was revealed that the latter did research before the shooting began.
It took two days for Pradhan to work on the sets' lighting; he used three million watts of power produced by 42 generators and 2,500 lights with 700 lightmen were employed. Principal photography started in November 2000 in Film City. Birju Maharaj, Saroj Khan, Vaibhavi Merchant, and the duo Pappu–Malu (born Zahur Sheikh and Kavita Gandhi, respectively) completed the choreography. The artificial lake around the Chandramukhi's brothel set was filled by many gallons of water to avoid from dry up. The set was burnt three times, and the media presumed it because of the generators or diyas that were put around the location. On 9 December, the filming was delayed after two crew members had accidents on the set of Paro's haveli, with one dying (Dindayal Yadav, then aged 27) and the other (Raju Yadav) being seriously injured after trying to help the former. According to Bollywood Hungama, an electrician turned on a stand-fan while the two was near on it, causing Yadav's head was fatally hit.
A second delay happened in the 15-day shooting schedule on 8 January 2001, when the film's producer and financier Shah was arrested by the Mumbai Police; he was charged with receiving funding from the Karachi-based gangster Chhota Shakeel of the Mumbai underworld. The controversy began after a caller, claiming himself to be Abu Salem, contacted the news channel Star India and talked about his investment on Devdas. However, Shah denied the accusation, admitting that he did not know the caller, and confessed the film's entire budget was financed by himself. The trial was commenced when the pre-release of his another film, Chori Chori Chupke Chupke (2001), and finished in October 2003 with the High Court sentenced him with a one-year imprisonment.
The film's climax sequences, featuring Devdas' travel to Paro's and her husband Bhuvan's house, were shot on a train in Bikaner. In their August 2001 issue, Filmfare published that 75% of the film was completed. Also that month, another accident occurred, resulting in the death of the 40-year-old lightman Subhash Morkar. The schedule for the song "Dola Re Dola" took place in Filmistan in November 2001. Shooting was completed on 29 April 2002. After the filming ended, it was edited by Bhansali's sister Bela Sehgal. Jitendra Chaudhary handled the audiography, while Monty Sharma did the background score.
Music
The entire soundtrack and lyrics for Devdas was composed by Ismail Darbar, making it his second collaboration with Bhansali after Hum Dil De Chuke Sanam, and written by Nusrat Badr, respectively—except for "Kaahe Chhed", composed and written by Maharaj, and "Morey Piya", written by Sameer Anjaan. The vocals were performed by Dixit, Jaspinder Narula, Kavita Krishnamurthy, KK, Maharaj, Raghav Chatterjee, Rashmi Sharma, Shreya Ghoshal, Supriya Adhikari, Udit Narayan and Vinod Rathod.
The soundtrack album, which was highly anticipated, has nine original songs and one background score. Newspapers reported that it had been considered as "Bollywood's best music album ever" even before its release on 2 April 2002 by Universal Music India. The Vice President of Universal Music India Vinay Sapru refused to confirm the music rights' purchasing cost, but the press reported that the label had given an advance of more than . Upon release, it topped charts on a number of platforms in India and emerged as the third-highest-selling Bollywood soundtrack of the year, with between 1.8 million and 2 million sales. According to Rediff.com, 5.000 units had been sold on the then-defunct e-commerce Fabmart itself. Chitralekha magazine featured the soundtrack in their listing of "Top Five Hindi Film Albums" of the year. The song "Maar Dala" became popular and entered the top 10 most-listened songs chart by Raaga.com, peaking the third position.
The album received positive critical reviews. Writing for India Today, S. Sahaya Ranjit singled out Ghoshal's "tuneful voice" and concluded, "In an age when film music is heavily westernised, the use of Indian instruments ... is pleasing. Apart from the voices, the rich choral accompaniment is prominent. A sheer delight for classical music buffs." Joginder Tuteja of Bollywood Hungama opined that Darbar's compositions and Badr's lyrics were "classical-based" and "very rich", respectively, while adding that the former did "a commendable job". Kavita Awasathi from the television entertainment network B4U shared similar thoughts of Darbar, with elaborating that "has once again weaved magic [and] done an admirable job here". Biswadeep Ghosh of Outlook observed that he "has shed all inhibitions and come up with some really divine music". A review in The Hindu said, "Ismail Durbar has made attempts to blend classical music into his tunes. But because of his dependence on and usage of familiar tunes, the music lacks the freshness."
Marketing and release
Devdas was one of the most anticipated Indian films of the year, owing to its budget and the success of Bhansali's previous directorial venture, and several trade analysts regarded it as "a massive gamble". Taran Adarsh, the editor of the film magazine Trade Guide, noted, "There seems to be a lot of interest in the film which is positive indication." In his article, Adarsh wrote that Mega Bollywood received many calls from film exhibitors across the country, "wanting to open the advance booking for two weeks instead of the regular one-week advance booking". The journalist Prerana Trehan felt that the film had good word-of-mouth publicity, and Maya C. of The Hindu labelled it as the "most-talked-about Bollywood film of the year". With a total budget of , it was the most expensive Indian film at the time. The film's promotional trailer was televised in April 2002.
On 20 April 2002, Devdas was selected to premiere at the 2002 Cannes Film Festival, after the festival's director Christian June met Bhansali in November 2001. June wanted Bhansali to send the prints of the film to him in March 2002, but Bhansali did the requirement in the next month after shooting was done. Marking the first Indian film to be screened at the festival, it was chosen for the out-of-competition section and the premiere occurred on 23 May, with its stars—Khan and Rai—were in the attendance; the press questioned about the absence of Dixit. Audiences criticized the film's themes, which had been filmed several times before, and The Hindu called it the festival's "disappointment". Bhansali, however, later said of his enjoyment about the screening, describing it as "a huge honour for Bollywood" and claimed, "To me, it seems like an opportunity for a completely new kind of audience to see our cinema." Khan and Rai went to New York City on 29 June to attend a press conference for promoting the film, this time Bhansali did not attend it.
On 11 July 2002, the Ministry of Information and Broadcasting held a special screening for Indian Deputy Prime Minister L. K. Advani in an auditorium at Mahadev Road, New Delhi. Another special screening was organized at the same time, attended by the film's cast and crew members and other celebrities. On the next day, Devdas was opened worldwide after facing several postponements; it was originally scheduled for release on 14 June, but later shifted to 28 June and 12 July. It faced competition from Kuch Tum Kaho Kuch Hum Kahein, Kyaa Dil Ne Kahaa, Om Jai Jagadish and Shararat. Devdas was released on 350 screens in India and 250 screens overseas. While the film's duration was 174 minutes in India, it was shortened to 150 minutes for the overseas prints. As parts of the promotions, MTV India managed special shows for the film: Devdas – Countdown Calendar features footage and tracks from the film, and MTV's Big Picture: Director's Special contains interviews of the cast and Bhansali. The former was aired on the channel from early July to the day of the film's release, while the latter was broadcast on 18 July.
Devdas along with five other remakes of the novel was shown at the Devdas Film Festival, a six-day festival held by the Hyderabad Film Club in Secunderabad on 16–22 September 2002; the 2002 version by Bhansali was chosen as the closing of the festival. The secretary S. S. Prakash Reddy told The Hindu that the purpose of the festival was to show "people ... the subtle changes in script and the deviations from the original novel too." Devdas was selected for the Festival of Indian Feature Films and Documentaries section at the India Festival 2002 at Tagore Theatre on 21–30 September. It was screened at the Directorate of Film Festivals's 33rd International Film Festival of India on 1 October. It opened the Palm Springs International Film Festival on 12 January 2003. The film was shown at Bollywood Shuffle festival in Brooklyn on 20 December. In 2017, Fathom Events screened the film alongside the period epic romantic drama Veer-Zaara (2004) as parts of the "Best of Bollywood Event Series" event in the United States.
The novel's version by Chattopadhyay was translated to English under the title of Devdas: A Novel by Sreejata Guha in Bangalore, featuring Rai in a scene from Devdas on the cover. It was published by Penguin Books in July 2002 (shortly after the release of the film), and ranked among the highest-selling books in India. Distributed by Eros International, the film was released on a double-disc DVD on 20 January 2003 in NTSC widescreen format. The film's cable and satellite rights for Indian television were sold to Sony Entertainment Television in a five-year contract for on 18 April, and its world television premiere happened on 27 April on Sony Max. Its VHS and single-disc DVD versions were released on 26 January 2004 and 10 February 2009, respectively. The film was re-released in the English-dubbed version in July 2004 at the theatres and multiplexes across India. The film was available on a triple-disc DVD on 1 February 2005. A VCD version was also provided. The rights of the film subsequently acquired by Khan under his production and distribution company Red Chillies Entertainment. It has been accessible for streaming on Apple TV+ and Amazon Prime Video since March 2016.
Reception
Critical response
India
Devdas received mixed reviews from Indian critics, with most of them praised Dixit in her role as Chandramukhi, but panned Bhansali's direction, and Khan and Rai's performances.
Sukanya Verma described it as "a work of art and heart", saying, "Sanjay Leela Bhansali's labour of love Devdas is a larger-than-life, poignant and spectacular interpretation." However, she felt that the supporting cast "comes up with an exceedingly over-the-top performance and disrupts the entire tempo of the film", mostly that from Kher, who she found "goes overboard with her boisterous, dreamy-eyed mother". In a one-star review, the entertainment portal Bollywood Hungama stated, "... Devdas belies the expectations that one has from a film of this magnitude. Expectedly, the much-hyped film has taken a historic start all over, but it lacks in merits and most importantly, repeat value, which is so very vital to recover the colossal investment that has gone into its making." The critic explained that the film's "first half has an enjoyable mix of light moments and dramatic scenes", raising "the expectations of a better and much bigger second half. But the post-interval portions fail to hold ... attention and there are several reasons for it."
The film critic Subhash K. Jha, who gave the film a three-and-a-half stars rating, asserted that Devdas "confirms the director's faith in the power of the visual medium to create poetry out of melodrama and the audience's faith in Bhansali as one of the most gifted filmmakers mainstream Hindi cinema has produced", adding that Rai "attains legendary proportions in this film ... Her eyes are crystal-blue pools that change colours according to her character's moods." Sita Menon appreciated Dixit's performance as Chandramukhi, a part that she called the "most understated role and perhaps the one that is most lingering", for being "stunning lending passion, fire and gentleness with such consummate ease that watching her perform is sheer delight". S. Ramachandran of Mid-Day complimented Khan for "excellently hics his way through without a hiccup in the role of Devdas", and believed that Rai "pumps glamour into the much sought-after role of Paro". Writing for The New Sunday Express, Baradwaj Rangan wrote that the film was dominated with the "most-elaborate" costumes and spoke positively of how Dixit "effortlessly combines allure and sacrifice".
Outlook claimed that "[s]eeing Devdas is like witnessing an exhausting opera. It's all about the sheer self-indulgence, ego and audacity of its maker". The magazine saw that Bhansali turned the film into "a tale of female bonding, between a head-strong Paro ... and Chandramukhi", and observed of how its dialogues "are declamatory with mixed metaphors and play of words aplenty", comparing it to Mughal-e-Azam (1960) and Pakeezah. Madhu Trehan (reviewing for the magazine as well) thought that Devdas became "a chick film" because of its dialogues and screenplay. Anjana Guha Chatterjee of The Indian Express concluded, "His film is in no way Sarat Chandra's Devdas. It was entirely Sanjay Leela Bhansali's Devdas." Khalid Mohamed rated the film three stars, dismissing it as "a magnum opus" that "makes [the audience] want to hit the bottle and fast out of sheer disappointment". Even so, he noted that Mukerji was "bankably competent" and described Rai's performance as the "best" one in her career. Rajeev Masand found the film to be "a big disappointment" and declared it as "the worst film" in Bhansali's directorial career, with Roshmila Bhattacharya reviewing, "Ornate, opulent and indulgent, Sanjay Leela Bhansali's Devdas is a rich tapestry of colours."
Ziya Us Salam took note of Bhansali's ability to "give form to feeling here, expression to thought. His concept is old and familiar, his presentation new and delightful. His canvas is grand, his imagination grander still. His sets are opulent, his images larger than life, his characters larger still." Deepa Gahlot opined that both Rai and Dixit were burdened by their heavy costumes and compulsion to perform perfectly. Gahlot bemoaned that the film's dialogues were "shockingly inappropriate—cheap in places", and added that "[the] film veers completely away from the novel in the second half, when he introduces Paro's creepy step-son-in-law, makes Devdas's vampish sister-in-law vie for control, and creates a forced situation for a meeting between the Paro and Chandramukhi who do a dance number together—unthinkable at the time." Komal Nahta, giving it eight out of ten stars, was impressed with Khan's "mind-blowing" performance, commending him for playing his role "with such finesse and aplomb that it is sheer delight to watch him." Amit Khanna from India Today credited Rai for "brings a fine balance of arrogance, vulnerability and sensuality to her performance".
Siddharth Patankar from NDTV opined that most of the film's cast "overacted" in the first half, and presumed it because of Bhansali's direction. He singled out Dixit's "powerful" performance, which he thought was a "highlight" of the film. In a review published in The Hindu, the critic Paresh C. Palicha elaborated: "On the acting front, the performance of the three main actors is top-notch." He lauded Khan for "[excelling] in the role of his lifetime", noting that "he shows a tendency to go overboard in the scenes where he is shown in an inebriated state ..." Ratna Rajaiah (also from The Hindu) hailed the film was an "outstanding example of brilliant cinematic techniques and technology", and according to her, Devdas was "a fabulous, sumptuous, glittering tribute to the lofty ideal of romantic love where almost every frame leaves you gasping at its immaculately, painstaking orchestrated beauty." Sudhanva Deshpande of Frontline magazine referred to Khan as "overwhelming", while arguing that Rai gave a "below-par" performance though she "gets all of the director's attention and the best shots". Furthermore, Deshpande believed Dixit had succeeded to save her "weak" role.
Overseas
Devdas generated mixed reviews when it premiered at Cannes, with many reviewers were critical of the direction, story, sets, and costumes. Journalists also attributed it to the film's melodramatic sequences and how Khan and Rai portraying their roles as Devdas and Paro, respectively. However, better reviews were given following its theatrical release. Patrick Z. McGavin of the Chicago Tribune said that it "welds a powerful technical sophistication with a deeply emotional story that moves starkly from joyous exuberance to epic tragedy", and felt Bhansali had brilliantly directed the film, "[layering] abstract stylization with a charged dramatic construction". Writing for the BBC, Shamaila Khan gave the film nine-and-a-half stars and declared it as "one of the best films" she has ever seen, noting that it was "completely justifies [its] title as the most expensive Indian film ever made". She expressed approval of the "breathtaking" cinematography of the film, and commended its sets and costume designs.
Zeba Haider from the Arab News found Devdas to be overly "loud and melodramatic", while hailing the production aspects and the performances of the lead cast. However, Haider lauded Bhansali for "bringing the life culture and values of 1930s to a 21st-century audience" and concluded, "There is no denying that he did succeed in making the audience alive to the realities of the 1930s. No doubt the film viewer will find himself somewhere in some form in Bhansali's Devdas. And that is a great achievement." In the words of Empire magazine: "Devdas lacks Bollywood's broader comic touches but in its field, it's the event movie of the year." According to the review, Rai "proves she has the acting talent to back up her flawless looks". Giving the film two stars, the critic and film historian Derek Malcolm of The Guardian criticized its production design, which he described as "tacky". The Chicago Reader weekly's J. R. Jonas added, "... the sets and costumes are intoxicating, and whenever the tabla kicked in, I understood why people of my parents' generation used to dream about the movies."
In Screen International, Sheila Johnston wrote that Khan was a "dead loss as the film's romantic hero" and thought her chemistry with Rai "a failure". Johnston deemed that Khan looks "too old for the role", but saying that Rai "develops nicely from gorgeous doe-eyed ingenue to a figure of real stature and authority". Laura Bushell of the BBC rated the film four out of five stars, taking note of the actors, especially Rai, who the critic called "stunningly beautiful". Derek Elley of Variety summarized, "By contrast, Bhansali's reworking, in splashy color and widescreen, cranks up the fantasy elements, piles on the melodrama and shears back most of the novel's plot." Reviewing for the Radio Times, David Parkinson, giving the rating of three stars, reported Dixit had made an "exhilarating presence" in Devdas and commented that the film was "gorgeous" and "epic". Kim Linekin from Eye Weekly was appreciative of Rai's performance: "Surprisingly, the beauty pageant winner is the best actor in the bunch. Rai's doe eyes and long hair are exploited to full effect, but she also seems the most committed to the story and creates the most believable character."
Sukhdev Sandhu of The Daily Telegraph gave Devdas a scathing review by saying that it was "embarrassingly bad" and "absolutely horrid". He observed that Rai "dimply and doe-eyed, coos and trills like an asthmatic mynah bird" and saw that she failed to made a chemistry with Khan, later arguing that the film "wastes the talent of its cast". He opined, "It gives its audience a tacky, cartoon version of Bollywood. Colourful and tumultuous it my be, but its preoccupation with spectacle does not make up for the absence of soul." The Independent likened the film to a "pudding trolley" that has "flaring colours, elaborate song and dance sequences and opulent locations". Michael Dequina of the Film Threat rated the film five stars, stating "... there's more to Devdas than extravagance; the emotion and passion of the story is felt just as strongly in every frame as the budget". Rich Cline, writing for the website as well, noted in his review that the costumes were "vibrant" and regarded that its plot was "jammed with meaning and relevance".
Kryztoff de Breza did a review for Rediff.com at the film's premiere at Cannes; he described the film as "a treat to the eyes" and admired its sets and costumes, which he found to be "beautiful". In a review carried by The Globe and Mail, Liam Lacey shared similar thoughts: "It's all vastly sumptuous, though the spectacle frequently overwhelms the dramatic impact." Still, Breza was ambivalent of Bhansali's direction, mentioning that he "lose the strings and the film degenerates rapidly" when it features the sequences of Devdas and Chunnilal getting drunk. Rick McGinnis considered the cast's performances were "completely over-the-top—pitched at a level somewhere north of soap-opera hysterical—and absolutely perfect", while labelling the film "an instant Bollywood classic". Katrina Onstad of the National Post credited the film for giving its "... older generation of duelling mothers [characters] ... some great, scenery-chewing monologues". The BBC's Poonam Joshi presumed the story was "beautifully recounted through subtle and heartrending interchange". Adrian Martin recognized the film as "one of the most spectacular Bollywood musicals of the past decade".
Box office
Although the reviews were generally mixed, Devdas was highly successful at the box office in India and overseas, due to its cast's performances, costumes, dialogues, narrative style, and sound design. In India, the film had a theatrical run of fourteen weeks. It collected on the opening day, the year's highest first-day earnings, and after the first weekend. Following the first week, the film had grossed —according to The Times of India, it earned at six theatres in Hyderabad in this period. Still, Devdas gradually lost public interest and subsequently earned in the next week. The trade analyst Amod Mehra reported, "Hype has pulled the film through. Though the film is doing well in major cities, collections have dropped drastically in the interiors." He believed that the big budget of the film was negatively influenced its theatrical performance. It eventually collected , making it Indian highest-grossing film of 2002.
In the United Kingdom, Devdas emerged as the highest-grossing film of the year from India and The Guardian called it "a significant UK box office hit"; the film debuted in fifth place, grossing $730.243. By the end of its first week, the film had grossed abroad, marking the year's highest overseas first-week gross for an Indian film. At the end of its overseas running, the Hindi language collected , including $2.5 million from the United Kingdom. The film-trade website Box Office India estimated the Hindi version's total collections to be , making it the most profitable Indian film of 2002. A Chinese language version grossed a further in China. , the film grossed a total of approximately () worldwide.
Accolades
Devdas was the Indian submission for the Best International Feature Film at the 75th Academy Awards. It was chosen by the Film Federation of India (FFI) over the fantasy film Agni Varsha (2002), the dramas Kabhi Khushi Kabhie Gham... (2001), Mondo Meyer Upakhyan (2002) and Saanjhbatir Roopkathara (2002), the war film Kannathil Muthamittal (2002) and the biopic The Legend of Bhagat Singh (2002). Bhansali met the director Ashutosh Gowariker and the actor Aamir Khan—the crew and cast members of Lagaan (2001), which was also nominated in the category at the previous ceremony—to ask for their help to get Devdas to enter the nomination. When the 75th Academy Awards was held on 23 March 2003 at the Dolby Theatre in Hollywood, Los Angeles, the film was not nominated and the FFI was blamed by journalists, including Gautaman Bhaskaran of The Hindu, who called their decision "shortsighted", "almost mulish" and "has been extremely detrimental for Indian cinema".
Devdas received a nomination for the Best Film Not in the English Language from the 56th iteration of the British Academy Film Awards (BAFTA). At the 50th National Film Awards, the film received five awards: Best Popular Film Providing Wholesome Entertainment, Best Playback Singer – Female (Ghoshal), Best Production Design (Desai), Best Costume Design (Lulla, Jani, Khosla, Shariffi) and Best Choreography (Saroj Khan). It garnered a leading 17 nominations at the 48th Filmfare Awards, and won 11 awards—the most for any film at the time—including Best Film, Best Director (Bhansali), Best Actor (Khan), Best Actress (Rai) and Best Supporting Actress (Dixit). It won 16 of its 18 nominations at the 4th IIFA Awards, including Best Film, Best Director (Bhansali), Best Actor (Khan), Best Actress (Rai) and Best Supporting Actress (Kher).
Legacy
Impact
Devdas is regarded as one of Bhansali's best works. Rahul Desai of Film Companion wrote in 2017, "There is no greater film to demonstrate how the glorious vanity of song picturization in Indian movies goes a long way in defining our memories of them. Devdas, I suspect, was the beginning of Bhansali's marriage with perfection and prose—an abusive, fascinating relationship that would thrive on its imperfections in the years to come." In an interview with The Indian Express, Bhansali revealed that he would only cast Khan again if he remade the film. He called Khan's acting flawless and said that the actor "understood the character without losing his spontaneity", adding, "He has left me speechless. I had my doubts before working with him. But it's his most endearing and honest performance."
Devdas has been featured in several listings. Richard Corliss of Time magazine featured the film in his listings of "2002: Best and Worst" in 2002 and "The 10 Greatest Movies of the Millennium" in 2012. In 2010, Empire listed the film among the "100 best films of world cinema", noting: "A star-crossed love-triangle melodrama... Hollywood needs another one of those!" Also that year, Donald Clarke, writing for The Irish Times, considered it to be one of "Indian most exuberant films". In 2013, The New York Times Jeff Olozia included it in the "Louboutin's Bollywood" listing. The film was ranked sixth in Lata Jha of Mint listing of "Ten Most Popular Period Films of Bollywood" in 2015. The next year, Elena Nicolaou and Prakruti Patel from O, The Oprah Magazine featured Devdas in their listing of "25 Best Bollywood Movies of All Time".
A book on the production of the film was published by the journalist and author Mushtaq Shiekh in August 2002, entitled Devdas: The Indian Hamlet. Shah Rukh Khan and Bhansali wrote the foreword and afterword, respectively.
Influence
Dale Hudson of the film journal Screen credited Devdas for "dramatically [changing] the social mobility of women from earlier cinematic interpretations" of the novel. The Hindu hailed, "The film is even greater than Romeo and Juliet, as it has been shot more number of times than the Shakespearean play, itself." A dialogue said by Khan, "Babuji ne kahaa gaon chhod do, sab ne kahaa Paro ko chhod do..." (Dad said to leave the village, everyone said to leave Paro...), and, "Kaun kambhakkht bardaasht karne ko peeta hai?" (Who the hell drink to tolerate?), told by Khan to Dixit, attained popularity. Deepika Padukone, who collaborated with Bhansali in Goliyon Ki Raasleela Ram-Leela (2013), Bajirao Mastani (2015) and Padmaavat (2018), revealed that she was impressed with how Bhansali portraying the female characters, noting: "If you look closely, every (female) character has her own life and journey; I hope my part is also as remembered and loved as that of ... Paro or Chandramukhi's."
Following the film's success, traditional Indian women's costumes emerged as a style trend of the year. The Hindu wrote that it has influenced young women in India to wear saris that have the same design with those of Rai and Dixit in Devdas. Most properties from the film, including pieces of glass from the scene in which Shah Rukh Khan's character breaking his alcohol bottle after getting drunk, were offered for purchase on several Indian auction websites. In March 2003, Rai's saris were exhibited at the Taj Mahal Palace Hotel. Talking to The Hindu, Lulla said that the "bridal collection epitomises the traditional Indian woman who believes in tasteful things of life complete with class and elegance"; she added that Rai's jewellery was popular among Indian college students. They were re-exhibited in August at the Welcomhotel Chennai. The works have been referenced in several visual arts; Suhasi Dhami's look in a 2012 episode from Yahan Main Ghar Ghar Kheli was inspired by the saris. Also that year, Filmfare included Rai's costumes in their listing of "10 Shades of Beauty", elaborating, "From her jewellery to her pallu, all her styling was given intricate details which made this Paro look flawless."
See also
List of Indian submissions for the Academy Award for Best International Feature Film
List of submissions to the 75th Academy Awards for Best Foreign Language Film
Notes
References
External links
2000s musical drama films
2002 romantic drama films
2002 films
Devdas films
Films about women in India
Films directed by Sanjay Leela Bhansali
Films scored by Monty Sharma
Films based on works by Sarat Chandra Chattopadhyay
Films set in Kolkata
Films set in the 1900s
Films shot in Maharashtra
Films shot in Mumbai
Films shot in Rajasthan
2000s Hindi-language films
Indian epic films
Indian musical drama films
Indian romantic drama films
Best Popular Film Providing Wholesome Entertainment National Film Award winners
Films whose production designer won the Best Production Design National Film Award
Films that won the Best Costume Design National Film Award
Films featuring a Best Choreography National Film Award-winning choreography
Films about alcoholism
Films about courtesans in India
Films based on Indian novels
Durga Puja in popular culture |
4102537 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nayanthara | Nayanthara | Nayanthara (born Diana Mariam Kurian; 18 November 1984) is an Indian actress who primarily works in Tamil, Telugu and Malayalam films. One of the highest-paid actresses in India, she was the only South Indian actress to be featured in the Forbes India "Celebrity 100" list of 2018. She has acted in more than 80 films in a career spanning over two decades and has won numerous awards, including five Filmfare Awards South. She has been called the "Lady Superstar" of Tamil cinema.
Nayanthara made her acting debut with the Malayalam film Manassinakkare (2003). She made her debut in Tamil cinema with Ayya (2005) and in Telugu cinema with Lakshmi (2006). Her portrayal of Goddess Sita in the mythological film Sri Rama Rajyam (2011) earned her the Filmfare Award for Best Actress – Telugu and the Nandi Award for Best Actress. She won the Filmfare Award for Best Actress – Tamil and Tamil Nadu State Film Award for Best Actress, for her performances in the romantic comedy Raja Rani (2013), the action comedy Naanum Rowdy Dhaan (2015) and the political drama Aramm (2017). She was awarded the Filmfare Award for Best Actress – Malayalam for her performance in the crime drama Puthiya Niyamam (2016).
Nayanthara went on to establish herself as one of the leading actresses of South Indian cinema with such female-led films as Anaamika (2014), Maya (2015), Kolamavu Kokila (2018), Airaa (2019) and Netrikann (2022). Her other notable films include Chandramukhi, Ghajini (both 2005), Billa (2007), Yaaradi Nee Mohini (2008), Bodyguard (2010), Krishnam Vande Jagadgurum (2012), Thani Oruvan (2015), Kaashmora (2016), Viswasam, Bigil, Sye Raa Narasimha Reddy (all 2019), Darbar (2020), Annaatthe (2021) and Godfather (2022). She expanded into Hindi cinema with Jawan (2023).
In addition to her acting career, Nayanthara is a philanthropist and owns a production house called "Rowdy Pictures". Nayanthara is married to filmmaker Vignesh Shivan, with whom she has two children.
Early life and education
Nayanthara was born as Diana Mariam Kurian on 18 November 1984 in Bangalore, Karnataka, to Kurian Kodiyattu and Omana Kurian in a Syrian Christian family. Her elder brother, Leno, lives in Dubai, United Arab Emirates. As her father was an Indian Air Force official, Nayanthara studied in various parts of India.
She did her schooling in Jamnagar, Gujarat and Delhi. In Thiruvalla, she studied at Balikamadom Girls Higher Secondary School, Thirumoolapuram and then attended Marthoma College, Thiruvalla for her bachelor's degree in English Literature.
Career
Debut in Malayalam cinema (2003–2004)
She began her acting career in 2003 with the Malayalam film Manassinakkare.While studying at college, Nayanthara worked part-time as a model. She was spotted by director Sathyan Anthikkad, who had seen some of her modelling assignments and approached her to play a pivotal role in his film Manassinakkare (2003). Although she turned down the offer initially, as she was not interested in films, she gave in eventually and agreed to do "just that one film". Manassinakkare went on to become a big financial success and she continued to receive acting offers. Both her releases in 2004, Natturajavu by Shaji Kailas, and Fazil's psychological thriller Vismayathumbathu, saw her co-starring alongside Mohanlal; while she played the protagonist's adopted sister in the former, she portrayed a ghost in the latter. Her performance in Vismayathumbathu, in particular, was lauded, with critics claiming that she had "stolen the thunder with her author-backed role", and was "the revelation of the film".
Early work in Tamil and Telugu cinema (2005–2007)
Nayanthara subsequently started appearing in Tamil and Telugu films. In 2005, she was cast in Hari's Ayya, debuting in the Tamil film industry as lead heroine of the movie. Behindwoods.com stated that she had made a "sensational debut in Tamil", while a reviewer from Nowrunning.com said that her "presence with her beautiful smile is crowd winning". While still shooting for Ayya, she was selected for the comedy horror film Chandramukhi, after its director P. Vasu's wife had seen Manassinakkare and recommended her. The film ran for over 800 days in theatres, eventually turning Nayanthara into one of the most-sought after actresses in Tamil. She also acted in Malayalam, Thaskara Veeran and Rappakal. Later that year she appeared in AR Murugadoss' Ghajini, in which she played a secondary female character. Nayanthara then accepted to appear in an item number as herself in the Perarasu-directed masala film Sivakasi.
Nayanthara's first release in 2006 was Kalvanin Kadhali. Indiaglitz.com stated her performance was the "strength of the film". She next made her debut in Telugu, starring in the film Lakshmi, following which she performed in Boss, I Love You. Three Tamil films in which she enacted the lead female characters – Vallavan, Thalaimagan and E – were released simultaneously during Deepavali 2006. All three films opened to mixed reviews. In Vallavan, she portrayed a lecturer who falls in love with a student younger than her. Sify wrote: "Nayanthara virtually walks away with the film and has never looked so beautiful. She looks gorgeous especially in songs and does justice to her well-etched out role". The science fiction thriller E featured Nayanthara in the role of a bar dancer. Reviewers from Rediff stated that she made an impact. Indiaglitz said she was "very adequate and impressive in a slightly complicated role", and that she had "come up with a good performance". In Thalaimagan, she played a news reporter, with critics agreeing that she did not have much to do in the film.
Public recognition and widespread success (2007–2013)
Nayanthara regained her status in Tamil cinema by starring in the Vishnuvardhan-directed gangster film Billa (2007). A remake of the 1980 Tamil film of the same name, it went on to become a success at the box office, with Nayanthara receiving critical and popular acclaim for her performance as Sasha in her new glamorous look. Sify heaped praise on her, describing her as a "show-stopper". The reviewer further wrote: "Nayanthara has gone full throttle to look her sexiest best [...] She has a beautiful body which she flaunts daringly [...] and is also able to bring out the cold aloofness and bitterness of her character. Similarly a critic from Nowrunning.com noted that she looked "great in mini-skirts, jacket, dark glasses and tall boots". Her performance in Billa earned her first nomination for the Filmfare Award for Best Actress – Tamil, in addition to winning the Vijay Award for Favourite Heroine. The same year, she also starred in the Telugu action drama Tulasi alongside Venkatesh, which proved to be a commercial success and her performance earned her first nomination for the Filmfare Award for Best Actress – Telugu.
In 2008, she had five releases, four of which were in Tamil. Her first release was the family entertainer Yaaradi Nee Mohini. Behindwoods.com wrote: "Nayanthara dispels her bombshell act and proves that she can more than just that. She breaks into tears when needed, shows vicious contempt when rubbed the wrong way in the name of love, and looks endearing in songs". Nowrunning.com stated that she "exhibits her acting skills in full measure [and] gives a moving performance in emotional scenes", while Sify's critic wrote that she looked "sensational and has done a great job in perhaps the meatiest role she has done so far". She won the Vijay Award for Favourite Heroine for the second consecutive year, in addition to her second nomination for the Filmfare Award for Best Actress – Tamil.
Her subsequent appearances were in Kuselan, Satyam and Aegan in 2008. In 2009 she appeared in Villu and Aadhavan.
In 2010, all her releases, which featured her as the female lead, turned out to be commercial successes: she had five box office hits in the four Southern languages – Adhurs (Telugu), Bodyguard (Malayalam), Simha (Telugu), Boss Engira Bhaskaran (Tamil) and Super (Kannada). She won the Asianet Award for Best Actress for her performance in Bodyguard. The latter three, in particular, were particularly notable for Nayanthara, with Simha becoming one of the highest-grossing Telugu films of the year and Boss Engira Bhaskaran releasing to positive reviews and becoming a financial success. Upendra's Super, which marked her debut into the Kannada film industry, opened to rave reviews, while her performance was also praised by critics. Her performances in Simha, Boss Engira Bhaskaran and Super earned her nominations for the Filmfare Award for Best Actress in their respective languages. She also starred in Shyamaprasad's critically acclaimed Malayalam film Elektra. Her performance was well appreciated by critics when it was screened at the International Film Festival of India. The film was also screened at the Dubai International Film Festival.
Her only release in 2011 was the mythological film Sri Rama Rajyam (2011) by Bapu, in which she played the role of Sita. She received high critical acclaim for her performance in the film, with Rediff.com noting, "Nayanthara is the surprise package of the film. As Sita, she too has played the role of her lifetime. She gave a fine understated performance conveying a kaleidoscope of emotions." Sify commented "Nayanthara gave a fitting answer to all, unleashing grace and accomplishing the assignment with absolute perfection." Subsequently, she was awarded her first Filmfare Award - Telugu and Nandi Award for her performance. The film was dubbed in the media as her swan song and considered to be her last release before her marriage as she was reported to quit acting thereafter.
Choosing to make a comeback, Nayanthara began shooting for Krish's Krishnam Vande Jagadgurum (2012) after an eleven-month sabbatical. She portrayed the role of a journalist and her performance was praised, with a reviewer from Sify stating that "Nayanthara does not play the normal commercial glam-doll for a change and she is good" and "her chemistry with Rana is perfect". This is the only Telugu film where Nayanthara has dubbed for her character. She received her fourth nomination for the Filmfare Award for Best Actress – Telugu for her performance in the film. The following year, she won widespread critical acclaim for her performance in Atlee's romantic comedy-drama Raja Rani (2013), winning her first Filmfare Award for Best Actress – Tamil and the Vijay Award for Best Actress. Playing the role of a wife in an unhappy marriage, a critic from Sify.com noted, "Nayanthara gets a well-written role and she couldn't ask for a better character than Regina for her return after a three-year hiatus... she looks good, throws herself into the role, approaches her part with restraint and minimalist fuss, and turns in a sincere performance." Sify.com also said her role was "unquestionably the film's biggest strength". Likewise, another reviewer from Behindwoods.com stated the role was "Nayanthara's career best performance till date" and it was a "great comeback by the actress with a role which gave her ample scope".
Her next release, Vishnuvardhan's Arrambam (2013), featuring Ajith Kumar in the lead, also won acclaim with a reviewer from Rediff stating that "Nayanthara looks gorgeous and does full justice to her character", while Behindwoods critic stated that "Nayanthara puts out a fiery face when required and also showcase her oomph and style in many scenes, adding "this superstar continues to shine".
Stardom and further expansion (2014-2022)
Nayanthara's rising popularity as an actress led to her being cast in female-centric films, a genre considered a rarity in South Indian cinema. Sekhar Kammula cast her in the titular role of his bilingual Anaamika (2014), a remake of the Hindi film Kahaani (2012), in which Nayanthara portrayed an IT professional who moves to Hyderabad to look for her missing husband. Sify.com labelled her performance in the film "a one-woman show by her in a difficult role... she nails the character perfectly whether it in the initial scenes showing her anguish or in the stunning climax, where she takes a brave decision".
While Anaamika did middling business, her next female-centric project, the horror film Maya (2015), emerged as a profitable venture commercially. Portraying a single mother with a mysterious past, Nayanthara won acclaim for her performance and her decision to portray an unconventional character, with Sify.com saying, "Nayanthara is just fabulous and her classier side has been perfectly unleashed in Maya... it's a treat to watch Nayanthara re-inventing herself by performing in an author backed role".
Along with strong character roles, Nayanthara continued to appear in action and comedy films, including the successful Bhaskar the Rascal (2015) and Thani Oruvan (2015), during the same period. She then went on to win her second Filmfare Award for her role of a deaf girl seeking revenge in Vignesh Shivan's black comedy Naanum Rowdy Dhaan (2015). About her performance, Sify.com's reviewer noted "Nayanthara's Kadambari is a well-etched out role, the actress is effortlessly charming and she does full justice", and "infuses the part with the right portions of vulnerability, restraint, and quiet strength, delivering a performance that is nothing short of perfect". A video clip from the film Naanum Rowdy Dhaan went viral on social media where Nayanthara was seen buying liquor from a shop. The Hindu Makkal Katchi demanded the scene to be removed and garlanded her picture with beer bottles and even after she made a statement that it was a film scene, the Hindu Munnani burned her effigy in protest. Despite controversy, she earned her second Filmfare Award for Best Actress – Tamil for her performance in the film.
In her first release of 2016, Nayanthara portrayed a rape victim in Puthiya Niyamam (2016) opposite Mammootty, with a critic from the IBTimes stating "Nayantara's portrayal as Vasuki Iyer is one of her career-best roles till date and her decision to dub in her own voice for her character is worthy of appreciation". She earned her first Filmfare Award for Best Actress – Malayalam for her performance in the film. She continued to play diverse roles, appearing as a village-based school teacher in Thirunaal (2016), a spy in the commercially successful Vikram-starrer Iru Mugan (2016) and the queen of a fantasy kingdom in Kaashmora (2016). Her performance in the former fetched her a sixth nomination for the Filmfare Award for Best Actress – Tamil.
In 2017, she played the main lead in the horror thriller Dora and the critically acclaimed social drama Aramm. Her portrayal of a district collector in Aramm won her a third Filmfare Award for Best Actress – Tamil. She also played the female lead in the action thriller Velaikkaran. Her first release in 2018 was a Telugu-language film Jai Simha in which she played the female lead. She went on to portray the main lead in Nelson Dilipkumar's directorial Kolamaavu Kokila and the thriller Imaikkaa Nodigal alongside actor Atharvaa. Both emerged huge successes and attained highest opening figures for a female led film across the country. Her performance in Kolamaavu Kokila fetched her an eighth nomination for the Filmfare Award for Best Actress – Tamil.
In 2019, she played lead roles in Viswasam, Airaa, Kolaiyuthir Kaalam and Bigil, the latter in which she collaborated with Vijay for the third time. She also appeared in the Malayalam film Love Action Drama, alongside Nivin Pauly where she attained an equal pay as that of male lead; for the first ever time in Malayalam cinema. She was also seen in Telugu biographical film, Sye Raa Narasimha Reddy, alongside Chiranjeevi and Tamannaah. In 2020, she was seen in a supporting role in Darbar along with Rajinikanth. Her film Mookuthi Amman marked her second entry into Hindu mythological and devotional cinema after her portrayal of Goddess Sita in 2011.
2021 saw her fifth collaboration with Rajinikanth with the film Annaatthe where she was seen as a lawyer. She starred in Netrikann, a remake of the 2011 South Korean film Blind. She received critical acclaim for her portrayal of blind Durga CBI in the film. She also starred in the Malayalam film Nizhal and the much delayed Telugu film Aaradugula Bullet.
Her first release of 2022 was the romcom-drama Kaathuvaakula Rendu Kaadhal, where she was seen alongside Vijay Sethupathi and Samantha Ruth Prabhu. She later starred in G.S. Viknesh's survival-thriller O2, where she played a single mother trying to shield her son suffering from cystic fibrosis from the effects of low oxygen. She was later seen in the Malayalam film Gold, alongside Prithviraj Sukumaran, in the Telugu film Godfather, the Tamil horror film Connect.
Expansion to Hindi cinema and further projects in the South Indian film industry (2023)
Nayanthara marked her Hindi film debut with the action thriller film Jawan opposite Shah Rukh Khan. She portrayed a NSG officer Narmada Rai. Her performance received positive reviews, but her chemistry with Khan was criticised. Monika Rawal Kukreja of Hindustan Times noted, "Nayanthara brings freshness and is greeted with a slo-mo shot each time she comes on screen. Sadly though, her chemistry with Khan fails to ignite any sparks and it's quite bland." Taran Adarsh of Bollywood Hungama stated "Nayanthara looks stunning and delivers a first-rate performance. The chemistry between her and Khan, however, is not as electrifying as intended."
Nayanthara will be next seen in the Tamil film Iraivan; for which she will get a remuneration of Rs 10 Crore, making her the only South Indian actress to get a double digit crore remuneration. She is also set to star two untitled films, tentatively titled as Lady Superstar 75 and NT-81. Netflix has documented her illustrious journey in cinema, titled as "Nayanthara beyond the fairytale" which is yet to release.
Personal life
She was brought up as a Nasrani Christian to Malayali parents. On 7 August 2011, she embraced Hinduism at the Arya Samaj Temple in Chennai. After that, a certificate of conversion to Hinduism was issued to her, and her stage name, Nayanthara, became her official name. She is a polydactyl, with a rudimentary finger on her left hand.
Nayanthara and director Vignesh Shivan have been in a relationship ever since they worked together on Naanum Rowdy Dhaan in 2015. The couple got married on 9 June 2022 in Mahabalipuram. In October 2022, the couple announced the birth of their twin children named Uyir and Ulagam, via surrogacy.
Off-screen work
Nayanthara is a humanitarian and lends support to a number of social causes. She donated a sum of Rs. 5 lakhs to the Chief Minister's Relief Fund during the 2012 cyclonic storm Thane, in Tamil Nadu. During the COVID-19 pandemic, she donated Rs 20 lakh to Film Employees Federation of South India to help daily wagers. Apart from these she has been involved in various charitable activities. She is also a pro Indian culture enthusiast and had participated in the 2017 pro-jallikattu protests in Chennai along with husband Vignesh Shivan.
In 2021, Nayanthara, along with renowned dermatologist Dr Renita Rajan, launched The Lip Balm Company, a gender-neutral lip care company. She is about to venture into skincare range with her brand named 9Skin. In addition to this, she has endorsed brands and products including Tanishq, Seafood brand Fipola and GRT Jewellers.
Rowdy Pictures
In 2021, Nayanthara and Vignesh Shivan launched their film production venture Rowdy Pictures, which has produced the films Koozhangal (2021), which received numerous accloades, Netrikann (2021) and Kaathuvaakula Rendu Kaadhal (2022).
Screen persona and legacy
Nayanthara is considered among the most popular actor of Tamil and Telugu cinema. She is one of the highest paid actresses in South Indian cinema, according to various media reports. In March 2022, according to a report by The Times of India, Nayanthara became the highest-paid South Indian actress.
Nayanthara is known for her strong and powerful performances. She is credited for a change in South industry, with her strong role in women-centric films such as Aramm, Maya, Anaamika, Kolamavu Kokila and Netrikann. She is widely praised for her impactful roles in Sri Rama Rajyam, Raja Rani, Puthiya Niyamam, Sye Raa Narasimha Reddy and much more. She is among the few South Indian actresses who have taken over the male dominated film industry with her strong films.
Divya J Shekar of Forbes India noted, "What sets Nayanthara apart from most male stars is her presence and popularity across all the five South Indian states." Saradha U of The News Minute credit her "unique filmography" – a blend of commercial and content-driven films, as a reason of her success. Kayalvizhi Arivalan of Femina said that Nayanthara made women-centric films "the new norm". India Today'''s Janani K finds her to be "capable of pulling in the crowd even without a male star in the film". Nandini Ramnath of Vogue stated that Nayanthara is "southern cinema's brightest stars". She received the Kalaimamani award, for her "Contribution in Tamil Cinema", in 2010. The Hindu referred her as one of the Superstar women in Indian Cinema.
Nayanthara became the only South Indian actress to be featured in the Forbes India "Celebrity 100" list of 2018, with her total annual earning credited at 15.17 crore. In Rediff.com's "Top 5 Tamil Actresses" list, she ranked 5th in 2013 and 1st in 2016. In "Top Telugu Actresses" list of 2007, she was placed 1st. In the "Top 5 Malayalam Actresses" list of 2016, she ranked 4th. Nayanthara ranked 3rd in "Hottest Tamil Actresses" list. Femina included Nayanthara in its "Femina Fab 40" list of 2021 and said that she is "hands-down the Lady Superstar". Nayanthara became Chennai Times Most Desirable Woman in 2015 and 2016. In 2023, Nayanthara opened her Instagram account, and broke Katrina Kaif’s record to become the fastest female actor to reach a million followers.
In popular culture
In 2021, a television series named Lady Superstar Nayanthara, was telecast on Star Vijay. The host conversed with Nayanthara, about her personal and professional life and provided a chance to her fans to interact with her.
Netflix has documented her remarkable journey in Indian cinema in Nayanthara: Beyond the Fairytale which is yet to release. The documentary focuses on Nayanthara's work in the film industry and her relationship with Vignesh Shivan.
Filmography
Accolades
Nayanthara has won five Filmfare Awards South. She won the one Best Actress Telugu for Sri Rama Rajyam (2011), three Best Actress Tamil for - Raja Rani (2013), Naanum Rowdy Dhaan (2015), and Aramm (2018) and one Best Actress Malayalam for Puthiya Niyamam'' (2016).
References
External links
1984 births
Living people
Actresses from Bangalore
Actresses from Kerala
People from Thiruvalla
Indian film actresses
Actresses in Tamil cinema
Actresses in Telugu cinema
Actresses in Kannada cinema
Actresses in Malayalam cinema
Actresses in Hindi cinema
Converts to Hinduism from Christianity
Indian former Christians
Indian Hindus
Kendriya Vidyalaya alumni
Filmfare Awards South winners
South Indian International Movie Awards winners
Nandi Award winners
Tamil Nadu State Film Awards winners
Recipients of the Kalaimamani Award
People with polydactyly
21st-century Indian actresses |
4102640 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning%20%28philosophy%29 | Meaning (philosophy) | In philosophymore specifically, in its sub-fields semantics, semiotics, philosophy of language, metaphysics, and metasemanticsmeaning "is a relationship between two sorts of things: signs and the kinds of things they intend, express, or signify".
The types of meanings vary according to the types of the thing that is being represented. There are:
the things, which might have meaning;
things that are also signs of other things, and therefore are always meaningful (i.e., natural signs of the physical world and ideas within the mind);
things that are necessarily meaningful, such as words and nonverbal symbols.
The major contemporary positions of meaning come under the following partial definitions of meaning:
psychological theories, involving notions of thought, intention, or understanding;
logical theories, involving notions such as intension, cognitive content, or sense, along with extension, reference, or denotation;
message, content, information, or communication;
truth conditions;
usage, and the instructions for usage;
measurement, computation, or operation.
Truth and meaning
The question of what is a proper basis for deciding how words, symbols, ideas and beliefs may properly be considered to truthfully denote meaning, whether by a single person or by an entire society, has been considered by five major types of theory of meaning and truth. Each type is discussed below, together with its principal exponents.
Substantive theories of meaning
Correspondence theory
Correspondence theories emphasise that true beliefs and true statements of meaning correspond to the actual state of affairs and that associated meanings must be in agreement with these beliefs and statements. This type of theory stresses a relationship between thoughts or statements on one hand, and things or objects on the other. It is a traditional model tracing its origins to ancient Greek philosophers such as Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle. This class of theories holds that the truth or the falsity of a representation is determined in principle entirely by how it relates to "things", by whether it accurately describes those "things". An example of correspondence theory is the statement by the thirteenth-century philosopher/theologian Thomas Aquinas: Veritas est adaequatio rei et intellectus ("Truth is the equation [or adequation] of things and intellect"), a statement which Aquinas attributed to the ninth-century neoplatonist Isaac Israeli. Aquinas also restated the theory as: "A judgment is said to be true when it conforms to the external reality".
Correspondence theory centres heavily around the assumption that truth and meaning are a matter of accurately copying what is known as "objective reality" and then representing it in thoughts, words and other symbols. Many modern theorists have stated that this ideal cannot be achieved without analysing additional factors. For example, language plays a role in that all languages have words to represent concepts that are virtually undefined in other languages. The German word Zeitgeist is one such example: one who speaks or understands the language may "know" what it means, but any translation of the word apparently fails to accurately capture its full meaning (this is a problem with many abstract words, especially those derived in agglutinative languages). Thus, some words add an additional parameter to the construction of an accurate truth predicate. Among the philosophers who grappled with this problem is Alfred Tarski, whose semantic theory is summarized further below in this article.
Coherence theory
For coherence theories in general, the assessment of meaning and truth requires a proper fit of elements within a whole system. Very often, though, coherence is taken to imply something more than simple logical consistency; often there is a demand that the propositions in a coherent system lend mutual inferential support to each other. So, for example, the completeness and comprehensiveness of the underlying set of concepts is a critical factor in judging the validity and usefulness of a coherent system. A pervasive tenet of coherence theories is the idea that truth is primarily a property of whole systems of propositions, and can be ascribed to individual propositions only according to their coherence with the whole. Among the assortment of perspectives commonly regarded as coherence theory, theorists differ on the question of whether coherence entails many possible true systems of thought or only a single absolute system.
Some variants of coherence theory are claimed to describe the essential and intrinsic properties of formal systems in logic and mathematics. However, formal reasoners are content to contemplate axiomatically independent and sometimes mutually contradictory systems side by sidefor example, the various alternative geometries. On the whole, coherence theories have been rejected for lacking justification in their application to other areas of truthespecially with respect to assertions about the natural world, empirical data in general, assertions about practical matters of psychology and societyparticularly when used without support from the other major theories of truth.
Coherence theories distinguish the thought of rationalist philosophers, particularly of Spinoza, Leibniz, and G.W.F. Hegel, along with the British philosopher F.H. Bradley. Other alternatives may be found among several proponents of logical positivism, notably Otto Neurath and Carl Hempel.
Constructivist theory
Social constructivism holds that meaning and truth are constructed by social processes, are historically and culturally specific, and are in part shaped through power struggles within a community. Constructivism views all of our knowledge as "constructed", because it does not reflect any external "transcendent" realities (as a pure correspondence theory might hold). Rather, perceptions of truth are viewed as contingent on convention, human perception, and social experience. It is believed by constructivists that representations of physical and biological reality, including race, sexuality, and gender, are socially constructed.
Giambattista Vico was among the first to claim that history and culture, along with their meaning, are human products. Vico's epistemological orientation gathers the most diverse rays and unfolds in one axiomverum ipsum factum"truth itself is constructed". Hegel and Marx were among the other early proponents of the premise that truth is, or can be, socially constructed. Marx, like many critical theorists who followed, did not reject the existence of objective truth but rather distinguished between true knowledge and knowledge that has been distorted through power or ideology. For Marx, scientific and true knowledge is "in accordance with the dialectical understanding of history" and ideological knowledge is "an epiphenomenal expression of the relation of material forces in a given economic arrangement".
Consensus theory
Consensus theory holds that meaning and truth are whatever is agreed uponor, in some versions, might come to be agreed uponby some specified group. Such a group might include all human beings, or a subset thereof consisting of more than one person.
Among the current advocates of consensus theory as a useful accounting of the concept of "truth" is the philosopher Jürgen Habermas. Habermas maintains that truth is what would be agreed upon in an ideal speech situation. Among the current strong critics of consensus theory is the philosopher Nicholas Rescher.
Pragmatic theory
The three most influential forms of the pragmatic theory of truth and meaning were introduced around the turn of the 20th century by Charles Sanders Peirce, William James, and John Dewey. Although there are wide differences in viewpoint among these and other proponents of pragmatic theory, they hold in common that meaning and truth are verified and confirmed by the results of putting one's concepts into practice.
Peirce defines truth as follows: "Truth is that concordance of an abstract statement with the ideal limit towards which endless investigation would tend to bring scientific belief, which concordance the abstract statement may possess by virtue of the confession of its inaccuracy and one-sidedness, and this confession is an essential ingredient of truth." This statement stresses Peirce's view that ideas of approximation, incompleteness, and partiality, what he describes elsewhere as fallibilism and "reference to the future", are essential to a proper conception of meaning and truth. Although Peirce uses words like concordance and correspondence to describe one aspect of the pragmatic sign relation, he is also quite explicit in saying that definitions of truth based on mere correspondence are no more than nominal definitions, which he accords a lower status than real definitions.
William James's version of pragmatic theory, while complex, is often summarized by his statement that "the 'true' is only the expedient in our way of thinking, just as the 'right' is only the expedient in our way of behaving". By this, James meant that truth is a quality, the value of which is confirmed by its effectiveness when applying concepts to practice (thus, "pragmatic").
John Dewey, less broadly than James but more broadly than Peirce, held that inquiry, whether scientific, technical, sociological, philosophical or cultural, is self-corrective over time if openly submitted for testing by a community of inquirers in order to clarify, justify, refine and/or refute proposed meanings and truths.
A later variation of the pragmatic theory was William Ernest Hocking's "negative pragmatism": what works may or may not be true, but what fails cannot be true, because the truth and its meaning always works. James's and Dewey's ideas also ascribe meaning and truth to repeated testing, which is "self-corrective" over time.
Pragmatism and negative pragmatism are also closely aligned with the coherence theory of truth in that any testing should not be isolated but rather incorporate knowledge from all human endeavors and experience. The universe is a whole and integrated system, and testing should acknowledge and account for its diversity. As physicist Richard Feynman said: "if it disagrees with experiment, it is wrong".
Associated theories and commentaries
Some have asserted that meaning is nothing substantially more or less than the truth conditions they involve. For such theories, an emphasis is placed upon reference to actual things in the world to account for meaning, with the caveat that reference more or less explains the greater part (or all) of meaning itself.
Logic and language
The logical positivists argued that the meaning of a statement arose from how it is verified.
Gottlob Frege
In his paper "Über Sinn und Bedeutung" (now usually translated as "On Sense and Reference"), Gottlob Frege argued that proper names present at least two problems in explaining meaning.
Suppose the meaning of a name is the thing it refers to. Sam, then, means a person in the world who is named Sam. But if the object referred to by the name did not exist—i.e., Pegasus—then, according to that theory, it would be meaningless.
Suppose two different names refer to the same object. Hesperus and Phosphorus were the names given to what were considered distinct celestial bodies. It was later shown that they were the same thing (the planet Venus). If the words meant the same thing, then substituting one for the other in a sentence would not result in a sentence that differs in meaning from the original. But in that case, "Hesperus is Phosphorus" would mean the same thing as "Hesperus is Hesperus". This is clearly absurd, since we learn something new and unobvious by the former statement, but not by the latter.
Frege can be interpreted as arguing that it was therefore a mistake to think that the meaning of a name is the thing it refers to. Instead, the meaning must be something else—the "sense" of the word. Two names for the same person, then, can have different senses (or meanings): one referent might be picked out by more than one sense. This sort of theory is called a mediated reference theory. Frege argued that, ultimately, the same bifurcation of meaning must apply to most or all linguistic categories, such as to quantificational expressions like "All boats float".
Bertrand Russell
Logical analysis was further advanced by Bertrand Russell and Alfred North Whitehead in their groundbreaking Principia Mathematica, which attempted to produce a formal language with which the truth of all mathematical statements could be demonstrated from first principles.
Russell differed from Frege greatly on many points, however. He rejected Frege's sense-reference distinction. He also disagreed that language was of fundamental significance to philosophy, and saw the project of developing formal logic as a way of eliminating all of the confusions caused by ordinary language, and hence at creating a perfectly transparent medium in which to conduct traditional philosophical argument. He hoped, ultimately, to extend the proofs of the Principia to all possible true statements, a scheme he called logical atomism. For a while it appeared that his pupil Wittgenstein had succeeded in this plan with his Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus.
Russell's work, and that of his colleague G. E. Moore, developed in response to what they perceived as the nonsense dominating British philosophy departments at the turn of the 20th century, which was a kind of British Idealism most of which was derived (albeit very distantly) from the work of Hegel. In response Moore developed an approach ("Common Sense Philosophy") which sought to examine philosophical difficulties by a close analysis of the language used in order to determine its meaning. In this way Moore sought to expunge philosophical absurdities such as "time is unreal". Moore's work would have significant, if oblique, influence (largely mediated by Wittgenstein) on Ordinary language philosophy.
Other truth theories of meaning
The Vienna Circle, a famous group of logical positivists from the early 20th century (closely allied with Russell and Frege), adopted the verificationist theory of meaning, a type of truth theory of meaning. The verificationist theory of meaning (in at least one of its forms) states that to say that an expression is meaningful is to say that there are some conditions of experience that could exist to show that the expression is true. As noted, Frege and Russell were two proponents of this way of thinking.
A semantic theory of truth was produced by Alfred Tarski for formal semantics. According to Tarski's account, meaning consists of a recursive set of rules that end up yielding an infinite set of sentences, "'p' is true if and only if p", covering the whole language. His innovation produced the notion of propositional functions discussed on the section on universals (which he called "sentential functions"), and a model-theoretic approach to semantics (as opposed to a proof-theoretic one). Finally, some links were forged to the correspondence theory of truth (Tarski, 1944).
Perhaps the most influential current approach in the contemporary theory of meaning is that sketched by Donald Davidson in his introduction to the collection of essays Truth and Meaning in 1967. There he argued for the following two theses:
Any learnable language must be statable in a finite form, even if it is capable of a theoretically infinite number of expressions—as we may assume that natural human languages are, at least in principle. If it could not be stated in a finite way then it could not be learned through a finite, empirical method such as the way humans learn their languages. It follows that it must be possible to give a theoretical semantics for any natural language which could give the meanings of an infinite number of sentences on the basis of a finite system of axioms.
Giving the meaning of a sentence, he further argued, was equivalent to stating its truth conditions. He proposed that it must be possible to account for language as a set of distinct grammatical features together with a lexicon, and for each of them explain its workings in such a way as to generate trivial (obviously correct) statements of the truth conditions of all the (infinitely many) sentences built up from these.
The result is a theory of meaning that rather resembles, by no accident, Tarski's account.
Davidson's account, though brief, constitutes the first systematic presentation of truth-conditional semantics. He proposed simply translating natural languages into first-order predicate calculus in order to reduce meaning to a function of truth.
Saul Kripke
Saul Kripke examined the relation between sense and reference in dealing with possible and actual situations. He showed that one consequence of his interpretation of certain systems of modal logic was that the reference of a proper name is necessarily linked to its referent, but that the sense is not. So for instance "Hesperus" necessarily refers to Hesperus, even in those imaginary cases and worlds in which perhaps Hesperus is not the evening star. That is, Hesperus is necessarily Hesperus, but only contingently the morning star.
This results in the curious situation that part of the meaning of a name — that it refers to some particular thing — is a necessary fact about that name, but another part — that it is used in some particular way or situation — is not.
Kripke also drew the distinction between speaker's meaning and semantic meaning, elaborating on the work of ordinary language philosophers Paul Grice and Keith Donnellan. The speaker's meaning is what the speaker intends to refer to by saying something; the semantic meaning is what the words uttered by the speaker mean according to the language.
In some cases, people do not say what they mean; in other cases, they say something that is in error. In both these cases, the speaker's meaning and the semantic meaning seem to be different. Sometimes words do not actually express what the speaker wants them to express; so words will mean one thing, and what people intend to convey by them might mean another. The meaning of the expression, in such cases, is ambiguous.
Critiques of truth theories of meaning
W. V. O. Quine attacked both verificationism and the very notion of meaning in his famous essay, "Two Dogmas of Empiricism". In it, he suggested that meaning was nothing more than a vague and dispensable notion. Instead, he asserted, what was more interesting to study was the synonymy between signs. He also pointed out that verificationism was tied to the distinction between analytic and synthetic statements, and asserted that such a divide was defended ambiguously. He also suggested that the unit of analysis for any potential investigation into the world (and, perhaps, meaning) would be the entire body of statements taken as a collective, not just individual statements on their own.
Other criticisms can be raised on the basis of the limitations that truth-conditional theorists themselves admit to. Tarski, for instance, recognized that truth-conditional theories of meaning only make sense of statements, but fail to explain the meanings of the lexical parts that make up statements. Rather, the meaning of the parts of statements is presupposed by an understanding of the truth-conditions of a whole statement, and explained in terms of what he called "satisfaction conditions".
Still another objection (noted by Frege and others) was that some kinds of statements don't seem to have any truth-conditions at all. For instance, "Hello!" has no truth-conditions, because it doesn't even attempt to tell the listener anything about the state of affairs in the world. In other words, different propositions have different grammatical moods.
Deflationist accounts of truth, sometimes called 'irrealist' accounts, are the staunchest source of criticism of truth-conditional theories of meaning. According to them, "truth" is a word with no serious meaning or function in discourse. For instance, for the deflationist, the sentences "It's true that Tiny Tim is trouble" and "Tiny Tim is trouble" are equivalent. In consequence, for the deflationist, any appeal to truth as an account of meaning has little explanatory power.
The sort of truth theories presented here can also be attacked for their formalism both in practice and principle. The principle of formalism is challenged by the informalists, who suggest that language is largely a construction of the speaker, and so, not compatible with formalization. The practice of formalism is challenged by those who observe that formal languages (such as present-day quantificational logic) fail to capture the expressive power of natural languages (as is arguably demonstrated in the awkward character of the quantificational explanation of definite description statements, as laid out by Bertrand Russell).
Finally, over the past century, forms of logic have been developed that are not dependent exclusively on the notions of truth and falsity. Some of these types of logic have been called modal logics. They explain how certain logical connectives such as "if-then" work in terms of necessity and possibility. Indeed, modal logic was the basis of one of the most popular and rigorous formulations in modern semantics called the Montague grammar. The successes of such systems naturally give rise to the argument that these systems have captured the natural meaning of connectives like if-then far better than an ordinary, truth-functional logic ever could.
Usage and meaning
Throughout the 20th century, English philosophy focused closely on analysis of language. This style of analytic philosophy became very influential and led to the development of a wide range of philosophical tools.
Ludwig Wittgenstein
The philosopher Ludwig Wittgenstein was originally an ideal language philosopher, following the influence of Russell and Frege. In his Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus he had supported the idea of an ideal language built up from atomic statements using logical connectives (see picture theory of meaning and logical atomism). However, as he matured, he came to appreciate more and more the phenomenon of natural language. Philosophical Investigations, published after his death, signalled a sharp departure from his earlier work with its focus upon ordinary language use (see use theory of meaning and ordinary language philosophy). His approach is often summarised by the aphorism "the meaning of a word is its use in a language". However, following in Frege's footsteps, in the Tractatus, Wittgenstein declares: "... Only in the context of a proposition has a name meaning."
His work would come to inspire future generations and spur forward a whole new discipline, which explained meaning in a new way. Meaning in a natural language was seen as primarily a question of how the speaker uses words within the language to express intention.
This close examination of natural language proved to be a powerful philosophical technique. Practitioners who were influenced by Wittgenstein's approach have included an entire tradition of thinkers, featuring P. F. Strawson, Paul Grice, R. M. Hare, R. S. Peters, and Jürgen Habermas.
J. L. Austin
At around the same time Ludwig Wittgenstein was re-thinking his approach to language, reflections on the complexity of language led to a more expansive approach to meaning. Following the lead of George Edward Moore, J. L. Austin examined the use of words in great detail. He argued against fixating on the meaning of words. He showed that dictionary definitions are of limited philosophical use, since there is no simple "appendage" to a word that can be called its meaning. Instead, he showed how to focus on the way in which words are used in order to do things. He analysed the structure of utterances into three distinct parts: locutions, illocutions and perlocutions. His pupil John Searle developed the idea under the label "speech acts". Their work greatly influenced pragmatics.
Peter Strawson
Past philosophers had understood reference to be tied to words themselves. However, Peter Strawson disagreed in his seminal essay, "On Referring", where he argued that there is nothing true about statements on their own; rather, only the uses of statements could be considered to be true or false.
Indeed, one of the hallmarks of the ordinary use perspective is its insistence upon the distinctions between meaning and use. "Meanings", for ordinary language philosophers, are the instructions for usage of words — the common and conventional definitions of words. Usage, on the other hand, is the actual meanings that individual speakers have — the things that an individual speaker in a particular context wants to refer to. The word "dog" is an example of a meaning, but pointing at a nearby dog and shouting "This dog smells foul!" is an example of usage. From this distinction between usage and meaning arose the divide between the fields of pragmatics and semantics.
Yet another distinction is of some utility in discussing language: "mentioning". Mention is when an expression refers to itself as a linguistic item, usually surrounded by quotation marks. For instance, in the expression "'Opopanax' is hard to spell", what is referred to is the word itself ("opopanax") and not what it means (an obscure gum resin). Frege had referred to instances of mentioning as "opaque contexts".
In his essay, "Reference and Definite Descriptions", Keith Donnellan sought to improve upon Strawson's distinction. He pointed out that there are two uses of definite descriptions: attributive and referential. Attributive uses provide a description of whoever is being referred to, while referential uses point out the actual referent. Attributive uses are like mediated references, while referential uses are more directly referential.
Paul Grice
The philosopher Paul Grice, working within the ordinary language tradition, understood "meaning" — in his 1957 article — to have two kinds: natural and non-natural. Natural meaning had to do with cause and effect, for example with the expression "these spots mean measles". Non-natural meaning, on the other hand, had to do with the intentions of the speaker in communicating something to the listener.
In his essay, Logic and Conversation, Grice went on to explain and defend an explanation of how conversations work. His guiding maxim was called the cooperative principle, which claimed that the speaker and the listener will have mutual expectations of the kind of information that will be shared. The principle is broken down into four maxims: Quality (which demands truthfulness and honesty), Quantity (demand for just enough information as is required), Relation (relevance of things brought up), and Manner (lucidity). This principle, if and when followed, lets the speaker and listener figure out the meaning of certain implications by way of inference.
The works of Grice led to an avalanche of research and interest in the field, both supportive and critical. One spinoff was called Relevance theory, developed by Dan Sperber and Deirdre Wilson during the mid-1980s, whose goal was to make the notion of relevance more clear. Similarly, in his work, "Universal pragmatics", Jürgen Habermas began a program that sought to improve upon the work of the ordinary language tradition. In it, he laid out the goal of a valid conversation as a pursuit of mutual understanding.
Noam Chomsky
Although he has focused on the structure and functioning of human syntax, in many works Noam Chomsky has discussed many philosophical problems too, including the problem of meaning and reference in human language. Chomsky has formulated a strong criticism against both the externalist notion of reference (reference consists in a direct or causal relation among words and objects) and the internalist one (reference is a mind-mediated relation holding among words and reality). According to Chomsky, both these notions (and many others widely used in philosophy, such as that of truth) are basically inadequate for the naturalistic (= scientific) inquiry on human mind: they are common sense notions, not scientific notions, which cannot, as such, enter in the scientific discussion. Chomsky argues that the notion of reference can be used only when we deal with scientific languages, whose symbols refers to specific things or entities; but when we consider human language expressions, we immediately understand that their reference is vague, in the sense that they can be used to denote many things. For example, the word “book” can be used to denote an abstract object (e.g., “he is reading the book”) or a concrete one (e.g., “the book is on the chair”); the name “London” can denote at the same time a set of buildings, the air of a place and the character of a population (think to the sentence “London is so gray, polluted and sad”). These and other cases induce Chomsky to argue that the only plausible (although not scientific) notion of reference is that of act of reference, a complex phenomenon of language use (performance) which includes many factors (linguistic and not: i.e. beliefs, desires, assumptions about the world, premises, etc.). As Chomsky himself has pointed out, this conception of meaning is very close to that adopted by John Austin, Peter Strawson and the late Wittgenstein.
Inferential role semantics
Michael Dummett argued against the kind of truth-conditional semantics presented by Davidson. Instead, he argued that basing semantics on assertion conditions avoids a number of difficulties with truth-conditional semantics, such as the transcendental nature of certain kinds of truth condition. He leverages work done in proof-theoretic semantics to provide a kind of inferential role semantics, where:
The meaning of sentences and grammatical constructs is given by their assertion conditions; and
Such a semantics is only guaranteed to be coherent if the inferences associated with the parts of language are in logical harmony.
A semantics based upon assertion conditions is called a verificationist semantics: cf. the verificationism of the Vienna Circle.
This work is closely related, though not identical, to one-factor theories of conceptual role semantics.
Critiques of use theories of meaning
Sometimes between the 1950-1990s, cognitive scientist Jerry Fodor said that use theories of meaning (of the Wittgensteinian kind) seem to assume that language is solely a public phenomenon, that there is no such thing as a "private language". Fodor thinks it is necessary to create or describe the language of thought, which would seemingly require the existence of a "private language".
In the 1960s, David Kellogg Lewis described meaning as use, a feature of a social convention and conventions as regularities of a specific sort. Lewis' work was an application of game theory in philosophical topics. Conventions, he argued, are a species of coordination equilibria.
Idea theory of meaning
The idea theory of meaning (also ideational theory of meaning), most commonly associated with the British empiricist John Locke, claims that meanings are mental representations provoked by signs.
The term "ideas" is used to refer to either mental representations, or to mental activity in general. Those who seek an explanation for meaning in the former sort of account endorse a stronger sort of idea theory of mind than the latter.
Each idea is understood to be necessarily about something external and/or internal, real or imaginary. For example, in contrast to the abstract meaning of the universal "dog", the referent "this dog" may mean a particular real life chihuahua. In both cases, the word is about something, but in the former it is about the class of dogs as generally understood, while in the latter it is about a very real and particular dog in the real world.
John Locke considered all ideas to be both imaginable objects of sensation and the very unimaginable objects of reflection. He said in his Essay Concerning Human Understanding that words are used both as signs for ideas and also to signify a lack of certain ideas. David Hume held that thoughts were kinds of imaginable entities: his Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding, section 2. He argued that any words that could not call upon any past experience were without meaning.
In contrast to Locke and Hume, George Berkeley and Ludwig Wittgenstein held that ideas alone are unable to account for the different variations within a general meaning. For example, any hypothetical image of the meaning of "dog" has to include such varied images as a chihuahua, a pug, and a black Labrador; and this seems impossible to imagine, since all of those particular breeds look very different from one another. Another way to see this point is to question why it is that, if we have an image of a specific type of dog (say of a chihuahua), it should be entitled to represent the entire concept.
Another criticism is that some meaningful words, known as non-lexical items, don't have any meaningfully associated image. For example, the word "the" has a meaning, but one would be hard-pressed to find a mental representation that fits it. Still another objection lies in the observation that certain linguistic items name something in the real world, and are meaningful, yet which we have no mental representations to deal with. For instance, it is not known what Newton's father looked like, yet the phrase "Newton's father" still has meaning.
Another problem is that of compositionthat it is difficult to explain how words and phrases combine into sentences if only ideas are involved in meaning.
Eleanor Rosch and George Lakoff have advanced a theory of "prototypes" which suggests that many lexical categories, at least on the face of things, have "radial structures". That is to say, there are some ideal member(s) in the category that seem to represent the category better than other members. For example, the category of "birds" may feature the robin as the prototype, or the ideal kind of bird. With experience, subjects might come to evaluate membership in the category of "bird" by comparing candidate members to the prototype and evaluating for similarities. So, for example, a penguin or an ostrich would sit at the fringe of the meaning of "bird", because a penguin is unlike a robin.
Intimately related to these researches is the notion of a psychologically basic level, which is both the first level named and understood by children, and "the highest level at which a single mental image can reflect the entire category" (Lakoff 1987:46). The "basic level" of cognition is understood by Lakoff as crucially drawing upon "image-schemas" along with various other cognitive processes.
Philosophers Ned Block, Gilbert Harman and Hartry Field, and cognitive scientists G. Miller and P. Johnson-Laird say that the meaning of a term can be found by investigating its role in relation to other concepts and mental states. They endorse a "conceptual role semantics". Those proponents of this view who understand meanings to be exhausted by the content of mental states can be said to endorse "one-factor" accounts of conceptual role semantics and thus to fit within the tradition of idea theories.
See also
Definitions of philosophy
Meaning (existential)
Semiotics
Semeiotic
References
Further reading
Akmajian, Adrian et al (1995), Linguistics: an introduction to language and communication (fourth edition), Cambridge: MIT Press.
Allan, Keith (1986), Linguistic Meaning, Volume One, New York: Routledge & Kegan Paul.
Arena, Leonardo Vittorio (2012), Nonsense as the Meaning (ebook).
Austin, J. L. (1962), How to Do Things With Words, Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
Berger, Peter and Thomas Luckmann (1967), The Social Construction of Reality : A Treatise in the Sociology of Knowledge (first edition: 240 pages), Anchor Books.
Davidson, Donald (2001), Inquiries into Truth and Interpretation (second edition), Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Dummett, Michael (1981), Frege: Philosophy of Language (second edition), Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
Frege, Gottlob (ed. Michael Beaney, 1997), The Frege Reader, Oxford: Blackwell.
Gauker, Christopher (2003), Words without Meaning, MIT Press.
Goffman, Erving (1959), Presentation of Self in Everyday Life, Anchor Books.
Grice, Paul (1989), Studies in the Way of Words, Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
Searle, John and Daniel Vanderveken (1985), Foundations of Illocutionary Logic, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Searle, John (1969), Speech Acts, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Searle, John (1979), Expression and Meaning, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Stonier, Tom (1997), Information and Meaning: An Evolutionary Perspective, London: Springer.
External links
Abstraction
Cognition
Communication studies
Concepts in epistemology
Concepts in the philosophy of mind
Mental processes
Semantics
Concepts in logic
Concepts in the philosophy of language |
4102665 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julie%20Power | Julie Power | Julie Power (also known as Lightspeed) is a character appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics. Created by Louise Simonson and June Brigman, the character first appeared in Power Pack #1 (May 1984).
Publication history
Julie Power featured in all 62 issues of Power Pack published by Marvel Comics between 1984 and 1991. Between issues #1 and #25 of the original Power Pack series, Julie starred as the alter-ego of the superhero Lightspeed, but her superhero codename changed to Molecula when she gained her brother Jack's powers during the course of a storyline. She continued as Molecula between issues #25—52 until she regained her original powers and superhero name, which she retained until Power Packs cancellation with issue #62. Julie later appeared in both the 1992 Power Pack Holiday Special and Power Pack vol. 2 miniseries "Peer Pressure", which was published in 2000, at some point changing her superhero name to Starstreak in the intervening years. During this publishing hiatus, her only appearances were brief cameos in New Warriors.
Outside the Power Pack series of comics, she has since appeared in Runaways vol. 2, in the short-lived Runaways spin-off title Loners, and presumably as a background character when that team later appeared in the miniseries War of Kings: Darkhawk (though she is not identified specifically at any point during this series). Julie appeared as a regular character in Avengers Academy from issue #20 (Dec. 2011) through its final issue #39 (Jan. 2013). Julie has also appeared in several non-canon alternate continuity titles such as Exiles, Marvel Zombies vs Army of Darkness and various Power Pack miniseries aimed at younger readers.
Fictional character biography
Julie Power was born in Richmond, Virginia to Dr. James Power and Margaret Power. She was a founding member of the superhero team Power Pack. The second oldest of the four Power siblings, she was 10 years old when she was given her powers by Aelfyre Whitemane, a dying Kymellian noble. She continued to operate with Power Pack through their entire history, later relocating to Los Angeles to live on her own after quitting the team in unrevealed circumstances.
Julie was the only Power family member who had a birthday happen within the comic series, aging from 10 to 11 years old. In the later 2000 mini-series (which makes no references to 'current' Marvel continuity and thus cannot be objectively placed in canon) she is 14, in Runaways vol. 2 #1 she is nebulously identified as being an "ex-teenager", but in the later Loners #4, Julie identifies herself as being 17 years old. In the letter column of Avengers Academy #31, Julie is identified as being about 19 years old.
Power Pack
After the events of Power Pack #1-#5 which detailed the team's origin, the Power family moved from Virginia to New York City. There, Power Pack encountered other superheroes such as Spider-Man, and Cloak and Dagger. They also met Franklin Richards, and encountered the New Mutants. Julie's powers were later siphoned into the Snark Jakal; when returned, her powers were exchanged with those of her brother Jack, and she became Molecula'''. Eventually, she regained her original powers and resumed her original codename. Power Pack then encountered Galactus and Nova.
Julie was perhaps the most "normal" of the Power siblings. When she was not in "superhero mode" Julie could be quite shy and quiet; in several instances, she was bothered by bullies at school. Her solo storylines often involved regular "kid issues" such as babysitting and cheating on tests. Julie was also a voracious reader, and was frequently seen reading, carrying or quoting books, even graduating elementary school with honors in English. She frequently stepped into a maternal role with her siblings, sewing and washing the team's costumes, caring for Katie and Franklin Richards and attempting to restore peace during conflicts.
In battles, Julie possessed quick reflexes and was a strong fighter. In the Pack's initial conflict with Prince Jakal, Julie was able to singlehandedly bring down the Snark's ship. She was also the only member of Power Pack in the original series to be directly responsible for the death of another character—Pestilence, in the Fall of the Mutants, fell to her death when Julie struck her with the "Julie Hammer" battle technique (though Pestilence might have survived had she not resisted Katie's attempt to pull her to safety).
Excelsior/Loners
Julie's personality detailed above changed during unrevealed circumstances and she was reintroduced during the 'Runaways: True Believers' story-arc as a flighty, naive, wannabe actress who lacked worldly experience despite her many adventures with Power Pack. It is initially revealed in Runaways that because of her time with Power Pack, Julie decided to retire from super-heroics because she had missed out on having a normal childhood, though this later changes to her retiring from super-heroics to protect the privacy of her family and focus on developing a private life of her own away from prying eyes, and so she moved to Los Angeles to seek fame as an actress. This also later changes to her retiring from super-heroics to develop an identity of her own away from her family or other superheroes, prompting her to join the superhero group Excelsior. However, she (as well as the others within the group) agree to go on a mission offered by Rick Jones (though they don't know his identity at the time) to return the Runaways to the foster care from which they had escaped at the conclusion of their first series in exchange for one million dollars and a refitted Avengers Quinjet. Though this initial mission for the fledgling Excelsior team was a failure, they spend the next few months continuing to pursue the Runaways regardless, before discontinuing their pursuit and deciding never to use their powers ever again in unrevealed circumstances that occurred sometime before the beginning of the Loners miniseries, but which could be related to the events of Civil War.
During a misunderstanding between Hollow (the mutant formerly known as Penance) and Ricochet, Julie appears without warning or explanation and is stabbed through the shoulders or gut (art and dialogue on the first page of issue 4 indicate different and contradictory injuries) by Hollow's claws. She claims that her 'alien metabolism' allows her to recover quickly from the wound, and she - apparently jokingly - suggests this is also why she is so skinny, though it is not explained how her healing ability works now that she is separated from her siblings, as physical contact between them is required to heal grievous wounds, while the ability works passively if they are in regular contact, and they become prone to debilitating sicknesses and viral infections if kept apart from each other for any reason.
Julie reveals to the group that her flighty personality and seemingly low intelligence is really a facade that she adopted when she moved to California, that she has merely been pretending to be unintelligent for the preceding two years in order to fit in with the rest of her teammates, and also that she has not registered with local authorities as an active superhuman. Despite admitting her flighty persona is an affectation, Julie continues to act exactly as before for the remaining issues of Loners, and in the final issue's closing montage is seen playing absentmindedly with her hair much as she does in issue #4 when suggesting she is merely playing a part for the benefit of others.
Throughout Loners, Julie suggests in her narrative that she hides a secret from the rest of her team, and in issue #5 reveals she is not registered as a superhero with the government. In issue #6, however, Phil Urich alludes that Julie "of all people" should respect that he is still keeping something (details of his and Mickey Musashi's dealings with the Loners' enemies) from the group: later, Mickey Musashi asks Julie if "there's anything more you want to open up about?", but Julie declines, stating she's "still confused".
Avengers Academy and the Runaways
Julie was seen (among the other young heroes) to be arriving on the new campus for the Avengers Academy. She is attending at the Academy as both a student and a teacher's assistant, under Quicksilver's tutelage. When fellow Academy member Striker confides to her that he is gay, she confirms that she is bisexual. During an earlier encounter with the Runaways, Julie and Karolina Dean express a close personal interest in each other in the middle of combat before they are rudely interrupted by Molly Hayes. Following a later joint mission of the Avengers Academy and the Runaways, Julie and Karolina agree to go on a date, and eventually they end up being romantically involved.
Some time afterwards, Julie visited the Runaways, but Karolina's lack of commitment to their relationship created friction between them. In her despondent mood, Julie ended up consuming a magical cupcake originally given to Molly Hayes by her new schoolfriend, Abigail, a 13-year-old girl rendered ageless by a gift from the Enchantress. Eating the cupcake regressed Julie to a 13-year-old herself. Though the problem was fixed by an antidote the Enchantress had provided, Julie nevertheless broke up with Karolina.
Future Foundation
When circumstances prompted Julie to be drawn in to assist the Future Foundation when they were under threat, she revealed her recent run of bad luck to Alex, who apologized for not being there for his sister through her coming out and bad break-up. To help Julie get back on her feet, Alex offered her a position as a teacher with the Future Foundation. During a mission in a space prison to help reassemble the disintegrated Molecule Man, Julie encountered the reality-displaced Rikki Barnes, which resulted in a mutual romantic attraction.
Powers and abilities
Julie's original power (and that most associated with the character) was unaided flight by means of rapid forward propulsion that left a highly visible tri-colored band of light in her wake. Julie could only remain aloft while in motion, however, as she discovered when she first used her powers, only managing to stop when she accidentally collided with the bulkhead of a Snark starship and broke her arm. Julie never flew at the speed of light as her codename suggested, and her top speed remains unknown, but it was supposed by her brother Alex on one occasion that she had broken the sound barrier.
Julie gained the density powers previously held by her brother Jack for a time and operated under the name Molecula. She expanded upon her new powers by learning to create force fields and bubbles, the latter of which could be employed to cushion herself or others from falls. Julie also learned to make herself taller and larger without transforming into a cloud - though she still retained the same mass and would become tired when increasing her height and stature for long periods of time.
Julie eventually regained her original acceleration powers and continued as a member of Power Pack under her original codename, Lightspeed. She did not develop any new permutations of - or applications for - this ability, however, until after she changed her codename once again, this time to Starstreak. Just as she expanded her mass-controlling abilities as Molecula, Julie eventually refined her original abilities so she could teleport over great distances without any visible sign of exhaustion.
In unrevealed circumstances at some point between the Power Pack (2000) miniseries and her reappearances in both the second Runaways series and the Loners miniseries, after returning to her original codename once again; Julie learned to refine her powers so she could now hover in the air without having to accelerate to stay aloft, and could also now physically stand upon her own rainbow trail, use it as an impromptu cushion against falls, or even as a hammock.
During their battle with Ultron, Turbo orders Julie "Shields up and try to draw its fire", shortly before Ultron shoots Julie out of the air using the same energy blasts with which he had just murdered the mother of Victor Mancha, an event Julie survives with no visible ill-effects.
Along with her siblings, Julie possesses Kymellian healing powers. Julie is the first Power sibling to use this ability, albeit unconsciously, when her broken arm mysteriously heals quickly during the Pack's initial conflict with the Snarks. Later in the series she heals herself automatically, after switching to cloud form and back, when her legs are seriously injured during a battle with the mutant team Trash. When her brother Jack calls attention to it during the battle, Julie answered, "Yeah, that happens sometimes".
With her siblings, Julie owns a Kymellian smartship, Friday. The ship acts as an unofficial team advisor and accompanied the Pack on several missions. As with other members of Power Pack, it is not seen during Julie's appearances in Loners - though she does mention Friday in passing during her first mission with (what was then known as) Excelsior on their search for the Runaways.
Equipment
Julie wears a costume of unstable molecules created by Friday. The costume exists in an extra-dimensional space known as "Elsewhere" until summoned by voice command (the wearer would say the words "costume on!"). The costume also houses a communicator which is used to communicate with Friday, and is later modified to include a mask. As with all the team's costumes, the pockets of the costume can be used as an access point to Elsewhere itself, where the cartoon-like creatures known simply as "The Tailors" reside in a colorful wonderland of talking dinosaurs, enchanted forests, mad monarchs, surreal architecture and malleable physical laws.
Reception
Critical response
Deirdre Kaye of Scary Mommy called Julie Power a "role model" and a "truly heroic" female character. Stacie Rook of Screen Rant included Julie Power in their "10 LGBTQ+ Marvel Heroes That Should Join The MCU" list. Comic Book Resources ranked Julie Power 3rd in their "10 Fastest Marvel Sidekicks" list, and 9th in their "Marvel Comics: 10 Most Powerful Students At Avengers Academy" list.
Other versions
Avengers and Power Pack Assembled
In Avengers and Power Pack Assembled, an older Julie is encountered by Power Pack when they are banished to an alternate future by Kang the Conqueror. She is a 23-year-old woman who bears a notable resemblance to her mother and possesses her father's scientific brilliance in addition to her Kymellian powers. It remains unclear how she and her family could exist in this timeline, since its creation hinges on their absence.
House of M
In the "House of M" storyline, Julie, along with her brother Alex, was seen as a member of a super-powered gang that called themselves the Wolfpack.
Exiles: Days of Then and Now
In Exiles: Days of Then and Now, Julie is a member of Quentin Quire's unnamed team of superheroes, the last survivors against the Annihilation Wave that was led by a banished Hulk.
Millennial Visions
In the "Power Pack: Starting Over" story (in actuality not a story but a one-page pitch for a theoretical series) within Marvel's 2001 Millennial Visions one-shot comic, Julie is a 30-year-old researcher for SETI. She is depicted as being the most stable of the four Power siblings, who are estranged from each other, and reunites them to fight the Snarks again.
Marvel Zombies
In Marvel Zombies vs Army of Darkness, Julie is seen alongside her Power Pack cohorts as zombies who come into conflict with Nextwave, whom (we are informed by a caption box in the style of the Nextwave comic) Power Pack then graphically murder "in the most humiliating and degrading ways imaginable" off-panel several seconds later.
In other media
Video games
Lightspeed is a playable character in Lego Marvel's Avengers'', voiced by Skyler Samuels.
References
External links
Marvel.com profile
Characters created by Louise Simonson
Comics characters introduced in 1984
Fictional bisexual women
Fictional characters from Virginia
Fictional characters who can change size
LGBT superheroes
Marvel Comics characters who can move at superhuman speeds
Marvel Comics characters who can teleport
Marvel Comics characters with accelerated healing
Marvel Comics child superheroes
Marvel Comics female superheroes
Marvel Comics LGBT superheroes
Marvel Comics mutates
Marvel Comics superheroes
Power Pack |
4103514 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grand%20Lodge%20of%20Pennsylvania | Grand Lodge of Pennsylvania | The Grand Lodge of Pennsylvania, officially The Right Worshipful Grand Lodge of the Most Ancient and Honorable Fraternity of Free and Accepted Masons of Pennsylvania and Masonic Jurisdictions Thereunto Belonging, sometimes referred to as Freemasons of Pennsylvania is the premier masonic organization in the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania. The Grand Lodge claims to be the oldest in the United States, and the third oldest in the world after England (est. 1717) and Ireland (est. 1725), having been originally established as the Provincial Grand Lodge of Pennsylvania in 1731. This claim is disputed by both the Grand Lodge of Massachusetts and the Grand Lodge of Virginia.
Today, the Grand Lodge of Pennsylvania is the largest Masonic Jurisdiction in the United States, claiming more than 80,000 members at the end of 2021. There are more Freemasons in Pennsylvania than any other State.
History
The Provincial Grand Lodge of Pennsylvania
Two English grand lodges erected lodges in Pennsylvania during the 18th century, the Premier Grand Lodge of England (known as the "Moderns"), established in London in 1717, and the Ancient Grand Lodge of England (known as the "Antients" or "Ancients"), established in London in 1751. The first of these, the Moderns' Grand Lodge, was first to establish lodges and provincial grand lodges in the American colonies. But by 1785, the Moderns and their lodges had ceased to exist in Pennsylvania, the last of their members having been absorbed by the lodges of the Ancients. The present day Grand Lodge of Pennsylvania descends primarily from the Ancients, with the Moderns having been grafted onto "Ancient York Masonry."
The Tun Tavern Lodge
The earliest minute book of any Masonic lodge on the North American continent is that for Tun Tavern Lodge No. 3 (of the Moderns) in Philadelphia. The Tun Tavern was the first "brew house" in the city, being built in 1685, and was located on the waterfront at the corner of Water Street and Tun Alley. The extant records of the Lodge begin on 24 June 1731, but the lodge may have been older than that. It was reported by Benjamin Franklin, in his Gazette for 8 December 1730, that there were "several Lodges of Free Masons erected in this Province...." The Tun Tavern, being a popular meeting place in Philadelphia, was undoubtedly the first location of a lodge in Philadelphia. Other organizations were formed there, including the St. George's Society in 1720, and the St. Andrew's Society in 1747. Even the United States Marine Corps was founded there on 10 November 1775 by Samuel Nicholas, grandson of a member of the Tun Tavern Lodge. According to Henry Coil, a Freemason from Massachusetts, the Tun Tavern Lodge was never warranted nor issued a charter, being an "immemorial rights lodge." However, the Librarian of the Masonic Library in Philadelphia believes that, simply because there is no existing evidence, there is no reason to assume that the Tun Tavern Lodge was never warranted since all of the other Lodges at the time had been, and that it must have been warranted prior to 1749 since the Grand Lodge of Pennsylvania has in its archives the minute books for the Tun Tavern Lodge from 1749-1755.
The First Provincial Grand Master
The first official act of the Moderns' Grand Lodge regarding the American colonies was the creation of a Provincial Grand Master for New York, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania, naming one Daniel Coxe, Esq., to that office. This deputation, issued on 5 June 1730, was made by the Grand Master, the Duke of Norfolk, and was to remain in effect for two years from 24 June 1731 to 24 June 1733, at which time, according to the deputation, the members were empowered to elect a Provincial Grand Master. From a letter in the possession of the New York Historical Society dated 31 July 1730 at Trenton we know that Daniel Coxe was already in the colonies. Coxe returned to England to attend a meeting of the Grand Lodge in London on 29 January 1731 where he was toasted as the Provincial Grand Master "of North America." Coxe eventually relocated in Burlington, New Jersey, about 20 miles from Philadelphia, where he had been awarded a colonial judgeship.
There are no explicit records to show that Daniel Coxe ever organized a Provincial Grand Lodge, nor to have erected any lodges, nor ever exercised his authority in any way as Provincial Grand Master prior to his death on 25 April 1739. In fact, his death, which was reported in the Pennsylvania Gazette by Benjamin Franklin, a member of The Tun Tavern Lodge in Philadelphia, does not even mention that Coxe was a Freemason, possibly indicating that Franklin and the other members of the Craft in Philadelphia were unaware of his affiliation. However, the Masonic historian Dr. Wilhelm Begeman points out that, "those who deny Coxe's activity must naturally assume the Provincial Grand Lodge established itself through its own power, which is much less probable than the legal action of Coxe... that his home was in Trenton, was no serious obstacle, for the London Grand Masters nearly all lived at a distance from London, Lord Kingston, for instance, in Ireland." An entry in "Liber B," the oldest known record of a lodge in the Americas (the second record book of St. John's Lodge, Philadelphia, from 1731 to 1738), lists William Allen as Grand Master on 24 June 1731. Coxe's deputation clearly allows for the election of a successor in perpetuity.
Provincial Grand Masters of Pennsylvania
After his election in 1731, William Allen appointed William Pringle, Deputy Grand Master, and Thomas Boude and Benjamin Franklin, Wardens. Benjamin Franklin would become Provincial Grand Master in 1734—the same year he published Anderson's Constitutions, the first Masonic book printed in America—and again in 1749. The organization of the Provincial Grand Lodge of Pennsylvania was recorded in both "Liber B" and the Pennsylvania Gazette, which published the names of the sixteen Grand Masters who served from 1731 to 1755. William Allen was Provincial Grand Master eight times. No reports were sent from the Provincial Grand Lodge of Moderns to the Grand Lodge of England, nor were any requested; being independent it apparently had no need to do so. Yet, the Provincial Grand Lodge of Pennsylvania affiliated itself with the Grand Lodge of England in that it approved and adopted those Ritual changes made by the GLE after 1730.
Provincial Grand Masters at Boston
On 30 April 1733, Henry Price of Boston was appointed Provincial Grand Master "of New England" by the Viscount Montagu, Grand Master of the Moderns' Grand Lodge in London. Clearly, this appointment would not have included Pennsylvania, except for Price's repeated, but disputed, claims that the Grand Master had "ordered him to extend Freemasonry over all North America." Price held this office until December 1736, when he was succeeded by Robert Tomlinson, also of Boston, who held the office until his death in 1740. Tomlinson was succeeded by Thomas Oxnard, who was deputized Provincial Grand Master "for North America" on 23 Sept. 1743. He remained in office until his death in 1754. Whether Price's office gave him jurisdiction over Pennsylvania Masonry has always been disputed, but the question, according to those who favor the supremacy of Massachusetts, became a moot point for a brief period with Oxnard's appointment over all of North America. Historians who argue in favor of Massachuestts' primacy over Pennsylvania also point to an appointment of Benjamin Franklin as Provincial Grand Master for Pennsylvania on 10 July 1749. They argue that Provincial Grand Masters had no authority to appoint other Provincial Grand Masters and Franklin's appointment was void since only grand lodges had authority to do so. However, Daniel Coxe's deputation from the Grand Lodge of England did in fact provide the Freemasons in Pennsylvania to elect a Provincial Grand Master every two years in perpetuity. Because of this we can assume that all successive Provincial Grand Masters of Pennsylvania were elected under the authority of this deputation.
The Demise of the Moderns in Pennsylvania
The Freemasonry of the Moderns Grand Lodge and its daughter lodges in Pennsylvania was eclipsed during the latter half of the 18th century by the rise of the Ancients Grand Lodge and its subordinate lodges. The American Revolutionary War took a great toll on Pennsylvania Freemasonry, and especially the Moderns' lodges. Beginning before the War some of the Modern Lodges had switched allegiance to the Ancients, e.g. Lodge No. 4 of the Moderns. By the end of the Revolution nearly all the lodges in Pennsylvania owed allegiance to the Ancients. It is impossible to determine precisely when the Moderns' Provincial Grand Lodge folded, but it was gone by 1785. The Masonic Hall, built by the Moderns in 1755 was sold, and the proceeds were placed in a charitable trust and became the "Freemason's Fuel Fund." Thus, we can say that the "Modern" line was grafted onto the "Ancient."
The Rise of the Ancients
The Ancient Provincial Grand Lodge of Pennsylvania: On 15 July 1761, the Ancient Grand Lodge of England issued a warrant for a Provincial Grand Lodge of Pennsylvania, which appeared as Lodge No. 89 on the Grand Lodge roster. Three years before, the Ancient Grand Lodge had issued a warrant for Lodge No. 69 to a lodge in Philadelphia (later Lodge No. 2 of the Grand Lodge of Pennsylvania), which had been the first warrant issued to a lodge in North America by that Grand Lodge. As noted above, in a process that began before the Revolutionary War, some Modern Lodges had defected to and were absorbed by the Ancient Provincial Grand Lodge thus making the Ancients the dominant form of Freemasonry in Pennsylvania.
The Independent Grand Lodge is Formed
By 1785, Pennsylvania Freemasonry was entirely Ancient, the Moderns having been fully absorbed into the Ancient Provincial Grand Lodge of Pennsylvania. On 25 September 1786, the Ancient Provincial Grand Lodge of Pennsylvania declared itself to be independent of the mother Grand Lodge and closed itself permanently as a provincial grand lodge. The following day, 26 September, the representatives of 13 Ancient lodges met together and reformed the independent Grand Lodge of Pennsylvania, headquartered in Philadelphia. Though Pennsylvania Masonic ritual is entirely from the Ancients, and not an amalgamation of the two rituals, the Moderns did not simply cease to exist but were rather absorbed into Ancient Masonry and made to conform to their customs and usages.
Since its inception, the Grand Lodge of Pennsylvania has moved its headquarters from building to building over the last two centuries, and on one occasion even conducted their meetings in Independence Hall.
The first permanent Grand Lodge building was built on Chestnut Street in 1811, in the gothic revivalist style. However it burned down in 1819. A second grand lodge building was constructed in the 1850s, and was sold in 1873, upon completion of the current Masonic Temple in Philadelphia. This building has been the home of the Grand Lodge of Pennsylvania ever since.
Charitable Endeavors
The Grand Lodge of Pennsylvania (and its subordinate Lodges) support five charitable entities that offer a range of services.
The Masonic Temple, Library, and Museum
The headquarters of the Grand Lodge is in the Masonic Temple at One North Broad Street, directly across from Philadelphia City Hall. Built in 1873, it is a national historic landmark renowned for its beauty, architectural mastery and historical significance. The Library contains one of the finest collections for the study of American history and Freemasonry, and the Museum displays more than 30,000 treasured artifacts.
The Masonic Villages of Pennsylvania
Since its founding in 1894, the Masonic Home of the Grand Lodge of Pennsylvania, now known as the Masonic Villages of Pennsylvania
has grown and expanded.
The 1400 acres of the Masonic Village at Elizabethtown Campus began as a working farm where the Residents participated in farming chores. Today the farming aspects have been reduced to a prize winning stable of Bulls and a wonderful apple, peach, and cherry orchard. The Elizabethtown campus offers charitable services ranging from a children's home and child care center, to 445 beds of Nursing Home services and 971 units of Retirement living consisting of apartments and cottages.
Comprising five continuing care retirement communities across Pennsylvania providing a wide range of care and services, the Masonic Villages
are committed to caring for residents regardless of their sex, race, creed, Masonic affiliation or ability to pay. The communities extend quality healthcare and outreach services to numerous others through home and community-based services.
The Masonic Children's Home
The Masonic Children's Home is a home for children who come from various socio-economic environments that do not provide the security and support necessary for healthy growth and development. The youth receive food, clothing, complete medical care, academic tutoring and opportunities to participate in worship and extracurricular activities of their choosing.
The Pennsylvania Masonic Youth Foundation
The Foundation offers leadership, education and mentoring programs and resources for youth throughout the Commonwealth, and provides numerous resources and opportunities for Masonic youth groups. It supports initiatives to keep children safe from violence, abuse and exploitation, and provides specialized training for adults who provide leadership to young people.
The Masonic Charities Fund
This special fund supports operations and equipment purchases for The Masonic Library and Museum of Pennsylvania, as well as the restoration and preservation of the Masonic Temple. As needs present themselves, the fund supports scholarships and disaster relief across the globe, to Masonic or non-Masonic recipients.
Grand Masters
The current Grand Master is Jeffery Wonderling. In Pennsylvania, the Grand Master serves a two-year term. Notably, the regalia of the Grand Master of Pennsylvania is unlike that of any other Masonic Jurisdiction in the United States. The collar is made of velvet and contains no metal save for the bullion thread used to compose the stars. The apron is rounded, both at the base and on the flap, and has no excess ornamentation or fringe.
The following men have been Grand Masters.
1730–1731: Daniel Coxe
1731–1732: William Allen
1732: Daniel Coxe
1733: Humphrey Murray
1734: Benjamin Franklin
1735: James Hamilton
1736: Thomas Hopkinson
1737: William Plumstead
1738: Joseph Shippen
1741: Philip Syng
1747–1748: William Allen
1749: Benjamin Franklin
1750–1761: William Allen
1761: William Ball
1764–1765: William Ball
1767–1772: William Ball
1776–1782: William Ball
1783–1788: William Adcock
1789–1794: Jonathan B. Smith
1795: William Ball
1796–1797: William M. Smith
1798–1802: Jonathan B. Smith
1803–1805: Israel Israel
1806–1813: James Milnor
1814: Richard C. Taybout
1815: Samuel F. Bradford
1816–1817: Walter Kerr
1818–1821: Bayse Newcomb
1822–1823: Josiah Randall
1824: John B. Gibson
1825: James Harper
1826–1828: Thomas Kittera
1829–1830: Samuel Badger
1831–1832: Michael Nisbet, Sr.
1833–1834: John Steele
1835: George M. Dallas
1836: Tristram B. Freeman
1837–1838: John M. Read
1839–1840: Samuel H. Perkins
1841–1842: Joseph R. Chandler
1843: Cornelius Stevenson
1844–1845: William Barger
1846–1847: James Page
1848–1849: Peter Fritz
1850–1851: William Whitney
1852–1853: Anthony Bournonville
1854–1855: James Hutchinson
1856–1857: Peter Williamson
1858: John K. Mitchell
1859–1860: Henry M. Phillips
1861–1862: John Thomson
1863–1864: David C. Skerett
1865–1866: Lucius H. Scott
1867: John L. Goddard
1868–1869: Richard Vaux
1870–1871: Robert A. Lamberton
1872–1873: Samuel C. Perkins
1874–1875: Alfred R. Potter
1876–1877: Robert Clark
1878: James M. Porter
1879–1880: Michael Nisbit, Jr.
1881–1882: Samuel B. Dick
1883–1884: Conrad B. Day
1885–1886: E. Coppée Mitchell
1887–1888: Joseph Eichbaum
1889–1890: Clifford P. MacCalla
1891–1892: J. Simpson Africa
1893–1894: Michael Arnold
1895–1896: Matthias H. Henderson
1897–1898: William J. Kelly
1899: Henry W. Williams
1900–1901: George E. Wagner
1902–1903: Edgar A. Tennis
1904–1905: James W. Brown
1906–1907: George W. Kendrick, Jr.
1908–1909: George B. Orlady
1910–1911: George W. Guthrie
1912–1913: William L. Gorgas
1914–1915: J. Henry Williams
1916–1917: Louis A. Watres
1918–1919: James B. Krause
1920–1921: John S. Snell
1922–1923: Abraham M. Beitler
1924–1925: Samuel M. Goodyear
1926–1927: William M. Hamilton
1928–1929: J. Willison Smith
1930–1931: William S. Snyder
1932–1933: Benjamin Page
1934–1935: Otto R. Heiligman
1936–1937: Harold N. Rust
1938–1939: Robert R. Lewis
1940–1941: William H. Brehm
1942–1943: John A. Lathwood
1944–1945: Scott S. Leiby
1946–1947: Richard A. Kern
1948–1949: George H. Deike
1950–1951: William E. Yeager
1952–1953: Albert T. Eyler
1954–1955: Ralph M. Lehr
1956–1957: Charles H. Nitsch
1958–1959: Sanford M. Chilcote
1960–1961: Max F. Balcom
1962–1963: W. Leroy McKinley
1964–1965: Earl F. Herold
1966–1967: Robert E. Deyoe
1968–1969: John K. Young
1970–1971: Hiram P. Ball
1972–1973: W. Orville Kimmel
1974–1975: Rochester B. Woodall
1976–1977: John L. McCain
1978–1979: Walter P. Wells
1980–1981: Joseph E. Trate
1982–1983: Samuel C. Williamson
1984–1985: William A. Carpenter
1986–1987: Carl W. Sternberg, Jr.
1988–1989: Arthur J. Kurtz
1990–1991: W. Scott Stoner
1992–1993: Edward H. Fowler, Jr.
1994–1995: George H. Hohenshildt
1996–1997: Edward O. Weisser
1998–1999: James L. Ernette
2000–2001: Robert L. D'luge, Jr.
2002–2003: Marvin A. Cunningham Sr.
2004–2005: William Slater, II
2006–2007: Ronald A. Aungst, Sr.
2008–2009: Stephen Gardner
2010–2011: Thomas K. Sturgeon
2012–2013: Jay W. Smith
2014–2015: Robert J. Bateman
2016–2017: Raymond T. Dietz
2018–2019: Stewart Eugene Herritt
2020–2021: Thomas Gamon, IV
2022-2023: Jeffrey M. Wonderling
See also
Grand Lodge Of Illinois
Masonic Lodge
List of famous Freemasons
References
External links
Grand Lodge of Pennsylvania
Pennsylvania
Freemasonry in the United States
1786 establishments in Pennsylvania |
4103708 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allu%20Arjun | Allu Arjun | Allu Arjun (born 8 April 1982) is an Indian actor known for his works mainly in Telugu cinema. One of the highest paid actors in India, Allu Arjun is also known for his dancing skills. He is a recipient of several awards including a National Film Award, six Filmfare Awards and three Nandi Awards. He has appeared in Forbes India's Celebrity 100 list since 2014. He is popularly referred to as "Stylish Star".
Allu Arjun made his debut with Gangotri in 2003. He rose to prominence starring in Sukumar's cult classic Arya (2004) for which he earned a Nandi Special Jury Award. He consolidated his reputation with the action films Bunny (2005) and Desamuduru (2007). In 2008, he starred in the romantic drama Parugu for which he won his first Filmfare Award for Best Actor – Telugu.
Allu Arjun went on to star in notable films such as Arya 2 (2009), Vedam (2010), Julayi (2012), Race Gurram (2014), S/O Satyamurthy (2015), Rudhramadevi (2015), Sarrainodu (2016), DJ: Duvvada Jagannadham (2017), Ala Vaikunthapurramuloo (2020) and Pushpa: The Rise (2021). His performances as a lower-class cable operator in Vedam and as a carefree street smart man in Race Gurram won him two Filmfare Awards for Best Actor – Telugu. He also won the Filmfare Award for Best Supporting Actor for his portrayal of prince Gona Ganna Reddy in Rudhramadevi. He received high acclaim for his performance in Pushpa: The Rise, which emerged as the highest-grossing Indian film in 2021 and ranks among the highest-grossing Telugu films of all time. The film also earned him his first National Film Award for Best Actor, and fourth Filmfare Award for Best Actor – Telugu.
Allu Arjun endorses a number of brands and products, and is a celebrity brand ambassador for the Pro Kabaddi League and for the streaming service Aha. In 2021, Allu Arjun became the brand ambassador of Sri Chaitanya Educational Institutions.
Early life
Allu Arjun was born on 8 April 1982 in a Telugu family in Madras (present-day Chennai) to film producer Allu Aravind and Nirmala. His paternal grandfather was the noted film comedian Allu Ramalingaiah who appeared in over 1000 films. Their native place is Palakollu of West Godavari district, Andhra Pradesh. Allu Arjun grew up in Chennai before their family moved to Hyderabad in his 20s.
He is the second of three children. His elder brother Venkatesh is a businessman while his younger brother Sirish is also an actor. His paternal aunt is Surekha Konidela, the wife of actor Chiranjeevi. He is the first cousin of actor Ram Charan.
Career
Career beginnings (1985–1986; 2001–2007)
After playing as a child artist in Vijetha (1985) and as a dancer in Daddy (2001), he made his adult debut in Gangotri. The film was directed by K. Raghavendra Rao with his father Allu Aravind producing, along with C. Ashwini Dutt. Praising his acting performance, Jeevi of Idlebrain criticised his looks in the film and added that "Arjun should choose roles that amplify his strength and nullify his weaknesses." He then appeared in Sukumar's Arya. He plays the eponymous lead, an outgoing and free-spirited boy falling in love with Geetha (Anu Mehta), an introverted girl who is on the shield of another person Ajay (Siva Balaji). The film proved to be his breakthrough, earning a first nomination for the Filmfare Award for Best Actor – Telugu and won the Nandi Special Jury Award and the CineMAA Award for Best Actor (Critics). The film was a critical and commercial success, grossing over ₹30 crore, with a production budget of ₹4 crore. In 2006, the film was dubbed and released in Malayalam in Kerala. Owing to the film's success, he received major acclaim across the region and the Malayali people.
He next starred in V. V. Vinayak's Bunny playing the eponymous lead, a college student. Being successful at the box office, critics praised his efforts, mannerisms and dancing. His next film was A. Karunakaran's musical love story Happy. The film did well at the box-office especially in the overseas markets. A critic appreciated his dancing skills and performance, but felt that his character is a typical happy-go-lucky guy.
Experimentation of genres (2007–2010)
He then starred in Puri Jagannadh's action film Desamuduru in which he played the role of Bala Govindam, a fearless journalist who falls for a woman with a darker past. The film was a commercial success, fetching him a Santosham Film Award, a CineMAA Award and his second nomination for the Filmfare Award for Best Actor – Telugu. The same year, he made his second cameo appearance alongside Chiranjeevi, in the song "Jagadeka Veerudiki" from the film Shankar Dada Zindabad.
His next film was Bhaskar's Parugu, where he played the role of Krishna, a happy-go-lucky man from Hyderabad who helps his friend to elope with his love, only to experience the wrath of the woman's father and the emotional struggle he felt. Idlebrain wrote: "Allu Arjun is pretty excellent in the first half as the characterization in the first half is vibrant and needs loads of energy. He carried the entire first half on his shoulders. He excelled in the emotional scenes in the second half." Writing for Rediff.com, Radhikha Rajamani stated that "Arjun performs well though he is rather subdued." Allu Arjun won his first Filmfare Award for Best Actor – Telugu and his second Nandi Special Jury Award.
Allu Arjun next starred in Sukumar's action comedy Arya 2. A spiritual sequel to the romantic action film Arya (2004), he played the role of Arya, an orphan who is behaviourally sick in that he is consumed with possessiveness for his friend Ajay (Navdeep), who never accepts him. The film revolved around the complexities of love–hate relationships and love triangles. His character in the film had shades of grey. Sify wrote that "Allu Arjun is full of energy as the guy caught in the powerful current of love. Though he plays the part with negative shades, his characterization could evoke a lot of sympathy from the audiences. His dances are mind-blowing and he excels in emotional scenes." Oneindia appreciated his dance moves and acting performances, especially the comedy scenes. He received his fourth nomination for the Filmfare Award for Best Actor – Telugu for his performance in the film.
He had two releases in 2010. The first was Gunasekhar's Varudu, in which he starred alongside Arya and Bhanu Sri Mehra. The filmreceived mixed reviews from critics and was a box-office bomb. His second release of the year was the highly-acclaimed hyperlink anthology film Vedam. It was his first A-rated film in India, and the story takes an inspiration from 26/11 Mumbai blasts in Taj Mahal Palace Hotel, Mumbai. He played the role of Anand "Cable" Raju, a cable operator hailing from Jubilee Hills (Hyderabad) slum. The film also features Anushka Shetty, Manchu Manoj and Manoj Bajpayee in other prominent roles. His performance received appreciation from film critics, with The Times of India calling it "scintillating" and Idlebrain.com calling it as "best in his career". A critic also commented that "He's a good dancer and does justice to his role." Another critic wrote that "Allu Arjun is excellent as the groom who goes all out to get his bride back. His mass dialogues are good in the second half." He achieved his second Filmfare Award for Best Actor – Telugu for the performance in the film.
Further success (2011–2013)
He next appeared in V. V. Vinayak's action film Badrinath (2011), in which he played the role of Badri, a modern-day Indian samurai who is assigned to protect the Badrinath Temple by his Guru (Prakash Raj), to whom he is very loyal. Allu Arjun undertook intensive martial arts and sword fighting training in Vietnam and marks his first pairing with Tamannaah. He grew his hair out for his look as a warrior in the film. It his second A-rated film in India after Vedam (2010), on the account of graphic action violence. The film completed a 50-day run in 187 cinemas. His performance and character received mixed reviews. A critic of The Times of India wrote that "Arjun hardly has any scope to emote as he was mostly pushed into action scenes and song sequences."
After Badrinath, he signed Trivikram Srinivas's action comedy film Julayi in 2011. It was released in 2012, in which he played the role of Ravindra Narayan, a street-smart yet spoilt brat whose life takes a drastic turn after he becomes the witness of a huge bank robbery. A critic wrote that "Allu Arjun puts in a confident performance as the loveable rogue. It's a role that is right up his alley and he carries it off with a characteristic panache. He lights up the screen with his dancing in particular, pulling off some pretty challenging dance moves." Riya Chakravarty of NDTV, in her review, stated that "Arjun has delivered an outstanding performance." He was nominated for the SIIMA Award for Best Actor (Telugu), for his performance in the film.
The next year, he starred in Puri Jagannadh's action thriller Iddarammayilatho, playing Sanju Reddy, a guitarist with a dark past, alongside Amala Paul and Catherine Tresa. Sangeetha Devi Dundoo of The Hindu praised his performance in the action sequences and dance moves in various songs in the film, adding "Allu Arjun uses his agility to his advantage in dances and stunt episodes". Another critic wrote that "True to his tag of "stylish star", Allu Arjun looks trendier than ever before. His character of a guitarist, who is a street performer in Barcelona, was at its best sketchy, and looks completely different from his previous films. He once again proves that he is a good actor and probably because of the action director's meticulous planning, he makes perfect expressions in all the fight scenes." The film marks his second and last collaboration, with Puri Jagannadh after Desamuduru (2007).
Commercial success (2014–2018)
In 2014, he appeared in a cameo role in Vamsi Paidipally's action thriller film Yevadu, alongside Kajal Aggarwal. Y. Sunita Chowdary of The Hindu, in her review, wrote that "Allu Arjun shows what an actor can do even in a short role, in the few minutes he packs his experience, internalises the character and makes an impressive exit even as he loses his identity." His next film was Surender Reddy's Race Gurram, in which he played Allu Lakshman "Lucky" Prasad, a carefree guy. He joined the production of the film in May 2013. The film was successful at the box office, with the film being Allu's first 100 crore grosser. Writing to Deccan Chronicle, Suresh Kavirayani felt that Allu Arjun steals the show with his energetic performance and also praised his dancing skills in the film. Ranjani Rajendra too praised his dance moves, comic acting and performance in the action sequences, but felt that the story is predictable and routine. For his performance, he won his third Filmfare Award for Best Actor – Telugu and was nominated for the SIIMA Award for Best Actor (Telugu) for the second time after Julayi. Allu Arjun produced and acted in a short film I Am That Change, which was released in August 2014. The film was directed by Sukumar, to spread awareness on individual social responsibility. Upon its release, the short film received viral response online and was acclaimed by many including celebrities for its concept and execution. It was screened in theaters across Andhra Pradesh and Telangana.
Allu Arjun next appeared in Trivikram Srinivas's S/O Satyamurthy (2015), which was released on 9 April 2015. The film was a commercial success, with critics praising his performance. His performance in the film earned him his seventh nomination for the Filmfare Award for Best Actor – Telugu. Following the film, he next played Gona Ganna Reddy in Guna Sekhar's biographical action film Rudhramadevi (2015). The film based on the life of Rudrama Devi, is the first Indian 3D historical film. He has learned and was seen speaking in the Telangana Telugu, for the character in the film. The Times of India called his performance "impeccable" and "whistle-worthy". Due to the wide response and popularity for the character Gona Ganna Reddy, in 2021 director Guna Sekhar said that he will be directing a film solely based on the character, with Allu Arjun in the lead role, after Shaakuntalam. For Rudhramadevi, he won the Filmfare Award for Best Supporting Actor – Telugu and became the only actor to win both the Filmfare Award for Best Actor – Telugu and the Filmfare Award for Best Supporting Actor – Telugu. He also won three other awards for his performance, including Nandi Award for Best Character Actor.
In 2016, he acted in Sarrainodu, directed by Boyapati Srinu. Although the film received negative reviews for the screenplay and story, it was a major commercial success at the box office, grossing over ₹127.6 crore. Allu Arjun called it as a "landmark film" in his career. His performance in the action scenes and dance numbers was praised. HIs performance in the film won him the Filmfare Award for Best Actor (Critics) – Telugu, in addition to his eighth nomination for the Filmfare Award for Best Actor – Telugu. The same year, in June, he announced his next film with producer Dil Raju for the third time for DJ: Duvvada Jagannadham. Released in 2017, the film directed by Harish Shankar, in which he played the role of Duvvada Jagannadham "DJ" Shastri, alongside Pooja Hegde, Rao Ramesh and Subbaraju. He appears as a caterer, who is an undercover cop. Firstpost's Hemanth Kumar praised his dance and wrote that "look beyond Allu Arjun's classy moves in Seeti Maar and Asmaika Yoga, all you find is a story that struggles to find its rhythm." India Today too lauded his dance but criticised the film's screenplay and called it "Boring-ah, bore-asya, bore-obiah".
The next year, in May, his film under the direction of writer turned director Vakkantham Vamsi, Naa Peru Surya, Naa Illu India was released. He played Surya, an Indian Army soldier who has anger management issues. Allu Arjun spent considerable time learning the tricks and stunt sequences from professionals, especially for the dance numbers and action sequences. Upon release, the film received mixed reviews and was successful at the box office. A critic called his performance as Allu Arjun's "career-best" and cited it as the "biggest strength to the film". Vyas of The Hans India stated that "Allu Arjun is supremely talented and has delivered an energetic performance in the movie." Hindustan Times's Priyanka Sundar opined that "Allu Arjun tries to do his best in the shoes of a soldier, but at places we see that it looks forced."
Ala Vaikunthapurramuloo and beyond (2019–present)
In December 2018, his next project Ala Vaikunthapurramuloo was announced, with Trivikram Srinivas as the director. Pooja Hegde was selected to play the female lead role, thus marking his second collaboration with Hegde after DJ: Duvvada Jagannadham. He joined the production of the film in April 2019. Produced jointly by Allu Aravind and S. Radha Krishna, the film marks the third collaboration of Allu Arjun and Trivikram after Julayi (2012) and S/O Satyamurthy (2015). The film was released in January 2020. Allu Arjun's performance received highly positive reviews. A review posted by Rohit Mohan on Koimoi said that "Be it comedy, action, emotions, style and of course dance, the star actor nails it in the film, as 'Bunny' made to audience groove to his tunes with his act." Film Companion felt that Allu Arjun's performance in the board-room scene was the highlight of the film. Bhavana Sharma of International Business Times, opined that Allu Arjun went into the skin of the character. The film his career's highest grosser and stands among the highest-grossing Telugu films. Allu Arjun's dance performance in the song "Butta Bomma" received wide response.
In 2021, he re-united with Sukumar, after nearly a decade, for Pushpa: The Rise. The film is based on the red sanders smuggling in the Seshachalam Hills in Andhra Pradesh and Allu Arjun plays Pushpa Raj, a coolie-turned-smuggler, alongside Fahadh Faasil and Rashmika Mandanna. The film was released in December 2021 to mixed reviews but his performance was praised. A reviewer from The Indian Express wrote, "Allu Arjun walks away with the film with his strong performance. He embraces his deglamorized look and delivers a memorable performance." The Times of India critic Neeshita Nyayapati stated: "Pushpa: The Rise is Allu Arjun's show all the way. He shines in playing this rustic character that is hard on the surface but vulnerable in ways that others don't see." The film proved to be a major commercial success, grossing over billion and emerged as the highest grossing Indian film in 2021. He won his fourth Filmfare Award for Best Actor – Telugu for his performance in the film. A sequel titled Pushpa: The Rule is also in production.
Other work and media image
His popularity was documented in two Telugu music videos. The first one is a rap song, composed by S. Thaman and performed by Roll Rida and Harika Narayan with the lyrics written by Roll Rida and The Hyderabad Nawabs. The music video titled "Allu Arjun Rap Song" was released in January 2021, through Aditya Music label. The other one is titled "Thaggedhe Le" was performed and written by Roll Rida, with the music composed by Pravin Lakkaraju. It was released in April 2021 with the title being adapted from Allu Arjun's popular dialogue from his film Pushpa: The Rise.
Allu Arjun was featured in the GQ in their listing of the most influential young Indians of 2020. He is the 'Most Searched Male Celebrity' in 2020 on Yahoo! India. Allu Arjun was the most searched Telugu film actor on Google Search, for several times. Arjun became the 19th most searched Asian on Google Mid Year 2022.
He is referred to as "Icon Star", or as "Bunny", in the media. Post the continuous success of his films in Kerala, since Arya (2004), he has been called as "Mallu Arjun". Even, the media in Kerala, mostly refers him with the same name. In 2021, the Kerala Police used few scenes featuring him from the film Race Gurram (2014), in their advertisement, to raise awareness about SOS and promote their newly launched app.
Allu Arjun is the celebrity endorser for a number of brands and products, including Hero MotoCorp, RedBus, Hotstar, Frooti, OLX, Colgate, 7 Up, Coca-Cola, Joyalukkas and Lot Mobiles. He has been as a celebrity ambassador for India's premier Kabaddi tournament Pro Kabaddi League. He is an active promoter and a celebrity brand ambassador for his father Allu Aravind-founded over-the-top media service, Aha. In 2021, he played the role of Guru in the Dream Vault Media-produced advertising campaign video, for Rapido. On being part of the ad film, Allu Arjun said that "I like to consider myself as a person who knows how to tackle a situation with the best possible solution. That's why I was excited when they approached me for the role of Guru, which resembles me". Following the release of the ad film, the Telangana State Road Transport Corporation sent a legal notice to both the actor and the Rapido company, for showing TSRTC in a bad-light. Soon after, the company has edited the video (ad film).
Allu Arjun is also a charcoal artist. He started a campaign against the smoking of tobacco, in 2021. He said that "I wanted to draw people's attention towards the ill-effects of smoking. We have constructed very incorrect notions of what's cool and hep. I want to effect a change, no matter how small it is." In 2021, Allu Arjun became the brand ambassador of Sri Chaitanya Educational Institutions.
Personal life
On 6 March 2011, Allu Arjun married Sneha Reddy in Hyderabad. They have two children—a son, Ayaan and a daughter, Arha. Allu Arha is set to make her debut in the upcoming film Shaakuntalam in the role of Prince Bharata. In 2016, he started a nightclub named 800 Jubilee in collaboration with M Kitchens and Buffalo Wild Wings.
In 2019, Allu Arjun celebrated Sankranthi in his native town Palakollu, Andhra Pradesh and announced 20 lakh for the development and renovation works of the Ksheera Ramalingeswara Temple, one of the five Pancharama Kshetras. The temple management has constructed Rathasala, Vahanasala, Gosala, and renovated the temple chariot with the funds provided. He also campaigned for his uncle Pawan Kalyan's Jana Sena Party in Palakollu in the 2019 general elections.
Filmography
Discography
Awards and nominations
For Pushpa: The Rise, Arjun won the National Film Award for Best Actor. Arjun has received four Filmfare Award for Best Actor – Telugu for the films - Parugu, Vedam, Race Gurram and Pushpa: The Rise.
See also
List of dancers
Notes
References
External links
1982 births
Living people
Male actors from Chennai
Male actors from Hyderabad, India
Male actors in Telugu cinema
Indian male film actors
Indian male child actors
20th-century Indian male actors
21st-century Indian male actors
Telugu playback singers
Indian male playback singers
Singers from Hyderabad, India
Dancers from Andhra Pradesh
Indian film choreographers
Film producers from Hyderabad, India
Best Actor National Film Award winners
Filmfare Awards South winners
Nandi Award winners
Santosham Film Awards winners
CineMAA Awards winners
South Indian International Movie Awards winners |
4103722 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Groveland%20Four | Groveland Four | The Groveland Four (or the Groveland Boys) were four African American men, Ernest Thomas, Charles Greenlee, Samuel Shepherd, and Walter Irvin. In July 1949, the four were accused of raping a white woman and severely beating her husband in Lake County, Florida. The oldest, Thomas, tried to elude capture and was killed that month. The others were put on trial. Shepard and Irvin received death sentences, and Greenlee was sentenced to life in prison. The events of the case led to serious questions about the arrests, allegedly coerced confessions and mistreatment, and the unusual sentencing following their convictions. Their incarceration was exacerbated by their systemic and unlawful treatment—including the death of Shepherd, and the near-fatal shooting of Irvin. Greenlee was paroled in 1962 and Irvin in 1968. All four were posthumously exonerated by the state of Florida in 2021.
Details
Thomas, Shepherd, Irvin, and Greenlee (then 16) were accused of raping 17-year-old Norma Padgett and assaulting her husband on July 16, 1949, in Groveland, Lake County, Florida.
On July 26, 1949, Thomas fled and was killed by a sheriff's posse of 1,000 white men, who shot him over 400 times while he allegedly fled after being found asleep under a tree in southern Madison County. Greenlee, Shepherd, and Irvin were arrested. They were beaten to coerce confessions, but Irvin refused to confess. The three survivors were convicted at trial by an all-white jury. Greenlee was sentenced to life in prison because he was only 16 at the time of the alleged crime; the other two were sentenced to death.
In 1949, Harry T. Moore, the executive director of the Florida NAACP, organized a campaign against the wrongful conviction of the three African Americans. Two years later, the case of two defendants reached the Supreme Court of the United States on appeal, with special counsel of the NAACP Legal Defense Fund Thurgood Marshall as their defense counsel. In 1951, the U.S. Supreme Court ordered a retrial after hearing the appeals of Shepherd and Irvin. It ruled they had not received a fair trial because no evidence had been presented, because of excessive adverse publicity, as well as because black people had been excluded from the jury. The court overturned the convictions and remanded the case to the lower court for a new trial.
In November 1951, Sheriff Willis V. McCall of Lake County, Florida shot Irvin and Shepherd while they were in his custody and handcuffed together. McCall claimed they had tried to escape while he was transporting them from Raiford State Prison back to the county seat of Tavares for the new trial. Shepherd died on the spot; Irvin survived and later told FBI investigators that McCall had shot them in cold blood and that his deputy, Yates, had also shot him in an attempt to kill him. Harry Moore called for the Governor of Florida to suspend McCall. On Christmas Night 1951, a bomb went off below Moore's house, fatally wounding both him and his wife; he died that night and his wife followed nine days later. The bombers were never caught.
At the second trial, Irvin was represented by Marshall and again convicted by an all-white jury and sentenced to death. In 1955, his death sentence was commuted to life in prison by recently elected Governor LeRoy Collins. He was paroled in 1968, but died the next year in Lake County, purportedly of natural causes. Greenlee was paroled in 1962 and lived with his family until he died in 2012. In 2016, the City of Groveland and Lake County each apologized to survivors of the four men for the injustice against them. On April 18, 2017, a resolution of the Florida House of Representatives requested that all four men be exonerated. The Florida Senate quickly passed a similar resolution; lawmakers called on Governor Rick Scott to officially pardon the men. On January 11, 2019, the Florida Board of Executive Clemency voted to pardon the Groveland Four. Newly elected Governor Ron DeSantis subsequently did so. On November 22, 2021, Judge Heidi Davis granted the state's motion to posthumously exonerate the men.
The accused
Charles L. Greenlee
Charles L. Greenlee (born 4 June 1933, Florida), was the son of Thomas H. and Emma Greenlee, who were born in Georgia and Alabama, respectively. His family was living in Columbia County when he was two, but they had moved to Baker County by the time Charles was 12. His father worked in turpentine manufacturing in 1935 and later as a laborer, likely also in the timber industry. In 1945, Charles and four of his siblings were all in school. Greenlee had come to Groveland in July 1949 looking for work, as he was already married and his wife was pregnant.
Walter Irvin
Walter Lee Irvin (born 8 May 1927, Gainesville, Florida), was living in Groveland when he registered for the draft in May 1945. He listed his mother Ellia Irvin as next of kin. He was working at the time for Apshawa Groves. He was recorded as 5'3" and weighing 105 pounds, and was described in his registration as "light brown", with brown eyes and black hair. He served in the Army, leaving with the rank of private.
Samuel Shepherd
Samuel Shepherd (born 7 April 1927) was born in Fitzgerald, Georgia to Henry Shepherd and his wife Charlie M (Robinson) Shepherd, both of Georgia. His father was working in the lumber industry. The Shepherd family moved to Groveland, Florida, where his father achieved ownership of his own farm by clearing and developing former swamp land. When Samuel Shepherd registered for the draft in 1945, he was described as 5'8", 149 pounds, with a light brown complexion, brown eyes and black hair. He gave his father Henry Shepherd as next of kin. Shepherd and Irvin were friends and fellow veterans after World War II.
Ernest Thomas
Ernest Thomas (born Florida), was married by July 1949 and living and working near Groveland. He had encouraged Greenlee to come there because of jobs related to the citrus groves.
After returning to Groveland following their military service, Shepherd and Irvin both continued to wear their uniforms. They were proud of their service, which some of the local whites resented. Sheriff Willis McCall was known for supporting segregation, and keeping a strong hold on workers and against union organizing. He was part of ensuring there was a ready supply of low-wage workers to man the orange groves. Shepherd could work with his father, and Irvin was determined to find an alternative to the orange groves.
Events
Ernest Thomas, Charles Greenlee (age 16); Samuel Shepherd (age 22), and Walter Irvin (age 22), were identified by the police as suspects. Shepherd and Irvin were both veterans of service in the Army; and both Thomas and Greenlee were married.
Irvin and Shepherd were arrested shortly after Padgett reported the attack. The police took the men in their patrol car to a secluded spot and ordered them out of the car. Both men were beaten by police with blackjacks and fists and kicked as they lay on the ground, while being asked if they had picked up a white girl. Afterward, they were taken to the spot where the crime happened. Deputy Yates inspected Shepherd's shoes, which he had worn the night before. Yates was frustrated to see that the soles did not match footprints in the ground at the scene. Irvin's were the same, but Irvin claimed that he was wearing a different pair of shoes. The two men were taken to Tavares jail, where they were interrogated in the basement while cuffed to overhead pipes and severely beaten. A mob rioted and burned Shepherd's house and two others to the ground. Only the presence of the National Guard halted the destruction caused by the rioters. Cockcroft, the leader of the riot, revealed the mob's intentions when he told a reporter, "The next time, we'll clean out every Negro section in south Lake County."
Fleeing suspect
Charles Greenlee was a 16-year-old who had come from Gainesville and was trying to find work with his friend Ernest Thomas. Thomas had convinced Greenlee that there were plenty of jobs in Groveland. Greenlee was waiting at a rail depot to meet Thomas when he was arrested and brought to the police station under suspicion. Greenlee was interrogated and beaten in a cell that night until he admitted to the rape of Norma Padgett. Thomas escaped capture and fled Lake County the following morning. Greenlee admitted to having been with Thomas. Police learned where the latter lived and where he was hiding, as they found a letter in his letterbox addressed to his wife.
Lake County Sheriff Willis McCall appointed a posse of more than 1000 armed men. They found and killed Thomas about away in Madison County, Florida, following a lengthy chase through the swamps. He was shot by the posse at least 400 times and died of his wounds; officers reported that Thomas was armed and allegedly reached for a weapon. According to the coroner's inquest, Lake County Sheriff McCall was at the scene when Thomas was shot. The coroner's jury determined that Thomas had been lawfully killed and ruled his death a justifiable homicide.
Trial
A grand jury indicted the three remaining rape suspects. Shepherd and Greenlee separately later told FBI investigators that the deputies beat them until they confessed. Irvin refused to confess, despite also being severely beaten. An FBI investigation concluded that Lake County Sheriff's Department deputies James Yates and Leroy Campbell were responsible for the beatings, and agents documented the physical abuse with photographs. The Justice Department urged the U.S. Attorney in Tampa to file charges, but U.S. Attorney Herbert Phillips was reluctant, and failed to return indictments.
The NAACP helped with the men's defense, hiring Orlando attorney Franklin Williams. After interviewing the three surviving suspects, Williams said each had independently stated that he was beaten by Lake County deputies. Shepherd and Greenlee both told FBI agents that they confessed to raping Padgett in order to stop the beatings. Irvin never confessed and maintained his innocence.
Thurgood Marshall, the lead lawyer of the NAACP, pressed the Justice Department and the FBI to initiate a civil rights and domestic violence investigation into the beatings. Marshall convinced the Justice Department that the beatings violated the men's rights, and the FBI dispatched agents to investigate. The FBI later concluded that Lake County deputies James Yates and Leroy Campbell had violated the Groveland men's civil rights and urged U.S. Attorney Herbert Phillips of Florida to prosecute, but a grand jury did not return indictments of the deputies.
The prosecution never introduced the coerced confessions as evidence into the trial.
There is uncertainty about whether Padgett was raped. The prosecution did not question Dr. Geoffrey Binneveld, the physician who examined her, on the stand. Judge Truman Futch did not permit the defense to call the doctor as a witness. According to his records, Binneveld could not tell whether she had been raped. He found no evidence of tears or wounds in the vagina other than the lacerations mentioned above. Laboratory analysis of a vaginal smear revealed no spermatozoa present in the vagina, nor any organisms resembling gonococci, which could have been other evidence of sex. There were no other gross signs of bruises, breaks in the skin or other signs of violence.
Shepherd and Irvin said that they had been together drinking in Eatonville, Florida, the night of the alleged attack. Greenlee said he was nowhere near the other defendants on that night and that he had never met Shepherd and Irvin before.
The defense accused Sheriff McCall's deputies of manufacturing evidence to win a conviction. All three men were convicted by the all-white jury. Shepherd and Irvin were sentenced to death, and Greenlee was sentenced to life, as he was a minor.
Appeals and shootings
The NAACP took on assisting the defense in appeals. In 1951 Marshall led the defense in an appeals hearing for Irvin and Shepherd at the U.S. Supreme Court. It overturned the convictions of both men based on adverse pre-trial publicity, and remanded the case to the lower court for a new trial. (Greenlee had not appealed his sentence of life imprisonment.)
McCall was transporting Shepherd and Irvin from Raiford State Prison back to the Lake County jail in Tavares when he claimed to have a flat tire. Alone with the two handcuffed prisoners, McCall pulled down a dirt road to inspect the tire, outside Umatilla, Florida, north of Tavares. He claimed that Shepherd asked to relieve himself, and when the two prisoners, cuffed together, got out of the car, they attacked McCall. He drew his pistol and shot at them. The shooting took place on a dark country road outside the town. He shot each prisoner three times. Shepherd was killed instantly, and Irvin survived by playing dead.
The following morning, at the hospital where he had been taken for treatment, Irvin told FBI agents and reporter Mabel Norris Reese that the shooting was unprovoked. He said McCall had shot him and Shepherd in cold blood, staging the scene to make it look like an escape attempt, and that Lake County Deputy James Yates had joined McCall at the scene, seen that Irvin was still breathing, and fired one last shot through Irvin's neck. Irvin survived. The FBI later found a bullet buried in the ground beneath Irvin's blood spot that appeared to support his account of the shooting. A nail found in the front wheel of McCall's car appeared to have caused his claimed "tire trouble" that night. McCall said that he had no idea how the nail got there, but the FBI believed that it had been placed there.
An all-white coroner's jury, made up of many of McCall's friends, took half an hour to find Shepherd's death justified. They concluded that McCall had been acting in line of duty and in self-defense. McCall was cleared of any wrongdoing.
Harry T. Moore bombing
Harry T. Moore, executive director of the Florida NAACP, demanded in 1951 that McCall be indicted for murder following the Groveland rape case, and requested that the governor suspend him from office. Six weeks after calling for McCall's removal, Moore and his wife were killed by a bomb that exploded under their bedroom in Mims, Brevard County, Florida on December 25, 1951, but an extensive FBI investigation at the time and additional separate investigations in 1978, 1991, and 2005 found no evidence of McCall's involvement.
In 2005, a new investigation was launched by the Florida Department of Law Enforcement that included excavation of the Moore home to search for forensic evidence. On August 16, 2006, Florida Attorney General Charlie Crist announced his office had completed its 20-month investigation, resulting in the naming of four then suspects—Earl Brooklyn, Tillman Belvin, Joseph Cox and Edward Spivey—all deceased. All four had had a long history with the Ku Klux Klan, serving as officers in the Orange County Klavern. Although members of the Klan were suspected of the crime, the people responsible were never brought to trial.
Irvin's second trial and later life
After recovering from his shooting wounds, Irvin was tried again after refusing a deal from the prosecutor and Governor Fuller Warren that would have spared him from a death sentence if he pleaded guilty. His defense counsel, Thurgood Marshall, gained a change of venue to Marion County, Florida, because of the extensive and adverse publicity around the case in Lake County. Marshall led the defense team from the NAACP Legal Defense Fund. Irvin was again found guilty. Judge Futch, who was again presiding, sentenced him to death.
After LeRoy Collins was elected governor in 1954, questions were raised to him about Irvin's case, because he was considered moderate. He reviewed it and in 1955 commuted Irvin's sentence to life in prison, stating that neither trial proved conclusively that Irvin was guilty beyond a reasonable doubt. Irvin was paroled in 1968. In 1969 he visited Lake County, where he was found dead in his car, officially of natural causes.
Greenlee paroled
Greenlee was paroled from prison in 1962. He moved to Nashville, Tennessee, with his wife and their daughter Carole, who was born in 1950 (his wife was pregnant when he was arrested). They had a son, Thomas, in 1965. Greenlee died on April 18, 2012, but not before seeing Gilbert King's 2012 book about the case published.
Exoneration
In 2016 the Lake County Commission followed Groveland Mayor Tim Loucks in presenting the surviving families of the Groveland Four with a posthumous apology. Both Loucks and members of the Lake County Commission then began lobbying state lawmakers to do the same. Senator Geraldine Thompson, D-Orlando, filed a proposed resolution (SCR 136) for consideration during the 2016 legislative session to clear the names of Greenlee, Irvin, Shepherd, and Thomas and note the “egregious wrongs” the criminal justice system perpetrated against them.
On April 18, 2017, the Florida House of Representatives passed a resolution sponsored by State Representative Bobby DuBose requesting exoneration for the four men and apologizing to their families for the injustice of the case. The Florida State Senate passed an identical resolution sponsored by Senator Gary Farmer on April 27, 2017. The resolutions called on Governor Rick Scott to expedite the process to grant posthumous pardons. Lawmakers also called on Scott to pardon the men.
On January 11, 2019, the Florida Board of Executive Clemency, with newly seated Governor Ron DeSantis at the helm, unanimously agreed to pardon the Groveland Four. "Seventy years is a long time", DeSantis said before taking office. "And that's the amount of time four young men have been wrongly written into Florida history for crimes they did not commit and punishments they did not deserve." Norma Padgett, then 86, speaking publicly about the case for the first time since 1952, attended the Clemency Board hearing to make a statement against exoneration, saying:
I'm beggin' y'all not to give them pardon because they done it. Your minds might be made up. I don't know. If you do, y'all going to be just like them, and that's all I got to say, 'cause I know I'm telling the truth. I went to court twice.
DeSantis issued the four men full posthumous pardons in 2019, but they were not exonerated by the state until 2021. After a motion submitted by State Attorney William M. Gladson, Judge Heidi Davis granted the state's motion on November 22, 2021, to posthumously dismiss the indictments of Thomas and Shepherd and vacate the convictions of Greenlee and Irvin.
See also
False accusations of rape as justification for lynchings
References
Further reading
External links
Former Supreme Court Justice Thurgood Marshall argued two cases in Ocala with mention of Willis V. McCall, Ocala History
John Hill, "A Southern sheriff's law and disorder", St. Petersburg Times
T. Hobbs, "Hitler is Here": Lynching in Florida During the Era of World War II, thesis, 2004
The Groveland Four (PBS documentary)
Quantified groups of defendants
1949 crimes in the United States
20th-century American trials
1940s crimes in Florida
1949 in Florida
People wrongfully convicted of rape
People who have received posthumous pardons
Lake County, Florida
Police brutality in the United States
1951 murders in the United States
African-American history of Florida
Deaths by firearm in Florida
History of African-American civil rights
History of civil rights in the United States
Murdered African-American people
People murdered in Florida
Racially motivated violence against African Americans
Riots and civil disorder in Florida
Incidents of violence against boys
Violence against children
Anti-black racism in Florida |
4103794 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation%20Prone | Operation Prone | Operation Prone was a proposed military operation by the South African Defence Force (SADF) and South West African Territorial Force (SWATF) during the South African Border War and Angolan Civil War between May and September 1988. With the advance of the 50th Cuban Division towards Calueque and the South-West Africa border, the SADF formed the 10 SA Division to counter this threat. The plan for Operation Prone had two phases. Operation Linger was to be a counterinsurgency phase and Operation Pact a conventional phase.
Background and threat assessment
Caught off guard by the rapid movement southwards by the Cuban 10th Division, whose appearance was first noticed during April/May 1988 when SADF units in south-western Angola started to come into contact with advancing Cuban/FAPLA units, serious planning began. Initially, the plans were developed as a proposed attack on the Cuban/FAPLA forces in south-western Angola but as events played out and peace talks developed, the plan evolved to one of defence of north-western South-West Africa.
The South Africans anticipated attacks from two or three fronts possibly from Cahama, Xangongo or Ondjiva towards Ruacana and Calueque. They believed that the Cubans response to any South African counterattack, could be attacks by Cuban forces on SADF bases at Rundu, Ruacana, Oshakati, Ondangwa and Grootfontein and could also involve SWAPO insurgents in the SADF rear during the attacks. The SADF's main conventional unit in SWA, 61 Mechanised Battalion was in a state of reorganisation and training after Operation Hooper. 32 Battalion and 101 Battalion were engaged in south-western Angola against SWAPO while the other main conventional unit, 4 SAI, was also reorganising in South Africa and would be combat ready in SWA by 25 July. The South Africans did not believe that Cuban/FAPLA forces in south-eastern Angola at Cuito Cuanavale would try to attack the UNITA's bases at Mavinga and Jamba. This meant Cuban/FAPLA forces would concentrate their efforts in south-western Angola.
Order of battle
South African and South West Africa Territorial forces
10 SA Division (Operation Hilti/Prone) - Brigadier Chris Serfontein
HQ 10 SA Division - Oshakati
61 Mechanised Battalion incl. one tank squadron
4 SAI Battalion - no tank squadron
32 Battalion
101 Battalion
81 Armoured Brigade (South Africa) Brigade HQ
one G-2 battery - 17 Field Regiment
one tank regiment - 3 squadrons Pretoria Regiment
one mechanized battalion - 1 Regiment Northern Transvaal
one armoured car regiment - 2 Light Horse Regiment
one field engineer regiment - 15 Field Regiment
one anti-aircraft battery - Regiment Oos Transvaal
one engineer support squadron
one signal unit - 81 Signal Regiment
one maintenance unit - 20 Maintenance Unit
one field workshop - 32 Field Regiment
one medical battalion group - 6 Medical Battalion Group
one provost platoon - 8 Provost Unit
71 Motorised Brigade
HQ Cape Town Highlanders
two mechanized infantry companies - Cape Town Highlanders Regiment
one support weapons company - Cape Town Highlanders
one armoured car regiment - Regiment Orange River
one field engineer troop - 6 Field Engineer Regiment
one signal troop - 7 Signal Group
one maintenance platoon - 4 Maintenance Unit
one medical battalion - 3 Medical Battalion
one light workshop troop - 71 Field Regiment
one provost platoon - 7 Provost Unit
Parachute Battalion Group
three parachute companies
one parachute support company
one anti aircraft troop
one engineer troop
one signal troop
one maintenance platoon
one reconnaissance section
one light workshop troop
one provost platoon
one medical team
two mobile air operations teams
10 Artillery Brigade
HQ 10 Artillery Brigade
one G-5 battery - 4 SAI
one G-5 battery - 61 Mechanised Battalion
one G-2 battery - Transvaal State Artillery
one G-2 battery - 51 Battalion
one MRL battery - 32 Battalion
one MRL battery - 4 Artillery Regiment
one 120 mm mortar battery - 4 Artillery Regiment
one 120 mm mortar battery - 18 Light Artillery Regiment Parachute Brigade
two meteorological sections
Reserves
HQ elements from 71 Motorised Brigade
HQ elements from 8th Armoured Division (South Africa)
HQ elements from 44 Parachute Brigade
one G-5 battery - based in SE Angola
one G-2 battery - 71 Motorised Brigade
8 Maintenance Unit
30 Corps Maintenance Unit
two 32mm anti aircraft batteries
one provost platoon
10 SA Division (Operation Prone) - Brigadier Chris SerfonteinTask Force X-ray - Colonel Leon Marais
53 Battalion
54 Battalion
4 SAI Battalion
one combat wing - 101 Battalion
17 Field Regiment HQ
one G5 battery - 4 SAI
one G2 battery - 17 Field Regiment
one MRL battery - 17 Field Regiment
one AA battery - Regiment VaalriverTask Force Zulu - Colonel Mucho Delport
51 Battalion
52 Battalion
102 Battalion
32 Battalion
61 Mechanised Battalion incl. one tank squadron
one combat wing - 101 Battalion
14 Artillery Regiment HQ
one G2 battery - Transvaal State Artillery Regiment
one 35mm AA troop - Regiment Orange Free State
two 20mm AA troops - Regiment Eastern TransvaalTask Force Yankee - Colonel Jan Lusse
HQ 81 Armour Brigade
HQ 10 Artillery Brigade
one tank regiment (less one tank squadron) - 81 Armour Brigade
one mechanized infantry company - 81 Armour Brigade
one armoured car squadron - Light Horse Regiment|2 Light Horse Regiment
two armoured car squadrons - 1 & 2 Special Service Battalion
one 120mm mortar battery - 4 Artillery RegimentTask Force Whiskey all counter-insurgency units from Tsumeb/Grootfontein/Otavi10 Artillery Regiment - Colonel Jean Lausberg
Cuban forces50th Division''' - Brigadier General Patricio de la Guardia Font
three special forces battalions - Cuban SPETSNAZ
three tank battalions - Cuban tank regiment (105-110 tanks)
one artillery regiment - Cuban regiment
six infantry regiments - Cuban and Angolan soldiers (1500-2000 men each plus tanks)
three raiding battalions - Cuban and SWAPO soldiers (200 Cuban + 250 SWAPO each)
Missile air defence batteries, air force helicopters and aircraft
Initial clashes
With the Cuban movements southwards and continuing SADF/South West African Territorial Force operations against SWAPO in the same area, both forces would soon come into contact with each other. On 18 April 1988, a SWATF unit, 101 Battalion, chasing a SWAPO unit was ambushed by Cuban elements from Xangongo near Chipeque. The battle ended with the South Africans losing two men and eleven wounded. Thereafter the Cubans continued patrolling southwards from Xangongo towards the SADF garrison at Calueque.
On 2 May 1988, SAAF Mirages attacked FAPLA positions south of Techipa. The Cubans, fearing a South African advance, retaliated and planned another ambush.
During the first round tripartite talks in London on the 3 May 1988, behind the scene talks between the military contingents of Cuba and South Africa was tense. The Cubans threatened to invade SWA/Namibia if the South Africans did not agree to the Cuban proposals while the South African indicated if they tried, it would be Cuba's darkest day. The talks ended the following day.
The Cuban ambush site was in position by 4 May 1988 less than 2 km south of Donguena. A SADF unit, the 101 Battalion, with twenty Casspirs and two trucks had been sent forward to occupy Donguena. They ran into the ambush with Cubans destroying or damaging four Casspirs. The South Africans withdrew at dusk having lost seven men and one captured, Sergeant Johan Papenfus and failed to retrieve the fourth Casspir and its equipment. The Cubans were said to have lost forty-five soldiers. Later that evening, a further three companies from 201 and 101 Battalions were sent forward to capture Donguena, but with Cuban tank positions south of the town, withdrew. The Cuban later withdrew the same evening.
On 12 May 1988, the 32 Battalion commander was called to a meeting in Oshakati to discuss a plan for the unit to attack SWAPO units at Techipa. The commander persuaded the planners to reconnoitre the area first before attacking. On 16 May, two reconnaissance units were airlifted to an area south of Techipa and while the second landed close to Xangongo but on the western side of the Cunene River. The first team was unable to get close to Techipa while the second team found tank tracks on all roads showing extensive patrolling of the area. The first team was sent back in from the north of Techipa by vehicle, finding extensive trench systems around the town reminiscent of the same layered system around Cuito Cuanavale with vehicles, generators and radar systems and outposts at further distances south of the town. A decision was then made to establish a new task force but it would only be in operation by early June, with a specific aim of protecting the water scheme at Calueque. In the meantime, three companies of 32 Battalion would hold the line until the task force was operational and would continue to patrol and reconnoitre the area south of Techipa.
An ambush by 32 Battalion was planned for 22 May 1988. The plan called for a mortar attack on an outpost south of Techipa which would draw out the Cubans who would be then ambushed. Members of 32 Battalion company ambushed a Cuban de-mining team before the mortaring began and then found themselves being attacked by four BRDM-2 armoured personnel carriers and from two other hidden outposts. Fleeing back to the mortar position under covering mortar fire, the Cubans finally caught up and attacked with the BRDM's resulting in the abandonment of three damaged Unimogs. The 32 Battalion company retreated again as BM-21s started shelling. The Cubans eventually gave up the chase and the company was able to return to the mortar position in search of the missing vehicles but these had been removed by the Cubans. The remaining missing 32 Battalion members turned up at Ruacana and Calueque the following day.
Following the bungled ambush of the 22 May, the Cubans analysed the intelligence gathered from the captured SADF vehicles. Cuban intelligence concluded that the South African were planning a major attack on Techipa which was not the case.
June 1988 was spent reinforcing the defences around Techipa with consisted of minefields, bunkers and anti-tank barriers which had been employed successfully to slow down the SADF and UNITA forces around Cuito Cuanavale during Operation Packer. There was also a build-up of Cuban forces around the town and aggressive patrolling by SWAPO and FAPLA forces to establish the positions of the South African forces.
Cuban attack planning
At the same time, Castro planned an operation consisting of two parts.
The first, a two-pronged attack, one from Xangongo to capture Cuamato, then a three column advance from Techipa to capture Calueque joined later by the forces that had captured Cuamato.
The second part of the plan was an air attack on Ruacana if Techipa was attacked by the SAAF. Castro also notified the Angolan and Soviets of his plan.
10 SA Division formed
By the 27 May 1988, Brigadier Chris Serfontein was appointed 10 SA Division commander while Colonel Roland de Vries was appointed his chief of staff.
On the 30 May/1 June, operational instructions for Operation Hilti (to be renamed Operation Prone later) was released to the planners by SADF HQ. The instructions required the development of a conventional and counterinsurgency plan for north-west South-West Africa and south-western Angola.
The instructions called for a sub-phase called Operation Excite to gain military control of south-west Angola by August 1988.
Following Operation Excite, Operation Faction, restoration of SADF influence over 21 days in the area of dispute. And finally Operation Florentine, the installation of UNITA in the area of dispute and to support them against a FAPLA and Cuban attempts to retake the area.
This plan would make use of the 10 SA Division, as well as elements of the SA Air Force, the SA Navy operating off the Angolan coast and the insertion of SA special forces deep in the FAPLA/Cuban rear.
To counter the immediate threat of the Cuban advance to the South-West African border, the 10 SA Division planning team moved to South-West Africa on the 7 June 1988 to the operational headquarters at Oshakati and worked on the plan until 17 June.
South African Citizen Force Mobilization
Part of this plan would become Operation Excite/Hilti. After a visit to SWA/Namibia, General Jannie Geldenhuys spoke to journalists on 8 June, announcing the Cubans build-up and their advance to the border region around Ruacana and the call-up of SADF conventional forces made up of citizen reserves.
The call-up was said to be around 140,000 men and was hoped the announcement would send a message to the Cubans to end their advance to the SWA/Namibian border.The Call-up would begin on 21 July and be completed by 25 July with movement to SWA/Namibia taking place between the 26 and 31 July.
Battle training would be completed by 21 August with the units ready to be deployed for action into Southern Angola by the 24 August.
Clashes continue
By 13 June 1988, the new South African Task Force planned in May, was now in operation under the command of Colonel Mucho Delport with SADF forces in place east of the Cunene River, south of Xangongo, and around Cuamato and Calueque. Other SADF forces were positioned west of the Cunene River, with placements around and to the north-west of Calueque and Ruacana. The Task Force's headquarters was at Ruacana.
On 18 June, G-2 and G-5 batteries were in position and ready for use by the Task Force. These were used to shell the Cuban positions. On 22 June, a company from 32 Battalion clashed with a Cuban unit with tanks and infantry. They were able to break off contact with the Cubans after assistance from SADF artillery.
On the 23 June, reconnaissance units and members of 32 Battalion spotted three Cuban columns moving southwards from Techipa towards Calueque, with this stop-start advance continuing until the 26 June.
Meanwhile, the Cubans and FAPLA forces advanced from Xangongo on 24 June, the first prong of their plan and attacked the SADF units at Cuamato. 201 Battalion with additional elements of Ratels and mortars stopped the advanced and occupation of the town and the Cubans retreated back to Xangongo. The South African lost a few vehicles and remained in the town.
Negotiations continue
At the same time the Cubans, Angolan's and South Africans met in Cairo on 24 June for a second round of tripartite talks. The two-day meeting was led by the Americans with a Soviet delegation in attendance. The meeting was fiery with the Soviets pulling the Cuban delegation back into line and all that was agreed was that the concept of linkage, a South African pull-out of Angola followed by the Cubans, was the only option for a future agreement.
Operation Excite
By 26 June 1988, a 32 Battalion company was moved into position to provide early warning of the Cuban tanks and columns advancing from Techipa while 61 Mechanised Battalion was brought in behind them to intercept when required. Using their MRL's and artillery they hindered and slowed the Cuban advance. Four Ratel ZT3 anti-tank missile units had also arrived at 61 Mechanised Battalion positions. The evening of 26 June, SADF reconnaissance discovered SA-6 launchers around Techipa. Using a ruse of releasing meteorological balloons with aluminium strips attached to them, the Cubans fired their SA-6's narrowing down their location for the SADF reconnaissance units, and the South Africans counterattacked with G-5 artillery destroying them and after four hours other Cuban artillery.
On the morning of the 27 June 1988, the Cuban columns began to move again. Elements of 32 Battalion that were monitoring the column were unable to make contact with 61 Mechanised Battalion to warn them about the advancing Cubans. 61 Mechanised Battalion and their tanks begun moving at the same time to find a better position than the night lager and when advancing over a low ridge, ran into a forward Cuban units ambush. The leading Ratel was hit by a RPG and during the battle, four further Ratels were damaged losing one soldier and a further three wounded. 61 Mechanised called in artillery fire as Cuban reinforcements arrived to support the ambush unit.
During the heavy fighting that followed this South African battalion destroyed a tank, a BTR-60, many trucks and inflicted heavy casualties on the Cuban infantry forcing them to withdraw. During the battle, 32 Battalion eventually made contact with 61 Mechanised, informing them that Cuban tanks were on their way. 61 Mechanised released their tanks and sent them to intercept the Cuban tanks. The SADF tanks made contact and after half an hour had stopped the advance destroying another T-55 tank, trucks and a BTR-60. The Cubans were forced to withdraw again. Spotting the advance of two Cuban columns, Commandant Mike Muller withdrew his forces southwards towards Calueque attacking one column and then the other with G-5 artillery. Both columns were halted.
Cuban air attack
Around 1pm, twelve Cuban MiG-23's based at Lubango and Cahama, flying at tree height to Ruacana, were spotted by SADF units but were unable to signal an air attack fast enough as the planes turned and headed to attack the hydroelectric dam at Calueque. Two bombed the bridge over the Cunene River and destroyed it, damaged the sluice gates while another two bombed the power plant and engine rooms. A fifth plane bombed the water irrigation pipeline to Ovambo, destroying it. One of those bombs from the fifth plane exploded between a Buffel and Eland 90 killing eleven SADF soldiers on ammunition escort duty. Two Cuban planes were hit by 20 mm AA guns and one crashed on its way back to its base in Angola.
The South African soldiers retreated towards the SWA/Namibian border, crossing in the late afternoon. As described above, the air attack part of the Cuban operation went ahead but their ground forces retreated back to Techipa after the clash.
Undeclared peace
Fearing a revenge attack by the SADF, the Cubans implemented plans that included possible attacks on SWA/Namibia itself. These plans were scrapped when no retaliation occurred from the South Africans.
What followed the hostilities at Calueque was an undeclared ceasefire. The South African public was shocked by the deaths at Calueque and the government ordered a scaling back of operations.
Battle Group 20 whom with UNITA, guarding the minefields east of the Cuito River across from Cuito Cuanavale, were ordered to withdraw personnel and equipment so as not to take casualties and prevent any further SADF personnel becoming prisoners of war.
UNITA was informed, with some regarding this withdrawal as an act of betrayal. Orders were to ensure no Cubans advance any further than where they were currently positioned.
Talks continue
By 10 July, the Cubans and South Africans were back at the negotiation table in New York City for three days.
The Cubans surprised the South African delegation by proposing an honourable Cuban withdrawal from Angola linked to the implementation of UN Resolution 435 and the ending of support to SWAPO and UNITA. This proposal became known as the New York Principle though the detail in the proposal would be negotiated at a later date.
The parties met again in the Cape Verde on the 22 July for the fourth round of talks but all that was agreed on was the proposal to set up a Joint Monitoring Commission.
Modified planning
Following the clashes at the end of June 1988, the South African politicians and the military re-evaluated the SADF's role in the operational area. What was considered was the change in the military balance brought about by the Cuban division, the reluctance of the South African public to accept high casualties, the political direction towards the ending of Apartheid, and the international push to end South Africa's control of SWA/Namibia.
New South African Military Plan
On 19 July 1988 planning was finalised and Operation Hilti was changed to Operation Prone and the new plan became the defence of SWA/Namibia.
This plan was divided into sub-operations, Operation Linger and Operation Faction (renamed Operation Pact).
Operation Linger became the counterinsurgency plan against SWAPO incursions in SWA and bases in Angola.
Operation Faction (Pact) was the conventional plan that would defend SWA against a Cuban invasion across the border and the destruction of the remainder of the enemy in Angola with a possible offensive action.
Operation Pact was further divided into three phases.
The first phase was to deceive the Cubans as to the intentions and disposition of the South African forces, the preparation of the SADF forces, assist in countering any SWAPO raids, and use of the recces to track the movement and disposition of the Cuban forces.
Phase two would occur when the Cubans invaded SWA/Namibia, drawing them into areas of SADF control, halting and destroying the Cubans.
The third phase would occur if phase two failed, a delaying retreat by SADF forces to an area around Tsumeb and the final destruction of the remaining Cuban forces.
Airborne assault plan
The South Africans also planned for an attack on the Angolan port of Namibe (today Moçâmedes). This port was the main logistical entrance for Cuban and FAPLA supplies to the Cuban 50th Division. The plan was developed by Commandant McGill Alexander of 44 Parachute Brigade, a veteran of Operation Reindeer. This operation would last 72 hours with the objective being the destruction of the port's logistical capacity; the harbour and railway facilities and the railway line. The SADF would make use of the navy, air force, paratroopers and special forces. The plan called for approximately 1,200 men, half as an airborne drop and the rest by means of an amphibious assault backed by navy strike craft. The plan was tested during Exercise Magersfontein at Walvis Bay.
Peace talks
Round five of the Tripartite talks began on 2 August 1988 in Geneva, Switzerland. The Soviets joined the meeting in an observer role. The South Africans opened the negotiations with several proposals:
a ceasefire to begin on 10 August 1988,
redeployment of South African and Cuban forces in Angola by 1 September 1988,
implementation of UN Resolution 435 and all foreign forces leave Angola by 1 June 1989.
The 1 June 1989 proposal angered the Cuban and Angolans and the talks continued discussing the first three South African proposals. With the assistance of the Soviets, the American were able to get the Cubans, Angolans and South Africans to sign the Geneva Protocol on 5 August 1988. The protocol set the following dates:
10 August 1988 – South Africans to begin withdrawal from Angola
1 September 1988 – South Africans complete the withdrawal
10 September 1988 – Peace settlement signed
1 November 1988 – Implementation of UN Resolution 435
What was not agreed upon was the Cuban withdrawal from Angola. This would be negotiated at another meeting in the near future. Nor were SWAPO or UNITA party to the agreement.
Ceasefire
On 8 August 1988, the South Africans, Angolans and Cubans announced a ceasefire in Angola and SWA/Namibia.
A line was drawn from Chitado, Ruacana, Calueque, Naulili, Cuamato and Chitado that the Cubans would stay north of and would guarantee the water irrigation supply from Ruacana to SWA/Namibia.
SWAPO, not party to the agreement, said it would honour the ceasefire on 1 September if South Africa did so, but this did not happen and SWAPO activities continued.
UNITA on the other hand stated that it would ignore the ceasefire and would continue to fight the Angolan government. It did however state that it wished to stop fighting if the Angolan government held talks with them or ceased attacking them and seek national reconciliation.
South African withdrawal from Angola
10 August 1988 saw the South African government announce the beginnings of a troop withdrawal from southern Angola, with the final day for withdrawal of SADF personnel set for 1 September.
Battle Group 20, the only SADF force in south-eastern Angola, had been assisting UNITA to maintain the siege of Cuito Cuanavale after the end of Operation Packer. This withdrawal by Battle Group 20 southwards was part of Operation Displace.
By 16 August the Joint Monitoring Commission was formed at Ruacana. This Joint Monitoring Commission finalised the terms of the ceasefire by the 22 August and the formal ceasefire was signed between three parties. Major General Willie Meyer represented South Africa, General Leopoldo Frias from Cuba and Angola by Colonel Antonio Jose.
The SADF elements arrived at the Angolan/SWA/Namibian border with ten days to spare and had to wait around as the Joint Monitoring Commission and world media organised themselves for the crossover at Rundu at a temporary steel bridge that was to take place on 1 September. On 30 August 1988, the last of the South African troops crossed a temporary steel bridge into SWA/Namibia watched by the world's media and the Joint Monitoring Commission, 36 hours early than the planned time. A convoy of fifty vehicles with around thousand soldiers crossed over singing battle songs. After officers of the three countries walked across the bridge, the South African sappers begun to dismantle the temporary steel bridge.
The Joint Monitoring Commission then declared on 30 August 1988, that the South African Defence Force had now left Angola.
Aftermath
On the 1 September 1988, the SADF disbanded its 10 SA Division and the Citizen Force units were returned to South Africa.
South African Military Contingency Plan
Planning however continued for Operation Prone in case further peace negotiation's failed to agree to the linkage of the implementation of UN Resolution 435 to the Cuban withdrawal from Angola.
Tripartite Accord
Nine more rounds of negotiations followed revolving around the dates for the Cuban withdrawal from Angola that finally ended with an agreement called the Tripartite Accord signed on 22 December in New York. This accord finalised the dates of the Cuban staggered withdrawals from Angola and the implementation of UN Resolution 435 on 1 April 1989.
References
Further reading
Conflicts in 1988
Military history of Angola
Battles and operations of the South African Border War
1988 in Angola
1988 in South Africa |
4103941 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Providence%20%281977%20film%29 | Providence (1977 film) | Providence is a 1977 French/Swiss film directed by Alain Resnais from a screenplay by David Mercer. It explores the processes of creativity through a portrayal of an ageing novelist, played by John Gielgud, who imagines scenes for his latest novel which draw upon his past and his relationships with members of his family. The film won the 1978 César Award for Best Film.
Plot
On the eve of his 78th birthday, the ailing, alcoholic writer Clive Langham spends a painful and sleepless night mentally composing and recomposing scenes for a novel in which characters based on his own family are shaped by his fantasies and memories, alongside his caustic commentary on their behaviour. His son Claude appears as a cold and unforgiving prosecuting lawyer, who revels in spiteful repartee. His second (illegitimate) son Kevin features as an idealistic soldier accused of the mercy-killing of an old man who was being hunted down. Claude's wife Sonia shows sympathy with Kevin and seems eager to seduce him in protest at her husband's callousness. Clive also invents the character of Helen, as Claude's mistress, but she bears the features of Clive's dead wife Molly who committed suicide. Clive's imagination is also haunted by scenes of an autopsy on the corpse of an old man, a military round-up of elderly people who are detained in a sports stadium, and a dark tangled forest in which a hunted man metamorphoses into a werewolf. Before Clive loses consciousness, it is Kevin whom he sees as the werewolf in the forest; Claude shoots Kevin but seems to identify him with their father.
On the following day, Clive welcomes Claude, Sonia and Kevin (in reality an astrophysicist) for an idyllic birthday lunch in the sunlit garden of his country mansion, and their relationships are characterised by mutual affection and good humour, albeit with signs of self-restraint in deference to the occasion. After lunch, in what he seems to envisage as a final parting, Clive unexpectedly asks them all to leave without a word.
Cast
John Gielgud as Clive Langham. Gielgud described his role as "a very tough, Augustus John kind of character, drunk half the time, lying in bed drinking white wine and throwing bottles about, and roaring a lot of very coarse dialogue."
Dirk Bogarde as Claude Langham
Ellen Burstyn as Sonia Langham
David Warner as Kevin Langham / Kevin Woodford
Elaine Stritch as Helen Wiener
Cyril Luckham as Doctor Mark Eddington
Denis Lawson as Dave Woodford
Kathryn Leigh Scott as Miss Boon
Milo Sperber as Mr. Jenner
Anna Wing as Karen
Peter Arne as Nils
Tanya Lopert as Miss Lister
Production
The producer Klaus Hellwig suggested to Resnais that he should make a film with the British playwright David Mercer. The two men met in London and, overcoming the obstacle that neither of them spoke the language of the other fluently, they began a series of discussions of drafts and redraftings which extended over a year. Mercer's original idea concerned the situation of political prisoners held in a sports stadium, symbolising a world in collapse. Gradually the outline shifted to the imagination of an aging writer seeking the material for a novel. Resnais proposed making the whole film into a metaphor of creation and disintegration; he also made extensive alterations to the chronology of the scenes as written by Mercer.
The title of the film was also supplied by the producer, signifying both the name of the estate where the ageing novelist lives and also the controlling hand with which he arranges the fate of his characters. The name evoked further associations with the American city of Providence, the home of the fantasy writer H. P. Lovecraft whose gothic stories inspired some of the imagery in the film.
The original intention was to shoot the film in the United States in New England but for reasons of cost this became impracticable. Certain exterior scenes were filmed in Providence and in Albany in the US, while others were done in Brussels, Antwerp, and Louvain; these were used in conjunction with each other to form a composite cityscape for the background of certain scenes. Studio scenes were filmed in Paris. The final birthday party sequence was shot on location at the château de Montméry at Ambazac near Limoges. Filming took place between April and June 1976.
The set designs were created by Jacques Saulnier, a regular collaborator with Resnais, and he won a César award for his work. In order to create a funereal atmosphere, grey and dark shades predominated in the design and strong colours were excluded. Saulnier recalled that Resnais made him read Lovecraft in order to imbue Langham's house with the presence of death: "I imagined it like a family tomb". In some scenes (created in Clive Langham's imagination) the layout of a set changes between one shot and another (for instance, the door in the corner of a room in one shot appears at the bottom of a flight of stairs in another; a conversation between four characters alone in one scene continues in the midst of a party in the next). Some settings use a painted backdrop which has a deliberately theatrical appearance; one of them portrays a seascape in which artificial waves surge up among the painted rocks (achieved by blowing bursts of polystyrene foam pieces from beneath the set).
Providence was Resnais's first film in English, and a prestigious cast of British and American actors was engaged despite the restrictions on the budget. Resnais held a longstanding ambition to cast John Gielgud in a substantial film role, having seen him performing on stage, and was encouraged to approach him by Dirk Bogarde. Gielgud later described the project as "by far the most exciting film I have ever made", and noted the impressive calmness of Resnais throughout filming which made him "wonderful to work with". He also recalled the contribution made by Florence Malraux, Resnais's wife, who spoke fluent English and helped overcome the director's limitations in that respect. Resnais attached great importance to the interplay of vocal timbres of his principal actors, and he described how he thought of them as a Schubertian quintet: Ellen Burstyn a violin, Dirk Bogarde a piano, David Warner a viola, John Gielgud a cello, and Elaine Stritch a double bass.
The original intention had been to make the film in French, translating it from the English. Resnais however soon felt that it would not work in French: "I could hear it so clearly in English and anyway, Mercer's writing depended on the English inflection." The producers agreed, but insisted that there should also be a French version." The process of dubbing the completed work into French was undertaken with particular care: the voice actors included Claude Dauphin as Clive, François Périer as Claude, Gérard Depardieu as Kevin, Nelly Borgeaud as Sonia, and Suzanne Flon as Helen.
For the music Resnais turned to the Hungarian-born Hollywood composer Miklós Rózsa, whom he had admired especially for his work on the 1949 version of Madame Bovary. Rózsa later cited Resnais as one of the few directors in his experience who really understood the function of music in film. Soundtrack albums were eventually issued on LP and CD.
Themes
Resnais described the film as a "macabre divertissement", insisting that he wanted it to be funny despite the darkness of its themes. He also said that one of the questions which the film poses is whether we are the people we think we are or whether we become what others make of us in their judgments.
A central theme is the process of artistic creation: "[Providence] is a meta-film, a film about the making of films, a work of art about the fabricating of art works." Expanding this idea: "The film suggests some symbiotic relation between creator and created script.... The characters are [Clive's] creations, yet he speaks to them as if they were wilful children. Their status is ambiguous since they a composite: they are dream figures, created characters and also individuals who are part of Clive's proximate reality."
In counterpoint with creativity, the theme of death recurs constantly, not so much as a subject in itself but in Clive's struggle to avoid it: Resnais described the film as telling the story of the old writer's determination not to die, and his continual drinking and imagining are the evidence of his refusal to let go. As well as the funereal aspects of the decor and the scenes of autopsy, the repeated instances of metamorphosis of a character into a werewolf is linked to the advent of death, with the implication that the process of dying reduces man to animal. Clive also has an obsession that the young are trying to push him aside, to kill him, which he visualises in the scenes of the stadium/concentration camp where the old are rounded up by soldiers who are all young.
Other motifs which contribute to the mood of morbid anxiety are the military search parties and images of deportation, the helicopter surveillance, the sound of bombs and ambulance sirens, and the demolition of buildings.
As several writers about the film have observed, the opening sequence mirrors the beginning of Citizen Kane: the plaque outside the house, the camera closing in on a lighted doorway, the breaking of a glass object, the close-up of the lips of Clive as he curses. Whereas the personality of Kane is explored through the separate 'versions' of people who knew him, in Providence it is the central figure of Clive who draws the characters of the members of his family and gives a reflection of himself through them.
One of the thoughts on his own style of expression that was written for the character of Clive by David Mercer has been noted by many critics as especially applicable to Resnais himself. Citing a criticism of his own creative work that the pursuit of style has often resulted in a lack of feeling, Clive then argues back that "Style is feeling—in its most elegant and economic expression."
Reception and influence
In France the press response to Providence at the time of its release (and again at its re-release in 1983) was overwhelmingly enthusiastic. Many argued that it was a film of great cultural importance, and a highlight in Resnais's career. The film went on to win seven prizes at the César awards, including Best Film and Best Director.
By contrast, reviewers in the United States were predominantly hostile to the film. Vincent Canby in The New York Times called it a "disastrously ill-chosen comedy" and "a lot of fuss and fake feathers about nothing"; he found the script pretentious and the structure complicated without being complex. For John Simon in New York it was an "unmitigated disaster" in which he criticised almost every aspect with the exception of John Gielgud's performance. Pauline Kael wrote a 2000 word review in The New Yorker which found fault with the contradictory structure, the stilted language, the artificiality of the acting, and the glacial directorial style of the film before concluding that all it amounted to was "the pain of a 'clever' English play". A short notice in Variety took a different view, referring to "an unusual visual tour-de-force ... offering dense insights into the flights of imagination of a supposedly dying writer".
In the UK, the film received a more varied reception, and it had a successful box-office run in London. David Robinson writing in The Times was troubled by the quality of the writing: "Resnais's visual creations ... seem very flimsily supported on the frame of David Mercer's script ... the writing, again, is self-conscious, stiffly literary. The dialogue is formal, and artificial ... And the pretensions of the text only increase suspicion that it is not about very much at all." A non-judgmental review in the Monthly Film Bulletin emphasised the many layers of thematic cross-reference both within the film and beyond it, with echoes of other work written by David Mercer and elements from other films as well as the occasional interleaving of European and American landscapes. Gilbert Adair in Sight & Sound contrasted David Mercer's excessively literal script in which "nothing is left unstated" with the extent of the personal mythology and fantasy which Resnais was able to introduce into the film; he found the work enriched by its anti-naturalistic devices such as the gaffes in continuity which emerge in Clive's plotting of his novel and the exchange of voices of the characters, as well as by the disjunctive appearances of a clownish footballer in inappropriate scenes; and despite certain reservations he concluded that "the dream cast perform together superbly". A specific criticism of one aspect of the film appeared in a comment column of the British Medical Journal, where it was argued that the inclusion of scenes of a post-mortem on a corpse (accurate but unsparing) was "undignified and uncivilised and ought to be condemned" because the audience was not prepared for them and they were unnecessary to the plot.
Retrospective evaluations of Providence have generally been more positive than the contemporary ones. In the Oxford History of World Cinema it is described as "a magisterial and deeply moving incursion into the fantasies of a dying man". For the critic Jonathan Rosenbaum, "The superb performances and Miklós Rózsa's sumptuous Hollywood-style score give the film's conceit a moving monumentality and depth, and Resnais' insights into the fiction-making process are mesmerising and beautiful." The artist Tacita Dean cited Providence as her favourite film, saying that "it deals effortlessly with the problems of enacting the fantasies of a writer’s imagination. It mixes places and time within single sequences to create an uncanny sense of dislocation but its brilliance is its leanness – not a single moment of excess."
One of the aspects of the film which has generated most comment and disagreement is the interpretation of the two-part structure and to what extent one of them represents 'deception' and the other 'truth'. For Pauline Kael, the 'imagined' part and the 'real' part contradict each other because either they cannot both be true or else they are not both relevant. Others have found different grounds for criticism, arguing that the final 'real' section represents a compromise and a concession to conventional cinema, a denial of all the bold experimentation of the previous four-fifths of the film. Alain Robbe-Grillet, writer of the screenplay for Resnais's earlier exploration of imagination and recollection, L'Année dernière à Marienbad, was one of those who disapproved of the final section. An alternative view is that the final lyrical section of the birthday party does not present a definitive picture of the family as they really are, but rather another perspective on them in the puzzle which Clive – both as writer and as father – is trying to solve. As one critic has expressed it: The second part of the film supplements the first by altering its effect, by denying its sometimes hostile paranoid proof but not by eradicating these altogether. The parts of the film open Providence up as a series of reflecting realities which, wound together, may offer something of the hesitance and doubt of mental process. In this sense, Providence may be seen as a precursor to the work of David Lynch in films such as Lost Highway (1997) and Mulholland Drive (2001).Providence received five top-10 votes (three from critics and two from directors) in the 2012 Sight & Sound polls of the greatest films ever made.
Awards and nominations
Bodil Awards (Denmark)
Won: Best European Film
César Awards (France)
Won: Best Director (Alain Resnais)
Won: Best Editing (Albert Jurgenson)
Won: Best Film
Won: Best Music (Miklós Rózsa)
Won: Best Production Design (Jacques Saulnier)
Won: Best Sound (René Magnol and Jacques Maumont)
Won: Best Writing (David Mercer)
Nominated: Best Cinematography (Ricardo Aronovich)
French Syndicate of Cinema Critics (France)
Won: Best Film
New York Film Critics (USA)
Won: Best Actor (John Gielgud)
Valladolid Film Festival (Spain)
Won: Golden Spike (Alain Resnais)
References
External links
Films directed by Alain Resnais
1977 films
Swiss drama films
1970s English-language films
Best Film César Award winners
Films whose director won the Best Director César Award
Films scored by Miklós Rózsa
French drama films
English-language French films
English-language Swiss films
1970s French films |
4103963 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sentence%20spacing | Sentence spacing | Sentence spacing concerns how spaces are inserted between sentences in typeset text and is a matter of typographical convention. Since the introduction of movable-type printing in Europe, various sentence spacing conventions have been used in languages with a Latin alphabet. These include a normal word space (as between the words in a sentence), a single enlarged space, and two full spaces.
Until the 20th century, publishing houses and printers in many countries used additional space between sentences. There were exceptions to this traditional spacing method—some printers used spacing between sentences that was no wider than word spacing. This was French spacing—a term synonymous with single-space sentence spacing until the late 20th century. With the introduction of the typewriter in the late 19th century, typists used two spaces between sentences to mimic the style used by traditional typesetters. While wide sentence spacing was phased out in the printing industry in the mid-20th century, the practice continued on typewriters and later on computers. Perhaps because of this, many modern sources now incorrectly claim that wide spacing was created for the typewriter.
The desired or correct sentence spacing is often debated, but most sources now state that an additional space is not necessary or desirable. From around 1950, single sentence spacing became standard in books, magazines, and newspapers, and the majority of style guides that use a Latin-derived alphabet as a language base now prescribe or recommend the use of a single space after the concluding punctuation of a sentence. However, some sources still state that additional spacing is correct or acceptable. Some people preferred double sentence spacing because that was how they were taught to type. The few direct studies conducted since 2002 have produced inconclusive results as to which convention is more readable.
History
Traditional typesetting
Shortly after the invention of movable type, highly variable spacing was created, which could create spaces of any size and allowed for perfectly even justification. Early American, English, and other European typesetters' style guides (also known as printers' rules) specified spacing standards that were all essentially identical from the 18th century onwards. These guides—e.g., Jacobi in the UK (1890) and MacKellar, Harpel, and De Vinne (1866–1901) in the U.S.—indicated that sentences should be em-spaced, and that words should be 1/3 or 1/2 em-spaced. The relative size of the sentence spacing would vary depending on the size of the word spaces and the justification needs. For most countries, this remained the standard for published work until the 20th century. Yet, even in this period, there were publishing houses that used a standard word space between sentences.
Mechanical type and the advent of the typewriter
Mechanical type systems introduced near the end of the 19th century, such as the Linotype and Monotype machines, allowed for some variable sentence spacing similar to hand composition. Just as these machines revolutionized the mass production of text, the advent of the typewriter around the same time revolutionized the creation of personal and business documents. But the typewriters' mechanical limitations did not allow variable spacing—typists could only choose the number of times they pressed the space bar. Typists in some English-speaking countries initially learned to insert three spaces between sentences to approximate the wider sentence spacing used in traditional printing, but later settled on two spaces, a practice that continued throughout the 20th century. This became known as English spacing and marked a divergence from French typists, who continued to use French spacing.
Transition to single spacing
In the early 20th century, some printers began using one and a half interword spaces (an "en quad") to separate sentences. This standard continued in use, to some extent, into the 1990s.
Magazines, newspapers, and books began to adopt the single-space convention in the United States in the 1940s and in the United Kingdom in the 1950s. Typists did not move to single spacing simultaneously.
Technological advances began affecting sentence spacing methods. In 1941, IBM introduced the Executive, a typewriter capable of proportional spacing, which had been used in professional typesetting for hundreds of years. This innovation broke the hold that the monospaced font had on the typewriter, reducing the severity of its mechanical limitations. However, this innovation did not spread throughout the typewriter industry; the majority of mechanical typewriters, including all of the widely distributed models, remained monospaced, while a small minority of special models carried the innovations. By the 1960s, electronic phototypesetting systems ignored runs of white space in text. This was also true for the World Wide Web, as HTML normally ignores additional spacing, although in 2011 the CSS 2.1 standard officially added an option that can preserve additional spaces. In the 1980s, desktop publishing software provided the average writer with more advanced formatting tools.
Modern literature
Typography
Early positions on typography (the "arrangement and appearance of text") supported traditional spacing techniques in English publications. In 1954, Geoffrey Dowding's book Finer Points in the Spacing and Arrangement of Type underscored the widespread shift from a single enlarged em space to a standard word space between sentences.
With the advent of the computer age, typographers began deprecating double spacing, even in monospaced text. In 1989, Desktop Publishing by Design stated that "typesetting requires only one space after periods, question marks, exclamation points, and colons" and identified single sentence spacing as a typographic convention. Stop Stealing Sheep & Find Out How Type Works (1993) and Designing with Type: The Essential Guide to Typography (2006) both indicate that uniform spacing should be used between words, including between sentences.
More recent works on typography weigh in strongly. Ilene Strizver, founder of the Type Studio, says: "Forget about tolerating differences of opinion: typographically speaking, typing two spaces before the start of a new sentence is absolutely, unequivocally wrong." The Complete Manual on Typography (2003) states that "The typewriter tradition of separating sentences with two-word spaces after a period has no place in typesetting" and that the single space is "standard typographic practice". The Elements of Typographic Style (2004) advocates a single space between sentences, noting that "your typing as well as your typesetting will benefit from unlearning this quaint [double spacing] Victorian habit".
David Jury's book About Face: Reviving the Rules of Typography (2004)—published in Switzerland—clarifies the contemporary typographic position on sentence spacing:
Word spaces, preceding or following punctuation, should be optically adjusted to appear to be of the same value as a standard word space. If a standard word space is inserted after a full point or a comma, then, optically, this produces a space of up to 50% wider than that of other word spaces within a line of type. This is because these punctuation marks carry space above them, which, when added to the adjacent standard word spaces, combines to create a visually larger space. Some argue that the "additional" space after a comma and full point serves as a "pause signal" for the reader. But this is unnecessary (and visually disruptive) since the pause signal is provided by the punctuation mark itself.
Style and language guides
Style guides
Early style guides for typesetting used a wider space between sentences than between words—"traditional spacing", as shown in the illustration to the right. During the 20th century, style guides commonly mandated two spaces between sentences for typewritten manuscripts, which were used prior to professionally typesetting the work. As computer desktop publishing became commonplace, typewritten manuscripts became less relevant and most style guides stopped making distinctions between manuscripts and final typeset products. In the same period, style guides began changing their guidance on sentence spacing. The 1969 edition of the Chicago Manual of Style used em spaces between sentences in its text; by the 2003 edition it had changed to single sentence spacing for both manuscript and print. By the 1980s, the United Kingdom's Hart's Rules (1983) had shifted to single sentence spacing. Other style guides followed suit in the 1990s. Soon after the beginning of the 21st century, the majority of style guides had changed to indicate that only one word space was proper between sentences.
Modern style guides provide standards and guidance for the written language. These works are important to writers, since "virtually all professional editors work closely with one of them in editing a manuscript for publication". Late editions of comprehensive style guides, such as the Oxford Style Manual (2003) in the United Kingdom and the Chicago Manual of Style (2010) in the United States, provide standards for a wide variety of writing and design topics, including sentence spacing. The majority of style guides now prescribe the use of a single space after terminal punctuation in final written works and publications. A few style guides allow double sentence spacing for draft work, and the Gregg Reference Manual makes room for double and single sentence spacing based on author preferences. Web design guides do not usually provide guidance on this topic, as "HTML refuses to recognize double spaces altogether". These works themselves follow the current publication standard of single sentence spacing.
The European Union's Interinstitutional Style Guide (2008) indicates that single sentence spacing is to be used in all European Union publications—encompassing 23 languages. For the English language, the European Commission's English Style Guide (2010) states that sentences are always single-spaced. The Style Manual: For Authors, Editors and Printers (2007), first published in 1966 by the Commonwealth Government Printing Office of Australia, stipulates that only one space is used after "sentence-closing punctuation" and that "Programs for word processing and desktop publishing offer more sophisticated, variable spacing, so this practice of double spacing is now avoided because it can create distracting gaps on a page."
National languages not covered by an authoritative language academy typically have multiple style guides, only some of which may discuss sentence spacing. This is the case in the United Kingdom. The Oxford Style Manual (2003) and the Modern Humanities Research Association's MHRA Style Guide (2002) state that only single spacing should be used. In Canada, both the English- and French-language sections of the Canadian Style, A Guide to Writing and Editing (1997), prescribe single sentence spacing. In the United States, many style guides—such as the Chicago Manual of Style (2003)—allow only single sentence spacing. The most important style guide in Italy, (2009), does not address sentence spacing, but the (2010), the official guide for Microsoft translation, tells users to use single sentence spacing "instead of the double spacing used in the United States".
Language guides
Some languages, such as French and Spanish, have academies that set language rules. Their publications typically address orthography and grammar as opposed to matters of typography. Style guides are less relevant for such languages, as their academies set prescriptive rules. For example, the publishes the for French speakers worldwide. The 1992 edition does not provide guidance on sentence spacing, but is single-sentence-spaced throughout—consistent with historical French spacing. The Spanish language is similar. The most important body within the Association of Spanish Language Academies, the Royal Spanish Academy, publishes the , which is viewed as prescriptive for the Spanish language worldwide. The 2001 edition does not provide sentence-spacing guidance, but is itself single-sentence-spaced. The German language manual ("Recommendations of the Council for German Orthography"; 2006) does not address sentence spacing. The manual itself uses one space after terminal punctuation. Additionally, the Duden, the German-language dictionary most commonly used in Germany, indicates that double sentence spacing is an error.
Grammar guides
A few reference grammars address sentence spacing, as increased spacing between words is punctuation in itself. Most do not. Grammar guides typically cover terminal punctuation and the proper construction of sentences—but not the spacing between sentences. Moreover, many modern grammar guides are designed for quick reference and refer users to comprehensive style guides for additional matters of writing style. For example, the Pocket Idiot's Guide to Grammar and Punctuation (2005) points users to style guides such as the MLA Style Manual for consistency in formatting work and for all other "editorial concerns". The Grammar Bible (2004) states that "The modern system of English punctuation is by no means simple. A book that covers all the bases would need to be of considerable breadth and weight and anyone interested in such a resource is advised to consult the Chicago Manual of Style."
Computer era
In the computer era, spacing between sentences is handled in several different ways by various software packages. Some systems accept whatever the user types, while others attempt to alter the spacing or use the user input as a method of detecting sentences. Computer-based word processors and typesetting software such as troff and TeX allow users to arrange text in a manner previously only available to professional typesetters.
The text-editing environment in Emacs uses a double space following a period to identify the end of sentences unambiguously; the double-space convention prevents confusion with periods within sentences that signify abbreviations. How Emacs recognizes the end of a sentence is controlled by the settings sentence-end-double-space and sentence-end.
The Unix typesetter program Troff uses two spaces to mark the end of a sentence. This allows the typesetter to distinguish sentence endings from abbreviations and to typeset them differently. Early versions of Troff, which only typeset in fixed-width fonts, would automatically add a second space between sentences, which were detected based on the combination of terminal punctuation and a line feed.
In the April 2020 update, Microsoft Word started highlighting two spaces after a period as an error and offers a correction of one space.
Multiple spaces are eliminated by default in most World Wide Web content, whether or not they are associated with sentences. There are options for preserving spacing, such as the CSS white-space property, and the <pre> tag.
Controversy
James Felici, author of the Complete Manual of Typography, says that the topic of sentence spacing is "the debate that refuses to die ... In all my years of writing about type, it's still the question I hear most often, and a search of the web will find threads galore on the subject."
Many people are opposed to single sentence spacing for various reasons. Some state that the habit of double spacing is too deeply ingrained to change. Others claim that additional space between sentences improves the aesthetics or readability of text. Proponents of double sentence spacing also state that some publishers may still require double-spaced manuscript submissions from authors. A key example noted is the screenwriting industry's monospaced standard for screenplay manuscripts, Courier, 12-point font, although some works on screenwriting indicate that Courier is merely preferred—proportional fonts may be used. Some reliable sources state simply that writers should follow their particular style guide, but proponents of double spacing caution that publishers' guidance takes precedence, including those that ask for double-sentence-spaced manuscripts.
One of the most popular arguments against wider sentence spacing is that it was created for monospaced fonts of the typewriter and is no longer needed with modern proportional fonts.
However, proportional fonts existed together with wide sentence spacing for centuries before the typewriter and remained for decades after its invention. When the typewriter was first introduced, typists were most commonly taught to use three spaces between sentences. This gradually shifted to two spaces, while the print industry remained unchanged in its wide em-spaced sentences. Some sources now state it is acceptable for monospaced fonts to be single-spaced today, although other references continue to specify double spacing for monospaced fonts. The double-space typewriter convention has been taught in schools in typing classes and remains the practice in many cases. Some voice concern that students will later be forced to relearn how to type.
Most style guides indicate that single sentence spacing is proper for final or published work today, and most publishers require manuscripts to be submitted as they will appear in publication—with single sentence spacing. Writing sources typically recommend that prospective authors remove extra spaces before submitting manuscripts, although other sources state that publishers will use software to remove the spaces before final publication.
Effects on readability and legibility
Claims abound regarding the legibility and readability of the single and double sentence spacing methods—by proponents on both sides. Supporters of single spacing assert that familiarity with the current standard in books, magazines, and the Web enhances readability, that double spacing looks strange in text using proportional fonts, and that the "rivers" and "holes" caused by double spacing impair readability. Proponents of double sentence spacing state that the extra space between sentences enhances readability by providing clearer breaks between sentences and making text appear more legible.
However, typographic opinions are typically anecdotal with no basis in evidence. "Opinions are not always safe guides to legibility of print", and when direct studies are conducted, anecdotal opinions—even those of experts—can turn out to be false. Text that seems legible (visually pleasing at first glance) may be shown to actually impair reading effectiveness when subjected to scientific study.
Studies
Direct studies on sentence spacing include those by Loh, Branch, Shewanown, and Ali (2002); and Clinton, Branch, Holschuh, and Shewanown (2003); with results favoring neither single, double, nor triple spacing. The 2002 study tested participants' reading speed for passages of on-screen text with single and double sentence spacing. The authors stated that "the 'double space group' consistently took longer time to finish than the 'single space' group" but concluded that "there was not enough evidence to suggest that a significant difference exists". The 2003 study analyzed on-screen single, double, and triple spacing. In both cases, the authors stated that there was insufficient evidence to draw a conclusion. Ni, Branch, Chen, and Clinton conducted a similar study in 2009 using identical spacing variables. The authors concluded that the "results provided insufficient evidence that time and comprehension differ significantly among different conditions of spacing between sentences". A 2018 study of 60 students found that those who used two word spaces between sentences read the same text 3 percent faster than with a monospaced font (Courier New).
Related studies
There are other studies that could be relevant to sentence spacing, such as the familiarity of typographic conventions on readability. Some studies indicate that "tradition" can increase the readability of text, and that reading is disrupted when conventional printing arrangements are disrupted or violated. The standard for the Web and published books, magazines, and newspapers is single sentence spacing.
David Jury's book What is Typography? notes, "Changes in spacing either between letters and words, or between the words only ... do not appear to affect legibility. [These rather extraordinary conclusions are contrary to all other surveys on readability of texts.]"
A widespread observation is that increased sentence spacing creates "rivers" or "holes" within text, making it visually unattractive, distracting, and difficult to locate the end of sentences. Comprehensive works on typography describe the negative effect on readability caused by inconsistent spacing, which is supported in a 1981 study which found that "comprehension was significantly less accurate with the river condition." Another 1981 study on Cathode Ray Tube (CRT) displays concluded that "more densely packed text is read more efficiently … than is more loosely packed text." This statement is supported in other works as well. Canadian typographer Geoffrey Dowding suggests possible explanations of this phenomenon:A carefully composed text page appears as an orderly series of strips of black separated by horizontal channels of white space. Conversely, in a slovenly setting the tendency is for the page to appear as a grey and muddled pattern of isolated spats, this effect being caused by the over-widely separated words. The normal, easy, left-to-right movement of the eye is slowed down simply because of this separation; further, the short letters and serifs are unable to discharge an important function – that of keeping the eye on "the line". The eye also tends to be confused by a feeling of vertical emphasis, that is, an up & down movement, induced by the relative isolation of the words & consequent insistence of the ascending and descending letters. This movement is further emphasized by those "rivers" of white which are the inseparable & ugly accompaniment of all carelessly set text matter.Some studies suggest that readability can be improved by breaking sentences into separate units of thought—or varying the internal spacing of sentences. Mid-20th century research on this topic resulted in inconclusive findings. A 1980 study split sentences into 1–5 word phrases with additional spacing between segments. The study concluded that there was no significant difference in efficacy, but that a wider study was needed. Numerous other similar studies in 1951–1991 resulted in disparate and inconclusive findings. Finally, although various studies have been conducted on the readability of proportional vs. monospaced fonts, the studies typically did not decrease sentence spacing when using proportional fonts, or did not specify whether sentence spacing was changed.
See also
Leading
Scriptio continua
Notes and references
Bibliography
Further reading
External links
Punctuation
Typography
Whitespace |
4104220 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LNER%20locomotive%20numbering%20and%20classification | LNER locomotive numbering and classification | A number of different numbering and classification schemes were used for the locomotives owned by the London and North Eastern Railway (LNER) and its constituent companies. This page explains the principal systems that were used. The following abbreviations for the constituent companies are used on this page:
Principal Constituents
Great Central Railway (GCR), Great Eastern Railway (GER), Great Northern Railway (GNR), Great North of Scotland Railway (GNoSR), Hull and Barnsley Railway (HBR), North British Railway (NBR), and North Eastern Railway (NER)
Minor Companies (absorbed between July 1923 and July 1924)
Colne Valley and Halstead Railway (CV&HR), East and West Yorkshire Union Railway (E&WYUR), and Mid-Suffolk Light Railway (MSLR)
Later Additions
Midland and Great Northern Joint Railway (M&GNJR) - absorbed October 1936
Ex-Metropolitan Railway steam locomotives (via the London Passenger Transport Board) - absorbed November 1937
For information about individual classes and locomotives, see: Locomotives of the London and North Eastern Railway
Numbering
Constituent Companies
The constituent companies of the LNER operated no specific numbering system. Locomotives were numbered in a range starting from 1, with new locomotives being given numbers according to one of three different ways:
New numbers at the end of the existing series;
'Significant numbers' (e.g. the first of the GER's new passenger locomotive class built from 1900 was numbered '1900', leaving many preceding numbers unused); or
Filling in blanks left by the withdrawal of older locomotives, or their transfer to the 'duplicate list' (see below).
In the latter case, on the GER at least, some attempt was made to keep locomotives of the same class numbered in sequence. The GCR and GNoSR operated a strict policy of not permitting any gaps in the number series, nominally for accounting purposes, but this was not followed on other lines.
In 1922, the first step towards the 'Grouping' was taken, when the HBR was absorbed by the NER. At that time 3000 was added to the numbers of surviving HBR locomotives which left them well clear of the highest NER numbers then allocated (about 2350).
In almost all cases, the constituent companies used only steam locomotives. The NER had 13 electric lomotives, numbered 1-13, but this was in fact in the company's main locomotive list as the lowest-numbered steam locomotive was numbered 14. The NBR owned a petrol shunter, and this was numbered '1' in its own series.
Duplicate Lists
'Duplicate lists' were operated by most of the constituent companies in which older locomotives, whose capital costs had been written off but which were not yet ready for withdrawal, could be renumbered, releasing space in the main number range for new locomotives. A variety of different approaches to creating a duplicate list were employed:
GCR: 'B' suffix added
GER: '0' prefix added
GNR: 'A' suffix added
GNoSR: 'A' suffix added
NBR: 1000 added to original number
NER: Use of duplicate list abandoned before Grouping
Post-Grouping Numbering
When the LNER was created in 1923, it immediately set about finding a solution to the problem that many of its inherited locomotives carried the same numbers. The first solution, applied from September 1923 was to add a letter suffix to numbers that indicated the original owning company. The first column of the table below shows the letters applied in bold followed by an explanation of the letter in lighter type.
This solution was quickly abandoned as it meant that ex-NBR locomotives were carrying numbers that duplicated ex-GCR locomotives carried in their duplicate list. Indeed, this system would not have coped well with any of the locomotives in the constituent company's duplicate lists. Therefore, a new system was derived and applied from February 1924. This involved adding a multiple of thousands to each locomotive number, except:
Ex-NER locomotives which retained their original number;
Ex-HBR and ex-GCR duplicate list locomotives which were completely renumbered.
Other duplicate list locomotives were renumbered in the same manner as those in the capital list; i.e. with the prescribed multiple of thousands added, but retaining their prefix or suffix as appropriate. Departmental (non-revenue earning) locomotives continued to be numbered in their own, locally-applied, series.
The table below sets out the number ranges used for this system:
Note: At first, it was planned to renumber the ex-NBR duplicate list locomotives into blank numbers in the main ex-NBR series. This would have left the highest number allocated as 10050, but after only a handful of locomotives had been so treated, the scheme was abandoned and all duplicate list locomotives were renumbered with 9000 added to their original numbers.
Minor Companies
The LNER also absorbed locomotives from a number of smaller railway companies. Their locomotive stock were renumbered as follows:
Ex-CV&HR and MSLR: Being located in the ex-GER area, these locomotives took numbers 8312-8317, which were blank numbers in the GER series.
Ex-E&WYUR: Being located in the ex-GNR area, these locomotives took numbers 3112-3115, which were blank numbers in the GNR series
Ex-M&GNJR: These locomotives had a '0' added as a prefix to their numbers.
Ex-Metropolitan Railway: Being located in the ex-GCR operating area, these locomotives took numbers 6154-6163 and 6415-6422 in the GCR series.
New Locomotives
Immediately after Grouping, new engines were numbered in the series used by their constituent company that had ordered them; including the onward transfer of older locomotives to the appropriate duplicate list. Subsequently the new numbering systems of 1923 and 1924 were used in the same way.
Thereafter, new locomotives built to LNER designs were mostly numbered in blocks of unused numbers, keeping engines of the same class together. In general, the lowest available block of numbers were used (i.e. starting with the 2xxx numbers after the ex-HBR stock and moving upwards), but there were some exceptions:
Some engines built for work in a specific area took numbers in the range used for engines of the appropriate constituent company.
Some engines were given 'significant numbers' for publicity purposes, e.g. the experimental water tube boiler locomotive was allocated 10000, and the 'P2' class started at 2001.
There is evidence that there were cases where new engines were initially allocated numbers in one series according to one of the principles set out above, but these were changed before the engines were released into service in line with an alternative principle. For example, 'P2' class 2001 was originally allocated '2981' until it was decided to give it a 'significant number' instead.
1942 Renumbering
In October 1942, a limited renumbering of locomotives was undertaken to clear numbers in the 8300-8900 series for reuse by new locomotives. The following locomotives were affected:
However, this scheme was abandoned in early 1943, after only 38 locomotives had been renumbered. The reason was that new plans had been drawn up to carry out a wholesale renumbering of engines, as set out below. The engines that had been renumbered mostly continued to carry their 1942 numbers until the 1946 renumbering was implemented, though two reverted to their 1923 numbers to make way for new locomotive construction.
1944 Interim Renumbering
In the interim period between the new numbering system being devised (See below) and it being applied to engines from 1946, a number of temporary renumberings were undertaken to keep things in order. These included:
3157-3167 (10 survivors only) renumbered 3180-3189 to make way for new freight engines.
4075 renumbered to the 'significant number' of 2000 following its refurbishment for dedicated use hauling officers' saloons (resulting in old 2000 becoming 2050). This engine was briefly numbered 1 after refurbishment, during which time old 1 became 4075 before reverting to 1.
8000-8011 renumbered 7978-7989 to make way for new diesel shunters.
1946 Renumbering
The downside of the numbering system used by the LNER - and which had not been tackled by the 1942 renumbering - was that locomotives were carrying scattered numbers without reference to class, let alone type of locomotive. In 1943, a scheme was drawn up that would see a complete renumbering of the LNER stock, so that locomotives of the same class would be numbered together and placed in a series with classes of the same type. Only three locomotives would retain their previous numbers: one (Class W1 no. 10000) by design, the other two (Class J3 nos. 4125/6) by coincidence. Due to the pressures of World War II, the scheme was not actually implemented until 1946, but the basic principles remained the same, as set out in the table below:
In each class, individual engines were numbered in order of construction (with a small number of exceptions, most notably the 'A4' class where locomotives carrying the names of the LNER's directors were given 'significant numbers' 1-4).
Self-evidently the renumbering process was very complicated as the LNER was keen not to have two locomotives running in service with the same number. This meant renumbering engines whose new numbers were already vacant first and then following through the chain of renumberings.
There was a further complication in that part-way through the renumbering, there was a change of plan in terms of the numbers allocated in the 1-999 series (for reasons that are mostly unclear), the 1xxx series (to allow more space for new 'B1' class engines), and the 3xxx series (to allow more space for engines purchased from the War Department). This meant some of these engines were renumbered twice (106 in total - 59 of which were 'O1' or 'O4' engines). The changes were as follows:
In addition, there were a number of other minor changes from the original plan where engines had since been withdrawn, but in these cases the numbers allocated under the new plan were carried from the start and no additional renumbering was required.
Application by British Railways
New engines built by British Railways to ex-LNER designs after Nationalisation in 1948 continued to use this numbering system, albeit with 60000 added to the numbers to avoid number conflicts with other absorbed engines (see BR locomotive and multiple unit numbering and classification). There were some minor amendments made by BR, however:
Former LNER diesel and petrol shunters were numbered in the 15xxx series (though the petrol shunters initially carried their appropriate 68xxx series numbers until 1949), while the electric locomotives were numbered in the 26xxx series, leaving the 66xxx series unused.
LNER 10000 became 60700 as the 70xxx series was designated for standard BR steam designs
Ex-War Department freight locomotives, initially allocated their appropriate 6xxxx series numbers, were renumbered into the 90xxx series along with other engines of this type purchased by BR.
'L1' class engines, initially numbered from 9000 upwards by the LNER and 69000 upwards by BR, were quickly renumbered to 67701 upwards, where there was more space for new engine numbers. The 69000 series was then reused for new-build 'J72' locomotives.
In addition, older engines continued to be renumbered within the rules of the LNER numbering system to make way for new engines, particular production of the 'B1' and 'K1' classes.
Classification
Constituent Companies
Great Central Railway
From 1859, the GCR identified different classes using an alphanumeric system. The first list of classes was a simple list of numbers from 1 onward. Number 18 was the highest allocated. Thence, newly built classes received class numbers with a letter suffix rather than using more numbers. By 1923, the '9' series (the largest) had reached '9Q'. Of themselves the letters and numbers had no meaning; they appear to have been allocated randomly.
Where new classes were built, or existing classes rebuilt, these were often indicated by adding a more meaningful suffix to the existing alphanumeric class were used. Examples included:
ALT: Altered
B: Bogie version
CONV: Converted
I: Improved version
M: Motor train equipment fitted
T: Tank engine version
Locomotives inherited from the Lancashire, Derbyshire and East Coast Railway retained their existing classifications (lettered A to D) and the locomotive inherited from the Wrexham, Mold and Connah's Quay Railway was left unclassified.
Great Eastern Railway
The principal GER works at Stratford used an order number series that ran from A to Z, then A1 to Z1, A2 to Z2 and so on. This system was used for a myriad of items, including locomotives, but it was these numbers that were used to refer to locomotive classes. Self-evidently this meant there was no continuity in the GER locomotive classification system. The highest-numbered locomotive class was 'H88'.
Where more than one order number had been used for a given class, the first order number allocated was used to refer to the whole class. Where locomotives were purchased from outside manufacturers, they were referred to by the lowest number applied to a class member.
Great Northern Railway
From 1900, the GNR adopted a system of classification based on a locomotive's wheel arrangemenent (using the Whyte Notation), with each arrangement being represented by a letter. Initially, the letters A to J were allocated in ascending order of driving axles and descending order of leading axles. Letters K to O were allocated later as new types were introduced and A was re-used once all the 4-2-2 locomotives had been withdrawn. The full list of letters used was as follows:
After the letter was a number that identified broadly similar types, although there could be some significant variation within a single class number. In the main, numbers were allocated in descending order of driving wheel diameter.
Great North of Scotland Railway
In 1879, every class then in service was allocated a letter between 'A' and 'M' (except 'I'), the oldest types first. From then on, new classes either reused letters that had become free due to withdrawal of older engines, or were allocated a letter at the end of the series. Class 'U' was not used and the highest letter allocated was 'Y'.
Hull and Barnsley Railway
Classes were allocated a letter consecutively from 'A', with similar classes being allocated a numeric suffix, or an 'S' suffix to indicate Superheated. The last class letter allocated was 'L'. When the HBR was absorbed by the NER from April 1922, the suffix '(HB)' was added to all ex-HBR classes to differentiate them from NER classes.
North British Railway
In 1913, every locomotive then in service was allocated a letter indicating its power. Letters 'A' to 'G' were used for goods engines and shunters and 'H' to 'R' for passenger engines, most powerful types first. Letters 'O' and 'Q' were not used. This system did mean that each letter covered a variety of different classes of locomotive.
North Eastern Railway
Prior to 1886, classes were referred to by the number applied to the first built locomotive within that class. New classes built after 1886 were allocated a letter to describe them, commencing at A. Where new classes were a modification of an earlier class allocated a letter, then they were allocated that letter with a numeric suffix starting at 1. The series reached Z in 1911. The next new class was allocated 'D', which had become vacant following rebuilding of the original class to take that letter.
There were some exceptions to this system:
Class BTP: A series of Bogie Tank Passenger locomotives built in 1874.
Class 3CC and 4CC: A series of 3- and 4-Cylinder Compound locomotives.
Class 4-6-2: The five 4-6-2 locomotives built in 1922.
Minor Companies
The three minor companies absorbed by the LNER in 1923 and 1924 were too small to need to classify their locomotive stock. However, both the M&GNJR and Metropolitan Railway had owned a much larger stock of locomotives. Both railways allocated each class a letter consecutively from 'A'. The highest letter issued by the M&GNJR was 'D', and by the Metropolitan was 'K'.
LNER System
Steam Locomotives
When the LNER was created in 1923, a new classification scheme was drawn up that could accommodate all the inherited steam locomotives and future new classes, and provide useful information about the features of a given class. The answer, approved in September 1923, was a variation of the GNR system, using a letter to indicate each type's wheel arrangement (based on the Whyte Notation).
The letters were allocated with passenger engine arrangements first in descending order of coupled wheels ('A' to 'H'), then goods engine arrangements in ascending order of coupled wheels ('J' to 'T'). Letters 'X' to 'Z' were used for a variety of small engine arrangements. Letters 'I' and 'U' to 'W' were left unused at the time, but the latter three were later applied when new wheel arrangements were introduced; I was never used. The full list of letters used was as follows:
The letter 'Z' was initially intended for all miscellaneous classes, including departmental (non-revenue earning types), no matter what their wheel arrangement. However, this application was abandoned in 1927 and the letter was used solely for 0-4-2 types from then onwards.
After the letter was a number, which was unique to a particular class of locomotive. In 1923, these numbers were allocated (with a small number of exceptions) in the following order:
Tender engines first, then tank engines (except letters 'X' and 'Y')
Ex-GNR classes first, then ex-GCR, GER, NER (including HBR), NBR and GNoSR classes
In order of driving wheel diameter, largest first
In order of age, oldest first
In order to indicate variations within a class, subclass numbers were issued, taking the form of a suffix to the main class number, e.g. 'D17/1'.
New build and converted locomotives to LNER designs were allocated class numbers in appropriate gaps in the series. On occasions, this led to the re-use of class numbers left vacant following withdrawal or rebuilding of its members. This occurred only infrequently up to 1941, but became more common thereafter. Indeed, on occasions, older classes in the course of withdrawal were reclassified so that new types could have lower numbers; e.g. the old 'B1' class became 'B18' to make room for the new standard LNER 4-6-0 type.
During 1942, three new types were allocated the appropriate letter classification ('A', 'B' and 'D') but without any suffix number; these were prototypes for what were planned to be the new standard LNER classes. However, this approach was not maintained, and the production types were allocated standard class numbers.
A number of classes inherited by the LNER were not formally allocated a place in the new system. Most of these were one-off or departmental engines, or types slated for early withdrawal, although some of the latter survived in stock through to 1928. However, there were some curious gaps in the formal list of class numbers allocated in 1923, and it may be that some of these unused numbers were nominally intended for these classes. Other gaps in the list were clearly left to allow space for the construction of new classes, and many of these gaps were filled in due course.
Engines absorbed from the smaller companies during 1923-1924 (the CV&HR, E&WYUR and MSLR) were either withdrawn before a classification could be allocated or were fitted into appropriate gaps in the class list. For the ex-M&GNJR engines (absorbed 1936), their original single letter classification was maintained through to 1942 when they were, at last, allocated class numbers at the end of the appropriate series. The only exceptions were engines that were identical to ex-GNR designs, which adopted the latter's classification. In contrast, the ex-Metropolitan Railway engines (absorbed 1937) were allocated LNER classifications immediately.
Modern Traction
Diesel and electric locomotives were given three-part classifications, commencing with either 'DE' for Diesel (electric transmission), 'DM' for Diesel (mechanical transmission) or 'E' for Electric, then 'B' for Banking, 'E' for Express, 'M' for Mixed Traffic or 'S' for Shunter, and finally a number issued to different types consecutively from 1.
Note: The LNER's petrol shunters were initially unclassified. When they were allocated a class number in the 1940s, it was 'Y11' in the steam locomotive class series. Similarly, the diesel electric shunters were initially allocated 'J45', being reclassified 'DES1' from September 1945.
References
London and North Eastern Railway
Locomotive classification systems |
4104307 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ben%20Kerkvliet | Ben Kerkvliet | Benedict John Kerkvliet (born 1943) is Emeritus Professor at the Department of Political and Social Change, School of International, Political & Strategic Studies, Australian National University. He works across the areas of comparative politics, Southeast Asia and Asian studies. Kerkvliet was born and raised in Montana, surrounded by working-class relatives and friends for whom political discussion and debate were part of life. After graduating from the local public high schools, he earned his B.A. at Whitman College (Walla Walla, Washington) and his M.A. and Ph.D. at University of Wisconsin–Madison. He taught at the University of Hawaiʻi at Mānoa) for nearly twenty years before joining the Australian National University in 1992 where he was a Professor and Head of the Department of Political and Social Change, Research School of Pacific and Asian Studies. Kerkvliet currently resides in Hawaiʻi with his wife Melinda.
Research
Kerkvliet is fascinated with how ordinary people deal with big pressures on their lives. He has emphasized research on agrarian politics in Southeast Asia. Closely related is his study of interactions between ordinary people and authorities or other elites. He is currently doing research on local reactions to major recent national policies in the Philippines and Vietnam.
Career highlights
Kerkvliet taught Political Science and Southeast Asian Studies at the University of Hawaiʻi from 1971 to 1991. He has been teaching at Australian National University since 1991. He has received various international fellowships and awards for research and teaching in Asia, Australia, Europe and America. Most importantly, Kerkvliet enjoys working with industrious graduate students and living in and doing research in the Philippines and Vietnam.
Works
Key Publications
Books
Political Change in the Philippines: Studies of Local Politics Prior to Martial Law, editor, (Honolulu: The University Press of Hawaii, 1974).
The Huk Rebellion: A Study of Peasant Revolt in the Philippines (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1977; paperback edition, 1982) (Reprinted in a Philippine edition by New Day Press, Quezon City, 1979 and several times since; Reprinted with addition of a bibliographic essay, Boulder: Rowman & Littlefield, 2002)
Everyday Forms of Resistance in Southeast Asia, co-edited with James C. Scott, (London: Frank Cass, 1986), originally a special issue of Journal of Peasant Studies 13 (January 1986).
Everyday Politics in the Philippines: Class and Status Relations in a Central Luzon Village (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990, paperback and hardback). Reprinted in a Philippine edition by New Day Press, Quezon City, 1991 (Reprinted with addition of "Postscript" (pages 274–289) and bibliography, Boulder: Rowman & Littlefield, 2002)
From Marcos to Aquino: Local Perspectives on Political Transition in the Philippines, co-edited with Resil Mojares, (Quezon City: Ateneo de Manila University Press, 1991; and Honolulu: University of Hawaiʻi Press, 1992).
Dilemmas of Development: Vietnam Update 1994, editor, (Canberra: Department of Political and Social Change, ANU 1995).
Vietnam's Rural Transformation, co-edited with Doug J. Porter (Boulder: Westview Press, and Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, 1995).
Transforming Asian Socialism: China and Vietnam Compared, co-edited with Anita Chan and Jonathan Unger (Sydney: Allen and Unwin; and Boulder: Rowman & Littlefield, 1999).
Mot so Van De ve Nong Nghieip, Nong Dan, Nong Thon o cac Nuoc va Viet Nam [Some issues regarding agriculture, peasants, and the countryside abroad and in Vietnam], co-edited with Nguyen Quang Ngoc and James C. Scott (Hanoi: NXB The Gioi – World Publishing House, 2000).
Getting Organized in Vietnam: Moving in and around the Socialist State, co-editor with Russell H. K. Heng and David W. H. Koh (Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, 2003).
Beyond Hanoi: Local Government in Vietnam, co-edited with David G. Marr (Singapore and Copenhagen: ISEAS Publications and NIAS Press, 2004).
The Power of Everyday Politics: How Vietnamese Peasants Transformed National Policy (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2005). (co-published for an Asia edition with the Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, Singapore)
Speaking Out in Vietnam: Public Political Criticism in a Communist Party-Ruled Nation (Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press, 2019). (co-published by ISEAS Publishing, Singapore, for distribution in Southeast Asia)
Selected articles and other writings
"A Critique of Raymond Aron's Theory of War and Prescriptions," International Studies Quarterly, 12 (December 1968): pages 419-442
"Additional Source Materials on Philippine Radical Movements," Bulletin of Concerned Asian Scholars, 3 (Summer-Fall 1971): pages 83-90.
"Peasant Society and Unrest Prior to the Huk Rebellion in the Philippines," Asian Studies, 9 (August 1971): pages 164-213.
"Peasant Rebellion in the Philippines: The Origins and Growth of the HMB," (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Wisconsin, Madison, 1972).
"A Critique of the RAND Report on the Philippines," Journal of Asian Studies, 32 (May 1973): pages 489-500.
"Politics of Survival: Peasant Responses to 'Progress' in Southeast Asia," Journal of Southeast Asian Studies, 4 (September 1973): pages 241-268. Co-authored with James C. Scott.
"How Traditional Rural Patrons Lose Legitimacy: A Theory with Special Reference to Southeast Asia," Cultures et developpement, 5:3 (1973): pages 500-540. Co-authored with James C. Scott. Reprinted in Steffen W. Schmidt, et al. (eds.), Friends, Followers, and Factions: A Reader in Political Clientelism (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1977), pages 439–457.
"The Philippines: Agrarian Conditions in Luzon Prior to Martial Law," Bulletin of Concerned Asian Scholars, 5 (September 1973): pages 36-40.
"Agrarian Conditions Since the Huk Rebellion: A Barrio in Central Luzon," in Kerkvliet, ed., Political Change in the Philippines: Studies of Local Politics Prior to Martial Law (Honolulu: The University Press of Hawaii, 1974), pages 1–76.
"All Show, No Go: Land Reform in the Philippines," The Nation, 11 May 1974, pages 586–589.
Testimony about conditions in the Philippines, U.S. Senate, Subcommittee on Foreign Operations (24 May 1974), and House of Representatives, Subcommittee on Asian and Pacific Affairs (5 June 1974). Printed in the Congressional Record, 120 (4 June 1974): S-9564-70.
"Land Reform in the Philippines Since the Marcos Coup," Pacific Affairs, 47 (Fall 1974): pages 286-304.
"Peasants and Marxists in Asia: A Review Article," Peasant Studies, 6 (October 1975): pages 7-11.
"Land Reform: Emancipation or Counterinsurgency?" in David A. Rosenberg, ed., Marcos and Martial Law in the Philippines (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1979), pages 113–144.
"Difference among Philippine Peasants: A Provincial Sample," Philippine Sociological Review, 27 (July 1979): pages 133-159. Co-authored with Werasit Sittitrai.
"Resources for Research on Local Philippine Society," Philippine Studies Newsletter, 8 (October 1980): pages 3-9.
"Classes and Class Relations in a Philippine Village," Philippine Sociological Review, 28 (January–December 1980): pages 31-50.
"The Meaning of Martial Law in a Nueva Ecija Village, the Philippines," Bulletin of Concerned Asian Scholars, 14 (October–December 1982): pages 2-19.
"Profiles of Agrarian Reform in a Nueva Ecija Village," in Antonio Ledesma, et al., eds., Second View From the Paddy (Quezon City: Ateneo de Manila University Press, 1983), pages 41–58.
"Possible Demise of the Marcos Regime," Crossroads: Journal of Southeast Asian Studies, 1 (October 1983): pages 67-83.
"Documentary Methods: Review of Two Films," Pilipinas: A Journal of Philippine Studies, 5 (Fall 1985): pages 110-113.
"Everyday Resistance to Injustice in a Philippine Village," Journal of Peasant Studies, 13 (January 1986): 107-123; also in Scott and Kerkvliet, ed., Everyday Forms of Peasant Resistance in Southeast Asia (London: Frank Cass, 1986).
"Patterns of Philippine Resistance and Rebellion, 1970-1986," Pilipinas: A Journal of Philippine Studies, 6 (Spring 1986): pages 35-52.
"Peasants and Agricultural Workers: Implications for United States Policy," in Carl Lande (ed.), Rebuilding a Nation: Philippine Challenges and American Policy (Washington, D.C.: The Washington Institute, 1987), pages 205–218.
"'We Are Being Oppressed by Those Already Well Off': Political Thought and Action of Wage Workers in Rural Central Luzon, the Philippines," in Michael Pinches and Salim Lakha, eds., Wage Labour and Social Change in Asia (Clayton, Victoria: Centre of Southeast Asian Studies, Monash University, 1988), pages 67–92 (also Quezon City: New Day Press, 1992, pages 68–94).
"Understanding Politics in a Rural Community During the Transition from Marcos to Aquino," in Kerkvliet and Mojares, eds., From Marcos to Aquino (Quezon City: Ateneo de Manila University Press, 1991), pages 226–46.
"The Transition from Marcos to Aquino," co-authored with Resil Mojares, in Kerkvliet and Mojares, eds., From Marcos to Aquino, pages 1–12.
"Claiming the Land: Take-overs by Villagers in the Philippines with Comparisons to Indonesia, Peru, Portugal, and Russia," Journal of Peasant Studies 20 (April 1993): pages 459-493.
"State-Village Relations in Vietnam: Contested Cooperatives and Collectivization." Working Paper, Centre of Southeast Asian Studies, Monash University, 1993. 28 pages.
"Withdrawal and Resistance: the Political Significance of Food, Agriculture, and How People Lived During the Japanese Occupation in the Philippines," in Laurie Sears, ed., Autonomous Histories, Particular Truths: Essays in Honor of John Smail. (Madison: University of Wisconsin–Madison, 1993), 175-94. An earlier appeared in Bernd Martin and Alan Milward, eds., Agriculture and Food Supply in World War Two (West Germany: Scripta Mercaturae, 1985), pages 297–316.
"Politics of Society in the Mid 1990s," in Ben Kerkvliet, ed., Dilemmas of Development: Vietnam Update 1994 (Canberra: Political and Social Change, Australian National University, 1995), pages 5–44.
"Village-State Relations in Vietnam: The Effect of Everyday Politics on Decollectivization," Journal of Asian Studies, 54 (May 1995): pages 396-418.
"Rural Vietnam in Rural Asia," co-authored with Doug J. Porter, in Kerkvliet and Porter, eds., Vietnam's Rural Transformation (Boulder: Westview Press, and Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, 1995), pages 1–38.
"Rural Society and State Relations in Vietnam," in Kerkvliet and Porter, eds., Vietnam's Rural Transformation.
"Toward a More Comprehensive Analysis of Philippine Politics: Beyond the Patron-Client, Factional Framework," Journal of Southeast Asian Studies, 26(September 1995): pages 401-19.
"Contemporary Philippine Leftist Politics in Historical Perspective," in Patricio Abinales, ed., The Revolution Falters: The Left in Philippine Politics after 1986 (Ithaca, New York: Southeast Asia Program, Cornell University, 1996), pages 9–27.
"Contested Meanings of Elections in the Philippines," in R. H. Taylor, ed., The Politics of Elections in Southeast Asia (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, and Washington, D.C.: Woodrow Wilson Center Press, 1996), pages 136–63.
"Partial Impressions of Society in Vietnam," in Adam Fforde, ed., Doi Moi: Ten Years after the 1986 Party Congress (Canberra: Dept. of Political and Social Change, Research School of Pacific and Asian Studies, 1997), pp. 47–79.
"Land Struggles and Land Regimes in the Philippines and Vietnam during the Twentieth Century," Wertheim Lecture (Amsterdam: Centre for Asian Studies Amsterdam, 1997), 40 pages.
"Comparing the Chinese and Vietnamese Reforms: An Introduction," co-authored with Anita Chan and Jonathan Unger, The China Journal 40(July 1998): pages 1-7.
"Agrarian Transformations in China and Vietnam," co-authored with Mark Selden, The China Journal 40 (July 1998): pages 37-58.
"Land Regimes and State Strengths and Weaknesses in the Philippines and Vietnam," in Peter Dauvergne, ed., Weak and Strong States in Asia-Pacific Societies (Sydney: Allen and Unwin, 1998), pages 158–174.
“Wobbly Foundations: Building Co-operatives in Rural Vietnam,” Southeast Asia Research 6 (November 1998): pages 193-251.
“Comparing Vietnam and China,” co-authored with Anita Chan, Benedict Kerkvliet, and Jonathan Unger, in our edited book Transforming Asian Socialism: China and Vietnam Compared (Sydney: Allen and Unwin, 1999), pages 1–14.
"Accelerating Cooperatives in Rural Vietnam, 1955-1961," in Bernhard Dahm and Vincent J. H. Hauben, eds., Vietnamese Villages in Transition (Passau: Department of Southeast Asian Studies, Passau University, 1999), pages 53–88.
"Dialogical Law Making and Implementation in Vietnam," in Alice Tay, ed., East Asia, Human Rights, Nation Building and Trade (Baden-Baden, Germany: Nomos Verlagsgesellschaft, 1999), pages 372–400.
"Advocating Vietnam Studies: Phan Huy Le and the Center for Vietnam Studies and Cultural Exchange," in Philippe Papin and John Kleinen, eds., Liber Amirorum: Melanges offerts au Professeur Phan Huy Le (Hanoi: NXB Thanh Nien, 1999), pages 103–17.
"Manuela Santa Ana vda. de Maclang and Philippine Politics," in Alfred McCoy, ed., Lives at the Margin: Biography of Filipinos Obscure, Ordinary, and Heroic (Madison: Center for Southeast Asian Studies, University of Wisconsin–Madison; and Quezon City: Ateneo de Manila University Press, 2000), pages 389–421.
“Political Ironies in the Philippines,” forward for book by Jennifer Conroy Franco, Campaigning for Democracy: Grassroots Citizenship Movements, Less-The-Democratic Elections, and Regime Transition in the Philippines (Quezon City: Institute for Popular Democracy, 2000), pages xv-xxii (New York City: Routledge, 2001), pages xxi-xxiv.
"Analyzing the State in Vietnam," Sojourn: Journal of Social Issues in Southeast Asia 16:2 (2001): pages 179-86.
"An Approach for Analyzing State-Society Relations in Vietnam," Sojourn: Journal of Social Issues in Southeast Asia 16:2 (2001): pages 238-78.
"Reverberations of Freedom in the Philippines and Vietnam," in Robert Taylor, ed., Freedom in Africa and Asia (Palo Alto: Stanford University Press, 2002), pages 182–213, 297-308.
"Grappling with Organizations and the State in Contemporary Vietnam," in Benedict J. Tria Kerkvliet, Russell H. K. Heng, and David W. H. Koh, eds., Getting Organized in Vietnam: Moving in and around the Socialist State (Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, 2003), pages 1–24.
"Authorities and the People: An Analysis of State-Society Relations in Vietnam," in Hy V. Luong, ed., Postwar Vietnam: Dynamics of a Transforming Society (Boulder: Rowman & Littlefield, and Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, 2003), pages 27–53.
“Agrarian Policy Renovation in Vietnam from the Bottom Up,” Taiwan Journal of Southeast Asian Studies 1 (October 2004): pages 19-36.
"Surveying Local Government and Authority in Contemporary Vietnam," in Benedict J. Tria Kerkvliet and David G. Marr, eds., Beyond Hanoi: Local Government in Vietnam (Singapore and Copenhagen: ISEAS Publications and NIAS Press, 2004), pages 1–27.
"Politics in Vietnam’s Red River Delta in the 1970s-1980s (and Why it is Relevant to the 2000s)," in Edwina Palmer, ed., Asian Futures, Asian Traditions (Kent: Global Oriental, 2005), pages 143–56.
"Political Expectations and Democracy in the Philippines and Vietnam," Philippine Political Science Journal, 26 (no. 49, 2005): pages 1-26.
"Agricultural Land in Vietnam: Markets Tempered by Family, Community and Socialist Practices," Journal of Agrarian Change 6 (July 2006): pages 285-305.
"In-Depth Research and Knowledge Accumulation About Agrarian Politics in Southeast Asia," in Erik Martinez Kuhonta, Dan Slater, and Tuong Vu, eds., Southeast Asia in Political Science: Theory, Region, and Qualitative Analysis (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2008), pages 129-43.
"Forms of Engagement between State Agencies & Civil Society Organizations in Vietnam," co-written with Nguyễn Quang A and Bạch Tân Sinh. Prepared for the VUFO-NGO Resource Centre, Hanoi, December 2008 (63 pages).
"Everyday Politics in Peasant Societies (and Ours)," Journal of Peasant Studies, 36:1 (2009): pages 227-43. Reprinted in Critical Perspectives in Rural Development Studies, pages 215–31, edited by Saturnino M. Borras Jr. (London: Routledge, 2010).
"Southeast Asia," in R.A.W. Rhodes, ed., The Australian Study of Politics (England: Palgrave Macmillan, 2009), pages 257-67.
"Workers’ Protests in Contemporary Vietnam (with Some Comparisons to those in the Pre-1975 South)," Journal of Vietnamese Studies, 5:1 (2010): pages 162-204. Republished with some revisions as "Workers' Protests in Contemporary Vietnam," in Labour in Vietnam, edited by Anita Chan (Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, 2011), pages 160-210.
"Governance, Development, and the Responsive-Repressive State in Vietnam," Forum for Development Studies 37 (March 2010): pages 33-60.
"A Different View of Insurgencies," In Search of a Human Face: 15 Years of Knowledge Building for Human Development in the Philippines (Quezon City: Human Development Network, 2010), pages 268-79.
“Government Repression and Toleration in Contemporary Vietnam,” Working Paper 119, Southeast Asia Research Centre, City University of Hong Kong, 2012.
Small articles, mainly on aspects of Philippine history, society, and politics have been published in the Encyclopedia of Asian History (New York: Scribners, 1987), Encyclopedia of Political Revolutions (Washington, D.C.: Congressional Quarterly Books, 1998), Los Angeles Times, International Herald Tribune, Honolulu Star-Bulletin, Honolulu Advertiser, and The Australian
External links
Vietnam Studies Association of Australia
Living people
Whitman College alumni
University of Wisconsin–Madison alumni
American political scientists
Writers from Montana
University of Hawaiʻi at Mānoa faculty
1943 births
Academic staff of the Australian National University |
4104602 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1795%E2%80%931820%20in%20Western%20fashion | 1795–1820 in Western fashion | Fashion in the period 1795–1820 in European and European-influenced countries saw the final triumph of undress or informal styles over the brocades, lace, periwigs and powder of the earlier 18th century. In the aftermath of the French Revolution, no one wanted to appear to be a member of the French aristocracy, and people began using clothing more as a form of individual expression of the true self than as a pure indication of social status. As a result, the shifts that occurred in fashion at the turn of the 19th century granted the opportunity to present new public identities that also provided insights into their private selves. Katherine Aaslestad indicates how "fashion, embodying new social values, emerged as a key site of confrontation between tradition and change."
For women's dress, the day-to-day outfit of the skirt and jacket style were practical and tactful, recalling the working-class woman. Women's fashions followed classical ideals, and stiffly boned stays were abandoned in favor of softer, less boned corsets. This natural figure was emphasized by being able to see the body beneath the clothing. Visible breasts were part of this classical look, and some characterized the breasts in fashion as solely aesthetic and sexual.
This era of British history is known as the Regency period, marked by the regency between the reigns of George III and George IV. But the broadest definition of the period, characterized by trends in fashion, architecture, culture, and politics, begins with the French Revolution of 1789 and ends with Queen Victoria's 1837 accession. The names of popular people who lived in this time are still famous: Napoleon and Josephine, Juliette Récamier, Jane Austen, Percy Bysshe Shelley, Lord Byron, Beau Brummell, Lady Emma Hamilton, Queen Louise of Prussia and her husband and many more. Beau Brummell introduced trousers, perfect tailoring, and unadorned, immaculate linen as the ideals of men's fashion.
In Germany, republican city-states relinquished their traditional, modest, and practical garments and started to embrace the French and English fashion trends of short-sleeved chemise dresses and Spencer jackets. American fashion trends emulated French dress, but in a toned-down manner, with shawls and tunics to cope with the sheerness of the chemise. Spanish majos, however, rebelled against foppish French Enlightenment ideals by reclaiming and elaborating upon traditional Spanish dress.
By the end of the eighteenth century, a major shift in fashion was taking place that extended beyond changes in mere style to changes in philosophical and social ideals. Prior to this time, the style and traditions of the Ancien Régime prevented the conceptualization of "the self". Instead, one's identity was considered malleable; subject to change depending on what clothes one was wearing. However, by the 1780s, the new, "natural" style allowed one's inner self to transcend their clothes.
During the 1790s, there was a new concept of the internal and external self. Before this time, there had only been one self, which was expressed through clothing. When going to a masquerade ball, people wore specific clothing, so they could not show their individuality through their clothing. Incorporated in this new "natural" style was the importance of ease and comfort of one's dress. Not only was there a new emphasis on hygiene, but also clothing became much lighter and more able to be changed and washed frequently. Even upper-class women began wearing cropped dresses as opposed to dresses with long trains or hoops that restricted them from leaving their homes. The subsequent near stasis of the silhouette inspired volumes of new trims and details on heavily trimmed skirts back into fashion. In the Regency years, complicated historic and orientalist elements provided lavish stylistic displays as such details were a vigorous vehicle for conspicuous consumption given their labor-intensive fabrications, and therefore a potent signifier of hierarchy for the upper classes who wore the styles. This kind of statement was particularly noticeable in profuse trimmings, especially on skirts where unrestrained details were common, along with cut edge details and edge trims.
Women's fashion was also influenced by male fashion, such as tailored waistcoats and jackets to emphasize women's mobility. This new movement toward practicality of dress showed that dress became less of a way to solely categorize between classes or genders; dress was meant to suit one's personal daily routine. It was also during this time period that the fashion magazine and journal industry began to take off. They were most often monthly (often competing) periodicals that allowed men and women to keep up with the ever-changing styles.
Influence of the Industrial Revolution
In the late 18th century, clothes were mostly sold by individual shopkeepers who were often the artisans who made the goods. Customers usually lived in the same neighborhood as the shops and the shops would gain popularity by their customers' word-of–mouth recommendation, with the exception of warehouses (i.e., any retail on wholesale), where goods being sold were not necessarily made in the shop. However, things started to change during the transition to the 19th century. People sought efficiency and variety; under the influence of the Industrial Revolution, improved transportation and introduction of machines in manufacturing allowed fashion to develop at an even faster pace.
The first sewing machine emerged in 1790, and later, Josef Madersperger began developing his first sewing machine in 1807, presenting his first working machine in 1814. The introduction of the sewing machine sped up garment production. However, it had no widespread social impact until the 1840s, and clothing was entirely made by hand in the period to 1820. Meanwhile, advanced spinning, weaving and cotton-printing techniques developed in the 18th century had already brought cheaper, widely available washable fabrics. These durable and affordable fabrics became popular among the larger population. These techniques were further developed by the introduction of machines. Before, accessories like embroidery and lace were manufactured on a small and limited scale by skilled craftsmen and sold in their own shops; in 1804, a machine for embroidering was constructed by John Duncan, and people started producing these essential accessories in factories and dispatching the products to shops throughout the country. These technical developments in clothing production allowed a greater variety of styles; rapid changes in fashion also became possible.
The Industrial Revolution bridged Europe and America with regards to travel. When Louis Simond first arrived in America, he was struck by the mobility of the population and frequency of people made trips to the capital, writing "you meet nowhere with those persons who never were out of their native place, and whose habits are wholly local — nobody above poverty
who has not visited London once in his life; and most of those who can, visit once a year.' New canals and railways not only transported people, but created national and even broader markets by transporting goods manufactured in factories at great distances. The rise of industry throughout the Western world increased garment production and people were encouraged to travel more widely and purchase more goods than ever before.
Communication was also improved in this era. New ideas about fashion were conveyed by little dolls dressed in the latest style, newspapers, and illustrated magazines; for example, La Belle Assemblée, founded by John Bell, was a British women's magazine published from 1806 to 1837. It was known for its fashion plates of contemporary fashions, demonstrating ways for women to dress and create ensembles.
Changes in fashion
1790s:
Women: "age of undress"; dressing like statues coming to life; Greek fashion started to inspire the current fashion, and fillet-Greek classical hairstyles and high waisted clothing with a more triangular hem started to find its way; pastel fabrics; natural makeup; bare arms; blonde wigs; accessorized with: hats, Draped turban, gloves, jewelry, small handbags – reticules, shawls, handkerchiefs; parasols; fans; Maja: layered skirt
Men: trousers with perfect tailoring; linen; coats cutaway in the front with long tails; cloaks; hats; the Dandy; Majo: short jacket
1800s:
Women: short hair; white hats; trim, feathers, lace; Egyptian and Eastern influences in jewelry and apparel; shawls; hooded-overcoats; hair: masses of curls, sometimes pulled back into a bun
Men: linen shirts w. high collars; tall hats; hair: short and wigless, à la Titus or Bedford Crop, but often with some long locks left coming down
1810s:
Women: soft, subtle, sheer classical drapes; raised back waist of high-waisted dresses; short-fitted single-breasted jackets; morning dress; walking dress; evening dress; riding habits; bare bosoms and arms; hair: parted in the center, tight ringlets over the ears
Men: fitted, single-breasted tailcoats; cravats wrapped up to the chin; sideburns and "Brutus style" natural hair; tight breeches; silk stockings; accessorized with: gold watches, cane, hats outside.
1820s:
Women: dress waistlines began to drop; elaborate hem and neckline decoration; cone-shaped skirts; sleeves pinched
Men: overcoats/greatcoats w. fur or velvet collars; the Garrick coat; Wellington boots; jockey boots
Women's fashion
Overview
In this period, fashionable women's clothing styles were based on a high, under the bust waistline, only called the Empire silhouette in the 20th century — dresses were closely fitted to the torso just under the bust, falling loosely below. In different contexts, such styles are now commonly called "Directoire style" (referring to the Directory government of France during the second half of the 1790s), "Empire style" (referring to Napoleon's 1804–1814/1815 empire, and often also to his 1800–1804 "consulate"), or "Regency" (loosely used to refer to various periods between the 18th century and the Victorian). Empire silhouette and Directoire style were not used at the time these styles were worn.
These 1795–1820 fashions were quite different from the styles prevalent during most of the 18th century and the rest of the 19th century when women's clothes were generally tight against the torso from the natural waist upwards, and heavily full-skirted below (often inflated by means of hoop skirts, crinolines, panniers, bustles, etc.). Women's fashion around this time started to follow classical ideals, inspired by the ancient Greek and Roman style with its gracious, loosely falling dresses that were gathered or just accentuated over the natural waist under the bust. For women, heavily boned stays gave way to a celebration of the natural form. Bodices were short with waistlines falling just below the bust. Fashion fabrics such as cotton muslin were light to the point of being sheer, however, printed heavier cottons, wools and other textiles were also popular.
Gowns
Inspired by neoclassical tastes, 'undress' was the style of the day, casual and informal. It was the type of gown a woman wore from morning until noon or later depending on her social engagements of the day. The short-waisted dresses sported soft, loose skirts and were often made of white, almost transparent muslin, which was easily washed and draped loosely like the garments on Greek and Roman statues. Since the fabric clung to the body, revealing what was underneath, it made nudity à la grecque a centerpiece of public spectacle. Satin was sometimes worn for evening wear. 'Half Dress' is thought of as how one would dress when going out during the day or meeting with guests.' Full Dress' was what a lady wore to formal events, day or night. 'Evening Dress' was only appropriate at evening affairs. Thus during the 1795–1820 period, it was often possible for middle- and upper-class women to wear clothes that were not very confining or cumbersome, and still be considered decently and fashionably dressed.
Among middle- and upper-class women there was a basic distinction between morning dress (worn at home in the afternoons as well as mornings) and evening attire — generally, both men and women changed clothes in preparation for the evening meal and possible entertainments to follow. There were also further gradations such as afternoon dress, walking dress, riding habits, traveling dress, dinner dress, etc.
In the Mirror of Graces; or the English Lady's Costume, published in London in 1811, the author ("a Lady of Distinction") advised:
Mourning dresses were worn to show the mourning of a loved one. They were high-necked and long-sleeved, covering throat and wrists, generally plain and black, and devoid of decoration.
Gowns (now restricted to formal occasions) were often extravagantly trimmed and decorated with lace, ribbons, and netting. They were cut low and sported short sleeves, baring bosoms. Bared arms were covered by long white gloves. Our Lady of Distinction, however, cautions young women from displaying their bosoms beyond the boundaries of decency, saying, "The bosom and shoulders of a very young and fair girl may be displayed without exciting much displeasure or disgust."
A Lady of Distinction also advised young ladies to wear softer shades of color, such as pinks, periwinkle blue, or lilacs. The mature matron could wear fuller colors, such as purple, black, crimson, deep blue, or yellow.
Many women of this era remarked upon how being fully dressed meant the bosom and shoulders were bare, and yet being under-dressed would mean one's neckline went right up to one's chin.
Silhouette
Due to the importance of showing social status, the fashion industry was very much influenced by society during the Regency era. One's position was determined by the person's wealth, etiquette, family status, intelligence, and beauty. Women financially and socially relied on their husbands. The only socially-acceptable activities in which women could participate centered around social gatherings and fashion, the most important component of which was attending evening parties. These parties helped to build relationships and connection with others. As etiquette dictated different standards of attire for different events, afternoon dress, evening dress, evening full dress, ball dress, and different types of dresses were popular.
Women's fashion in the Regency era started to change drastically. It popularized the empire silhouette, which featured a fitted bodice and high waist. This "new natural style" emphasized the beauty of the body's natural lines. Clothing became lighter and easier to care for than in the past. Women often wore several layers of clothing, typically undergarments, gowns, and outerwear. The chemise, the standard undergarment of the era, prevented the thin, gauzy dresses from being fully transparent. Outerwear, such as the spencer and the pelisse, were popular.
The empire silhouette was created in the late 18th century to about the early 19th century and referred to the period of the First French Empire. This adoption had been linked with France's neoclassical taste for Greek principles. In fact, however, its genealogy is much more complex. It was first worn by the French queen, whose reference was Caribbean, not Greek. The style was often worn in white to denote as high social status. Josephine Bonaparte was one of the figureheads for the Empire waistline, with her elaborated and decorated Empire line dresses. Regency women followed the Empire style along with the same trend of raised waistlines as French styles, even when their countries were at war. Starting from the 1780s and early 1790s, women's silhouette became slimmer and the waistlines crept up. After 1795, waistlines rose dramatically and the skirt circumference was further reduced. A few years later, England and France started to show the focus of the high waist style and this led to the creation of Empire style.
The style began as part of Neoclassical fashion, reviving styles from Greco-Roman art which showed women wearing loose-fitting rectangular tunics known as peplos which were belted under the bust, providing support for women and a cool, comfortable outfit especially in a warm climate. The empire silhouette was defined by the waistline, which was positioned directly under the bust. The Empire silhouette was the key style in women's clothing during the Regency era. The dresses were usually light, long, and fit loosely, they were usually in white and often sheer from the ankle to just below the bodice which strongly emphasized thin hem and tied around the body. A long rectangular shawl or wrap, very often plain red but with a decorated border in portraits, helped in colder weather and was apparently lain around the midriff when seated—for which sprawling semi-recumbent postures were favored. The dresses had a fitted bodice and it gave a high-waist appearance.
The style had waxed and waned in fashion for hundreds of years. The shape of the dresses also helped to lengthen the body's appearance. The clothing can also be draped to maximize the bust. Lightweight fabrics were typically used to create a flowing effect. Also, ribbon, sash, and other decorative features were used to highlight the waistline. The empire gowns were often with a low neckline and short sleeves and women usually wore them as for formal occasions. On the other hand, day dresses had a higher neckline and long sleeves. The chemisette was a staple for fashionable ladies. Although there were now differences between dresses and gowns, the high waistline was not changed.
Hairstyles and headgear
During this period, the classical influence extended to hairstyles. Often masses of curls were worn over the forehead and ears, with the longer back hair drawn up into loose buns or Psyche knots influenced by Greek and Roman styles. By the later 1810s, front hair was parted in the center and worn in tight ringlets over the ears. Adventurous women like Lady Caroline Lamb wore short cropped hairstyles "à la Titus", the Journal de Paris reporting in 1802 that "more than half of elegant women were wearing their hair or wig à la Titus", a layered cut usually with some tresses hanging down.
In the Mirror of Graces, a Lady of Distinction writes,
Conservative married women continued to wear linen mob caps, which now had wider brims at the sides to cover the ears. Fashionable women wore similar caps for morning (at home undress) wear.
For the first time in centuries, respectable but daringly fashionable women would leave the house without a hat or bonnet, previously something often associated with prostitutes. However, most women continued to wear something on their head outdoors, though they were beginning to cease to do so indoors during the day (as well as for evening wear). The antique head-dress, or Queen Mary coif, Chinese hat, Oriental-inspired turban, and Highland helmet were popular. As for bonnets, their crowns and brims were adorned with increasingly elaborate ornamentations, such as feathers and ribbons. In fact, ladies of the day embellished their hats frequently, replacing old decorations with new trims or feathers.
Undergarments
Fashionable women of the Regency era wore several layers of undergarments. The first was the chemise, or shift, a thin garment with tight, short sleeves (and a low neckline if worn under evening wear), made of white cotton and finished with a plain hem that was shorter than the dress. These shifts were meant to protect the outer-clothes from perspiration and were washed more frequently than outer clothes. In fact, washerwomen of the time used coarse soap when scrubbing these garments, then plunged them in boiling water, hence the absence of color, lace, or other embellishments, which would have faded or damaged the fabric under such rough treatment. Chemises and shifts also prevented the transparent muslin or silk dresses from being too revealing.
The next layer was a pair of stays or corset (more lightly boned). While high-waisted classical fashions required no corset for the slight of figure, most ordinary women still wore some kind of bust support, although the aim was to look as if they were not. The disappearance of the corset or stays has been much exaggerated by writers on the Regency period. There were some experiments to produce garments which would serve the same functions as a modern brassiere. (In the Mirror of Graces, a "divorce" was described as an undergarment that served to separate a woman's breasts. Made of steel or iron that was covered by a type of padding, and shaped like a triangle, this device was placed in the center of the chest.) "Short stays" (corsets extending only a short distance below the breasts) were often worn over the shift or chemise (not directly next to the skin), and "long stays" (corsets extending down towards the natural waist) were worn by women trying to appear slimmer than they were or who needed more support. The English wore these more than the French, but even such long stays were not primarily intended to constrict the waist, in the manner of Victorian corsets.
The final layer was the petticoat, which was the name for any skirt worn under the gown and could be a skirt with a bodice, a skirt attached over the torso by tapes, or a separate skirt. These petticoats were often worn between the underwear and the outer dress and were considered part of the outer clothing, not underwear. The lower edge of the petticoat was intended to be seen since women would often lift their outer dresses to spare the relatively delicate material of the outer dress from mud or damp (so exposing only the coarser and cheaper fabric of the petticoat to risk). Often exposed to view, petticoats were decorated at the hem with rows of tucks or lace, or ruffles.
"Drawers" (large, flowy 'shorts' with buttons at the crotch) were only occasionally worn at this time. Women had no underwear under their dresses.
Stockings (hosiery), made of silk or knitted cotton, were held up by garters below the knee until suspenders were introduced in the late 19th century and were often of a white or pale flesh color.
Outerwear and shoes
During this time period, women's clothing was much thinner than in the eighteenth century so warmer outerwear became important in fashion, especially in colder climates. Coat-like garments such as pelisses and redingotes were popular, as were shawls, mantles, mantelets, capes, and cloaks. The mantelet was a short cape that was eventually lengthened and made into a shawl. The redingote, another popular example, was a full-length garment resembling a man's riding coat (hence the name) in style, that could be made of different fabrics and patterns. Throughout the period, the Indian shawl was the favored wrap, as houses and the typical English country house were generally draughty, and the sheer muslin and light silk dresses popular during this time provided less protection. Shawls were made of soft cashmere or silk or even muslin for summer. Paisley patterns were extremely popular at the time.
Short (high-waisted) jackets called spencers were worn outdoors, along with long-hooded cloaks, Turkish wraps, mantles, capes, Roman tunics, chemisettes, and overcoats called pelisses (which were often sleeveless and reached down as far as the ankles). These outer garments were often made of double sarsnet, fine Merino cloth, or velvets, and trimmed with furs, such as swan's down, fox, chinchilla, or sable. On May 6, 1801, Jane Austen wrote her sister Cassandra, "Black gauze cloaks are worn as much as anything."
Thin, flat fabric (silk or velvet), or leather slippers were generally worn (as opposed to the high-heeled shoes of much of the 18th century).
Metal pattens were strapped on shoes to protect them from rain or mud, raising the feet an inch or so off the ground.
Accessories
Gloves were always worn by women outside the house. When worn inside, as when making a social call, or on formal occasions, such as a ball, they were removed when dining. About the length of the glove, A Lady of Distinction writes:
Longer gloves were worn rather loosely during this period, crumpling below the elbow. As described in the passage above, "garters" could fasten longer gloves.
Reticules held personal items, such as vinaigrettes. The form-fitting dresses or frocks of the day had no pockets, thus these small drawstring handbags were essential. These handbags were often called buskins or balantines. They were rectangular in shape and was worn suspended by a woven band from a belt placed around the figure above the waist.
Parasols (as shown in the illustration) protected a lady's skin from the sun and were considered an important fashion accessory. Slender and light in weight, they came in a variety of shapes, colors, and sizes.
Fashionable ladies (and gentlemen) used fans to cool themselves and to enhance gestures and body language. Made of paper or silk on sticks of ivory and wood, and printed with oriental motifs or popular scenes of the era, these ubiquitous accessories featured a variety of shapes and styles, such as pleated or rigid. An information sheet from the Cheltenham Museum describes fans and their use in body language and communication (click and scroll to page 4).
Directoire (1795–1799)
By the mid-1790s, neoclassical clothing had come into fashion in France. Several influences had combined to bring about this simplification in women's clothing: aspects of Englishwomen's practical country outdoor-wear leaked up into French high fashion, and there was a reaction in revolutionary France against the stiffly boned corsets and brightly colored satins and other heavy fabrics that were in style in the Ancien Régime (see 1750–1795 in fashion). But ultimately, Neo-classicism was adopted for its association with classical republican ideas [with reference to Greece, rather than republican Rome, which was now considered politically dangerous]. This renewed fascination of the classical past was encouraged by the recent discoveries of Pompeii and Herculaneum, and would likely have not been possible outside such a specific geographic and historical setting that allowed the idea of the past made present to become paramount.
Along with the influences of the Pompeii and Herculaneum excavations, several other factors came together to popularize neoclassical dress. Starting in the early 1790s, Emma Hamilton began her performances of attitudes, something that was considered by contemporaries as entirely new. These attitudes were based loosely on the ancient practice of pantomime, though Emma's performances lacked masks and musical accompaniment. Her performances created a fusion between art and nature; art came alive and her body became a type of art. As an aid to her performances of tragic mythological and historical figures, Emma wore the clothing á la grecque that would become popular in mainstream France in the coming years. A simple light-colored chemise made from thin, flowing material was worn and gathered with a narrow ribbon under the breasts. Simple cashmere shawls were used as headdresses or to give more fullness to the drapery of the chemise. They also helped to prevent broken lines in the performance so that the outstretched arms were always connected with the body, escalating the effect of fluid movement, and oftentimes, a cape or a cloak was worn to emphasize the lines of the body in certain poses. This highlighted the continuity of surface of line and form in the body of the performer to emphasize the unity, simplicity, and continuously flowing movement from one part of the body to the next. The hair was worn in a natural, loose, and flowing fashion. All of these properties blended together to allow an extensive play of light and shadow to reveal and accent certain parts of the body during the performance while covering others. Emma was highly capable in her attitudes, and the influence of her dress spread from Naples to Paris as wealthy Parisians took the Grand Tour.
There is also some evidence that the white muslin shift dress became popular after Thermidor through the influence of prison dress. Revolutionary women such as Madame Tallien portrayed themselves in this way because it was the only clothing they possessed during their time in prison. The chemise á la grecque also represented the struggle for representation of the self and the stripping down of past cultural values. Also, a simplification of the attire worn by preteen girls in the 1780s (who were no longer required to wear miniature versions of adult stays and panniers) probably paved the way for the simplification of the attire worn by teenage girls and adult women in the 1790s. Waistlines became somewhat high by 1795, but skirts were still rather full, and neoclassical influences were not yet dominant.
It was during the second half of the 1790s that fashionable women in France began to adopt a thoroughgoing Classical style, based on an idealized version of ancient Greek and Roman dress (or what was thought at the time to be ancient Greek and Roman dress), with narrow clinging skirts. Some of the extreme Parisian versions of the neoclassical style (such as narrow straps which bared the shoulders, and diaphanous dresses without sufficient stays, petticoats, or shifts worn beneath) were not widely adopted elsewhere, but many features of the late-1790s neoclassical style were broadly influential, surviving in successively modified forms in European fashions over the next two decades.
With this Classical style came the willingness to expose the breast. With the new iconography of the Revolution as well as a change in emphasis on maternal breast-feeding, the chemise dress became a sign of the new egalitarian society. The style was simple and appropriate for the comfort of a pregnant or nursing woman as the breasts were emphasized and their availability was heightened. Maternity became fashionable and it was not uncommon for women to walk around with their breasts exposed. Some women took the "fashionable maternity" a step further and wore a "six-month pad" under their dress to appear pregnant.
White was considered the most suitable color for neoclassical clothing (accessories were often in contrasting colors). Short trains trailing behind were common in dresses of the late 1790s.
Directoire gallery
This portrait of the Frankland sisters by John Hoppner gives an idea of the styles of 1795.
"Ruth entreating Naomi and Orpah to return to the land of Moab" by William Blake. Blake is not a typical neo-classicist, but this shows a somewhat similar idealization of antiquity (as well as predicting the future high fashions of the late 1790s). The particular image was composed in 1795 and is currently held by the Fitzwilliam Museum.
Leipzig fashion plate showing woman and girl wearing elegantly simple high-waisted styles, which are not strongly neoclassical, however.
Portrait of Gabrielle Josephine du Pont.
1798 picture, showing a lady who seems none too warmly attired for a balloon journey in her low-cut thin-looking Directoire dress.
Fashion plate of white Directoire dress worn with contrasting red shawl with a Greek key border.
A 1798 sketch of a day outfit with short "spencer" jacket (less neoclassical, though still following the empire silhouette).
Marie-Denise Villers wears an almost transparent white dress.
Gertrud Hage wears a white transparent dress over a white petticoat.
Riding habits of 1799. The habit on the right features a short jacket with tails. The green habit on the left may be a redingote rather than a jacket and petticoat.
Caricatures
"TOO MUCH and TOO LITTLE, or Summer Clothing of 1556 & 1796", a February 8, 1796, caricature engraved by Isaac Cruikshank (father of George) after a drawing by George M. Woodward. (In 1796, strongly neoclassically influenced styles were still very new in England.) Notice the single vertical feather springing from the hair of the 1796 woman.
"Tippies of 1796", a highly stylized parody which caricatures women's feather headdresses and dandies' tight trousers, among other things.
"The gallery of fashion" satirizes early neo-classical influenced fashions.
"Parisian ladies in their full winter dress", an over-the-top caricature by Isaac Cruikshank of allegedly excessively diaphanous styles worn in late 1790s Paris.
"A French Invasion on the Fashionable Dress of 1798," British caricature, also showing tight trousers, wigs, and square neckline.
"Monstrosities of 1799".
Empire (1800–1815)
During the first two decades of the 19th century, fashions continued to follow the basic high-waisted empire silhouette, but in other respects, neoclassical influences became progressively diluted. Dresses remained narrow in the front, but fullness at the raised back waist allowed room to walk. Colors other than white came into style, the fad for diaphanous outer fabrics faded (except in certain formal contexts), and some elements of obviously visible ornamentation came back into use in the design of the dress (as opposed to the elegant simplicity or subtle white-on-white embroidery of the dress of ca. 1800).
Empire gallery
Dolley Madison wears a short sleeved, light-pink dress with a high waistline. She also wears a thin, chain necklace, a golden-colored shawl, and her hair in a bun with loose waves; the simplicity, yet elegance, of her attire, is typical of the era.
1804 French painting by Marguerite Gérard showing two different dresses, one more elaborate than the other. Note the low neckline then in fashion.
Paris Fashion of 1804. Note the even more generous neckline.
Conservative fashion: Mob cap of c. 1805 is pleated in the front and has a narrow frilled brim that widens to cover the ears. America.
Morning dress: Cotton Morning dress c. 1806.
Mrs. Harrison Gray Otis wears a dress with a sheer top layer over a partial lining and a patterned shawl. She wears a gold armlet on her left arm. Her hair is styled in loose waves at the temples and over her ears. Massachusetts, 1809.
1809 gown worn with elbow-length gloves.
1810 gown, shown with elbow-length gloves.
1810 sketch of a woman in "Schute" bonnet and blue-striped dress with flounces.
Portrait of a woman by Henri Mulard, ca. 1810.
Fashion plate of a panniered English court gown, 1810.
Marguerite-Charlotte David wears a simple white satin gown and the ubiquitous shawl. Her headdress is trimmed with ostrich plumes.
Caricatures
"The Fashions of the Day, or Time Past and Present", a caricature purporting to show the provocative and revealing character of 1807 fashions as compared to those of the 18th century (deliberately exaggerating the contrast).
"Three Graces in a High Wind", 1810 caricature by Gillray. A satire of clinging dresses worn with few layers of petticoats beneath.
"The Invisible Ones", 1810 caricature of impractical hat styles.
"Almack's Longitude and Latitude", 1813 caricature by George Cruikshank.
Regency (1815–1820) gallery
This era signaled the loss of any lingering neoclassical, pseudo-Grecian styles in women's dress. This decline was especially evident in France due to the Emperor Napoleon's suppression of trade in the fabrics used in neoclassical dress. While waistlines were still high, they were beginning to drop slightly. Larger and more abundant decoration, especially near the hem and neckline foreshadowed greater extravagance in the coming years. More petticoats were being worn, and a stiffer, more cone-shaped skirt became popular. Stiffness could be supplemented by layers of ruffles and tucks on a hem, as well as corded or flounced petticoats. Sleeves began to be pulled, tied, and pinched in ways that were more influenced by romantic and gothic styles than neoclassical. Hats and hairstyles became more elaborate and trimmed, climbing higher to balance widening skirts.
1815 walking costume
1816 day dresses
Comtesse Vilain and her daughter wear their hair parted in the front center with tight ringlets over each ear; back hair is brushed back into a bun. 1816.
Countess Thekla Ludolf wears a red dress over a white chemise. 1816.
1817 dancing illustration, showing the beginning of the trend towards a conical silhouette.
1817 walking costume is heavily trimmed and tasseled.
1818 gown
Mary Lodge wears the new fashion for rich color. Her crimson gown with frills at neck and sleeves is worn with an ivory shawl with a wide paisley-patterned border, 1818.
1818 gown
1819 gown, with ornamentation near the hem.
"Morning dress" (for staying inside the house during the mornings and early afternoons), 1819.
Caricature
"Monstrosities of 1818", a satire by George Cruikshank of the female trend towards a conical silhouette, and male high cravats and dandyism.
"A peep at the French Monstrosities", a French fashion satire by George Cruikshank.
Russian fashion
Spanish fashion
British fashion
German fashion
French fashion
Men's fashion
Overview
This period saw the final abandonment of lace, embroidery, and other embellishments from serious men's clothing outside of formalized court dress—it would not reappear except as an affectation of Aesthetic dress in the 1880s and its successor, the "Young Edwardian" look of the 1960s. Instead, cut and tailoring became much more important as an indicator of quality. This transformation can be attributed in part to an increased interest in antiquity stemming from the discovery of classical engravings, including the Elgin Marbles. The figures depicted in classical art were viewed as an exemplar of the ideal natural form, and an embodiment of Neoclassical ideas. The style in London for men became more and more refined and this was due to the influence of two things: the dandy and the romantic movement. The dandy (a man who placed high importance on personal aesthetics and hobbies but wanted to seem totally nonchalant about it) arguably emerged as early as the 1790s. Dark colors were all but mandatory. (Dark doesn't necessarily mean dreary though; many items, particularly vests and coats were cut from rich, vivid fabrics.) Blue tailcoats with gold buttons were everywhere. White muslin shirts (sometimes with ruffles on the neck/sleeves) were extremely popular. Breeches were officially on their way out, with pants/trousers taking their place. Fabrics in general were becoming more practical silk and more wool, cotton, and buckskin. Therefore, in the 18th century, the dress was simplified and greater emphasis was put on tailoring to enhance the natural form of the body.
This was also the period of the rise of hair wax for styling men's hair, as well as mutton chops as a style of facial hair.
Breeches became longer—tightly fitted leather riding breeches reached almost to the boot tops—and were replaced by pantaloons or trousers for fashionable streetwear. The French Revolution is largely responsible for altering the standard male dress. During the revolution, clothing symbolized the division between the upper classes and the working-class revolutionaries. French rebels earned the nickname sans-culottes, or "the people without breeches," because of the loose floppy trousers they popularized.
Coats were cutaway in front with long skirts or tails behind, and had tall standing collars. Lapels were not as large as they had been in years before and often featured an M-shaped notch unique to the period.
Shirts were made of linen, had attached collars, and were worn with stocks or wrapped in a cravat tied in various fashions. Pleated frills at the cuffs and the front opening went out of fashion by the end of the period.
Waistcoats were high-waisted, and squared off at the bottom, but came in a broad variety of styles. They were often double-breasted, with wide lapels and stand collars. Around 1805 large lapels that overlapped those of the jacket began to fall out of fashion, as did the 18th-century tradition of wearing the coat unbuttoned, and gradually waistcoats became less visible. Shortly before this time waistcoats were commonly vertically striped but by 1810 plain white waistcoats were increasingly fashionable, as did horizontally striped waistcoats. High-collared waistcoats were fashionable until 1815, then collars were gradually lowered as the shawl collar came into use toward the end of this period.
Overcoats or greatcoats were fashionable, often with contrasting collars of fur or velvet. The garrick, sometimes called a coachman's coat, was a particularly popular style, and had between three and five short caplets attached to the collar.
Boots, typically Hessian boots with heart-shaped tops and tassels were a mainstay in men's footwear. After the Duke of Wellington defeated Napoleon at Waterloo in 1815, Wellington boots, as they were known, became the rage; tops were knee-high in front and cut lower in back. The jockey boot, with a turned-down cuff of lighter colored leather, had previously been popular but continued to be worn for riding. Court shoes with elevated heels became popular with the introduction of trousers.
The rise of the dandy
The clothes-obsessed dandy first appeared in the 1790s, both in London and Paris. In the slang of the time, a dandy was differentiated from a fop in that the dandy's dress was more refined and sober. The dandy prided himself in "natural excellence" and tailoring allowed for exaggeration of the natural figure beneath fashionable outerwear.
In High Society: A Social History of the Regency Period, 1788–1830, Venetia Murray writes:
Beau Brummell set the fashion for dandyism in British society from the mid-1790s, which was characterized by immaculate personal cleanliness, immaculate linen shirts with high collars, perfectly tied cravats, and exquisitely tailored plain dark coats (contrasting in many respects with the "maccaroni" of the earlier 18th century).
Brummell abandoned his wig and cut his hair short in a Roman fashion dubbed à la Brutus, echoing the fashion for all things classical seen in women's wear of this period. He also led the move from breeches to snugly tailored pantaloons or trousers, often light-colored for day and dark for the evening, based on working-class clothing adopted by all classes in France in the wake of the Revolution. In fact, Brummel's reputation for taste and refinement was such that, fifty years after his death, Max Beerbohm, wrote:
Not every male aspiring to attain Brummel's sense of elegance and style succeeded, however, and these dandies were subject to caricature and ridicule. Venetia Murray quotes an excerpt from Diary of an Exquisite, from The Hermit in London, 1819:
Hairstyles and headgear
The French Revolution (1789-1799) in France and the Pitt's hair powder tax in 1795 in Britain effectively ended the fashion for both wigs and powder in these countries and younger men of fashion in both countries began to wear their own unpowdered hair without a queue in short curls, often with long sideburns. The new styles like the Brutus ("à la Titus") and the Bedford Crop became fashionable and subsequently spread also in other European and European-influenced countries including the United States.
Many notable men during this period, especially younger ones, followed this new fashion trend of short unpowdered hairstyles, e.g. Napoleon Bonaparte (1769-1821), initially wearing long hair tied in a queue, changed his hairstyle and cut his hair short while in Egypt in 1798. Likewise the future U.S. President John Quincy Adams (1767-1848) who had worn a powdered wig and long hair tied in a queue in his youth, abandoned this fashion during this period while serving as the U.S. Minister to Russia (1809-1814) and later became the first president to adopt a short haircut instead of long hair tied in a queue. Older men, military officers, and those in conservative professions such as lawyers, judges, physicians, and servants retained their wigs and powder. Formal court dress of European monarchies also still required a powdered wig or long powdered hair tied in a queue until the accession of Napoleon to the throne as emperor (1804-1814).
Tricorne and bicorne hats were still worn, but the most fashionable hat was tall and slightly conical; this would soon, however, be displaced by the top hat and reign as the only hat for formal occasions for the next century.
Style gallery 1795–1809
Portrait of boxer "Jem" Belcher wearing a patterned cravat and a double-breasted brown coat with a dark (fur or velvet?) collar, c. 1800.
Watercolor of Beau Brummell by Richard Dighton.
In this self-portrait of 1805, Washington Allston wears a tan cravat with his high white collar and dark coat. Boston.
Rubens Peale wears a white waistcoat with a tall upright notched collar over his high shirt collar and wide cravat. America, 1807.
Friedrich von Schiller wears a brown double-breasted coat with a contrasting collar and brass buttons. The pleated frill of his shirt front can be seen next to the knot of his white cravat, Germany, 1808–09.
Chateaubriand has fashionably tousled hair. He wears a long redingote over his coat, tan waistcoat, white shirt, and dark cravat, 1808.
Count Victor Kochubey's collar reaches his chin, and his cravat is wrapped around his neck and tied in a small bow. His short hair is casually dressed and falls over his forehead, 1809.
Portrait of Gwyllym Lloyd Wardle depicts him in a dark coat over a tan waistcoat and high collar and cravat, 1809.
Elaborate embroidery remained a feature of formal court suits like this one, which pairs a red wool coat with a cloth-of-silver waistcoat, both embroidered in silver thread. Italy, c. 1800–1810. Los Angeles County Museum of Art, M.80.60a-b.
Portrait of Danish adventurer Jørgen Jørgensen shows how Scandinavian society has viewed men's fashion in the Age of Revolution.
Style gallery 1810–1820
Les Modernes Incroyables, a satire on French fashions of 1810; long tight breeches or pantaloons, short coats with tails, and massive cravats.
Marcotte d'Argenteuil wears a high-collared shirt with a dark cravat, a buff waistcoat, a double-breasted brown coat with covered buttons, and a dark gray overcoat with contrasting collar (perhaps sealskin). 1810. His bicorne hat lies on the table.
Daniel la Motte, a Baltimore, Maryland, merchant and landowner, strikes a romantic pose that displays details of his white waistcoat, frilled shirt, and fall-front breeches with covered buttons at the knee, 1812–13.
German physician Johann Abraham Albers wears a striped waistcoat under a black double-breasted coat, 1813.
American artist Samuel Lovett Waldo wears a frilled shirt with a knotted white cravat.
Lord Grantham wears a double-breasted coat which shows a bit of the waistcoat beneath at the waist, tight pantaloons tucked into boots, and a high collar and cravat, 1816.
Nicolas-Pierre Tiolier wears a rich blue tailcoat and brown fall-front trousers over a white waistcoat, shirt, and cravat. His tall hat sits on an antique plinth, 1817.
Unknown artist wears a double-breasted tailcoat with turned-back cuffs and a matching high collar of velvet (or possibly fur). Note that, while the man's obvious wasp-like torso is not overly emphasized in a caricature-like fashion, as was often the case in male fashion plates of the day, there is a definite and deliberate nipping of the waist. It is highly likely that the sitter in this portrait wore some sort of tight-laced corset or similar undergarment. The coat-sleeves are puffed at the shoulder. He wears a white waistcoat, shirt, and cravat, and light-colored pantaloons, 1819.
Children's fashion
Both boys and girls wore dresses until they were about four or five years old, when boys were "breeched", or put into trousers.
Revival of Directoire/Empire/Regency fashions
During the first half of the Victorian era, there was a more or less negative view of women's styles of the 1795–1820 period. Some people would have felt slightly uncomfortable to be reminded that their mothers or grandmothers had once promenaded about in such styles (which could be considered indecent according to Victorian norms), and many would have found it somewhat difficult to really empathize with (or take seriously) the struggles of a heroine of art or literature if they were being constantly reminded that she was wearing such clothes. For such reasons, some Victorian history paintings of the Napoleonic wars intentionally avoided depicting accurate women's styles (see example below), Thackeray's illustrations to his book Vanity Fair depicted the women of the 1810s wearing 1840s fashions, and in Charlotte Brontë's 1849 novel Shirley (set in 1811–1812) neo-Grecian fashions are anachronistically relocated to an earlier generation.
Later in the Victorian period, the Regency seemed to retreat to an unthreateningly remote historical distance, and Kate Greenaway and the Artistic Dress movement selectively revived elements of early 19th century fashions. During the late Victorian and Edwardian periods, many genre paintings, sentimental valentines, etc. contained loose depictions of 1795–1820 styles (then considered to be quaint relics of a bygone era). In the late 1960s / early 1970s, there was a limited fashion revival of the Empire silhouette.
In recent years, 1795–1820 fashions are most strongly associated with Jane Austen's writings, due to the various movie adaptations of her novels. There are also some Regency fashion urban myths, such as that women dampened their gowns to make them appear even more diaphanous (something which was certainly not practiced by the vast majority of women of the period).
An 1857 cartoon making fun of the contemporary distaste for early 19th century clothes.
"Before Waterloo" by Henry Nelson O'Neil (1868), a mid-Victorian painting which deliberately does not show accurate women's styles of 1815.
"Two Strings to her Bow" by John Pettie (1882), a later Victorian genre painting which uses the Regency period for nostalgia value.
May Day by Kate Greenaway.
See also
Almack's
Beau Brummel
Corset controversy
Dandy
History of fashion
Lady Caroline Lamb
Regency dance
Season (society)
White's
Footnotes
Further reading
A Lady of Distinction: The Mirror of Graces, R.L. Shep, 1997.
Ashelford, Jane: The Art of Dress: Clothing and Society 1500–1914, Abrams, 1996.
Austen, Jane: My Dear Cassandra: The Illustrated Letters, Selected and Introduced by Penelope Hughes-Hallett, Collins & Brown, 1990.
Baumgarten, Linda: What Clothes Reveal: The Language of Clothing in Colonial and Federal America, Yale University Press, 2002.
Black, J. Anderson and Madge Garland: A History of Fashion, Morrow, 1975.
Bourhis, Katell le: The Age of Napoleon: Costume from Revolution to Empire, 1789–1815, Metropolitan Museum of Art, 1989.
Campbell, Cynthia: The Most Polished Gentleman: George IV and the Women in His Life, A Kudos Book, 1995.
de Marly, Diana: Working Dress: A History of Occupational Clothing, Batsford (UK), 1986; Holmes & Meier (US), 1987.
Freund, Amy. "The Citoyenne Tallien: Women, Politics, and Portraiture during the French Revolution," Art Bulletin, vol. 93 no. 3 (2011), 325–344.
Hughes, Kristine: Everyday Life in Regency and Victorian England: From 1811–1901, Writer's Digest Books, 1998.
Lubrich, Naomi: The Little White Dress: Politics and Polyvalence in Revolutionary France in: Fashion Theory. The Journal of Dress, Body and Culture, 19:5, 2015
Murray, Venetia: High Society: A social History of the Regency Period, 1788–1830, Viking, 1998.
Payne, Blanche: History of Costume from the Ancient Egyptians to the Twentieth Century, Harper & Row, 1965. No ISBN for this edition; ASIN B0006BMNFS
Rothstein, Natalie (editor): A Lady of Fashion: Barbara Johnson's Album of Styles and Fabrics, Norton, 1987,
Simond, Louis: An American in Regency England, Pergamon Press, 1968.
Tozer, Jane and Sarah Levitt, Fabric of Society: A Century of People and their Clothes 1770–1870, Laura Ashley Press,
18th-century fashion
19th-century fashion
History of clothing (Western fashion)
1790s fashion
1800s fashion
1810s fashion
Fashion
Regency era
Fashion1795
Fashion1795 |
4104862 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hemileia%20vastatrix | Hemileia vastatrix | Hemileia vastatrix is a multicellular basidiomycete fungus of the order Pucciniales (previously also known as Uredinales) that causes coffee leaf rust (CLR), a disease affecting the coffee plant. Coffee serves as the obligate host of coffee rust, that is, the rust must have access to and come into physical contact with coffee (Coffea sp.) in order to survive.
CLR is one of the most economically important diseases of coffee, worldwide. Previous epidemics have destroyed coffee production of entire countries. In more recent history, an epidemic in Central America in 2012 reduced the region's coffee output by 16%.
The primary pathological mechanism of the fungus is a reduction in the plant's ability to derive energy through photosynthesis by covering the leaves with fungus spores and/or causing leaves to drop from the plant. The reduction in photosynthetic ability (plant's metabolism) results in a reduction in quantity and quality of flower and fruit production, which ultimately reduces the beverage quality.
Appearance
The mycelium with uredinia looks yellow-orange and powdery, and appears on the underside of leaves as points ~0.1 mm in diameter. Young lesions appear as chlorotic or pale yellow spots some millimetres in diameter, the older being a few centimetres in diameter. Hyphae are club-shaped with tips bearing numerous pedicels on which clusters of urediniospores are produced.
Telia are pale yellowish teliospores often produced in uredinia; teliospores more or less spherical to limoniform, 26–40 × 20–30 µm in diameter, wall hyaline to yellowish, smooth, 1 µm thick, thicker at the apex, pedicel hyaline.
Urediniospores are more or less reniform, 26–40 × 18-28 µm, with hyaline to pale yellowish wall, 1–2 µm thick, strongly warted on the convex side, smooth on the straight or concave side, warts frequently longer (3–7 µm) on spore edges.
There have been no known reports of a host capable of supporting an aecial stage of the fungus.
Life cycle
Hemileias life cycle begins with the germination of uredospores through germ pores in the spore. It mainly attacks the leaves and is only rarely found on young stems and fruit. Appressoria are produced, which in turn produce vesicles, from which entry into the substomatal cavity is gained. Within 24–48 hours, infection is completed. After successful infection, the leaf blade is colonized and sporulation will occur through the stomata. One lesion produces 4–6 spore crops over a 3–5 month period releasing 300–400,000 spores.
There is currently no known alternate host nor reported cases of infection by basidiospores of H. vastatrix, yet the fungus is able to overcome resistance by plants and scientists do not know exactly how. The predominant hypothesis is that H. vastatrix is heteroecious, completing its life cycle on an alternate host plant which has not yet been found. An alternative hypothesis is that H. vastatrix actually represents an early-diverging autoecious rust, in which the teliospores are non-functional and vestigial, and the sexual life cycle is completed by the urediniospores. Hidden meiosis and sexual reproduction (cryptosexuality) have been found within the generally asexual urediniospores. This finding may explain why new physiological races have arisen so often and so quickly in H. vastatrix.
Control
Recent studies and research papers have shown that CLR is under-researched compared to pathogens of other cash crops and that there are many factors that can influence the incidence and severity of the disease. Therefore, an integrated approach that includes genetic, chemical, and cultural controls is the best course of action.
Resistant cultivars
The most effective and durable strategy against CLR is the use of resistant cultivars. This has a number of benefits beyond disease control and can include the reduction in use of agrochemicals as control. A reduction in chemical application also has positive economic effects for farmers by reducing the cost of production. However, in lieu of deploying new, resistant plant stock, or in the interim between initiation of a renewal program and complete renewal, other methods of control are available.
Professional research and breeding programs such as CIRAD are developing F1 hybrid coffee trees such as Starmaya that have broad genetic resistance to CLR as well as good yield and cup quality, with research showing that F1 hybrids have higher yields and cup quality than conventional Coffea arabica cultivars. Research is also being done on how to democratize the use of F1 hybrids by smallholder coffee farmers who too often can not afford to utilize F1 hybrids. For example, Starmaya is the first F1 hybrid coffee tree that can be propagated in a seed garden rather than the more complicated and expensive process of somatic embryogenesis.
Chemicals
There are social, environmental, and economic concerns associated with any chemical control of plant diseases and some of these have a more direct and immediate impact than others on a farmer's decision to use chemicals. The use of chemicals must first and foremost make economic sense, and the cost of their use can be as much as 50% of the total cost of production. For smallholder farmers, this can be cost-prohibitive. Copper-based fungicides, such as Bordeaux mixture, have proven to be effective and economical, and work best when applied at inoculum levels below 10%.
Typically copper-based mixtures are used as preventative measures and systemic fungicides are used as curative measures.
By reducing disease incidence, chemical control can help mitigate the reduction in fruit quality and quantity that is caused by the disease.
Cultural
The extended presence of water on the leaves allows H vastatrix to infect the plant more easily and therefore cultural methods can be directed at reducing the time and the amount of water that remains on leaves. Cultural methods such as pruning branches to allow more air circulation and light penetration can help dry the moisture on the leaves. Increasing spacing between rows and preventing weed growth also allows for more air circulation and light penetration.
Plant nutrition
The correct amount of plant nutrients can also play a role in host resistance. Adequate nutrition allows the plant's natural, biochemical defenses to perform at optimal levels. For example, nitrogen and potassium are two critical, macronutrients that assist a coffee tree to resist infection. Nitrogen is a critical component of chlorophyll, which is central to photosynthesis. Potassium helps to increase the thickness of a leaf's epidermis, which acts as a barrier to pathogen attack. It also aids in recovery of tissues after an attack by H. vastatrix.
Pruning
Experiments have shown that removal of infected leaves can possibly reduce the final amount of the disease by a significant amount.
Fruit thinning
Fruit thinning combined with chemical application (cyproconazole and epoxiconazole for example) can increase effective control.
Shade
There is a complex interaction between shade, meteorological effects such as rainfall or dry periods, and aerial dispersal of rust. Researchers have found that shade may suppress spore dispersal under dry conditions but assist spore dispersal during wet conditions. The researchers acknowledge the need for further research on the topic.
Ecology
Hemileia vastatrix is an obligate parasite that lives mainly on the plants of genus Coffea but is also capable of invading Arabidopsis thaliana but does not develop haustoria.
The rust needs suitable temperatures to develop (between 16 °C and 28 °C). High altitude plantations are generally colder, so inoculum will not develop as easily as in plantations located in warmer regions. The presence of free water is required for infection to be completed. Loss of moisture after germination starts inhibits the whole infection process.
Sporulation is most influenced by temperature, humidity, and host resistance. The colonization process is not dependent on leaf wetness but is influenced greatly by temperature and by plant resistance. The main effect of temperature is to determine the length of time for the colonization process (incubation period).
Hemileia vastatrix has two fungal parasites, Verticillium haemiliae and Verticillium psalliotae.
The fungus is of East African origin, but is currently endemic to all producing regions. Coffee originates in high altitude regions of Ethiopia, Sudan, and Kenya, and the rust pathogen is believed to have originated in the same mountains. The earliest reports of the disease hail from the 1860s. It was reported first by a British explorer from regions of Kenya around Lake Victoria in 1861, from where it is believed to have spread to Asia and the Americas.
Rust was first reported in the major coffee growing regions of Sri Lanka (then called Ceylon) in 1867. The causal fungus was first fully described by the English mycologist Michael Joseph Berkeley and his collaborator Christopher Edmund Broome after an analysis of specimens of a "coffee leaf disease" collected by George H.K. Thwaites in Ceylon. Berkeley and Broome named the fungus Hemileia vastatrix, "Hemileia" referring to the half smooth characteristic of the spores and "vastatrix" for the devastating nature of the disease.
It is unknown exactly how the rust reached Ceylon from Ethiopia. Over the years that followed, the disease was recorded in India in 1870, Sumatra in 1876, Java in 1878, and the Philippines in 1889. During 1913 it crossed the African continent from Kenya to the Congo, where it was found in 1918, before spreading to West Africa, the Ivory Coast (1954), Liberia (1955), Nigeria (1962–63) and Angola (1966).
Uredospores are disseminated across long distances mainly by wind and can end up thousands of miles from where they were produced. Over short distances, uredospores are disseminated by both wind and rain splash. Other agents, such as animals, mainly insects and contaminated equipment, occasionally have been shown to be involved with dissemination.
Pathogenesis
Hemileia vastatrix affects the plant by covering part of the leaf surface area or inducing defoliation, both resulting in a reduction in the rate of photosynthesis. Because berry yield is generally linked to the amount of foliage, a reduction in photosynthesis and more importantly, defoliation can affect yield. Continuous colonization of the pathogen depletes the plants resources for surviving until the plant no longer has enough energy to grow or survive.
Coffee plants bred for resistance succeed because of cytological and biochemical resistance mechanisms. Such mechanisms involve transmitting signals to the infection site to stop cell function. The plants’ cell degradation response frequently occurs after the formation of the first haustorium and results in rapid hypersensitive cell death. Because Hemileia vastatrix is an obligate parasite, it can no longer survive when surrounded by dead cells. This can be recognized by the presence of browning cells in local regions on a leaf.
Environment
Temperature and moisture specifically play the largest role in infection rate of the coffee plant. Humidity is not enough to allow infection to occur. There must be a presence of water on the leaf for the urediospores to infect, although dry urediospores can survive up to six weeks without water. Dispersal happens primarily by wind, rain, or a combination of both. Transmission over large distances is likely the result of human intervention by spores clinging to clothes, tools, or equipment. Dispersal by insects is unlikely and therefore insignificant. Spore germination only happens when the temperature is , and peaks at ; furthermore. Appressorium formation is highest at and has a linear decline in production until , when there is little to no production. Although temperature and moisture are key factors for infection, dispersal, and colonization, plant resistance is also important in determining whether Hemileia vastatrix will survive.
History
The disease coffee leaf rust (CLR) was first described and named by Berkley and Broom in the November 1869 edition of the Gardeners Chronicle. They used specimens sent from Sri Lanka, where the disease was already causing enormous damage to productivity. Many coffee estates in Sri Lanka were forced to collapse or convert their crops to alternatives not affected by CLR, such as tea. The planters nicknamed the disease "Devastating Emily" and it affected Asian coffee production for over twenty years. By 1890, the coffee industry in Sri Lanka was nearly destroyed, although coffee estates still exist in some areas. Historians suggest that the devastated coffee production in Sri Lanka is one of the reasons why Britons have come to prefer tea, as Sri Lanka switched to tea production as a consequence of the disease.
By the 1920s CLR was widely found across much of Africa and Asia, as well as Indonesia and Fiji. It reached Brazil in 1970 and from there it rapidly spread at a rate enabling it to infect all coffee areas in the country by 1975. From Brazil, the disease spread to most coffee-growing areas in Central and South America by 1981, hitting Costa Rica and Colombia in 1983.
As of 1990, coffee rust has become endemic in all major coffee-producing countries.
2012 coffee leaf rust epidemic
In 2012, there was a major increase in coffee rust across ten Latin American and Caribbean countries. The disease became an epidemic and the resulting crop losses led to a fall in supply, outstripping demand. Coffee prices rose as a result, although other factors such as growing demand for gourmet beans in China, Brazil, and India also contributed.
USAID estimates that between 2012 and 2014, CLR caused $1 billion in damage and affected over 2 million people in Latin America.
The reasons for the epidemic remain unclear but an emergency rust summit meeting in Guatemala in April 2013 compiled a long list of shortcomings. These included a lack of resources to control the rust, the dismissal of early warning signs, ineffective fungicide application techniques, lack of training, poor infrastructure and conflicting advice. In a keynote talk at the "Let's Talk Roya" meeting (El Salvador, November 4, 2013), Dr Peter Baker, a senior scientist at CAB International, raised several key points regarding the epidemic including the proportional lack of investment in research and development in such a high value industry and the lack of investment in new varieties in key coffee producing countries such as Colombia.
Typical coffee cultivars maintained by farmers before the epidemic included Caturra, Bourbon, Mundo Novo, and Typica, all of which are susceptible to H. vastatrix. Also before the epidemic of 2012, 82% of farms were certified organic, which limits the agrochemicals farmers can use. However, there are a number of fungicides that can be used in certified organic systems, such as copper-based Bordeaux mix as well as commercial mixtures.
Honduras
During this period, Honduras experienced a significant epidemic of CLR. 80,000 hectares of coffee farms were infected and The Honduran National Institute of Coffee (IHCAFE) estimates that 30,000 farmers lost over half of their coffee production capacity and a third of those—10,000 farmers—suffered a complete loss of coffee production capacity. Roughly 84% of coffee producers in Honduras are smallholders and are therefore more vulnerable to loss of production than estate farmers.
Further
Coffee crops in Guatemala have been ruined by coffee rust, and a state of emergency has been declared in February 2013.
CLR has been a problem in Mexico.
CLR disease is a big problem in coffee plantations in Peru, declared in sanitary emergency by government (Decreto Supremo N° 082-2013-PCM).
In late October 2020, USDA ARS detected rust on Maui. Immediately the Hawaii Department of Agriculture began inspections around the state, not just on Maui itself. They initially found plants they suspect to also be infected in Hilo on the big island, however these plants tested negative to CLR, though it was detected on plants in the Kailua-Kona region of the island. In January, 2021, additional infections have been found on the islands of Oahu and Lanai, and plant quarantines have gone into effect as of March 2021 for interisland transport of coffee plants or parts between the four islands that CLR has been found on.
Economic impact
Coffee leaf rust (CLR) has direct and indirect economic impacts on coffee production. Direct impacts include decreased quantity and quality of yield produced by the diseased plant and the cost of inputs meant specifically to control the disease. Indirect impacts include increased costs to combat and control the disease. Methods of combating and controlling the disease include fungicide application and stumping diseased plants and replacing them with resistant breeds. Both methods include significant labor and material costs and in the case of stumping, include a years-long decline in production (coffee seedlings are not fully productive for three to five years after planting).
Due to the complexity of accurately accounting for losses attributed to CLR, there are few records quantifying yield losses. Estimates of yield loss vary by country and can range anywhere between 15 and 80%. Worldwide loss is estimated at 15%.
Some early data from Ceylon documenting the losses in the late 19th century indicate coffee production was reduced by 75%. As farmers shifted from coffee to other crops not affected by CLR, land used for growing coffee was reduced by 80%, from 68,787 to 14,170 ha.
In addition to the costs mentioned above, additional costs include research and development costs in producing resistant cultivars. These costs are normally borne by the industry, local and national governments and international aid agencies.
Colombia's National Federation of Coffee Growers (Fedecafe) set up a research lab specifically designed to find ways to stop the disease, as the country is a leading exporter of the Coffea arabica bean that is particularly prone to the disease.
References
External links
Hemileia vastatrix description at Plantvillage.com
Coffee Research Institute: Coffee rust
University of Nebraska-Lincoln: Coffee rust
The University of Hawaii page on Hemileia vastatrix
U.S.Dept.Agriculture page on Coffee Leaf Rust
Teliomycotina
Coffee diseases
Fungi of Africa
Fungi of Asia
Fungi of South America
Fungi of Colombia
Fungi described in 1869
Taxa named by Miles Joseph Berkeley
Taxa named by Christopher Edmund Broome |
4105326 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GPS%20tracking%20unit | GPS tracking unit | A GPS tracking unit, geotracking unit, satellite tracking unit, or simply tracker is a navigation device normally on a vehicle, asset, person or animal that uses satellite navigation to determine its movement and determine its WGS84 UTM geographic position (geotracking) to determine its location. Satellite tracking devices may send special satellite signals that are processed by a receiver.
Locations are stored in the tracking unit or transmitted to an Internet-connected device using the cellular network (GSM/GPRS/CDMA/LTE or SMS), radio, or satellite modem embedded in the unit or WiFi work worldwide.
GPS antenna size limits tracker size, often smaller than a half-dollar (diameter 30.61 mm). In 2020 tracking is a $2 billion business plus military-in the gulf war 10% or more targets used trackers. Virtually every cellphone tracks its movements.
Tracks can be map displayed in real time, using GPS tracking software and devices with GPS capability.
Architecture
A GPS "track me" essentially contains a GPS module that receives the GPS signal and calculates the coordinates. For data loggers, it contains large memory to store the coordinates. Data pushers additionally contain a GSM/GPRS/CDMA/LTE modem to transmit this information to a central computer either via SMS or GPRS in form of IP packets. Satellite-based GPS tracking units will operate anywhere on the globe using satellite technology such as GlobalStar or Iridium. They do not require a cellular connection.
Types
There are three types of GPS trackers, though most GPS-equipped phones can work in any of these modes depending on the mobile applications installed:
Data loggers
GPS loggers log the position of the device at regular intervals in its internal memory. GPS loggers may have either a memory card slot, or internal flash memory card and a USB port. Some act as a USB flash drive, which allows downloading the track log data for further computer analysis. The track list or point of interest list may be in GPX, KML, NMEA or other format.
Most digital cameras save the time a photo was taken. Provided the camera clock is reasonably accurate or used GPS as its time source, this time can be correlated with GPS log data, to provide an accurate location. This can be added to the Exif metadata in the picture file. Cameras with a GPS receiver built in can directly produce such a geotagged photograph.
In some private investigation cases, data loggers are used to keep track of a target vehicle. The private investigator need not follow the target too closely, and always has a backup source of data.
Data pushers
A data pusher is the most common type of GPS tracking unit, used for asset tracking, personal tracking and vehicle tracking systems. Virtually every cell phone is in this mode per user agreement, even if shut off or disabled storing the data for future transmission.
Also known as a "GPS beacon", this kind of device push (i.e. "sends"), at regular intervals, the position of the device as well as other information like speed or altitude to a determined server, that can store and analyze the data instantly.
A GPS navigation device and a mobile phone sit side-by-side in the same box, powered by the same battery. At regular intervals, the phone sends a text message via SMS or GPRS, containing the data from the GPS receiver. Newer GPS-integrated smartphones running GPS tracking software can turn the phone into a data pusher (or logger) device. As of 2009, open source and proprietary applications are available for common Java ME enabled phones, iPhone, Android, Windows Mobile, and Symbian.
Most 21st-century GPS trackers provide data "push" technology, enabling sophisticated GPS tracking in business environments, specifically organizations that employ a mobile workforce, such as a commercial fleet. Typical GPS tracking systems used in commercial fleet management have two core parts: location hardware (or tracking device) and tracking software. This combination is often referred to as an Automatic Vehicle Location system. The tracking device is most often hardwired installed in the vehicle, connected to the CAN-bus, ignition system switch, battery. It allows collection of extra data, which is later transferred to the GPS tracking server. There it is available for viewing, in most cases via a website accessed over the Internet, where fleet activity can be viewed live or historically using digital maps and reports.
GPS tracking systems used in commercial fleets are often configured to transmit location and telemetry input data at a set update rate or when an event (door open/close, auxiliary equipment on/off, geofence border cross) triggers the unit to transmit data. Live GPS tracking used in commercial fleets generally refers to systems that update regularly at one-minute, two-minute or five-minute intervals while the ignition status is on. Some tracking systems combine timed updates with heading change triggered updates.
GPS tracking solutions such as Telematics 2.0, an IoT based telematics technology for the automotive industry, are being used by mainstream commercial auto insurance companies.
Data pullers
GPS data pullers are also known as "GPS transponders". Unlike data pushers that send the position of the devices at regular intervals (push technology), these devices are always on, and can be queried as often as required (pull technology). This technology is not in widespread use, but an example of this kind of device is a computer connected to the Internet and running gpsd.
These can often be used in the case where the location of the tracker will only need to be known occasionally (e.g. placed in property that may be stolen, or that does not have a constant source of energy to send data on a regular basis, like freight or containers.)
Data Pullers are coming into more common usage in the form of devices containing a GPS receiver and a cell phone which, when sent a special SMS message reply to the message with their location.
Covert GPS trackers
Covert GPS trackers contain the same electronics as regular GPS trackers but are constructed in such a way as to appear to be an everyday object. One use for covert GPS trackers is for power tool protection; these devices can be concealed within power tool boxes and traced if theft occurs.
Applications
The applications of GPS trackers include:
Personal tracking
Race control: in some sports, such as gliding, participants are required to carry a tracker. In particular, this allows race officials to know if the participants are cheating, taking unexpected shortcuts, and how far apart they are. This use was illustrated in the movie Rat Race.
Law enforcement: an arrested suspect out on bail may have to wear a GPS tracker, usually an ankle monitor, as a bail condition. GPS tracking may also be ordered for persons subject to a restraining order.
Espionage/surveillance: a tracker on a person or vehicle allows movements to be tracked.
Vehicle tracking: some people use GPS Trackers to monitor activity of their own vehicle, especially in the event of a vehicle being used by a friend or family member.
GPS personal tracking devices are used in the care of the elderly and vulnerable, and can be used to track small children who may get into danger. Some devices can send text alerts to carers if the wearer moves into an unexpected place. Some devices allow users to call for assistance, and optionally allow designated carers to locate the user's position, typically within five to ten meters. Their use helps promote independent living and social inclusion for the elderly. Devices often incorporate either one-way otwo-way voice communication. Some devices also allow the user to call several phone numbers using pre-programmed speed dial buttons. Trials using GPS personal tracking devices for people living with dementia are underway in several countries. Text and voice communication is usually provided by a connection to mobile telephony, but GPS devices are available that use satellite communications, always available even if out of mobile telephone range.
Some Internet Web 2.0 pioneers have created their own personal web pages that show their position constantly, and in real time, on a map within their website. These usually use data push from a GPS enabled cell phone or a personal GPS tracker.
Sports: the movements of a ramblers, cyclists, and so on, can be tracked. Statistics such as instantaneous and average speed, and distance travelled, are logged. In the rugby union Six Nations Championship, all players wear trackers, sewn into their shirts. Some rugby clubs also use GPS units on their players. The England Rugby Union team uses GPS.
Adventure sports: GPS tracking devices such as the SPOT Satellite Messenger are available to allow the position of a person to be tracked. In particular, this allows rescue personnel to locate the carrier. These devices also allow the carrier to send messages and emergency alerts, even when out of cellular telephone range.
Monitoring employees: GPS-handled tracking devices with a built-in cellphone are used to monitor employees by various companies, especially those engaged in fieldwork.
Lone Workers : It is ideal for improving the safety of your employees working in distant, isolated work sites. Maintenance workers, forestry, mining, and employees in similar fields may be required to work in remote areas without any contact nearby, in such scenarios the risk of their well-being increases
Asset tracking
Solar Powered: the advantage of some solar powered units is that they have much more power over their lifetime than battery-powered units. This gives them the advantage of reporting their position and status much more often than battery units which need to conserve energy to extend their life. Some wireless solar-powered units, such as the RailRider can report more than 20,000 times per year and work indefinitely on solar power, eliminating the need to change batteries.
Aircraft tracking
Aircraft can be tracked either by ADS-B (primarily airliners and General Aviation aircraft with ADS-B-out enabled transponder), or by FLARM data packets picked up by a network of ground stations (primarily used by General Aviation aircraft, gliders and UAVs), both of which are data pushers. ADS-B is to be superseded by ADS-C, a data puller.
Animal tracking
Animal monitoring (GPS wildlife tracking): when put on a wild animal (e.g. in a GPS collar), it allows scientists to study the animal's activities and migration patterns. Vaginal implant transmitters mark the location where pregnant females give birth. Animal tracking collars may also be put on domestic animals, to locate them in case they get lost.
Legislation
Australian law
There are no Australian Federal Laws for surveillance and GPS tracker legality.
However, most states have statutes covering the use and restrictions of tracking devices used for surveillance.
The below states have formal statutes. At present, only Queensland and Tasmania do not have legislation.
United States law
In the United States, the use of GPS trackers by government authorities is limited by the 4th Amendment to the United States Constitution. So police, for example, usually require a search warrant. While police have placed GPS trackers in vehicles without a warrant, this usage was questioned in court in early 2009.
Use by private citizens is regulated in some states, such as California, where California Penal Code Section 637.7 states:
(a) No person or entity in this state shall use an electronic tracking device to determine the location or movement of a person.
(b) This section shall not apply when the registered owner, lesser, or lessee of a vehicle has consented to the use of the electronic tracking device with respect to that vehicle.
(c) This section shall not apply to the lawful use of an electronic tracking device by a law enforcement agency.
(d) As used in this section, "electronic tracking device" means any device attached to a vehicle or other movable thing that reveals its location or movement by transmission of electronic signals.
(g) A violation of this section is a misdemeanor.
(f) A violation of this section by a person, business, firm, company, association, partnership, or corporation licensed under Division 3 (commencing with Section 5000) of the Business and Professions Code shall constitute grounds for revocation of the license issued to that person, business, firm, company, association, partnership, or corporation, pursuant to the provisions that provide for the revocation of the license as set forth in Division 3 (commencing with Section 5000) of the Business and Professions Code.
Note that 637.7 pertains to all electronic tracking devices, and does not differentiate between those that rely on GPS technology or not. As the laws catch up with the times, it is plausible that all 50 states will eventually enact laws similar to those of California.
Other laws, like the common law invasion of privacy tort as well as state criminal wiretapping statutes (for example, the wiretapping statute of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts, which is extremely restrictive) potentially cover the use of GPS tracking devices by private citizens without consent of the individual being so tracked. Privacy can also be a problem when people use the devices to track the activities of a loved one. GPS tracking devices have also been put on religious statues to track the whereabouts of the statue if stolen.
In 2009, debate ensued over a Georgia proposal to outlaw hidden GPS tracking, with an exception for law enforcement officers but not for private investigators. See Georgia HB 16 - Electronic tracking device; location of person without consent (2009).
United Kingdom law
The law in the UK has not specifically addressed the use of GPS trackers, but several laws may affect the use of this technology as a surveillance tool.
Data Protection Act 1998
It is quite clear that if client instructions (written or digitally transmitted) that identify a person and a vehicle are combined with a tracker, the information gathered by the tracker becomes personal data as defined by the Data Protection Act 1998. The document “What is personal data? – A quick reference guide” published by the Information Commissioner's Office (ICO) makes clear that data identifying a living individual is personal data. If a living individual can be identified from the data, with or without additional information that may become available, is personal data.
Identifiability
An individual is 'identified' if distinguished from other members of a group. In most cases, an individual's name, together with some other information, will be sufficient to identify them, but a person can be identified even if their name is not known. Start by looking at the means available to identify an individual and the extent to which such means are readily available to you.
Does the data 'relate to' the identifiable living individual, whether in personal or family life, business or profession?
Relates to means: Data which identifies an individual, even without an associated name, may be personal data which is processed to learn or record something about that individual, or the processing of information that affects the individual. Therefore, data may 'relate to' an individual in several different ways.
Is the data 'obviously about a particular individual?
Data 'obviously about' an individual will include their medical history, criminal record, record of work, or their achievements in a sporting activity. Data that is not 'obviously about' a particular individual may include information about their activities. Data such as personal bank statements or itemised telephone bills will be personal data about the individual operating the account or contracting for telephone services. Where data is not 'obviously about' an identifiable individual it may be helpful to consider whether the data is being processed, or could easily be processed, to learn, record or decide something about an identifiable individual. Information may be personal data where the aim, or an incidental consequence, of the processing, is that one learns or records something about an identifiable individual, or the processing could affect an identifiable individual. Data from a Tracker would be to identify the individual or their activities. It is therefore personal data within the meaning of the Data Protection Act 1998.
Any individual who wishes to gather personal data must be registered with the Information Commissioner's Office (ICO) and have a DPA number. It is a criminal offense to process data and not have a DPA number.
Trespass
It may be a civil trespass for an individual to deploy a tracker on another's car. But in the OSC's annual inspection, the OSC's Chief Surveillance Commissioner Sir Christopher Rose stated "putting an arm into a wheel arch or under the frame of a vehicle is straining the concept of trespass".
However, entering a person's private land to deploy a tracker is clearly a trespass which is a civil tort.
Prevention of Harassment Act 1997
At times, the public misinterprets surveillance, in all its forms, as stalking. Whilst there is no specific legislation to address this kind of harassment, a long-term pattern of persistent and repeated efforts at contact with a particular victim is generally considered stalking.
The Protection of Freedoms Act 2012 created two new offenses of stalking by inserting new sections 2A and 4A into the PHA 1997. The new offences which came into force on 25 November 2012, are not retrospective. Section 2A (3) of the PHA 1997 sets out examples of acts or omissions which, in particular circumstances, are ones associated with stalking. Examples are: following a person, watching or spying on them, or forcing contact with the victim through any means, including social media.
Such behavior curtails a victim's freedom, leaving them feeling that they constantly have to be careful. In many cases, the conduct might appear innocent (if considered in isolation), but when carried out repeatedly, so as to amount to a course of conduct, it may then cause significant alarm, harassment or distress to the victim.
The examples given in section 2A (3) are not an exhaustive list but an indication of the types of behavior that may be displayed in a stalking offense.
Stalking and harassment of another or others can include a range of offenses such as those under the Protection from Harassment Act 1997; the Offences Against the Person Act 1861; the Sexual Offences Act 2003; and the Malicious Communications Act 1988.
Examples of the types of conduct often associated with stalking include direct communication; physical following; indirect contact through friends, colleagues, family or technology; or, other intrusions into the victim's privacy. The behavior curtails a victim's freedom, leaving them feeling that they constantly have to be careful.
If the subject of inquiry is aware of the tracking, then this may amount to harassment under the Prevention of Harassment Act 1997. There is a case at the Royal Courts of Justice where a private investigator is being sued under this act for the use of trackers. In December 2011, a Claim was brought against Richmond Day & Wilson Limited (First Defendant) and Bernard Matthews Limited (Second Defendant), Britain's leading Turkey Provider.
The case relates to the discovery of a tracking device found in August 2011 on a vehicle supposedly connected to Hillside Animal Sanctuary.
Regulation of Investigatory Powers Act 2000
Property Interference: The Home Office published a document entitled "Covert Surveillance and Property Interference, Revised Code of Practice, Pursuant to section 71 of the Regulation of Investigatory Powers Act 2000" where it suggests in Chapter 7, page 61 that;
General basis for lawful activity
7. 1 Authorizations under section 5 of the 1994 Act or Part III of the 1997 Act should be sought wherever members of the intelligence services, the police, the services police, Serious and Organised Crime Agency (SOCA), Scottish Crime and Drug Enforcement Agency (SCDEA), HM Revenue and Customs (HMRC) or Office of Fair Trading (OFT), or persons acting on their behalf, conduct entry on, or interference with, property or with wireless telegraphy that would be otherwise unlawful.
7. 2 For the purposes of this chapter, "property interference" shall be taken to include entry on, or interference with, property or with wireless telegraphy.
Example: The use of a surveillance device for providing information about the location of a vehicle may involve some physical interference with that vehicle as well as subsequent directed surveillance activity. Such an operation could be authorized by a combined authorization for property interference (under Part III of the 1997 Act) and, where appropriate, directed surveillance (under the 2000 Act). In this case, the necessity and proportionality of the property interference element of the authorization would need to be considered by the appropriate authorizing officer separately to the necessity and proportionality of obtaining private information by means of the directed surveillance.
This can be interpreted to mean that placing a tracker on a vehicle without the consent of the owner is illegal unless you obtain authorization from the Surveillance Commissionaire under the RIPA 2000 laws. Since a member of the public cannot obtain such authorizations, it is therefore illegal property interference.
Another interpretation is that it is illegal to do so if you are acting under the instruction of a public authority and you do not obtain authorization. The legislation makes no mention of property interference for anyone else.
Currently, there is no legislation in place that deals with the deployment of trackers in a criminal sense except RIPA 2000 and that RIPA 2000 only applies to those agencies and persons mentioned in it.
Uses in marketing
In August 2010, Brazilian company Unilever ran an unusual promotion where GPS trackers were placed in boxes of Omo laundry detergent. Teams would then track consumers who purchased the boxes of detergent to their homes where they would be awarded a prize for their purchase. The company also launched a website (in Portuguese) to show the approximate location of the winners' homes.
See also
Automatic Packet Reporting System
Data privacy
Electronic tagging
GPS aircraft tracking
GPS navigation device
GPS tracking server
GPS watch
GPS wildlife tracking
Intelligent transportation system (ITS)
IVMS
Mobile phone
Radio clock#GPS clocks
Real-time locating
Telematics
Telematics 2.0
Vehicle infrastructure integration
Vehicle tracking system
References
External links
Global Positioning System
Surveillance
Geopositioning
Navigational equipment
de:Track Log
fr:Géolocalisation |
4105328 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hurricane%20Helene%20%281958%29 | Hurricane Helene (1958) | Hurricane Helene was the most intense tropical cyclone of the 1958 Atlantic hurricane season. The eighth tropical storm and fourth hurricane of the year, Helene was formed from a tropical wave east of the Lesser Antilles on September 21, 1958. Moving steadily westward, the storm slowly intensified, attaining hurricane strength on September 24. As conditions became increasingly favorable for tropical cyclone development, Helene began to rapidly intensify. Nearing the United States East Coast, the hurricane quickly attained Category 4 intensity on September 26, before it subsequently reached its peak intensity with maximum sustained winds of and a minimum barometric pressure of . The intense hurricane came within of Cape Fear, North Carolina before recurving out to sea. Accelerating northward, Helene gradually weakened, and transitioned into an extratropical cyclone as it passed over Newfoundland on September 29. Helene's extratropical remnants traversed eastwards across the Atlantic Ocean before dissipating near Great Britain on October 4.
Despite not making landfall on North Carolina, its close proximity to land caused extensive damage across the US East Coast. Strong winds resulted in widespread power outages, cutting telecommunications along the coast. A weather station in Wilmington, North Carolina reported a wind gust of , setting a new record for fastest wind gust reported there. Though mostly concentrated in North Carolina, rainfall was widespread, reaching as far north as Maine. In the United States, damages reached $11.2 million and there was one indirect death. After impacting the US, Helene produced strong winds and heavy rain across much of Atlantic Canada. In Cape Breton Island on Nova Scotia, the storm was considered the worst in at least 21 years. Power outages cut most communications from the island to the mainland, and property damage in Sydney, Nova Scotia totaled to C$100,000. At Helene's landfall in Newfoundland, strong gusts peaking at in Naval Station Argentia were reported, and loss of power severed communications. Damage across there totaled to at least C$100,000. Total damages associated with Helene in the United States and Canada amounted to $11.4 million, making Helene the costliest storm of the season.
Meteorological history
The origins of Hurricane Helene can be traced back to an easterly wave that formed near Cape Verde on September 16. Moving towards the west due to trade winds associated with the Hadley cell, the disturbance gradually intensified. On September 20, ships in the system's vicinity reported widespread shower activity and generally low barometric pressures. Early the following day, a reconnaissance flight reported evidence of a weak circulation, with gusts of in heavy squalls surrounding the circulation center. At 0200 UTC later that day, the United States Weather Bureau office in San Juan, Puerto Rico began issuing bulletins on the system for public interests. In HURDAT, the tropical wave was first classified as a tropical depression at 0600 UTC on September 21, well east of the Leeward Antilles. At the time, the depression had maximum sustained winds of .
Moving on a west-northwest track at roughly early on September 22, the storm initially changed little in intensity. However, a large upper tropospheric anticyclone developed over the southern Atlantic coast, producing the favorable wind shear needed for tropical cyclone development. A second reconnaissance flight reported an intensified tropical cyclone, indicating that the storm system had reached tropical storm strength. At 0000 UTC on September 23, the depression attained tropical storm strength, with maximum winds of and a central minimum pressure of . The US Weather Bureau issued their first advisory on the newly developed tropical storm at 1600 UTC later that day, giving the storm the name Helene. Despite the storm's poor organization, Helene gradually intensified in favorable conditions generated by the large anticyclone. Throughout the day, a second anticyclone moved eastward until it was situated off of the Mid-Atlantic states, while a mean trough in the lower levels of the atmosphere became situated over the United States East Coast. This would set up a path for Helene to pass very close to the United States. The tropical storm attained hurricane intensity by 2200 UTC on 2200 UTC on September 24, while located east of Fort Pierce, Florida. However, in post-season analysis, it was found that Helene reached hurricane intensity earlier that day, by 1200 UTC. At the time, gale-force winds extended up to out from the storm's center of circulation.
The hurricane steadily strengthened as it moved towards the northwest around the western periphery of the Azores High on September 25. Encountering the anticyclone situated off of the Mid-Atlantic states, Helene began to curve slightly towards the west. The lack of strong steering currents in the storm's vicinity caused the hurricane to move very slowly throughout the day, giving the hurricane time to significantly intensify. By 0000 UTC on September 26, Helene strengthened to the equivalent of a modern-day Category 2 hurricane, with a minimum pressure of . Moving slowly towards The Carolinas, the hurricane rapidly intensified. A recon flight reported a minimum pressure of , a drop of from the previous day. As the hurricane neared the coast, its eye became apparent on coastal long-range WSR-57 weather radar images. By 1800 UTC on September 26, Helene strengthened to a Category 3 hurricane and then to a Category 4 hurricane the following day. The major hurricane continued to strengthen before reaching its peak intensity on September 27 with winds of . However, Helene's lowest barometric pressure of was recorded earlier during the day. Still moving northwestward due to the influence of the Azores High, the hurricane came within of the US East Coast before recurving towards the northeast out to sea.
As Helene recurved and accelerated towards more northerly latitudes, it steadily weakened. By 1200 UTC on September 28, Helene was no longer a major hurricane. The hurricane's wind field also expanded from the storm's center as it weakened. By midday on September 29, Helene had weakened to minimal hurricane strength, and later transitioned into an extratropical cyclone by 1800 UTC that day, though it still maintained hurricane-force winds. At roughly the same time, Helene passed over Newfoundland, with gale-force winds having expanded from the system's center, coinciding with the US Weather Bureau's final advisory on the system. Helene's extratropical remnants continued eastward across the Atlantic, becoming a dominant synoptic feature, before entirely dissipating by 0600 UTC on October 4 just west of Great Britain.
Preparations
Upon the storm's formation, the Weather Bureau cautioned ships in Helene's path of the impending conditions, and did so throughout the storm's duration. As the storm moved west on September 23, advisories specified for small craft in northern islands of The Bahamas to remain in "protected places." After Helene was forecast to remain north of the archipelago, notifications were lifted except for small craft along the coast of the South Atlantic States. Nearing the US East Coast, the Weather Bureau began to issue special bulletins for press radio and television stations early on September 24. At the same time, small craft were warned of the storm from The Carolinas southward. The following day, the weather forecast office (WFO) in Charleston, South Carolina began to issue local statements regarding the hurricane, while small craft alerts were shifted northward to coastal regions between Cape Hatteras, North Carolina and Daytona Beach, Florida. The first hurricane watch was issued on 1000 UTC on September 26 for the entirety of the Georgian coast to Charleston, South Carolina. A gale warning was posted at the same time for coastal areas from Daytona Beach, Florida to Wilmington, North Carolina. Small craft alerts continued to shift northwards along with Helene.
As the storm began to quickly intensify on September 26, areas of the watch from Savannah, Georgia to Cape Fear, North Carolina were upgraded to a hurricane emergency area at 1600 UTC. Affected communities were advised to begin precautionary measures immediately and evacuate. Shipping and small craft were told to exercise "extreme caution." Gale warnings were changed to warn areas between Fernandina, Florida to Cape Hatteras, North Carolina. The heightened warnings caused WFOs to issue local bulletins regarding the impending hurricane. At the time, the Weather Bureau projected Helene to make landfall in South Carolina. These landfall forecasts shifted further north along the coast over time, before they were stopped after Helene recurved away from the coast entirely. At 0400 UTC on September 27, hurricane warnings were extended to include areas between Cape Fear and Cape Hatteras, North Carolina. Gale warning issuance reflected the changes and were too shifted northwards to the Virginia Capes area, while hurricane watches covered both warning areas. At 1600 UTC later that day, hurricane emergency and gale warnings were extended north to Manteo, North Carolina, while hurricane watches were continued for coastal regions from Savannah, Georgia to Myrtle Beach, South Carolina. After Helene began recurving away from the coast, all warnings south of Wilmington, North Carolina were discontinued at 2200 UTC on September 27. As Helene passed certain areas, warnings were discontinued upon the storm's passage. At 1000 UTC the next day, all onshore hurricane warnings were either downgraded to gale warnings or discontinued. However, offshore gale warnings were still issued for oceanic regions from the Virginia Capes to Cape Cod, Massachusetts. Shortly after, all warnings, with the exception of the offshore gale warnings, were discontinued. Remaining warnings lasted until 2200 UTC on September 28. Despite not issuing any warnings, the Weather Bureau cautioned interests in Newfoundland, and forecasted hurricane-force winds to effect the island.
Due to the potential impacts from Helene, the Weather Bureau began to advise prompt emergency evacuation in their advisories. Areas between Beaufort, South Carolina and Cape Fear, North Carolina were urged to begin evacuation procedures immediately. The Southeastern American Red Cross sent ten field staff warnings to locations in Georgia and South Carolina in order to assist in setting up emergency shelters. The Red Cross held 27 hurricane preparation conferences to plan preparation procedures. Other civil defense organizations also mobilized hurricane preparation staff and equipment. The Weather Bureau sent a mobile weather station to Charleston, South Carolina in order to monitor weather conditions and alert surrounding populations with short-range radio equipment. Beaches on North Carolina's coast, including Wrightsville Beach and Carolina Beach, were completely evacuated during the night of September 27. In Wilmington, North Carolina, 100 members of the United States National Guard were dispatched to monitor waterfront property, while 60 others were kept on standby. Civilian vehicles attempting to enter Myrtle Beach, South Carolina were sent back by highway patrol outside the city borders, following an order issued by Governor of South Carolina George Bell Timmerman, Jr. The order was issued to minimize casualties and prevent looting. Approximately 100 members of the National Guard and local police were kept to patrol the beach. Despite repeated orders for mandatory evacuation, a few people remained in Myrtle Beach. Civil Defense authorities forcibly evacuated stragglers, but others were permitted to remain.
Impact and aftermath
United States East Coast
Despite not making landfall, Helene's close proximity to the United States resulted in impacts along the East Coast. Impacts were most severe in North Carolina, where the hurricane made its closest approach. Wind impacts were felt primarily from South Carolina to Virginia, though a frontal zone aided in bringing precipitation as far north as Maine. In the United States, Helene caused $11.2 million in damages and one indirect fatality.
North Carolina
Roughly paralleling the North Carolina coast beginning on September 26, Helene's slow movement and strong intensity resulted in moderate to heavy impacts in coastal areas of the state. Despite the hurricane's Category 4 hurricane intensity, due to its closest approach to land remaining offshore, its storm surge remained less than initially forecast. The hurricane's track also placed its strongest storm surge in the eastern hemisphere of the storm, away from any landmasses. Surge heights peaked at near Marine Corps Air Station Cherry Point. In Wilmington, Helene produced ocean swells at the coast 2.5 – 3 times per minute, indicative of a strong hurricane. There, the cumulative sea level was roughly above normal. However, as a result of the storm striking at low tide, damage caused by storm surge was mostly mitigated. Despite this, sand dunes in southern areas of Fort Fisher, were mostly destroyed by waves. On Cedar Island, strong winds produced by the hurricane pushed waves inland, inundating homes. Elsewhere, minor beach erosion occurred.
Further inland, several weather stations reported hurricane-force winds. The Weather Bureau office in Wilmington, North Carolina, reported maximum sustained winds of and a peak gust of , exceeding the previous record for fastest measured wind speed of set during Hurricane Hazel in 1954. Beach resorts there were heavily damaged. In Wrightsville Beach, located of Wilmington, 12 houses were flattened by the hurricane. Damage to homes there were estimated by police to cost $300,000, and extensive damage to the water system was reported. In Long Beach, damage was less severe, with only minor property damage. Waves pushing past sand dunes caused cracks in seaside roads. Though surveys made no damage estimates, damage in Holden Beach was reported to have been worse than in Long Beach. A pier and a pavilion in Ocean Isle Beach were destroyed. In Topsail Beach and Kure Beach, several homes and businesses were either unroofed or destroyed. Yaupon Beach and Shallotte also had similar reports of unroofed homes. Two homes on Topsail Island were demolished, and extensive property damage was reported in Atlantic Beach. At Cape Fear, winds were estimated at , with gusts as high as , well into Category 3 intensity. The powerful winds forced power to be cut off in Wilmington as a precautionary measure. As a result, 7,000 telephones were knocked out of service. Damage to the Southern Bell Telephone Company's offices cost $150,000. Total damages in the city was estimated to cost nearly $2 million. In Morehead City, a roof was blown from a yacht shed and multiple structures. Long-distance telephone services were also cut off. Off the coast on Ocracoke Island, power and communications failed during the storm after the island was battered by winds of . Power outages were commonplace in other areas as well. In Southport, metal debris was scattered across city streets, and the damage there was described as worse than Hurricane Hazel. Half of its pier was swept away by the rough seas, and other buildings collapsed or sustained heavy damage. Numerous trees, including live oak, were uprooted by the winds. The United States Army provided the port with a temporary electrical generator, which provided power for water pumps and light. In Cape Hatteras, Helene caused an estimated $1 million in damages. Although damage to infrastructure tapered off from the coast, crop damage was observed inland. Corn was the crop most affected by Helene.
Rainfall associated with Helene was primarily concentrated in coastal regions North Carolina, peaking at in Wilmington International Airport. In Hatteras, of rain was measured. Rainfall totals of at least were commonplace elsewhere along the North Carolina coast. An indirect death occurred when a car skidded off a flooded highway, killing the driver. In the state, damages from Helene amounted to $11 million.
South Carolina
Effects from Helene in South Carolina were less severe than in North Carolina. Helene made its closest approach to the state on September 27, . In Charleston, sustained winds reached and there was minor damage reported Trees and street signs were blown down, and beach houses suffered shingle damage. Sporadic and small power outages occurred throughout the city. Damage became progressively worse from Georgetown to Little River, with automobile accidents, torn roofs, and damaged piers. On Harbor Island, 50 percent of structure were reported to have roof damage, causing and estimated $125,000 in damages. Elsewhere along the South Carolina coast, beach erosion occurred due to the strong waves, and sections of pier were swept into sea. In Windy Hill and Cherry Grove Beach, three fishing piers were damaged. Damage was minor in Myrtle Beach, and was limited to roof and window damage. Further inland, in Columbia, damage was minimal, with no rainfall reported. Light damage to crops was reported inland, particularly in Marion County. Across the state, damages were estimated at $200,000 from the hurricane, though this did not include beach erosion or damage to sand dunes.
Elsewhere in the United States
As a result of Helene recurving away from the United States East Coast, damage in the United States outside of the Carolinas was less severe. In Virginia, damage was relatively minor. A peak gust of was reported in Norfolk. In Hampton Roads, damage was minor, and was confined to downed utility wires and marginal infrastructural damage. Although rainfall was primarily concentrated in the Carolinas, 1,434 official rain gauges measured precipitation in coastal areas from South Carolina to Maine. Precipitation was further increased by a frontal zone to the hurricane's north. In the Mid-Atlantic States, rainfall peaked at in Myerstown, Pennsylvania. Outside of Pennsylvania or the Carolinas, no weather station reported rainfall exceeding . In the New England region, rainfall peaked at in Hyannis, Massachusetts. Elsewhere in Massachusetts, rainfall totals ranging from caused minor flooding and road washouts. The minor floods led to several automotive accidents. Other states in New England reported rainfall peaks of at least , with the lowest peak occurring at a weather station in Machias, Maine, which reported of rainfall.
Atlantic Canada
As Helene approached Atlantic Canada in the process of transitioning into an extratropical storm, it produced heavy rainfall and strong winds along the region. Passing just east of Nova Scotia on September 29, Helene dropped at least across the entire province, peaking at in Cape Breton Island. Gusts peaked at across Cabot Strait, at CFB Shearwater and at Summerside, Prince Edward Island. The storm damaged power lines on the island but they were quickly repaired. The strong winds uprooted trees in the Halifax and Dartmouth, Nova Scotia area. In Nova Scotia, Helene's worst effects were felt in Cape Breton Island, where the storm was considered the worst in at least 21 years. Only one communication line from the island to the mainland was effective after the storm passed. Numerous downed power lines resulted in minor fires, and schools were closed throughout the island. In Sydney, Nova Scotia, there was considerable property damage, and as many as 700 people lost power. The lack of sufficient electricity forced the suspension of publications of the Cape Breton Post and disrupted normal restaurant cooking procedures. Damages in the community amounted to C$100,000. Offshore, the Royal Canadian Mounted Police cutter Fort Walsh, measuring in length, was washed ashore on the coast of Scatarie Island. The fishing wharf in Caribou, Nova Scotia was destroyed by rough seas generated by Helene, and at least 1,000 lobster traps were carried into the Northumberland Strait as a result. In New Brunswick, the hurricane's impacts were relatively minor, and rainfall peaked at .
Quickly accelerating northwards, Helene made landfall on Newfoundland late on September 29. Rainfall peaked at in northern parts of the island, while rainfall amounts were generally minimal across the Avalon Peninsula. A weather station in Naval Station Argentia reported maximum sustained winds of and a gust of . The winds severed communications in southwestern Newfoundland and cut communications in St. John's, Newfoundland and Labrador from the mainland. Bell Island was cut off from the rest of Newfoundland due to rough seas generated by Helene, which resulted in the destruction of piers and lack of boat service. Damage caused by the hurricane on the island were estimated to be in excess of C$100,000.
Aftermath
Following the storm, Governor of North Carolina Luther H. Hodges and United States Senator from North Carolina B. Everett Jordan requested a disaster declaration for the state. President of the United States Dwight D. Eisenhower designated portions of North Carolina impacted by the storm as a disaster area. According to the American Red Cross, at least 5,000 people were kept in shelters after Helene. Following the large-scale evacuation procedures and resulting low loss of life after the storm, the Weather Bureau recommended that certain organizations be awarded the Outstanding Service to the Public certificate due to their cooperation with the Weather Bureau during the hurricane's duration. The recommended recipients were the radio stations WPTF and WRAL, and the North Carolina State Highway Patrol.
See also
Other storms of the same name
List of North Carolina hurricanes
Hurricane Able (1950)
Hurricane Diana (1984)
Hurricane Florence
Sources
External links
National Hurricane Center Hurricane Helene "Storm Wallet" Archive
Movie of a Helene reconnaissance flight
Helene
Helene (1958)
Helene (1958)
Hurricanes in Canada
1958 natural disasters in the United States |
4105977 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Orders%20in%20Council%20for%20Northern%20Ireland | List of Orders in Council for Northern Ireland | This is a list of Orders in Council for Northern Ireland which are primary legislation for the region in the absence of a devolved legislature, and also for those powers not devolved to the Northern Ireland Assembly. The statutory instruments containing the legislation are numbered in the main UK series (SI number) with a sub-series (NI number) denoting their position in the Northern Ireland legislation for the year.
1972–1979
1972
Prosecution of Offences (Northern Ireland) Order 1972 (SI 1972/538 NI 1)
Appropriation (Northern Ireland) Order 1972 (SI 1972/671 NI 2)
Explosives (Northern Ireland) Order 1972 (SI 1972/730 NI 3)
Northern Ireland Finance Corporation (Northern Ireland) Order 1972 (SI 1972/731 NI 4)
County Courts (Additional Sittings) (Northern Ireland) Order 1972 (SI 1972/965 NI 5)
Employer's Liability (Defective Equipment and Compulsory Insurance) (Northern Ireland) Order 1972 (SI 1972/963 NI 6)
Exported Animals (Compensation) (Northern Ireland) Order 1972 (SI 1972/964 NI 7)
Appropriation (No. 2) (Northern Ireland) Order 1972 (SI 1972/1071 NI 8)
Electricity Supply (Northern Ireland) Order 1972 (SI 1972/1072 NI 9)
Superannuation (Northern Ireland) Order 1972 (SI 1972/1073 NI 10)
Finance (Northern Ireland) Order 1972 (SI 1972/1100 NI 11)
Education and Libraries (Northern Ireland) Order 1972 (SI 1972/1263 NI 12)
Electoral Law (Northern Ireland) Order 1972 (SI 1972/1264 NI 13)
Health and Personal Social Services (Northern Ireland) Order 1972 (SI 1972/1265 NI 14)
Detention of Terrorists (Northern Ireland) Order 1972 (SI 1972/1632 NI 15)
Rates (Northern Ireland) Order 1972 (SI 1972/1633 NI 16)
Planning (Northern Ireland) Order 1972 (SI 1972/1634 NI 17)
Appropriation (No. 3) (Northern Ireland) Order 1972 (SI 1972/1812 NI 18)
Building Regulations (Northern Ireland) Order 1972 (SI 1972/1996 NI 19)
Development of Tourist Traffic (Northern Ireland) Order 1972 (SI 1972/1997 NI 20)
Local Government (Postponement of Elections and Reorganisation) (Northern Ireland) Order 1972 (SI 1972/1998 NI 21)
Local Government &c. (Northern Ireland) Order 1972 (SI 1972/1999 NI 22)
1973
Drainage (Northern Ireland) Order 1973 (SI 1973/69 NI 1)
Water and Sewerage Services (Northern Ireland) Order 1973 (SI 1973/70 NI 2)
Not Allocated (NI 3)
Appropriation (Northern Ireland) Order 1973 (SI 1973/413 NI 4)
Financial Provisions (Northern Ireland) Order 1973 (SI 1973/414 NI 5)
Firearms (Amendment) (Northern Ireland) Order 1973 (SI 1973/415 NI 6)
Museums (Northern Ireland) Order 1973 (SI 1973/416 NI 7)
Births, Deaths and Marriages Registration (Northern Ireland) Order 1973 (SI 1973/600 NI 8)
Fire Services (Northern Ireland) Order 1973 (SI 1973/601 NI 9)
Oaths and Declarations (Repeals) (Northern Ireland) Order 1973 (SI 1973/603 NI 10)
Electoral Law (Northern Ireland) Order 1973 (SI 1973/740 NI 11)
Recreation and Youth Service (Northern Ireland) Order 1973 (SI 1973/961 NI 12)
Superannuation (Northern Ireland) Order 1973 (SI 1973/962 NI 13)
Salaries (Comptroller and Auditor-General and Others) (Northern Ireland) Order 1973 (SI 1973/1086 NI 14)
Appropriation (No. 2) (Northern Ireland) Order 1973 (SI 1973/1227 NI 15)
Enterprise Ulster (Northern Ireland) Order 1973 (SI 1973/1228 NI 16)
Road Traffic (Amendment) (Northern Ireland) Order 1973 (SI 1973/1229 NI 17)
Finance (Miscellaneous Provisions) (Northern Ireland) Order 1973 (SI 1973/1323 NI 18)
Mr. Speaker Neill’s Retirement (Northern Ireland) Order 1973 (SI 1973/1321 NI 19)
Pig Production Development (Amendment) (Northern Ireland) Order 1973 (SI 1973/1322 NI 20)
Land Acquisition and Compensation (Northern Ireland) Order 1973 (SI 1973/1896 NI 21)
Not Allocated (NI 22)
Appropriation (No. 3) (Northern Ireland) Order 1973 (SI 1973/2094 NI 23)
Ministries (Northern Ireland) Order 1973 (SI 1973/2161 NI 24)
1974
Appropriation (Northern Ireland) Order 1974 (SI 1974/1266 NI 1)
Pensions (Increase) (Northern Ireland) Order 1974 (SI 1974/1267 NI 2)
Social Security (Consequences of Emergency) (Northern Ireland) Order 1974 (SI 1974/1268 NI 3)
Financial Provisions (Northern Ireland) Order 1974 (SI 1974/2141 NI 4)
Appropriation (No. 2) (Northern Ireland) Order 1974 (SI 1974/2142 NI 5)
Juries (Northern Ireland) Order 1974 (SI 1974/2143 NI 6)
Youth Employment Service (Northern Ireland) Order 1974 (SI 1974/2144 NI 7)
1975
Appropriation (Northern Ireland) Order 1975 (SI 1975/416 NI 1)
Community Relations (Amendment) (Northern Ireland) Order 1975 (SI 1975/417 NI 2)
Diseases of Animals (Northern Ireland) Order 1975 (SI 1975/418 NI 3)
Selective Employment Premium (Northern Ireland) Order 1975 (SI 1975/424 NI 4)
Shipbuilding Industry (Northern Ireland) Order 1975 (SI 1975/814 NI 5)
Recreation (Northern Ireland) Order 1975 (SI 1975/815 NI 6)
Administration of Justice (Northern Ireland) Order 1975 (SI 1975/816 NI 7)
Agriculture (Miscellaneous Provisions) (Northern Ireland) Order 1975 (SI 1975/1038 NI 8)
Defective Premises (Northern Ireland) Order 1975 (SI 1975/1039 NI 9)
Roads (Northern Ireland) Order 1975 (SI 1975/1040 NI 10)
Appropriation (No. 2) (Northern Ireland) Order 1975 (SI 1975/1212 NI 11)
Diseases of Animals (Amendment) (Northern Ireland) Order 1975 (SI 1975/1307 NI 12)
Local Government (Reduction of General Grant) (Northern Ireland) Order 1975 (SI 1975/1308 NI 13)
Shipbuilding Industry (No. 2) (Northern Ireland) Order 1975 (SI 1975/1309 NI 14)
Social Security Pensions (Northern Ireland) Order 1975 (SI 1975/1503 NI 15)
Child Benefit (Northern Ireland) Order 1975 (SI 1975/1504 NI 16)
Artificial Reproduction of Animals (Northern Ireland) Order 1975 (SI 1975/1834 NI 17)
Appropriation (No. 3) (Northern Ireland) Order 1975 (SI 1975/2176 NI 18)
Bann Reservoir Company (Northern Ireland) Order 1975 (SI 1975/2177 NI 19)
Firearms (Amendment) (Northern Ireland) Order 1975 (SI 1975/2178 NI 20)
Rates (Northern Ireland) Order 1975 (SI 1975/2179 NI 21)
1976
Unsolicited Goods and Services (Northern Ireland) Order 1976 (SI 1976/57 NI 1)
Education (Northern Ireland) Order 1976 (SI 1976/58 NI 2)
Insurance Companies (Northern Ireland) Order 1976 (SI 1976/59 NI 3)
Treatment of Offenders (Northern Ireland) Order 1976 (SI 1976/226 NI 4)
Appropriation (Northern Ireland) Order 1976 (SI 1976/423 NI 5)
Department of Housing, Local Government and Planning (Dissolution) (Northern Ireland) Order 1976 (SI 1976/424 NI 6)
Industrial and Provident Societies (Amendment) (Northern Ireland) Order 1976 (SI 1976/425 NI 7)
Members' Pensions (Northern Ireland) Order 1976 (SI 1976/426 NI 8)
Social Security and Family Allowances (Northern Ireland) Order 1976 (SI 1976/427 NI 9)
Industries Development (Northern Ireland) Order 1976 (SI 1976/580 NI 10)
Road Traffic (Drivers' Ages and Hours of Work) (Northern Ireland) Order 1976 (SI 1976/581 NI 11)
Solicitors (Northern Ireland) Order 1976 (SI 1976/582 NI 12)
Animals (Northern Ireland) Order 1976 (SI 1976/1040 NI 13)
Births and Deaths Registration (Northern Ireland) Order 1976 (SI 1976/1041 NI 14)
Sex Discrimination (Northern Ireland) Order 1976 (SI 1976/1042 NI 15)
Industrial Relations (Northern Ireland) Order 1976 (SI 1976/1043 NI 16)
Horse Racing and Betting (Northern Ireland) Order 1976 (SI 1976/1157 NI 17)
Limitation (Northern Ireland) Order 1976 (SI 1976/1158 NI 18)
Appropriation (No. 2) (Northern Ireland) Order 1976 (SI 1976/1210 NI 19)
Department of the Civil Service (Northern Ireland) Order 1976 (SI 1976/1211 NI 20)
Financial Provisions (Northern Ireland) Order 1976 (SI 1976/1212 NI 21)
Pharmacy (Northern Ireland) Order 1976 (SI 1976/1213 NI 22)
Poisons (Northern Ireland) Order 1976 (SI 1976/1214 NI 23)
Firearms (Amendment) (Northern Ireland) Order 1976 (SI 1976/1341 NI 24)
Housing (Northern Ireland) Order 1976 (SI 1976/1780 NI 25)
Supplementary Benefits (Amendment) (Northern Ireland) Order 1976 (SI 1976/1781 NI 26)
Appropriation (No. 3) (Northern Ireland) Order 1976 (SI 1976/2146 NI 27)
Industrial Relations (No. 2) (Northern Ireland) Order 1976 (SI 1976/2147 NI 28)
1977
Noxious Weeds (Northern Ireland) Order 1977 (SI 1977/52 NI 1)
Police (Northern Ireland) Order 1977 (SI 1977/53 NI 2)
Electricity and Gas Undertakings (Financial Provisions) (Northern Ireland) Order 1977 (SI 1977/427 NI 3)
Criminal Damage (Northern Ireland) Order 1977 (SI 1977/426 NI 4)
Appropriation (Northern Ireland) Order 1977 (SI 1977/594 NI 5)
Consumer Protection and Advice (Northern Ireland) Order 1977 (SI 1977/595 NI 6)
Gas (Northern Ireland) Order 1977 (SI 1977/596 NI 7)
Housing Finance (Northern Ireland) Order 1977 (SI 1977/597 NI 8)
Rates Amendment (Northern Ireland) Order 1977 (SI 1977/598 NI 9)
Transport (Northern Ireland) Order 1977 (SI 1977/599 NI 10)
Social Security (Miscellaneous Provisions) (Northern Ireland) Order 1977 (SI 1977/610 NI 11)
Agriculture (Miscellaneous Provisions) (Northern Ireland) Order 1977 (SI 1977/1245 NI 12)
Appropriation (No. 2) (Northern Ireland) Order 1977 (SI 1977/1246 NI 13)
Criminal Damage (Compensation) (Northern Ireland) Order 1977 (SI 1977/1247 NI 14)
Criminal Injuries (Compensation) (Northern Ireland) Order 1977 (SI 1977/1248 NI 15)
Criminal Law (Amendment) (Northern Ireland) Order 1977 (SI 1977/1249 NI 16)
Family Law Reform (Northern Ireland) Order 1977 (SI 1977/1250 NI 17)
Fatal Accidents (Northern Ireland) Order 1977 (SI 1977/1251 NI 18)
Legal Aid, Advice and Assistance (Northern Ireland) Order 1977 (SI 1977/1252 NI 19)
Preferential Payments in Insolvency (Northern Ireland) Order 1977 (SI 1977/1253 NI 20)
Stock Exchange (Completion of Bargains) (Northern Ireland) Order 1977 (SI 1977/1254 NI 21)
Agricultural Wages (Regulation) (Northern Ireland) Order 1977 (SI 1977/2151 NI 22)
Appropriation (No. 3) (Northern Ireland) Order 1977 (SI 1977/2152 NI 23)
Development of Tourist Traffic (Northern Ireland) Order 1977 (SI 1977/2153 NI 24)
Electricity Service (Finance) (Northern Ireland) Order 1977 (SI 1977/2154 NI 25)
Road Races (Northern Ireland) Order 1977 (SI 1977/2155 NI 26)
Supplementary Benefits (Northern Ireland) Order 1977 (SI 1977/2156 NI 27)
Rates (Northern Ireland) Order 1977 (SI 1977/2157 NI 28)
1978
Appropriation (Northern Ireland) Order 1978 (SI 1978/456 NI 1)
Housing (Northern Ireland) Order 1978 (SI 1978/457 NI 2)
Industries Development (Northern Ireland) Order 1978 (SI 1978/458 NI 3)
Property (Northern Ireland) Order 1978 (SI 1978/459 NI 4)
Sexual Offences (Northern Ireland) Order 1978 (SI 1978/460 NI 5)
Appropriation (No. 2) (Northern Ireland) Order 1978 (SI 1978/1036 NI 6)
Appropriation (No. 3) (Northern Ireland) Order 1978 (SI 1978/1037 NI 7)
Building Regulations (Northern Ireland) Order 1978 (SI 1978/1038 NI 8)
Health and Safety at Work (Northern Ireland) Order 1978 (SI 1978/1039 NI 9)
Education (Northern Ireland) Order 1978 (SI 1978/1040 NI 10)
Financial Provisions (Northern Ireland) Order 1978 (SI 1978/1041 NI 11)
Companies (Northern Ireland) Order 1978 (SI 1978/1042 NI 12)
Home Purchase Assistance (Northern Ireland) Order 1978 (SI 1978/1043 NI 13)
Licensing (Northern Ireland) Order 1978 (SI 1978/1044 NI 14)
Matrimonial Causes (Northern Ireland) Order 1978 (SI 1978/1045 NI 15)
Payments for Debt (Amendment) (Northern Ireland) Order 1978 (SI 1978/1046 NI 16)
Protection of Children (Northern Ireland) Order 1978 (SI 1978/1047 NI 17)
Planning (Amendment) (Northern Ireland) Order 1978 (SI 1978/1048 NI 18)
Pollution Control and Local Government (Northern Ireland) Order 1978 (SI 1978/1049 NI 19)
Rent (Northern Ireland) Order 1978 (SI 1978/1050 NI 20)
Roads and Road Traffic (Northern Ireland) Order 1978 (SI 1978/1051 NI 21)
Homes Insulation (Northern Ireland) Order 1978 (SI 1978/1406 NI 22)
Theft (Northern Ireland) Order 1978 (SI 1978/1407 NI 23)
Remand (Temporary Provisions) (Northern Ireland) Order 1978 (SI 1978/1585 NI 24)
Appropriation (No. 4) (Northern Ireland) Order 1978 (SI 1978/1906 NI 25)
Health and Personal Social Services (Northern Ireland) Order 1978 (SI 1978/1907 NI 26)
Rehabilitation of Offenders (Northern Ireland) Order 1978 (SI 1978/1908 NI 27)
Shops (Northern Ireland) Order 1978 (SI 1978/1909 NI 28)
1979
Aircraft and Shipbuilding Industries (Northern Ireland) Order 1979 (SI 1979/294 NI 1)
Appropriation (Northern Ireland) Order 1979 (SI 1979/295 NI 2)
Judgments Enforcement and Debts Recovery (Northern Ireland) Order 1979 (SI 1979/296 NI 3)
Rates Amendment (Northern Ireland) Order 1979 (SI 1979/297 NI 4)
Social Security (Northern Ireland) Order 1979 (SI 1979/396 NI 5)
Appropriation (No. 2) (Northern Ireland) Order 1979 (SI 1979/922 NI 6)
Firearms (Amendment) (Northern Ireland) Order 1979 (SI 1979/923 NI 7)
Inheritance (Provision for Family and Dependants) (Northern Ireland) Order 1979 (SI 1979/924 NI 8)
Pneumoconiosis, etc., (Workers' Compensation) (Northern Ireland) Order 1979 (SI 1979/925 NI 9)
Tattooing of Minors (Northern Ireland) Order 1979 (SI 1979/926 NI 10)
Legal Aid, Advice and Assistance (Northern Ireland) Order 1979 (SI 1979/1572 NI 11)
Statutory Rules (Northern Ireland) Order 1979 (SI 1979/1573 NI 12)
Industrial Assurance (Northern Ireland) Order 1979 (SI 1979/1574 NI 13)
Administration of Estates (Northern Ireland) Order 1979 (SI 1979/1575 NI 14)
Appropriation (No. 3) (Northern Ireland) Order 1979 (SI 1979/1708 NI 15)
Building Regulations (Northern Ireland) Order 1979 (SI 1979/1709 NI 16)
Control of Food Premises (Northern Ireland) Order 1979 (SI 1979/1710 NI 17)
Mineral Exploration (Northern Ireland) Order 1979 (SI 1979/1713 NI 18)
Perjury (Northern Ireland) Order 1979 (SI 1979/1714 NI 19)
1980–1989
1980
Theatres (Northern Ireland) Order 1980 (SI 1980/190 NI 1)
Appropriation (Northern Ireland) Order 1980 (SI 1980/396 NI 2)
County Courts (Northern Ireland) Order 1980 (SI 1980/397 NI 3)
Bankruptcy Amendment (Northern Ireland) Order 1980 (SI 1980/561 NI 4)
Domestic Proceedings (Northern Ireland) Order 1980 (SI 1980/563 NI 5)
Criminal Justice (Northern Ireland) Order 1980 (SI 1980/704 NI 6)
Bees (Northern Ireland) Order 1980 (SI 1980/869 NI 7)
Social Security (Northern Ireland) Order 1980 (SI 1980/870 NI 8)
Appropriation (No. 2) (Northern Ireland) Order 1980 (SI 1980/1083 NI 9)
Treatment of Offenders (Northern Ireland) Order 1980 (SI 1980/1084 NI 10)
Roads (Northern Ireland) Order 1980 (SI 1980/1085 NI 11)
Private Streets (Northern Ireland) Order 1980 (SI 1980/1086 NI 12)
Social Security (No. 2) (Northern Ireland) Order 1980 (SI 1980/1087 NI 13)
Remand (Temporary Provisions) (Northern Ireland) Order 1980 (SI 1980/1626 NI 14)
Appropriation (No. 3) (Northern Ireland) Order 1980 (SI 1980/1957 NI 15)
Education (Northern Ireland) Order 1980 (SI 1980/1958 NI 16)
Financial Provisions (Northern Ireland) Order 1980 (SI 1980/1959 NI 17)
1981
Road Traffic (Northern Ireland) Order 1981 (SI 1981/154 NI 1)
Firearms (Northern Ireland) Order 1981 (SI 1981/155 NI 2)
Housing (Northern Ireland) Order 1981 (SI 1981/156 NI 3)
Clean Air (Northern Ireland) Order 1981 (SI 1981/158 NI 4)
Leasehold (Enlargement and Extension) Amendment (Northern Ireland) Order 1981 (SI 1981/159 NI 5)
Judgments Enforcement (Northern Ireland) Order 1981 (SI 1981/226 NI 6)
Fisheries Amendment (Northern Ireland) Order 1981 (SI 1981/227 NI 7)
Legal Aid, Advice and Assistance (Northern Ireland) Order 1981 (SI 1981/228 NI 8)
Social Security (Contributions) (Northern Ireland) Order 1981 (SI 1981/230 NI 9)
Weights and Measures (Northern Ireland) Order 1981 (SI 1981/231 NI 10)
Agricultural Trust (Abolition) (Northern Ireland) Order 1981 (SI 1981/435 NI 11)
Appropriation (Northern Ireland) Order 1981 (SI 1981/436 NI 12)
Local Government, Planning and Land (Northern Ireland) Order 1981 (SI 1981/437 NI 13)
Museums (Northern Ireland) Order 1981 (SI 1981/438 NI 14)
Enterprise Zones (Northern Ireland) Order 1981 (SI 1981/607 NI 15)
Planning Blight (Compensation) (Northern Ireland) Order 1981 (SI 1981/608 NI 16)
Public Order (Northern Ireland) Order 1981 (SI 1981/609 NI 17)
Queen’s University (Northern Ireland) Order 1981 (SI 1981/610 NI 18)
Companies (Northern Ireland) Order 1981 (SI 1981/838 NI 19)
Employment (Miscellaneous Provisions) (Northern Ireland) Order 1981 (SI 1981/839 NI 20)
Appropriation (No. 2) (Northern Ireland) Order 1981 (SI 1981/1114 NI 21)
Diseases of Animals (Northern Ireland) Order 1981 (SI 1981/1115 NI 22)
Industrial Investment (Amendment) (Northern Ireland) Order 1981 (SI 1981/1116 NI 23)
Road Traffic (Car-Sharing Arrangements) (Northern Ireland) Order 1981 (SI 1981/1117 NI 24)
Social Security (Northern Ireland) Order 1981 (SI 1981/1118 NI 25)
Magistrates' Courts (Northern Ireland) Order 1981 (SI 1981/1675 NI 26)
Remand (Temporary Provisions) (Northern Ireland) Order 1981 (SI 1981/1799 NI 27)
Appropriation (No. 3) (Northern Ireland) Order 1981 (SI 1981/1813 NI 28)
1982
Electricity Service (Finance) (Northern Ireland) Order 1982 (SI 1982/155 NI 1)
Rates Amendment (Northern Ireland) Order 1982 (SI 1982/156 NI 2)
Road Traffic (Seatbelts) (Northern Ireland) Order 1982 (SI 1982/157 NI 3)
Social Security (contributions) (Northern Ireland) Order 1982 (SI 1982/158 NI 4)
Appropriation (Northern Ireland) Order 1982 (SI 1982/337 NI 5)
Departments (Northern Ireland) Order 1982 (SI 1982/338 NI 6)
Limitation Amendment (Northern Ireland) Order 1982 (SI 1982/339 NI 7)
Industrial Relations (Northern Ireland) Order 1982 (SI 1982/528 NI 8)
Land Compensation (Northern Ireland) Order 1982 (SI 1982/712 NI 9)
Probation Board (Northern Ireland) Order 1982 (SI 1982/713 NI 10)
Departments (No. 2) (Northern Ireland) Order 1982 (SI 1982/846 NI 11)
Agricultural Marketing (Northern Ireland) Order 1982 (SI 1982/1080 NI 12)
Appropriation (No. 2) (Northern Ireland) Order 1982 (SI 1982/1081 NI 13)
Forfeiture (Northern Ireland) Order 1982 (SI 1982/1082 NI 14)
Industrial Development (Northern Ireland) Order 1982 (SI 1982/1083 NI 15)
Social Security (Northern Ireland) Order 1982 (SI 1982/1084 NI 16)
Companies (Northern Ireland) Order 1982 (SI 1982/1534 NI 17)
Disabled Persons (Northern Ireland) Order 1982 (SI 1982/1535 NI 18)
Homosexual Offences (Northern Ireland) Order 1982 (SI 1982/1536 NI 19)
Planning (Amendment) (Northern Ireland) Order 1982 (SI 1982/1537 NI 20)
Appropriation (No. 3) (Northern Ireland) Order 1982 (SI 1982/1831 NI 21)
Criminal Injuries (Compensation) Amendment (Northern Ireland) Order 1982 (SI 1982/1833 NI 22)
Wages Councils (Northern Ireland) Order 1982 (SI 1982/1840 NI 23)
1983
Financial Provisions (Northern Ireland) Order 1983 (SI 1983/147 NI 1)
Milk (Northern Ireland) Order 1983 (SI 1983/148 NI 2)
Road Traffic (Seatbelts) (Northern Ireland) Order 1983 (SI 1983/149 NI 3)
Quarries (Northern Ireland) Order 1983 (SI 1983/150 NI 4)
Appropriation (Northern Ireland) Order 1983 (SI 1983/419 NI 5)
Licensing (International Airports) (Northern Ireland) Order 1983 (SI 1983/420 NI 6)
Rates (Amendment) (Northern Ireland) Order 1983 (SI 1983/421 NI 7)
Dogs (Northern Ireland) Order 1983 (SI 1983/764 NI 8)
Property (Discharge of Mortgage by Receipt) (Northern Ireland) Order 1983 (SI 1983/766 NI 9)
Rates (Amendment No. 2) (Northern Ireland) Order 1983 (SI 1983/767 NI 10)
Appropriation (No. 2) (Northern Ireland) Order 1983 (SI 1983/1117 NI 11)
Companies (Beneficial Interests) (Northern Ireland) Order 1983 (SI 1983/1119 NI 12)
Criminal Attempts and Conspiracy (Northern Ireland) Order 1983 (SI 1983/1120 NI 13)
Housing Benefits (Northern Ireland) Order 1983 (SI 1983/1121 NI 14)
Housing (Northern Ireland) Order 1983 (SI 1983/1118 NI 15)
Not Allocated (NI 16)
Social Security Adjudications (Northern Ireland) Order 1983 (SI 1983/1524 NI 17)
Access to the Countryside (Northern Ireland) Order 1983 (SI 1983/1895 NI 18)
Appropriation (No. 3) (Northern Ireland) Order 1983 (SI 1983/1896 NI 19)
Firearms (Northern Ireland) Order 1983 (SI 1983/1899 NI 20)
Fisheries (Amendment) (Northern Ireland) Order 1983 (SI 1983/1900 NI 21)
Judgments Enforcement (Attachment of Debts) (Northern Ireland) Order 1983 (SI 1983/1904 NI 22)
1984
Appropriation (Northern Ireland) Order 1984 (SI 1984/359 NI 1)
Agriculture (Miscellaneous Provisions) (Northern Ireland) Order 1984 (SI 1984/702 NI 2)
Fines and Penalties (Northern Ireland) Order 1984 (SI 1984/703 NI 3)
Gas (Amendment) (Northern Ireland) Order 1984 (SI 1984/704 NI 4)
Appropriation (No. 2) (Northern Ireland) Order 1984 (SI 1984/858 NI 5)
Education (Northern Ireland) Order 1984 (SI 1984/1156 NI 6)
Financial Provisions (Northern Ireland) Order 1984 (SI 1984/1157 NI 7)
Health and Social Security (Northern Ireland) Order 1984 (SI 1984/1158 NI 8)
Industrial Training (Northern Ireland) Order 1984 (SI 1984/1159 NI 9)
University of Ulster (Northern Ireland) Order 1984 (SI 1984/1167 NI 10)
Fire Services (Northern Ireland) Order 1984 (SI 1984/1821 NI 11)
General Consumer Council (Northern Ireland) Order 1984 (SI 1984/1822 NI 12)
Appropriation (No. 3) (Northern Ireland) Order 1984 (SI 1984/1983 NI 13)
Family Law (Miscellaneous Provisions) (Northern Ireland) Order 1984 (SI 1984/1984 NI 14)
Road Traffic, Transport and Roads (Northern Ireland) Order 1984 (SI 1984/1986 NI 15)
1985
Nature Conservation and Amenity Lands (Northern Ireland) Order 1985 (SI 1985/170 NI 1)
Wildlife (Northern Ireland) Order 1985 (SI 1985/171 NI 2)
Appropriation (Northern Ireland) Order 1985 (SI 1985/452 NI 3)
Friendly Societies (Northern Ireland) Order 1985 (SI 1985/453 NI 4)
Foreign Limitation Periods (Northern Ireland) Order 1985 (SI 1985/754 NI 5)
Road Traffic (Type Approval) (Northern Ireland) Order 1985 (SI 1985/755 NI 6)
Water and Sewerage Services (Amendment) (Northern Ireland) Order 1985 (SI 1985/756 NI 7)
Appropriation (No. 2) (Northern Ireland) Order 1985 (SI 1985/957 NI 8)
Milk (Cessation of Production) (Northern Ireland) Order 1985 (SI 1985/958 NI 9)
Rent (Amendment) (Northern Ireland) Order 1985 (SI 1985/959 NI 10)
Betting, Gaming, Lotteries and Amusements (Northern Ireland) Order 1985 (SI 1985/1204 NI 11)
Credit Unions (Northern Ireland) Order 1985 (SI 1985/1205 NI 12)
Historic Churches (Northern Ireland) Order 1985 (SI 1985/1206 NI 13)
Gas (Northern Ireland) Order 1985 (SI 1985/1207 NI 14)
Local Government (Miscellaneous Provisions) (Northern Ireland) Order 1985 (SI 1985/1208 NI 15)
Social Security (Northern Ireland) Order 1985 (SI 1985/1209 NI 16)
Child Abduction (Northern Ireland) Order 1985 (SI 1985/1638 NI 17)
Sex Discrimination (Amendment) (Northern Ireland) Order 1985 (SI 1985/1641 NI 18)
Nursing Homes and Nursing Agencies (Northern Ireland) Order 1985 (SI 1985/1755 NI 19)
1986
Local Government (Temporary Provisions) (Northern Ireland) Order 1986 (SI 1986/221 NI 1)
Appropriation (Northern Ireland) Order 1986 (SI 1986/593 NI 2)
Education and Libraries (Northern Ireland) Order 1986 (SI 1986/594 NI 3)
Mental Health (Northern Ireland) Order 1986 (SI 1986/595 NI 4)
Commission on Disposals of Land (Northern Ireland) Order 1986 (SI 1986/767 NI 5)
Companies (Northern Ireland) Order 1986 (SI 1986/1032 NI 6)
Business Names (Northern Ireland) Order 1986 (SI 1986/1033 NI 7)
Company Securities (Insider Dealing) (Northern Ireland) Order 1986 (SI 1986/1034 NI 8)
Companies Consolidation (Consequential Provisions) (Northern Ireland) Order 1986 (SI 1986/1035 NI 9)
Appropriation (No. 2) (Northern Ireland) Order 1986 (SI 1986/1165 NI 10)
Judgments Enforcement (Amendment) (Northern Ireland) Order 1986 (SI 1986/1166 NI 11)
Legal Advice and Assistance (Amendment) (Northern Ireland) Order 1986 (SI 1986/1167 NI 12)
Housing (Northern Ireland) Order 1986 (SI 1986/1301 NI 13)
Social Need (Northern Ireland) Order 1986 (SI 1986/1302 NI 14)
Criminal Justice (Northern Ireland) Order 1986 (SI 1986/1883 NI 15)
Redundancy Rebates (Northern Ireland) Order 1986 (SI 1986/1886 NI 16)
Road Races (Northern Ireland) Order 1986 (SI 1986/1887 NI 17)
Social Security (Northern Ireland) Order 1986 (SI 1986/1888 NI 18)
Financial Provisions (Northern Ireland) Order 1986 (SI 1986/2021 NI 19)
Health and Personal Social Services (Amendment) (Northern Ireland) Order 1986 (SI 1986/2023 NI 20)
Rates (Amendment) (Northern Ireland) Order 1986 (SI 1986/2024 NI 21)
Appropriation (No. 3) (Northern Ireland) Order 1986 (SI 1986/2227 NI 22)
Enterprise Ulster (Continuation of Functions) (Northern Ireland) Order 1986 (SI 1986/2228 NI 23)
Health and Personal Social Services and Public Health (Northern Ireland) Order 1986 (SI 1986/2229 NI 24)
Recreation and Youth Service (Northern Ireland) Order 1986 (SI 1986/2232 NI 25)
1987
Agriculture and Fisheries (Financial Assistance) (Northern Ireland) Order 1987 (SI 1987/166 NI 1)
Education (Northern Ireland) Order 1987 (SI 1987/167 NI 2)
Agriculture (Environmental Areas) (Northern Ireland) Order 1987 (SI 1987/458 NI 3)
Appropriation (Northern Ireland) Order 1987 (SI 1987/459 NI 4)
Audit (Northern Ireland) Order 1987 (SI 1987/460 NI 5)
Education (Corporal Punishment) (Northern Ireland) Order 1987 (SI 1987/461 NI 6)
Public Order (Northern Ireland) Order 1987 (SI 1987/463 NI 7)
Social Fund (Maternity and Funeral Expenses) (Northern Ireland) Order 1987 (SI 1987/464 NI 8)
Industrial Relations (Northern Ireland) Order 1987 (SI 1987/936 NI 9)
Police (Northern Ireland) Order 1986 (SI 1987/938 NI 10)
Appropriation (No. 2) (Northern Ireland) Order 1987 (SI 1987/1274 NI 11)
Electricity Supply (Amendment) (Northern Ireland) Order 1987 (SI 1987/1275 NI 12)
Licensing (Northern Ireland) Order 1987 (SI 1987/1277 NI 13)
Registration of Clubs (Northern Ireland) Order 1987 (SI 1987/1278 NI 14)
Occupiers' Liability (Northern Ireland) Order 1987 (SI 1987/1280 NI 15)
Enduring Powers of Attorney (Northern Ireland) Order 1987 (SI 1987/1627 NI 16)
Limitation (Amendment) (Northern Ireland) Order 1987 (SI 1987/1629 NI 17)
AIDS (Control) (Northern Ireland) Order 1987 (SI 1987/1832 NI 18)
Charities (Northern Ireland) Order 1987 (SI 1987/2048 NI 19)
Consumer Protection (Northern Ireland) Order 1987 (SI 1987/2049 NI 20)
Water (Fluoridation) (Northern Ireland) Order 1987 (SI 1987/2052 NI 21)
Adoption (Northern Ireland) Order 1987 (SI 1987/2203 NI 22)
Appropriation (No. 3) (Northern Ireland) Order 1987 (SI 1987/2204 NI 23)
1988
Appropriation (Northern Ireland) Order 1988 (SI 1988/592 NI 1)
Social Security (Northern Ireland) Order 1988 (SI 1988/594 NI 2)
Statistics of Trade and Employment (Northern Ireland) Order 1988 (SI 1988/595 NI 3)
Criminal Injuries (Compensation) (Northern Ireland) Order 1988 (SI 1988/793 NI 4)
Crossbows (Northern Ireland) Order 1988 (SI 1988/794 NI 5)
General Assistance Grants (Abolition)(Northern Ireland) Order 1988 (SI 1988/795 NI 6)
Wages (Northern Ireland) Order 1988 (SI 1988/796 NI 7)
Fees &c (Northern Ireland) Order 1988 (SI 1988/929 NI 8)
Minors' Contracts (Northern Ireland) Order 1988 (SI 1988/930 NI 9)
Employment and Training (Amendment)(Northern Ireland) Order 1988 (SI 1988/1087 NI 10)
Appropriation (No. 2) (Northern Ireland) Order 1988 (SI 1988/1301 NI 11)
Farm Businesses (Northern Ireland) Order 1988 (SI 1988/1302 NI 12)
Sex Discrimination (Northern Ireland) Order 1988 (SI 1988/1303 NI 13)
Corneal Tissue (Northern Ireland) Order 1988 (SI 1988/1844 NI 14)
Criminal Justice (Firearms)(Northern Ireland) Order 1988 (SI 1988/1845 NI 15)
Criminal Justice (Serious Fraud)(Northern Ireland) Order 1988 (SI 1988/1846 NI 16)
Criminal Justice (Evidence, Etc.) (Northern Ireland) Order 1988 (SI 1988/1847 NI 17)
Malicious Communications (Northern Ireland) Order 1988 (SI 1988/1849 NI 18)
Scotch Whisky (Northern Ireland) Order 1988 (SI 1988/1852 NI 19)
Criminal Evidence (Northern Ireland) Order 1988 (SI 1988/1987 NI 20)
Education (Academic Tenure)(Northern Ireland) Order 1988 (SI 1988/1988 NI 21)
Education (Unrecognised Degrees)(Northern Ireland) Order 1988 (SI 1988/1989 NI 22)
Housing (Northern Ireland) Order 1988 (SI 1988/1990 NI 23)
Health and Medicines (Northern Ireland) Order 1988 (SI 1988/2249 NI 24)
1989
Appropriation (Northern Ireland) Order 1989 (SI 1989/484 NI 1)
Laganside Development (Northern Ireland) Order 1989 (SI 1989/490 NI 2)
Nature Conservation and Amenity Lands (Amendment) (Northern Ireland) Order 1989 (SI 1989/492 NI 3)
Matrimonial and Family Proceedings (Northern Ireland) Order 1989 (SI 1989/677 NI 4)
Motor Vehicles (Wearing of Rear Seat Belts by Children) (Northern Ireland) Order 1989 (SI 1989/680 NI 5)
Food (Northern Ireland) Order 1989 (SI 1989/846 NI 6)
Financial Provisions (Northern Ireland) Order 1989 (SI 1989/984 NI 7)
Appropriation (No. 2) (Northern Ireland) Order 1989 (SI 1989/1336 NI 8)
Appropriation (No. 3) (Northern Ireland) Order 1989 (SI 1989/1337 NI 9)
Firearms (Amendment) (Northern Ireland) Order 1989 (SI 1989/1338 NI 10)
Limitation (Northern Ireland) Order 1989 (SI 1989/1339 NI 11)
Police and Criminal Evidence (Northern Ireland) Order 1989 (SI 1989/1341 NI 12)
Social Security (Northern Ireland) Order 1989 (SI 1989/1342 NI 13)
Solicitors (Amendment) (Northern Ireland) Order 1989 (SI 1989/1343 NI 14)
Treatment of Offenders (Northern Ireland) Order 1989 (SI 1989/1344 NI 15)
Licensing and Clubs (Amendment) (Northern Ireland) Order 1989 (SI 1989/1999 NI 16)
Appropriation (No. 4) (Northern Ireland) Order 1989 (SI 1989/2402 NI 17)
Companies (Northern Ireland) Order 1989 (SI 1989/2404 NI 18)
Insolvency (Northern Ireland) Order 1989 (SI 1989/2405 NI 19)
Education Reform (Northern Ireland) Order 1989 (SI 1989/2406 NI 20)
Human Organ Transplants (Northern Ireland) Order 1989 (SI 1989/2408 NI 21)
Youth Service (Northern Ireland) Order 1989 (SI 1989/2413 NI 22)
1990–1999
1990
Electricity Supply (Amendment) (Northern Ireland) Order 1990 (SI 1990/245 NI 1)
Employment (Miscellaneous Provisions) (Northern Ireland) Order 1990 (SI 1990/246 NI 2)
Health and Personal Social Services (Special Agencies)(Northern Ireland) Order 1990 (SI 1990/247 NI 3)
Appropriation (Northern Ireland) Order 1990 (SI 1990/592 NI 4)
Companies (Northern Ireland) Order 1990 (SI 1990/593 NI 5)
Licensing (Northern Ireland) Order 1990 (SI 1990/594 NI 6)
Transport (Amendment) (Northern Ireland) Order 1990 (SI 1990/994 NI 7)
Industrial Training (Northern Ireland) Order 1990 (SI 1990/1200 NI 8)
Appropriation (No. 2) (Northern Ireland) Order 1990 (SI 1990/1305 NI 9)
Companies (No. 2) (Northern Ireland) Order 1990 (SI 1990/1504 NI 10)
Education (Student Loans) (Northern Ireland) Order 1990 (SI 1990/1506 NI 11)
Horse Racing (Northern Ireland) Order 1990 (SI 1990/1508 NI 12)
Pensions (Miscellaneous Provisions) (Northern Ireland) Order 1990 (SI 1990/1509 NI 13)
Planning and Building Regulations (Amendment) (Northern Ireland) Order 1990 (SI 1990/1510 NI 14)
Social Security (Northern Ireland) Order 1990 (SI 1990/1511 NI 15)
Horses (Protective Headgear for Young Riders) (Northern Ireland) Order 1990 (SI 1990/2294 NI 16)
Criminal Justice (Confiscation) (Northern Ireland) Order 1990 (SI 1990/2588 NI 17)
1991
Health and Personal Social Services (Northern Ireland) Order 1991 (SI 1991/194 NI 1)
Redundancy Fund (Abolition) (Northern Ireland) Order 1991 (SI 1991/196 NI 2)
Road Traffic (Amendment) (Northern Ireland) Order 1991 (SI 1991/197 NI 3)
Appropriation (Northern Ireland) Order 1991 (SI 1991/759 NI 4)
Census (Confidentiality) (Northern Ireland) Order 1991 (SI 1991/760 NI 5)
Financial Provisions (Northern Ireland) Order 1991 (SI 1991/761 NI 6)
Food Safety (Northern Ireland) Order 1991 (SI 1991/762 NI 7)
Repayment of Fees and Charges (Northern Ireland) Order 1991 (SI 1991/764 NI 8)
Statutory Sick Pay (Northern Ireland) Order 1991 (SI 1991/765 NI 9)
Dangerous Vessels (Northern Ireland) Order 1991 (SI 1991/1219 NI 10)
Planning (Northern Ireland) Order 1991 (SI 1991/1220 NI 11)
Cinemas (Northern Ireland) Order 1991 (SI 1991/1462 NI 12)
Fisheries (Amendment) (Northern Ireland) Order 1991 (SI 1991/1466 NI 13)
Access to Personal Files and Medical Reports (Northern Ireland) Order 1991 (SI 1991/1707 NI 14)
Appropriation (No. 2) (Northern Ireland) Order 1991 (SI 1991/1708 NI 15)
Criminal Justice (Northern Ireland) Order 1991 (SI 1991/1711 NI 16)
Disability Living Allowance and Disability Working Allowance (Northern Ireland) Order 1991 (SI 1991/1712 NI 17)
Fair Employment (Amendment) (Northern Ireland) Order 1991 (SI 1991/1713 NI 18)
Genetically Modified Organisms (Northern Ireland) Order 1991 (SI 1991/1714 NI 19)
Statistics (Confidentiality) (Northern Ireland) Order 1991 (SI 1991/1721 NI 20)
Dangerous Dogs (Northern Ireland) Order 1991 (SI 1991/2292 NI 21)
Social Security (Contributions) (Northern Ireland) Order 1991 (SI 1991/2294 NI 22)
Child Support (Northern Ireland) Order 1991 (SI 1991/2628 NI 23)
Judicial Pensions (Northern Ireland) Order 1991 (SI 1991/2631 NI 24)
Children and Young Persons (Protection from Tobacco) (Northern Ireland) Order 1991 (SI 1991/2872 NI 25)
1992
Electricity (Northern Ireland) Order 1992 (SI 1992/231 NI 1)
Radioactive Material (Road Transport) (Northern Ireland) Order 1992 (SI 1992/234 NI 2)
Tourism (Northern Ireland) Order 1992 (SI 1992/235 NI 3)
Appropriation (Northern Ireland) Order 1992 (SI 1992/805 NI 4)
Industrial Relations (Northern Ireland) Order 1992 (SI 1992/807 NI 5)
Local Government (Miscellaneous Provisions) (Northern Ireland) Order 1992 (SI 1992/810 NI 6)
Registration (Land and Deeds) (Northern Ireland) Order 1992 (SI 1992/811 NI 7)
Home Loss Payments (Northern Ireland) Order 1992 (SI 1992/1307 NI 8)
Social Security (Mortgage Interest Payments) (Northern Ireland) Order 1992 (SI 1992/1309 NI 9)
Still-Birth (Definition) (Northern Ireland) Order 1992 (SI 1992/1310 NI 10)
Anatomy (Northern Ireland) Order 1992 (SI 1992/1718 NI 11)
Appropriation (No. 2) (Northern Ireland) Order 1992 (SI 1992/1719 NI 12)
Competition and Service (Electricity) (Northern Ireland) Order 1992 (SI 1992/1720 NI 13)
Firearms (Amendment) (Northern Ireland) Order 1992 (SI 1992/1723 NI 14)
Housing (Northern Ireland) Order 1992 (SI 1992/1725 NI 15)
Licensing (Validation) (Northern Ireland) Order 1992 (SI 1992/1726 NI 16)
Offshore, and Pipelines, Safety (Northern Ireland) Order 1992 (SI 1992/1728 NI 17)
Pharmaceutical Services (Northern Ireland) Order 1992 (SI 1992/2671 NI 18)
Private Streets (Amendment) (Northern Ireland) Order 1992 (SI 1992/3203 NI 19)
Registered Homes (Northern Ireland) Order 1992 (SI 1992/3204 NI 20)
1993
Aircraft and Shipbuilding Industries (Repeals) (Northern Ireland) Order 1993 (SI 1993/225 NI 1)
Social Security (Northern Ireland) Order 1993 (SI 1993/592 NI 2)
Appropriation (Northern Ireland) Order 1993 (SI 1993/600 NI 3)
Access to Health Records (Northern Ireland) Order 1993 (SI 1993/1250 NI 4)
Financial Provisions (Northern Ireland) Order 1993 (SI 1993/1252 NI 5)
Family Law (Northern Ireland) Order 1993 (SI 1993/1576 NI 6)
Fire Services (Amendment) (Northern Ireland) Order 1993 (SI 1993/1578 NI 7)
Social Security (Amendment) (Northern Ireland) Order 1993 (SI 1993/1579 NI 8)
Appropriation (No. 2) (Northern Ireland) Order 1993 (SI 1993/1788 NI 9)
Agriculture (Northern Ireland) Order 1993 (SI 1993/2665 NI 10)
Industrial Relations (Northern Ireland) Order 1993 (SI 1993/2668 NI 11)
Education and Libraries (Northern Ireland) Order 1993 (SI 1993/2810 NI 12)
Criminal Justice (Confiscation) (Northern Ireland) Order 1993 (SI 1993/3146 NI 13)
Environment and Safety Information (Northern Ireland) Order 1993 (SI 1993/3159 NI 14)
Roads (Northern Ireland) Order 1993 (SI 1993/3160 NI 15)
Water and Sewerage Services (Amendment) (Northern Ireland) Order 1993 (SI 1993/3165 NI 16)
1994
Airports (Northern Ireland) Order 1994 (SI 1994/426 NI 1)
Health and Personal Social Services (Northern Ireland) Order 1994 (SI 1994/429 NI 2)
Appropriation (Northern Ireland) Order 1994 (SI 1994/762 NI 3)
Social Security (Contributions) (Northern Ireland) Order 1994 (SI 1994/765 NI 4)
Statutory Sick Pay (Northern Ireland) Order 1994 (SI 1994/766 NI 5)
Agriculture (Miscellaneous Provisions) (Northern Ireland) Order 1994 (SI 1994/1891 NI 6)
Appropriation (No. 2) (Northern Ireland) Order 1994 (SI 1994/1892 NI 7)
Betting and Lotteries (Northern Ireland) Order 1994 (SI 1994/1893 NI 8)
Civil Service (Management Functions) (Northern Ireland) Order 1994 (SI 1994/1894 NI 9)
Litter (Northern Ireland) Order 1994 (SI 1994/1896 NI 10)
Rates (Amendment) (Northern Ireland) Order 1994 (SI 1994/1897 NI 11)
Social Security (Incapacity for Work) (Northern Ireland) Order 1994 (SI 1994/1898 NI 12)
Wills and Administration Proceedings (Northern Ireland) Order 1994 (SI 1994/1899 NI 13)
Remand (Temporary Provisions) (Northern Ireland) Order 1994 (SI 1994/1993 NI 14)
Criminal Justice (Northern Ireland) Order 1994 (SI 1994/2795 NI 15)
Ports (Northern Ireland) Order 1994 (SI 1994/2809 NI 16)
Firearms (Amendment) (Northern Ireland) Order 1994 (SI 1994/3204 NI 17)
1995
Appropriation (Northern Ireland) Order 1995 (SI 1995/754 NI 1)
Children (Northern Ireland) Order 1995 (SI 1995/755 NI 2)
Children's Evidence (Northern Ireland) Order 1995 (SI 1995/757 NI 3)
Fair Employment (Amendment) (Northern Ireland) Order 1995 (SI 1995/758 NI 4)
Local Government (Miscellaneous Provisions) (Northern Ireland) Order 1995 (SI 1995/759 NI 5)
Wildlife (Amendment) (Northern Ireland) Order 1995 (SI 1995/761 NI 6)
Armagh Observatory and Planetarium (Northern Ireland) Order 1995 (SI 1995/1622 NI 7)
Arts Council (Northern Ireland) Order 1995 (SI 1995/1623 NI 8)
Historic Monuments and Archaeological Objects (Northern Ireland) Order 1995 (SI 1995/1625 NI 9)
Ports (Amendment) (Northern Ireland) Order 1995 (SI 1995/1627 NI 10)
Appropriation (No. 2) (Northern Ireland) Order 1995 (SI 1995/1969 NI 11)
Trade Union and Labour Relations (Northern Ireland) Order 1995 (SI 1995/1980 NI 12)
Child Support (Northern Ireland) Order 1995 (SI 1995/2702 NI 13)
Health and Personal Social Services (Amendment) (Northern Ireland) Order 1995 (SI 1995/2704 NI 14)
Jobseekers (Northern Ireland) Order 1995 (SI 1995/2705 NI 15)
Financial Provisions (Northern Ireland) Order 1995 (SI 1995/2991 NI 16)
Police (Amendment) (Northern Ireland) Order 1995 (SI 1995/2993 NI 17)
Road Traffic (Northern Ireland) Order 1995 (SI 1995/2994 NI 18)
Street Works (Northern Ireland) Order 1995 (SI 1995/3210 NI 19)
Polygamous Marriages (Northern Ireland) Order 1995 (SI 1995/3211 NI 20)
Agriculture (Conservation Grants) (Northern Ireland) Order 1995 (SI 1995/3212 NI 21)
Pensions (Northern Ireland) Order 1995 (SI 1995/3213 NI 22)
1996
Education (Northern Ireland) Order 1996 (SI 1996/274 NI 1)
Gas (Northern Ireland) Order 1996 (SI 1996/275 NI 2)
County Courts (Amendment) (Northern Ireland) Order 1996 (SI 1996/277 NI 3)
Appropriation (Northern Ireland) Order 1996 (SI 1996/721 NI 4)
Business Tenancies (Northern Ireland) Order 1996 (SI 1996/725 NI 5)
Juries (Northern Ireland) Order 1996 (SI 1996/1141 NI 6)
Commissioner for Complaints (Northern Ireland) Order 1996 (SI 1996/1297 NI 7)
Ombudsman (Northern Ireland) Order 1996 (SI 1996/1298 NI 8)
Proceeds of Crime (Northern Ireland) Order 1996 (SI 1996/1299 NI 9)
Road Traffic Offenders (Northern Ireland) Order 1996 (SI 1996/1320 NI 10)
Deregulation and Contracting Out (Northern Ireland) Order 1996 (SI 1996/1632 NI 11)
Food Safety (Amendment) (Northern Ireland) Order 1996 (SI 1996/1633 NI 12)
Health and Personal Social Services (Residual Liabilities) (Northern Ireland) Order 1996 (SI 1996/1636 NI 13)
Appropriation (No. 2) (Northern Ireland) Order 1996 (SI 1996/1917 NI 14)
Education (Student Loans) (Northern Ireland) Order 1996 (SI 1996/1918 NI 15)
Employment Rights (Northern Ireland) Order 1996 (SI 1996/1919 NI 16)
Explosives (Amendment) (Northern Ireland) Order 1996 (SI 1996/1920 NI 17)
Industrial Tribunals (Northern Ireland) Order 1996 (SI 1996/1921 NI 18)
Personal Social Services (Direct Payments) (Northern Ireland) Order 1996 (SI 1996/1923 NI 19)
Housing Benefit (Payment to Third Parties) (Northern Ireland) Order 1996 (SI 1996/2597 NI 20)
Domestic Energy Efficiency Schemes (Northern Ireland) Order 1996 (SI 1996/2879 NI 21)
Licensing (Northern Ireland) Order 1996 (SI 1996/3158 NI 22)
Registration of Clubs (Northern Ireland) Order 1996 (SI 1996/3159 NI 23)
Criminal Justice (Northern Ireland) Order 1996 (SI 1996/3160 NI 24)
Rates (Amendment) (Northern Ireland) Order 1996 (SI 1996/3162 NI 25)
Succession (Northern Ireland) Order 1996 (SI 1996/3163 NI 26)
1997
Construction Contracts (Northern Ireland) Order 1997 (SI 1997/274 NI 1)
Road Traffic Regulation (Northern Ireland) Order 1997 (SI 1997/276 NI 2)
Theft (Amendment) (Northern Ireland) Order 1997 (SI 1997/277 NI 3)
Appropriation (Northern Ireland) Order 1997 (SI 1997/865 NI 4)
Education (Northern Ireland) Order 1997 (SI 1997/866 NI 5)
Race Relations (Northern Ireland) Order 1997 (SI 1997/869 NI 6)
Health Services (Primary Care) (Northern Ireland) Order 1997 (SI 1997/1177 NI 7)
Property (Northern Ireland) Order 1997 (SI 1997/1179 NI 8)
Protection from Harassment (Northern Ireland) Order 1997 (SI 1997/1180 NI 9)
Public Order (Amendment) (Northern Ireland) Order 1997 (SI 1997/1181 NI 10)
Social Security Administration (Fraud) (Northern Ireland) Order 1997 (SI 1997/1182 NI 11)
Social Security (Recovery of Benefits) (Northern Ireland) Order 1997 (SI 1997/1183 NI 12)
Appropriation (No. 2) (Northern Ireland) Order 1997 (SI 1997/1754 NI 13)
Commissioner for Complaints (Amendment) (Northern Ireland) Order 1997 (SI 1997/1758 NI 14)
Further Education (Northern Ireland) Order 1997 (SI 1997/1772 NI 15)
Police (Health and Safety) (Northern Ireland) Order 1997 (SI 1997/1774 NI 16)
Health and Personal Social Services (Private Finance) (Northern Ireland) Order 1997 (SI 1997/2597 NI 17)
Industrial Pollution Control (Northern Ireland) Order 1997 (SI 1997/2777 NI 18)
Waste and Contaminated Land (Northern Ireland) Order 1997 (SI 1997/2778 NI 19)
Shops (Sunday Trading &c.) (Northern Ireland) Order 1997 (SI 1997/2779 NI 20)
Civil Evidence (Northern Ireland) Order 1997 (SI 1997/2983 NI 21)
Deregulation (Northern Ireland) Order 1997 (SI 1997/2984 NI 22)
1998
Education (Student Loans) (Northern Ireland) Order 1998 (SI 1998/258 NI 1)
Museums and Galleries (Northern Ireland) Order 1998 (SI 1998/261 NI 2)
Appropriation (Northern Ireland) Order 1998 (SI 1998/747 NI 3)
Financial Provisions (Northern Ireland) Order 1998 (SI 1998/749 NI 4)
Activity Centres (Young Persons' Safety) (Northern Ireland) Order 1998 (SI 1998/1069 NI 5)
Family Homes and Domestic Violence (Northern Ireland) Order 1998 (SI 1998/1071 NI 6)
Road Traffic (New Drivers) (Northern Ireland) Order 1998 (SI 1998/1074 NI 7)
Employment Rights (Dispute Resolution) (Northern Ireland) Order 1998 (SI 1998/1265 NI 8)
Criminal Justice (Children) (Northern Ireland) Order 1998 (SI 1998/1504 NI 9)
Social Security (Northern Ireland) Order 1998 (SI 1998/1506 NI 10)
Fire Services (Amendment) (Northern Ireland) Order 1998 (SI 1998/1549 NI 11)
Appropriation (No. 2) (Northern Ireland) Order 1998 (SI 1998/1758 NI 12)
Education (Northern Ireland) Order 1998 (SI 1998/1759 NI 13)
Education (Student Support) (Northern Ireland) Order 1998 (SI 1998/1760 NI 14)
Employment Rights (Time off for Study or Training) (Northern Ireland) Order 1998 (SI 1998/1761 NI 15)
Producer Responsibility Obligations (Northern Ireland) Order 1998 (SI 1998/1762 NI 16)
Public Interest Disclosure (Northern Ireland) Order 1998 (SI 1998/1763 NI 17)
Health and Safety at Work (Amendment) (Northern Ireland) Order 1998 (SI 1998/2795 NI 18)
Local Government (Amendment) (Northern Ireland) Order 1998 (SI 1998/2796 NI 19)
Criminal Justice (Northern Ireland) Order 1998 (SI 1998/2839 NI 20)
Fair Employment and Treatment (Northern Ireland) Order 1998 (SI 1998/3162 NI 21)
Rates (Amendment) (Northern Ireland) Order 1998 (SI 1998/3164 NI 22)
1999
Departments (Northern Ireland) Order 1999 (SI 1999/283 NI 1)
Appropriation (Northern Ireland) Order 1999 (SI 1999/658 NI 2)
Energy Efficiency (Northern Ireland) Order 1999 (SI 1999/659 NI 3)
Strategic Planning (Northern Ireland) Order 1999 (SI 1999/660 NI 4)
Trade Union Subscription Deductions (Northern Ireland) Order 1999 (SI 1999/661 NI 5)
Water (Northern Ireland) Order 1999 (SI 1999/662 NI 6)
Appropriation (No. 2) (Northern Ireland) Order 1999 (SI 1999/1742 NI 7)
Criminal Evidence (Northern Ireland) Order 1999 (SI 1999/2789 NI 8)
Employment Relations (Northern Ireland) Order 1999 (SI 1999/2790 NI 9)
Licensing and Registered Clubs (Northern Ireland) Order 1999 (SI 1999/3144 NI 10)
Welfare Reform and Pensions (Northern Ireland) Order 1999 (SI 1999/3147 NI 11)
2000–Present
2000
Appropriation (Northern Ireland) Order 2000 (SI 2000/742 NI 1)
Equality (Disability, etc.) (Northern Ireland) Order 2000 (SI 2000/1110 NI 2)
Flags (Northern Ireland) Order 2000 (SI 2000/1347 NI 3)
2001
Financial Investigations (Northern Ireland) Order 2001 (SI 2001/1866 NI 1)
Life Sentences (Northern Ireland) Order 2001 (SI 2001/2564 NI 2)
Police (Northern Ireland) Order 2001 (SI 2001/2513 NI 3)
2002
Criminal Injuries Compensation (Northern Ireland) Order 2002 (SI 2002/796 NI 1)
Employment (Northern Ireland) Order 2002 (SI 2002/2836 NI 2)
Local Government (Miscellaneous Provisions) (Northern Ireland) Order 2002 (SI 2002/3149 NI 3)
Company Directors Disqualification (Northern Ireland) Order 2002 (SI 2002/3150 NI 4)
Fur Farming (Prohibition) (Northern Ireland) Order 2002 (SI 2002/3151 NI 5)
Insolvency (Northern Ireland) Order 2002 (SI 2002/3152 NI 6)
Environment (Northern Ireland) Order 2002 (SI 2002/3153 NI 7)
Housing Support Services (Northern Ireland) Order 2002 (SI 2002/3154 NI 8)
Harbours (Northern Ireland) Order 2002 (SI 2002/3155 NI 9)
2003
Strategic Investment and Regeneration of Sites (Northern Ireland) Order 2003 (SI 2003/410 NI 1)
Housing (Northern Ireland) Order 2003 (SI 2003/412 NI 2)
Marriage (Northern Ireland) Order 2003 (SI 2003/413 NI 3)
Protection of Children and Vulnerable Adults (Northern Ireland) Order 2003 (SI 2003/417 NI 4)
Audit and Accountability (Northern Ireland) Order 2003 (SI 2003/418 NI 5)
Energy (Northern Ireland) Order 2003 (SI 2003/419 NI 6)
Budget (Northern Ireland) Order 2003 (SI 2003/420 NI 7)
Planning (Amendment) (Northern Ireland) Order 2003 (SI 2003/430 NI 8)
Health and Personal Social Services (Quality, Improvement and Regulation) (Northern Ireland) Order 2003 (SI 2003/431 NI 9)
Access to Justice (Northern Ireland) Order 2003 (SI 2003/435 NI 10)
Commissioner for Children and Young People (Northern Ireland) Order 2003 (SI 2003/439 NI 11)
Education and Libraries (Northern Ireland) Order 2003 (SI 2003/424 NI 12)
Criminal Justice (Northern Ireland) Order 2003 (SI 2003/1247 NI 13)
Budget (No.2) (Northern Ireland) Order 2003 (SI 2003/1885 NI 14)
Employment (Northern Ireland) Order 2003 (SI 2003/2902 NI 15)
Road Traffic (Driving Disqualifications) (Northern Ireland) Order 2003 (SI 2003/2903 NI 16)
Partnership etc. (Removal of Twenty Member Limit) (Northern Ireland) Order 2003 (SI 2003/2904 NI 17)
Criminal Justice (No. 2) (Northern Ireland) Order 2003 (SI 2003/3194 NI 18)
Food Benefit Schemes (Northern Ireland) Order 2003 (SI 2003/3202 NI 19)
2004
Betting and Gaming (Northern Ireland) Order 2004 (SI 2004/310 NI 1)
Primary Medical Services (Northern Ireland) Order 2004 (SI 2004/311 NI 2)
Firearms (Northern Ireland) Order 2004 (SI 2004/702 NI 3)
Rates (Amendment) (Northern Ireland) Order 2004 (SI 2004/703 NI 4)
Prison (Amendment) (Northern Ireland) Order 2004 (SI 2004/704 NI 5)
Budget (Northern Ireland) Order 2004 (SI 2004/707 NI 6)
Agricultural Statistics (Northern Ireland) Order 2004 (SI 2004/1109 NI 7)
Mental Health (Amendment) (Northern Ireland) Order 2004 (SI 2004/1272 NI 8)
Criminal Justice (Northern Ireland) Order 2004 (SI 2004/1500 NI 9)
Criminal Justice (Evidence) (Northern Ireland) Order 2004 (SI 2004/1501 NI 10)
Age-Related Payments (Northern Ireland) Order 2004 (SI 2004/1987 NI 11)
Anti-social Behaviour (Northern Ireland) Order 2004 (SI 2004/1988 NI 12)
Solicitors (Amendment) (Northern Ireland) Order 2004 (SI 2004/1989 NI 13)
Vehicle Testing (Temporary Exemptions) (Northern Ireland) Order 2004 (SI 2004/1990 NI 14)
Criminal Justice (No. 2) (Northern Ireland) Order 2004 (SI 2004/1991 NI 15)
Dangerous Wild Animals (Northern Ireland) Order 2004 (SI 2004/1993 NI 16)
Licensing (Indoor Arena) (Northern Ireland) Order 2004 (SI 2004/1994 NI 17)
Budget (No. 2) (Northern Ireland) Order 2004 (SI 2004/1996 NI 18)
Employment Relations (Northern Ireland) Order 2004 (SI 2004/3078 NI 19)
Roads (Amendment) (Northern Ireland) Order 2004 (SI 2004/3079 NI 20)
Financial Assistance for Young Farmers (Northern Ireland) Order 2004 (SI 2004/3080 NI 21)
Financial Provisions (Northern Ireland) Order 2004 (SI 2004/3326 NI 22)
Agriculture (Northern Ireland) Order 2004 (SI 2004/3327 NI 23)
2005
Pensions (Northern Ireland) Order 2005 (SI 2005/255 NI 1)
Public Processions (Amendment) (Northern Ireland) Order 2005 (SI 2005/857 NI 2)
Budget (Northern Ireland) Order 2005 (SI 2005/860 NI 3)
District Policing Partnerships (Northern Ireland) Order 2005 (SI 2005/861 NI 4)
Higher Education (Northern Ireland) Order 2005 (SI 2005/1116 NI 5)
Special Educational Needs and Disability (Northern Ireland) Order 2005 (SI 2005/1117 NI 6)
Law Reform (Miscellaneous Provisions) (Northern Ireland) Order 2005 (SI 2005/1452 NI 7)
Drainage (Amendment) (Northern Ireland) Order 2005 (SI 2005/1453 NI 8)
Company Directors Disqualification (Amendment) (Northern Ireland) Order 2005 (SI 2005/1454 NI 9)
Insolvency (Northern Ireland) Order 2005 (SI 2005/1455 NI 10)
Unauthorised Encampments (Northern Ireland) Order 2005 (SI 2005/1961 NI 11)
Budget (No. 2) (Northern Ireland) Order 2005 (SI 2005/1962 NI 12)
Colleges of Education (Northern Ireland) Order 2005 (SI 2005/1963 NI 13)
Traffic Management (Northern Ireland) Order 2005 (SI 2005/1964 NI 14)
Criminal Justice (Northern Ireland) Order 2005 (SI 2005/1965 NI 15)
Firearms (Amendment) (Northern Ireland) Order 2005 (SI 2005/1966 NI 16)
Companies (Audit, Investigations and Community Enterprise) (Northern Ireland) Order 2005 (SI 2005/1967 NI 17)
Local Government (Northern Ireland) Order 2005 (SI 2005/1968 NI 18)
Legal Aid (Northern Ireland) Order 2005 (SI 2005/3423 NI 19)
Employment (Miscellaneous Provisions) (Northern Ireland) Order 2005 (SI 2005/3424 NI 20)
2006
Disability Discrimination (Northern Ireland) Order 2006 (SI 2006/312 NI 1)
Safety of Sports Grounds (Northern Ireland) Order 2006 (SI 2006/313 NI 2)
Industrial and Provident Societies (Northern Ireland) Order 2006 (SI 2006/314 NI 3)
Rates (Capital Values, etc.) (Northern Ireland) Order 2006 (SI 2006/611 NI 4)
Stormont Estate (Northern Ireland) Order 2006 (SI 2006/612 NI 5)
Budget (Northern Ireland) Order 2006 (SI 2006/613 NI 6)
Planning Reform (Northern Ireland) Order 2006 (SI 2006/1252 NI 7)
Local Government (Boundaries) (Northern Ireland) Order 2006 (SI 2006/1253 NI 8)
Fire and Rescue Services (Northern Ireland) Order 2006 (SI 2006/1254 NI 9)
Private Tenancies (Northern Ireland) Order 2006 (SI 2006/1459 NI 10)
Education (Northern Ireland) Order 2006 (SI 2006/1915 NI 11)
Budget (No. 2) (Northern Ireland) Order 2006 (SI 2006/1916 NI 12)
Recovery of Health Services Charges (Northern Ireland) Order 2006 (SI 2006/1944 NI 13)
Law Reform (Miscellaneous Provisions) (Northern Ireland) Order 2006 (SI 2006/1945 NI 14)
Water and Sewerage Services (Miscellaneous Provisions) (Northern Ireland) Order 2006 (SI 2006/1946 NI 15)
Work and Families (Northern Ireland) Order 2006 (SI 2006/1947 NI 16)
Victims and Survivors (Northern Ireland) Order 2006 (SI 2006/2953 NI 17)
Rates (Amendment) (Northern Ireland) Order 2006 (SI 2006/2954 NI 18)
Electricity Consents (Planning) (Northern Ireland) Order 2006 (SI 2006/2955 NI 19)
Smoking (Northern Ireland) Order 2006 (SI 2006/2957 NI 20)
Water and Sewerage Services (Northern Ireland) Order 2006 (SI 2006/3336 NI 21)
Housing (Amendment) (Northern Ireland) Order 2006 (SI 2006/3337 NI 22)
2007
Street Works (Amendment) (Northern Ireland) Order 2007 (SI 2007/287 NI 1)
Police and Criminal Evidence (Amendment) (Northern Ireland) Order 2007 (SI 2007/288 NI 2)
Waste (Amendment) (Northern Ireland) Order 2007 (SI 2007/611 NI 3)
District Electoral Areas Commissioner (Northern Ireland)(Amendment) Order 2007 (SI 2007/612 NI 4)
Northern Ireland Policing Board (Northern Ireland) Order 2007 (SI 2007/911 NI 5)
Policing (Miscellaneous Provisions) (Northern Ireland) Order 2007 (SI 2007/912 NI 6)
Electricity (Single Wholesale Market) (Northern Ireland) Order 2007(SI 2007/913 NI 7)
Budget (Northern Ireland) Order 2007 (SI 2007/914 NI 8)
Foyle and Carlingford Fisheries (Northern Ireland) Order 2007 (SI 2007/915 NI 9)
Road Traffic (Northern Ireland) Order 2007 (SI 2007/916 NI 10)
Safeguarding Vulnerable Groups (Northern Ireland) Order 2007 (SI 2007/1351 NI 11)
2008
Criminal Justice (Northern Ireland) Order 2008 (SI 2008/1216 NI 1)
Sexual Offences (Northern Ireland) Order 2008 (SI 2008/1769 NI 2)
2009
The Criminal Damage (Compensation) (Amendment) (Northern Ireland) Order 2009 (SI 2009/884 NI 1)
The Private Security Industry Act 2001 (Amendment) (Northern Ireland) Order 2009 (SI 2009/3017 NI 2)
2015
The Welfare Reform (Northern Ireland) Order 2015 (SI 2015/2006 NI 1)
2016
The Welfare Reform and Work (Northern Ireland) Order 2016 (SI 2016/999 NI 1)
References and notes
External links
Northern Ireland Orders in Council List. Legislation.gov.uk.
Orders
Northern Ireland
Northern Ireland law-related lists
Northern Ireland |
4106135 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colorado%20Chautauqua | Colorado Chautauqua | The Colorado Chautauqua, located in Boulder, Colorado, United States, and started in 1898, is the only Chautauqua west of the Mississippi River still continuing in unbroken operation since the heyday of the Chautauqua Movement in the 1920s. It is one of the few such continuously operating Chautauquas remaining in the United States, and was designated a National Historic Landmark in 2006. According to its governing body, the Colorado Chautauqua Association, it is also unique in that it is the only year-round Chautauqua.
The Colorado Chautauqua in the 21st century
The Colorado Chautauqua Association, a 501(c)(3) nonprofit organization formerly known as the Texas-Colorado Chautauqua Association, presents a variety of lectures, live musical performances, and silent films on a year-round schedule, although the summer months are emphasized. The operation also includes the Chautauqua Dining Hall. Short-term lodging is also offered. The Association manages leased from the City of Boulder, including the historic Chautauqua buildings, all of which are still in regular use:
the 1898 Chautauqua Auditorium (listed on the National Register of Historic Places on March 21, 1978)
the 1898 Dining Hall
the 1900 Academic Hall (now the Administration Building)
the 1911 Missions House
the 1918 Community House
the 1919 Columbine Lodge
98 cottages, constructed between 1899 and 1954 (80 before 1915), some of which are owner-occupied and some of which are rentals offered by the Colorado Chautauqua Association.
Between these of Association land and Baseline Road lies a Boulder city park called Chautauqua Park. This area is marked "Chautauqua Green" on the map published by the Colorado Chautauqua Association. Both the park and the Association land are open to the public without an entry fee.
The entire site, including both the Association land and the adjacent Chautauqua Park, was designated a National Historic Landmark on February 10, 2006. The site is bounded on the north by Baseline Road, on the northeast by residential back yards on 10th Street, and on the southeast, south, and west by the City of Boulder Mountain Parks.
Residents of Boulder generally refer to the entire site by the single word Chautauqua. In the early years, the site was known as "Texado Park".
History
19th century
1897
The Texas-Colorado Chautauqua Association was incorporated in Austin, Texas in September 1897. This organization was for the purpose of conducting a summer school and lecture series for Texas school teachers at a Colorado location to be determined later. A cooler summer climate than Texas was desired.
1898
In February 1898, the Texas-Colorado Chautauqua Association and the City of Boulder entered into an agreement to locate the Chautauqua near Boulder, subject to the city providing sufficient area and suitable facilities. A city bond election was held on April 5, 1898 and the necessary bonds and expenditures were approved to purchase the land and build the first buildings.
On April 18, 1898 the Boulder City Council appointed a "Committee on Parks," the earliest beginning of the city's Parks Department. Later in April, the Bachelder Ranch site was selected and purchased for the Chautauqua; the grounds, one mile (1.6 km) south of the city, were named Texado Park. On May 12, 1898 construction of the Chautauqua Auditorium commenced; the Dining Hall construction started one week later. Both buildings were completed in time for the opening of the first Chautauqua season on July 4, 1898.
However, the two greatest disappointments of the initial season were first, that no residential cottages had yet been constructed; and second, that the electric streetcar line from downtown Boulder to Texado Park had not been built in time for the opening. In the first season, Colorado Chautauqua attenders were housed entirely in tents. They traveled the 1.5 miles (about 2 km) from the Boulder railway station to the Chautauqua on foot or in horsedrawn vehicles, via dirt roads that were alternately dusty and muddy.
The 1898 fee was $75 for the entire six-week season, including tuition, admission to all lectures and entertainments, all boarding and lodging, and round-trip rail fare to Boulder from any location within a radius of Fort Worth, Texas.
The first year's six-week program featured no fewer than 94 scheduled speeches, including addresses from the well-known evangelist T. Dewitt Talmadge, the Kentucky orator Henry Watterson, the governors of Colorado and Texas, the mayor of Boulder, and the president of the University of Colorado. Various clergymen also delivered sermons each Sunday.
The Kansas City Symphony Orchestra was in residence for the entire season, and would return many times in future years. They played a sacred concert each Sunday, and incidental music as requested, often several times a day. Various bands, pianists, and vocalists also performed.
Music classes were offered including cello, guitar, mandolin, piano, singing and chorus. The Collegiate Department of the Chautauqua offered 51 different classes in mathematics, chemistry, botany, physics, psychology, education, as well as English, Latin, Greek, French, and German language and literature.
From that first season, the Colorado Chautauqua also presented motion pictures in the Auditorium. The evening program for July 21, 1898, was "Edison's Genuine Projectoscope, Colorscopic Diorama and Wargraph, with Music, reproducing scenes of the war with Spain."
Other activities included burro and horseback rides, hikes to the nearby Flatirons on Green Mountain, stagecoach rides to Boulder Falls and Eldorado Springs, and mountain railway excursions to destinations as far away as Ward.
The activities of the 1898 Chautauqua season were to continue and expand from that date to the 1920s, except for the Collegiate Department, which was largely supplanted by the summer session of the University of Colorado beginning in 1904.
1899
The Electric Street Railway from downtown Boulder to Texado Park was started in late April 1899 and completed on June 24, 1899, ten days ahead of the opening of the second Colorado Chautauqua season. Cars ran every 15 minutes from 6:30 a.m. to 11:00 p.m., and the fare was five cents.
The first cottages were built in the spring of 1899. At the opening of the second season, between 30 and 40 cottages were available, with the other attenders still residing in tents. Construction of additional cottages continued in later years, although some would stay in tents until 1916.
William Jennings Bryan, the biggest celebrity of the Chautauqua movement, first appeared at the Texas-Colorado Chautauqua on July 12, 1899, drawing a capacity crowd to the Chautauqua Auditorium, with thousands more thronging the adjacent hillsides. The total attendance was about 13,000.
1900
The Academic Hall was constructed in June 1900. Cottages built in 1900 included the Women's Christian Temperance Union cottage, which offered rooms to members at 50 cents per night. The prohibitionist cause was a continuing theme in the early days of Chautauqua lectures, as were women's suffrage, Populist politics, and a nondenominational Christian message of self-improvement.
Republican and Democratic orators were invited to give campaign speeches for their respective presidential candidates, William McKinley and William Jennings Bryan. Jonathan P. Dolliver spoke on August 20, 1900 and Champ Clark the following week. This experiment was not considered a success, and overtly partisan election-year speeches would not return until 1932.
On December 20, 1900, the Texas-Colorado Chautauqua was reorganized as the Colorado Chautauqua, with an entirely local board of directors. Title to the land remained with the city of Boulder, but the Colorado Chautauqua Association operated the Chautauqua under a long-term lease, since renewed several times.
The reorganization, partly prompted by financial deficits, had both a broadening and a narrowing effect. More emphasis was placed on wooing attenders from states other than Texas, but at the same time The Colorado Chautauqua had become Boulder's own enterprise. More townspeople attended the presentations in the ensuing years. More Boulderites were also directly involved in managing the Chautauqua programs.
Early 20th century
The early years of the 20th century saw continuing growth and development of the Colorado Chautauqua. One highlight was the appearance of John Philip Sousa and his band at Chautauqua Auditorium in the fall of 1904, after the Chautauqua season was over for that year.
In the first two decades of the Colorado Chautauqua, an average of 40 full evening musical programs were presented each season, which is to say each summer. Dramatic readings from Shakespeare and Ibsen were also staples of the early 20th century Chautauqua experience in Boulder, as were operatic arias. The 1910 program featured "costumed recitals from grand opera" presented by the Chicago Operatic Company on July 4.
The famed evangelist Billy Sunday spoke to large crowds in 1909, 1924, 1925, and 1931. Other evangelists also delivered their message of fire and brimstone to the Chautauquans. According to Chautauqua tradition, all religious observance and preaching was nondenominational, but the growing tide of Fundamentalism made its influence felt through a number of Chautauqua orators as the 20th century progressed.
From the beginning of the Colorado Chautauqua, two or three motion pictures had been presented each year. But starting with the 1918 season, in the face of higher costs for lecturers and entertainers, the Colorado Chautauqua Association decided to increase the number of movies. The Association expressed the intention to maintain the quality of the live stage presentations, although those events would be fewer. They also pledged that the motion pictures selected would be the "best productions on the screen" and would be limited to films that were morally uplifting and suitable for family viewing. Since the Chautauqua lacked the financial resources to compete for first run films with the commercial movie theaters, second-run movies were selected. The 1918 Colorado Chautauqua movie menu included Oliver Twist, The Bluebird, Rebecca of Sunnybrook Farm, and The Vicar of Wakefield, among others.
From 1918 forward, about half of the evening presentations were motion pictures, the other half continuing to be lectures and live entertainment. That formula held for about ten years, after which the movies came to occupy a steadily increasing percentage of the Chautauqua presentations.
Middle 20th century
Eventually the effects of two world wars, one Great Depression, and the development of many competing entertainment opportunities (especially movies, radio, television, and the automobile) would greatly impact the nature of events held at the Colorado Chautauqua. Under financial pressure, the presentations decreased in variety. Although the Colorado Chautauqua Association continued to schedule a few lectures and musical performances (including annual appearances by groups representing SPEBSQSA and the Sweet Adelines, which persist into the 21st century), by the 1950s the vast majority of activities at the Chautauqua consisted of second-run movies in the Auditorium, presented with marginal projection and sound equipment. The Colorado Chautauqua had entered a dormant period, although some traditions continued, such as the nondenominational summer Sunday School program.
The built-up area of the city of Boulder gradually expanded, reaching the boundaries of the Chautauqua site by the 1940s. Chautauqua became part of the city, although it was still at the edge of the City of Boulder Mountain Parks. Over the years many of the cottages were winterized for year-round use. The Colorado Chautauqua became, in part, a residential district for Boulderites.
Late 20th century
The 1970s saw a crisis in the history of the Colorado Chautauqua. Attendance and revenue were declining. The buildings were deteriorating. The Chautauqua Association's 1941 lease on the land was scheduled to expire in 1981. The city of Boulder was entertaining various ideas for the Chautauqua grounds including demolition in favor of building a new convention center on the site.
In 1974, Daily Camera editor Laurence Paddock completed an application to list the Chautauqua Auditorium on the National Register of Historic Places. When this listing came about in 1978, the city shifted its planning from demolition to restoration. The historic preservation designation of the Auditorium was the turning point for The Colorado Chautauqua as it exists today.
The Colorado Chautauqua gradually returned to its roots in the late 20th century, scheduling much more live music and a modest number of additional lectures. Jazz and bluegrass concerts were introduced, with good popular success. Guest performers have included composer-pianist Peter Kater, Native American flutist R. Carlos Nakai, Doc Watson, Hot Rize, George Winston, Bill Monroe, Lyle Lovett, Randy Newman, Bobby McFerrin, Bruce Cockburn, Suzanne Vega, Bela Fleck, Roger McGuinn, Loudon Wainwright III, Michelle Shocked, and the Boulder Philharmonic Orchestra, among others.
The biggest positive impact on the Chautauqua was the arrival, in 1978, of the Colorado Music Festival including the Festival Orchestra under the direction of Giora Bernstein, in residence each summer for dozens of performances. The Colorado Music Festival remains an annual summer fixture at Chautauqua (more recently under the direction of Michael Christie) into the 21st century, presenting a variety of music with the most commonly featured composers being Mozart, Stravinsky, and Beethoven.
Chautauqua audiences of the late 20th century have enjoyed lectures from Hunter S. Thompson, Al Gore, Jesse Jackson, Colorado governor Roy Romer, and Congressman David Skaggs of Colorado, among others. Political campaign speeches were brought back to the Chautauqua in the 1996 season for the first time since 1932.
In response to competition from home VCRs, the second-run family films were discontinued in 1995. The Chautauqua film tradition continues, however, with a silent film series that began in 1986 and persists into the 21st century, featuring live piano accompaniment by Hank Troy and other students of Photoplay music.
The Dining Hall was refurbished in 1979 and the food service contracted out. For the first time, the Chautauqua Dining Hall became a destination restaurant (which it still is in the 21st century) and ceased to be a financial drain on the Colorado Chautauqua Association. The Dining Hall's license to serve wine and beer, however, represents something of a break with Chautauqua's prohibitionist past.
From a near-collapse in the early 1970s, The Colorado Chautauqua recovered to become a permanent part of the Boulder community and a piece of living history.
21st century
Currently, during the summer months, The Colorado Chautauqua hosts the Colorado Music Festival (CMF) in the Chautauqua Auditorium. The festival is six weeks long and showcases the Colorado Music Festival Orchestra. Due to its programming by national and international musicians, the festival recently earned recognition from the League of American Orchestras and the National Endowment for the Arts. During the summer 2020 season, the Colorado Music Festival held a series of online concerts due to the Covid-19 global pandemic.
See also
National Register of Historic Places listings in Boulder County, Colorado
References
Further reading
Galey, Mary (1981): The Grand Assembly, The Story of Life at the Colorado Chautauqua. Boulder, Colorado: First Flatiron Press, .
Pettem, Silvia (1998): ''Chautauqua Centennial, a Hundred Years of Programs." http://www.silviapettem.com/books.html
External links
Colorado Chautauqua Association
Colorado Chautauqua Cottages
Map of Colorado Chautauqua grounds
National Historic Landmarks - Boulder, Colorado
New Piasa Chautauqua, Chautauqua, IL
1898 establishments in Colorado
Neighborhoods in Boulder, Colorado
Culture of Boulder, Colorado
21st-century Chautauquas
National Historic Landmarks in Colorado
National Historic Landmark Districts
Historic districts on the National Register of Historic Places in Colorado
Education in Boulder, Colorado
Buildings and structures in Boulder, Colorado
Tourist attractions in Boulder, Colorado
National Register of Historic Places in Boulder County, Colorado |
4106285 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-referential%20encoding | Self-referential encoding | Self-referential encoding is a method of organizing information in one's memory in which one interprets incoming information in relation to oneself, using one's self-concept as a background. Examples include being able to attribute personality traits to oneself or to identify recollected episodes as being personal memories of the past. The implications of self-referential processing are evident in many psychological phenomena. For example, the "cocktail party effect" notes that people attend to the sound of their names even during other conversation or more prominent, distracting noise. Also, people tend to evaluate things related to themselves more positively (This is thought to be an aspect of implicit self-esteem). For example, people tend to prefer their own initials over other letters. The self-reference effect (SRE) has received the most attention through investigations into memory. The concepts of self-referential encoding and the SRE rely on the notion that relating information to the self during the process of encoding it in memory facilitates recall, hence the effect of self-reference on memory. In essence, researchers have investigated the potential mnemonic properties of self-reference.
Research includes investigations into self-schema, self-concept and self-awareness as providing the foundation for self-reference's role in memory. Multiple explanations for the self-reference effect in memory exist, leading to a debate about the underlying processes involved in the self-reference effect. In addition, through the exploration of the self-reference effect, other psychological concepts have been discovered or supported, including simulation theory and the group reference effect.
After researchers developed a concrete understanding of the self-reference effect, many expanded their investigations to consider the self-reference effect in particular groups like those with autism spectrum disorders or those experiencing depression.
Self-concept and self-schema
Self-knowledge can be categorized by structures in memory or schemata. A self-schema is a set of facts or beliefs that one has about themselves. For any given trait, an individual may or may not be "schematic"; that is, the individual may or may not think about themselves as to where they stand on that trait. For example, people who think of themselves as very overweight or who identify themselves to a greater extent based on their body weight would be considered "schematic" on the attribute of body weight. Thus, many everyday events, such as going out for a meal or discussing a friend's eating habits, could induce thoughts about the self. When people relate information to something that has to do with the self, it facilitates memory. Self-descriptive adjectives that fit into one's self-schema are easier to remember than adjectives not viewed as related to the self. Thus, the self-schema is an aspect of oneself that is used as an encoding structure that brings upon memory of information consistent with one's self-schema. Memories that are elaborate and well encoded are usually the result of self-referent correlations during the process of remembering. During the process of encoding, trait representations are encoded in long term memory either directly or indirectly. When they are directly encoded, it is in terms of relating to the self, and when it is indirectly encoded it is done through spouts of episodic information instead of information about the self.
Self-schema is often used as somewhat of a database for encoding personal data. The self-schema is also used by paying selective attention to outside information and internalizing that information more deeply in one's memory depending on how much that information relates to their schema. When self-schema is engaged, traits that go along with one's view of themselves are better remembered and recalled. These traits are also often recalled much better when processed with respect to the self. Similarly, items that are encoded with the self are based on one's self-schema. Processing the information should balance out when recalled for individuals who have a self-schema that goes along with the information.
Self-schemas do not necessarily only involve individual traits. People self-categorize at different levels that range from more personal to more social. Self-schemas have three main categories which play a role: the personal self, the relational self, and the collective self. The personal self deals with individual level characteristics, the relational self deals with intimate relationship partners, and the collective self deals with group identities, relating to self-important social groups to which one belongs (e.g., one's family or university). Information that is related to any type of self-schema, including group-related knowledge structures facilitates memory.
In order for the self to be an effective encoding mechanism, it must be a uniform, consistent, well-developed schema. It has been shown that identity exploration leads to the development of self-knowledge which facilitates self-judgments. Identity exploration led to shorter decision times, higher confidence ratings and more intrusions in memory tasks. Previous researchers hypothesized that words compatible with a person's self-schema are easily accessible in memory and are more likely than incompatible words to intrude on a schema-irrelevant memory task. In one experiment, when participants were asked to decide if certain adjectives were "like me" or "not like me," they made the decisions faster when the words were compatible with their self-schema.
However, despite the existence of the self-reference effect when considering schemata consistent adjectives, the connection between the self and memory can lead to a larger number of mistakes in recognition, commonly referred to as false alarms. Rogers et al. (1979) found that people are more likely to falsely recognize adjectives they had previously designated to be self-descriptive. Expanding on this, Strube et al. (1986) found that false alarms occurred more for self-schema consistent content, presumably because the presence of such words in the schema makes them more accessible in memory.
In addition to investigating the self-reference effect in regards to schemata consistent information, Strube et al. discussed how counter schemata information relates to this framework. They noted that the pattern of making correct decisions more rapidly did not hold when considering words that countered a person's self-schema, presumably because they were difficult to integrate into memory due to lack of a preexisting structure. That is, they lacked the organizational structure of encoding because they did not fall into the "like me" category, and elaboration would not work because prior connections to the adjective did not exist.
Self-awareness and personality
Two of the most common functions of the self receiving significant attention in research are the self-acting to organize the individual's understanding of the social environment, and the self functioning to regulate behavior through self-evaluation. The concept of self-awareness is considered to be the foundational principle for both functions of the self. Some research presents self-awareness in terms of self-focused attention whereas Hull and Levy suggest that self-awareness refers to the encoding of information based on its relevance to the self. Based on the latter interpretation of self-awareness, individuals must identify the aspects of situations that are relevant to themselves and their behavior will be shaped accordingly. Hull and Levy suggest that self-awareness corresponds to the encoding of information cued by self-symbolic stimuli, and examine the idea of self-awareness as a method of encoding. They structured an investigation that examined self-referent encoding in individuals with different levels of self-awareness, predicting that individuals with higher levels of self-consciousness would encode self-relevant information more deeply than other information, and that they would encode it more deeply than individuals with low levels of self-consciousness. The results of their investigation supported their hypothesis that self-focused attention is not enough to explain the role of self-awareness on attribution. Their results suggest that self-awareness leads to increased sensitivity to the situationally defined meanings of behavior, and therefore organizes the individual's understanding of the social environment. The research presented by Hull and Levy led to future research on the encoding of information associated with self-awareness.
In later research, Hull and colleagues examined the associations between self-referential encoding, self-consciousness and the extent to which a stimulus is consistent with self-knowledge. They first assumed that the encoding of a stimulus is facilitated if an individual's working memory already contains information consistent with the stimulus, and suggested that self-consciousness as an encoding mechanism relies on an individual's self-knowledge. It is known that situational and dispositional factors may activate certain pools of knowledge, moving them into working memory, and guiding the processing of certain stimulus information.
In order to better understand the idea of activating information in memory, Hull et al. presented an example of how information is activated. They referred to the sentence "The robber took the money from the bank". In English, the word bank has two applicable meanings in the context of this sentence (monetary institution and river shore). However, the monetary institution meaning of the word is more highly activated in this context due to the addition of the words robber and money to the sentence, because they are associatively relevant and therefore pull the monetary institution definition for bank into working memory. Once information is added to working memory, meanings and associations are more easily drawn. Therefore, the meaning of this example sentence is almost universally understood.
In reference to self-consciousness and self-reference, the connection between self-consciousness and self-referent encoding relies on such information activation. Research suggests that self-consciousness activates knowledge relating to the self, thereby guiding the processing of self-relevant information. Three experiments conducted by Hull and colleagues provided evidence that a manipulation of accessible self-knowledge impacts self-referent encoding based on the self-relevance of such information, individual differences in the accessibility of self-knowledge (self-consciousness) impacts perception, and a mediation relationship exists between self-consciousness and individual differences in self-referential encoding.
Similar to how self-awareness impacts the availability of self-knowledge and the encoding of self-relevant information, through the development of the self-schema, people develop and maintain certain personality characteristics leading to a variety of behavior patterns. Research has been done on the differences between Type A and Type B behavior patterns, focusing on how people in each group respond to environmental information and their interpretation of the performance of others and themselves. It has been found that Type A behavior is characterized by competitive achievement striving, time urgency and hostility, whereas Type B is usually defined as an absence of Type A characteristics. When investigating causal attributions for hypothetical positive and negative outcomes, Strube et al. found that Type A individuals were more self-serving, in that they took greater responsibility for positive than negative effects. Strube and colleagues argued that this could be a result of the fact that schema-consistent information is more easily remembered and the ease with which past successes and failures are recalled, determined by self-schema, would impact attributions. It is reasonable to believe that Type A's might recall successes more easily and hence be more self-serving.
Theoretical background
Influential psychologists Craik and Lockhart laid the groundwork for research focused on self-referential encoding and memory. In 1972 they proposed their Depth of Processing framework which suggests that memory retention depends on how the stimulus material was encoded in memory. Their original research considered structural, phonemic, and semantic encoding tasks, and showed that semantic encoding is the best method to aid in recall. They asked participants to rate 40 descriptive adjectives on one of four tasks; Structural (Big font or small font?), Phonemic (Rhymes with xxx?), Semantic (Means same as xxx?), or Self-reference (Describes you?). This was then followed by an "incidental recall task". This is where participants are asked, without prior warning, to recall as many of the words they had seen as possible within a given time limit. Craik and Tulving's original experiment showed that structural and phonemic tasks lead only to "shallow" encoding, while the semantic tasks lead to "deep" encoding and resulted in better recall.
However, in 1977, it was shown that self-relevant or self-descriptive encoding leads to even better recall than semantic tasks. Experts suggest that the call on associative memory required by semantic tasks is what provides the advantage over structural or phonemic tasks, but is not enough to surpass the benefit provided by self-referential encoding. The fact that self-reference was shown to be a stronger memory encoding method than semantic tasks is what led to more significant interest in the field One early and significant experiment aimed to place self-reference on Craik and Lockhart's depth of processing hierarchy, and suggested that self-reference was a more beneficial encoding method than semantic tasks. In this experiment, participants filled out self-ratings on 84 adjectives. Months later, these participants were revisited and were randomly shown 42 of those words. They then had to select the group of 42 "revisited" words out of the total original list. The researchers argued that if the "self" was involved in memory retrieval, participants would incorrectly recognize words that were more self-descriptive In another experiment, subjects answered yes or no to cue questions about 40 adjective in 4 tasks (structural, phonemic, semantic and self-referential) and later had to recall the adjectives. This experiment validated the strength of self-reference as an encoding method, and indicated it developed a stronger memory trace than the semantic task.
Researchers are implementing a new strategy by developing different encoding tasks that enhance memory very similarly to self-referential encoding. Symons (1990) had findings that went against the norm when he was unable to find evidence of self-schematicity in the self-reference effect. Another finding was that when referencing gender and religion, there was a low memory recall when compared with referencing the self. A meta-analysis by Symons and Johnson (1997) showed self-reference resulting in better memory in comparison to tasks relying on semantic encoding or other-referent encoding. According to Symons and Johnson, self-referencing questions elicit elaboration and organization in memory, both of which creating a deeper encoding and thus facilitate memory.
Theorists that favor the view that the self has a special role believe that the self leads to more in depth processing, leading to easier recall during self-reference tasks. Theorists also promote the self-schema as being one of the sole inhibitors that allow for recall from deep memory. Thorndyke and Hayes-Roth had the goal of focusing on the process made by the active memory schemata. Sex-typed individuals recall trait adjectives that go along with their sex role more quickly than trait adjectives that are not. During the process of free recall, these individuals also showed more patterns for gender clustering than other sexually typed individuals.
Types of self-referential encoding tasks
As research on self-referential encoding became more prolific, some psychologists took an opportunity to delineate specific self-referential encoding tasks. It is noted that descriptive tasks are those that require participants to determine if a stimulus word can be classified as "self-descriptive." Autobiographical tasks are those that require participants to use the stimulus word as a cue to recall an autobiographical memory. Results from experiments that differentiated between these types of self-referential encoding found that they both produced better recall than semantic tasks, and neither was more advantageous than the other. However, research does suggest that the two types of self-referential encoding do rely on different processes to facilitate memory. In most experiments discussed, these types of self- referential encoding were not differentiated.
In a typical self-reference task, adjectives are presented and classified as either self-descriptive or not. For example, in a study by Dobson and Shaw, adjectives about the self that were preselected were given to the participants and they decide whether or not the adjectives are self-descriptive. The basis for making certain judgments, decisions, inferences and decisions is a self-referent encoding task. If two items are classified as self-descriptive there is no reason one trait would not be equally as easy to retrieve as the other on a self-reference task.
Explanations for the self-reference effect
While a significant amount of research supports the existence of the self-reference effect, the processes behind it are not well understood. However, multiple hypotheses have been introduced, and two main arguments have been developed: the elaborative processing hypothesis and the organizational processing hypothesis. Encodings in reference to the self are so elaborate because of the information one has about the self. Information encoded with the self is better remembered than information encoded with reference to something else.
Elaboration
Elaboration refers to the encoding of a single word by forming connections between it and other material already stored in memory. By creating these connections between the stimulus word and other material already in memory, multiple routes for retrieval of the stimulus word are formed. Based on the depth of processing framework, memory retention increases as elaboration during encoding increases. The Elaborative Processing Hypothesis would suggest that any encoding task that leads to the development of the most trace elaboration or associations is the best for memory retention. Additional research on the depth of processing hierarchy suggests that self-reference is the superior method of information encoding. The elaborative hypothesis would suggest this is because self-reference creates the most elaborate trace, due to the many links that can be made between the stimulus and information about the self already in memory.
Organization
The organizational processing hypothesis was proposed by Klein and Kihlstrom. This hypothesis suggests that encoding is best prompted by considering stimulus words in relation to one another. This thought process and relational thinking creates word to word associations. These inter-item associations are paths in memory that can be used during retrieval. Also, the category labels that define the relations between stimulus items can be used as item cues. Evidence of the organizational component of encoding is demonstrated through the clustering of words during recall. Word clustering during recall indicates that relational information was used to store the words in memory. Rogers, Kuiper and Kirker showed that self-referential judgments were more likely to encourage organization than semantic ones. Therefore, they suggested the self-reference effect was likely due to the organizational processing endured by self-referential encoding.
Structural, phonemic and semantic tasks within the depth of processing paradigm require words to be considered individually, and lend themselves to an elaborative approach. As such, it can be argued that self-referential encoding is superior because it leads to an indirect division of words into categories: words that describe me versus words that do not. Due to this connection between self-reference and organizational processing, further research has been done on this area. Klein and Kihlstrom's research suggests first that, like previous research, self-reference led to better recall than semantic and structural encoding. Second, they found that self-referentially encoded words were more clustered in recall than words from other tasks, suggesting higher levels of organizational processing. From this they concluded that the organization, not encoding task, is what makes self-referential encoding superior
Dual process
Psychologists Einstein and Hunt showed that both elaborative processing and organizational processing facilitate recall. However, their research argues that the effectiveness of either approach depends on how related the stimulus words are to one another. A list of highly related stimulus words would be better encoded using the elaborative method. The relations between the words would be evident to subjects; therefore, they would not gain any additional pathways for retrieval by encoding the words based on their categorical membership. Instead, the other information gained through elaborative processing would be more beneficial. On the other hand, a list of stimulus words with little relation would be better stored to memory through the organizational method. Since the words have no obvious connection to one another, subjects would likely encode them individually, using an elaborative approach. Since relational information wouldn't be readily detected, focusing on it would add to memory by creating new traces for retrieval. Superior recall was better explained by a combination of elaboration and organization.
Ultimately, the exact processes behind self-referential encoding that makes it superior to other encoding tasks are still under debate. Research suggests that if elaborative processing is behind self-referential encoding, a self-referential task should have the same effect as an elaborative task, whereas if organizational processing underlies the self-reference effect self-referential encoding tasks should function like organizational tasks. To test this, Klein and Loftus ran a 3x2 study testing organizational, elaborative and self-referential encoding with lists of 30 related or unrelated words. When participants were asked to memorize the unrelated list, recall and clustering were higher for the organizational task, which produced almost equal results to the self-referential task, suggesting that has an organizational basis. For the list of related words, the elaborative task led to better recall and had matched results to the self-reference task, suggesting an elaborative basis. This research, then, suggests that the self-reference effect cannot be explained by a single type of processing. Instead, self-referential encoding must lead to information in memory that incorporates item specific and relational information.
Overall, the SRE relies on the unique mnemonic aspects of the self. Ultimately, if the research is suggesting that the self has superior elaborative or organizational properties, information related to the self should be more easily remembered and recalled. The research presented suggests that self-referential encoding is superior because it promotes organization and elaboration simultaneously, and provides self-relevant categories that promote recall.
Social brain science
The field of social brain science is aimed at examining the neural foundations of social behavior. Neuroimaging and neuropsychology have led to the examination of neuroanatomy and its connection to psychological topics. Through this research, neuropsychologists have found a connection between social cognitive functioning and the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC). In addition, the mPFC has been connected to reflection and introspection about personal mental states. Supporting these findings, it has been shown that damage to the mPFC is connected to impairments with self-reflection, introspection and daydreaming, as well as social competence, but not other areas of functioning. As such, the mPFC has been connected to self-referential processing.
The research discussed by those focusing on the neuroanatomy of self-referential processing included similar tasks to the memory and depth of processing research discussed previously. When participants were asked to judge adjectives based in whether or not they were self-descriptive, it was noted that the more self-relevant the trait, the stronger the activation of the mPFC. In addition, it was shown that the mPFC was activated during the appraisal of one's own personality traits, as well as during trait retrieval. One study showed that the more activity in the mPFC during self-referential judgments, the more likely the word was to be remembered on a subsequent surprise memory test. These results suggest that the mPFC is involved in both self-referential processing and in creating self-relevant memories.
Medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) activation occurs during processing of self-relevant information. When self-referent judgment is more relatable and less negative, the mFPC is activated. Finding support clear cut circuits that have high levels of activation when cognitive and emotional aspects of self-reflection are present. The caudate nucleus has not been associated with self-reference before, however, Fossati and colleagues found activity while participants were retrieving self-relevant trait adjectives. The ventral anterior cingulate cortex (vACC) is also a part of the brain that becomes activated when there are signs of self-referencing and processing. The vACC is activated when self-descriptive information is negative. There is also pCC (posterior cingulate cortex) activity seen in neuroimaging studies during self-referential processing.
Depth of processing or cognitive structure
Given all of the neurological support for the effect of self-reference on encoding and memory, there is still a debate in the psychological community about whether or not the self-reference effect signifies a special functional role played by the self in cognition. Generally, this question is met by people that have two opposing views on the processes behind self-reference. On one side of the debate, people believe that the self has special mnemonic abilities because it is a unique cognitive structure. On the other side, people support the arguments described above that suggest there is no special structure, but instead, the self-reference effect is simply a part of the standard depth of processing hierarchy. Since the overall hypothesis is the same for both sides of the debate, that self-relevant material leads to enhanced memory, it is difficult to test them using strictly behavioral measures. Therefore, PET and fMRI scans have been used to see the neural marker of self-referential mental activity.
Previous studies have shown that areas of the left prefrontal cortex are activated during semantic encoding. Therefore, if the self-reference effect works the same way, as part of the depth of processing hierarchy, the same brain region should be activated when judging traits related to the self. However, if the self has unique mnemonic properties, then self-referential tasks should activate brain regions distinct from those activated during semantic tasks. The field is still at is infancy, but future work on this hypothesis might help to settle the debate about the underlying processes of self-referential encoding.
Simulation theory
While not able to completely settle the debate over the foundation of self-referential processing, studies on the neurological aspect of personality trait judgments did lead to a related, significant result. It has been shown that judging personality traits about oneself and a close friend activated overlapping brain regions, and the activated regions have all been implicated in self-reference. Noting the similarity between making self-judgments and judgments about close others led to the introduction of the simulation theory of empathy. Simulation theory rests on the idea that one can make inferences about others by using the knowledge they have about themselves. In essence, the theory suggests that people use self-reflection to understand or predict the mental state of others. The more similar a person perceives another to be, the more active the mPFC has shown to be, suggesting more deep or intricate self-reference. However, this effect can cause people to make inaccurate judgments about others or to believe that their own opinions are representative of others in general. This misrepresentation is referred to as the false-consensus effect.
Expansion of the SRE: group reference
In addition to simulation theory, other expansions of the self-reference effect have been examined. Through studying the self, researchers have found that the self consists of many independent cognitive representations. For example, the personal self composed of individual characteristics is separate from the relational self which is based on relationships with significant others. These two forms of self are again separate from the collective self which corresponds to a particular group identity. Noting the existence of the collective self and the different group identities that combine to form such a self-representation led researchers to question if information stored in reference to a social group identity has the same effects in memory as information stored in reference to the individual self. In essence, researchers questioned if the self-reference effect can be extended to include situations where the self is more socially defined, producing a group-reference effect.
Previous research supports the idea that the group-reference effect should exist from a theoretical standpoint. First, the self-expansion model argues that individuals incorporate characteristics of their significant others (or other in-group members into the development of their self-concept. From this model, it is reasonable to conclude that characteristics that are common to both oneself and their significant others (or in-group members) would be more accessible. Second, the previous research discussed suggests that the self-reference effect is due to some combination of organizational, elaborative, mental cueing or evaluative properties of self-referential encoding tasks. Given that we have significant stores of knowledge about our social identities, and such collective identities provide an organizational framework, it is reasonable to assume that a group-reference task would operate similar to that of a self-reference task.
In order to test these claims, Johnson and colleagues aimed to test whether the self-reference effect generalized to group level identities. Their first study was structured to simply assess if group-reference influenced subsequent memory. In their experiment, they used membership at a particular university as the group of reference. They included group-reference, self-reference and semantic tasks. The experiment replicated the self-reference effect, consistent with previous research. In addition, evidence for a group-reference effect was found. Group-referenced encoding produced better recall than the semantic tasks, and the level of recall from the group-referenced task was not significantly different from the self-referenced task.
Despite finding evidence of a group-reference effect, Johnson and colleagues pointed out that people identify with numerous groups, each with unique characteristics. Therefore, in order to reach conclusive evidence of a group-reference effect, alternative group targets need to be considered. In a second experiment by Johnson et al., the group of reference was modified to be the family of the individual. This group has fewer exemplars than the pool of university students, and affective considerations of the family as a group should be strong. No specific instructions or definitions were provided for family, allowing individuals to consider either the group as a whole (prototype) or specific exemplars (group). When the experiment was repeated using family as the group of reference, group-reference produced recall as much as self-reference. The mean number of recall for the group-reference was higher than self-reference. Participants indicated that they considered both the prototype and individual exemplars when responding to the questions, suggesting that the magnitude of the group-reference effect might not be dependent on the number of exemplars in the target group.
Both experiments presented by Johnson et al. found evidence for the group-reference effect. However, these conclusions are limited to the target groups of university students and family. Other research included gender (males and females) and religion (Jewish) as the reference groups and the group-reference effect on memory was not as evident. The group-reference recall for these two groups was not significantly more advantageous than the semantic task. Questioning what characteristics of reference groups that lead to the group-reference effect, a meta-analysis of all four group-reference conditions was performed. This analysis found that self-reference emerged as the most powerful encoding device; however, evidence was found to support the existence of a group-reference effect. The size of the reference groups and number of specific, individual exemplars was hypothesized to influence the existence of the group-reference effect. In addition, accessibility and level of knowledge about group members may also impact such an effect. So, while university students is a much larger group than family, individual exemplars may be more readily accessible than those in a religious group. Similarly, different cognitive representations were hypothesized to influence the group-reference effect. When a larger group is considered, people may be more likely to consider a prototype which may lead to fewer elaborations and cues later on. Smaller groups may lead to relying on the prototype and specific exemplars. Finally, desirability judgments that influence later processing may be influenced by self-reference and certain group-reference tasks. Individuals may be more sensitive to evaluative implications for the personal self and some group identities, but not others.
Groups are also a major part of the self; therefore we attribute the role that different groups play in our self-concept also play a role in the self-reference effect. We process information about group members similarly to how we process for ourselves. Recall of remarks referencing our home and our self and group to familiarity of those aspects of our self. Reference to the self and social group and the identity that comes along with being a part of a social group are equally affective for memory. This is especially true when the groups are small, rather than large.
Ultimately, the group-reference effect provides evidence to explain the tendency to notice or pay attention to and remember statements made in regard to our home when traveling in a foreign place. Considering the proposal that groups form part of the self, this phenomenon can be considered an extension of the self-reference effect. Similar to the memorable nature of references to a person's individual self, references to social identities are seemed to be privileged in memory as well.
Applications
Once the foundation of research on self-referential encoding was established, psychologists began to explore how the concept applied to different groups of people, and connected to different phenomena.
Autism spectrum disorder
Individuals diagnosed with autism spectrum disorders (ASDs) can display a wide range of symptoms. Some of the most common characteristics of individuals with ASDs include impairments with social functioning, language and communication difficulties, repetitive behaviors and restricted interests. In addition, it is often noted that these individuals are more "self-focused." That is, they have difficulty seeing things from another's perspective. Despite being self-focused, though, research has shown that individuals with ASD's often have difficulty identifying or describing their emotions or the emotions of others. When asked to describe their daily experiences, responses from individuals on the autism spectrum tended to focus more on physical descriptions rather than mental and emotional states. In regards to their social interactions and behavior differences, it is thought that these individuals lack top down control, and therefore, their bottom up decisions remain unchecked. This simply suggests that these individuals cannot use their prior knowledge and memory to make sense of new input, but instead react to each new input individually, compelling them to make a whole picture
Noting the difficulty individuals with ASDs experience with self-awareness, it was thought that they might have difficulty with self-related memory processes. Psychologists questioned if these individuals would show the typical self-reference effect in memory. In one Depth of Processing Study, participants were asked questions about the descriptiveness of certain stimulus words. However, unlike previous DOP studies that focused on phonemic, structural, semantic and self-referential tasks, the tasks were altered for this experiment. To test the referential abilities of individuals with ASD's, the encoding tasks were divided into: "the self," asking to what extent a stimulus word described oneself, "similar close other," asking to what extent a stimulus word was descriptive of one's best friend, "dissimilar non-close other," asking to what extent a stimulus word was descriptive of Harry Potter, and a control group that was asked to determine the number of syllables in each word. Following these encoding tasks, participants were given thirty minutes before a surprise memory task. It was found that individuals with ASD's had no impairment in memory for words encoded in the syllable or dissimilar non-close other condition. However, they had decreased memory for words related to the self.
Therefore, while research suggests that self-referentially encoded information is encoded more deeply than other information, the research on individuals with ASD's showed no advantage for memory recognition with self-reference tasks over semantic encoding tasks. This suggests that individuals with ASD's don't preferentially encode self-relevant information. Psychologists have investigated the biological basis for the decreased self-reference effect among individuals with Autism Spectrum Disorders and have suggested that it may be due to less specialized neural activity in the mPFC for those individuals. However, while individuals with ASD's showed smaller self-reference effects than the control group, some evidence of a self-reference effect was evident in some cases. This indicates that self-referent impairments are a matter of degree, not total absence.
Lombardo and his colleagues measured empathy among individuals with ASD's, and showed that these individuals scored lower than the control group on all empathy measures. This may be a result of the difficulty for these individuals to understand or take the perspective of others, in conjunction with their difficulty identifying emotions. This has implications for simulation theory, because these individuals are unable to use their self-knowledge to make conclusions about similar others.
Ultimately, the research suggests that people with ASD's might benefit from being more self-focused. The better their ability to reflect on themselves, the better the can mentalize with others.
Depression
There are three possible relations between cognitive processes and anxiety and depression. The first is whether cognitive processes are actually caused by the onset of clinically diagnosed symptoms of major depression or just generalized sadness or anxiousness. The second is whether emotional disorders such as depression and anxiety are able to be considered as caused by cognitions. And the third is whether different specific cognitive processes are able to be considered associates of different disorders. Kovacs and Beck (1977) posited a schematic model of depression where an already depressed self was primed by outside prompts that negatively impacted cognitive illusions of the world in the eye of oneself. These prompts only led participants to a more depressive series of emotions and behavior. The results from the study done by Derry and Kuiper supported Beck's theory that a negative self-schema is present in people, especially those with depressive disorder. Depressed individuals attribute depressive adjectives to themselves more than nondepressive adjectives. Those suffering from a more mild case of depression have trouble deciphering between the traits of themselves and others which results in a loss of their self-esteem and their negative self-evaluation. A depressive schema is what causes the negativity reported by those suffering from depression. Kuiper and Derry found that self-referent recall enhancement was limited only to nondepressed content.
Generally, self-focus is association with negative emotions. In particular private self-focus is more strongly associated with depression than public self-focus. Results from brain-imaging studies shows
that during self-referential processing, those with major depressive disorder show greater activation in the medial prefrontal cortex, suggesting that depressed individuals may be exhibiting greater cognitive control than
non-depressed individuals when processing self-relevant information.
References
Conceptions of self
Memory biases
Self-reference |
4106344 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20for-profit%20universities%20and%20colleges | List of for-profit universities and colleges | This is a list of for-profit institutions of higher education.
In the United States
Academy of Art University – San Francisco, California
American Career College – Los Angeles, California
American InterContinental University – more than 90% online, a subsidiary of Perdoceo
American National University – distance education and multiple locations in Virginia, Ohio, Kentucky, Indiana, and West Virginia; not to be confused with American University or National American University
American Public University – online, a division of American Public University System; not to be confused with American University
Antonelli College – multiple locations
ASA College – campuses in Brooklyn, midtown Manhattan, and Miami
Aspen University – Denver, Colorado
Berkeley College – New York and New Jersey; not to be confused with University of California, Berkeley, Berklee College of Music, or the Berkeley College at Yale University
Blue Cliff College – a subsidiary of Quad Partners
Broadview University – Utah
Brookline College – a division of Linden Education Group
Bryant & Stratton College – multiple locations. The school is in the process of converting to nonprofit.
Burrell College of Osteopathic Medicine – Las Cruces, New Mexico
California Miramar University – San Diego, California (formerly known as Pacific Western University)
California Northstate University College of Medicine – Elk Grove, California
Capella University – Minneapolis, Minnesota and online
Carrington College – 17 locations in the United States
Chamberlain College of Nursing – a subsidiary of Adtalem
Charleston School of Law – Charleston, South Carolina
Charter College – campuses in Alaska, California, and Washington
The College of Westchester – White Plains, New York not to be confused with West Chester University in West Chester, Pennsylvania
Colorado Technical University – more than 90% online, a subsidiary of Perdoceo
Columbia Southern University – not to be confused with Columbia University
Conservatory of Recording Arts and Sciences – Tempe, Arizona
Daymar College – multiple campuses in Tennessee, Kentucky and Ohio, and online
DeVry University – multiple locations, subsidiaries include Keller School of Management (several campuses have closed)
DigiPen Institute of Technology – Redmond, Washington
Eagle Gate College – Utah
ECPI University – formerly ECPI College of Technology; multiple locations; includes Medical Careers Institute multiple locations in Virginia
Engine City Technical Institute – South Plainfield, New Jersey – now Lincoln Technical Institute
Fashion Institute of Design & Merchandising – FIDM (four locations in California) not to be confused with Fashion Institute of Technology, a state university in New York City
Five Towns College – Dix Hills, New York
Florida Career College – multiple locations, owned by International Education Corporation
Florida Coastal School of Law – Jacksonville, FL. Subsidiary of InfiLaw System
Florida Metropolitan University – multiple locations, now Everest University
Florida National University – Hialeah, Florida
Fortis College – multiple locations
Fox College – Chicago metropolitan area (Bedford Park and Tinley Park)
Full Sail University – Winter Park, Florida
Georgia Medical Institute – multiple locations, not to be confused with the Medical College of Georgia at Augusta University, now Everest Institute
Grand Canyon University – online and Phoenix, Arizona
Hamilton College – Iowa; now part of Kaplan University; formerly operated from multiple locations in Iowa and Nebraska; not to be confused with Hamilton College in Clinton, New York, or with the unaccredited Hamilton University, now Kaplan University
Idaho College of Osteopathic Medicine – Meridian, Idaho
International Education Corporation operates US Colleges, Florida Career Colleges, United Education Institute and UEI Colleges
Lincoln Tech – multiple locations; not to be confused with Lincoln University
Los Angeles Film School – Los Angeles, California
McCann School of Business and Technology – multiple locations
Miami International University of Art and Design
Mildred Elley – multiple locations
Miller-Motte – multiple locations
Monroe College – multiple locations
Mountain West College – Salt Lake City, Utah
National American University – primarily online. Not to be confused with American University
National College – multiple U.S. locations
National Institute of Technology (United States) – now Everest Institute – multiple locations; not to be confused with National Institutes of Technology in India
National Paralegal College – Phoenix, Arizona
National University College – multiple locations, Puerto Rico
Neumont University – multiple locations
NewSchool of Architecture and Design – San Diego, California; owned by Ambow Education. Not to be confused with The New School
Northwestern College – Chicago, Illinois; not to be confused with Northwestern University
Ohio Business College – multiple locations
Olympia Career Training Institute – multiple locations, now Everest College
Pacific College of Oriental Medicine – a subsidiary of Quad Partners
Parks College – multiple locations
Paier College of Art – Hamden, Connecticut
Pennco Tech – multiple locations
Pima Medical Institute – multiple locations
Pinnacle Career Institute – Kansas, multiple locations
Pioneer Pacific College – multiple locations in Oregon
Platt College – Southern California multiple locations, Anaheim, Riverside, Ontario, Alhambra, San Diego, Colorado
Plaza College – Forest Hills, New York
Porter and Chester Institute – Connecticut, Massachusetts
Post University – Waterbury, Connecticut, not to be confused with LIU Post
Potomac College – Washington, D.C. area, now the University of the Potomac
Provo College – Provo, Utah
Rasmussen College – multiple locations, now owned by American Public University System.
Rocky Mountain College of Art and Design, Lakewood, Colorado
Rocky Mountain University of Health Professions – Utah
Rocky Vista University College of Osteopathic Medicine – Parker, Colorado
SAE Institute – formerly the School of Audio Engineering
Salem International University – Salem, West Virginia
San Joaquin Valley College – California, multiple locations
Schiller International University – multiple locations
School of Visual Arts – New York City
Seacoast Career Schools
South College – Knoxville, Tennessee; not to be confused with Southern University or the University of the South.
South University – multiple locations; owned by Education Principle Foundation (EPF); not to be confused with Southern University or the University of the South.
Southern Careers Institute – Texas, multiple locations; not to be confused with Southern University or the University of the South.
Southern States University – California; not to be confused with Southern University or the University of the South.
Southwestern College – multiple locations; not to be confused with Southwestern University or Lincoln University
Spartan College of Aeronautics and Technology – Tulsa, Oklahoma
Specs Howard School of Media Arts – Michigan
Strayer University – multiple locations
Sullivan University – Kentucky, multiple locations
Suncoast College of Health – Bradenton, Florida; Brandon, Florida
UEI College – multiple campuses in California
United States University; not to be confused with American University
Universal Technical Institute – campuses in Arizona, California, Florida, Massachusetts, North Carolina, Pennsylvania, and Texas
University of Advancing Technology – Tempe, Arizona
University of Phoenix – Phoenix, Arizona
University of the Potomac – Washington DC; Vienna, Virginia; online- a division of Linden Education
Waldorf College – Forrest City, Iowa
Washington Technology University – Bellevue, Washington
West Coast University – Los Angeles, California
Western Business College – multiple locations, now Everest College
Western International University – multiple locations, a subsidiary of Apollo Group
Western State College of Law – Irvine, California; not to be confused with Western Governors University
Western State University College of Law – Fullerton, California; not to be confused with Western Governors University
Wyoming Technical Institute (WyoTech) – As of 2018, the school has only one campus (under new ownership)
Distance education (online)
American College of Technology – online distance education, based in St. Joseph, Missouri; not to be confused with American University
American College of Education – online; not to be confused with American University
American Military University – online, a division of American Public University System; not to be confused with American University or United States Military Academy
American Public University System – includes the American Military University and American Public University; distance education; offices in Charles Town, West Virginia, and Manassas, Virginia; not to be confused with American University
American Sentinel University – distance education, based in Denver, Colorado
Ashworth College – online, based in Norcross, Georgia
Aspen University – online, based in Denver, Colorado
California InterContinental University – online, based in Diamond Bar, California
California Southern University – online; not to be confused with The University of Southern California
Capella University – online
London School of Business and Finance – online; not to be confused with London School of Economics or London Business School
New Charter University – formerly Andrew Jackson University; distance education; based in Hoover, Alabama
New England College of Business and Finance; not to be confused with New England College
Setanta College – online
Trident University International – formerly TUI University, formerly Touro University International; online; not to be confused with Trident Technical College
University of Atlanta – distance education only; not to be confused with Atlanta University Center or Clark Atlanta University
University of Liverpool – distance education only, a division of Laureate Education
University of the Potomac – distance education offices in Washington, D.C., and Vienna, Virginia with remote administration offices as well
U.S. Career Institute – Fort Collins, Colorado
Walden University – online, a division of Adtalem Education
Outside the United States
Adamson University - Manila, Philippines
AMA Education System - multiple locations in the Philippines and Bahrain
Anhembi Morumbi University – São Paulo, Brazil
Arden University – United Kingdom (part of Global University Systems group).
Arellano University - multiple locations in Metro Manila, Philippines
Baliaug University - Bulacan, Philippines
BPP University – United Kingdom (part of Apollo Education Group).
Central Colleges of the Philippines - Quezon City, Philippines
Centro Escolar University - Manila, Makati and Las Piñas, Philippines
Cyprus College – Nicosia, Cyprus
Dnyaneshwar Vidyapeeth – India
Emilio Aguinaldo College - Manila and Cavite, Philippines
FEATI University - Manila, Philippines
FEU Group of Schools - Metro Manila and Cavite, Philippines
Jose Rizal University - Mandaluyong, Philippines
Laureate International Universities – Peru and Mexico
London School of Business and Finance – United Kingdom (part of Global University Systems group). not to be confused with London School of Economics or London Business School
Lyceum of the Philippines University - multiple locations in the Philippines
iPeople Inc.
Malayan Colleges Laguna - Laguna, Philippines
Mapua University - Manila, Philippines
National Teachers College - Manila, Philippines
University of Nueva Caceres - Camarines Sur, Philippines
Manuel S. Enverga University - Quezon, Philippines
Multimedia University – multiple locations in Malaysia
National University (Philippines) - multiple locations in the Philippines
Nyenrode Business University – Breukelen, Netherlands
Our Lady of Fatima University - multiple locations in the Philippines
Philippine Women's University - Manila, Philippines
PHINMA Education Network
Saint Jude College - Manila, Philippines
Araullo University - Cabanatuan, Philippines
Cagayan de Oro College - Cagayan de Oro, Philippines
University of Iloilo - Iloilo City, Philippines
University of Pangasinan - Dagupan, Philippines
Southwestern University - Cebu City, Philippines
Rai University – India
Regenesys Business School – Sandton, South Africa
Ross University – Ross University School of Medicine in Picard, Dominica; Ross University School of Veterinary Medicine in Saint Kitts
Sigmund Freud University Vienna - Vienna, Austria
St. George's University – Grenada; includes medical school, school of veterinary medicine, and other programs
STI College - multiple locations in the Philippines
iAcademy - Makati, Philippines
St Patrick's College, London – United Kingdom (part of Global University Systems group).
Taylor's University – multiple locations in Malaysia
Technological Institute of the Philippines - Manila and Quezon City, Philippines
Trinity School of Medicine - St. Vincent and Grenadines
Universidad de Zamboanga - Zamboanga, Philippines
Universidad Europea de Madrid – Madrid, Spain
University of the East - Manila, Philippines
University of Medicine and Health Sciences - Basseterre, Saint Kitts, Caribbean
University of Baguio - Baguio, Philippines
University of Law – United Kingdom (part of Global University Systems group).
University of Mindanao - multiple locations in Mindanao, Philippines
University of Perpetual Help System - multiple locations in the Philippines
In India many educational trusts and institutions which have no accreditation give autonomous degrees for profit.
In Chile many universities are suspected of violating legislation that forbids profitmaking in such institutions.
Closed or merged
Allied American University – Laguna Hills, California, closed 2016
Altierus Career College-formerly part of Corinthian Colleges, last campuses closed in 2022.
Anthem Institute – formerly the Chubb Institute; multiple locations, closed 2014
American Sentinel University – merged with Post University in March 2021, becoming the American Sentinel College of Nursing & Health Sciences.
Arizona Summit Law School – a subsidiary of InfiLaw System
Argosy University closed 2019
Art Institutes – remaining campuses closed in 2023
Ashmead College – multiple locations, closed
ATI Enterprises – campuses in Arizona, Florida, and Texas, closed
Banner College – Arlington, Virginia, closed
Banner Institute – Chicago, closed
Bay State College – Boston, Massachusetts, owned by Ambow Education
Bethany University - Scotts Valley, CA
Blair College – Colorado Springs, Colorado – Acquired by Everest College,which closed in 2015.
Branford Hall Career Institute- multiple campuses, closed 2020
Bradford School (Columbus) – Columbus, Ohio; closed 2020
Bradford School (Pittsburgh) – Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania; closed 2019
Briarcliffe College – Long Island, New York; a subsidiary of Career Education Corporation; closed 2016
Brightwood College closed in 2018
Brooks Institute of Photography – multiple locations, closed in 2016
Brown Mackie College – multiple locations, a subsidiary of Education Management Corporation, closed in 2017
Bryman College – multiple locations; not to be confused with The Bryman School in Arizona, closed in 2014
Collins College – Phoenix, Arizona area
Charlotte School of Law – subsidiary of InfiLaw System
Corinthian Colleges
Le Cordon Bleu – multiple locations, subsidiary of Career Education Corporation; closed 2017
Crown College – Tacoma, Washington; lost accreditation in 2007 and closed
Daniel Webster College – Nashua, New Hampshire, subsidiary of ITT Educational Services, closed 2017
Decker College – 2002
Eagle Gate College – Utah; closed 2015
Everest College – multiple locations, a subsidiary of Corinthian Colleges, closed 2015
Everest Institute – multiple locations, a subsidiary of Corinthian Colleges, closed 2015
FastTrain College – Florida, closed in 2014 after FBI raid
Gibbs College – multiple locations; closed 2009
Grantham University – merged into University of Arkansas System, 2021
Harrington College of Design – a subsidiary of Career Education Corporation; closed 2016
Harris School of Business- multiple campuses, closed 2020
Harrison College – Indiana; multiple locations; closed 2018
Heald College – multiple locations, a subsidiary of Corinthian Colleges; closed 2015
High-Tech Institute – multiple locations, closed
Independence University converted into a non-profit in 2012, closed 2021.
International Academy of Design and Technology – multiple locations – consolidated with Sanford-Brown, then closed
ITT Technical Institute – all locations (closed September 6, 2016)
Kee Business College – multiple locations in Virginia, subsidiary of Corinthian Colleges, Inc.
King's College – Charlotte, North Carolina (closed December 2018)
Las Vegas College – locations in Nevada and Texas, became Everest College in 2009
Miami-Jacobs Career College – closed 2016
Minneapolis Business College – Roseville, Minnesota, closed 2019
Missouri College – a subsidiary of Career Education Corporation, closed 2016
Mount Washington College – multiple locations in New Hampshire, closed 2016
McNally Smith College of Music – Saint Paul, Minnesota
Redstone College – multiple locations in Colorado, a division of Alta Colleges, Spartan College of Aeronautics and Technology purchased the Broomfield Campus in April 2016
Sanford-Brown College – multiple locations; subsidiary of Career Education Corporation; not to be confused with either Stanford University or Samford University;closed 2016
Salter College – closed 2019
Spencerian College – Kentucky, multiple locations; merged into Sullivan University in 2018
Springfield College – Springfield, Missouri; not to be confused with Springfield College in Springfield, Massachusetts, changed name to Everest College, closed in 2015
Stratford University – closed 2022.
Trump University – New York City, New York; closed 2010
University of the Rockies – Colorado Springs, Colorado, a subsidiary of Zovio (formerly called Bridgepoint Education) merged with Ashford University.
Vatterott College – multiple locations – closed 2018
Victory University – Memphis, Tennessee; closed in 2014
Virginia College – multiple locations, not to be confused with the University of Virginia closed in 2018
Vista College-locations in Texas, New Mexico, and Arkansas; closed 2021
Westwood College – multiple locations; closed 2016
Wood Tobé-Coburn School – New York City, New York; closed 2017
Wright Career College, converted to non-profit in 1995, closed in 2016.
For-profit colleges that became non-profit colleges
Conversions from for-profit to nonprofit are legitimate when the assets and income are fully committed to the educational purpose, and control by private interests is eliminated. Some converted nonprofits may not be legitimate. A Government Accountability Office report about the problem is anticipated.
Art Institutes (converted in 2017)
Ashford University became non-profit in 2018 and was subsequently acquired by the University of Arizona in 2020.
Baker College in Michigan became nonprofit in 1977.
Community Care College and its affiliated institutions (Clary Sage College and Oklahoma Technical College) converted to nonprofit in 2015.
Concord Law School – online, part of Purdue University Global.
Herzing University converted to nonprofit in 2015.
Hult International Business School - Converted to nonprofit in 2014.
Keiser University (converted in 2011). After the conversion the school owner remained involved in the school as a landlord, contractor, and chancellor.
Kendall College – Chicago, Illinois, formerly owned by Laureate Education, purchased by National Louis University in 2018.
Pittsburgh Technical College was an employee-owned for-profit school before becoming nonprofit in 2017.
Purdue University Global- formerly Kaplan University (converted in 2018, granted IRS tax-exempt status in 2019). Under a long-term contract, the former owner continues to manage much of its operation, causing critics to question the college's integrity as a nonprofit.
Remington Colleges claimed nonprofit status in 2010.
South University converted in 2017, but that purchase collapsed and ownership changed. The accreditor lists the school as for-profit as of December 2020.
Southern New Hampshire University (converted in 1968)
Stevens-Henager College and its affiliates Independence University, CollegeAmerica, and California College San Diego were purchased by a tax-exempt organization in 2012. Nonprofit status was initially declined by the U.S. Department of Education and then granted in 2018.
Sunstate Academy was purchased by the family-run Compass-Rose Foundation in 2003.
Ultimate Medical Academy switched from nonprofit to for-profit in 2005, and then converted back in 2015.
See also
Student loan debt
List of universities and colleges by country
For-profit higher education in the United States
References |
4106759 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corinthian%20Colleges | Corinthian Colleges | Corinthian Colleges, Inc. (CCi) was a for-profit post-secondary education company in North America. Its subsidiaries offered career-oriented diploma and degree programs in health care, business, criminal justice, transportation technology and maintenance, construction trades, and information technology. A remnant of the schools was owned by ECMC under the Altierus Career College brand until the last three campuses were closed in 2022.
At its peak, CCi operated over one hundred Everest, Heald and WyoTech campuses throughout the United States and Canada. The Los Angeles Times framed Corinthian Colleges as a collection of "castoff" schools that were taken over by Wall Street investors in 1999.
Corinthian closed their campuses in Canada on February 19, 2015, after the Ontario government suspended their operating license. On April 26, 2015, following a series of legal challenges by state and federal agencies, Corinthian Colleges announced that they would cease operations at all remaining United States locations. The closure affected more than sixteen thousand students and employees. Having been extensively investigated for fraudulent behavior by several jurisdictions, Corinthian Colleges, Inc. and twenty-four of its subsidiaries filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy in the United States Bankruptcy Court for the District of Delaware on May 4, 2015. In June 2022, the U.S. Department of Education announced that it would cancel $5.8 billion in federal student loan debt for 560,000 students who attended Corinthian.
History
Corinthian Colleges was founded in February 1995 by David Moore, Paul St. Pierre, Frank McCord, Dennis Devereux, and Lloyd Holland of National Education Centers, Inc., a for-profit operator of vocational schools based in Irvine, California. The company, whose business model was predicated on acquiring schools that were fundamentally sound but performing below their potential, expanded rapidly through acquisitions and organic growth.
Acquired institutes and colleges
American Motorcycle Institute
Ashmead College (Oregon and Washington)
Blair College (Colorado Springs, Colorado)
Bryman College
Bryman Institute
CDI College
Duff's Business Institute (Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania)
Eton Technical Institute (Port Orchard, Washington)
Florida Metropolitan University
Georgia Medical Institute
Kee Business College
Las Vegas College
National Institute of Technology (NIT)
National School of Technology (NST)
Olympia Career Training Institute
Olympia College
Parks College
Rochester Business Institute
Sequoia College
Tampa College
Western Business College
Corinthian Colleges faced numerous investigations and lawsuits, including a federal criminal investigation. California Attorney General Kamala Harris alleged that Corinthian Colleges targeted single parents living close to the poverty level, a demographic that its internal documents described as "composed of "isolated," 'impatient,' individuals with 'low self-esteem,' who have 'few people in their lives who care about them' and who are "stuck" and "unable to see and plan well for future," through aggressive and persistent internet and telemarketing campaigns and through television ads on daytime shows like Jerry Springer and Maury Povich."
On July 3, 2014, Corinthian Colleges agreed to execute a shutdown of twelve schools and sell off eighty-five other schools. On February 19, 2015, the government of Ontario suspended the company's operation license, resulting in the immediate closure of all Canadian campuses.
In February 2015, the nonprofit Educational Credit Management Corporation took ownership of more than half of Corinthian Colleges campuses, agreeing to forgive student debt on Corinthian College's Genesis loans.
On April 26, 2015, Corinthian Colleges announced that they would cease operations at all remaining locations effective April 27, a move affecting more than sixteen thousand students and employees.
On May 4, 2015, Corinthian filed for bankruptcy in Delaware.
Schools
Everest
CCi operated Everest campuses in the United States and Canada, although all US campuses were to be sold or closed beginning on July 3, 2014, leaving only the Canadian campuses under CCi's control.
Everest Institute offered diploma programs. Everest College offered diploma and associate degree programs. Everest University offered diploma, associate, bachelor's, and master's degree programs. There were ten Everest University campuses across Florida, which were formerly known as Florida Metropolitan University.
On February 19, 2015, all 14 Everest campuses in Ontario, Canada were shut down. 2300 students and over 500 staff were affected by the closures. CCi has since filed for bankruptcy in Canada due to the closures.
Everest University Online
Everest University Online (EUO), a division of Everest University, offered online degree programs. EUO was headquartered in Tampa, Florida.
Everest College Phoenix
Everest College Phoenix offered bachelor's degree, associate degree, and diploma programs. Everest College Phoenix had campuses in Phoenix and Mesa, Arizona, as well as an online learning center.
Everest College Phoenix was regionally accredited by the Higher Learning Commission.
Heald College
Heald College was one of the nation's oldest business career colleges in the Western United States, with roots extending back to 1863. Heald offered associate degree, diploma, and certificate programs.
Heald College was regionally accredited by the Western Association of Schools and Colleges Senior College and University Commission. Heald College had campuses in California, Oregon, and Hawaii, as well as an online learning center.
In November 2009, it was announced that CCi was purchasing Heald's parent company for $395 million. In January 2010, CCi announced that it had completed the acquisition. CCi retained the Heald name, and it was reported that it also retained its faculty and staff.
WyoTech
WyoTech offered career-oriented training for mechanical and technical occupations. WyoTech had campuses in Pennsylvania, Florida, California, and Wyoming. As of November 2018, all the campuses except the Laramie, Wyoming campus were closed; the remaining Laramie campus came under new ownership, providing solely automotive-related training.
Accreditation
Everest College Phoenix campuses were regionally institutionally accredited by Higher Learning Commission. Heald College campuses are regionally institutionally accredited by the Senior College and University Commission – Western Association of Schools and Colleges (WASC Senior). Everest Institute, Everest College, Everest University, and Wyotech campuses are nationally institutionally accredited by one of two national accrediting agencies: Accrediting Commission of Career Schools and Colleges (ACCSC); or Accrediting Council for Independent Colleges and Schools (ACICS).
Leadership
Corinthian CEO Jack Massimino earned $3 million in 2010, and four other executives made over $1 million that year. Eeva Deshon, the president and CEO of Heald College initiated a petition on Change.org to collect positive testimonials about the college, despite the largely negative evaluations by students.
Faculty and students
As of December 31, 2013, CCi's total student population was 77,584. As with the entire education sector, CCi had faced a decrease in enrollment and a corresponding depressed stock price. CCi's top mutual fund holder was Wells Fargo Advantage Small Cap Value Fund.
As of June 30, 2013, CCi had approximately 15,200 employees in North America, including 6,000 full-time and part-time faculty members. For five consecutive years, CCi had been named a Top Workplace in Orange County, California where its headquarters are located.
In 2014, a librarian at the southern California campus of Everest College quit her position when she learned a student she was assisting could only read at the third-grade level, may have a developmental disability, and was unlikely to find work in his chosen field. She stated that the student was unlikely to understand the financial burdens of the enrollment documents he signed. The librarian resigned out of principle after an unsuccessful attempt to resolve the issue with administration.
Financial aid
The Higher Education Act provides that a private, for-profit institution, such as CCi's institutions, may derive no more than 90% of its revenue from the Title IV federal student aid programs. In 2010, CCi reported that it received 81.9% of revenue from Title IV federal student aid programs.
Corinthian Colleges (CCI) acquired QuickStart Intelligence in summer 2012, an Irvine, California-based, privately held technology training company. As a B2B revenue stream; CCI acquired QuickStart Intelligence to leverage the 10%, non-government funding essential to back the additional student loans for CCi's core adult learning programs.
Student loan default rate
A significant requirement imposed by Congress is a limitation on participation in Title IV programs by institutions whose former students default on the repayment of federal student loans in excess of specified rates ("Cohort Default Rates"). On March 25, 2013, CCi received a draft three-year Cohort Default Rates from the U.S. Department of Education for students who entered repayment during the federal fiscal year ending September 30, 2010 (the "2010 Cohort"), measured over three federal fiscal years of borrower repayment. The weighted average of CCi's institutions was 19.0%, a 9.0 percentage point decrease from the 28.0% weighted average for the three-year cohort default rate for students who entered repayment during the prior fiscal year. For the 2010 Cohort, none of CCi's institutions exceeded the default threshold set by the U.S. Department of Education.
Loan forgiveness
On June 1, 2022, the U.S. Department of Education announced it would forgive $5.8 billion in federal student loans made to Corinthian College students between 1995 and 2015, which forgiveness would impact 560,000 borrowers and would be the single largest discharge of student loans in history according to the department.
Legal proceedings
Corinthian Colleges was investigated in Canada and by federal authorities in the United States, and by several states attorneys general for deceptive advertising and other fraudulent acts.
California
In 2008, a class action suit was filed against CCI and a wholly owned subsidiary in Santa Clara Superior Court on behalf of graduates of Bryman College's medical assistant vocational programs. The lawsuit alleged that Bryman made untrue or misleading statements to students related to employment success, in order to induce them to enroll and stay enrolled in their medical training programs. This case was ultimately dismissed.
In July 2007, the California Attorney General threatened to file suit against Corinthian Colleges. Corinthian issued a statement saying: "We disagree with the Attorney General's conclusions, but we are pleased to have this matter behind us. The agreement is not evidence of wrongdoing, and the company specifically denied any wrongdoing as part of the settlement. We are fully committed to providing quality education and job placement services for students and to being in compliance with state law and regulation."
In October 2013, the State of California again sued CCi alleging "false and predatory advertising, intentional misrepresentations to students, securities fraud and unlawful use of military seals in advertisements". According to the Sacramento Bee, fourteen Everest College campuses registered three-year default rates on student loans of more than 20 percent; eight were more than 30 percent.
In November 2013, CCi issued a statement asserting that the California Attorney General's complaint was "a document built on a foundation of misquoted, deceptively excerpted and—at best—misunderstood materials." It went on to say that the California Attorney General was "wrongly accusing our schools of inflating job placement statistics for our graduates". CCi indicated that it planned to "vigorously defend the integrity of the work we do for our students and graduates".
California Attorney General Kamala Harris filed a complaint alleging that CCI had engaged in a predatory marketing campaign targeting job seekers and single parents with incomes near the federal poverty level. The Department of Justice obtained internal company documents in which CCI employees described the company's target demographic as "isolated", "impatient", individuals with "low self-esteem", who have "few people in their lives who care about them" and who are "unable to see and plan well for future". The complaint alleged that CCI had used aggressive Internet and telemarketing campaigns, as well as television ads on daytime shows like Jerry Springer and Maury Povich to reach these individuals.
Federal investigation in the United States
On October 17, 2007, U.S. Department of Education investigators seized records at Florida campuses of for-profit colleges, including CCi's former National School of Technology in Fort Lauderdale, Florida, and Florida Career College (a division of Anthem Education Group) in Lauderdale Lakes, Florida and Pembroke Pines, Florida. The school reported that it was not informed why the records were seized or why similar actions had been taken against other institutions in the area. The campus reopened the next day.
In June 2013, CCi disclosed that it was under investigation by the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC). CCi is cooperating with the SEC in its investigation. The SEC did not file any actions against CCi in connection with this investigation.
In November 2013, the US Consumer Financial Protection Bureau reported that they were investigating CCi. In December 2013, CCi received a "Notice and Opportunity to Respond and Advise" letter from the CFPB. CCi responded by stating that it "believes that its acts and practices relating to student loans are lawful and that its lending program is essential to many students". The company also explained that the loans offered under the program are "modest in size and have reasonable interest rates", and that the loans allow many students to attend college who otherwise would not have the opportunity to do so. The average loan amount per borrower is $4,700 and the average annual interest rate is 8.5 percent and the maximum rate is 9.9 percent. Loans are only offered to students who have a gap between their educational costs and the available financial aid from all other government and personal sources. The CFPB filed a lawsuit against Corinthian in September 2014 over its loan program and debt collection practices.
In April 2015, the college was fined almost $30 million by the U.S. Department of Education. The department found the school had misled students and loan agencies about the prospects for graduates to find jobs. Within two weeks, the college shut down.
In May 2018, a federal judge ordered the U.S. Department of Education to stop collecting on student loans related to Corinthian. In October 2019 the same judge held U.S. Education Secretary Betsy DeVos in contempt of court because the Department had continued collecting on 16,000 such loans in spite of the court order.
Loan forgiveness
On June 1, 2022, the U.S. Department of Education announced that it would cancel all federal student loans owed by more than 560,000 students who attended Corinthian Colleges between 1995 and 2015. The amount forgiven would total $5.8 billion and would be the single largest discharge of student loans in history according to the department.
Other state investigations
In 2004, a former student from Florida Metropolitan University initiated an action against CCi, claiming he was misled with respect to the school's accreditation and his ability to transfer credits. The lawsuit proceeded in arbitration pursuant to the agreement between the parties. After hearing all of the evidence, the arbitrator found in favor of CCi on all counts and dismissed the lawsuit.
In April 2005, fourteen students from Bryman College's Tacoma, Washington campus filed an action against CCi in the Superior Court of the State of Washington. The students claimed they did not receive proper training for their careers in medical assisting, that they were misled about the program's accreditation status, their eligibility to take a national certification exam, the transferability of their credits, and the availability of internships. The case was moved to the United States District Court for the Western District of Washington and was ultimately dismissed.
In August 2007, the State of Florida closed an investigation into Florida Metropolitan University with no fines, penalties or findings of wrongdoing. The Florida Office of the Attorney General and Florida Metropolitan University entered into an Assurance of Voluntary Compliance acknowledging that Florida Metropolitan University participates in the Florida Statewide Course Numbering System to facilitate the transfer of eligible credits to other institutions. Florida Metropolitan University agreed to continue its efforts to help students with transfer credits and to provide students with clear disclosures.
CCi is awaiting the outcome of regulatory investigations by the SEC and state prosecutors. On January 24, 2014, the Iowa Attorney General's office notified CCi that it is leading an investigation by thirteen states into CCi's business practices. CCi stated that it intends to cooperate. No state attorney general case has been tried and no findings adverse to CCi have been made.
On February 23, 2015, fifteen former and current students of Corinthian Colleges announced they were going on "debt strike", refusing to pay loans accrued for their time at Corinthian schools. They originally called themselves the "Corinthian 15", and after growing, as of April 1, are known as the "Corinthian 100" with 107 members. They are currently pursuing "Defense to Repayment" legal action against Corinthian. Representatives were given a meeting with the Department of Education and the Consumer Financial Protection Bureau.
References
External links
Education companies established in 1995
Companies disestablished in 2015
Former for-profit universities and colleges in the United States
Companies formerly listed on the Nasdaq
Companies that filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy in 2015
1995 establishments in the United States
2015 disestablishments in California |
4106762 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Honda%20Life | Honda Life | The Honda Life is an automobile nameplate that was used on various kei car/city cars produced by Honda: passenger cars, microvans, and kei trucks. The first series of the nameplate was built between 1971 and 1974, with the nameplate revived in 1997 and used until 2014. The Japanese-market Life has rarely been marketed outside Japan.
In 2020, Dongfeng Honda revived the "Life" nameplate in China as a rebadged variant of the Fit produced by Guangqi Honda.
First generation (1971)
The original Life range was offered as a two-door or four-door hatchback and in a three-door wagon model (also sold as a commercial van), replacing the Honda NIII360. Compared with the previous Honda minicar series, passenger comfort was improved to make this a better family car - indeed, Honda's target was to make a kei which was as habitable as a period 1-liter car. The wheelbase, at , was eight cm longer than that of the predecessor. The entire Life range had a water-cooled Honda EA 356 cc engine, usually producing at 8,000 rpm. which began as the air-cooled engine borrowed from the Honda CB450 motorcycle. The top speed of the sedan is . The sprint to 100 km/h (62 mph) came up in 34.9 seconds in a period test. In September 1972, the tall and curiously shaped "Life Step Van" was introduced, with either three or five doors. A pickup version of this was later added to the lineup, but had minimal impact on the market.
The engine was also installed with a balance shaft to reduce vibration. The engine was called "refined" in period tests, and was considered to be as quiet and smooth as some four-cylinder engines. The change to a water-cooled engine also eliminated the smell in the heating system commonly associated with air-cooled engines that drew the heated air into the passenger compartment. Another improvement was that the gearbox was separate from the engine, unlike in the N-series where the gearbox was in the sump (as for the original Mini). Production of the Life coincided with the larger Honda Civic with both vehicles having introduced a timing belt (rather than chain) for the operation of the overhead cam.
This version of the Life was exported to a few markets such as Australia, where the four-door version (same specs as in the Japanese version) entered the market in the middle of 1972. The two-door N360/600 continued on sale alongside. The Life was only produced for four years, as the Civic proved to be much more popular both in Japan and internationally, and when the decision was made to cancel the Life, it ended Honda's production of a passenger kei car until 1985, with the introduction of the Honda Today. At the time, the Life was ¥350,000, and the Civic was ¥400,000. The Civic also had an advantage of size, making the car safer in a collision.
Development
1971, June 1
The Life emerged as the successor to the Honda NIII360. It was fitted with a series of newly designed two-cylinder 356 cc SOHC, liquid-cooled four-stroke engines equipped with a balancer shaft. For strictly urban use, a lower-revving engine with a lower compression (8.0:1, as opposed to 8.8:1 for the higher powered version) was installed in the "Life Town". For this version, which was a no-cost option across the range, the engine output was dropped to at 6,500 rpm - as opposed to 8,000 rpm for the high-compression unit. It also received a three-speed transmission, meaning that top speed was limited to 90 km/h.
1971, July 20
An all-new, three-speed, fully automatic transmission was made available. Unlike the manual, the automatic's shifter was column-mounted.
1971, September 6
A three-door commercial-use "Van" was added, with unique bodywork from the B-pillars back. Slightly taller than its sedan counterparts, like them the Life Van was also available with the full automatic transmission.
1971 October 25
A private-use version of the Life Van (called "Wagon", chassis code WA) was added, priced midway between the two- and four-door sedans. This could also be equipped with the three-speed automatic. The Van can be told from a wagon by its tattletale luggage rails visible through the rear windows.
1972, May 1
A sporty engine with twin constant velocity carburettors was added, for the new "Touring" range. The all two-door lineup consisted of the SS, SL, and the GS on top. Power was up to at 9,000 rpm, and the top-of-the-line GS received a dogleg five-speed gearbox to take full advantage of the peakier engine. The Touring GS could reach a top speed of . On June 15 of the same year, the Life received a minor facelift with redesigned grilles, and in September four-door versions of the Touring range appeared. Production of the lower-powered "Town" engine also came to an end during 1972.
1972, September 20
The Life Step Van was launched, the packaging of which embodies the tall wagon style so popular for current keis.
1973, August 21
The Life Pickup was released. At the same time, the sedan lineup underwent a minor facelift (another new grille) and the lineup was reshuffled. The automatic option was now only available on one two-door and one four-door model.
1974, October
In the face of an ever-contracting Kei class combined with ever more stringent emissions standards, manufacture of the Life series, along with the Z360/600, came to an end. This ended Honda kei passenger car participation, until the 1985 arrival of the Today.
Life Step Van
This Step Van type variant, which shares the VA chassis code with the low-bodied Life Van, also uses the same 356 cc, two-cylinder water-cooled engine as does the rest of the range. At the time of introduction, its appearance was considered a novel approach, but it had some benefits in that the engine was installed up front and with front wheel drive. The Step Van, while its loading space was shorter, it could offer certain interior space advantages such as a very low and flat floor that competing, rear-wheel drive vehicles couldn't provide at the time. It drew many influences from the DKW Schnellaster produced in Europe. Its appearance, while unique and not appreciated when new, is now the standard approach for current kei products from Japanese manufacturers. The rear gate was of a clamshell style, divided horizontally. The Step Van, like the regular Life Van, could carry with two occupants, down to with the full complement of two more passengers.
The van was first sold on 20 September 1972 with production ending in 1974, at an introductory price of ¥376,000 for the standard Step Van and ¥403,000 for the Super DX version. The Step Van series was only ever available with a four-speed manual transmission. The price of the Standard model had crept up to ¥388,000 by the time of the introduction of the pickup version. A total of 17,165 vehicles were produced, for a total of less than half the projected 2,000 units per month. It also can be found in the Gran Turismo 4, Gran Turismo (PSP), Gran Turismo 5 and Gran Turismo 6 videogames, as the Honda Life StepVan.
Life pick-up
Introduced on 21 August 1973, this version of the Life was designed as a pickup truck. The pick-up received the PA chassis code. In spite of weighing only , the Life Pickup could carry a payload. Production ended in 1974, with no more than 1,132 vehicles produced, as the Honda TN7 cab over truck with its considerably longer bed proved to be more popular.
Second generation (1997)
In 1997, the Life name was resurrected for a new line of small, front-wheel-drive 5-door MPV style cars, which required a redesign for 1998 because of new Japanese taxing regulations. The Life used the three-cylinder Honda E07A engine. It replaced the Honda Today and was available exclusively in Japan at Honda Primo dealerships. This bodystyle appearance was introduced in response to the popularity of the Suzuki Wagon R, which found many buyers, and competes with the Daihatsu Cuore, Subaru Pleo, and the Mitsubishi Toppo in the "tall wagon" segment of kei cars.
It was introduced as a revision of the 1970s "StepVan" appearance, sharing the second generation Honda Today's basic componentry. Powertrain and chassis, interior and dimensions are almost identical with the Honda Today. The JA4 Honda Life is an interim model as subsequent changes in the laws regulating kei cars made it outdated very soon. This version was only built for about one and a half years. Because of this, it has become a very rare car.
It used the Honda E07A engine, 660 cc SOHC 3-cylinder, four valves per cylinder, with Honda's PGM-FI as standard equipment. It was offered with a 5-speed manual or a 3-speed automatic transmission.
It was also included with a driver side "SRS" airbag, heat absorption ultraviolet radiation glass, antibacterial steering wheel, and an antilock brake system available options. Grade system was the three grades of "B", "G" and "T". The use of one windshield wiper for the front windshield was carried over from the Honda Today.
Chronology
1997 April 18
Revived the name "Life".
1997 December 15
Bargain grade "b" model added, still featuring AM/FM tuner with cassette deck, keyless entry, driver seat side armrest, body color colored door mirrors, bumper, door handles, special seat upholstery. Later announced the special specification car pricing affordable equipping seat headrests, vanity mirror, intermittent front / rear wiper, wheel caps. The "Super Select" trim package was added January 4, 1998.
Third generation (1998)
Responding to new legislation, the 1998 model was bigger than its short-lived second generation counterpart, with length and width.
In December 2000, a turbocharged variant named Honda Life Dunk was introduced as 2001 year model. The Honda Life Dunk and the Honda That's were listed by Forbes magazine as among the weirdest car names.
"Kei-Mover" appeared as a new version in the lineup. Practicality, safety, and environmental performance were prioritized, improving economic efficiency.
1998 October 1
As the standard was revised in minicars, the body was lengthened to 3,395 mm and the width increased to 1,475 mm, which allowed for improvements in collision safety performance. Safety was increased further by the SRS airbags which are also standard equipment, also in the passenger seat.
Corresponding to the enlargement of the second generation body, the engine was changed from the E07A to the improved E07Z. About 20% while improving low rpm torque, low-emission vehicles (LEV) became in compliance. In 5-speed MT and 3-speed AT with follow basically the second transmission, the AT car (Column Shift) was adopted. A new four-wheel drive powertrain is introduced.
Chronology
1998 October 8
Perform a full model change, the market from next October 09.
1999 December 16
"G", based on privacy glass (rear tailgate) door mirrors door handles tailgate handles outer body same color, remote control electric door mirrors, CD player etc. equipped & AM / FM tuner, and a cloth seat covers only special edition models employing the side door linings clad "Minuet" was released.
2000 May 15
The traditional "T" instead of the, CD player with AM / FM tuner, automatic air conditioning, privacy glass (rear tailgate), and equipped with electric remote door mirror body same color door handles, full performance and comfortable "L "was added.
2000 October 19
"G" on the base, equipped with door handles and tailgate handles outer body having the same remote control electric door mirrors, Audio-less specification and customized for sensitive, special pricing $ 200 cheaper than car-based specification car, "select" was released.
2000 December 20
Turbo charger models were given the trim package name Honda Life Dunk
2001 May 24
Minor changes made. Change the front design, multi-reflector headlights were two-lamp. Also, "L" side mirror is change the landscape design, the new design of alloy wheels and full wheel caps. In addition to employing plated outer door handles tailgate larger part in the grade. "L" is also adopted plated door handles. In addition, the ground sheet to change the gray tones, "B" driver's power window switches add lighting in all grades except. 2DIN size of the audio space to expand, "B" also set the audio specification in all grades except less, "L" is also provided on the rear seat armrest. In addition, all types of "Excellent -" low emission certified as well, which also improves fuel efficiency. In addition, special edition models were released as "Minuet" will make the changes above specifications were upgraded to Grade catalog.
2001 November 15
Turbo specification derived vehicles "Life Dunk" special edition models "TS Special" · "TR Special" was released. The former is "TS" is based on privacy glass, rear garnish, CD player with AM / FM tuner, while with the metallic center panel, the specification deals with 1.7 million yen less than the base model, the latter with AM / FM tuner MD / CD tuner, while prices were unchanged spec with leather-wrapped shift knob. Incidentally, the latter being also set the audio less specification.
2001 December 13
"Minuet", based on half the front window shade, MD / CD player with AM / FM tuner, special edition models equipped with a metallic center panel "Minuet DX" was released.
2002 January 24
"G" on the base, equipped with privacy glass, "Minuet" adopting seat is equipped, special edition models were set up $ 500 cheaper than car-based "forum" was released. The set also only eight colors plus color body color.
2002 August 22
"Life," "Life Dunk" both made minor changes. "Life" is a full grade, "Minuet" and richer, the metallic center panel and front windows half-shade, as well as with the MD / CD player with AM / FM tuner, while making a high quality seat upholstery, 10,000 yen than before the Price. "G" is also equipped with privacy glass, while making a high quality seat upholstery, Price was $500 here than before. Other, "L"-equipped MD / CD player with AM / FM tuner. The body color is a "topic" to add the color was only three colors, including those of color was 10. "Dunk" is equipped with interior grade casual outside the newly dedicated "Diva (Diva)" was set. Others, along with applying a blue coating on reflector headlights, "TR" alloy wheels in a gunmetal color, the sheet was subjected to silver stitching, a 6-dash CD changer and MD players association with AM / FM tuner and the driver's seat armrest the equipment. In addition, body color was added.
2002 December 5
"G" is based on, while with the metallic center panel and remote control door mirrors retractable electric body same color, cheaper 50,000 yen more than the base car, the car FF · MT, as well as 900,000 yen in the car FF · AT special edition models with prices set off a "super-topic" was released.
2003 May 15
"G", based on a December 2002 release "Super topic" The equipment, CD player with AM / FM tuner, 2 rear speakers, special edition models equipped with front door to add water repellent door mirror + " Topic Super CD "sale. 9 colors color body has set a new color and contains three colors.
Fourth generation (2003)
September 2003 saw the Life updated with a new 660 cc three-cylinder engine. An optional turbocharger, mated to a 4-speed automatic transmission and optional 4-wheel drive are also available. The safety features were significantly improved and engine emissions were reduced. A triangle window was placed at the mounting point of wing mirrors in the third generation vehicle.
In 2005, Honda introduced the DIVA model, which included aerodynamic styling and aluminium wheels.
Unlike the predecessor body, "Honda's design made good" (advertising slogan in Japan) was the theme of a more rounded style. The newly developed Honda engine Type P07A 660cc SOHC 6 valve inline 3-cylinder with i-DSi of naturally aspirated (52PS) and Turbo (64PS) has increased horsepower. The transmission will only be AT, was a four-speed transmission. Placed next to the speedometer display is a multifunction display, including the emphasis on interior appearance than on price, and ride quality. Easy to grip in any direction, the circular door handles are said to be influenced by an ice cream spoon. The percentage of products purchased were expecting a higher percentage of young women buyers have come up mainly in emphasis towards drivability. The equipment grades were "C", "F", and "D", all three also available with the turbocharged engine. The turbo models were no longer given the separate "Life Dunk" name.
2007 change
2007 models started production on 2006-10-05. It marked the first use of Honda Smart Parking Assist System in a production Honda vehicle.
DIVA Special
It is a model went on sale in 2006-06-07.
F Happy Special
It is a model went on sale in 2007-11-8.
C Specials
C Comfort Special and C Fine Special went on sale on December 20, 2007.
Chronology
2003 September 5
A full model change made to the fourth. The turbo cars a month after October 06 was released in the beginning. 15,000 monthly sales goal.
2004 April 22
"F", "F Turbo" is based on 13-inch alloy wheels and aerodynamic, sporty appearance was well equipped with discharge headlights, which also features a special MD / CD player with AM / FM tuner and Micro-antenna specification car "F · Aero premium" was released.
2004 October 14
Made some improvements. "F" is added to the interior color gray, "D" that was set was also employed in the front bench seat. "D" is a fully automatic air conditioner with a new standard. In addition, special edition models were released in April 2005 "F · Aero Premium" by changing the price of 80,000 options to manufacturers MD / CD player with AM / FM tuner with discharge headlights were standard conventional Price was a circle. Replacement system made with body color Blue and Pearl White. Because of the improved fuel economy, "C Turbo" · "F Turbo" of FF cars' fuel efficiency standards + 5% 2010 "has been achieved.
2004 December 24
"F", based on aero parts, smoke type rear combination lamps, 14-inch alloy wheels in an exclusive color, half-shade front window, while equipped with a micro antenna, car audio less specification and special edition 'Divas ( DIVA) "was released. The "Diva" grade name is derived from the third car, "Life Dunk," and due to additional minor revival since "Life" is set as the first time. The body color is only set the color.
2005 February 3
"C" on the base, equipped with privacy glass, special specification car audio less specification "C · Style" and announced the next day February 04 started from the sale.
2005 August 25
"F" on the base, equipped with 13 inch alloy wheels, car audio less specification and special edition "F · Style" was released.
2005 October 21
Made some improvements. Special edition models were released in December 2004 "Diva (DIVA)" has received favorable order, was promoted to Grade catalog. Only a new front grille, smoked headlight garnish plated, and 14-inch alloy wheels adopted an exclusive color. The new spec turbo "Turbo Diva" along with adding a turbo to the existing grade of "F Turbo" diaphragm, reviewing the structure type. In addition, all grades side turn lamp, high mounted stop lamps, headlights as standard equipment with leveling, "C" for all grades except the built-in mechanical keys "Honda Smart Key System" option added to the manufacturer. In addition, the two-wheel-drive cars all gained SU-LEV certification as their emissions levels were 75 percent lower than required by Japan's 2005 emission standards. Body color and three colors predecessor had been set to "Diva" has added color two colors only. The "Happy Edition" special edition was released on 21 October as well. It was based on the "F" model, with fully automatic air conditioning with an air clean filter, tinted band on top of the front window, and a keyless entry-integrated system.
2006 September 28
Minor changes made. To support the new steering when parking back "Honda Smart Parking Assist System (simple type of voice guidance only)" to "Happy Edition" · "F Turbo", "Diva" · "Diva Turbo" in FF was a factory option on each car. Furthermore, "F" and "Diva" is the security alarm, high-performance deodorant filter-free allele, is standard on this new integrated keyless entry key 2. The exterior front, headlights, rear combination lamps, such as door handles redesigned. "Diva" will change the design of aero bumper, side mirror turn signal was adopted. "Turbo Diva" has also been equipped with front fog lights further. In addition, the type that is offset to the right the previous year's position was in the middle of the front license plate. ," LIFEalso' logo will change when the second generation model 4 "LiFE" instead, the second time since the late addition of type "Life" next, go from right to left position of the previous year type rear emblem, "Diva" is "Life" instead of "Diva" emblems are mounted only. At the same time, special edition models released in October 2005 "Happy Edition" With the change of the base model specification was changed to the front window shade half the special equipment and fully automatic air conditioner. In addition, "C", based on a rear wiper with washer and ABS + Brake Assist with EBD (cars only FF) and to not equipped with a black tailgate garnish (cars only FF) special edition models equipped with a "topic", then went on sale from October 05.
2007 June 7
"DIVA", based on special edition models equipped with front fog lights and full auto air conditioning "Special" and "C" is based on, ABS + Brake Assist with EBD, instead of omitting the privacy glass, multi-angle outer door handles (colored), special edition models equipped with "super-topic" was released.
In 2007 November 8
"F" based on, Honda Smart Key System, Automatic Climate Control, CD Player with AM / FM tuner, half-shade front window, door mirror equipped with a special edition models turn "Happy Special" was released.
In 2007 December 20
"C" special edition models based on a "special comfort," "Fine Special" release. Both ??, CD player with AM / FM tuner, multi-angle outer door handles (colored), and equipped with high performance deodorant filter-free alleles, the former specification is also equipped with full remote control colored retractable electric door mirrors with Automatic Climate Control the latter is omitted specification deals with ABS + EBD brake assist
Specifications
Engine is rated at 6,700 rpm and at 3,800 rpm for non-turbo model, and at 6,000 rpm and at 4,000 rpm for the turbo model.
Fifth generation (2008)
In November 2008, Honda introduced the fifth generation Life. This generation is available in C, G, PASTEL, PASTEL turbo, DIVA, DIVA turbo. A higher specification model marketed towards a younger crowd is called the Honda Zest, sharing all mechanicals with the Life.
Specifications
It keeps on using Honda P07A engine from the previous generation. The naturally aspirated engine is rated at 7100 rpm and at 3600 rpm, and at 6000 rpm and at 4000 rpm for the turbo model, which is available in PASTEL and DIVA models.
Vehicle code:
DBA-JC1: FF
CBA-JC2: 4WD
2008 September 18, and in the press release, and continuously changing the amount of air bags, the emissions control for the driver's seat called the "ECO" button that displays encouragement for driving eco-friendly, and high protection performance and low-impact "i-SRS airbag system "(the force deployed during an impact is measured against many veriables) was announced to be built into the fifth generation Honda Life. October "teaser ad" started the introduction to the Japanese market, the "Casual" trim package represented the standard equipment trim package, the "G type", and the sporty grade "DIVA" in addition to the new grade enhanced the addition of the fashionably equipped "PASTEL" trim package.
In the fifth generations exterior styling is an interpretation of a "daily smile technology" approach. The original concept has been taken into account in particular the ease of operation. Front narrow pillars and lower door sash, with a large integrated triangle window in the front doors, a front windshield wiper review of the side front position, the waistline and front passenger outward view optimization, adoption of the rear quarter windows, the size of the tailgate window and rear seat review of the shape of the seat back, the embedded headlight inclusion, have improved the appearance of the front side and rear view over the previous generation.
Vehicle Dimensions Length Width is a mini-ever full frame, total height is 1,610 mm (FF models: +35 mm compared to its predecessor) has been set higher, and have contributed to the expansion of interior volume. The vehicles platform chassis was renewed, and yet it was about 40 kg lighter than its predecessor's. The position of number plates, as well as three second-top predecessor's tailgate, rear bumper on the back has been changed from the previous generation.
An audio monitor with back, the first in the mini standard (except for C-type). Thus, Honda Smart Parking Assist System, from the simple type of voice guidance, now assisted steering is performed in both forward and backward The first owner of Honda Life is Sheikh Faisal.
Chronology
2008 November 6
Performed a full model change to the fifth generation, went on sale from November 07.
2009 June 4
"PASTEL", "PASTEL turbo" special edition models equipped with headlamps, etc. based on the "HID Special" announced, sold from June 11. Also, "G type" and "PASTEL" was expanded to accommodate another grade of exclusive color.
2009 October 15
Made some improvements. Improved fuel efficiency in cars and 4WD car turbo engine of FF NA engines, each "15% FY 2010 fuel economy standards," "fiscal 2010 fuel economy standards" has been achieved. The new FF NA engines in cars, "Taxation promote environmentally friendly vehicles," vehicles were covered. Done to improve the electric power steering, improved steering performance. In addition, "PASTEL" is a half-shade in the front window, "DIVA" in a half-shade front window, tailgate spoiler, which added with a micro-antenna. In addition, a new grade feature rich, "G type" is fully automatic air conditioning, high-allergy-free deodorant filter, driver seat height adjuster, tilt steering and equipped with "Comfort Select" a, "DIVA / DIVA turbo" The 14-inch alloy wheels ("DIVA" only, "DIVA turbo" is standard), discharge headlights, leather-wrapped steering wheel features a synthetic, non-audio was fitted with a back monitor "Cool Select" added the . In addition, in December 2006 a "G" and "pastel" colors are added to the body.
2010 May 17
"C type" based on, ABS + Brake Assist with EBD, with feature privacy glass / UV cut heat-ray absorption (rear tailgate rear quarter), colored door mirrors (manual) and outer door handles, and full wheel caps special edition models equipped with "Comfort Special" and "DIVA" is based on the audio monitor with back, Honda Smart Key System immobilizer, security alarms, non-special edition models were equipped with front window shade half "Special" was released.
2010 November 18
Minor changes made. Lift-up Seat passenger cars went on sale from December 09. "G type" is a revamped front grille, projector type headlights were changed. Interior has adopted a steady meter and 3 eyes wide center panel with decorative silver, front center armrest is standard with a rear wiper and washer. In addition, "Honda Smart Parking Assist System," with improved usability review of the speed setting also. "DIVA" also "G type" as well as improvements are made, dedicated to the design front grille chrome paint, projector headlights were changed to type. Headlamp headlamps (low beam, with automatic leveling mechanism), wide center panel Piano Black will be adjusted and, 3 eye meter is steady blue illumination adds, which occurred during differentiation. In addition, special sport seats with built-in door mirrors and turn signals. Together, the previous year had been fitted with type "Life" logo emblem is gone, "DIVA" has moved from right to left logo emblem. "DIVA" to wear the emblem of the logo is only since the late fourth type. In addition, the former is additionally equipped with audio remote control switch and a rear camera and lighting can be installed at the dealer affordable navigation option "Special Package for mounting navigation" was also set. Furthermore, due to this minor "PASTEL" is discontinued, the turbo cars "DIVA · Turbo Smart Style" was only offered.
2011 August 22
"G", based on grade advanced "Smart Plus" discharge headlights with projector type of equipment (low beam, with automatic leveling mechanism), colored front grille, special edition models equipped with a front window, half-shade "HID smart Special "release.
2011 November 28
"DIVA" is based on a 14-inch alloy wheels, fully automatic air conditioning, as well as equipped with a full specification Honda Smart Key System, subjected to the shift knob chrome inner door handles and knobs button air-conditioning outlets Vehicles specially designed "Smart Special" was released (launched December 22).
Honda Zest
The Honda Zest is a kei car built from 2006 until 2012, mechanically identical to the fifth generation Honda Life. It came equipped with a turbocharged three-cylinder engine and 5-door bodywork. It was one of the first kei cars available with optional side curtain airbags. It was available in two distinct versions — Zest and Zest Sports. In fall/winter 2008, the Zest Sports was replaced with the Zest Spark.
Chinese-market Life (GR; 2020)
The "Life" nameplate is also used by Dongfeng Honda for the renamed fourth-generation Fit (sold by Guangqi Honda) for the Chinese market. Introduced in 2020, the minor differences between the Fit and the Life are the front bumper designs and rear taillight tint colour (the Life has a clear smoked tint).
References
(technical data)
External links
Honda Life page
Honda Life History
Press release of 1st generation Honda Life
Press release of Life Pick Up
Press release of 2nd generation Honda Life
Press release of 4th generation Honda Life
Lovestep Life StepVan page
StepVan room contain information on Step-Van.
Life StepVan review
Honda 2001 annual report
Honda That's at the official manufacturer's site
Video of the That's (however brief)
Life
Cars introduced in 1971
1980s cars
1990s cars
2000s cars
2010s cars
Kei cars |
4107129 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Architecture%20of%20New%20York%20City | Architecture of New York City | The building form most closely associated with New York City is the skyscraper, which has shifted many commercial and residential districts from low-rise to high-rise. Surrounded mostly by water, the city has amassed one of the largest and most varied collection of skyscrapers in the world.
New York has architecturally significant buildings in a wide range of styles spanning distinct historical and cultural periods. These include the Woolworth Building (1913), an early Gothic revival skyscraper with large-scale gothic architectural detail. The 1916 Zoning Resolution required setback in new buildings, and restricted towers to a percentage of the lot size, to allow sunlight to reach the streets below. The Art Deco design of the Chrysler Building (1930) and Empire State Building (1931), with their tapered tops and steel spires, reflected the zoning requirements. The Chrysler Building is considered by many historians and architects to be one of New York's finest, with its distinctive ornamentation such as V-shaped lighting inserts capped by a steel spire at the tower's crown. Early influential examples of the International Style in the United States are 330 West 42nd Street (1931) and the Seagram Building (1958). The Condé Nast Building (2000) is an important example of green design in American skyscrapers.
The character of New York's large residential districts is often defined by the elegant brownstone rowhouses, townhouses, and tenements that were built during a period of rapid expansion from 1870 to 1930. In contrast, New York City also has neighborhoods that are less densely populated and feature free-standing dwellings. In the outer boroughs, large single-family homes are common in various architectural styles such as Tudor Revival and Victorian. Split two-family homes are also widely available across the outer boroughs, for example in the Flushing area.
Stone and brick became the city's building materials of choice after the construction of wood-frame houses was limited in the aftermath of the Great Fire of 1835. Unlike Paris, which for centuries was built from its own limestone bedrock, New York has always drawn its building stone from a far-flung network of quarries and its stone buildings have a variety of textures and hues. A distinctive feature of many of the city's buildings is the presence of wooden roof-mounted water towers. In the 19th century, the city required their installation on buildings higher than six stories to prevent the need for excessively high water pressures at lower elevations, which could burst municipal water pipes. Garden apartments became popular during the 1920s in outlying areas, including Jackson Heights in Queens, which became more accessible with expansion of the subway.
Concentrations of buildings
New York has two main concentrations of high-rise buildings: Midtown Manhattan and Lower Manhattan, each with its own uniquely recognizable skyline. Midtown Manhattan, the largest central business district in the world, is home to such notable buildings as the Empire State Building, the Chrysler Building, and Citigroup Center, as well as the Rockefeller Center complex. Lower Manhattan comprises the third largest central business district in the United States (after Midtown and Chicago's Loop). Lower Manhattan was characterized by the omnipresence of the Twin Towers of the World Trade Center from its completion in 1973 until its destruction in the September 11 attacks in 2001.
In the first decade of the 21st century, Lower Manhattan saw reconstruction, which included One World Trade Center within the new World Trade Center complex. The Downtown skyline received new designs from such architects as Santiago Calatrava and Frank Gehry. In 2010, a , 43-story tower named 200 West Street was built for Goldman Sachs across the street from the World Trade Center site.
New York City has a long history of tall buildings. It has been home to 10 buildings that have held the world's tallest fully habitable building title at some point in history, although half have since been demolished. The first building to bring the world's tallest title to New York was the New York World Building, in 1890. Later, New York City was home to the world's tallest building for 75 continuous years, starting with the Park Row Building in 1899 and ending with One World Trade Center upon completion of the Sears Tower in 1974. The 1899 Park Row Building, one of the world's earliest skyscrapers, is still standing.
The high-rise buildings of Brooklyn constitute a third, much smaller skyline. Downtown Brooklyn is also experiencing an extensive building boom, with new high rise luxury residential towers, commercial space and a new arena in the planning stages. The building boom in Brooklyn has had a great deal of opposition from local civic and environmental groups which contend that Brooklyn needs to maintain its human scale. The borough of Queens has also been developing its own skyline in recent years with One Court Square (formerly the Citigroup Building, currently the tallest building in NYC outside Manhattan), and the Queens West development of several residential towers along the East River waterfront.
The 1916 Zoning Resolution required setback in new buildings, and restricted towers to a percentage of the lot size, to allow sunlight to reach the streets below.
History
The skyscraper, which has shaped Manhattan's distinctive skyline, has been closely associated with New York City's identity since the end of the 19th century. From 1890 to 1973, the title of world's tallest building resided continually in Manhattan (with a gap between 1894 and 1908, when the title was held by Philadelphia City Hall), with eight different buildings holding the title. The New York World Building on Park Row, was the first to take the title in 1890, standing until 1955, when it was demolished to construct a new ramp to the Brooklyn Bridge. The nearby Park Row Building, with its 29 stories standing high, became the world's tallest office building when it opened in 1899.
Early 20th century
The 41-story Singer Building, constructed in 1908 as the headquarters of the eponymous sewing machine manufacturer, stood high until 1967, when it became the tallest building ever demolished. The Metropolitan Life Insurance Company Tower, standing at the foot of Madison Avenue, wrested the title of world's tallest building in 1909, with a tower reminiscent of St Mark's Campanile in Venice. The Woolworth Building, and its distinctive Gothic architecture, took the title in 1913, topping off at . Structures such as the Equitable Building of 1915, which rises vertically forty stories from the sidewalk, prompted the passage of the 1916 Zoning Resolution, requiring new buildings to contain setbacks withdrawing progressively at a defined angle from the street as they rose, in order to preserve a view of the sky at street level.
Grand Central Terminal is located in East Midtown close to the Chrysler Building. The railroad terminal, completed in 1913, is the third on its site. It was built in the Beaux-Arts style by the firms Reed and Stem and Warren and Wetmore. It became a National Historic Landmark in 1976.
The Roaring Twenties saw a race to the sky, with three separate buildings pursuing the world's tallest title in the span of a year. As the stock market soared in the days before the Wall Street Crash of 1929, two developers publicly competed for the crown. At , 40 Wall Street, completed in May 1930 in only eleven months as the headquarters of the Bank of Manhattan, seemed to have secured the title. At Lexington Avenue and 42nd Street, auto executive Walter Chrysler and his architect William Van Alen developed plans to build the structure's trademark spire in secret, pushing the Chrysler Building to and making it the tallest in the world when it was completed in 1929. Completed in 1930, the Chrysler Building is a distinctive symbol of New York. Originally built for the Chrysler Corporation, the building is presently co-owned by Aby Rosen's RFR Holding LLC, in a joint venture with the Austrian SIGNA Group. The Chrysler Building was the first structure in the world to surpass the 1,000 foot threshold.
Both buildings were soon surpassed with the May 1931 completion of the 102-story Empire State Building with its tower reaching at the top of the building. The high pinnacle was later added bringing the total height of the building to . The Empire State Building, a contemporary Art Deco style building in Midtown Manhattan, was designed by Shreve, Lamb and Harmon and takes its name from the nickname of New York State. It was the first building to go beyond the 100-story mark, and has one of the world's most visited observation decks, which sees about 4 million visitors a year. The building was built in just 14 months.
30 Rockefeller Plaza is a slim Art Deco skyscraper and the focal point of Rockefeller Center. It stands 850 ft (259 m) with 70 floors. Built in 1933 and originally called the RCA Building, it was later called the Comcast Building. The frieze above the main entrance was executed by Lee Lawrie and depicts Wisdom, along with a phrase from scripture that reads "Wisdom and Knowledge shall be the stability of thy times", originally found in the Book of Isaiah, 33:6.
330 West 42nd Street (1931) was the only skyscraper in New York City displayed in Henry-Russell Hitchcock and Philip Johnson's influential International Style exhibition at the Museum of Modern Art in 1932, and the only other U.S. skyscraper at that exhibition, besides the PSFS Building. Johnson, along with Ludwig Mies van der Rohe, later helped build the Seagram Building (1959) on Park Avenue between 52nd and 53rd Streets, with extruded bronze mullions on the facade. Paul Goldberger wrote in The New York Times in 1976 that the Seagram Building was one of "New York's most copied buildings", its design having been copied in several structures worldwide.
Late 20th century
In 1961, the Pennsylvania Railroad unveiled plans to tear down the old Penn Station and replace it with a new Madison Square Garden and office building complex. Organized protests were aimed at preserving the McKim, Mead & White-designed structure completed in 1910, widely considered a masterpiece of the Beaux-Arts style and one of the architectural jewels of New York City. Despite these efforts, demolition of the structure began in October 1963. The loss of Penn Station—called "an act of irresponsible public vandalism" by historian Lewis Mumford—led directly to the enactment in 1965 of a local law establishing the New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission, which is responsible for preserving the "city's historic, aesthetic, and cultural heritage". The historic preservation movement triggered by Penn Station's demise has been credited with the retention of some one million structures nationwide, including over 1,000 in New York City. In 2017, a multibillion-dollar rebuilding plan was unveiled to restore the historic grandeur of Penn Station, in the process of upgrading the landmark's status as a critical transportation hub.
The MetLife Building, formerly the Pan Am Building, was the largest commercial office building in the world when it opened on March 7, 1963. It stands directly north of Grand Central Terminal.
The former Twin Towers of the World Trade Center were located in Lower Manhattan. At , the 110-story buildings were the world's tallest from 1972 until they were surpassed by the construction of the Willis Tower in 1974 (formerly known as the Sears Tower, located in Chicago). One World Trade Center, a replacement for the Twin Towers of the World Trade Center, is currently the tallest building in the Western Hemisphere.
Citigroup Center is a 59-story office tower located at 53rd Street and Lexington Avenue in Midtown Manhattan. It is considered one of the most important post-war skyscrapers to be in erected in New York City. The striking design of the steeply slanted roof, the sleek aluminum-clad facade, and its base on four stilts over a church also on the site made the skyscraper an instant architectural icon. The sloping roof houses the building's mechanical and ventilation systems. The designers settled on an aluminum-clad facade to reduce the weight load on the building's foundation and support structures, since its entire weight would be supported by stilts. To prevent swaying, a "tuned mass damper" was later added on the roof.
21st century
Time Warner Center is a mixed-use skyscraper at Columbus Circle on Manhattan's Upper West Side. It was the first major building to be completed since the September 11 attacks.
The Condé Nast Building, officially Four Times Square, is a modern skyscraper in Times Square in Midtown Manhattan and one of the most important examples of green design in skyscrapers in the United States. Environmentally friendly gas-fired absorption chillers, along with a high-performing insulating and shading curtain wall, ensure that the building does not need to be heated or cooled for the majority of the year. Office furniture is made with biodegradable and non-toxic materials. The air-delivery system provides 50% more fresh air than is required by New York City Building Code, and a number of recycling chutes serve the entire building. Being the first project of its size to undertake these features in construction, the building has received an award from the American Institute of Architects, as well as AIA New York State.
Hearst Tower, located in Midtown Manhattan at 300 West 57th Street, is another example of the new breed of green design skyscrapers in New York City. Hearst Tower is a glass and steel construction skyscraper which rests on the base of the original 1920s Hearst Corporation Building. Hearst Tower is easily identified by the dramatic interlocking triangular glass panels designed by British architect Lord Norman Foster. Hearst Tower is also the first skyscraper in New York City to be awarded the coveted Gold LEED Certified rating by the United States Green Building Council.
Demolished buildings
Tallest buildings
The 15 tallest standard structures, which include those with the 10 highest antennae or radio towers (pinnacles)
† (constructed as the Cities Service Company Building)
‡ (constructed as the Bank of Manhattan Trust Corporation Building)
All addresses are in Midtown Manhattan except those in lighter shades, which are in Lower Manhattan.
Residential architecture
As New York City grew, it spread outward from where it originally began at the southern-tip of Manhattan Island into surrounding areas. In order to house the burgeoning population, farm land and open space in Upper Manhattan, the Bronx, Queens, Brooklyn, and Staten Island were developed into neighborhoods of brownstones, apartment buildings, multi-family and single-family homes. The density of this new construction generally depended on the area's proximity and accessibility to Manhattan.
The development of these areas was often spurred by the opening of bridges and the connection of boroughs via public transportation. For example, the Brooklyn Bridge was completed in 1883 and connects Brooklyn and Manhattan across the East River. Brooklyn Heights, a nabe on the Brooklyn waterfront, is often credited as the United States' first suburb. The bridge allowed an easier commute between Brooklyn and Manhattan and spurred rapid construction, development, and redevelopment. The Verrazano-Narrows Bridge, completed in 1964, opened up many areas of Staten Island to residential and commercial development, especially in the central and southern parts of the borough, which had previously been largely undeveloped. Staten Island's population doubled from about 221,000 in 1960 to about 443,000 in 2000.
By 1870, stone and brick had become firmly established as the building materials of choice, as the construction of wood-frame houses had been greatly limited in the aftermath of the Great Fire of 1835. Unlike Paris, which for centuries was built from its own limestone bedrock, New York has always drawn its building stone from a network of quarries, sometimes quite distant, which is evident in the variety of textures and hues of stone seen in the city's buildings. In the days before rail, stones were floated down the Hudson River or along the Atlantic Seaboard from pits in New England. While trains brought marble from Vermont and granite from Minnesota, it was Connecticut brownstone that was so popular in the construction of New York's row homes in the late 19th century that the term brownstone became synonymous with row house.
Beginning in the 1950s, public housing projects dramatically changed the city's appearance. New, large scale (frequently high-rise) residential complexes replaced older communities, at times removing artifacts and landmarks that would now be considered of historic value. During this period, many of these new projects were built in an effort towards urban renewal championed by the famed urban planner Robert Moses. The resulting housing projects have suffered from inconsistent funding, poor maintenance, and high crime, prompting many to consider these projects a failure.
A distinctive feature of residential (and many commercial) buildings in New York City is the presence of wooden roof-mounted water towers, which were required on all buildings higher than six stories by city ordinance in the 19th century because the municipal water pipes could not withstand the extraordinarily high pressure necessary to deliver water to the top stories of high-rise buildings.
Bridges and tunnels
New York City is located on one of the world's largest natural harbors. The boroughs of Manhattan and Staten Island are their own islands, while Queens and Brooklyn are located at the west-end of the larger Long Island. This precipitates a need for an extensive infrastructure of bridges and tunnels. Nearly all of the city's major bridges and several of its tunnels, have broken or set records. For example, the Holland Tunnel was the world's first vehicular tunnel when it opened in 1927.
The Queensboro Bridge is an important piece of cantilever architecture. The towers of the Brooklyn Bridge are built of limestone, granite, and Rosendale cement. Their architectural style is neo-Gothic, with characteristic pointed arches above the passageways through the stone towers. This bridge was also the longest suspension bridge in the world from its opening until 1903, and the first steel-wire suspension bridge. The Manhattan Bridge, Throgs Neck Bridge, Triborough Bridge, and Verrazzano-Narrows Bridge are all examples of Structural Expressionism.
Street grid
Formulated in the Commissioners' Plan of 1811, New York adopted a visionary proposal to develop Manhattan north of 14th Street with a regular street grid. The economic logic underlying the plan, which called for twelve numbered avenues running north and south, and 155 orthogonal cross streets, was that the grid's regularity would provide an efficient means to develop new real estate property. Frederick Law Olmsted, the designer of Central Park, disapproved.
See also
List of buildings
List of National Historic Landmarks in New York
List of New York City Designated Landmarks
List of tallest buildings in New York City
List of cities with most skyscrapers
Art Deco architecture of New York City
References
Further reading
Federal Writers' Project (1939). The WPA Guide to New York City, The New Press (1995 reissue).
External links
Downtown Brooklyn Development - New York City Dept. Of Planning
Lower Manhattan Development - Lower Manhattan Development Corp.
The City Review - information on buildings and architecture by neighborhood
Tom Fletcher's New York Architecture Images and Notes ... |
4107160 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gyeonggi%20Academy%20of%20Foreign%20Languages | Gyeonggi Academy of Foreign Languages | Gyeonggi Academy of Foreign Languages, or GAFL (경기외국어고등학교, 京畿外國語高等學校) is a foreign language high school located in Uiwang-si, Gyeonggi-do, Korea. It is equipped with two student dormitories, each for different genders,
with its own dormitory inspectors as staff. Students are divided into eight classes per grade by language (English & Japanese, English & Chinese, Japanese, and Chinese) in which they would like to major. It was originally established under the name of Myongji Foreign Language High School on March 2, 2004, by Myongji Foundation. It was run as Myongji Foreign Language High School for 5 years, but due to declining financial situation of Myongji Foundation, the school was taken over by Bong-ahm Institute in 2008. Consequently, Bong-ahm Institute changed the name of the school to the current name of Gyeonggi Academy of Foreign Languages, with changes in various areas, including the principal, school uniform, dormitory inspectors and operation of school cafeteria. Although it kept the original subjects, or "majors", GAFL's international department changed the curriculum of its international curriculum department to
International Baccalaureate Diploma Programme in 2011, making GAFL the first Korean high school to adopt the program. Currently, there are nine years worth of graduates, with alumni spread over diverse universities, including domestically prominent SKY (universities) and various universities abroad. The school is also well known for its high tuition fee, always being in the top 10 schools by tuition fee.
Timeline
History
Founding
Before the founding of the school, the school properties belong to a private high school, Jung-won High School, founded in 1989, but was bought by the Myeonji Education Foundation and was demolished of its establishment. After, the Myeongji Education Foundation intended to establish a new school, that of a Foreign Language High School (), where under Korean government plan was a special type of school to educate students with high level of foreign languages. As Myeongji Education Foundation was already in possession of various schools including Myongji University, the school quickly gained recognition among the high competition between Foreign Language High Schools.
Myongji Foreign Language High School Era
Myongji Foreign Language High School was a dormitory-based foreign language high school that accepted students from all over the country, mainly through its individual and unique admission tests. The students lived in the dormitory, and studied at night under the supervision of the dormitory inspectors, who were outsourced by the school. Remaining at school on weekends and during vacation was optional, but students had to follow a strict timetable that regulated activities most of the time. In the absence of school teachers, the dorm inspectors would take the place of chaperoning the students and their activities. To accommodate the students' needs, there were various facilities such as laundry room, gym, and a 7-Eleven convenience store (which was rumored to be the second highest branch in sales throughout all of South Korea) inside the school. The academic performance of Myongji students steadily improved over time, peaking at the 3rd highest in 2011 College Scholastic Ability Test in all of South Korea.
Gyeonggi Academy of Foreign Languages: former era (until 6th generation)
Myeongji Education Foundation faced a financial crisis during its attempt of expanding the business, hence was forced to handover the right to management of the school. This right was purchased by Daekyo Education Foundation, owned by Korea's prominent education company Daekyo (), and changing the present name, Gyeonggi Academy of Foreign Languages. With the conversion of the school into Gyeonggi Academy of Foreign Languages, the school took a drastic turn. In admissions, it could no longer test applying students in maths, and had to take into account their middle school grades to a larger extent due to change of government regulations. The school uniform also changed, from the previous 2 versions (winter and summer) to 3 versions (winter formal and casual, and summer). The school also scouted Hashik Park, a former vice-principal of Hankuk Academy of Foreign Studies and Hankuk Academy of Foreign Studies to be GAFL's new principal. Under Principal Park's running of the school, GAFL developed various student clubs, including a club pertaining to lacrosse. In terms of dormitory, staffing change was made in dormitory inspectors; the school hired a new group of dormitory inspectors that were regarded as a lot less strict than the group before. Amenities such as towels and laundry service were also made free to the students. However, the 6th generation of students still followed much of the same curriculum and education infrastructure as previous generations of students did.
Gyeonggi Academy of Foreign Languages: latter era (7th generation ~)
From this time period, the school took even more of a drastic turn. It could no longer accept students from provinces other than Gyeonggi due to change in government regulations. However, it was accepted to incorporate the International Baccalaureate Diploma Programme, one of the first Korean high schools to do so. This entailed a change of system and infrastructure for the students; as opposed to the past, the subjects, or "majors" were now divided into four categories containing local English, international English (IBDP), Chinese and Japanese departments.
Symbols
Alma mater song
The schools alma mater song was written by the chairman of the Daekyo Education Foundation Young-jung Kang, where most of the lyrics are in Korean, but few phrases in English.
School symbols
The school chaplain of GAFL is the Zelkova serrate, which was chosen for its characteristics of an often used a shading plant in Korea. This was to symbolise the purpose of the schools value; educating the youth as the servant of the people.
Along with Zelkova, the flower was a Camellia lutchuensis, a symbol of strength as the Camellia endures the winters, and the floriography in Korea being humble heart, to symbolise the students of their strength endure through hard times, yet remembering the value of humbleness.
The school bird is a Phoenix (mythology), or 봉황 in Korean. To symbolise the everlasting sprit of the school. Because of this, the school board of parent donate a pair of Peafowl, which was kept within the school campus. Phoenix is discoverable in the coat of arms of the school and throughout the school logos etc.
Departments of Major Languages
In both Myongji Foreign Language High School and GAFL, students were divided into classes centered around certain "majors", which meant that the classes pertaining to that major would receive more education on that area. Traditionally, there were 2 classes for each major, and these majors acted as major factors in school management and student activities by providing a clear boundary between groups of students.
Myongji Foreign Language High School
In Myongji Foreign Language High School, there were four majors: English (major) and Chinese (minor), English (major) and Japanese (minor), Chinese and Japanese. Each department received differentiated education according to the majors, including conversation and theoretical classes. The number of classes pertaining to the language was designed to escalate as the grades increased; such was the case that 3rd grade students had 5 different subjects pertaining to their major, for instance, English Writing, English Conversation, English Grammar, English Reading and English Listening. As students wishing for acceptance in foreign universities were few in number, they were incorporated into the main system, but could take optional classes and guidance on the side.
Gyeonggi Academy of Foreign Languages
GAFL was approved as World IB School in 2011, and unlike other IB schools in Korea, it is the only IB school where students can graduate with both IB Diploma and a Korean High School Diploma.
With the introduction of IBDP to the school, the major system also changed. The previously few students striving for foreign universities were promoted to a new major (international English), and the students striving for domestic universities were incorporated into local English courses. The IBDP is currently designed to address to the international English portion of the students.
English-Chinese Department
This is were English is the major language and Chinese is the minor language. The symbolic colour of the English-Chinese department is blue. This is the department were it constitutes the majority of the English department. Because of this factor, they have the slight advantage in determining the Korean High school GPA, which is relatively marked.
English-Japanese Department
Being only a size of one class, is the smallest department of the school. Having red as their symbolic colour. In the administrative system, often English-Japanese Department is categorised a one department with the International (IB) Department, but in terms of actual educational curriculum is completely independent from the International Department.
Chinese Department
Being represented with the colour black, the Chinese department majors in Chinese and English as a minor language. Chinese department is often associated with outgoing, strong images, specially showing a culture of strong bonds between the freshmen and the sophomore class. There are significant number of students in the Chinese department who move on to prominent Chinese or Taiwanese universities such Beijing University, Tsinghua University, National Taipei University.
Japanese Department
Being represented with the colour white, along with the Chinese department, the Japanese department is one of the biggest department and majors Japanese. Japanese department is often portrayed as the rival of the Chinese department, showing a very calm, and diligent image. Similarly, some students continue their academic in prestigious Japanese universities like University of Tokyo, Keio University, Waseda University.
International (IB Diploma Programme) Department
Being the smallest, yet the most support department of the school, International Department is the newest department of GAFL. Unlike most international schools in Korea, instead of adopting the SAT, or the Advanced Placement, has adopted the IB Diploma Programme for the first time as a Korean High school. Due to their different in curriculum, the International Department is granted of more independence and autonomy within the school. As the IB programme is constituted with 2 years, but the Korean High school system of 3 years, freshmen of International Department is enrolled in a Pre-DP curriculum provided by the school itself.
Unlike other departments where the minor language is fixed, the International department provides both Japanese and Chinese as minor language.
Offered Courses
As a Foreign Languages Highschool, IB students in GAFL are required to take 3 language courses within Group 1: Studies in Language and Literature and Group 2: Language acquisition. Thus students drop their Group 6: The Arts course at the end of DP1, and it is not included in final exam as well.
Courses offered:
Group 1: Korean Literature A (SL/HL), English Language and Literature A (HL)
Group 2: English B (HL), Chinese B (SL), Japanese B (SL)
Group 3: History (SL/HL), Economy (SL/HL)
Group 4: Biology (SL/HL), Chemistry (SL/HL)
Group 5: Mathematics Analysis and Approach (SL/HL)
Group 6: Film (SL), Theatre (SL)
Student Life
Uniform
Being complete re-designed in 2008, GAFL's uniform exist in different forms. Largely into three categories that of Spring-autumn, summer, winter uniform.
Winter uniform includes a jacket, coat, vest, shirt, tie, cardigan, trousers, skirts for female students. The Spring-autumn uniform with a jumper, vest, shirt, trousers, tie, and skirts for female students. The summer uniform is worn with shirt with short sleeves, trousers, shorts, and skirts and ribbons for female students.
Along with seasonal differentiation, there are two types of uniform, that of formal and casual. Students may were what ever kind of uniform they choose, but on Fridays, it is mandatory that students dress in their formal uniform, including the jacket and with black dress shoes.
There are unofficial uniforms of the school that students wear, usually being the baseball jackets. Students often wear baseball jackets over their uniform to show their affiliation with the prefect committee, or society they belong to. There are no particular school codes on these jackets, but through tradition, it is only the prefect committees, societies that existed from the founding of the school, and sports society that wear them. There are few exception to this.
Prefects
The school's prefect system imitates that of a democratic government, meaning there is the legislative, executive, and judiciary branch. The legislative branch is formed with each classes president and vice president, led by a chairman elected among them and has the right to amend the school codes. The executive branch is led by the School president voted through a vote as the school in whole, and the president chooses members of the executive branch that carries out all school actives. The judiciary branch is chosen by interviews conducted by the previous members of the judiciary. They have the right to hand out demerit marks to students according to the school codes.
The international department gets the exception and is allowed to form the International department committee, led by chairman elected within the department. The international department committee is only formed with student of the international department and gains autonomy to the prefect system of three branches.
Societies
As the school is a Foreign Language High school, the societies are more concentrated into languages, and humanities. There are more than 100 societies in the school which is formed, and led by the students, answering to the executive branch. There are no official division between the societies of the school, but there is what the students traditionally call the 'classic societies', like the Law society, Debate society, United Nations society, English society, and Economic society, which refer to about 12 societies that existed from the founding of the school. These societies tend to be large in number, financial support from school, and gets more opportunities to host a competition, or an event.
Besides the academic societies, there are numerous sports and art societies. The major sport society is football, basketball, and lacrosse. Sport societies usually participate in high school leagues held among prestigious private schools as varsity teams. The art society include orchestra, band, hip-hop, and painting societies. Art societies annually hosts a festival where they put up plays, drama, performances for the students.
Campus Facilities and Buildings
Main Hall
Being reused from the old building of the Jung-won High school, the Main halls is older than the school itself. This is where all of the class rooms are located except for the International department, along with most of the teachers' offices. On the ground floor of the Main hall is where the cafeteria is located where three meals a day is provided by the school including weekends. On the 1st floor is the School Memorial Hall, a place to remember and value the history of the school.
Bong-am Hall
Bong-am, being named after the school boards first chairman, Young-jung Kang, is the building that includes the school's convenience store, large studying hall, separate group seminar rooms, and an indoor basketball court, often used as a gather hall for school events.
Creation Hall
Creation hall, the first dormitory building of the school, is a 10 floor building located at the corner of the school's campus. When Creation hall was the only dormitory of the school, it accommodated both male and female students. However, due to its aging facilities of shower room, and air conditioning, the school later decides to build another dormitory building, and Creation hall only accommodating the male students from then. On the top floor of Creation hall locates a self-study area opened until 4 am, and an student lounge where students call eat, drink and relax as the dormitory codes prohibit consumption of food within each rooms.
Vision Hall
Vision hall is the newly built dormitory building with better facilities than Creation hall, accommodating the female students. Vision hall has total of 9 floors located right next to Creation hall. Vision hall is where the dean's night office is located on the ground floor, and has a garden at the rooftop, where the school holds annual event from time to time. In the basement of Vision hall is the laundry room, where the school provide free laundry service to students where they only have to pick their clothes up after school.
Global Hall
As recognisable from the name itself, the Global hall is the building where the international department is located. Because of this independent facility, the international department can use 12 classrooms, 1 teacher's office, 1 biology lab, 1 chemistry lab, film studio, theatre room, and 3 self study areas and a library. This is the first building that visitors see when entering through the school's main gate.
Servant Leadership Hall
Located in front of the Global Hall, Servant Leadership Hall is the newest building on campus, having the construction finished in 2021. This building is formed with 5 floor, having multiple classrooms, media room, and a gym on ground floor for the students use. This building was built to solve an old dissatisfaction of the students and faculty for the lack of teaching space. This building, due to the locational benefit, is mostly used by the international department, but also is used for multiple uses such as society activities.
GAFL Ground
GAFL Ground is the name for the indoor sports facilities located at the very north-west of the campus. Below the GAFL Ground is a parking lot used by the faculty, and above is the actual sports facilities. The sports facilities include 4 indoor badminton court, and two futsal fields, which is often used as a lacrosse field for the school's varsity team.
The Pathway
This is a distinct feature of the school's campus. The Pathway refers to the one singular indoor hallway that allows the students to navigate to all of the school's building. The Global hall is connected to the Servant Leadership Hall using a bridge, to the Vision hall by an underground pathway, the Creation hall through a roofed alley, and indoor hallway continuing all the way to the Main Hall. For this reason, no body uses an umbrella in the school.
References
Language high schools in South Korea
Schools in Gyeonggi Province
Educational institutions established in 2004
2004 establishments in South Korea
Private schools in South Korea |
4107195 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander%20Radulov | Alexander Radulov | Alexander Valerievich Radulov (; born 5 July 1986) is a Russian professional ice hockey player for Ak Bars Kazan of the Kontinental Hockey League (KHL). He had previously had two separate stints with the Nashville Predators, the NHL team which had drafted him, from 2006 to 2008 and again in 2012, as well one season with the Montreal Canadiens, five seasons with the Dallas Stars between 2016 and 2022, and eight seasons in the Kontinental Hockey League (KHL), split evenly between Salavat Yulaev Ufa and CSKA Moscow from 2008 to 2016.
Radulov is a two-time World Champion (2008 and 2009) with Russia; a 2011 Gagarin Cup champion with Salavat Yulaev Ufa; and a 2006 Memorial Cup champion with the Quebec Major Junior Hockey League (QMJHL)'s Quebec Remparts. He won the Golden Stick Award (KHL MVP) on four occasions. Radulov ranks second in all-time KHL scoring with 427 points, behind Sergei Mozyakin. He is of mixed Russian and Gagauz ethnicity. Alexander is the brother of Igor Radulov.
Playing career
Junior career
Radulov began his North American career in 2004–05, selected at the 2004 Canadian Hockey League Import player draft by the Quebec Remparts of the Quebec Major Junior Hockey League (QMJHL). That year, he finished third in scoring for his team, with 75 points in 65 games, behind Josh Hennessy and Karl Gagné.
The following year, Radulov became one of the most exciting and dominant players to play in the QMJHL. In the first half of the season, he and rookie Angelo Esposito formed one of the most explosive duos in the league. He became equally renowned for skating in front of the opposing team's bench and twirling his stick around and banging the handle on the ice, as if to put a sword into a sheath, after scoring a goal, something that angered opposing players but captivated and inspired his head coach, Patrick Roy.
On 28 October 2005, Radulov set a new franchise record with six goals against the Drummondville Voltigeurs. He added an assist in the eventual 11–3 win. That night, Radulov tied the Remparts team's record with Eric Chouinard for most points in a single game, with seven. Later, on 19 March 2006, in a game against the 2005 Memorial Cup second-place finishing Rimouski Océanic, for whom his teammates Cédrick Desjardins and Michal Sersen played for in 2004–05, Radulov wrote history in the Québec Colisée by scoring an unprecedented 7 goals and 4 assists for 11 points, breaking both records for most goals and points in a single game for the Remparts, in a lopsided 16–3 victory.
Radulov owns the Remparts record for the most consecutive point streak games with 50, passing the 28-game mark established by Eric Chouinard in the 1999–2000 season. Radulov is ranked second all-time with that sequence in the QMJHL, only behind Mario Lemieux, with 62.
Radulov finished as the scoring leader for the QMJHL and the CHL in 2005–06 with 152 points (61 goals and 91 assists). He currently owns the record for the most points in a single season for the Remparts, surpassing the mark of 120 set by Simon Gagné in 1998–99. Radulov also owns the record for the most goals and assists in a season as a Rempart. He passed the mark of 57 goals set by Eric Chouinard and the mark of 75 assists set by Wes Scanzano, both in 1999–2000. He also tied with Pavel Rosa for the most points by a QMJHL European player in a single season. His 61 goals were second-highest in the QMJHL for the 2005–06 season; Maxime Boisclair of the Chicoutimi Saguenéens was first, with 70.
In the 2006 QMJHL playoffs, Radulov scored 55 points (21 goals and 34 assists) and was ranked again as the scoring leader. He registered at least a point in each game. Radulov finished only two points shy of the playoff points record set by Simon Gamache in 2000–01. In the Remparts' semi-final series against the Acadie-Bathurst Titan, he had 19 points in the seven-game series alone. He lost the MVP award, however, to victorious Moncton Wildcats forward Mārtiņš Karsums.
All team records set by Radulov are for the new edition of the Remparts, which began in the 1997–98 season.
Radulov delivered an incredible performance in the Remparts' 2006 Memorial Cup championship game victory over the Moncton Wildcats. In the 6–2 win, he netted two goals and assisted on three more, totaling five points, one point away from tying the all-time record in a Memorial Cup final. He registered nine points (five goals and four assists) in four games and won the Stafford Smythe Memorial Trophy as the tournament MVP.
On 28 November 2007, the Remparts retired Radulov's number 22 jersey.
Nashville Predators
During Radulov's 2005–06 season in the QMJHL, he signed a three-year, entry-level professional contract with the Nashville Predators on 9 January 2006. He would begin his professional career as a member of the Predators' minor league affiliate, the Milwaukee Admirals of the American Hockey League (AHL), the following season. He was selected Player of the Week on 16 October 2006, posting two goals and four assists in only two games.
On 21 October 2006, Radulov made his NHL debut with the Predators against the Vancouver Canucks, logging seven minutes and one minor penalty. He scored his first career NHL goal on his first career shot against the San Jose Sharks on 26 October. Following another reassignment to Milwaukee, Radulov remained on the Nashville roster for the rest of the 2006–07 season after he was recalled on 21 November 2006.
In Game 2 of the first round of the 2007 Stanley Cup playoffs, Radulov was suspended for one game for his hit on San Jose forward Steve Bernier. Bernier was sent into the boards head first and lay motionless on the ice for three minutes, before being helped off by teammates Joe Thornton and Marcel Goc. Bernier, however, did not suffer any serious injury.
Salavat Yulaev Ufa
Transfer dispute
On 11 July 2008, it was announced that although Radulov was still under contract with the Nashville Predators for one more season, he had signed a three-year contract with Salavat Yulaev Ufa of the Kontinental Hockey League (KHL), which would be extended to four years. Radulov had previously notified the Predators organization of his desire to play in Russia, stating that he was being offered better conditions.
Immediately after the announcement, the Predators, NHL and the International Ice Hockey Federation (IIHF) all released statements emphasizing that Radulov's contract obligated him to play for the Predators through the 2008–09 season and that signing with a team in Russia was a direct violation of an agreement made the previous day between the NHL and all international hockey leagues to respect players' existing contracts. After the IIHF ordered that Ufa void Radulov's contract, Ilya Kochevrin, vice-president of the KHL, argued that Radulov was signed on 5 July, before the agreement was made on 10 July. While the contract remained disputed, the IIHF suspended Radulov from international play on 18 July as investigations continued, although the suspension was soon lifted.
Nashville management gave Radulov until 1 September to confirm his intention to remain with the team. They suspended him on 2 September without pay for the 2008–09 season.
Two Continental Cups
In his first year, the 2008–09 season with Salavat Yulaev Ufa, a 22-year-old Radulov would finish third on the team with 48 points in 52 games. The team would win the Continental Cup as regular season champions. In the playoffs, they would bow out in the first round, with Radulov earning two assists in four games.
In his second year, the 2009–10 season, Radulov would lead his team with 63 points in 54 games. The team would win a second straight Continental Cup, but in the playoffs, they would lose in the Eastern Conference Final to eventual champions Ak Bars Kazan in six games. Radulov led the team with 19 points in 16 games.
Radulov won his first Golden Stick Award as KHL regular season MVP, and made the season All-Star team. His 63 points placed him fourth in the league, three points away from league leader Sergei Mozyakin, who had played two more games. Radulov's plus-minus rating of +44 was second best in the league, behind teammate Patrick Thoresen's +45. Radulov finished the season tied second in assists (39) and tied for ninth in goals (24).
Gagarin Cup champion
In his third year, the 2010–11 season, Radulov would lead his team and all of the KHL with 80 points in 54 games. Salavat Yulaev Ufa would finish second in the league, with division rival Avangard Omsk winning the Continental Cup. In the playoffs, the pairing of Radulov and Thoresen would lead the team to a Gagarin Cup, with each of them scoring 18 points apiece over 21 games; each scored 3 goals and added 15 assists.
Radulov won his second Golden Stick Award as KHL regular season MVP and made the All-Star team again. His record-setting 80 points were 14 more than linemate Thoresen's 66 points and 19 more than Roman Červenka's 61 points for Avangard Omsk. Radulov finished the season first in assists, tied for 15th in goals, and tied for first in plus-minus rating (+27).
Final year
At the conclusion of the previous championship winning season, the contract of head coach Vyacheslav Bykov was expiring. At the time, Bykov also served as the head coach of the Russian national team, having held the post for the previous five years. Unfortunately, a poor showing for Russia at the 2011 IIHF World Championship, where the team finished without a medal for the first time under his tenure, prompted Salavat not to renew his contract with the club.
As a result, a number of important players left the club in the off season—Patrick Thoresen, Kirill Koltsov and Dmitri Kalinin all signed with mega club SKA Saint Petersburg. This led to the rehiring of head coach Sergei Mikhalev, who had coached the team in the 2008–09 season to a Continental Cup, with a record of 43–8–0–5. However, he was unable to replicate past results and was fired as head coach after 21 games, posting a result of 9–8–0–4.
This led to a third coach within the calendar year being named to the post: Vener Safin. As the team was struggling, more players were traded away, including Robert Nilsson and Jakub Klepiš, among others. The team would round out the season with a record of 21–10–0–2 and ultimately finish eighth in the league. In the playoffs, they would lose to Ak Bars Kazan in the first round, in six games.
In his final year, the 2011–12 season, Radulov would once again lead his team and all of the KHL, with 63 points in 50 games despite an overturned roster. In the playoffs, he would add six assists in six games. At season's end, Radulov won his third Golden Stick Award as KHL regular season MVP and made the All-Star team for the third time. He finished the season first in assists and tied for second in goals.
Return to Nashville
Following the end of Salavat Yulaev Ufa's 2011–12 season, on 12 March 2012, it was reported that paperwork was being finalized for Radulov to return to Nashville for the balance of the regular season and for the 2012 playoffs. Five days later, Radulov's agent Yuri Nikolaev confirmed Radulov was indeed returning to the NHL for Nashville's 22 March 2012, game against the Pittsburgh Penguins. The day before his return, Radulov was presented his jersey at a press conference, where the Predators announced they had lifted his suspension from the team, finalizing his return. In his return to Nashville, Radulov scored the Predators' only goal in a 5–1 loss to the Penguins. He concluded the 2011–12 regular season with seven points (three goals and four assists) in nine games.
On 1 May 2012, Radulov and Predators teammate Andrei Kostitsyn were spotted at a Scottsdale, Arizona, bar at 5:00 AM the night before Game 2 of their second round playoff series against the Phoenix Coyotes, thus breaking team curfew. Both were subsequently suspended by Predators management for Game 3. Predators general manager David Poile said of the incident, "What they did was unacceptable and the coaches and myself had to come to the plate and do the right thing for the team. It happened. It's really unfortunate. It's selfish behaviour and we'll just have to leave it at that."
On 6 June 2012, the Predators announced that they would not be extending Radulov's contract, thus making him an unrestricted free agent.
CSKA Moscow
On 2 July 2012, Radulov signed a four-year contract with CSKA Moscow of the KHL worth an average annual value of $9.2 million. He would lead the KHL in points or finish runner up, in three of the four seasons of his contract: 2012–13 (second), 2014–15 (first) and 2015–16 (second).
The 2013–14 season would be filled with injuries, and Radulov would miss multiple stretches of games. He would go on to appear in only 34 games, while still putting up 34 points. He would also miss the playoffs, during which CSKA was eliminated in the first round.
In his third year, 2014–15, Radulov led his team to a Continental Cup. In the playoffs, CSKA reached the Conference Final of the Gagarin Cup, losing in Game 7 to the eventual champions SKA Saint Petersburg.
In his fourth and final season, 2015–16, Radulov led CSKA to a second-straight Continental Cup. In the playoffs, they once again met SKA Saint Petersburg in the Conference Final, eliminating them in four-straight games. However, CSKA would then fall short of their ultimate goal and lose Game 7 of the Gagarin Cup Final to champions Metallurg Magnitogorsk.
Montreal Canadiens
On 1 July 2016, Radulov returned to the NHL as a free agent, signing a one-year, $5.75 million contract with the Montreal Canadiens. Radulov assumed a scoring role on the top line of the Canadiens and went on to score 18 goals and 36 assists for 54 points in 76 games played.
Dallas Stars
On July 3, 2017, having been unable to agree to another contract with the Canadiens, Radulov signed with the Dallas Stars to a five-year, $31.25 million contract. With the Stars, Radulov reached the 2020 Stanley Cup Finals losing to the Tampa Bay Lightning (2–4). However, the following seasons were plagued with an injury and a decrease of his point production, posting only 22 points in 71 games in the last year of his contract.
Ak Bars Kazan
On May 31, 2022, his agent announced his return to KHL, signing a two-year contract with Ak Bars Kazan. It was later announced officially by Ak Bars on 14 July 2022.
International play
Radulov has played for Russia since the junior youth level, earning silver medals in the 2005 and 2006 World Junior Championships. He made his full senior men's debut in the 2007 World Championships, claiming a bronze medal before capturing two golds at the 2008 and 2009 World Championships.
At the 2014 Winter Olympics in Sochi, Radulov led Russia in goals (three) and points (six) in five games, though the team lost in the quarter-finals to Finland, ultimately finishing in fifth place.
Personal life
In May 2015, Radulov married rhythmic gymnast Darya Dmitriyeva. Their first child was born in November 2015. The pair divorced on June 7, 2017.
Career statistics
Regular season and playoffs
International
Awards and achievements
KHL
Trophies
Gagarin Cup champion: 2011
Continental Cup winner: 2009, 2010, 2015, 2016
Golden Stick Award: 2010, 2011, 2012, 2015
AHL
Player of the week
Week 2: 10 October 2006 to 15 October 2006
CHL
Player of the week
Week 1: 1 November 2005
Week 21: 21 March 2006
Trophies
Memorial Cup: 2006
Stafford Smythe Memorial Trophy: 2006
CHL Top Scorer Award: 2006
CHL Player of the Year: 2006
QMJHL
Player of the week
Week 6: 24 to 30 October 2005
Week 18: 23 to 29 January 2006
Week 23: 27 February to 5 March 2006
Week 25: 14 to 19 March 2006
Player of the month
February 2006
March 2006
Trophies
Jean Béliveau Trophy: 2006
Telus Trophy: 2006
Michel Brière Memorial Trophy: 2006
QMJHL First All-Star Team: 2006
Coupe Postes Canada for QMJHL: 2006
References
External links
RussianProspects.com Alexander Radulov Profile
1986 births
Living people
Ak Bars Kazan players
Dallas Stars players
HC CSKA Moscow players
HC Dynamo Moscow players
Ice hockey players at the 2010 Winter Olympics
Ice hockey players at the 2014 Winter Olympics
Milwaukee Admirals players
Montreal Canadiens players
Nashville Predators draft picks
Nashville Predators players
National Hockey League first-round draft picks
Olympic ice hockey players for Russia
Quebec Remparts players
Russian expatriate ice hockey people
Russian ice hockey right wingers
Salavat Yulaev Ufa players
Sportspeople from Nizhny Tagil |
4107359 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas%20A.%20Spragens | Thomas A. Spragens | Thomas Arthur Spragens ( ; April 25, 1917 – February 11, 2006) was an American administrator who was the 17th president of Centre College in Danville, Kentucky. A graduate of the University of Kentucky, Spragens worked for the state and federal government early in his career, before joining the staff at Stanford University as a presidential advisor. He was the president of Stephens College in Columbia, Missouri, for a five-year term, and left Stephens to go to Centre in 1957.
The first Centre president who was not a member of the clergy, Spragens worked to lessen the ties between the college and the Presbyterian Church, which led to a significant rise in students reporting that they were non-denominational; it also led to attendance at chapel becoming optional for students. Spragens was an effective fundraiser for the school; his Fund for the Future Campaign ultimately raised $34 million. He was instrumental in the integration of the school, and admitted Centre's first black student in 1962. The same year, he led an effort to consolidate the school's women's department, formerly the Kentucky College for Women, onto Centre's campus. Many parts of campus were upgraded during his presidency; after twenty years, three quarters of Centre's facilities had been either built or renovated. During his term, which ended in 1981, Centre's student enrollment and faculty numbers both nearly doubled, its endowment increased, and the property value of its campus rose.
He was selected by two governors to be a part of commissions which studied higher education in Kentucky, and was a part of the American Association of Colleges and Universities, the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools, and the American Council on Education at different times. He was active in Democratic Party politics, and was a delegate to the 1968 Democratic National Convention in support of Senator Eugene McCarthy. Additionally, he was a part of an effort which culminated in the 1962 founding of what is now the Southern Collegiate Athletic Conference, of which Centre remained a charter member until 2011.
Early life and education
Spragens was born on April 25, 1917, in Lebanon, Kentucky. He was the third of seven children in his family. His father, William Henry Spragens, was a lawyer and circuit court judge from Casey County, Kentucky, and his mother, Lillian Brewer Spragens, was from Lancaster, Kentucky. He attended Lebanon High School, graduating in 1934, and was recruited by then-president Charles J. Turck to attend Centre College in Danville, Kentucky, alongside three classmates with whom he formed a locally popular singing quartet. Turck's hope was that the four of them would attend Centre and replace the "Centre College Quartet", the members of which were soon graduating. Spragens's three classmates decided to attend Centre but he ultimately opted for the University of Kentucky (UK) in Lexington instead, though he did join the glee club at UK. He enrolled in, and attended, the University's College of Commerce (now the Gatton College of Business and Economics) for a year and a half, but afterwards transferred to the College of Arts and Sciences and majored in economics. He graduated from UK in 1938. After a summer employed by the Kentucky state government, he won a public administration fellowship and began graduate work at the Maxwell School of Citizenship and Public Affairs at Syracuse University. He completed only one year of his graduate program; after spending the summer following the first year working for the Bureau of the Budget (now the Office of Management and Budget), he decided to forgo the second year in favor of a permanent position with the Bureau.
Career
Early career, 1940–1957
Spragens worked for the federal government from 1940 to 1945 in multiple positions, including in his new permanent job as a senior analyst at the Bureau of the Budget, and in a job with the Foreign Economic Administration, which operated during World War II. In mid-1946, Spragens left his government positions to work at Stanford University as an assistant to the college president and as Stanford's representative in Washington, D.C. In this position, he assisted two presidents: Donald Tresidder, who originally hired him, and Wallace Sterling, who took over after Tresidder's death. He helped the college to manage its increasing enrollment numbers, which spiked from 4,500 in June 1946 to 7,200 in November of the same year. Spragens intended to remain in this position for only one to two years, and afterwards return to government work, but ended up working there for five years.
In 1951, Spragens left Stanford to accept a position as the secretary and treasurer of the Fund for the Advancement of Education, which was a newly-formed subsidiary of the Ford Foundation. He worked in this position for just over a year before he was offered the presidency of Stephens College, a women's college in Columbia, Missouri. An announcement of his hiring was made to students and faculty at Stephens on November 1, 1952, and he began in this role exactly one month later, on December 1. At Stephens, he implemented a plan which saw the use of closed-circuit television as an academic aid, for which the school received "wide notice in educational circles". Television was used mainly as a supplement to seminar-style classes with small numbers of students, and it allowed lecturers to speak to multiple sections of a class simultaneously. During this time, he was selected to be a part of a commission that produced a report, "The Church and Higher Education", to the Presbyterian Synod of North Carolina, which was completed in July 1955. He was a member of the North Central Association of Colleges and Secondary Schools's commission on colleges universities and the board of directors of Kemper Military School in Boonville, Missouri; he was elected to the latter position on May 28, 1956. In his final week at Stephens, the college announced a 40-year campus relocation project at a total cost of $12 million (equivalent to $ million in ) with the eventual goal of abandoning its current facilities and constructing new instructional, residential, and athletic buildings at a site near U.S. Route 63.
In 1957, he was contacted by Don Campbell, a friend of his and chairman of the trustee presidential search committee at Centre, regarding the school's vacant presidency. He was offered the job, and despite having turned down a similar offer from what he later called a "stronger" college, he accepted the position at Centre. He was replaced by dean of instruction James G. Rice as acting president upon his departure on November 11, 1957.
President of Centre College, 1957–1981
Spragens was announced as Centre's next president by their board of trustees on August 22, 1957. On November 11, he began his term as the 17th president of Centre College. In doing so, he became the fourth president in the college's history who was not an ordained minister, the first who was not a member of the clergy at all, and the youngest in the college's history. He spent his first full day on campus the following day, when he presided over his first faculty meeting, and addressed the student body for the first time at a convocation on November 19. He was formally inaugurated in a ceremony on the morning of April 21, 1959, which included an inaugural address given by Stanford president Wallace Sterling.
In 1959, he introduced a ten-year plan with the goals of increasing the college's enrollment (with the specific goal of 750 students), adding to the faculty, and increasing the number of majors offered by the college. The following year, the college announced a $6.5 million (equivalent to $ million in ) fundraising campaign in celebration of Centre's 150-year anniversary, a marked increase from the $20,000 () to $25,000 () typically raised every year. On June 9, 1958, he received an honorary Doctor of Letters degree from Westminster College, which was conferred upon him at their commencement ceremony. After beginning his term, he immediately declared that the school would move towards full integration and not discriminate by race when determining admissions, and the college admitted its first black student when Timothy Kusi, a Ghanaian student who transferred from Kentucky State College (now Kentucky State University), enrolled in 1962. This change was received well by much of the campus community. The campus of the former Kentucky College for Women, at the time operating as Centre's women's department, closed that same year, at which point it was consolidated onto Centre's campus, with Spragens presiding over the merger. He hired Shirley Anne Walker, a French language professor who became Centre's first black faculty member at the start of the 1971–1972 academic year.
As football grew more popular at Centre during the late 1950s and early 1960s, Spragens sought to keep the college's priorities on academics rather than athletics. After he was announced as president in August 1957, he said that he would continue the existing policy of lessened emphasis on athletics, saying that they were a "corollary aspect" of the school. His scholarship policy stipulated that financial awards would not be given solely for athletics, but rather to all students based on merit and need. He advocated for the creation of a new athletic association which would eliminate gate receipts; Centre was joined in this association by Washington and Lee University, Southwestern University at Memphis (now Rhodes College), and the University of the South, with Washington University in St. Louis added later the same year as the league's fifth charter member. This association ultimately became the College Athletic Conference (now the Southern Collegiate Athletic Conference) and was formally founded on September 1, 1962. Centre remained a member of the conference until 2011, when they left, along with six other SCAC schools and one independent school, to form the Southern Athletic Association. During the 1960s, Spragens decided to end the agreement under which Centre leased its football field to Danville High School, and underwent a facilities exchange with the local school district by which the Centre women's campus was given to the district and the old Danville High School site was given to the college.
Spragens was supportive of peaceful protests held by students on campus and around the city; his "'good citizenship' policy" took effect in the 1960s, and student protests increased in frequency as the decade continued, particularly with respect to racial segregation and the Vietnam War. In December 1966, he introduced a plan under which classes at Centre would be held during four days of the week, rather than five, as part of a trimester system that was in effect for some time beginning with the fall semester of the 1966–1967 academic year. This trimester system, referred to as "The New Curriculum", consisted of two terms of regular length, during which students would take four courses, with a six-week two-course winter term in between. He was selected as a delegate to the 1968 Democratic National Convention, held in Chicago, after serving as the chair of the Boyle County Democratic Convention and attending the state convention. He did both in support of Senator Eugene McCarthy of Minnesota, though McCarthy eventually lost the nomination to Vice President Hubert Humphrey, also of Minnesota. Following the Kent State shootings on May 4, 1970, he declared all classes suspended on May 8, and addressed much of the student body and faculty on the campus lawn.
Many of the changes that took place on Centre's campus during Spragens's presidency were long-lasting. Numerous buildings were constructed or upgraded during his time in office, including the Grace Doherty Library (which took the place of Old Main, which was demolished), the new Young Hall, Sutcliffe Hall, the Regional Arts Center (now the Norton Center for the Arts), Alumni Memorial Gymnasium, fraternity residences, and multiple dormitory buildings. After twenty years of Spragens's presidency, three quarters of the buildings on campus had been constructed or renovated. These upgrades increased the property value of the campus to $21.2 million (equivalent to $ million in ) by the time he left office. An effective fundraiser, he led the Fund for the Future campaign, which ultimately raised about $34 million (equivalent to $ million in ) for the college. A chapter of the Phi Beta Kappa honor society (of which Spragens was a member) opened at Centre during Spragens' tenure. In 1961, Centre purchased land from the city of Danville at a cost of $175,000 (); a federal law that was new at the time allowed the city to start a community development project with funding totaling $2.5 million (equivalent to $ million in ) as a direct result. Under Spragens, the college contributed to the city's economy, with one estimate stating that five to ten percent of the city's business revenue was generated by the college during fiscal year 1980–1981.
His presidency ended upon his resignation, which became effective November 16, 1981. Provost Edgar C. Reckard finished the academic year as interim president; Spragens was formally succeeded by Richard L. Morrill on June 1, 1982. He worked as a fundraiser for, and advisor to, the college for six months following his resignation.
During his time at Centre, Spragens was a member of a number of other institutions related to higher education, including the Kentucky Independent College Foundation, Independent College Funds of America, the Association of American Colleges and Universities, and the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools. He was the director of the American Council on Education for three years, and as the director of the Southern University Union for a time. During his presidency, he was selected as part of two commissions, appointed by Governors Bert Combs and Ned Breathitt, to study higher education in Kentucky. On two occasions, he was asked to interview with the search committee for the presidency of the University of Kentucky, but never received a formal offer, and he was contacted by Kentucky State University with a possibility of being their interim president after he retired from Centre. He ended up as a consultant for one year to the newly-hired president of Kentucky State, Raymond Burse, a Centre alumnus himself. He received honorary degrees from a number of colleges and universities: Westminster College, the University of Kentucky, the University of Alabama, Berea College, and Kentucky State University, in addition to Centre.
Personal life and death
Spragens met Catharine Smallwood, a native of Oxford, Mississippi, and an alumna of the University of Mississippi, in the early 1940s and the pair married on May 24, 1941. The couple had two sons, Thomas Jr. and David, and one daughter, Barbara. David, who was their youngest child, graduated from Centre in 1973, during his father's presidency.
In an interview shortly following his resignation, Spragens stated that his personal hobbies included playing tennis and golf, as well as water skiing. He was Presbyterian, and had been an elder in the Presbyterian Church since the age of 29. He was a member of the Phi Beta Kappa and Omicron Delta Kappa honor societies. In 1990, Thomas and Catharine received the Honorary Alumni Award from Centre.
Spragens died on February 11, 2006, in Columbia, South Carolina, at the age of 88. His memorial service was scheduled for March 4, 2006, at the First Presbyterian Church in Danville. He is buried in Danville's Bellevue Cemetery.
Legacy
During his 24-year tenure as president, the college's enrollment nearly doubled, from 380 students to nearly 700, and the size of its faculty followed the same trend, increasing from 38 members to 68. Centre's endowment also grew, from $2.8 million (equivalent to $ million in ) to $18 million (equivalent to $ million in ). Three of Kentucky's four Rhodes Scholars at the time of his resignation had graduated from Centre over the previous fifteen years. After his retirement from the presidency he joined the Kentucky Council on Higher Education, the boards of numerous organizations including Shaker Village, Leadership Kentucky, Presbyterian Homes and Services, and Pikeville College (now the University of Pikeville), and was a city commissioner in Danville.
His tenure saw the college become more distanced from the church than in the past, as the portion of the college's budget obtained from the church decreased and chapel attendance became voluntary for students beginning in 1965. Two years later, he was elected moderator of the Northern Synod of Kentucky and recommended that Centre remove many of its remaining ties to the Presbyterian Church. In 1968, Centre withdrew from the Kentucky Synod for financial reasons and the following year it removed its policies which required the president and most board members to be Presbyterian. The effects of this were seen on the student body in the following years, with the percentage of students reporting themselves as Presbyterian falling from 32% in 1967 to 17% in 1971, and the percentage of students reporting themselves as non-denominational rising from 0.5% to 27% in the same time period. His presidency is remembered for his successful fundraising efforts and for the numerous buildings that were constructed. The Thomas A. Spragens Rare Book Room and Archives, located in the Grace Doherty Library at Centre, is named in his honor.
Notes
References
Citations
Bibliography
External links
1917 births
2006 deaths
Burials in Bellevue Cemetery (Danville, Kentucky)
Franklin D. Roosevelt administration personnel
Kentucky Democrats
People from Lebanon, Kentucky
Presidents of Centre College
Stephens College people
Stanford University staff
University of Kentucky alumni |
4107544 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mandarin%20Chinese%20profanity | Mandarin Chinese profanity | Profanity in Mandarin Chinese most commonly involves sexual references and scorn of the object's ancestors, especially their mother. Other Mandarin insults accuse people of not being human. Compared to English, scatological and blasphemous references are less often used. In this article, unless otherwise noted, the traditional character will follow its simplified form if it is different.
Sex
Penis
As in English, many Mandarin Chinese slang terms involve the genitalia or other sexual terms. Slang words for the penis refer to it literally, and are not necessarily negative words:
(, IM abbreviation: J8/G8) = cock (used as early as the Yuan Dynasty), also written 𣬠𣬶
(, IM: JJ/GG) = roughly equivalent of "thingy" as it is the childish version of the above.
(), baby talk, "tool".
() = roughly equivalent of "wee-wee" (lit. "little younger brother") IM: DD
() = roughly equivalent of "the package" (lit. "thing under crotch")
()= penis (scientific)
( or substituted by ) = dick (the same character also means to have sexual intercourse in Cantonese, alternatively written as )
() same as "", used in some southern areas such as Fujian and Guangdong. Also written as "" in Cantonese. It was misinterpreted as () by Mandarin speakers, though sometimes "" is used instead for euphemism.
() = penis (lit. "second in the family", "little brother")
() = penis, usually seen in novels/fictions. (lit. "That thing", "that matter")
() = used by people (mostly children) in Taiwan, Malaysia, and Singapore to mean penis (lit. "little bird"), often simplified to ()
() = turtle's head (glans/penis)
() = foreskin (literally: wrapper)
() = originally meant male pubic hair, but means an unprivileged nobody. Formerly Internet slang, now a popular word often used in self-mockery (lit. "dick silk/wire")
Note: One should note that in Middle Chinese the words for and were homophones. The fǎnqiè of "" () and the of "" () denoted the same pronunciation; both began with a voiceless unaspirated alveolar stop (/t/ in IPA and d in pinyin) and the same vowel and tone. Based on regular sound change rules, we would expect the word for bird in Mandarin to be pronounced , but Mandarin dialects' pronunciations of the word for bird evolved to an alveolar nasal initial, likely as a means of taboo avoidance, giving contemporary while most dialects in the south retain the Middle Chinese alveolar stop initial and the homophony or near homophony of these words.
Vagina
There appear to be more words for vagina than for penis. The former are more commonly used as insults and are also more aggressive and have negative connotations:
(, IM: B) = cunt (often used as an interjection instead of a noun)
() = cunt (Taiwanese Mandarin, near-homophone of Hokkien profanity chi-bai)
() = pussy (lit. "little younger sister", see. xiaodidi above)
() = pussy (lit. "abalone" due to its flesh having a superficial resemblance to a vulva)
(, IM: 2B) = idiot (Northern slang, lit. "two + cunt"; here, 二 does not mean the number two, but is rather an idiomatic adjective meaning "stupid"; some argue that this expression evolved from 二百五 (èr bǎi wǔ; see "miscellaneous" section below). 屄 is used as an interjection. This expression cannot be literally interpreted as "double-vagina")
() = stupid person (lit. "stupid cunt") IM: SB
() = bitch (lit. "lewd cunt")
() = stinking cunt
() = rotten cunt
() = vagina (scientific)
() = vulva (scientific)
() = vagina (lit. "garden of peach blossoms")
() = poser (lit. "pretending to be the cunt")
() = menstruation (Literally "The Eldest Aunt", almost never used derogatively; a popular mainland contemporary term which refers to menstruation. Comparable to 'A visit from Aunt Flo')
Brothel frequenter
() literally, lewd worms. Men who enjoy frequent sex with women.
() literally, old frequenter of prostitutes. There is actually a verb for frequenting prostitutes in Chinese.
Prostitution
In addition to the above expressions used as insults directed against women, other insults involve insinuating that they are prostitutes:
() = (female) prostitute
() = stinking whore
(; literally "selling tofu") is a euphemism for prostitution.
() = means "Miss" or "Small elder sister" in most contexts but, now in Northern China, also connotes "prostitute" to many young women, as it suggests expressions like () or (), which refers to bargirls who may also be prostitutes. This connotation does not apply outside of the People's Republic of China.
(; lit. "chick") = (female) prostitute
(; lit. "duck") = (male) prostitute
Mistress
() = mistress (lit. "little wife" or "little old women"). Note: when combined with other words, the character () does not always refer to age; for example, it is used in the terms (), (), (), (), (), including for important persons such as () or (). " () thus often carries with it a degree of familiarity.
(), lit., "little wife" (but definitely not to be mistaken for "the little woman", which can be a way of referring to a wife in English).
(), lit., "the second mistress" (means a concubine, a kept woman).
(), lit., "little three" (means a mistress, since she is supposed to be the third person in a relationship).
Breasts
(; literally cat's purring "meow meow") is a euphemism for breast.
(; literally "big tofu") slang for large breasts, more prevalent in Guangdong
(; literally "steamed bun") also refers to a woman's breasts; as mantou is typical of northern Chinese cuisine this term is used primarily in northern China.
(, literally "wave" or "undulating", but sometimes suggested to be derived from "ball" which has a similar pronunciation) = boobs. The typical instance is (), which refers to a woman with very large breasts.
(); lit. "happy long life"
() = boobies.
() = motorboating (lit. "facial cleanser", where "" serves as both slang for breasts and a thick liquid, and pressing one's head between a woman's breasts vaguely resembles washing one's face)
() (Beijing slang)
() = big tits, likely reborrowing from Japanese.
(; literally "airport") = flat breasts
() – literally "aircraft carrier", referring to a flat chest. Compare with (), meaning battleship, which refers to larger-sized "chimneys" of the chest.
() means Princess of Peace; this was the actual title of a real princess. However means great or extreme and means flat or level. Hence, this phrase is a double entendre, i.e., "Extremely Flat-Chested Princess."
Anus
(); literally "chrysanthemums") – anus. This term comes from the observation that the shape of an anal opening resembles a chrysanthemum flower, where the skin folds are comparable to the flower's small, thin petals. Although nowadays this usage is a commonplace amongst Chinese netizens, the euphemism as such has existed in Chinese literature from much earlier.
() – anal orifice, asshole
() – anus (medical term), literally "door of anus".
() – anus. literally "back yard".
Masturbation
Male masturbation, at least, has several vulgar expressions, in addition to two formal/scientific ones that refer to both male and female masturbation ( and ):
() = male masturbation (lit. "firing a handgun")
() = male masturbation (lit. "hitting an airplane"). A term which originated from the Cantonese language.
() = male masturbation (lit. "stroke the pipe")
() = male masturbation, also "stroking the pipe"
() = male masturbation (lit., "play with little brother")
() = male masturbation (lit. "five beating one")
() = male masturbation (lit. "to visit five girls", a reference to the fact that a human hand has five fingers)
() = masturbation (lit. private pleasure / enjoy yourself)
() = fingering
() = dildo (lit. fake penis)
() = vibrator (lit. massage stick)
Foreplay
() = oral intercourse (scientific); informally euphemized in text as "" ( due to its visual resemblance)
() = blowjob (lit. "blow service")
() = blowjob ("play flute")
() = Taiwanese slang for blowjob
() = deep throating
() = mouth fucking (a form of blowjob)
() = face fucking
() = teabagging
() = cunnilingus (scientific)
() = muff diving (lit. "licking vagina")
() = muff diving (lit. "evaluating jade")
() = eat pussy (borrowed from English)
() = facesitting
() = anilingus (scientific)
() = anilingus (lit. "drilling for poisonous dragons")
Sexual intercourse
() = to fuck (the first shown Chinese character is made up of components meaning "to enter" and "the flesh"; the second is the etymological graph, with the standard meaning being "to do exercise")
() = to do = to fuck, originally from Hokkien .
() = to do = to fuck (used in a similar fashion as 幹). This verb (as in "to do") originated from Cantonese, but is now widely used in Mandarin (especially PRC) both in its original meaning and to denote sexual intercourse.
() (lit. "to enter)" = to fuck. The meaning is obvious and in normal contexts is pronounced . But when it is used as a coarse expression, the "u" is elided. See , vol. 3, p. 3257. It is also commonly seen on internet websites and forums as , due to similar pronunciation and ease of input.
() = anal sex. (lit. burst the chrysanthemum (anus)), i.e., insert the penis into the anus
() = to ejaculate (lit. to fire the cannon)
() = Sexual orgasm (lit. high tide, also used to describe a climax point in other domains)
(）= to have sex (lit. to insert, to penetrate)
() = to have sex (lit. "making stir-fried rice")
() = to have sex (onomatopoeia for grunting noises made when exerting effort, heave-ho)
() = to have sex (lit. "a round of a fight", but usually made into number of rounds if having sex multiple times, such as "" or "round 3 of fighting" to mean "3rd time having sex")
() = rape
() = sodomy
() = to ejaculate (scientific)
() = female ejaculation; squirt (lit. "orgasm blow")
() = intermammary sex; tit-fuck (lit. "breast intercourse")
() = ejaculating on a woman's chest after intramammary sex; pearl necklace
() = moaning in bed
Insults
As in English, a vulgar word for the sexual act is used in insults and expletives:
cào () = fuck (the variant character was in use as early as the Ming dynasty in the novel Jin Ping Mei). 操 is often used as a substitute for 肏 in print or on the computer, because 肏 was until recently often not available for typesetting or input.
cào nǐ zǔzōng shíbā dài () = "Fuck your ancestors to the eighteenth generation"; the cào 肏, in modern Standard Chinese, is often substituted with 肏; the cào 肏 (fuck) has been substituted for 抄, which meant "confiscate all the property of someone and of his entire extended family." In China, ancestor worship is an important aspect of society, as a result of Confucianism, where filial piety and respect for one's ancestors is considered crucial; insulting one's ancestors is a sensitive issue and is generally confronting.
Mother
Insulting someone's mother is also common:
tā māde (, IM: TMD) Literally "[fuck] his mother's" but frequently used as "Shit!" (lit. "his mother's"; in the 1920s the famous writer Lu Xun joked that this should be China's national curse word)
tā mā bāzi ( his mother's clitoris. Lu Xun differentiates this expression from the previous one. This one can be said in admiration, whereas "tā māde" is just abusive. See his essay, "On 'His mother's'" (論他媽的).
tā māde niǎo () = goddamn it (lit. "his mother's dick"; literally is "bird", but used here as a euphemism for diǎo; ; "penis")
qù nǐ nǎinaide () = your mother (lit. "go to your grandma")
qù nǐ māde () = your mother (lit. "go to your mom")
qù nǐde () = fuck you, screw off, shut up (used jokingly and is considered mild and not insulting)
nǐ māde bī () = your mother's cunt
cào nǐ mā (, IM: CNM) / cào nǐ niáng () = fuck your mother
cào nǐ māde bī () = fuck your mother's cunt
gàn nǐ mā () / gàn nǐ lǎo mǔ () = fuck your mother (gàn is similar to the English euphemism do)
gàn nǐ niáng () = fuck your mother (Taiwanese Mandarin influenced by the regional vernacular Taiwanese Minnan 姦汝娘 (kàn-lín-nió); also "幹您娘")
Other relatives
nǐ èr dàyé de () = damn on your second uncle. This is a part of local Beijing slang.
lǎolao () = grandmother-from-mother-side. In Beijing dialect, this word is used for "Never!".
tā nǎinai de () = His grandmother-from-father-side!
Turtles and eggs
The 中文大辭典 Zhōng wén dà cí diǎn (Encyclopedic Dictionary of the Chinese Language)), discusses 王八 (wáng bā) in vol. 6 p. 281. "Wáng bā" is the term that is usually written casually for the slur that means something like "son of a bitch."
A "wángbādàn 忘/王八蛋" is the offspring of a woman lacking virtue. Another meaning of 王八 is 鼈 biē, fresh-water turtle. Turtle heads reemerging from hiding in the turtle's shell look like the glans emerging from the foreskin, and turtles lay eggs. So a "wang ba" is a woman who has lost her virtue, and a "wang ba dan" is the progeny of such a woman, a turtle product, but, figuratively, also a penis product. 龜頭 (guītóu, "turtle head") can refer to the glans of the penis.
"Wáng bā 王八" originally got switched over from another "忘八 wàng bā" (one that referred to any very unvirtuous individual) because of a man with the family name Wáng 王 who picked up the nickname 賊王八 zéi Wáng bā ("the thieving Wang Eight") but for being a dastard, not for being a bastard. The dictionary does not say, but he may have been the eighth Wang among his siblings. Anyway, he became "crook Wang eight" and the term stuck and spread just as "Maverick" did in English. There is a pun here because of the earlier expression 忘八 wàng bā used to describe (1) any person who forgets/disregards the eight virtues, (2) an un-virtuous woman, i.e., one who sleeps around. The first meaning applied to the dastardly Wang, but the family name got "stuck" to the second, sexual, term.
Illegitimacy
Many insults imply that the interlocutor's mother or even grandmother was promiscuous. The turtle is emblematic of the penis and also of promiscuous intercourse, because turtles were once thought to conceive by thought alone, making paternity impossible to prove. Eggs are the progeny of turtles and other lower animals, so the word dàn (蛋) is a metonym for offspring.
wángbā () / wàngbā () = softshell turtle; this was an insult as early as the Song Dynasty.
wángbādàn (, informal simplified: ) = bastard (lit. "softshell turtle egg")
wàngbāgāozi () = bastard (lit. "soft shell turtle's lamb"; 羔 generally means newborn lamb but can also refer to the young of certain animals - especially mammals - in general. Generally used in Northern slang.)
guī sūnzi () / guī érzi () = bastard (lit. "turtle grandson" and "turtle son")
dài lǜmàozi () = to be a cuckold (lit. "wear a green hat," supposedly because male brothel workers in the Tang Dynasty had to wear green hats)
zázhǒng () = mixed seed, half-caste, half breed, hybrid, illegitimate child. There are proper terms for children of mixed ethnicity, but this is not one of them.
hún dàn () = individual who has at least two biological fathers and one biological mother, the idea being that the mother mated with two or more males in quick succession and a mosaic embryo was formed.
hún zhang wángbā dàn () = similar to turtle egg, see above.
Suck up
chóngyáng mèiwài () Chinese who blindly worship foreigners; xenophiles.
fànjiàn () asking to be disrespected.
zhāo biǎn () asking to be kicked.
dīsānxiàsì () servile lickspittle (lit. "low three down four").
gǒutuǐzi () an accomplice to a villain (lit. a dog's leg).
pāi mǎ pì () to suck up, to be a toady (lit. patting a horse's butt).
Disability
References to various kinds of disability are sometimes used against both abled and disabled people as an insult.
shén jīng bìng () Lunatic/madman. Literally "neuropathy", or having problems with one's nervous system. The word 神經病 uesd in this context properly refers to 精神病 (jīng shén bìng, literally [person with] psychiatric disorder or schizophrenia); 神經病 is an anastrophe of the latter. There are many hypotheses for the reason why people rarely use 精神病 offensively; the most widely accepted interpretation of this idiomatic expression is that in China, imbalance of the nervous system has been historically associated with mental illness. In the 20th century, 神经衰弱 Shenjing shuairuo, literally "neurasthenia", is a more socially accepted medical diagnosis for someone who, in the West, would have normally been diagnosed with schizophrenia, due to the social stigma against mental illness in China). Simultaneously, tonal differences make 神經病 sound harsher than 精神病. Now the word is used quite generally when insulting someone whose actions seem insane, odd, rude, offensive, or inappropriate.
fāfēng () going insane.
biàntài () Perverted, deviant, abnormal.
nǎocán () lit. brain crippled. Intelligence or mental capacity.
bái chī () idiot, someone with mental retardation.
bái mù () stupid. Literally, white-eyed, blind. Here it means not understanding the situation and reacting in a wrong way as a result.
bèn dàn () Idiot (lit. stupid egg).
chǔn dàn () Stupid (lit. stupid egg).
chǔn zhū () Stupid (lit. dumb pig).
chǔn lǘ () Dumbass
dà nǎo jìn shuǐ () water leaked in the brain, a possible reference to hydrocephalus.
shǎ zi () Blockhead
zìbì () autistic. Neutral term for people who are actually autistic, but also used as an mildly offensive term for socially awkward people.
xǐhān () The term is coined by a Taiwanese NGO as a positive term for mentally disabled people, but has become a negative term when used on a neurotypical person.
zhìzhàng() short for , intellectually disabled.
cánfèi () crippled.
bǒzi () crippled.
quézi () crippled.
xiāzi () blind. The word is used either as an obsolete and politically incorrect term for visually impaired people, or as an insult when an abled person fails to see something.
lóngzi () deaf. Similar to the above but for hearing instead of vision.
Buttocks
While there are vulgar expressions in English referring to the buttocks or rectum, there are no real equivalents in Mandarin. Pìgu yǎn () or pìyǎnr (屁眼兒) one expression for anus, is not vulgar, but it occurs in various curses involving an imperforate anus
sǐ pì yǎn () damned asshole.
jiào nǐ shēng háizi méi pìgu yǎn () – literally, "May your child be born with an imperforate anus"; sometimes méi pìgu yǎn () is used as an epithet similar to "damned". This phrase is commonly heard in some TVB dramas in the Cantonese translation.
jiào nǐ shēng háizi zhǎng zhì chuāng (叫你生孩子长痔疮) – "May your child be born with hemorrhoids"
wǒ kào ( or – "Well fuck me!", "Fuck!", "Fuckin' awesome!" or "Holy shit!" (Originally from Taiwan, this expression has spread to the mainland, where it is generally not considered to be vulgar. 尻 originally meant "butt.")
Age
lǎo bù sǐde 老不死的 (literally "old [but] won't die") An angry comment directed against old people who refuse to die and so clog up the ladder to promotion in some organization. It is implied that they have outlived their usefulness, which conveys a deeper meaning of that person inconveniencing or hogging a resource or benefit that is beneficial to the insulter (such as a job promotion) by being alive; thus the insulter wishes for their death. The expression comes from the Analects of Confucius where the Master complains against those who engage in heterodox practices aimed at assuring them extreme longevity. In the original these individuals are described as "lǎo ér bù sǐ" (老而不死), i.e., it is said that they "are old but won't die."
lǎo zéi 老賊 = lǎo bù sǐde (literally "old thief")
lǎo tóuzi (), literally "old head," it refers in a somewhat slighting way to old men. Its usage is rather like such expressions as "old geezer" in English.
lǎo tài pó = 老太婆 (literally "old hag")
xiǎo guǐ = 小鬼," little devil/ghost", is used familiarly and (usually) affectionately (c.f. "rascal" in English).
xiǎo tù zǎizi 小兔崽子," little rabbit kitten," refers to someone young. Its usage is rather like such expressions as "little brat" in English.
rǔ xiù wèi gān () Literally "(the) smell (of) milk is not dry (=gone) yet," wet behind the ears.
lǎo wán gù 老顽固, an old, stubborn, arrogant man.
Promiscuity
As in the West, highly sexual women have been stigmatized. Terms for males who sleep around are rare.
chāng fù () = bitch/whore
húli jīng () = bitch (overly seductive woman or a golddigger; lit. "fox spirit")
sānbā () = airhead, braggart, slut (lit. "three eight"). Used to insult women. One derivation claims that at one point in the Qing Dynasty, foreigners were only permitted to circulate on the eighth, eighteenth, and twenty-eighth of each month, and the Chinese deprecated these aliens by calling them , but others claim refers to March 8: International Women's Day. In Taiwan, the term has less of a misogynistic connotation, and means "silly" or "airhead."
gōng gòng qì chē () = slut (lit. "public bus") used for a woman who sleeps around, as in "everyone has had a ride"
biǎozi () = whore, slut
jiàn nǚ rén () = bitch, cheap woman
huā huā gōngzǐ () = playboy, notorious cheater (lit. "Flower-Flower Prince")
sè láng () = womanizer, sex maniac (lit. "Coloured Wolf", in this context the adjective "colour" is a euphemism for "lewd")
sè guǐ () = pervert (lit. "Sex Ghost", 色 can be read as both 'Color' and 'Sex')
Positive connotations
Occasionally, slang words with a negative connotation are turned around and used positively:
wǒ cào () = An expression of impressed surprise or approval, akin to "fuck me", "holy fuck" or "holy shit!" in English (lit. "I fuck") Alternatively, "我靠" (wǒ kào, "I lean on". IM:KAO) or "哇靠" (wa kào) is used as a euphemism (similar to "frigging" "frick" in English) when the subject intends on being less obscene, such as when speaking in public.
niúbī (/) = fucking awesome (literally "cow cunt"; possibly influenced by the expression chuī niú pí; , which means "to brag"). This phrase also has many alternative forms, including NB, 牛B, 牛比, 牛鼻 ("cow's nose"), as well as euphemisms such as 牛叉/牛X niúchā. It can also just be shortened to 牛.
diǎo () / niǎo () = cock; this was an insult as long ago as the Jin Dynasty. Despite remaining a profane word in Cantonese, now it sometimes also means "fucking cool" or "fucking outrageous" in Mandarin. The positive expression is believed to have been invented by Sun Ta-Wei in an MTV Taiwan advertisement, but the pop star Jay Chou played a major role in its promotion. Because of the substitution of "niǎo" which means bird, sometimes English-speaking Chinese in Malaysia sometimes use "birdie" as a euphemism for "penis" for small children. Bird man sometimes has a derogative meaning as a "wretch", but also often used between close friends as affectionate appellation like "fellow".
diǎo sī () = originally meant to mean male pubic hair, but means an unprivileged nobody. Originally an Internet slang meaning "incel", now a popular word often used in self-mockery (lit. "dick silk/wire")
Mixed-up
Other insults include the word hùn (), which means "mixed-up", or hùn (), which means "muddy":
hùnzhàng () = bullshit, damn
hùndàn ( / ) = prick (lit. muddy egg)
hùnqiú () = jerk (lit. muddy ball)
mǎmǎhǔhǔ () = sloppy, careless (lit. horse-tiger)
Eggs
Perhaps due to the influence of wángbādàn (), dàn (; "egg") is used in a number of other insults in addition to hùndàn ():
bèndàn () = dummy, fool, idiot (lit. "dumb egg")
chǔn dàn () = dummy, fool
dǎodàn ( / ) = "to cause trouble"
gǔndàn () = get out of sight!
huàidàn () = a wicked person. Literally a bad egg.
hútú dàn () = confused/clueless person (a sucker)
qióngguāng dàn () = a poor/penniless person
chě dàn () = nonsense, bullshit, bollocks
Melons
The word guā (; melon or gourd) is also used in insults:
shǎguā (; also shǎzi, ) = dummy, fool, idiot. The term was in use as early as the Yuan Dynasty.
dāiguā (; also dāizi, ) = dummy, fool, idiot.
In addition to the senses listed above, the "melon" is a metonym for the womb, and a "broken melon" refers to a female's lost virginity.
Sticks
The noun gùn, stick/staff is often used to refer to someone who is morally corrupted.
ègùn (惡棍) = bad guy, bully, villain (lit. "evil stick")
shéngùn (神棍) = fake fortune teller (lit. "god stick")
dǔgùn (賭棍) = rogue gambler (lit. "gamble stick")
dégùn (德棍) = fascist (lit. "german stick")
Ghosts and spirits
The noun for "ghost" 鬼 is often used to mock someone with some bad habit. The mocking tone may not be very serious though.
jiǔguǐ (酒鬼) = drinker, alcoholic
zuìguǐ (醉鬼) = drunkard
xiǎoqì guǐ = tightwad, cheapskate; selfish
dǎnxiǎo guǐ (胆小鬼) = coward
精 "nonhuman spirit in a human's form" is usually for insulting some cunning people.
húli jīng () = vixen (overly seductive woman or a golddigger; lit. "fox spirit")
mǎpì jīng = flatterer (lit. "horse fart spirit")
lǎo yāo pó (老妖婆) = evil old witch
yāojing (妖精) = alluring woman; also fairy or goblin
yāoguài (妖怪) = monster, demon
rényāo (人妖) = shemale, trans woman (lit. "human demon")
tàiguó rényāo (泰國人妖) = Thai shemale (lit. Thailand human demon; usually used as a stronger insult than merely calling someone a shemale)
Useless
méiyòng () = useless
Fèi (, ; "(noun) waste/garbage, (verb) to waste, to throw away") appears in a number of insults:
wōnang fèi () = loser
fèi wù ()= good for nothing
fèirén () = useless person
fèihuà () = nonsense, bullshit, useless talk or chit-chat
liúmáng () = scoundrel, gangster or pervert (the word originally meant vagrant); often used by women to insult men who act aggressively.
nāozhǒng () = coward, useless, or weak person.
rén zhā () = Scum. Someone who is useless and unwanted as garbage.
wúyòng () = literally "useless"
fàntǒng () = useless person. Literally "rice bucket", the connotation being that, like a bucket, the person is only useful for storing food and nothing else.
Boasting
bàn píngzi cù (): literally "a half-empty bottle of vinegar", used to address a person with limited professional expertise.
chuīniú bī (): lit. inflating (blowing air into) a cow's vagina. Used to address bragging activities. Often bowdlerized to chuīniú () when speaking in public or in the presence of children.
chī bǎole chēng de (): lit. eats too much. Used to refer weird, nonsense or illogical deeds.
chī bǎo fàn méi shì gàn (吃飽飯沒事干) = same as chī bǎo le chēng de, but the literal meaning is different (lit. "just finished eating and there's nothing to do")
Cruelty
shārén bù zhǎyǎn () stone cold killer (lit. "kills people without blinking")
huǒyǎn xiéshén () evil spirit.
dà mó tóu () a very wicked and powerful man.
sàng xīn bìng kuǎng () crazy cruelty.
liáng xīn bèi gǒu chī le () conscience was eaten by dog.
Face
Because shame or "face" is important in Chinese culture, insulting someone as "shameless" is much stronger than in English:
bú yàoliǎn () = shameless, lit. "doesn't want face," i.e., "discards his face, does not seek to maintain a good status in society".
bú yào bīliǎn () = fuсking shameless, lit. "doesn't want сunt face," i.e., "discards his fuсking face"
Girlish
niángniangqiāng () is a pejorative used to describe Chinese males who are extremely effeminate in their speaking style. It is related to the term sājiào (, to whine), but is predominantly said of males who exhibit a rather "girlish" air of indecisiveness and immaturity. Adherents of both tend to lengthen sentence-final particles while maintaining a higher-pitched intonation all throughout.
niángpào () = same as (above)
tàijiàn () or gōnggong () – Eunuch. From the stereotypes of Imperial eunuchs seen in TV shows in China (with a high, feminine voice). Men with higher voices are called eunuchs.
nǚ qì (), female lifebreath. A man having the psychological attributes of a woman is said to exhibit "nǚ qì," i.e., is said to be effeminate.
pì jīng () roughly meaning ass fairy. It is often used as a derogatory for feminine gay people.
Boyish
nán rén pó () a female who behaves like a male. Tomboy.
mu ye cha () a female Yaksha, an ugly and rough female; often domineering in personality.
Inhuman
Other insults accuse people of lacking qualities expected of a human being:
chùsheng () = animal; it literally means "beast", a likely reference to the Buddhist belief that rebirth as an animal is the result of karma conditioned by stupidity and prejudice. The word is also used in Japanese, where it is pronounced "chikushō", often used as an expletive, akin to "hell!"
qín shòu () = beasts (lit.: "bird and animal"), often used as qín shòu bù rú () = worse than beasts
nǐ bú shì rén () = you're not human (lit.: "you are not a person"). This could also mean that the person is so mean/cruel that they are not human. In this instance, one can say "你还是人吗" nǐ hái shì rén ma (lit.: "are you still human")
nǐ shì shénme dōngxi () = you're less than human, literally: What kind of object are you? (compares the level of a person to that of an object)
nǐ búshì dōngxi () = you're less than human (implies less worth than an object)
bùyàoliǎn de dōngxi () = you're shameless and less than human (lit.: "you are a thing that has no shame")
jiànhuò () = lit. "cheap goods" ("[you] despicable creature!")
sāohuò () = lit. "lewd goods" ("[you] lewd creature!")
shuǐhuò () = lit. "parallel import"
Death
Sǐ (; "dead", "cadaverous," or, less precisely, "damn(ed)") is used in a number of insults:
sǐ guǐ () lit., "dead imp," "dead demon," "dead ghost". Used as a term of contempt.
sǐ sān bā () / chòu sān bā (), lit., stinking (derogatory term for woman) bitch
sǐ bù yào liǎn () = shameless (lit.: "[you] shameless corpse")
qù sǐ () = Lit. "Go die!", comparable to the English phrase "Go to hell!"
sǐ yā tóu 死丫頭, lit., dead serving wench. – This term is no longer in common use. It appears in early novels as a deprecating term for young female bondservants. The "ya" element refers to a hair style appropriate to youths of this sort.
gāi sǐ () damned, damn it! (lit. should die)
zhǎo sǐ (): literally "look [for] death" (i.e. "looking to die"). Roughly equivalent to the English phrase 'asking for trouble'.
Excrement
The words "" (shǐ) (= shit, turd, dung), "" (fèn) (= manure, excrement) and " (= stool, poop)" (dà biàn), all mean feces but vary from blunt four letter to family-friendly, respectively. They can all be used in compound words and sentences in a profane manner.
Originally, the various Mandarin Chinese words for "excrement" were less commonly used as expletives, but that is changing. Perhaps because farting results in something that is useless even for fertilizer: "fàng pì" (; lit. "to fart") is an expletive in Mandarin. The word "pì" (; lit. "fart") or the phrase is commonly used as an expletive in Mandarin (i.e. "bullshit!").
qù chī dà biàn () [Go] Eat shit! (By itself, is neither an expletive nor does it have the same effect as 'shit' in English.)
chī shǐ () = Eat shit!
shǐ dàn () Lit., "shit egg", a turd.
fàng pì () = bullshit, nonsense, lie (literally "to fart"; used as an expletive as early as the Yuan dynasty.
fàng nǐ mā de pì () = you are f—ing bullshitting (lit. "release your mother's fart")
'ge pì (个屁) = A common variation of 放屁, also meaning "bullshit" (as in lies, c.f. English "my ass!"). This term is used because "fang pi" can be taken literally to mean Flatulence. Often tacked on to the end of a sentence, as in "XYZ 个屁!"
méi pì yòng () = no damn use (lit. "to have no fart use")
yǒu pì yòng () = no damn use, to be of damn-all use (lit. "to have fart use")
pìhuà () = bullshit, nonsense (lit. "fart word")
nǐ zài jiǎng shén me pì huà () = What the shit/fuck are you saying
pì shì () = a mere nothing; also guānwǒpìshì ()= I don't give a damn, it means damn all to me
mǐ tián gòng () – A play on the writing of (the traditional form of (fen), also "kuso" in Japanese), referring to excrement.
qí yán fèn tǔ yě () – an expression in Classical Chinese that means, "His words are [nothing but] excrement." (See Giles, A Chinese-English Dictionary.)
yǒu huà kuài shuō, yǒu pì kuài fàng 有話快說，有屁快放 = an expression meaning to stop beating around the bush (lit. If you have something to say, hurry up and say it; if you have a fart, hurry up and let it out)
shǐ bǎ ba () – Children's slang term for faeces, similar to English "poo-poo" or "brownie". A variant of this term is 㞎㞎 (bǎ ba), while (biàn bian) is also used as a children's term, albeit less frequently used.
pìtóu () = fart.
Animals
In a 1968 academic study of Chinese pejorative words, more than a third of the 325-term corpus of abusive expressions compare the insulted person with an animal, with the worst curses being "animal" generally, "pig, dog, animal", or "animal in dress", which deny the person of human dignity. The expressions contain metaphorical references to the following domesticated animals: dogs, cows, and chickens (12 or 11 terms each), (8 times), horse (4), cat (3), and duck (2), and one each to sheep, donkey and camel. A variety of wild animals are used in these pejorative terms, and the most common are monkey (7 times) and tiger (5 times), symbolizing ugliness and power respectively.
Dogs
The fact that many insults are prefaced with the Mandarin Chinese word for dog attest to the animal's low status:
gǒuzǎizi () = dog pup (English equivalent: "son of a bitch")
gǒu pì () = bullshit, nonsense (lit. "dog fart"); in use as early as 1750 in the Qing Dynasty novel The Scholars.
nǐ ge gǒu pì () = what you said is bullshit. Also "nǐ ge pì"()or simply "pì"(). Generally appears at the end of sentences.
gǒu pì bù tōng () dog fart + does not (come out at the end of the tube) communicate = incoherent, nonsensical
fàng nǐ mā de gǒu pì () = what you said is fucking bullshit (lit. "release your mother's dog fart")
fàng nǐ mā de gǒu chòu pì () = what you said is fucking bullshit (lit. "release your mother's dog stinky fart")
gǒu niáng yǎng de () = son of a bitch (lit. "raised by a dog mother")
gǒurìde () = son of a bitch (from Liu Heng's story "Dogshit Food", lit. "dog fuck" 日 is here written for 入, which when pronounced rì means "fuck".)
gǒushǐ duī () = a person who behaves badly (lit. "a pile of dog shit"); gǒushǐ (), or "dog shit", was used to describe people of low moral character as early as the Song dynasty. Due to Western influence, as well as the similar sound, this has become a synonym for bullshit in some circles.
gǒuzázhǒng () = literally "mongrel dog", a variation on zázhǒng (), above.
zǒugǒu () = lapdog, often translated into English as "running dog", it means an unprincipled person who helps or flatters other, more powerful and often evil people; in use in this sense since the Qing Dynasty. Often used in the 20th century by communists to refer to client states of the United States and other capitalist powers.
gǒutuǐzi () / gǒutuǐ () = Variant of zǒugǒu (), lit. "dog thigh"
hǎ bā gǒu (哈巴狗) = someone who incessantly follows someone around, and is usually seen as a sycophant. (lit: "pug dog")
Rabbits
In at least one case, rabbit is part of an insult:
xiǎotùzǎizi () = rabbit kitten (quite ironically, this insult is often used by parents to insult their children)
Horse
mǎzi () = a derogatory word for girlfriend. (Possibly influenced by U.S. slang, "filly," used for any girl.)
Bird
The Chinese word for bird "niǎo"() was pronounced as "diǎo" in ancient times, which rhymes with () meaning penis or sexual organ. It also sounds the same as "penis" in several Chinese dialects. Thus, bird is often associated with 'fuck', 'penis' or 'nonsense'：
wǒ niǎo nǐ () = I give a shit about you (Beijing dialect)
wǒ niǎo tā de () = I give a shit about him
niǎo huà () = bullshit, fucking words ; nǐ zài jiǎng shénme niǎo huà () = What fucking words are you talking about?
niǎo rén () = bastard, asshole. This word commonly appears in Water Margin, a Ming dynasty Classical Chinese Novel.
niǎo shì () = mere nothing; also guān wǒ niǎo shì () = I don't care a damn, it means damn all to me
Tigress
A tigress or 母老虎 (Mǔ lǎohǔ) refers to a fierce woman, usually someone's strict wife.
Dinosaur
A dinosaur or 恐龙 (Kǒnglóng) has been used as Internet slang to describe an ugly girl.
Insect
wútóu cāngyíng (無頭蒼蠅) = someone running around with no sense of direction (lit: "headless fly", or similar to "chicken with its head cut off" in English)
hudu chong (糊涂虫) = absent-minded person, a scatterbrain (lit. "confused insect"), compare with wútóu cāngyíng
gēn pì chóng (跟屁蟲) = someone that aimlessly follows someone around, usually for the purpose of flattery (lit: "butt-chasing insect")
Contempt
Certain words are used for expressing contempt or strong disapproval:
qiáobùqǐ () = To look down upon or to hold in contempt.
wǒpēi () = I boo in disapproval. Pēi 呸 is a spoken onomatopoeia that represents the action of spitting.
Divinity
wēnshén () = troublemaker (literally "plague god"). Compares the insulted person to a disliked god.
wǒ de tiān a () = Oh my God (literally "Oh my sky").
Miscellaneous
Some expressions are harder to explain:
èrbǎiwǔ () = stupid person/idiot (see 250) Note that the number 250 would normally be pronounced liangbǎiwǔ.
shūdāizi, () roughly equivalent to "bookworm" or, possibly, "nerd". It is used to portray a studious person as lacking either hands-on experience or social skills. Often used academically to describe one who is too by the book, and unable to adapt to changing circumstances that invalidate book theory. Unlike "nerd", shūdāizi is rarely used in the context of hobbies.
bì zuǐ, () = Shut up!
Action specific
Some expressions represent offensive insults involving some kind of actions:
gǔnkāi () = go to hell/fuck off (lit. roll or roll away)
nǐgěiwǒgǔn () = get out of my sight! (lit. roll for me!)
gǔndàn () = scram, get out! (lit. "roll[ing] egg")
gǔnduzi () = get out of here. (lit. "Roll over, calf.")
gǔnnǐmādedàn() = get the fuck out of here! fuck off! (lit. "Roll your mother's egg.")
gǔnnǐmābī () = get the fuck out of here! fuck off! (lit. "Roll to your mother's c---.")
Region specific
Many locations within China have their own local slang, which is scarcely used elsewhere. Some of them have been listed above, but these are a few expressions that are not aforementioned:
nǐ yā tǐng de (你丫挺的) – Local slang from Beijing, meaning "you son of a bitch!"
gàn nǐ xiǎo BK de (干你小BK的) – Local slang from Tianjin, meaning "go fuck your 'thing'", where "BK" refers to male genitalia. However, when insulting females, "马B" is used instead.
xiǎo yàng le ba (小样了吧) – Originating from Southern China. Said upon someone's misfortunes, similar to "haha" or "suck that".
shén me niǎo () – From the northeastern Heilongjiang, although also used in the South. Used similar to "what the fuck?"
fāgé (发格) – Used in Shanghai, direct transliteration from English "fuck".
èrbǎdāo (二把刀) – Beijing slang for a good-for-nothing; klutz. Literally "double-ended sword", considered a concept which is useless.
xiǎomì (小蜜) – Beijing slang for a special female friend (literally translated as "little honey"), often used with negative connotations.
cènà (册那) – Shanghainese for "fuck", similar in usage to 肏 cào albeit less strong.
Racial euphemisms
Mandarin Chinese has specific terms and racial euphemisms for different ethno-racial groups around the world, and some discriminatory slurs against Chinese representatives from certain governments and backgrounds.
Against Mainlanders
zhīnà (支那) — A derogatory term for China (see Shina). It used to be a neutral historic name for China, but later it became a derogatory since it was extensively used by Japanese Invader during Sino-Japanese Wars.
zhīnàzhū (支那猪) — "Shina pigs", see zhīnà (支那). Mostly used by anti-China diaspora Chinese, Taiwanese and Hongkongers.
ālùzaǐ (阿陆仔) — Mainlander, a word originated from Southern Min language. A slang term used by Taiwanese people. The word itself is largely neutral, but it was often used in a negative context.
sǐālù/426 (死阿陆/426) — An alternation of ālùzaǐ (阿陆仔) ，literally means "dead Mainlanders". It is often written as 426, as in Southern Min the word sounds similar to 426. The slang is widely used by anti-China Taiwanese people online.
huángchóng (蝗虫) — Literally "Locust" or "Insect." The term is mainly used by Hong Kongers, Taiwanese, and Chinese Singaporeans and directed at mainland Chinese immigrants and tourists because they come in large numbers and supposedly end up consuming local resources at the expense of the host native populations.
Against Mainland Communists
gòngfei (共匪) — Literally "Communist bandits" referring to communists, or to a larger extent, all Mainlanders and non-Chinese communists. The term has been in use since the Chinese Civil War by the Kuomintang against the Chinese Communist Party, but today reflects the rifts in cross-strait relations.
gòngzei (共贼) — Literally "Communist thieves", referring to the Beijing government, people in the Communist Party, or all Mainlanders.
ā gòng zǐ (阿共仔) — Literally "Commie guy", a derogatory slang term used by Taiwanese against mainland Chinese, which refers to communism as an ad hominem.
gòngcǎndǎng (共慘黨) — By replacing the middle character with "慘", a near-homophone to "產", meaning sad and pitiful, the name of the Communist Party changes to mean "a party which causes everyone to suffer" (lit. "Everyone Suffers Party"). This term has seen increasing usage in internet communities critical of the Chinese Communist Party.
Against Westerners
baí pí zhū (白皮猪) — "white skin pigs" a slur for white people, as they regarded on the implication that Whites are perceived to be lazier and less diligent in comparison to their Han Chinese counterparts.
baí pí (白皮) — "white skins" a slur for white people.
yáng guǐzi (洋鬼子) — "Foreign devil", a slur for white foreigners.
guǐlǎo () — Borrowed from Cantonese "Gweilo", "devil" or "devil guy", a slur for Westerners in Hong Kong.
hóng máo guǐzi () — "Red fur devil", rude slang term for Caucasians, especially Caucasians from English speaking countries (see ang mo)
máo zi () – Ethnic slur against Russians. (Literally "fur".) Alternatively 红毛子 (hóng máo zi, red (communist) fur), 俄毛子 (é máo zi, Rus fur). Similar concept to "hóng máo guǐzi" above.
yáng lājī () – "Foreign trash", an ethnic slur for unemployed and uneducated foreigners, especially Caucasians from English speaking countries looking to seek jobs in China. The slur is similar to the term White trash, used in the United States.
mán zi () — Literally "foreign barbarians", this historical term, when mixed with the word "south" (南) is also used as an ethnic slur by northern Han Chinese against someone thought to be from southern China.
Against other East Asians
Against Hong Kongers
gǎng dú (港毒) — a pun on the homophone "港獨" (gǎng dú, literally "Hong Kong independence"), the definition of 毒 (dú) used is "poison". A slur for Hong Kong's people who advocate for Hong Kong's independence, literally meaning "poison of Hong Kong".
Against Taiwanese
tái wā / wā wā (台蛙 / 蛙蛙) — Literally "Taiwanese frogs." Taiwanese are seen as 井底之蛙 (Chinese idiom, literally means "a frog in a well", referring to a person with a very limited outlook and experience), and as often holding naïve beliefs about the mainland.
tái dú (台毒) — a pun on the homophone "台獨" (tái dú, literally "Taiwan independence"), the definition of 毒 (dú) used is "poison". A slur for Taiwanese people who advocate for Taiwanese independence, literally meaning "poison of Taiwan".
tái bāzi (台巴子) — Literally "Taiwanese penis shaft." A slur and slang term against the Taiwanese. The term originated from Mainland China as a pejorative directed at the Taiwanese.
Against Japanese
xiǎo Rìběn (小日本) "Japs" — Literally "little Japan[ese]". This term is still commonly used as a slur toward Japanese among Chinese but it has very little impact left. This term was historically by the Chinese associating the Japanese with dwarfism and the historical lower average stature of Japanese in comparison with the Han Chinese.
Rìběn guǐzi (日本鬼子) — Literally "Japanese devil". This is used mostly in the context of the Second Sino-Japanese War, when Japan invaded and occupied large areas of China. This is the title of a Japanese documentary on Japanese war crimes during WWII.
dōngyáng guǐzi () — Literally "Oriental devil". An anti-Japanese variant of yáng guǐzi, and similar to Rìběn guǐzi above. (Note that whereas the term 東洋 has the literal meaning of "Orient" in the Japanese language, the characters themselves mean "eastern ocean", and it refers to Japan exclusively in modern Chinese usage—since Japan is the country which lies in the ocean east of China.)
Wō (倭) — This was an ancient Chinese name for Japan, but was also adopted by the Japanese. Today, its usage in Chinese is usually intended to give a negative connotation (see Wōkòu below). The character is said to also mean "dwarf", although that meaning was not apparent when the name was first used. See Wa (Japan).
Wōkòu (倭寇) — Originally referred to Japanese pirates and armed sea merchants who raided the Chinese coastline during the Ming Dynasty (see Wokou). The term was adopted during the Second Sino-Japanese War to refer to invading Japanese forces, (similarly to Germans being called Huns). The word is today sometimes used to refer to all Japanese people in extremely negative contexts.
Rìběn gǒu (日本狗) — Literally "Japanese dogs". The word is used to refer to all Japanese people in extremely negative contexts.
dà Jiǎopén zú (大腳盆族) — Ethnic slur towards Japanese used predominantly by Northern Chinese, mainly those from the city of Tianjin. Literally "big-feet-like-washbasins race", also punning on the English "Japan".
huáng jūn () — a pun on the homophone "皇軍" (huáng jūn, literally "Imperial Army"), the definition of 黃 (huáng) used is "yellow". This phrase 黃軍 ("Yellow Army") was used during World War II to represent Japanese soldiers due to the colour of their uniform. Today, it is used negatively against all Japanese. Since the stereotype of Japanese soldiers is commonly portrayed in war-related TV series in China as short men, with a toothbrush moustache (and sometimes round glasses, in the case of higher ranks), 黃軍 is also often used to pull jokes on Chinese people with these characteristics, and thus "appear like" Japanese soldiers.
zì wèi duì () — A pun on the homophone "自衛隊" (zì wèi duì, literally "Self-Defence Forces"), the definition of 慰 (wèi) used is "to comfort". This phrase is used to refer to Japanese (whose military force is known as "自衛隊") being stereotypically hypersexual, as "自慰队" means "Self-comforting Forces", referring to masturbation. The word 慰 (wèi) also carries highly negative connotations of "慰安婦" (wèi ān fù, "Comfort women"), referring to the use of sex slaves by the Japanese military during World War II.
wěi jūn (伪军）- Literally "pretender army." The word is used as an insult to collaborationist Chinese forces during World War II, but is occasionally used to refer to Japanese forces as well. It is used officially by Chinese historians, and is specifically spoken towards those people, making it a rare and ineffective insult against Japanese people in general.
Against Koreans
Gāolì bàng zǐ () — A neutral term used against all ethnic Koreans . 高丽/高麗 refers to Ancient Korea (Koryo), while 棒子 means "club" or "corncob", referring to how Korean security guards hired by the Japanese during WW2 were not given guns, only clubs/batons as they were untrustworthy. The term is modernized sometimes as 韓棒子 (hán bàng zǐ, "韓" referring to South Korea)
sǐ bàng zǐ (死棒子) — Literally "dead club" or "dead plank" with the sexual innuendo of a "useless or dead erection"; refer to 高丽棒子 above.
èr guǐ zǐ (二鬼子) — (See 日本鬼子) During World War II, 二鬼子 referred to Traitors among the Han Chinese hanjian and Koreans in the Imperial Japanese Army, as the Japanese were known as "鬼子" (devils) for massacring innocent children and women. 二鬼子 literally means "second devils". Today, 二鬼子 is used to describe ethnic Koreans who had been absorbed into Japan and joined the Japanese Imperial Army. It is rarely used as a slur in recent times.
Běihán gòngfěi (北韩共匪) – Literally "North Korean communist bandits". Used by the anti-communists in Taiwan towards the Workers' Party of Korea as well as the North Koreans.
Against South Asians
Against Indians
yìndù ā sān (印度阿三) — A euphemism to Indians. It means "Indian, Hassan".
ā chā (阿差) — A popular term common among the Cantonese in Hong Kong to refer to Indians. The term derives from the frequent uttering of ācchā 'good, fine' by (Northern) Indians (cf. Hindi अच्छा) Originally referring to the Punjabi "singhs" security force who used to work for the British government during colonial era. Nowadays, any South Asian is referred to as "ā chā". In Cantonese, "Ah" means "Dude", so "Ah Cha" means the dude called "Cha". It is not an ethnic slur, it is used because Cantonese cannot pronounce "Indian" as it derives from a Mandarin term that sounds too formal.
gālí rén (咖喱人) — Literally "curry person." A much more common contemporary term used to refer to Indians, derived from the use of curry in Indian cuisine and the perception that Indians eat food to some Chinese find to give off a strong smell, and to which Indians typically eat with their hands, a practice that many Chinese find to be dirty and unclean. For these two reasons, it is applied as a derogatory term to Indians.
Against Southeast Asians
Against Filipinos
Huanna () – a Hokkien term in literally meaning "foreigner or non-Chinese." Used by most Overseas Chinese to refer generally to indigenous Southeast Asians and Taiwanese Aborigines. In the Philippines, this term is used by Chinese Filipinos towards indigenous Filipinos.
Against Indonesians
yìnníbazi ( or ) — lit. "Indonesian mud", an ethnic slur towards that refers a play on "" (Indonesia) and "" (mud), where are homophones, thus associating Pribumi Indonesians as being primitive, backward, uncivilized, and dirty.
Against Vietnamese
lǎo yuè () – Literally "Old Vietnamese", or "Old Guy from Vietnam". It is not an anti-Vietnamese slur but rather a familial slang term for Vietnamese.
Xiǎo Yuenán () – Literally "little Vietnam[ese]". This can be used in a derogatory context, referring Vietnam's smaller geographical size than China, darker skin tone, and the lower average stature of Vietnamese in comparison with their Han Chinese counterparts.
Yuenán houzǐ () – Literally means "Vietnamese monkeys." A term used by the Han Chinese to derogatorily refer towards Vietnamese by associating them as being uncivilized, barbaric, dirty, primitive, and backward people. This term also alludes to the historical region of Nam Viet (南越 which in Chinese translates to "land of the southern barbarians"), a province that was ruled by the Han dynasty during the First Chinese domination of Vietnam; when mixed with the word "southern barbarian" (南蠻) is also used as an ethnic slur towards the Vietnamese by the Han Chinese.
Yuenán gòngfei or Yue gòngfei ( or ) – Literally means "Vietnamese communist bandits". A variation of gòngfei, this was directed at the Viet Cong by anti-communists during the Vietnam War. While rarely used today, this term is still also used by Taiwanese anti-communists to refer to the Communist Party of Vietnam, or Vietnamese Communists in general.
Other
lǎo mò (老墨) — Literally "Old Mexican", an ethnic slur used towards Mexicans. 墨 should not be confused with "ink", which bears the same character and pronunciation from "墨" in 墨西哥 (Mexico).
hēi guǐzi () or hēi guǐ () — Literally "Black devil", racial slur directed towards people of Sub-Saharan Black African descent. The term is similar to the English term "nigger" as an ethnic slur directed at blacks.
tǔbāozi () — Literally "Mud baozi/muddy baozi". An insult directed at those seen as uncultured or backward, implying that the insulted person comes from a peasant background. Roughly equivalent to the English phrases "country bumpkin" and "hayseed". The term can also be used without any negative connotations to denote someone who is new, unfamiliar and inexperienced in any profession or activity, roughly similar to the English internet gaming slang "noob."
xiāngjiāo rén () — 'Banana People' – a term used to refer to any person of Overseas Chinese ancestry who have assimilated in the Western world and have lost any true Chinese trait. As the insult implies, they are like bananas: Yellow (Chinese) on the outside while white (western) on the inside (akin to "Oreo" for African Americans or "coconut" for Hispanic-Americans).
Homosexuality
There are various circumlocutions in Mandarin Chinese for homosexual, and the formal terms are recent additions just as is the direct translation of "masturbation" (hand soiling). The words listed below are generally not regarded as being profane.
Duànxiù () — cut off sleeve, from the story of a ruler whose male favourite fell asleep on the sleeve of his jacket, so when the ruler had to get up to conduct some needed business he cut his sleeve off rather than awaken his lover (See Bret Hinsch, Passions of the Cut Sleeve, p. 53). An analogous story, of a sleeve being cut off so as not to disturb a sleeping cat, is told of both Confucius and Muhammad, and perhaps others.
Yútáo () — remains of a peach, from the story of a favourite who rather too familiarly offered his sovereign a peach of which he had already eaten half. (From Han Fei Zi, chapter 12)
Bōlí (), literally "glass", but implies "glass person". It comes from a passage in the Dream of the Red Chamber in which Phoenix is described as having a "crystal heart in a glass body," meaning that she was glistening, pure, clear, fastidious, etc. It stands as high praise for a lady, but comes off as an effeminate slur when referring to men. The English translation of Bai Xian-yong's novel about male homosexuals in Taiwan includes the term "crystal boys," derived from the same passage in the earlier novel, and also a rather gruff reference to the old photographer who befriends some of the boys as "you old glass," which, delivered by a female friend of his, comes out sounding about on the level of "you old fart," i.e., not really so very offensive, but indicating a passing mood of aggravation on the speaker's part. Nevertheless, the general meaning is probably closer to "old queer."
Nán fēng (), male custom, is homophonous with (, southern custom.) The first writing of the term would fairly easily be picked out as referring to sexual interactions, whereas the second term could just mean "the customs of the southern part of China."
Tóngzhì (; ) was recently adopted in Hong Kong and Taiwan to mean homosexual, and is sometimes used on the mainland. Literally the term means "one having same aspirations".
Tùzi (), used to refer to catamites (lit. rabbit). (See Herbert A. Giles, A Chinese-English Dictionary, entry 12,122) See also Tu Er Shen.
Since the success of Ang Lee's Brokeback Mountain, duànbèi (, lit. "Brokeback") has also become popular.
See also
Baidu 10 Mythical Creatures
Cantonese profanity
Diu (Cantonese)
Grass Mud Horse
Chinese Internet slang
List of Internet phenomena in China
References
Footnotes
Sources and further reading
Oedipus Lex: Some Thoughts on Swear Words and the Incest Taboo in China and the West
Cool Jay
Chinese sex words, obscene language, curses and slang
Tianmi.info
Modern Chinese Slang at Thinking Chinese.
Huang, Frank and Wolfram Eberhard (1968), "On Some Chinese Terms of Abuse," Asian Folklore Studies 27.1: 25–40. Items gathered from Taiwan-Chinese of Fujian origin, Min-nan dialect group), but many also common in North China.
Sexual slang
Profanity
Profanity by language |
4107617 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle%20of%20Pickett%27s%20Mill | Battle of Pickett's Mill | The Battle of Pickett's Mill (May 27, 1864) was fought in Paulding County, Georgia, between Union forces under Major General William Tecumseh Sherman and Confederate forces led by General Joseph E. Johnston during the Atlanta Campaign in the American Civil War. Sherman sent Brigadier General Thomas J. Wood's division, supported by other formations, to turn Johnston's right flank, but the Federals were repulsed with heavy casualties when they ran into tenacious Confederate opposition. Author Ambrose Bierce, an eyewitness, later wrote an account of the battle titled The Crime at Pickett's Mill.
Earlier in May 1864, Sherman's army successfully compelled the Confederate Army of Tennessee to fall back to a strong defensive position at Allatoona Pass. Unwilling to attack Johnston's lines frontally, Sherman attempted a wide sweep around the Confederate western flank. Johnston quickly shifted his army southwest to block the move, and Sherman's first thrust at his opponent's defenses was defeated at New Hope Church. Both sides entrenched their positions. A day after Sherman's troops were beaten at Pickett's Mill, the Confederates launched an attack on the Union right flank which was repelled at Dallas. The two armies faced each other in the New Hope Church and Dallas lines until Sherman extended his left flank toward the railroad, compelling Johnston to retreat to a new position on June 4.
Background
Union Army
In the Atlanta campaign, William T. Sherman commanded a force made up of three armies drawn from the Military Division of the Mississippi. On April 30, 1864, the Army of the Cumberland led by Major General George H. Thomas included 73,000 troops and 130 guns, the Army of the Tennessee under Major General James B. McPherson numbered 24,500 soldiers and 96 guns, and the Army of the Ohio directed by Major General John Schofield reported 11,362 infantry, 2,197 cavalry, and 28 guns. Sherman's forces were supported by 25,000 non-combatants consisting of railroad employees and repair crews, teamsters, medical staff, and Black camp servants. Thomas' army was made up of Major General Oliver Otis Howard's IV Corps, Major General John M. Palmer's XIV Corps, Major General Joseph Hooker's XX Corps, and the 1st, 2nd, and 3rd Cavalry Divisions led by Brigadier Generals Edward M. McCook, Kenner Garrard, and Hugh Judson Kilpatrick, respectively. McPherson's army consisted of Major General John A. Logan's XV Corps and Brigadier General Grenville M. Dodge's Left Wing of the XVI Corps. Major General Francis Preston Blair Jr.'s XVII Corps joined McPherson's army on June 8. Schofield's small army included his own XXIII Corps and a cavalry division led by Major General George Stoneman. The IV and XX Corps each counted 20,000 soldiers, the XIV Corps had 22,000, the XV Corps numbered 11,500, and the XVI and XVII Corps each included about 10,000 men.
Confederate Army
Johnston's Army of Tennessee consisted of two infantry corps led by Lieutenant Generals William J. Hardee and John Bell Hood, and a cavalry corps under Major General Joseph Wheeler. Johnston's army was soon reinforced by the corps of Lieutenant General Leonidas Polk and the cavalry division of Brigadier General William Hicks Jackson from the Army of Mississippi. Hardee's corps included the divisions of Major Generals William B. Bate, Benjamin F. Cheatham, Patrick Cleburne, and William H. T. Walker. Hood's corps was made up of the divisions of Major Generals Thomas C. Hindman, Carter L. Stevenson, and Alexander P. Stewart. Polk's corps had the divisions of Major Generals Samuel Gibbs French and William Wing Loring, and Brigadier General James Cantey. On April 30, 1864, Johnston's Army of Tennessee reported 41,279 infantry, 8,436 cavalry, and 3,227 artillerymen serving 144 guns. Battles and Leaders calculated Johnston's reinforcements as follows: Brigadier General Hugh W. Mercer's brigade (2,800) on May 2, Cantey's division (5,300) on May 7, Loring's division (5,145) on May 10–12, French's detachment (550) on May 12, Jackson's cavalry (4,477) on May 17, French's division (4,174) on May 19, Brigadier General William Andrew Quarles' brigade (2,200) on May 26, and a 643-man detachment of Jackson's cavalry on June 10. Other reinforcements came from two Georgia state regiments (1,200), men returned from furlough, recruits, and returned deserters. There were about 8,000 non-combatants supporting Johnston's army, mostly men unfit for combat.
Operations
The Atlanta campaign began with the Battle of Rocky Face Ridge on May 5–9, 1864, when Sherman sent McPherson's two corps to turn Johnston's defenses from the west while Thomas and Schofield demonstrated frontally. Outflanked, Johnston retreated and fought the Battle of Resaca on 13–16 May, by which time Polk's corps began arriving. With his western flank menaced, Johnston withdrew again and Union troops captured Rome. At the Battle of Cassville on May 19, Johnston planned to counterattack part of Sherman's widely-spread army, but timing was ruined when McCook's cavalry appeared in an unexpected location. Johnston then took up a defensive position south of Cassville. Hood and Polk argued that the Cassville line was vulnerable to Union artillery fire, so Johnston retreated to Allatoona Pass on the night of May 19–20. Finding Johnston's position too strong to directly attack, Sherman decided to make another maneuver around Johnston's western flank. After pausing operations for three days, Sherman sent McPherson's right wing south to Van Wert and then east toward Dallas. Thomas's army formed Sherman's center and Schofield's corps his left.
At the start of the latest Union maneuver, Sherman ordered 20 days rations be carried in his wagons because they were leaving the proximity of the railroad. Thomas' army crossed the Etowah River and marched through Euharlee and Stilesboro, while Brigadier General Jefferson C. Davis' 2nd Division, XIV Corps, which was detached at Rome, joined the movement of McPherson's wing. Blair's XVII Corps was approaching from the north, but had not yet joined Sherman. Garrard's cavalry preceded McPherson's columns, McCook's cavalry covered Thomas' front, Stoneman's cavalry headed Schofield's columns, and Kilpatrick's cavalry watched the railroad north of the Etowah. Johnston received news of Sherman's move from Jackson's cavalry, and on the afternoon of May 23, he ordered Hardee's corps to march to Dallas and Polk's corps to follow. On May 24, Johnston ordered Hood's corps to join the others. By May 25, Johnston's army was positioned so that Hardee's corps was on the left near Dallas and Hood's corps was on the right at New Hope Church. Polk's corps was posted to the left of Hood, with a lightly defended gap between Polk and Hardee.
Hooker's XX Corps led the advance of Thomas' Army of the Cumberland. When it reached Pumpkinvine Creek at Owen's Mill, the Federals drove off some Confederates who were trying to burn the bridge. Strongly resisted by three Confederate regiments, Brigadier General John W. Geary's 2nd Division pressed forward until it came into contact with Hood's corps at New Hope Church. It was 5 pm before Hooker was able to reinforce Geary with the divisions of Brigadier General Alpheus S. Williams (1st) and Major General Daniel Butterfield (3rd). Each of the three divisions were formed into brigade columns, that is, with the leading brigade deployed and the two other brigades of the division directly behind it. In the Battle of New Hope Church on May 25, Hooker's divisions repeatedly assaulted the ridge that Hood's troops defended, but without success. The battle lasted three hours, and during its last hour a thunderstorm rumbled overhead. Hooker admitted sustaining losses of 1,665 killed and wounded in a place the Union troops began calling the "Hell Hole". Stewart's division, which was the main defending force, reported losing 300–400 casualties.
The leading unit of Howard's IV Corps, which was Brigadier General John Newton's 2nd Division, arrived in the area of New Hope Church at 6 pm and was placed in line on the left of Hooker's corps. By the morning of May 26, Howard's entire corps was fully deployed. Regarding Palmer's XIV Corps, Brigadier General Absalom Baird's 3rd Division was assigned to guard Thomas' wagon train at Burnt Hickory and Brigadier General Richard W. Johnson's 1st Division was placed in reserve behind Hooker. On the morning of May 26, McPherson's two corps occupied Dallas and confronted Hardee's corps about farther east. McPherson deployed Logan's XV Corps on the right, Dodge's XVI Corps in the center, and Davis' XIV Corps division on the left. Between Davis and Hooker, there was a lightly defended area. Schofield's XXIII Corps left Brigadier General Alvin Peterson Hovey's division to watch the wagon train and proceeded with the divisions of Brigadier Generals Jacob Dolson Cox and Milo S. Hascall. Schofield's corps reached the battlefield after an all night march in the rain. During the night, Schofield was injured when his horse fell into a ravine, so Cox temporarily assumed command of the corps. In the morning, Sherman directed the corps to the left of Howard's corps and, after marching by compass through thick woods, it came into line near Brown's saw-mill. At this point, the XXIII Corps and the left of the IV Corps made a right wheel to face toward the Confederate defensive positions. On May 26, both sides entrenched and the day was notable for the continuous skirmishing that took place between the two sides.
Battle
The maneuver
Sherman decided to turn Johnston's right flank. Aware of his numerical superiority, and with both armies entrenched, Sherman decided that he could assemble some of his troops and use them to outflank the Confederate defenses. In addition, by extending his left flank northward, Sherman was able to get closer to the railroad line. Also on May 26, McCook's cavalry bested Wheeler's horsemen in a skirmish, capturing 50 Confederates. This clash seemed to indicate that Johnston's right flank was only defended by cavalry.
On May 27, the artillery of Schofield, Howard, and Hooker bombarded the Confederate defenses starting at dawn, and the opposing batteries replied. Sherman wanted Howard, supported by Schofield's divisions, to thrust at what he believed to be Johnston's right flank while McPherson pressed back the Confederate left flank. At dawn, Howard withdrew Thomas J. Wood's division (IV Corps) from its newly-dug trenches and replaced it with David S. Stanley's division. As Wood's division marched north, Thomas and Howard conducted a reconnaissance of the location where Sherman wanted to attack. Finding that the assault would have to cross an open field subject to Confederate cross fire, Thomas instructed Howard to shift the assault location farther north, to the left of Schofield's lines. Thomas also detached Johnson's 1st Division from XIV Corps so that it could support Wood's attack. Furious that first Davis' and now Johnson's divisions were taken away from him, Palmer threatened to resign command of XIV Corps, and Thomas had to talk him out of it.
At 11 am, Wood's division was formed into a column of brigades with each brigade formed into two lines, so that the division was deployed into six lines, one behind the other. Johnson's division was formed into a similar column. The Union divisions marched through forests so dense that Wood gave the colonel of his leading regiment a compass to guide the movement. After marching , Howard ordered Wood's and Johnson's columns to turn to the right and prepare to attack. Wood's skirmishers went forward and discovered entrenched Confederates in front, so Howard decided to attack farther north. Howard ordered Brigadier General Nathaniel McLean's brigade to support Wood's right flank; McLean's command was the 3rd Brigade, 3rd Division, XXIII Corps. The crucial defense of McLean's brigade at the Second Battle of Bull Run may have prevented a Union catastrophe, but bad blood existed between McLean and Howard. Historian Albert Castel asserted, "Of all the brigade commanders in Sherman's army, a worse one to assist in Howard's attack could not have been found." Howard blamed McLean among others for the disaster to XI Corps at the Battle of Chancellorsville and McLean detested Howard for it.
Earlier, Johnston transferred Cleburne's division from Hardee's corps to the extreme right flank. On Cleburne's left was Hindman's division of Hood's corps. Cleburne's division was entrenched with the brigades of Brigadier Generals Mark Perrin Lowrey and Daniel Govan in the front line and the brigades of Brigadier Generals Lucius E. Polk and Hiram B. Granbury in reserve. Govan's scouts reported Howard's movement to Johnston, who ordered probes of the Federal lines, believing that Sherman was making a general retreat to the railroad. These probes captured some Union skirmishers but quickly discovered that Sherman's defenses were well-manned. With this information, Johnston realized that Sherman was trying to turn his right flank. He directed Hindman's troops to shift to their right and ordered Stewart's division to help Cleburne. At this time, McPherson notified Sherman that the Confederate troops in front of him were strongly entrenched. Sherman finally understood that Johnston blocked his plan to sweep around the Confederate western flank. Sherman quickly discarded his original strategy and replaced it with a plan to move northeast to the railroad.
The attack
After marching an additional , Wood's and Johnson's troops reached a north-flowing stream called Pickett's Mill Creek. This tributary of Pumpkinvine Creek was named after a nearby grist mill, owned by Malachi Pickett. Howard and Wood conducted another reconnaissance and discovered Confederates digging trenches, but the entrenchments did not extend to the left. Howard ordered Wood and Johnson to swing their divisions to the right, and directed McLean to make a false attack which was designed to draw fire away from Wood's real attack. Wood rapidly formed his division for assault, but both Johnson and McLean moved their commands very slowly. At 3:35 pm, Howard sent a courier notifying his superior Thomas that he was, "turning the enemy's right flank, I think". Thomas' reply arrived at 4 pm to go ahead with the attack. Even so, Howard hesitated until Wood asked, "Are the orders still to attack?" Howard gave the order to attack.
Wood's division consisted of the brigades of Colonel William Harvey Gibson (1st), Brigadier General William Babcock Hazen (2nd), and Colonel Frederick Knefler (3rd). At 4:30 pm, Wood ordered Hazen's brigade, which was in front, to advance. Wood remarked to Howard, "We will put in Hazen, and see what success he has," and Howard agreed. Previously, Hazen believed that Wood's entire division would attack, but he realized that his 1,500-man brigade was going to assault unsupported. Hazen glanced at his staff officer Ambrose Bierce who instantly knew that a "criminal blunder" was about to happen. All mounted officers sent their horses to the rear and went forward on foot, with Hazen guiding his brigade with a compass because the woods and underbrush were so dense. Hazen's men soon encountered about 1,000 dismounted cavalrymen from the divisions of Brigadier Generals John H. Kelly and William Y. C. Humes.
The Confederate cavalrymen gamely fought back, but they were deployed in a long skirmish line and Hazen's infantry forced them to give way. Hazen's troops reached a ravine and saw a ridgeline ahead of them about away. As Hazen's soldiers surged forward to seize the ridge, Granbury's Texas brigade reached the spot ahead of them. Warned that Federals were about to turn his right flank, Cleburne sent Granbury's brigade to help the outmatched cavalrymen. The Texans took cover and opened fire on the approaching Union troops, inflicting many casualties. Some of Hazen's men called out, "Ah, damn you, we have caught you without your logs", as they rushed forward. Hazen's men got within of Granbury's line before they were forced to take cover and return fire. Blocked in front, Hazen swung his second line regiments toward a cornfield on the left. Seeing the cavalrymen on his right getting overpowered, Granbury asked for help from Govan's brigade. Govan sent the consolidated 8th and 19th Arkansas Infantry Regiment, and it drove back some of the Federals who were pressing the cavalry. Next, Cleburne deployed Lowrey's brigade on Granbury's right flank where it repelled more of Hazen's troops. Unfortunately for Hazen and his men, no units from Johnson's division appeared to support his attack.
With his soldiers taking heavy losses and running low on ammunition, Hazen frantically sent messages to his superiors asking for reinforcements. No help came and neither Wood nor Howard ever explained why. After 50 minutes, the Union survivors spontaneously withdrew; Hazen made no effort to stop them. Finally, with Hazen's attack completely spent, Wood ordered Gibson's brigade forward, thinking that "a second effort might be more successful". Gibson's men were stopped by the same intense rifle and artillery fire. Johnson's 1st Division, XIV Corps was made up of the brigades of William Carlin (1st), John H. King (2nd), and Benjamin F. Scribner (3rd). Scribner's brigade finally showed up on Gibson's left, but was quickly pinned down by enfilade rifle fire from Kelly's dismounted cavalrymen. On Gibson's right, McLean's troops displayed no activity, so Key's Arkansas Battery and another artillery unit swung their guns to the right and blasted Gibson's hapless soldiers.
Captain Cyrus Askew of the 15th Ohio Infantry Regiment went to the rear to ask for reinforcements and found Wood and Gibson. After Howard rode up and asked Askew for a report, a shell landed nearby. Howard threw up the stump of his amputated arm and shouted, "I am afraid to look down". It turned out that a shell fragment knocked off the heel of Howard's boot, but his foot was not maimed as he feared. Even so, Howard's foot was badly bruised, leaving him unable to walk or ride a horse. Meanwhile, after an hour of futile attempts to capture the ridge, Gibson's troops pulled back. They joined Hazen's men in the rear who were complaining that they had been "sold out". At 6 pm, Howard received a message from Thomas, saying that Sherman canceled the attack at 5:15 pm and ordered him to only defend. Howard ordered Wood to send Knefler's brigade forward to hold the Confederates in check until entrenchments were dug. Knefler's brigade advanced at 6:30 pm and blundered into the ravine where it was struck by intense fire. Pulling back, Knefler's men plus the 37th Indiana and 78th Pennsylvania Infantry Regiments from Scribner's brigade took a position where they exchanged fire with the Confederates until nightfall.
After dark, Knefler's men went forward to retrieve as many wounded Union soldiers from the ravine as possible. Among other casualties, Johnson was grazed by a shell and handed command of his division to King. At 10 pm Knefler got the order to pull back, since the defense line was completed. At the same time, Granbury ordered his men to charge into the ravine to drive off any remaining Union soldiers. In the pitch dark, few soldiers were hit by bullets, but Granbury's Texans captured numerous Federals and chased others away. Then Granbury's troops fell back to the ridge. That night, a veteran of many battles from the Texas brigade was assigned to picket duty in the ravine. At dawn, he was so sickened by the carnage that he had to leave. He noted that many of the Federal gunshot victims were struck in the head.
Aftermath
Cleburne's division reported sustaining 448 casualties, mostly in Granbury's brigade. The Union soldiers suffered a loss of 1,600 killed, wounded, and missing. The American Battlefield Trust estimated losses at 500 Confederate and 1,600 Union. Normally, the killed-to-wounded ratio in Civil War battles was one-to-five. In this battle, the number of killed in Wood's division was extraordinarily high, probably because many of the dead were shot repeatedly. The Confederates found one corpse with 47 bullet holes. Hazen's brigade lost 467 casualties, Gibson's brigade lost 681, and Knefler's brigade lost 250, mainly prisoners. Scribner's brigade lost 125 of which 102 were from the 37th Indiana and 78th Pennsylvania. About 70 wounded and 140 unwounded Union soldiers were captured by the Confederates. Georgia State Parks credited Union forces with 14,000 troops and Confederate forces with 10,000 soldiers.
Cox acknowledged that Wood's troops were assailed by fire from Cleburne's division in front, Hindman's division on their right, and cavalry on their left. Even so, Cox believed that if Johnson had ordered Scribner to push straight on, while fending off the Confederate cavalry with another one of his brigades, the attack might have succeeded. Cox admitted that some "mistake" prevented McLean's brigade from having any effect. Castel pointed out that a crack Confederate brigade on favorable terrain, supported by two more brigades, dismounted cavalry, and artillery, could be expected to repulse two Union brigades attacking piecemeal.
Hascall's division on Schofield's left flank was initially drawn back at an angle. During Wood's attack, Hascall wheeled his division to the right and McLean's brigade was used to fill the gap between Wood's right and Hascall's left. By this time, Sherman thoroughly committed himself to the strategy of moving to his left (northeast) in the direction of the railroad. An added spur to this strategy was the discovery that his soldiers were not getting enough food. Even though the wagon train carried 20 days of food, the sparse road net and the distance to the Union forward base at Kingston did not allow the food to be distributed to the soldiers efficiently.
Hood's corps spent the night of May 27–28 marching to attack Sherman's new left flank. At 6 am on May 28, scouts from Wheeler's cavalry reported that the Federals were waiting behind breastworks, so Johnston called off the attack. That day, Johnston directed Hardee to order Bate's left flank division to probe McPherson's lines to find out if the Union troops were still present. At 3:45 pm, Bate's division and Brigadier General Frank Crawford Armstrong's dismounted cavalry brigade launched an attack on lines manned by Logan's XV Corps. Bate's botched assault in the Battle of Dallas resulted in over 1,000 Confederates getting shot, while Logan admitted only 379 casualties. Ironically, Sherman had ordered McPherson to shift to the left on the night of May 28–29.
After various delays, Sherman's shift to the left finally began and on June 1, Stoneman's cavalry occupied Allatoona. This allowed Sherman's railroad crews to proceed with repairing the track. On June 2, Schofield's XXIII Corps pressed forward on the extreme left flank until it encountered Confederate entrenchments near Allatoona Creek. On June 3, Union cavalry under McCook and Stoneman seized Acworth on the railroad. On the same day, Hooker's XX Corps extended Sherman's left flank farther to the left of Schofield. On the night of June 4–5, Johnston abandoned his line of field fortifications based on New Hope Church and retreated to a new line running northeast from Lost Mountain to Pine Mountain to Brushy Mountain. The next major clash occurred at the Battle of Gilgal Church on June 15.
Between May 23 and June 6, including the fighting at New Hope Church, Pickett's Mill, and Dallas, Sherman's forces suffered 4,500 casualties while Johnston's army lost 3,000. Confederate morale, which sagged after the early May retreats, was uplifted by Johnston's defensive victories. Since the start of the campaign, Sherman's three armies sustained about 12,000 casualties out of a total of 100,000 men, while Johnston's army lost about 9,000 out of an estimated 65,000–75,000 men.
Noted author Ambrose Bierce fought for the Union as a topographical engineer at Pickett's Mill. Bierce's short story The Crime at Pickett's Mill is an eyewitness account of this battle.
Battlefield today
The address of Pickett's Mill Battlefield Historic Site is 4432 Mount Tabor Church Road, Dallas, Georgia 30157. It is now preserved as a Georgia state park in excellent condition. The site includes a visitor center, earthworks used by Union and Confederate troops, a pioneer cabin, and hiking trails.
Notes
Footnotes
Citations
References
Primary source
This is a first-person account of the battle.
External links
Pickett's Mill at Civil War Virtual Tours
Battle of Pickett's Mill
Paulding County Historical Society & Museum
Pickett's Mill Battlefield Historic Site photos from GeorgiaInfo: an Online Georgia Almanac
The Ambrose Bierce Project
The Crime at Pickett's Mill by Ambrose Bierce.
Atlanta campaign
Battles of the Western Theater of the American Civil War
Confederate victories of the American Civil War
Battles of the American Civil War in Georgia (U.S. state)
Battle of Pickett's Mill
Conflicts in 1864
1864 in Georgia (U.S. state)
May 1864 events |
4107663 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%BCbbecke | Lübbecke | Lübbecke (; ) is a town in northeast North Rhine-Westphalia in north Germany. This former county town lies on the northern slopes of the Wiehen Hills (Wiehengebirge) and has around 26,000 inhabitants. The town is part of district of Minden-Lübbecke within the Regierungsbezirk of Detmold in the Ostwestfalen-Lippe region. Lübbecke was first mentioned in the records in 775 as hlidbeki and was given town rights in 1279.
Geography
Lübbecke is situated just north of the Wiehen Hills, approx. north of Herford and west of Minden.
Location
Lübbecke is located in northeast North Rhine-Westphalia, north of East Westphalia-Lippe (Ostwestfalen-Lippe), in the southwestern part of the district of Minden-Lübbecke. From a landscape perspective, the town lies in the west of the Minden Land. Geographically, most of the built-up area is on the North German Plain. Only its southern suburbs lie on the northern slope of the Wiehen Hills, whose crest that marks the southern boundary of the borough. The town itself lies on the edge of the hills, whils the rest of the borough is more rural in character. The northern boundary of the borough is defined by the Midland Canal (Mittelland Canal). In the northeast of the borough is the Großes Torfmoor which, together with the Oppenweher Moor, is the largest moor in Westphalia. Between the wet lowlands south of the Mittelland Canal, the glacial valley of the River Weser and the higher ground is a narrow fringe of fertile loess soils at the foot of the Wiehen Hills called the Lübbecker Lößland. The far north of the area is part of the Rahden-Diepenau Geest. In the geest there are only the villages of Stockhausen and Alswede and part of Lübbecke industrial estate.
The highest hills in Lübbecke's territory are the Heidbrink (320 m), the Wurzelbrink (319 m) and the Kniebrink (315 m). Next to the town itself is the Reineberg (276 m), the Heidkopf (273 m) and the Meesenkopf (226 m). The hills in the south of the borough are the highest in the whole of the Wiehen ridge. In the north the land only attains a height of about 50 m. The lowest point is about 48 m.
Waterbodies
Because the watershed of the Wiehen Hills forms the southern boundary of the borough, almost the entire territory of Lübbecke is drained towards the north. Only the few hectares of land on the southern slopes of the Wurzelbrink drain towards the south. The Ronceva river flows through the town itself (mostly through pipes) and via the rivers Flöthe and Große Aue to the Weser. The Weser does not cross the borough, however, and even the Große Aue only enters it in the extreme west. The marketed "mountain spring water" (Gebirgsquellwasser) is still of great importance for the breweries in Lübbecke.
The borough of Lübbecke does not have many natural lakes. Both the river channels and the lakes and ponds in the moor are man-made. The largest bodies of water are the Mittelland Canal, with about 50 ha of water surface in Lübbecke's territory, and an unnamed lake in the moor area, which has a contiguous water area of about 9 ha. All other bodies of water have areas under 1 ha. A total of 1.5% of the borough's area (98.2 ha) is covered by water.
Geology and natural resources
Geologically, the surface is mainly covered with unconsolidated rock of the Quaternary period i.e. sand, gravel, loess and glacial till, predominantly from the Pleistocene epoch. In the Wiehen Hills rocks of the Jurassic period, such as sandstone, also occur on the surface.
Of particular importance, today as in the past, is the recovery of limestone for use as ballast for buildings and roads, and there is a large working quarry in the Wiehen Hills, south of Nettelstedt, where rock is broken and crushed. Numerous small quarries in the Wiehen show that there is a long mining tradition in Lübbecke. Ore appears to have been mined in the hills here for centuries; at Horst Hill there is an old mine gallery. Until the mid 20th century peat was harvested in the Großer Torfmoor, mainly for use in domestic fireplaces. Old transport systems (using tipplers) still existed until a few years ago, when production stopped due to the exhaustion of the deposits and for reasons of nature conservation.
Despite the steep natural gradients, water power cannot be used today because the small catchment area of the mountain streams only delivers small quantities of water. In the past, several water mills worked in the borough. There is a water wheel at the foot of the Wurzelbrink in the village of Eilhausen that can be visited. The use of wind power as a natural resource has recently received a boost. Windmills in places such as Eilhausen show that this energy source has been used since ancient times. The borough's location on the North German Plain favours the use of wind generators, although they are still less cost-effective than other energy generators.
Lübbecke is rated almost everywhere as good to very good in terms of its use of geothermal heat sources, especially borehole heat exchangers, and heat production using heat pumps (see the accompanying map).
History
The settlement of Lübbecke was first mentioned in 775 as hlidbeki in the Frankish imperial annals as the site of a Saxon attack on a frankish camp. The town is named after the creek today known as "Ronceva" and means little beck in English (Low German: lüt Beek or lüttke Beke, High German: kleiner Bach). Lübbecke was the central site of the Saxon hlidbeki gau. In those days there may already have been a church in hlidbeki that dated back to the Saxon Angrivarii under their duke, Widukind, a tribe who had settled the region during the spread of Christianity under Charlemagne. Lübbecke was the center of an early church parish in the Diocese of Minden, and so the nobility who were native to the area as well as the knightly family in Lübbecke were ministeriales of the bishops of Minden. By 1279 Lübbecke had been given its town charter by the Minden Bishop Volquin of Schwalenberg. The area was also run by the bishops of Minden from the country castle of Reineburg (now Hüllhorst). The lords based there came mainly from the knightly family of Lübbecke. The Burgmann estates in Lübbecke were, in turn, enfeoffed by the castle. In 1806 twelve of these Burgmann estates were recorded in the borough. The Burgmannen also held a majority on the town council, which met in town hall, first mentioned in 1460.
From 1295 Lübbecke became part of a canonical church foundation. This was founded in 1274 in Ahlden an der Aller, but moved in 1280 to Neustadt am Rübenberge and in 1295 to Lübbecke to the St. Andrew's Church. It remained here until it was abolished in 1810. The foundation had 4 estates within the town. In 1549 the diocesan synod was held here under Bishop Franz von Waldeck.
In 1648 the now secular Principality of Minden (known prior to secularization as the Bishopric of Minden), to which the present borough belonged, went to Brandenburg-Prussia. The town hall burned down in 1705 and was rebuilt in 1709. In 1765 the Prussian government arranged the division of the marks which generated a large portion of the revenue of the town through the allocation of rights and the collection of hunting revenue. Lübbecke's protests against the mark division were unsuccessful.
Lübbecke's medieval fortifications were preserved up to the beginning of the 19th century. Due to the high cost of maintenance and their limited military value, the fortifications were razed in 1830 and the material used for construction, the walls being transformed into promenades.
Until the establishment of the de facto French Kingdom of Westphalia in 1807 and the introduction of French administrative structures, the Burgmann lords remained a major centre of power in Prussian Lübbecke and hindered the development of a patrician class. The middle class merchants were however always represented on the town council by six senatorial seats and provided a civic mayor, who presided over the town jointly with a noble mayor, but the nobility held the reins. The town hall regulations adopted in 1727 by the Prussian government institutionalized this 'diarchy' and envisaged only two senatorial seats. In the Kingdom of Westphalia Lübbecke became the canton capital in the Département du Weser and in the Distrikt of Minden and remained so even when this fell to France in 1811 (from 1811, the Département de l’Ems-Supérieur). In 1813 Lübbecke became Prussian again and, after belonging briefly to the Zivilgouvernement zwischen Weser und Rhine, became part of the Prussian Province of Westphalia. After extensive administrative reforms and the dissolution of the Principality of Minden, Lübbecke became part of the newly created Regierungsbezirk Minden and district of Rahden. In 1832 Lübbecke became the administrative seat of a new district combining Rahden with elements of the district of Bünde, which was renamed into Lübbecke district.
Like almost everywhere in Minden-Ravensberg the textile industry initially emerged in proto-industrial form and, later, was supported by the Prussian state with the construction of the Cologne-Minden Railway and its branch line from Bünde to Rahden, opened in 1899. The cigar industry developed into an important economic factor in Bünde Land and the surrounding towns, including Lübbecke, from about 1860. In 1863 August Blase founded a cigar factory, which had 6,000 employees by 1938. This included employees in its many branches, because just as before in the proto-industrial textile sector, cigars were often cut, rolled and pressed in the home or in stalls. These two branches of the economy - the textile and tobacco industries - are still represented in Lübbecke today, even though their influence now lags behind that of engineering and other industries. In 1907, the last section of the Minden District Railway to Lübbecke opened (running from Minden via Hille to Eickhorst in 1903). In the 1950s, the narrow gauge railway was converted from metre gauge to standard gauge due to the transport of goods. Operations were discontinued in 1974 and the track dismantled between Hille and Lübbecke. In 1912, the first houses were connected to the electrical supply from the Lower Saxon Power Stations. In 1899 the Gasfabrik am Hahlerbaum, a local gas company, was founded; the precursor to today's public utilities. From 1934 Lübbecke had a central water supply.
In the Second World War, Lübbecke largely escaped attack and was occupied on 3 April 1945 by British troops without great resistance. The nearby town of Bad Oeynhausen became the headquarters of the British forces and British administrative authorities and military staff elements were also housed in Lübbecke. To that end 251 of the 432 houses in Lübbecke were commandeered and cordoned off as accommodation for the Allies. Almost the entire town centre became an exterritorial zone, because all the important administrative buildings of the town's infrastructure went to the British. The finance office on Kaiserstraße was used as the head office of the British Occupation Zone authorities. Even after the foundation of the Federal Republic of West Germany this building remained a base for British military staff, its last use being as the headquarters of the 2nd Armoured Division (Herford being the headquarters of the 1st Armoured Division) before it withdrew in 1983. Up on the hillside above the town was a former Hitler Youth training centre that was also commandeered after the war as Montgomery's headquarters and later became the Officers Mess for HQ 2nd Armoured Division until 1983. After the Division withdrew to the UK the building was renamed Church House and repurposed as a Christian retreat and courses centre as well as a general military conference centre until it closed in 2019 as part of the British Army's withdrawal from Germany.
The election of the first freely elected town council took place on 17 October 1948.
In 1973, after the communal reforms of the Bielefeld Act (Bielefeld-Gesetz) the districts of Minden and Lübbecke were merged into the new district of Minden-Lübbecke and the entire district administration was moved to Minden. At the same time the borough of Lübbecke was significantly increased in size by the parishes of Blasheim, Gehlenbeck, Eilhausen and Nettelstedt and the farming community (Bauernschaft) of Alswede.
Historical population
¹ Census results (measured against the current boundaries)
Incorporations
Before the municipal and land reforms that took place on 1 January 1973 the present villages formed their own parishes in Amt Gehlenbeck (Nettelstedt, Eilhausen, Gehlenbeck) or were farming communities (Bauernschaften) attached to parishes (Obermehnen, Blasheim, Stockhausen and Alswede). Obermehnen, Stockhausen as well as the eponymous farming community of Blasheim which belonged to the parish of Blasheim (Amt Preußisch Oldendorf). The community of Alswede gave its name to the parish and district (Amt) of Alswede. These incorporated areas lay almost entirely south of the Mittelland Canal, whereas the parish of Alswede, disbanded on 1 January 1973, and the districts of Amt Gehlenbeck and Amt Alswede spread out a long way to the north. For the northern boundary of the borough of Lübbeck, newly formed in 1973, the Mittelland Canal was chosen, so that the smaller areas of land north of the canal, including those that had belonged to the town of Lübbecke, were transferred to the town of Espelkamp. A bigger reorganisation was needed in the region of the former parish of Alswede. Its territory north of the canal - the villages of Fiestel and Alswede - were separated from the eponymous district of Alswede and incorporated into Espelkamp. Only the village of Alswede lying south of the canal went to Lübbecke. In the south Lübbecke was given part of the Wiehen Hills (Amt Hüllhorst) that used to belong to Ahlsen-Reineberg, namely the Reineberg and the northern slopes of the Heidbrink.
Religion
The populations has been overwhelmingly Evangelical-Lutheran, since the Prince-Bishopric of Minden accepted the Protestant confession and was secularised in 1648 and, as the Principality of Minden, incorporated into Protestant Prussia. Its Protestant church parishes are the Evangelical-Lutheran parishes in Alswede, Blasheim, Gehlenbeck, Lübbecke and Nettelstedt and the Independent Evangelical-Lutheran parish of St. Peter in Stockhausen and the Evangelical-Free church parish of Lübbecke. The only Roman Catholic parish is the parish of Lübbecke. In addition there are several, other small Christian and non-Christian religious communities.
The breakdown of religious affiliation is illustrated by the example of schoolchildren in Hüllhorst. Around 72% of the children are Protestant (Evangelical), 6.8% Roman Catholic, and 4.4% Islamic. 7.4% say they belong to other religions and 9.2% don't belong to any religion.
Culture and places of interest
Theatre
The Nettelstedt Open Air Stage (Freilichtbühne Nettelstedt) founded in 1923 is an amateur theatre stage with around 900 seats. The Kahle Wart Open Air Stage (Freilichtbühne Kahle Wart) lies right next to the town boundary, albeit on Hüllhorst territory. In the town hall, that has an audience capacity of about 650, there are regular performances and concerts by visiting ensembles.
Music
The numerous trombone bands, such as the Posaunenchor Nettelstedt, grew out of the pietistic trombone bands of the late 19th century and still exist today. In Lübbecke there is a music school and the Jazzclub Lübbecke. St. Andrew's Church has an eponymous choir. In Gehlenbeck a people's choir (Volkschor) was founded in 1922. The idea came from the workers of the numerous cigar factories of that time, who often sang songs at work and wanted to form a society around their pastime.
The Lübbecke Symphony Orchestra (Sinfonieorchester Lübbecke) was founded in 1950 and celebrated its 60th anniversary during the 2009–2010 concert season. Some of its soloists come from the teaching staff of the Pro Musica music school in Lübbecke.
Museums
Barre's Beer World Brewery Museum (Brauereimuseum Barre's Brauwelt): the museum of the town's local brewery, is housed in an old storage cellar and covers the history of the brewery as well as brewing in general.
Lübbecke Town Museum (Museum der Stadt Lübbecke): A comprehensive collection of traditional costume, a cigar-making collection, a cobbler's workshop and many other exhibits of town history are displayed in the town museum on the market square. The exhibits include coins, weapons, paintings and silver jewellery from the 16th to the 19th centuries. The oldest finds date to the Bronze Age.
The Gehrmker Hius in Gehlenbeck offers an insight into the village life of bygone years.
Buildings in Lübbecke
St. Andrew's Church. The church was built from 1160 to 1180 in the Romantic style and converted into a Gothic hall church in 1350.
The ruins of Reineberg Castle are located on the Reineberg, the local hill of Lübbecke. The site was first mentioned in 1221 in the records and was largely demolished in 1723. Today only the remains of the ramparts and moat are recognisable.
The Old Town Hall is a cultural and media centre. The building is first recorded in 1460, but was largely rebuilt after a town fire in 1709. It is a two-storey, rendered, solid building with a gable roof. In the rebuilding work carried out in 1861, it was fitted with a neo-Gothic stepped gable. The east wing with its adjoining Fire Service Tower, whose pointed arch, ground floor arcades reflect the shape of the gable, were not added until 1936. In 2006–2007, the building was turned into a cultural and media centre and extended to the rear.
Residential buildings. Although Lübbecke was largely spared from destruction during the Second World War, its old town no longer has a coherent appearance. Until the middle of the 20th century its streets comprised rows of ordinary, gabled, timber-framed buildings, the majority of which dated to the 18th and 19th centuries. Several of them had bay windows. Not until the redevelopment of the town carried out at the end of the 1960s were there significant losses in the stock of historic houses. The market place (Marktplatz), which was a victim of redevelopment to make way for residential houses and businesses like the Tribbenhof, was particularly badly affected. In 1975, one of the most attractive timber-framed houses in the town, No. 6 Blüttenstraße, with its double-jettied gable, was demolished. Amongst the surviving stone buildings, the house of the industrialist Hecht family, No. 7 Ostertorstrasse, stands out. This classicist plastered building with its central avant-corps was built in 1832 as a restaurant and hotel. Its outside staircase, removed in the 1950s was reconstructed in the 1990s. On Niedertorstraße lies the so-called Old Apothecary (Alte Apotheke). This two-storey, half-timbered building with its mansard roof was built in 1820. Other timber-framed buildings have survived on Langen Straße (Nos. 23, 25, 26 and 44) and in the vicinity of St. Andrew's Church, including the dean's residence, No. 3, Pfarrstraße. On Wilhelmsplatz 1 lies the raised, single-storey Pfarrwitwenhaus ("priest's widow's house"), whose history goes back to the 18th century. It was comprehensively restored in 2002 and is now a bed and breakfast inn.
The Burgmannshof von der Recke, on Am Markt 19 is a local history museum. The date over the main entrance of this two-storey, rendered solid building with its outside staircase is 1735, but its core is probably older. As well as the manor house (Herrenhaus) a part of the courtyard wall, the gate and the storage barn (Speicher), restored in 1985, have survived.
Grapendorfs Hof (community centre), Gerichtsstraße 5. Of the former manor that comprised several buildings, only the manor house itself has survived. The core of the house is likely to date to the end of the 16th century. Damaged in the town fire of 1734, the manor was subsequently rebuilt. Today it forms a modest, heptagonal plastered building with a mansard roof, whose outside staircase was removed in recent times for the benefit of traffic. In 1828 the former castellan's residence (Burgmannshof) was bought from the treasury office, in order to use it as the town court. In 1845 and 1846 it was expanded by a wing to the north, also heptagonal in shape, that acted as a district prison. In 1988, after the district court moved to a larger building, the complex was returned to the town which turned it into a citizens’ community centre. This was opened in 1993. The old district court is used nowadays by numerous groups.
Barre Brewery (Brauerei Barre). The oldest buildings were built shortly after the foundation of the brewery in 1842. The site is dominated by the mash house with its Gothic tower.
On the second highest hill in the borough, the Wurzelbrink (), is a watchtower built in the 19th century, known as the Wartturm.
Beer Fountain (Bierbrunnen): The fountain on the Burgmannshof, donated in 1954 by Ernst-Ludwig Barre, dispenses beer once a year during the Beer Fountain Festival (Bierbrunnenfest).
Buildings in the borough
St. Nicholas' Church in Gehlenbeck was built around 1495. The tower of the Gehlenbeck church is considerably older and was probably erected in the period 1100–1150. There must have been an earlier church by the 10th century, as was indicated by excavations. A church here is first recorded in 1156.
St. Andrew's Church, Alswede: probably built from the destroyed castle of Mesenburg above Lübbecke.
Gehrmker Hius: the Gehrmker Hius in its present style is a timber-framed farmhouse from the year 1798. It is used today as a local history house (Heimathaus).
Königsmühle Eilhausen: this smock mill in Eilhausen was built in 1748 and has a round, sandstone mill tower. The mill has a fantail. The mill is a waypoint on the Westphalian Mill Route.
Wassermühle Eilhausen: the rubble stone building with timber-framed gables may have been built in 1698. The overshot water wheel has a diameter of 2.6 metres. In the 19th century there were many such mills in Lübbecke. The mill is a waypoint on the Westphalian Mill Route.
Stockhausen Manor House: The manor house is a water castle in Stockhausen. The origins of this manor house go back to at least the 14th century.
Stockhausen: Stockhausen is characterised by its rustic farmsteads with their timber framing typical of the regional and their associated hireling cottages. It has 19 listed buildings. Farmyard oaks, mixed orchard meadows and cottage gardens reinforce the countryside feeling. In the competition "Our Village Should Become More Beautiful" (Unser Dorf soll schöner werden) Stockhausen was awarded gold several times in 1995. In 1997 Stockhausen was designated one of four "model cultural villages" (Kulturmusterdörfern) in Ostwestfalen-Lippe.
Renkhausen Manor House: the neo-Renaissance style manor house was founded on the walls of an old water castle that was first mentioned in 1278.
Obernfelde Manor House: the former knight's estate and manor house was first mentioned in 1540.
Eickel Manor House: formerly called Echolte Manor House, it is located near Blasheim. A reference to a knight called Eylwast of Echolte suggests that the manor house may well have existed before 1183. Formerly there was a Groß-Eickel Manor House and a Klein-Eickel Manor House. These two estates were however merged at the start of the 18th century.
Babilonie: the La Tène culture hillfort lies on a hill in the Wiehen near Obermehnen and could have been a refuge castle.
Meesenburg: only the ruins of this fortification on the Meesenkopf hill have survived. It was probably slighted in the 12th century.
Parks
As a small town situated between moorland and forest, Lübbecke has no need for expansive parks in the classic sense. Just 10 to 15 minutes walk away from Lübbecke are the Wiehen Hills and TERRA.vita Nature Park. Lübbecke's townsfolk have the Gallenkamp, a park-like, elevated open space in the immediate vicinity of the town centre. From here there is a splendid view over the Lübbecker Land. In winter the Gallenkamp is used by Lübbecke's youth for tobogganing.
There is also a long strip of parkland in the area of Schützenstraße.
Another large, local area of grassland with walks is located between the cemetery and the Wittekind Grammar School (Wittekind-Gymnasium).
Significantly, all the aforementioned parks and open spaces are within range of the more select residential areas, which are anyway in the immediate vicinity of the Wiehen Hills.
Outside the town itself the majority of parks are in the grounds of manor houses and castles. These include the following parks none of which are open to the public:
Stockhausen Manor Park: Little remains of the former Baroque gardens. An avenue of chestnuts, around 200 years old, runs from north to south from the manor house to the Recke family graveyard and was once an element of the gardens.
Renkhausen Manor Park: The landscape gardens of the manor house were laid out around 1900. A central element is the open area of lawn, which is studded with old trees. An artificial hill and a grotto also form part of the gardens. A 100-year-old Renkhausen lime avenue runs eastwards from the manor house.
Obernfelde Manor Park: The manor park was probably laid out together with the orangery, built in 1829 and now a residence. The orangery forms the centrepiece of a historic landscape park with a relatively extensive system of paths and avenues. Of the original park only a few elements south of the orangery remain.
Nature
That part of the Wiehen Hills in the borough of Lübbecke is also part of the TERRA.vita Nature Park (formerly the North Teutoburg Forest-Wiehen Hills Nature Park). There are also six nature reserves in the borough:
Bastauwiesen: 1,844 ha of protected wet meadows along the Bastau. Large parts of the area lie in Hille and the borough of Minden.
Finkenburg: 13 ha area in Blasheim.
Gehlenbecker Masch: 45 ha of wet meadows
Großes Torfmoor: Westphalia's biggest raised bog (Hochmoor). The 467 ha nature reserve lies partly in Hille.
Rauhe Horst – Schäferwiesen: 198 ha of water meadows and wet grassland.
Sonnenwinkel: 4.3 ha of deciduous forest
The ratio of designated nature reserve land in Lübbecke is over 10 per cent and thus significantly greater than that in the state (7.3 per cent) and the Federation (2 per cent). This high value is all the more surprising because the near-natural Wiehen Hills, apart from the Sonnenwinkel are not a formally designated nature reserve.
The wildlife in Lübbecke includes the following large animals in the near-natural forested and moorland areas: wild boar and roe deer, fox, badger especially in the Wiehen, but also on cultivated land. In the moorland areas there are white stork, and the poisonous viper. Lübbecke is one of only two places, the other being nearby Petershagen, in the state of North Rhine-Westphalia where wild white storks still breed.
In the area south of the town is the largest colony of bats; often seen over the gardens on summer evenings.
Five groups of trees or isolated trees near Lübbecke and in the village of Gehlenbeck have been designated as natural monuments.
There are serious discussions that Lübbecke, possibly in cooperation with the neighbouring town of Espelkamp, will apply to stage the state garden show in 2017.
Twin towns – sister cities
Lübbecke is twinned with:
Bayeux, France (1968)
Dorchester, England, United Kingdom (1973)
Tiszakécske, Hungary (1989)
Bad Liebenwerda, Germany (1990)
Sport
The team handball club TuS Nettelstedt-Lübbecke is at home in Lübbecke. The club currently competes in the German First League of Handball.
Education
Schools
Wittekind Gymnasium Lübbecke
Stadtschule Lübbecke
Pestalozzi School
Berufskolleg Lübbecke
References
External links
Official website
Minden-Lübbecke
Wiehen Hills |
4107689 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eagle%20Mountain%20Railroad | Eagle Mountain Railroad | The Eagle Mountain Railroad (EMRR) was a private railroad in California, owned by the Kaiser Steel Corporation, and is owned today by Kaiser Steel's successor, Kaiser Ventures, Inc. of Ontario, California.
The EMRR is long and is located in Riverside County, California. Constructed in 1947–1948, it was used until 1986 to haul iron ore from Kaiser's Eagle Mountain Mine in the Colorado Desert to an interchange with the Southern Pacific Transportation Company in the Coachella Valley. The last revenue train to operate over the line was on March 24, 1986.
Route
The Eagle Mountain Railroad starts at a remote location called "Ferrum" (Latin for iron) which is located adjacent to the Salton Sea in Riverside County, and terminates away at the Eagle Mountain Mine (also known as Iron Chief Mine).
Ferrum was the location of a five track yard that was used to interchange with the Southern Pacific Railroad. Also located at Ferrum is a wye (not disconnected) and maintenance equipment shed. The interchange yard parallels the present-day Union Pacific Railroad Yuma Subdivision main line, the main transcontinental railroad line between California and Texas. The main track heading to Eagle Mountain starts at the east end of the yard.
Upon leaving the Ferrum interchange yard, the track immediately climbs a hill, then descends to a wooden trestle. The track then heads east over mudflats while ascending a grade. There is a wooden trestle over Dos Palmas Wash. The track crosses over the rebuilt Coachella Canal. The canal passes under the track in a concrete siphon. The track crosses the abandoned original channel of the Coachella Canal on a three span steel bridge. While the bridge remains, water no longer flows beneath.
The tracks continue climbing the mudflats east where they turn north on a sweeping curve. Continuing north, the tracks cross the Bradshaw Trail before passing through a small cut and entering the first of two horseshoe curves. After this horseshoe curve, the tracks run east along the foothills of the Chocolate Mountains while the Salt Creek Wash parallels the tracks on the south side.
After curving along the Chocolate Mountains for two miles (3 km), the tracks turn south and cross the Salt Creek Wash on the railroad's longest bridge. The "Salt Creek Wash Bridge" is long and high. The original bridge located here was a wooden trestle. After a fire destroyed that bridge an all-steel bridge was constructed. After the bridge, the track enters the second or upper horseshoe curve. At the start of the horseshoe curve, the track is located on a high fill; by the end of the curve, the track is located in a deep cut.
The tracks head northeast with the Salt Creek Wash paralleling the line on the north side. The tracks cross numerous small washes with either small wooden bridges or cast iron culverts allowing water to pass. At Milepost 20, the uphill grade remained at a constant 2.0% ever since before Milepost 4.
The railroad reaches the top of the long climb from Ferrum at "Summit", which is located at Milepost 25. A long passing siding and a short storage spur are located here. A maintenance shed is also located here.
After Summit, the track begins a long down hill run that will go almost the entire way to Eagle Mountain. Just past Summit, the tracks turn north and head towards Interstate 10. Just prior to crossing under Interstate 10, there are three small maintenance sheds. The "Interstate 10 Underpass" is located at the Red Cloud Road Exit. After the underpass, the tracks curve east and start running along the foothills of the Eagle Mountains. At Milepost 35.8 is "Entrance", the location of a short storage track. Shortly after Entrance, the tracks curve north again and head for the Victory Hills. Just before arriving at the Victory Hills, the tracks cross Eagle Mountain Road, the original access road to the mine. This is the first paved road (other than Interstate 10) that the railroad has crossed.
The Victory Hills are a chain of small hills that run east of the Eagle Mountains and provide a minor obstacle to the railroad. The railroad passes through these through a deep cut in the low part between two hills. After crossing Eagle Mountain Road for a second time, the tracks arrive at "Telephone Pass". The railroad today passes between the same two mountains. Telephone Pass is the end of the downhill grade from Summit and for here to the mine is all uphill.
The uphill climb from Telephone Pass to the Eagle Mountain Mine is called "Caution Hill" and is so named because its 2.15% grade is the steepest on the line and descending it with a loaded ore train required great caution. It got its name after a loaded train ran away here in the early days of the railroad. All loaded ore trains descending Caution Hill were restricted to and were required to come to a complete stop at the bottom for 5 minutes to cool their brakes before proceeding. During the climb up to Eagle Mountain, the tracks cross Eagle Mountain Road for a third time and then cross Aqueduct Road. Immediately after Aqueduct Road, the railroad crosses an underground section of the Colorado River Aqueduct. Fears that vibrations from the heavy trains would damage the underground concrete aqueduct, the railroad crosses the aqueduct on a steel bridge. While this bridge appears to cross over nothing since the desert sand covering the aqueduct covers the lower part of the bridge, its serves a vital function. As the tracks approach Eagle Mountain, they cross Eagle Mountain Road for the fourth and final time before looping around the base of the mountains and arriving at the Eagle Mountain Mine.
"Eagle Mountain Mine" is located at Milepost 51.0 with the end of track located at Milepost 51.3. There are four long tracks used in the loading ore process located here, along with a two track maintenance shop, a wye, and a few storage tracks. All the railroad facilities are located immediately west of the Eagle Mountain townsite.
Traffic
Iron ore
Mining equipment and supplies
History
Kaiser Steel Corporation was incorporated on December 1, 1941, for the purpose of manufacturing steel in Southern California. The finished steel was needed to supply the various shipbuilding facilities controlled by Henry J. Kaiser on the west coast. These facilities were building ships for the British government and were using costly eastern steel that was in short supply. After obtaining the $125 million needed, construction of the mill in Fontana, California, began. In August 1943, the first plate steel rolled off the production line there.
Coal for this early production came from Utah Fuel Company Mine No. 2 at Sunnyside, Utah, and was transported to the mill via the Union Pacific Railroad. In 1950, Kaiser Steel purchased the entire Sunnyside, Utah facility. In 1955, Kaiser purchased of land near Raton, New Mexico, for future expanded coal production. The existing mine at this Raton location, named the Koehler Mine, was operated and upgraded until a newer and more modern mine could be completed. This new mine, named York Canyon Mine, served as the major source of coking coal until the Fontana Mill closed in 1983.
Also needed for the production of steel was limestone. Until 1955, this material was purchased from various sources in California and Nevada. In that year Kaiser Steel purchased a large deposit located at Cushenbury, California, from the Fontana Mill. The limestone was transported to the Fontana Mill by the Santa Fe Railway.
The last ingredient needed for the steelmaking process was a reliable source of iron ore. Kaiser Steel purchased the Vulcan Mine located near Kelso, California, which served as the primary source of ore until 1948. The Union Pacific Railroad transported the iron ore from Kelso to the Fontana Mill. This ore was not of sufficient quality to satisfy Kaiser, and a better source was sought. In 1944 Kaiser Steel purchased the Eagle Mountain mining claim from the Southern Pacific Railroad and began development of the Eagle Mountain Mine after the end of World War II.
Construction and operation
Construction of long Eagle Mountain Railroad began in August 1947. This included of main line from Ferrum Junction (changed in 1956 to just Ferrum) to the mine yard and another two miles (3 km) of mine trackage. This was one of the longest privately built standard gauge railroads constructed in the American Southwest in the post World War II era. The line was completed on July 29, 1948, at a cost of $3.2 million. In August 1948 the first carloads of raw iron ore rolled over the newly-laid rails.
The railroad was originally constructed with 110-pound per yard jointed rail laid on wooden crossties. Later welded rail was tried but difficulties in retrieving this rail after flooding resulted in the railroad switching back to jointed rail. By 1980, 119-pound per yard rail was used in tangent sections while heavier 136-pound per yard rail was used in the majority of the curves.
During early operations, ore was loaded into Southern Pacific gondola and open-top hopper cars of 50-, 60- and 70-ton capacity. Starting in 1958, these cars were replaced by about 700 closed-bottom 100-ton ore cars. These cars were constructed by Southern Pacific at its Sacramento, California, shops. During the 1960s, these cars were modified to give them increased height, needed to carry pelletized ore (which was less dense) and this increased car loadings to 108 tons. From the early 1960s until the early 1970s, two loaded 100-car trains left the mine each day, seven days a week. One train carried the iron ore needed for the Fontana Mill while the second train handled ore to Long Beach, California, where it was shipped to oversea steel mills.
From the early 1970s until the early 1980s, one 100-car train was dispatched to the Fontana Mill each and every day. By 1982, operations varied from three to five trains per week, with as few as 40 carloads per train. After a short suspension of operations in early 1985, trains were run once a week until the complete discontinuance of operation in March 1986.
Loading ore
Loading the railcars with the processed iron ore at Eagle Mountain was fairly simple and required no locomotives to be used. An arriving train of up to 101 empty ore cars would be placed on one of two "incline" tracks. These incline tracks were specifically laid out so that the end of the track furthest from the ore loading tower would be the track's highest point and would gradually drop downgrade to the ore loading tower. When loading operations started, four cars at a time were cut off from the empty ore train and allowed to roll downhill the short distance to the loading tower where they were loaded, two cars at a time.
Once four cars were loaded, they were allowed to roll downhill to a special section of track called the "Reverser Track". As the cars rolled onto the Reverser Track, they would immediately start rolling uphill until they came to a stop and started rolling backward. They would then pass over a spring-loaded switch that would send the four loaded cars to one of two "saucer" tracks. These tracks were laid with the curvature of a saucer, with each end higher than middle. The cars would roll into the saucer track and settle at the bottom. When the next four loaded cars arrived, they would couple to the cars already there without damaging the cars and the entire line of cars would be evenly settled on the saucer track.
Movies
In January–February 1966, Columbia Pictures filmed many scenes for the motion picture The Professionals on the railroad. This action western starred Burt Lancaster, Lee Marvin, Robert Ryan, Woody Strode, Jack Palance and Claudia Cardinale. The basic story involved four men, each with unique talents, being hired by a millionaire to rescue his wife, who was kidnapped by a Mexican bandit. The movie makes extensive use of ex-Great Western steam locomotive No. 75, which stands in for both an American and Mexican locomotive. The scenes where the four men cross the border at a wooden bridge is actually the first railroad bridge north of Ferrum. The large steel bridge over the Salt Creek Wash was actually repainted to appear as a wooden bridge since the movie is set around 1910. Other scenes were shot at Gravel Pit and Summit. An ex-Southern Pacific caboose and a couple old wooden boxcars were used along with a Kaiser Steel flatcar for the various trains seen in the movie.
In March–April 1986, Touchstones Films, a Walt Disney subsidiary, filmed the movie Tough Guys on a portion of the railroad. This comedy starred Burt Lancaster, Kirk Douglas, Eli Wallach and Dana Carvey. It was the final collaboration for Burt Lancaster and Kirk Douglas. They play a pair of train robbers that have been released from prison after 30 years. Unable to survive in a changed world, they decide to rob the same train that they robbed 30 years ago. At the end of the film, they hijack the "Gold Coast Flyer" pulled by famed locomotive Southern Pacific 4449, and run it full throttle to the Mexican border.
The special train used in the film consisted of Southern Pacific 4449, its auxiliary water car, and four passenger cars. It departed its home base in Portland, Oregon, on March 5 and arrived in Los Angeles on March 9. Over the next four days, the interior of one passenger car was redone by Touchstone crews since it would appear in one scene. In addition, two Southern Pacific flatcars were added to the train and a mockup of the 4449's cab was placed on one of them. This mockup was used for some cab shots, since it is easier to move the camera around in it than in the real thing. Over the eight days between March 14 and March 21, several scenes were filmed at Southern Pacific's Taylor Yard.
On March 31, 1986, the seven car special train departed Los Angeles at 10:00am and arrived on the Eagle Mountain Railroad at Ferrum around 6:00pm. About one hour later it arrived at the movie set that had been constructed at Summit. The train spent the night here. The next day, April 1, the Southern Pacific 4449 along with one passenger car and its auxiliary water tender headed for Eagle Mountain for water. After filling up with water, the shortened train returned to Summit. The following day, April 2, saw the start of nine days of filming on the railroad. Scenes were shot between the Coachella Canal Bridge and Summit. Shooting these scenes required numerous run-bys and hours of waiting. During the last few days of filming, the water supply on board the locomotive started to run low, so a pair of Kaiser Steel U30C's picked up the auxiliary water tender, took it to Eagle Mountain where it was refilled with water and then returned to Summit later in the day. During the filming, the local school children from Eagle Mountain Elementary School took a field trip to see and tour the train and movie set, with miniatures, at Summit. Filming wrapped up on April 10, and that afternoon the train headed to Eagle Mountain for servicing. The next day, April 11, the special train backed all the way to Ferrum where the train is turned around before heading to Colton, California. The special train arrived back in Portland on April 16.
(Near the end of the movie, it appears that 4449 runs off the end of the track into the dirt, then the actors emerge from the cab. This was done using another full-sized fiberglass/wood mockup, this time of both the engine and tender. This mockup can still be seen through the windows of a garage building adjacent to the cafe in Desert Center, CA.)
Closure
In the late 1970s increased environmental concerns at the Fontana Mill and stiff foreign competition resulted in decreased demand for Kaiser Steel products and thus resulted in a reduction of output at the Eagle Mountain Mine. This dropped the population at Eagle Mountain to a low of 1,890 residents. In Summer 1980, the mine shutdown briefly, reopening on September 23. Only 750 workers were brought back to the town with 150 on furlough.
On November 3, 1981, Kaiser Steel announced the phasing out of half the Fontana Mill and the closure of the entire Eagle Mountain Mine over the next few years. The population dwindled as layoffs began. The grocery store closed in October, 1982 and the post office, which had been active since 1951, closed in January, 1983. In June 1983, the last official graduating class celebrated their commencement at Eagle Mountain High School, followed by closing of both the mine and mill a few months later.
The Eagle Mountain Railroad saw a reduction on operations that mirrored the reduced production at the mine. During the early 1980s, the railroad was only operating a single ore train three to five times per week, with each train consisting of as little as 40 cars. When the mine closed in 1983, the railroad was barely operating three trains per week.
While the Eagle Mountain Mine had stopped all mining activity in 1983, they still had a significant stockpile of processed iron ore sitting on the ground in Eagle Mountain. It was decided to ship this product out since it was high-quality concentrated iron-ore, which is very valuable. The railroad operated two trains per week from mid-1983 until early 1985 when operations shutdown for a brief time. When operations resumed, they only operated a single train per week, usually 50 to 60 cars in length. When the stockpiled ore was gone, the railroad shut down. The last ore train operated on March 24, 1986, when 20 cars of ore where shipped out. Once filming of the Tough Guys movie was completed, the last two remaining locomotives were sent to the Fontana Mill.
Redevelopment
Correctional facility
Shortly after the last iron ore had been shipped out in 1986, the California Department of Corrections proposed placing a privately operated prison for low-risk inmates at Eagle Mountain. In 1988, Management and Training Corporation, an operator of several private-run prisons, converted the old shopping center into just such a facility. State budget problems and a fatal riot led to the closure of the prison on December 31, 2003. Although there were talks to reopen the facility in 2005, no agreement was reached to do so.
Waste site
During 1988, a proposal was made to turn one of the gigantic 1.5-mile-long (2.4 km) by half-mile-wide (800 m) mining pits into a massive, high-tech sanitary landfill. The landfill, to be operated by a partnership of two privately operated trash collection firms and the successor to Kaiser Steel, Kaiser Ventures, would ship trash by train from metropolitan Los Angeles area via the Eagle Mountain Railroad. The Riverside County Board of Supervisors approved the project in October 1992 after EPA approval of the project. Due to numerous lawsuits regarding the environmental effects of the landfill, the project was repeatedly delayed. The private partnership decided in late 1999 to give up on the project. Their share of the project was bought out by Kaiser Ventures, making it controlling owner of the project.
In August 2000, Kaiser Ventures reached an agreement with the Los Angeles Sanitation Districts, a public entity consisting of several Los Angeles public waste collection agencies, to purchase the landfill project to replace their Puente Hills Landfill, which would be nearing the end of its useful life. However, since the sale agreement states that all lawsuits and claims regarding the project must be resolved, the transaction never began. As of 2009, there was only one lawsuit still pending but in November 2009, Kaiser Ventures received a disappointing ruling from the Federal Court of Appeals for the 9th Circuit regarding this lawsuit. This ruling was a major setback for the project and ultimately Kaiser Ventures decided to abandon the project.
However, the solid waste disposal market has changed significantly since the Eagle Mountain landfill was first proposed. There has been a substantial reduction in the waste generated due to recycling efforts and an increase in low-cost traditional disposal sites (most notably in nearby Orange County), eliminating the need for remote solid waste landfills such as the Eagle Mountain landfill. The reduction in waste generated has been so great that the other landfill site owned by the Los Angeles Sanitation Districts, the Mesquite Regional Landfill near Glamis, will not be needed until 2030 at the earliest even though all construction of this facility has been completed and it could immediately start accepting trash.
Maintenance & mothballing
The railroad remained relatively untouched since the last ore train operated in 1986. However, the large ore loading tower at Eagle Mountain was removed in 1990. Kaiser Ventures conducted maintenance work and routine repairs to the rail line in the mid-1990s. To accomplish this, a single switcher locomotive (painted for Kaiser Ventures) was brought to the property to operate small work trains. When this work was completed, the locomotive was stored at Eagle Mountain for a short time before being moved to the old Fontana Mill site where it remained stored.
In August and September 2003, approximately of track were damaged when two flash floods hit the railroad. In several locations, culverts were washed out leaving track suspended in the air although no significant structures were damaged as all bridges held up well to the flood waters. In other locations, silt up to deep covers the tracks. Kaiser Ventures estimated it would cost about $3.5 million to repair the damage. During the next two years, a contractor conducted work along the entire line to culverts and protective diversion dikes to prevent any further damage but the damaged sections remained as Kaiser Ventures decided to postpone repairs until a future date when funds would be available.
Track removal
The entire interchange yard in Ferrum was removed by the Union Pacific during a track expansion project. All that remains is part of the wye and an old maintenance-of-way structure. The railroad's mainline appears to still be mostly intact. In April 2017, a railroad materials company began removing the track by working its way from Eagle Mountain to Ferrum. By 2023 removal will be completed.
Rolling stock
Locomotives
The first locomotives used by Kaiser Steel on the Eagle Mountain Railroad were a pair of Baldwin Locomotive Works DRS6-6-15 diesels numbered 1010A and 1010B. They were constructed in June 1948 and delivered to the railroad in August 1948. They were Builder Numbers 73749 and 74451. They had .
As production at the mine increased, the railroad purchased two more locomotives from Baldwin. These were AS616s and were numbered 1012A and 1012B. They were constructed in early 1951 and delivered to the railroad in June 1952. They were Builder Numbers 75356 and 75357. They had .
In 1958, with production continuing to increase, the railroad purchased another Baldwin AS616 from a second-hand locomotive dealer. This locomotive was built in November 1950 and delivered to the Chesapeake and Ohio Railway (C&O) in December 1950 as their No. 5533. It has Builder Number 74917 and also had . It was sold by C&O to Pan American Engineering in Dallas, Texas in January 1958 and resold to Kaiser Steel later that year. It was assigned No. 1020 by Kaiser Steel.
In 1966 and 1967, all locomotives were renumbered by Kaiser Steel. 1010A and 1010B become 1025 and 1026 respectively while 1012A and 1012B becoming 1027 and 1028. Locomotive 1020 become 1029.
These five Baldwin locomotives were being used on a daily basis and all five were required to move a single train from the Eagle Mountain Mine to the interchange at Ferrum. By 1968, these locomotives were at the end of their useful lives and were constantly breaking down. The railroad was leasing two additional Baldwin AS616's from Southern Pacific, but still couldn't keep five locomotives running on a regular basis. This required the railroad "double" the train, which is a costly and time-consuming procedure. By 1968, the railroad decided it was time to purchase new locomotives.
In 1968, Kaiser Steel purchased five new General Electric U30C locomotives. These were numbered 1030 through 1034. The first three were constructed in March 1968 and the other two in April 1968. All five were delivered to the railroad in late April 1968. They were Builder Numbers 36762 through 36766. They have . They were built to Southern Pacific specifications since they were built from five production slots from an existing Southern Pacific order.
The five original locomotives were kept as spare locomotives until 1971 when they were either sold or transferred to other Kaiser operations. Locomotives 1025 and 1026 were sold in March 1972 to Railway Supply Company of Montgomery, Alabama. There they were rebuilt for Peabody Coal Company for use at its River King Mine in Marrisa, Illinois. 1025 was later sold for scrap to Hyman-Michaels in Alton, Illinois and was scrapped in August 1978. 1026 was sold in August 1978 to Koppel Bulk Terminal at Long Beach, California. It was then sold in early 1980 to Chrome Cranshaft in Alhambra, California and was scrapped in late 1980.
Locomotives 1027 and 1029 were sent to Pan American Engineering in 1971 for repairs. They were then sent to Kaiser Bauxite in Discovery Bay, Jamaica where they became 5108 and 5107 respectively. As of 2008, reports from railfans indicate they are still there, but long out-of-service.
Locomotive 1028 was sold in 1971 to Rayonier, Inc. at Grays Harbor, Washington, where it was numbered 14. It was then sold in late 1985 to Trona Railway in Trona, California, where it became No. 54, entering service in late 1986. In late 1992 it was sold to Johnston Terminal in Enid, Oklahoma. It was then sold in July 1995 to SMS Rail Service in New Jersey and given the number 554. As of 2008, it was still in service at SMS Rail Service, assigned to the Pureland Industrial Complex in Bridgeport, New Jersey.
The five GE U30C locomotives worked on the Eagle Mountain Railroad from 1968 to April 1986. Most of the time, four were assigned to the daily iron-ore trains, while the fifth locomotive would be used as a spare or be cycled through the Southern Pacific's Taylor Shops for routine maintenance and repairs. When the mine shutdown in 1983, the railroad continued operating, hauling out the stockpiled iron ore. When the stockpile ran out, the locomotives were sent to the Fontana Mill for storage. The last three locomotives left the property on April 8, 1986. All five locomotives remained in storage at the Fontana Mill until 1995 when they were scrapped.
Cabooses
Kaiser Steel had two home-built cabooses it used on the Eagle Mountain Railroad. The first caboose was KS 1905 and was constructed at the Fontana Mill in 1948. The second caboose was KS 1918 and was constructed at the Fontana Mill in 1953. Both cabooses were similar to those used on the Southern Pacific Railroad at that time. Both were bay-window style with ASF Andrew-type four wheel trucks, National coiled spring bearings, and used Kaiser ship-type welded steel plate construction. They had swamp cooler air-conditioning and unusually wide bay windows. The windows in KS 1905 were slightly larger than those on KS 1918.
Both cabooses were used on a regular basis and one caboose was always at the rear of loaded ore trains from Eagle Mountain to Ferrum and just behind the locomotives on the return trips to Eagle Mountain. When the railroad reduced operations from two to one round trip ore train per day, KS 1905 become the only caboose used and KS 1918 was stored at Ferrum, where it was severely vandalized.
In June 1975, KS 1905 received severe frame damage in a switching accident at Eagle Mountain. The maintenance shop at Eagle Mountain started repairs on KS 1905 but it was quickly halted once the damage was determined to be too extensive. At this point, KS 1918 was moved to Eagle Mountain and rebuilt by the maintenance shop. Renumbered as the "new" KS 1905, its metal toolbox and wire alternator cage are from the "original" KS 1905. The rebuilding gave the "new" KS 1905 rubbered molding windows, axle belt-driven alternator, ice box, new water tank, and an air-flush commode. It was painted red with white Kaiser Steel lettering and numbers on the side. The "new" KS 1905 was used on the ore trains until 1983 when trains started operating without cabooses.
The "old" KS 1905 was stored at Eagle Mountain until 1983. Since its aborted rebuilding had left it nothing but a steel shell on railroad wheels, it was sold and was on display at Ragsdale's Desert Center Cafe in Desert Center, California, about south of Eagle Mountain. As of April 2009, it was still there. In November 2019, it was sold via auction for $7,500 to an unknown buyer. The "new" KS 1905 was donated by Kaiser Steel to the Pacific Southwest Railway Museum Association (PSRMA) in June 1984. On January 28, 1985, it was taken to Campo, California by truck since the railroad wasn't operating at the time. Now on display in operating condition, the "new" KS 1905 is the San Diego Railway Museum's primary work-train caboose due to its sturdiness, excellent visibility and air conditioning. It has even carried revenue passengers on occasion.
Notes
Eagle Mountain is the birthplace of Kaiser Permanente Health Care. It was at this industrial mining town that Kaiser created company owned medical clinics that would later serve as a model for what is known today as a health maintenance organization (HMO).
The staff of Model Railroader Magazine paid homage to the Eagle Mountain Railroad by building a 4 foot by 6 foot HO scale layout in the January 2016 through January 2017 issues of Model Railroader (The January 2016 issue was the introduction of the layout while the rest was featured in the step-by-step column).
See also
List of defunct California railroads
References
External links
San Diego Railway Museum: Photo of EMRR Caboose
Defunct California railroads
Iron ore railways
Mining railways in the United States
Eagle Mountain, Railroad
Transportation in Riverside County, California
Eagle Mountain, Railroad
Companies based in San Bernardino County, California
Eagle Mountain, Railroad
Railway lines opened in 1948
Railway lines closed in 1986
1948 establishments in California
1986 disestablishments in California |
4107691 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haven%3A%20Call%20of%20the%20King | Haven: Call of the King | Haven: Call of the King is a 2002 multi-genre action-adventure video game developed by Traveller's Tales and published by Midway Games for the PlayStation 2. The game was also scheduled for release on the Xbox and GameCube, to be published by Xicat Interactive, but both versions were cancelled. A Game Boy Advance version was also planned, but never got beyond the earliest developmental stages.
Intended as the first part of a trilogy, Haven took over three years to develop, and combines action, platforming, puzzle, shoot 'em up, racing and space combat elements. Both Midway and Traveller's Tales championed Haven as a previously unseen type of game, wherein the player could jump seamlessly from genre to genre, with Midway trademarking the term "FreeFormer gameplay" to describe the mixture of gameplay styles.
Haven received mixed reviews, with the main complaint amongst critics being that it was too ambitious for its own good, producing multiple examples of average gameplay, but nothing outstanding. Although Midway launched a sizable advertising campaign to promote the game, calling it "the next major development in videogaming," it received relatively little media attention and was a considerable commercial failure. The two sequels were never made.
Gameplay
At its core, Haven: Call of the King is an action-adventure game played from a third-person perspective, with much of the gameplay based around platforming. During the main platforming levels, Haven can perform various basic abilities; jump, double jump, high jump, crouch and attack. Haven also has access to an energy shield which he can deploy in front of him to protect him from incoming projectiles. He can deploy the shield indefinitely if it is not absorbing any impacts, but when it does deflect objects, it begins to deplete. As well as deploying the shield in front of him, Haven can also crouch and completely cover himself with the shield. He can also use the shield to perform a "shield smash," which is necessary for killing certain enemies and accessing certain pots.
Haven's main offensive weapon is a modified yo-yo device known as a "mag-ball." Its range is limited, but it can be used to defeat enemies, smash pots and grip onto "mag-rides;" electrical transports which bring Haven to other locations in a level. Haven can also use the mag-ball to perform a "power-spin" (where he spins 360 degrees with the mag-ball extended at all times, damaging anything that comes within range). He can also acquire a variety of firearms during the game, which briefly replace the mag-ball as his offensive weapon. These weapons include a laser shot, a rapid-fire cannon, a ricochet cannon, a five-way shot and a plasma shot.
A major part of the gameplay during platforming levels involves item collecting. For example, hearts, which are found in pots scattered throughout most levels and also dropped by some defeated enemies, replenish Haven's health. Catana orbs (small yellow disk-like objects) replenish his antidote meter, which, if it falls to zero, begins to deplete his health. Shield energy replenishes his shield abilities. Other collectibles include feathers, which are necessary for Haven to call Talon, a mechanical bird he has constructed. Often, calling Talon is necessary to progress through a level. On other occasions, Talon can carry Haven to secret parts of a level, otherwise inaccessible. Cogs are necessary to operate machinery, and are always a story-related items. Also found in many levels are silver keys. Any level which has a "Runepot" requires Haven to locate five silver keys before he can open the pot. Runepots hold Runestones, which can be used to unlock secret Runetowers later in the game. Completing the challenges in the Runetowers reveals Black Diamonds, which must be collected if the player wishes to complete the game to 100%.
Other gameplay sections involve different control schemes and game mechanics. For example, when wearing the jet pack, Haven can accelerate upwards by expending fuel. When using the glider, as well as basic maneuverability, he can perform an air brake. In the biplane, he can roll left and right. In the speedboat and quadracer, he can accelerate and brake. When operating a turret or spaceship, he has access to forward and aft missiles and can lock on to enemies. The spaceship Sunsurfer, which Haven acquires towards the end of the game, also has access to different types of missiles, and can equip a shield.
Synopsis
Background
One thousand years before the commencement of the game, King Athellion departed his home world to fight in an intergalactic crusade. On the Mount of Sighs, he left a giant bell, the Golden Voice, which was to be rung to call his return should he ever be needed. Many years later, an evil being named Lord Vetch enslaved Athellion's people, forcing them to work in his mines. To ensure their servitude, Vetch infected every slave with a deadly virus requiring a constant dose of antidote, the only source of which he controlled. He also ensured the people had no knowledge of the Golden Voice, or of King Athellion.
Plot
The game begins with Vetch (voiced by Steve Tarlow) receiving a transmission from his lieutenant, Overlord (Jason Gregory), who tells him a slave named Haven has been dreaming about the Golden Voice, something Vetch hopes to turn to his advantage. Meanwhile, in Virescent Village on the planet Ferra, Haven (Jake Rosewall-Gallagher) heads to work in the mines. There, he sees his friend Chess (Regan Kerwan) being questioned by a guard, who tries to shoot Haven. However, he misses, and causes the mine to collapse, knocking out Haven.
Upon awakening, he learns Chess hasn't been seen since the collapse. Setting out to find her, Haven reaches Darkwater Castle, home of Overlord, who contacts Vetch to tell him their plan is going well. Haven watches Overlord interrogate Chess about Haven's dreams. She refuses to tell him anything, and Haven intervenes, killing Overlord and freeing Chess. They escape, and Chess says that while in detention, she heard Overlord mention a wise old slave on the Isle of Heroes.
Haven heads there, and meets the Wise Man (Terry Bertram), who tells him the legend of Athellion; Vetch was determined to conquer Athellion's city, Aurias. However, he was unable to even approach the city, as its light would blind him. When Athellion left for the war, Vetch bribed a council member to infect the people with the virus, so they became his slaves. Over time, even the location of the Mount of Sighs has been forgotten. However, the Wise Man directs Haven to a map identifying the location of the Mount on the planet Auria. Haven reaches the Golden Voice, reading a warning stating that once the bell is rung, the person who rings it must wait there for Athellion's return. He rings it, but immediately Chess contacts him, telling him she is stranded without any antidote. He reluctantly leaves, returning to Ferra, and rescuing Chess.
However, she reveals she has been working with Vetch all along, who appears and congratulates her on her deception. Vetch tells Haven that Chess is one of his spies, deployed throughout his slave colonies to keep watch for anyone speaking of the Golden Voice. Vetch explains he had Chess call Haven away from the Mount of Sighs immediately after ringing the bell because the legend says that if the person who rings the bell does not remain on the Mount until Athellion's return, Athellion must return to wherever that person is - thus Vetch plans to wait until Athellion appears to Haven, and then kill him. With no more use for Chess, Vetch decides she can die with Haven. At this moment, Athellion arrives, telling Vetch he will surrender if Haven and Chess are spared. Vetch agrees, imprisoning them, and bringing Athellion back to the Mount of Sighs.
Haven escapes, but is unable to free Chess, and so sets out in pursuit of Vetch alone. He returns to the Mount of Sighs, where he sees Vetch kill Athellion. Haven confronts Vetch, but is defeated. However, the power of the Mount of Sighs keeps him alive. Vetch then ties Haven to a rock, pointing out "you can't live forever" and leaves him alone on the planet. The game ends on this cliffhanger.
Development
Haven: Call of the King was first announced on 16 May 2002 when Midway Games revealed they had partnered with Traveller's Tales to develop an original multi-genre game. Midway announced that Haven would be a third-person game with strong platforming elements combined with many other types of genre, such as turret-based shooting, land and water racing, space combat, and arena battles. They also revealed the game would debut on the PlayStation 2, but would subsequently be released for Xbox and GameCube.
The game was first shown the following week, at the 2002 E3 event, where a playable demo was made available. Whilst no narrative or story elements were in place yet, the demo featured environments from the Virescent Village level and the refinery level. Midway stressed the free-roaming nature of the game, saying "you can fully roam throughout the large environments on the ground, then get into a spaceship, point it at the sky and climb to outer space. Up there, you'll be able to do battle with whatever's mean, then return to the ground and start walking around again." GameSpot's Gerald Villoria wrote of this aspect of the demo "the planet and all the explorable areas in Haven are seamlessly linked--traveling from one area of the world to the next should incur no game stoppage due to load times. In fact, when Haven gains access to his flying vessel, he can literally rise above the planet's atmosphere and explore any of the continents. The landmasses smoothly raise in level of detail as the descending aircraft approaches, with nearly featureless topography slowly morphing into fully landscaped wilderness until the ship can literally hover above the treetops."
In a June interview with GameSpot, Traveller's Tales revealed the game had been in development for over three years, with them funding the project themselves, long before Midway got involved. They explained the game uses a game engine specifically designed for Haven, which allows smooth transition from third-person gameplay to piloting a vehicle. The engine also powers the cutscenes, allowing the camera to move and sweep around the landscape of a level, giving the player an idea of the route they have to take. Landscapes are fractally generated using the PlayStation 2's vector processors, which allows for considerable draw distance. The game also features night and day cycles and alternating weather patterns, such as randomly occurring rain showers (which prompt Haven to pull his hood up when outdoors). The developers were also keen to stress the game features no loading times; "Traveller's Tales intends for the game's loading to be invisible to players after the initial startup, thanks to carefully managed memory usage and constant streaming." They also revealed that after the PlayStation 2 launch, the game would be released for the Game Boy Advance as well as GameCube and Xbox.
In a 2006 interview with Gamasutra, writer/director/designer Jon Burton stated
In July, a more complete demo was made available to gaming websites, featuring platforming levels, space combat, racing, and underwater sections. Traveller's Tales explained the game's story had been written first, with concept art then designed by Rodney Matthews. The story was then broken down into different gameplay genres. Expert game designers for each genre were brought on board to develop each small section of the game. The main team of developers then took each of those sections and attempted to unify them into one seamless whole. This demo also revealed more of the capabilities of the game engine, which could depict heat distortions, particle effects, real-time light sourcing, shadows, and reflections, as well as the already revealed day and nights cycles and random weather effects.
GameSpot's Ricardo Torres noted that "the varied landscape is fractally generated using the PlayStation 2's vector units, which are working overtime for the game and allow for some very impressive effects. For example, when you board a spaceship in a third-person sequence in the game, you'll be able to take off and head out into space without a loading screen. The game will track your movement and reduce the size and detail of the environments as you gain altitude. The reverse is true when you're approaching a planet and go to land--you'll find that detail seen from the air will scale in as you get closer."
However, in August, IGN's Hilary Goldstein expressed concern about the lack of attention the game was getting; "Haven has received little to no hype. In fact, it seems barely on the consciousness of the gaming public at all." On 30 October, Midway trademarked the term "FreeFormer gameplay" to describe the gameplay mechanics, stating "FreeFormer gameplay is the next major development in videogaming. The technology in Haven: Call of the King allows for an unbelievable cinematic-style smoothness and experience as you encounter the varied play mechanics in the game."
Cancelled ports
On 29 May 2003, Xicat Interactive announced that despite the game's commercial failure on PlayStation 2, they would be publishing the game for both the Xbox and GameCube later in the year. However, neither version was ever made.
Reception
Haven: Call of the King received "average" reviews according to the review aggregation website Metacritic.
GameSpot's Mathew Gallant called it "an often surprising action-packed platformer with a distinctive style and plenty of challenge." He was critical of Haven's mag-ball weapon, writing "the jumping and other mechanics of Haven are solid, but the limitations of the mag-ball and the fairly frequent requirements of its use tend to overshadow them." He concluded "While Haven does offer a lot, it's not quite a sure bet. Primarily, the annoying control problems involved with the mag-ball can make an already difficult game needlessly frustrating [...] Yet the overall feel is that of a very intense and action-packed game. The fast-paced, quickly changing gameplay is refreshingly unordinary, and while there's an excellent chance that fans of platformers will love the diversity and challenge, some may find it a little too restless and overdone."
IGN's Chris Roper called the game "both great and deeply flawed." He praised the gameplay types, writing "variety is what this game's all about, and it's quite welcome." However, he was critical of the lack of story integration into the variation in gameplay styles; "One complaint about nearly every goal is that it often doesn't make any sense why you're doing what you're doing." He concluded "Haven: Call of the King is quite an ambitious title. At certain points it's great, but at others it can be either frustrating or very boring. The game ties in most of the different genres in a pretty smooth manner. Nothing seems entirely out of place [...] Overall, the game is worth playing through. You'll have to tough it out through some aggravatingly boring sections, but when the game strays from the basics a bit, it can get to be quite fun."
Eurogamers Kristan Reed found the game less innovative than Midway claimed: "being mainly a platform game with sub sections to add variety, it comes across as being more heavily indebted to the likes of Jak & Daxter and Ratchet & Clank than being anything revolutionary." He concluded, "Havens pretensions to be some kind of revolutionary product seem sound and exciting on the surface, but scratch that surface for more than an hour or so, and it's apparent that what we're really dealing with is a better than average platformer with cleverly interspersed minigames to present the illusion of expansiveness and freedom [...] That's not to say it's a bad game, or that you won't enjoy it. If you're a real dyed in the wool platform gamer, Haven has plenty to admire, but it just fails to match or better what's gone before."
Game Revolution's Johnny Liu was critical of the core platformer gameplay: "the platform events come off as a standard, undisguised item hunt." Of the graphics, he wrote "the quality varies. Outdoor environments are doused in an over-saturated color palette, though the frame rate is smooth enough. The detail work in some of the interior dungeons offers some sharper textures and compelling lighting effects." He concluded "Though it's admirably ambitious, Haven is crippled by trying to do too much. Instead of simply having these separate parts strung together, it would have worked better had the game allowed you to switch from any of these game styles at will."
GameSpy's Benjamin Turner said, "The designers [are] attempting to create something unique by combining gameplay ideas from platformers, 3D shooters, vehicular action games and even Marble Madness. While the end result doesn't quite gel, I have to appreciate the fact that they tried." However, he noted that "rather than excelling, it ends up doing a fairly mediocre job of almost everything." He called the platforming sections "rough around the edges," criticizing the collision detection and level design, and was unimpressed with Haven's mag-ball. He concluded "there's just too much mediocrity and not enough quality. With a ton of tweaking and a heavy dose of polish this could have been a pretty good game. I get the sense that the creators' hearts were in the right places, but for whatever reason they couldn't execute. Their creation feels unfinished."
Cancelled sequels
Haven was originally intended as the first part of a trilogy, however, due to the game's commercial failure, the second and third parts were never made. For writer/director/designer Jon Burton, the game was an extremely personal project. Speaking in 2006, he opined that because it began as a basic platformer, players and reviewers didn't give it a fair chance: "Because the first hour was basically a platform game people would play the game and write it off as another platformer." Burton always intended for the story to continue, and had very specific ideas as to how the plot would have developed:
References
2002 video games
3D platform games
Action-adventure games
Cancelled Game Boy Advance games
Cancelled GameCube games
Cancelled Xbox games
Midway video games
PlayStation 2 games
PlayStation 2-only games
Puzzle video games
Single-player video games
Space combat simulators
Traveller's Tales games
Video games developed in the United Kingdom
Video games set on fictional planets
Video games scored by Andy Blythe and Marten Joustra |
4107725 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle%20of%20Kolb%27s%20Farm | Battle of Kolb's Farm | The Battle of Kolb's Farm (June 22, 1864) saw a Confederate corps under Lieutenant General John B. Hood attack parts of two Union corps under Major Generals Joseph Hooker and John Schofield. This action was part of the Atlanta campaign of the American Civil War fought between the Confederate Army of Tennessee led by General Joseph E. Johnston and Union forces commanded by Major General William Tecumseh Sherman. Hood believed that he had an opportunity to inflict a defeat on the Union forces in front of his corps and ordered an assault. However, Hooker's and Schofield's troops were deployed in good positions and they repulsed Hood's soldiers with serious losses.
After Hooker made his battle report, a dispute arose between him and Sherman. This was caused by an exaggerated claim made by Hooker and a probable misunderstanding on Sherman's part. Already there was mistrust between the two generals and the dispute only made relations worse. Though the Union won a tactical victory at Kolb's Farm, Sherman's maneuver to turn the Confederate left flank appeared to be blocked. Frustrated in his attempts to outflank Johnston's army, Sherman ordered a frontal assault five days later.
Background
Union Army
General-in-chief of the Union Army Lieutenant General Ulysses S. Grant ordered Sherman, "to move against Johnston's army, to break it up, and to get into the interior of the enemy's country as far as you can, inflicting all the damage you can against their war resources".
Sherman commanded elements of three armies. The Army of the Cumberland under Major General George H. Thomas was made up of the IV Corps led by Major General Oliver Otis Howard, the XIV Corps under Major General John M. Palmer, the XX Corps commanded by Major General Joseph Hooker, and three cavalry divisions led by Brigadier Generals Edward M. McCook, Kenner Garrard, and Hugh Judson Kilpatrick. The Army of the Tennessee led by Major General James B. McPherson included the XV Corps under Major General John A. Logan, the Left Wing of the XVI Corps under Major General Grenville M. Dodge, and the XVII Corps under Major General Francis Preston Blair Jr. The Army of the Ohio commanded by Major General John Schofield consisted of the XXIII Corps under Schofield and a cavalry division commanded by Major General George Stoneman.
Sherman began his campaign with almost 100,000 men, including Thomas' 60,000 and 130 guns, McPherson's 25,000 and 96 guns, and Schofield's 14,000 men and 28 guns. Through the fighting near Dallas, Sherman lost 12,000 casualties, but was reinforced by the fresh XVII Corps at that time.
Confederate Army
Johnston's Army of Tennessee began the campaign with two infantry corps led by Lieutenant Generals William J. Hardee and John Bell Hood, and a cavalry corps under Major General Joseph Wheeler. The army was soon reinforced from the Army of Mississippi by the corps of Lieutenant General Leonidas Polk and the cavalry division of Brigadier General William Hicks Jackson.
Polk was killed at Pine Mountain on June 14 and temporarily replaced by Major General William Wing Loring. Hardee's corps included the divisions of Major Generals William B. Bate, Benjamin F. Cheatham, Patrick Cleburne, and William H. T. Walker. Hood's corps comprised the divisions of Major Generals Thomas C. Hindman, Carter L. Stevenson, and Alexander P. Stewart. Polk's corps was made up of the divisions of Major Generals Edward C. Walthall and Samuel Gibbs French, and Brigadier General Winfield S. Featherston.
As recently as the Battle of Cassville on May 19, the Confederate army had numbered 70,000–74,000 troops. Since then, Johnston's army sustained about 3,000 casualties in the fighting near Dallas.
Previous operations
The Atlanta campaign began on May 7, 1864, when Sherman's forces began to advance. Sherman sent McPherson's army on a wide swing to the west while the armies under Thomas and Schofield pressed Johnston's defenses frontally. After the Battle of Rocky Face Ridge, Johnston withdrew from the Dalton position. The Battle of Resaca occurred on May 13–16, after which Johnston retreated again.
After a skirmish at Adairsville, Johnston tried to set a trap for Sherman's forces, which were advancing on a broad front. At the Battle of Cassville on May 19, Johnston's attempted counterstroke miscarried and the Confederate army withdrew the next day. Since the Confederate defenses at Allatoona Pass were too strong, Sherman tried to turn Johnston's position by a wide sweep to the west. This resulted in a series of actions in late May known as the battles of New Hope Church, Pickett's Mill, and Dallas. The Union forces then shifted to the east and finally forced Johnston to order another retreat.
In mid-June, a series of actions took place near Gilgal Church and Pine Mountain, after which Johnston fell back to Kennesaw Mountain.
Kennesaw
Kennesaw Mountain represented the key to the Confederate defenses. The railroad coming from the north veered to the northeast past Kennesaw's northern end, then turned south before reaching Marietta.
The mountain ridge runs northeast to southwest with three notable features. These are Big Kennesaw, which stands above the surrounding terrain at the northeast end, Little Kennesaw with its nearly summit, and Pigeon Hill with its height at the southwest end. From Big Kennesaw's dominating summit, any daytime movements by the Union forces could be immediately observed. Kennesaw Mountain was probably a stronger position than Rocky Face Ridge and Allatoona Pass.
Hood's corps held the Confederate right flank east of Kennesaw Mountain and north of Marietta. Loring's corps held the mountain in the center, with Featherston's division on the right, Walthall's division in the center, and French's division on the left. Hardee's corps held the left flank, with the divisions of Walker, Bate, Cleburne, and Cheatham deployed from right to left. Hardee's troops were posted behind Noses Creek, which was swollen from the recent heavy rains. In front of the main Confederate defenses was a fortified outpost line. The Confederate infantry defended a long front. Wheeler's cavalry guarded the right flank while Jackson's cavalry watched the left flank.
On the morning of June 19, Sherman optimistically believed that the Confederates had withdrawn to the Chattahoochie River, but by the day's end he realized that assessment was wrong. McPherson's three corps formed the Federal left wing, with Blair's corps on the extreme left flank. Thomas' army advanced with Palmer's corps on the left, Howard's corps in the center, and Hooker's corps on the right. On the Union right wing, Schofield's corps marched southeast along the Sandtown Road. There was a vigorous cavalry clash on the left between Garrard's division and Wheeler. Hooker was able to cross Noses Creek at a place where the stream curved to the west, and established his corps on the east side of the creek. Schofield reached the place where the road from Powder Springs Church to Marietta spanned Noses Creek, but did not attempt to cross.
Federal cannons took Pigeon Hill under fire, inflicting 35 casualties on French's Missouri brigade, including its commander Brigadier General Francis Cockrell. French responded by having his gun crews drag their cannons up Pigeon Hill.
On June 20, Sherman began extending his right wing toward the south. Howard ordered Brigadier General Thomas J. Wood's division and a brigade from Major General David S. Stanley's division to replace the left flank of Hooker's corps. Brigadier General Alpheus S. Williams's division on Hooker's left shifted to the right flank of the corps. Later, Stanley's other brigades were able to cross to the west bank of Noses Creek. They seized two hills and were counterattacked by Confederates who recaptured one of them.
Stanley's division suffered 250 casualties in the fighting. Since it rained again that day, Sherman decided not to try any attacks until the weather cleared. Brigadier General Jacob Dolson Cox's division of Schofield's corps made a successful crossing of Noses Creek and entrenched on the east side. The constant rain caused many sick soldiers in both Union and Confederate armies to be evacuated to the rear.
Battle
June 21 movements
On June 21, Sherman's army continued shifting to its right. McPherson's Army of the Tennessee relieved part of Thomas' Army of the Cumberland. Palmer's corps replaced Brigadier General John Newton's division of Howard's corps. In turn, Newton's division took over the left flank of Hooker's corps, allowing it to extend to the right. Howard's corps retook the hill previously captured by the Confederates and seized ground which enabled it to advance several hundred yards. Hooker's corps pushed forward at the same time, occupying some hills near Kolb's (also known as Culp's) Farm while maintaining contact with Howard's corps on its left.
Brigadier General Milo S. Hascall's division of Schofield's corps crossed Noses Creek and made contact with the right flank of Hooker's corps. Stoneman's horsemen clashed with Jackson's division on Schofield's right flank.
Johnston noted Sherman's extension of his right wing and decided that Hardee's lines had been stretched almost to their limit. Therefore, he decided to counter it by moving Hood's corps from his right to his left flank. To fill the gap, Johnston ordered Loring to extend his corps to its right and instructed Wheeler to dismount his cavalrymen to man Hood's trenches.
Johnston knew that McPherson might attack his weakened right flank, but all Sherman's recent moves were by the Union right flank. Johnston decided to accept the risk because he felt that his only other alternative was to retreat. In the morning of June 21, Schofield believed that the way to Marietta was unguarded. However, by the evening, Schofield suspected that he was facing substantial opposition. In fact, Hood's corps left its original position in the morning and camped on the Powder Springs road west of Marietta in the evening.
June 22 action
June 22 dawned with clear skies, so Sherman decided to make a major effort to force Johnston to retreat. He ordered Thomas to direct Hooker to move his corps east toward Marietta. Sherman instructed Schofield to advance along the Powder Springs-Marietta road before linking with Hooker's right flank, and to guard the Cheney House where the Sandtown road met the Powder Springs road. Early in the afternoon, Hooker advanced with Major General Daniel Butterfield's division on the left, Brigadier General John W. Geary in the center, and Williams on the right. Soon, Hooker's skirmishers reported that Confederates were ahead and forming for an attack. This information prompted Hooker to order his corps to entrench on a line from Howard's right flank to Kolb's Farm on the Powder Springs-Marietta road. South of the road facing east, Colonel Silas A. Strickland's brigade of Hascall's XXIII Corps division also fortified its position. The rest of Hascall's brigades were to Strickland's right and facing southeast. Farther south was Cox's division guarding the area near Cheney House.
In the Atlanta campaign to date, Hooker's XX Corps suffered 5,000 casualties, more than any other of Sherman's formations, after starting with 20,000 men.
Williams' division was deployed with the brigades of Brigadier Generals Thomas H. Ruger and Joseph F. Knipe on the right and center, and Colonel James S. Robinson's brigade on the left.
Williams sent the 123rd New York Infantry Regiment forward into the woods on a reconnaissance, while Hascall ordered the 14th Kentucky Infantry Regiment on the same mission. Both units pressed forward to positions where they saw large numbers of Confederates massing for an attack, and they reported this information. Hooker twice asked Thomas to reinforce his corps, claiming the "whole rebel army" was in front of him. This prompted Thomas to personally look over the situation. He concluded that the threat was exaggerated, and that Hooker's line was sufficiently strong to defend itself.
On Geary's right there was a hill surrounded by open fields; this was entrenched and crowned with artillery. Small marshy streams ran between Williams' brigades and in the interval between Geary and Williams.
Hascall's division consisted of the brigades of Colonels John McQuiston, William E. Hobson, and Strickland. Schofield, who was with Hascall when the 14th Kentucky's report came in, ordered Cox to leave one brigade at Cheney House and march to Hascall's support. Leaving Colonel James W. Reilly's brigade, Cox marched with the three others, but the action was over before they went very far. They were then placed to the right of Hascall's brigades. Cox's brigades were led by Colonels Daniel Cameron, Richard F. Barter, Robert K. Byrd, and Reilly.
During the early afternoon of June 22, Hood's corps moved along the Powder Springs road until it was west of Mount Zion Church. Hood then deployed his corps with Stevenson's division athwart the road, Hindman's division to its right, and Stewart's division directly behind Stevenson. Hood ordered his division commanders to drive the Federals toward Manning's Mill, which was west of Kolb's Farm. Hood sent a message to Johnston claiming incorrectly that he defeated a Union attack and that he was counterattacking. Hood's daily report was unclear about what happened that day, his memoirs never referred to the Kolb's Farm action, and other Confederate sources were silent. Therefore, Hood's motives that day can only be inferred. Apparently, he believed that the Federals were advancing in march column and that his troops were executing a powerful flank attack against an unready opponent. The Confederate assault began a short time after 5 pm.
Stevenson arranged his division with the brigades of Brigadier Generals Alfred Cumming and Edmund Pettus on the left with Cumming in front. On the right were the brigades of Brigadier Generals John C. Brown and Alexander W. Reynolds on the right, with Brown in front. Cumming's brigade, which consisted largely of former Georgia militia, advanced through dense foliage until they received a volley from the 14th Kentucky at a range of .
Cumming's troops retreated in confusion, rallied, attacked again, and were repulsed a second time. Outflanked when the 123rd New York was driven back, the 14th Kentucky fell back to a second position and continued to resist. Finally, Hascall peremptorily ordered the 14th Kentucky to withdraw to the main line; its commander Colonel George Gallup later claimed that 69 dead Confederates were found in front of his regiment's position. When the Confederates attacked Strickland's defenses, they were driven off by rifle fire and by canister shot from Shields' 19th Ohio Battery and Paddock's Battery F, 1st Michigan.
North of the road, Brown's and Reynolds' troops quickly drove back the 123rd New York and advanced into cleared fields in front of the brigades of Ruger and Knipe. When the Confederates emerged they were pounded by the 13th New York Battery from Geary's hill. These guns were joined by the 3-inch Ordnance rifles of Winegar's Battery I, 1st New York and the 12-pounder Napoleons of Woodbury's Battery M, 1st New York from Williams' division. Stevenson's soldiers were briefly able to penetrate a hollow between Williams and Geary, but were soon compelled to recoil under the combined rifle and artillery fire. During the attack, Hooker asked for Howard to release Butterfield's division, but it could not be moved immediately. Instead, Howard sent a few reserve regiments to Hooker's aid. Later that night, Howard finally released Butterfield's division. While most of Stevenson's men fell back to the woods, some soldiers took cover in a ravine. It soon proved to be a death trap when it became the target of one of Williams' batteries.
Hindman's division stormed out of the woods after Stevenson's men began to retreat. The division moved toward Robinson's brigade and Geary's right flank. Hindman's left flank was composed of the brigades of Brigadier Generals Zachariah C. Deas and William F. Tucker. These formations halted as soon as they came under artillery fire and fled in confusion. Hindman's right flank consisted of the brigades of Brigadier Generals Edward C. Walthall and Arthur Middleton Manigault. Walthall's men went to ground as soon as they came under fire. Manigault's troops faced a patch of marshy ground in the area that complicated their advance. After trying and failing to cross a boggy creek under heavy fire, the soldiers either fled or took cover. According to Williams' account, Hindman's division was repulsed by artillery alone, Williams's infantry having taken no part in the fighting in that area.
Aftermath
Losses
Johnston admitted losing 1,000 troops in the battle. Williams reported sustaining 130 casualties, while Hascall's loss was about the same. Geary's losses were "trifling". Historian Albert E. Castel estimated that Hood's attack cost his corps 1,500 killed, wounded, and missing, two-thirds of which were from Stevenson's division. Castel calculated that total Union casualties were 250, of which 86 were from Knipe's brigade and 72 were from Strickland's brigade. The 123rd New York lost 48 casualties while the 14th Kentucky lost 12 killed and 48 wounded. Castel called the action, "more a one-sided slaughter than a battle". The above losses were echoed by an article by Scott Wilbur for the National Park Service. Wilbur also stated that the Union forces engaged in the action outnumbered Hood by 14,000 to 11,000.
Sherman-Hooker dispute
Sherman told Schofield that, "I will probably meet you today at Mrs. Kolb's." Nevertheless, Sherman spent the day with the corps of Howard and Palmer. At 5:30 pm, Hooker received a message from Sherman asking, "How are you getting along? Near what house are you?" Sherman had heard some cannon fire, but it did not seem like anything serious. Sherman returned to his headquarters at Big Shanty that evening. Hooker immediately replied but his message was unaccountably delayed. At 9:30 pm, Sherman finally received Hooker's note, which read as follows.
Sherman wondered why Hooker was anxious about his right flank since Schofield's corps was supposed to be there. He did not understand how he could have missed the sound of "two heavy attacks". At 9:30 pm, Sherman issued a reply to Hooker.
Sherman sent Thomas a message asking him to make sure Schofield was on Hooker's right. Thomas sent two replies saying that the situation on the right flank was under control, and suggesting that only weak Confederate forces must be in front of McPherson. Finally, Sherman received a message from Schofield reporting that Hood's corps attacked his and Hooker's positions at Kolb's Farm and was defeated. According to Sherman's Memoirs, written ten years after the war, he rode to the right flank on the morning of June 23 to meet with Schofield and Hooker. When he presented Hooker's message, Schofield became angry, saying his troops were in their proper position on the right. Sherman wrote that he chided Hooker for claiming three corps were in front of him.
Castel asserted that the account in Sherman's Memoirs was the product of faulty memory and personal animosity toward Hooker. Schofield later denied being angry with Hooker, and suggested that Sherman must have misunderstood Hooker's message. In fact, in Hooker's report to Thomas at midnight, he credited Hascall for helping to repulse Hood's assault. Schofield wrote that he did not recall meeting with Sherman in the morning and perhaps the commanding general met with Hascall instead. Hooker's claim that he faced three corps was absurd, but there was an element of truth to it. While Hood's corps was in front of Hooker and Schofield, part of Hardee's corps opposed Butterfield's division, and one of the Confederate cavalry brigades in the area originally belonged to the Army of Mississippi, that is, Loring's corps. In any case, once the action began, Hooker performed superbly as a combat leader.
Hooker already resented Sherman's obvious favoritism toward McPherson's Army of the Tennessee. He also believed that Sherman mishandled his corps at the Battle of New Hope Church. The Kolb's Farm incident led to a steady decline in Hooker's standing with Sherman. When McPherson was killed on July 22, Hooker expected to be promoted to command the Army of the Tennessee, since he was senior in rank. Doubting that Hooker would prove to be a cooperative and loyal subordinate, Sherman passed over him and selected Howard to replace McPherson. Hooker found this especially insulting because he blamed Howard for his defeat at the Battle of Chancellorsville. Hooker promptly tendered his resignation, which Sherman accepted.
Sherman frustrated
By the following day, Hood's corps entrenched itself and it was clear that assaulting it would be foolish. Sherman instructed Schofield to find whether the Confederate left flank could be turned. On the afternoon of June 23, Reilly's brigade moved south along the Sandtown road to where it crossed Olley's Creek. Reilly found dismounted and barricaded soldiers from Brigadier General Lawrence Sullivan Ross' cavalry brigade defending the crossing. Schofield reported to Sherman that his corps was extended too far. Clearly, Schofield was not able to outflank the Confederates unless Thomas' army shifted to its right. Thomas reported that his army was already extended too much. Furthermore, Sherman received a report that McCook's cavalrymen were unable to damage the railroad line supplying Johnston's army because they were unable to cross the Chattahoochie River. A frustrated Sherman sent a telegram to Union Army Chief of Staff Major General Henry Halleck that, "The whole country is one vast fort ... As fast as we gain one position the enemy has another all ready".
Sherman faced three choices: use McPherson to hit Johnston's right flank, wear down the Confederates trenches by artillery barrages and short infantry advances, or make a frontal assault. Even though Blair reported that the trenches in front of him were held by cavalry, Sherman rejected the first choice. He was so fearful that Johnston might strike his vital railroad supply line near Big Shanty, that Sherman wanted McPherson to strongly guard that area. He also rejected the second choice. One of his strategic missions was to prevent Johnston from reinforcing General Robert E. Lee's army, so Sherman could not allow a stalemate to develop. Therefore, Sherman resolved to adopt the third choice: to make a frontal attack. He reasoned that he outnumbered Johnston, yet the Confederate trench lines were longer than his own. Therefore, they must be weak somewhere. This resulted in the Battle of Kennesaw Mountain on June 27 in which the Union attacks were repulsed with heavy casualties.
Battlefield condition
Much of the battlefield landscape has been altered and fragmented. Some essential features remain, however, including the Kolb farm house and family cemetery, Ward Creek, and the heights used by the Federal XX and XXIII Corps in their repulse of the Confederate assault. These resources are protected within the Kennesaw Mountain National Battlefield Park. Residential subdivisions have hemmed in the park land and overwhelmed the battlefield landscape beyond the park boundary, including the heights from which the Confederates began their assault.
Notes
Footnotes
Citations
References
Further reading
External links
This is a good battle map.
Kolb's Farm
Kolb's Farm
Cobb County, Georgia
Kolb's Farm
Kolb's Farm
Kolb's Farm
1864 in Georgia (U.S. state)
June 1864 events |
4107816 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western%20University%20of%20Health%20Sciences | Western University of Health Sciences | Western University of Health Sciences (WesternU) is a private medical school and health sciences university with its main campus in Pomona, California, with an additional campus in Lebanon, Oregon. With an enrollment of 3,724 students (2022–23), WesternU offers more than twenty academic programs in multiple colleges.
Under the banner of WesternU Health, the university operates a variety of patient care facilities in California and Oregon. The Pomona and Lebanon (Oregon) campuses both include a medical center, dental center, eye care institute, pharmacy, and travel health center. WesternU-Pomona also is home to the Pet Health Center, which provides veterinary services. Dental services are offered at the Rancho Mirage campus, while a Los Angeles campus provides optometry services.
Several nonprofit organizations are based at the WesternU Pomona campus, including the Harris Family Center for Disability and Health Policy. The Center for Oral Health, moved from the Bay area to the WesternU Pomona campus in 2012. In 2015, the Southern California Medical Museum moved to the Pomona campus.
Founded in 1977, the first program at WesternU was its medical school, the College of Osteopathic Medicine of the Pacific (COMP). In 2003, the College of Veterinary Medicine opened, and in 2009 the colleges of dental medicine, optometry, and podiatric medicine opened. In 2011, the university opened an additional campus in Lebanon, Oregon, the College of Osteopathic Medicine of the Pacific - Northwest (COMP-Northwest). In 2015, the university's founding president, Philip Pumerantz, retired.
All of the programs at WesternU have professional accreditation and the university is accredited by the Western Association of Schools and Colleges.
History
WesternU was established in 1977 as the College of Osteopathic Medicine of the Pacific (COMP), offering the Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine degree (D.O.). This was the first medical school in California to open after a complicated era in the relations of allopathic and osteopathic medicine, notably when the California College of Osteopathic Physicians and Surgeons - only the second DO school in America - briefly became independent as an M.D. granting school before soon evolving into the University of California, Irvine School of Medicine. Upon its foundation in 1977, the WesternU College of Osteopathic Medicine was the only osteopathic medical school west of the Rocky Mountains.
In 1986, the college began offering a second degree, the Master of Science in Health Professions Education. Four years later in 1990, the physician assistant program opened, which in 2000 grew into a master's level program. In 1992, the physical therapy program opened.
In 1996, the Western Association of Schools and Colleges granted accreditation as a full and constituent university, and later that year, what had begun as the College of Osteopathic Medicine of the Pacific was renamed the "Western University of Health Sciences." 1996 also saw the foundation of the WesternU College of Pharmacy. In 1998, the university established the Harris Family Center for Disability and Health Policy. In 1997, the College of Graduate Nursing was established with the first online Family Nurse Practitioner program in California, followed by an entry-level master's degree for students with a BA/BS degree who wanted to become a nurse.
Thereafter, the veterinary college was founded after some initial hesitancy by the American Veterinary Medical Association's Council on Education, the College of Veterinary Medicine opened in 1998 as the first new veterinary medical school in the United States since 1983. Classes began in 2003, and the college earned full accreditation in 2010. The college was the first veterinary medical school in the United States to appoint a woman as dean. In 2008, the university opened the Banfield Pet Hospital to the public. In 2014, WesternU assumed sole operation and management of the pet hospital.
In 2009, three new colleges opened at WesternU: podiatric medicine, optometry, and dentistry. The following year, in 2010, the Patient Care Center opened, offering medical, dental, optometric, podiatric and pharmacy services to the community. In 2011, Western University of Health Sciences opened a new medical school campus in Lebanon, Oregon called the College of Osteopathic Medicine of the Pacific Northwest. In 2012, the Center for Oral Health affiliated with WesternU and moved from the bay area of California to the WesternU campus. The Center for Oral Health is an independent non-profit organization, which focuses on improving oral health.
In January 2015, WesternU began collaborating with colleagues in Scotland affiliated with the UK National Health Service, assisting in the development of a standardized platform for diabetes care called the Scottish Care Information Diabetes Collaboration. In October 2015, WesternU opened a Virtual Reality Learning Center to augment the teaching of anatomy across all colleges. Faculty-led virtual reality technology is used by the schools of dentistry, medicine, veterinary medicine, nursing, pharmacy and health professions. In 2015, the Southern California Medical Museum opened on the WesternU campus. The same year (2015), Pumerantz retired after 38 years as founding president. He was succeeded in 2016 by Daniel R. Wilson. In November 2017, WesternU opened an Eye Care Institute in Los Angeles, which specializes in low-vision rehabilitation.
In 2019, the university received the eighth most applications of any medical school in the United States. In 2019, U.S. News & World Report ranked it 13th among all US medical schools for the percentage of medical graduates going into primary care residencies. The university is the fourth-largest employer in Pomona, with more than 1,000 employees.
On July 8, 2020, faculty members voted "no confidence" in the university's president and asked him to step down. They cited a "lack of transparent communication between faculty members and Wilson, his executive leadership team and the Board of Trustees" as the reasons for their vote. The university's board of trustees formed an ad hoc committee to these concerns.
On October 20, 2020, the board of trustees announced that President Wilson will officially step down July 1, 2021. The board of trustees recognized the president's accomplishments over the past four years and both agreed that "now is an appropriate time to begin the process of identifying a new leader for WesternU." Faculty welcomed the announcement but are awaiting a promised full report on the investigation's findings. In a second communication on October 21, 2020, the board of trustees announced the formation of a Presidential Transition Communications Committee to plan for a successful transition in leadership while addressing shared governance, transparency, accountability, and communication.
In December 2020, WesternU purchased a building in Lebanon, Oregon to house a doctor of physical therapy program. The first class of physical therapy students began courses in July 2021. WesternU administered COVID-19 vaccinations at an immunization center located on its Pomona campus.
Sylvia Manning became the Interim President of the university under the auspices of the Registry for College and University Presidents, which facilitates interim appointments for senior higher education leaders. The search for a regularly appointed President of WesternU concluded with the selection of Robin Farias-Eisner, who is the third president of the university effective March 1, 2022.
Academics
Through its nine colleges, WesternU offers 21 academic programs, each on a semester schedule. All programs at WesternU are post-baccalaureate and focused on a health sciences profession. All are accredited by the respective national accrediting body. The university itself is accredited by the Western Association of Schools and Colleges. Doctoral degrees include the Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine, Doctor of Dental Medicine, Doctor of Optometry, Doctor of Veterinary Medicine, Doctor of Pharmacy, Doctor of Nursing Practice, Doctor of Physical Therapy, and Doctor of Podiatric Medicine.
Several Master of Science (MS) programs are also offered in Pharmaceutical Sciences, Health Sciences, Physician Assistant Studies, Nursing, Biomedical Sciences, and Medical Sciences. A Master of Science in Health Professions Education is offered to provide educational skills to health professionals interested in teaching. Two distance education programs are offered: the Doctor of Nursing Practice (DNP) and Master of Science Nursing (MSN). All other programs are traditional on-campus programs. Further Colleges and Programs are in consideration.
According to U.S. News & World Report Best Colleges Ranking, of the 188 medical schools evaluated, Western University of Health Sciences is ranked as the 93rd-123rd best medical school in the United States, in terms of both Research and Primary Care.
Interprofessional education
WesternU operates an Interprofessional Education (IPE) program, involving all nine of its colleges. The program began in 2007 and the first phase was implemented later that year. The program goals are to improve understanding of other health professions and to provide and promote a team approach to patient-centered care and health care management, leading to improved patient care.
As a part of the interprofessional education program, students meet in small groups with a faculty facilitator and discuss non-clinical aspects of symptom presentation in complex cases, including interprofessional knowledge and awareness, financial or ethical challenges and communication barriers. Augmentation of clinical IPE rotations with grand rounds and journal clubs is ongoing.
Research
WesternU conducts research in an array of areas in basic, translational, and clinical sciences. Three primary research strengths include: neurobiology, molecular / metabolic diseases, and infectious disease / immunology. Specific neurobiology subjects include: Alzheimer's disease, central nervous system diseases, genetic disorders, environmental pathologies, and stem cell therapy. Specific molecular and metabolic disease subjects include: cancer, cardiovascular disease, diabetes, and obesity. Research on infections and immunology includes tuberculosis, Mad cow disease, avian flu, and Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. Research is funded by the National Institute of Health, the OneSight Foundation, The Potts Foundation, American Cancer Society, American Heart Association, the American Lung Association, and the California Institute for Regenerative Medicine.
Patient care and education
Western University of Health Sciences provides patient care in several locations in California and Oregon. WesternU opened its first patient care center, a family practice clinic, in 1984. The Pomona Patient Care Center opened in May 2010, and serves more than 10,000 patients per year. The Patient Care Center includes a Medical Center, Foot & Ankle Center, Eye Care Center, Dental Center and Pharmacy. The center is also home to an accredited diabetes education center. WesternU is a member of the Association of Academic Health Centers. The university also offers post-graduate residency training in medicine in association with partners throughout the Western states.
The university operates the Harris Family Center for Disability and Health Policy, and provides consultation and training to organizations, companies, and hospitals to help them meet the needs of disabled individuals.
Campus
Pomona campus
The main campus of WesternU is located in downtown Pomona, California. Upon the school's founding, a portion of the campus was extensively renovated from an outdoor shopping mall. Since that time, several buildings have been acquired and built, including a patient care center, a pet hospital, classrooms, and research facilities. There are two parks located on the urban campus. The Pomona campus consists of 19 major buildings spanning some seven city blocks along the main "Esplanade," which amounts to a total .
The northeastern corner of campus has the Health Education Center, the Patient Care Center, and a large parking structure. These WesternU buildings opened in 2010, as a part of a $100 million expansion project. The Health Education Center is a 180,000-square-foot teaching and research facility that also houses the colleges of medical, dentistry, podiatry and optometry. The fourth floor of the center has state-of-the-art research laboratories. The seven level parking structure has 600 parking spaces.
Directly west of the Health Education Center is the WesternU Pet Wellness Center, an on campus pet hospital and clinic. It had been established in 2008 as the Banfield Pet Hospital and transitioned to solely WesternU operation in 2014. The center provides primary care services such as vaccinations, spaying and neutering, microchiping, surgery, dental exams and cleanings, as well as flea, tick and heartworm control. It includes a surgical suite, an x-ray room, a half dozen exam rooms and isolation facilities.
The Daumier is a mixed-use building located south of the pet hospital on 3.6 acres at 3rd and Linden Street. This building was completed in June 2014, at cost of $45 million, and serves as a 173,000-square-foot facility primarily for WesternU student housing but with research and educational support space as well as a fitness center, community pool, media room, and other university offices. The Daumier was designed to LEED gold specifications. The building was named the Daumier after the 19th century French artist Honoré Daumier.
The central portion of campus contains Ethan Allan Park, the Health Professions Center (HPC), the Veterinary Medicine Center, and the Health Sciences Center. Ethan Allen Park is located directly west of the Pet Wellness Center. In 2006, the park was named in honor of Dr. Ethan Allen, founding chairman of the school's board of trustees. The other park on campus is Centennial Park, a Pomona city park on the west end of campus. Directly south of Ethan Allan Park, the Health Professions Center houses the College of Pharmacy and contains several classrooms, research facilities, and a student commons area. The building was built in 1962 and was previously the Pomona Buffum's department store. The university acquired the building in 1992, after first receiving the option to buy. The Center for Oral Health, a non-profit organization promoting oral health, is based in the Health Professions Center. The Health Sciences Center, directly west of the Health Professions Center, is a two-story, 72,000-square-foot building with the main anatomy laboratories, a laboratory for osteopathic manipulative medicine, and extensive classroom space. The physical therapy school is based in this building, as is the tutoring program. The Health Sciences Center was formerly a Nash Department Store. The university began using the building in 1990, and then purchased it in 1993.
The western range of campus contains the Rodney P. Wineberg Center, home to research administration and laboratories, in addition to the Pumerantz Library, and Anderson Tower (formerly known as the Chase Bank building). The Rodney P. Wineberg Center contains 8,550 square feet dedicated to research. The Rodney P. Wineberg Center building was originally a JCPenney. The multi-story, 35,000-square-foot Pumerantz Library is on the west edge of campus. The library opened in that space in 2001, after the university acquired the building in 1998. The building was built in 1929, and previously housed a switching station for the Pacific Telephone & Telegraph company. The Southern California Medical Museum is located in the Nursing Science Center on the WesternU campus.
Anderson Tower demarcates the western edge of campus at Garey avenue and Second Street. This seven-story, mid-century modern 70,000-square-foot building was built in 1963, and WesternU purchased the building from JP Morgan Chase in September 2013. The same month, WesternU reached an agreement with a power company, Washington Gas, to build 2,688 solar panels on three campus buildings. The solar panels were completed in February 2014, and will produce more than 1,100 megawatt hours of energy each year.
WesternU-Oregon
The university also operates a second campus on 50 acres in Lebanon with an official postal address at 200 Mullins Drive. The first program offered at the Oregon campus is medicine (DO), though additional colleges and programs are planned, starting with the College of Health Sciences' Doctor of Physical Therapy program.
The Oregon campus is adjacent to Samaritan Health Services Lebanon Community Hospital, Groundbreaking for the medical school campus began in June 2009, and it opened for classes in August 2011. The new building cost about $15 million, and is the main component of a 50-acre medical campus.
Students
A total of 3,724 students were in attendance at WesternU in the 2022–23 academic year. The average age of WesternU students is 28 years and 62 percent are female; 38 percent male; 37.2% Asian/Pacific Islander, 34.4% are White/Non-Hispanic, 10.4% Hispanic, 12.1% two or more races, 2.8% black or African-American, and the remaining students are of unknown ethnicity (2.5%).
Students at WesternU participate in a vast number of campus clubs and an active student government association. A wide range of professional fraternities are active on campus, including Sigma Sigma Phi, Kappa Psi, Beta Sigma Kappa, Delta Sigma Delta, and Phi Lambda Sigma.
There is a university theater troupe, "Sanus", which hosts regular performance events. In 1985, medical students formed the group "Sanus," the Latin word for "sanity." The students said they used the opportunity to act and perform plays as means of relieving stress. The theater troupe remains active, and students from other colleges also participate.
Other officially recognized student organizations on campus include the following:
People
WesternU employs 333 full-time faculty and 69 part-time faculty. Some notable alumni and faculty include:
Clinton E. Adams, DO, Rear Admiral in the US Navy.
Lee Burnett, D.O. class of 1997, a U.S. Army Colonel and founder of the Student Doctor Network.
Joseph C. Gambone, DO, author of Essentials of Obstetrics and Gynecology. Gambone Peak on Antarctica was named in his honor in 1970.
Lawrence B. Harkless, DPM, founding member of the ADA Council on the Diabetic Foot; sometimes described as the "father of diabetic foot care."
Lee Rogers, professor of podiatry and prior democratic nominee for US Congress in California's 25th district in 2012.
See also
Medical schools in California
References
Further reading
External links
Official website
Dental schools in California
Education in Pomona, California
Educational institutions established in 1977
Nursing schools in California
Optometry schools in the United States
Pharmacy schools in California
Schools accredited by the Western Association of Schools and Colleges
Medical schools in California
Universities and colleges in Los Angeles County, California
1977 establishments in California
Universities using Problem-based learning
Buildings and structures in Pomona, California
Private universities and colleges in California |
4107927 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hille%2C%20Germany | Hille, Germany | Hille is a community in the Kreis Minden-Lübbecke in the north of East Westphalia, Germany, with approximately 16,000 inhabitants. It was created in 1973 in the framework of the community restructuring of North Rhine-Westphalia through the combining of nine communities of the Minden countryside. The community is named after Hille its largest village. The geography of the community belongs to that of the North German Plain, from its lowest altitude of 45 metres it rises to 251 metres on the ridge of the Wiehengebirge at its southern border.
Geography
Hille is located in the northeast of the Detmold (region), in the middle of the Minden Land. Hille has portions of the ecologic areas of the Wiehen Hills, the Lübbecke Loess Country and the Rahden-Diepenauer Sandy Moorlands (boglands). The southern portion of the community is located in the transition zone from the North Germain Plain to the Central Uplands (piedmont). This especially apparent with the ridgelike structure of the Wiehengebirge, which closes Hille like a bolt from the Ravensberg hill country. The main part of the northerly bench of the community is clearly a component of the plain, which received its endmoraine character from the Ice Age. The Great Peatbog (Grosses Torfmoor) provides Hille with a wet ecosystem of glacial origin which has been a designated nature reserve since 1980. This is where rare plants and animals such as white storks are found. Hille is the source of the Ösper, a tributary of the River Weser. The Mittelland Canal crosses Hille at its geographic middle in an east–west orientation. Several settlements adhere to the canal's adjacent dry northern plateau. To the north are a large raised bog and the Minden Forest (Mindener Wald). The River Weser presents a geographic border 10 km east of Hille. To the west the same landscape continues all the way to Osnabrück. The varied farmland is characterized by scattered settlements and single farms that are bordered by copses and hedges. Forests are found on higher ground, while meadows are found at low ground and in bogs.
Neighbouring municipalities
Petershagen
Minden
Bad Oeynhausen
Hüllhorst
Lübbecke
Espelkamp
Uchte in Lower Saxony
Subdivisions of the municipality
After the local government reforms of 1973, Hille consists of 9 districts:
Hille-Dorf
Hartum
Nordhemmern
Holzhausen II
Südhemmern
Eickhorst
Rothenuffeln
Oberlübbe
Unterlübbe
Geology
The community land formation was primary influenced by the Saalian Stage (Wolstonian Stage and Illinoian Stage are Equivalents) ice age, as well as pre and post glacial process. At the time the area was covered with ice, the flow of water had an opposite direction to that of the present, that is it flowed from the ice to the south, collected in a riverine environment north of the Wiehengebirge and flowed to the west to reach the sea. Extensive wet bogs were created in this historic river valley, that remained impassable for humans for a long time. Remains of this exist in the Great Peat Bog (Große Torfmoor) that is now a protected nature preserve.
Soils
The mentioned glacial conditions created various fertilities of soil, with varying impact on the structure of settlement. As a result, there is fertile soil in the south between the Wiehengebirge and the Bastau lowland, which is referred to as Lübbecke Loessland. Besides the settlement of Rothenuffeln, the villages of Oberlübbe, Unterlübbe and Eickhorst developed here. The Bastau lowland connects to the north, in which there can be no significant agriculture. Because of this the Mittellandkanal is located at its northern edge. The Hartume loess plate lies to the Northeast of the Bastau lowland, where there are good opportunities for agriculture. The villages of Hartum, Nordhemmern, Südhemmern and Holzhausen II are located here. The farmsteads are of middling size with 100 morgen(1 morgen = 3 acres) not being uncommon. This loess plate continues to the westward beyond the stream Flöthe, where the village of Hille is the center of settlement. The northeast of the community of Hille has poor soil that allows only forestry( Mindener Wald) to exist.
Fauna
The white stork nests in and around the Bastau lowland, with assistance provided for its recovering population.
Extent and utilization of the Community Area
Hille is classified as a "large rural community" that lies in the North German Plain, it rises to the ridge of the Wiehengebirge in the south. The Lübber Berg (mountain) is its highest point at an altitude of 251m over sea level. The lowest point is in the Bastau lowland meadows or bogs near Hartum with an altitude of only 47.7m. Hille extends 11.8 km from east to west and 15.4 km from north to south.
History
Hille was and is influenced by its agricultural character. Besides the large farms, which grew because of the good loess soil of the Hartumer Loess Plate, there were many small homes for contract workers into the 19th century. The contract workers earned a supplemental income through manual labor such as the weaving of linen. Cigarmaking arrived in Hille at the end of the 19th century. Especially toward the end of the 19th century many residents of the Hille villages emigrated to the USA. Their goal was mostly the state of New York and especially the city of Schenectady. Men from Hille also travelled by foot to the Netherlands for seasonal work such as mowing grass. Many of them remained there.
Around the middle of the 19th century, the transportation infrastructure became significantly enhanced by road construction under the leadership of Carl von Schlotheim who was Land Councilor in the Prussian Kreis Minden. While the primary goal of this program was job creation, it served to boost the economy of the Kreis. The railroad reached this rural region in the early 20th century. The Mindener Kreisbahnen opened a stretch of narrow gauge line to Eickhorst in 1903. The line was extended to Lübbecke in 1907. It was converted to standard gauge at a later time. The objective of this Prussian improvement was rural area development: transport of chemical fertilizer, transport of agricultural products to Minden and Lübbecke and further transport from there to other cities by the State railway. The construction of the Mindener Kreisbahn was also a good job creator, with thousands of workers earning their bread and keep. The stretch from Hille to Lübbecke was shut down in 1967 and subsequently demolished. Freight service still exists between the harbour at the village of Hille and the city of Minden. Even Oberlübbe had a narrow gauge railway connection from 1897 to 1937. The so-called "Wallücker Willem" connected the quarry mine near Wallücke in the Wiehengebirge with Löhne and Kirchlengern to the south. It transported passengers as well as iron ore over the mountain ridge.
Hiller Platt, a dialect of Low German, was spoken by most residents into recent times. It had considerable variation from village to village. The use of this language has declined significantly.
Community restructuring
The larger community of Hille was created on January 1, 1973 as a response to the Bielefeld-Gezetz(law) in the framework of the community reform of North Rhine-Westfalia. This united the heretofore independent communities of Eickhorst, Hartum, Hille, Holzhausen II, Nordhemmern und Südhemmern from the old Amt Hartum as well as the communities of Oberlübbe, Rothenuffeln und Unterlübbe from the old Amt Dützen. In contrast several peripheral sections of Holzhausen II and Hartum were shifted to the city of Minden while corridor sections of the old community Hahlen were added to larger Hille.
Amt Hartum and Amt Dützen were dissolved; the community of Hille is the legal successor of Amt Hartum. The community town hall is the building formerly housing Amt Hartum, which has a reasonably accessible location to the larger community.
Demographics
The following overview shows the census of the community of Hille according to the contemporary extent of borders. The numbers cover the time to 1970 and for 1987 for census results [6][7][8] and since 1975 for official projections made by the Statistic Bureau of the State of North Rhine- Westfalia. [9] The numbers for 1975, 1980, and 1985 are estimates, the numbers since 1990 are projections of the 1987 census. The results up to 1985 are residents of living quarters and since 1987 are residents of the primary domicile.
1 Population in the 1973 founded Community Hille
Religion
All villages in Hille became Lutheran with the introduction of the Reformation along with the city of Minden in 1550. The parishes exist to the present day. When the area was ceded to Prussia, the regional church became the Evangelical Church in Prussia in 1817 (Evangelical Church of Westphalia since 1945), which considers itself united in administration, that is to say comprising Lutheran, Reformed and congregations of united belief. The parishes are now partly combined with one parish serving several villages. A part of the old church owned buildings was transferred to other uses and replaced by newer buildings, for example the parsonage of the village of Hille. The acceptance of the refugees of World War II resulted in the formation of Catholic parishes, which is slowly changing the milieu to one of multiple beliefs.
Governance
Community Council (Gemeinderat)
Since the community elections of 1999 the town council of Hille has 32 seats besides the mayor. The representatives of the FWG Party and the Green Party(Grünen)have joined into one coalition.
The members of the community council are elected for a term of 5 years. The next election will take place in 2014. Until the community elections of 1999, the office of mayor was honorary but was a member of the community council, with a Community Administrator (Gemeindedirector) leading the community administration.
The following table shows the community election results since 1975:
Mayor (Bürgermeister)
The former Community Administrator (Gemeindedirector) Reinhard Jasper was elected mayor in a 1999 runoff election with 52.44% of the vote versus Friedrich Meyer of the SPD Party. He succeeded former mayor Günter Grannemann (SPD). In the 2004 Community election, Reinhard Jasper was re-elected on the first ballot against the First Councilmember Klaus-Herman Pörtner (SPD) with 53.88% of the vote. Reinhard Jasper retired from his duties as mayor of Hille on September 30, 2008. He reached this decision in response to allegations that he had utilized community workers in his own home during their work-hours. The criminal court in Minden levied a fine of 9600 Euros against the mayor, which he has appealed. Since October 1, 2008 the administrative leadership has been provided by the mayoral representative, Helmut Spilker.
Community Administrators (Gemeindedirektoren)
Until 1999 the administration of the community of Hille was led by an executive community administrator, who was elected by the community council (Gemeinderat). Wilhelm Grote, the former Director of the dissolved Amt Hartum, was elected as the first community administrator in 1973. He fulfilled these duties until his retirement in 1987. Reinhard Jasper first won the office through the drawing of lots to break a tie in the vote.
Coat of Arms, Flag and Seal
The community of Hille obtained the right to a coat of arms, a flag and a seal in 1981 from the Detmold Regional President. (Hauptsatzung § 2)
Description of the Coat of Arms: In Silver (White) out of a red wavy shield foot grow three red cat-tails with black cylinder above red diagonally oriented windmill blades.
The windmill blades derive from the coat of arms of the former Amt Hartum, which had many windmills in its territory. The cat-tails derive from the coat of arms of the former community of Hille, where the Hille Moor is located; and where the harvesting of peat was formerly of great significance. The use of red and silver harks back to the historic relationship to the Bishopric of Minden.
Description of the Flag:
Red and white horizontally striped with the coat of arms extending from the middle to the flag pole.
Description of the Banner
Red and white horizontally striped with the coat of arms extending from the middle to the top.
Description of the Seal:
Script on top: GEMEINDE HILLE. Script underneath: KREIS MINDEN-LÜBBECKE. Seal Picture: Coat of Arms in which the content of the coat of arms is given in contours.
Culture and sights
Windmills
Hille is a significant contributor to the Westfalian Mill Road in the so-called Mill(Muehlen) Kreis Minden-Lübbecke. Five examples of the Dutch type windmill are standing in the community. The windmill in Hartum has been gutted and converted to a vacation home. The windmills in Hille and Nordhemmern are functional, they are used to accommodate meetings of associations and groups. The windmill in Eickhorst is known as the Stork Mill and is operated by a group that conducts an open house every 3rd or 4th Saturday during the season. Eickhorst also has a water mill with a functioning water wheel. The related building was converted to a home. The windmill in Südhemmern has been built as a complete mill complex with the millers house and a community center. The mill cannot be operated presently since a miller is lacking. The Mindener Boat Excursion Line (Schifffahrtgesellschaft) offers a combination ticket to the Südhemmern windmill by boat on the Mittlelandkanal from Minden, with a return by the Museum Train (Museumseisenbahn)operating on the Mindener Kreisbahnen track.
Theater
There is no dedicated theater building in this rural community, but performances are presented intermittently in the assembly hall of the Combined School (Verbundschule) in the village of Hille. Two adjacent communities have created open air amphitheaters for amateur productions called Freilichtbühne Nettelstedt and Freilichtbühne Porta.
Museums
The "Heimathaus Hartum" demonstrates life and work of the "good old times" in a timbered farm-house that dates from 1872. The old jail for Amt Hartum also still stands in the village of Hartum. It is noteworthy that this building always had a double function, the other part housed the equipment of the fire brigade. There is a manual craft museum in Holzhausen II that is located next to the historic smithy. The Moorgalerie in Eickhorst contains a photography exhibit featuring scenes of the Great Peat Bog. The old distillery building in the village of Hille is no longer functional but provides an exhibit of the distillation process of "Hiller Moorbrand" a schnaps based liquor. It also contains an exhibit of agricultural work of 150 years ago, with many examples of agricultural utensils on the second floor.
Significant buildings
Besides its windmill every village had a village chapel or church at its core. The local style was determined by timber construction with fieldstone walls and tile roofs. The village of Hille contains the old distillery Meyer, a former distillery of rye mash. A stork nest was erected on its chimney. The family seat of the von Oenhausen family is a substantial part timbered house in the village of Hille that is familiarly referred to as "Reimlers Hof".
The village church in Hille dates from 1523, and was Catholic for a brief time before it became Evangelic-Lutheran in the Reformation. The building was renovated and expanded over time. The altar was endowed by the couple Oeynhausen/Pohlmann. It is located in the west and not the typical east part of the church. Renovation in 1954/1995 disclosed old ceiling paintings from 1523. Surrounding the church are tombstones from the old cemetery. A tombstone from the 16th century was located on the outer wall, shows Conrad von Aswede who was Canon in Minden. Equally noteworthy is the 600-year-old linden or lime tree that stands next to the church.
Parks und Nature Preserves
The Community of Hille possesses significant protected natural areas (Naturschutzgebiete) including "Naturschutzgebiet Großes Torfmoor", the "Naturschutzgebiet Bastauwiesen" and the Mindener Forest (Wald).
The old farmers spa Rothenuffeln with its sulphur springs has established itself on the north slope of the Wiehengebirge. It includes an old spa park that invites guests for hiking.
Sport
Hille and the surrounding area is a significant focus for German handball. This sport utilizes a ball smaller than a basketball, while scoring is against a goal that is smaller than that for soccer. The neighboring clubs TuS Nettelstedt-Lübbecke and Grün-Weiß Dankersen Minden play in the German major league, the Handball-Bundesliga. The renowned handball-players Dieter Waltke und Frank von Behren come from Hille and participated on the German national team. Every local sport club includes a handball component.
Scheduled events
The open Market in Hille has been held annually in April and September since 1564. The youth wind or brass orchestra performs during alternating years in the large spa park in Rothenuffeln to initiate its great light show.
Culinary specialties
Much grain is grown in this area. A significant portion of this is converted to Korn (whiskey) or Moorbrand produced in Hille.
Economy and infrastructure
Transportation
The infrastructure of Hille is greatly influenced by the east–west-oriented ridge of the Wiehengebirge as well as the Mittellandkanal, which runs in the same direction.
The B 65 Road from Hannover to Osnabrück runs through the southern part of the community. This national connector road was of more significance in the past; a part of its former mission has been superseded by the A 30 Autobahn located on the south side of the Wiehengebirge.
The closest railway stations are in Minden and Bad Oeynhausen on the main lines Bielefeld–Hannover and Osnabrück–Hannover as well as the railway station in Lübbecke on the Ravensberg Line. The individual villages are connected by regional and on-call buses with Minden, Lübbecke, Espelkamp and Bad Oeynhausen. Hille belongs to the transportation cooperative of OstWestfalenLippe. Freight trains and Museum trains traverse the lines of the Mindener Kreisbahnen. These tracks run from Hille to Minden's upper city (Oberstad).
Regular bus connections run to Lübbecke, Minden, Espelkamp und Rahden.
The important Mittellandkanal traverses the community since 1915. The Harbour of Hille is located on it and is connected to the Mindener Kreisbahn. Its cargo totals increased from 2005 to 2006.
Long distance bicycle trails like the Bremen–Bad Oeynhausen route, Mühlenroute und Wellness-Radroute traverse the community.
Local businesses
Agriculture has a strong influence on the area encompassing the community of Hille. Besides well functioning farms on loess soil there are many areas with poor soil and meager incomes. Many residents therefore depended on other work. This caused the linen industry to grow in the 18th century and the cigar industry in the 19th century. Work in the home was characteristic of both of them. The forests provided raw material for furniture manufacture, which however did not become as specialized locally as did the kitchen furnishing industry in the Ravensberg countryside.
An example of this is Friedrich Priess GmbH & Co KG, a furniture manufactures in Hille since 1931. the firm Prieß, Horstmann & Co. Maschinenbau, GmbH & Co.KG in Unterlübbe manufactures machine tools for the furniture industry.
The poor economic conditions in the post World War era caused many job searchers to travel to the Volkswagen works in Hannover. In those days workers employed at Volkswagen could purchase a car annually and resell it. This resulted in an active used-car trade for the area.
The trash landfill Pohlsche Heide is located in Hille, which handles provides trash disposal beyond the Kreis Minden-Lübbecke.
The R. Bücker EDV-Beratung Datentechnik GmbH is a medium-sized data supply IT Company from Hille. The UPHOFF Schlosserei GmbH is involved in steel construction and machine manufacture with 20 workers in Hille. The dtH Tiemann GmbH builds windows in Hille. ESKATE Rohrverbindungstechnik GmbH is located in Unterlübbe and specializes in flange and swage connections, as well as special bent products. Rhenus GmbH is a freight transport firm located at the harbour in Hille.
The Wiehengebirgsmolkerei is a dairy located in Unterlübbe.
Media
The printed media for Hille originates primarily from the city of Minden. This is the locale of the daily newspaper Mindener Tageblatt, which has a page dedicated to Hille. The radio station Westdeutscher Rundfunk is regarded as the state(Land) radio station. The WDR TV and radio studio in Bielefeld produces programs focused on East Westfalia (Ostwestfalen). Commercial competition is provided by Radio Westfalica from Minden, whose local viewpoint is being strengthened.
Public organizations
The voluntary fire fighting brigade for Hille consists of 9 independent pump groups, which are located in the 9 villages of the community.
Hospital services are provided at the Kreis level. The closed hospitals are located in Minden, Lübbecke und Rahden. The newly constructed Johannes-Wesling-Klinikum opened in 2008.
The German Red Cross has the Deutsche Rote Kreuz Ortsverein Hille e.V. to provide non-police emergency services.
Education
For a long time, each of the villages had its own schools in which multiple age groups were taught together. Classes by yearly grade were introduced after the end of WWII and the accompanying population growth. The subsequent ongoing decline in the birth rate no longer allowed the continuation of the system and led to consolidation. Subsequently, each village no longer had its own schools, and school children were forced to use a school-bus.
Hille, Nordhemmern, Oberlübbe and Rothenuffeln are the only villages to retain grade schools.
The establishment of the Community Hille created the desire to provide more advance schools; it was the previous norm that advanced scholars commuted to higher schools in Minden or Lübbecke. In the 1950 a combined school with high school like upper grades was created from the existing Hille school. In 2002 a high school division was permitted and the "Gesamt (overall) Schule Hille" was renamed "Verbundsschule Hille".
There is also school in community Hille for children that could benefit from reformed upbringing as well a school for the speech impaired; both serve all of Kreis Minden-Lübbecke.
An extension of the Volkshochschule (public high school) Minden is located in the Hille community administration building in Hartum. Another public high school is located in the adjacent city of Espelkamp.
References
External links
Official site
Minden-Lübbecke |
4108019 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ardclough | Ardclough | Ardclough, officially Ardclogh (; ), is a village and community in the parish of Kill, County Kildare, Ireland. It is two miles (3 km) off the N7 national primary road. It is the burial place and probable birthplace of Arthur Guinness, who is said to have returned to the maternal homestead of the Reads at Huttonread to give birth in the tradition of the time.
Location
Ardclough is located below two detached foothills of the Wicklow Mountains, Lyons Hill and Oughterard on some of the most fertile soils in Ireland. The River Liffey passes within a one kilometre radius. The main transport arteries to the south and south west of Ireland pass through, the main railway line to Cork and Tralee, the canal to Shannonbridge, and the N7 which passes nearby.
While the original townland of Ardclough was situated west of the canal in land that is now inaccessible, and contained the site on the opposite bank of the canal of the original (1810) parish church of Lyons and a group of quarries there, the place now referred to Ardclough approximates more closely to the townlands of Tipperstown and Wheatfield, where housing was built in 1876 and 1989. The development of 54 houses on a nearby site was proposed, but has yet to begin. Construction on a new 16-classroom national school began near the original site of Tipperstown House in January 2011. A new graveyard is also planned on a site south east of the current centre of the village.
Geology
The soil is principally a rich loam, varying from 10 to in depth, and resting on a hard and compact substratum of floetz limestone. The water table is unusually high. The low group of nearby hills, which includes Lyons and Oughterard in County Kildare and Windmill Hill, Athgoe, and Rusty Hill in County Dublin, are composed of clay-slate, grauwacke, grauwaeke-slate, and granite. The grauwacke consists of small and finely rounded and angular grains of quartz, numerous minute scales of mica, small fragments of clay-slate, and sometimes portions of felspar. The grauwacke consists of small and finely rounded and angular grains of quartz, numerous minute scales of mica, small fragments of clay-slate, and sometimes portions of felspar and red sandstone.
Etymology
The name was first recorded as 'Aclagh' on Alexander Taylor's 1783 map. It was the site of the masshouse (later old Ardclough church), school and the three largest of seven local quarries, on the opposite bank of the canal. From 1837 onward it was recorded as 'Ardclogh' and later 'Ardclough'. The name likely comes from Ard Cloch, meaning "high stone or stone building".
Habitat
The area provides a combination of hill, wood and water habitats. More than 35 species of birds have been identified and coarse fishing for pike, perch, roach and rudd is common along the canal bank.
Amenities
Amongst the settlement's buildings today are a national school, a church, Ardclough GAA Club, and one shop "Buggys". Ardclough also contains the historic round tower at Oughterard.
History
Royal site
The earliest evidence of human habitation at Ardclough was the discovery of a flint dated to 4800–3600BC, at Castlewarden below Oughter Ard Hill, rare for a dry-land location from the time. Lyons Hill was the inauguration site and base for 10 Uí Dúnchada kings of Leinster. The Battle of Glen Mama, where Brian Boru defeated Máel Mórda king of Leinster and Sitric Silkbeard King of Dublin in 999, is believed to have taken place on the Dublin side of Oughterard Hill. The area was accorded its own place-legend in the Dindsenchas, Liamuin. Lyons subsequently became home to the Aylmer, Tyrrell and Lawless families.
Historic buildings
There are five medieval churches and three castles in the area. Most important is Oughter Ard, a seventh-century monastery associated with saints Briga (feast day 21 January) and Derchairthinn (feast day 8 March) and site of a round tower. Recent research has estimated that the ruined church there dates to 1350, not 1609 as previously believed. It was the site of a Royal Manor. Whitechurch, (Ecclesia Alba, named for the Carmelite order) was granted in 1320, and enfifed in 1508. A single headstone is the only reminder of the church of Castledillon, (1000), once a parish of its own. The graveyard beside another disappeared church at Clonaghlis, (pre 1206) is still in use and is associated with female saints Fedhlim and Mughain. Castlewarden (c1200) church has disappeared. Reeves Castle, on the Celbridge road, was built in the 14th century.
A mass house built below Oughter Ard hill in 1714 became the site of the first modern Catholic church in 1810 and a school in 1839. Lyons parish was united with Oughterard in 1541 and with Kill in 1693. The centre of the parish moved to Kill in 1823. The former Lyons parish church (built 1810, refurbished 1896) was deconsecrated in 1985 and is now a private house. It was replaced by a new church in Tipperstown, designed by Paul O'Daly. A marble font, brought from Rome by Valentine Lawless and presented to the church, was removed to Lyons House for safekeeping but remains the property of the parish.
A well-preserved moated site at Puddlehall dates to the 13th century and was cited by University College Dublin Professor Sean O Riordain as one of the finest examples of a moated house in Ireland. Lyons, Reeves and Oughter Ard tower houses date to the 14th century. The large houses of Bishopscourt (constructed 1790) and Lyons (constructed 1804-10) provided an economic focus of the community in the 19th century, as did the Grand Canal (reached Ardclough 1763) in the vicinity of the 13th lock.
Grand canal
When work on the Grand Canal began in 1756 Ardclough's was one of the first sections to be dug. The canal reached Ardclough in 1763, when the 13th lock, a double lock built with Pozzuolona mortar, was opened, following the ambitious design of the canal's original engineer, Thomas Omer. After Omer's plans proved too expensive a new engineer, John Trail, took over construction of the canal in 1768, the proposed canal capacity was reduced from 170 ton barges to 40 ton barges. Canal records show that " Lyons or Clonaughles lock" was reduced in size in 1783, but the canal through the thirteenth lock serves as a reminder of Omer's original plan, wide, compared with the width adopted by Trail.
Ardclough Bridge was named in original plans for the Bruton family of Clonaghlis but constructed with a name plate bearing the name of the Henry family of Straffan. From 1777 a local river, the Morrel was proposed as water feeder for the canal, construction resumed and the first passenger boats were towed to Sallins in February 1779.
Local landowner The 2nd Baron Cloncurry was a canal enthusiast, constructing the Lyons mill and lockyard village complex in the 1820s and serving as chairman of the Grand Canal Company five times during his lifetime. The canal was an important, if slow, passenger thoroughfare feeding passenger's to John Barry's hotel at Lyons. When in 1834 Flyboats increased the average speed for passenger boats from to Ireland's first railway was already under construction.
The canal peaked at 120,615 passengers in 1846, the year construction started on the Dublin-Cork railway line. When a Dublin-Galway railway line was opened in 1850 the closure of the rarely profitable passenger service followed in 1852. Cargo traffic continued to use the canal for another 108 years, peaking at 379.045 tons in 1865 when an average of 90 barges a day passed through Ardclough. The canal was motorised 1911–24 and closed to cargo in 1960, but is still a thoroughfare for leisure boats. The tracks of the ropes of the horse-drawn barges can still be traced at Ardclough canal bridge. A folk belief prevailed that the canal was haunted at the thirteenth lock because it had been dug through a graveyard, a possible reference to nearby Clonaghlis graveyard.
Notable events
The Great Southern & Western Railway (constructed 1844) and Straffan railway station (used until 1947) opened communications to Dublin for cattle and horse dealers. A railway accident on 5 October 1853, the third-worst in Irish rail history, killed 18 people including four children in the townland of Clownings. It occurred in heavy fog when a goods train ran into the back of a stalled passenger train at a point 974 yards south of the former Straffan Station. The goods train smashed the first-class carriage, which was driven a quarter of a mile through station. The tragedy was the subject of a poem by Donegal-born poet William Allingham. It was the third worst accident in rail history to that date.
In the Ardclough Sedition Case in October 1917, Nora J Murray, a nationalist poet and writer, the headmistress of Ardclough National School was accused by local Irish Unionist Bertram Hugh Barton of 'sedition in time of war' under the Defence of the Realm Act. He complained about her teaching of Irish history, illegal at the time. in a complaint made in the name of one of Barton's tenants, Kathleen Bourke, an activist in the Women's Unionist Association. After a local defence fund was mounted by the INTO and the local community, the charged was not pursued by the Dublin Castle regime but Murray she was forced out of the area and the house where she lodged was later burned by the British Army.
The Barnewell homestead at Lyons was the headquarters of anti-treaty forces in north Kildare during the Irish Civil War.
On 22 June 1975 Whitechurch resident Christy Phelan was killed when he engaged a group of men planting a bomb on the railway line near Baronrath. The bomb was designed to derail the train headed for the Republican Wolfe Tone commemoration at Bodenstown. His selfless intervention prevented greater loss of life. This is one of a number of British undercover operations carried out against civilian targets in the Republic during the Troubles, currently under investigation by the Barron Commission.
The biggest train robbery to date in the history of Ireland took place at Kearneystown on 31 March 1976 when £150,000 was taken from the Dublin-Cork mail train.
Daniel O’Connell (1775–1847) fought a duel with John d’Esterre at Oughterard on 1 February 1815.
Economy
Limestone quarries (sinkhole recorded 1804) made Ardclough townland, which is located on a canal bank, the focus of economic activity from the 1800s until the death of owner Patrick Sullivan in 1879 (peak activity 1850s). This townland was also chosen as the location for Lyons parish church (1811) and St Anne's National School (1834). Boston Lime Company reduced the price to six shillings per load in 1875 but a footnote in the 1891 census returns attributes the decline in population from 75 to 21 in Ardclough townland to the closure of quarries. Stone was brought by light railway to the nearby quays and by canal barge to Sullivan's lime kiln. Ardclough limestone was used in the construction of Naas jail and hospital. The census reports of the mid-19th century indicate how the small townland of Ardclough came to give its name to the adjoining district, but by 1901 there were only six people living there.
A cluster of warehouses and workshops at Lyons lockyard village was largely constructed in the 1820s, featuring a mill (leased to William Palmer 1839 and Joseph Shackleton, second cousin of Antarctic explorer Ernest Shackleton, 1853, converted to roller mill 1887), hotel (leased by Patrick Barry 1840-60), police station (active 1820-73 ) and boatyard. This complex employed over 100 people at their peak but declined when the focus shifted away from the canal, the decline in fortunes of the Lawless family and most dramatically as a consequence of the accidental burning of the mill in 1903. In September 2006 the buildings were restored as themed residences and a restaurant.
Ardclough Relocates
When the GAA club (1936), community hall (1940, reconstructed 2004) and school (1950) were built on a crossroads beneath Henry Bridge, and it shifted the focus of the community to a site in Tipperstown, which is regarded as the modern Ardclough. The population was boosted by houses built at Wheatfield (1940), Boston Hill (1949–51) and Tipperstown (Wheatfield Estate 1976, Lishandra Estate 1989). St. Anne's Church, a Catholic church designed by Paul O’Daly was sited nearby in 1985.
Sport
GAA
Ardclough GAA (community associated with Hazlehatch Irish Harpers 1887-8, active as Ardclough 1924-5, refounded 1936) is the smallest community to win a Kildare County Senior Football Championship, defeating an Army team that featured All Ireland and inter-provincial players in the replayed final of 1949. The hurling club was founded in 1948. One of the most successful in Kildare, it has won 13 Kildare County Senior Hurling Championships - in 1968, 1973, 1975, 1976, 1979, 1980, 1981, 1982, 1983, 1985, 2004, 2006 and 2017. In 2006 they went on to become Leinster Intermediate club champions, losing to the eventual All Ireland champions in extra time in the quarter-final, and were awarded Kildare GAA club of the year. The 2008 Kildare senior hurling panel included six Ardclough players.
Ardclough Camogie club (founded 1962 by Mick Houlihan, revived 1983 by Phyllis Finneran) won a Kildare senior championship in 1968. Bridget Cushen was selected on the Kildare camogie team of the century.
Equestrianism
Notable Ardclough horses in both flat and national hunt (once described as "the four horses of the Ardcloughalypse") include The Tetrarch (1911, regarded as probably the finest two-year-old in Irish racing history), Captain Christy (winner Cheltenham Gold Cup, 1974), Star Appeal (winner of the Prix de l'Arc de Triomphe, 1975) and Kicking King (winner Cheltenham Gold Cup, 2005). Father-and-son horse trainers Pat Taaffe and Tom Taaffe came from Alasty. As a jockey Pat Taaffe (1930–92) rode two winners of the English Grand National, Quare Times in 1955 and Gay Trip in 1970 and was Irish National Hunt champion six times.
Other sports
David Ritchie who lived at Oughterard laid out Ireland's first golf course. Ardclough had a soccer club briefly in 1941-3. Basil Phipps launched his motorcycle racing career in 1947 and hosted a number of racing events at his home in Clonaghlis. Fionn Carr was top try-scorer for Connacht during the Magners League 2008/09 campaign and later signed for Leinster.
Clubs
Ardclough had a brass band which performed at Bodenstown in 1914 and at the 1949 Kildare County Senior Football final. There was a branch of the LDF/FCA (8 November 1941), Fianna Fáil (1931), Labour (1943), Fine Gael (1943) and Macra na Feirme (1955). There are active branches of the Irish Countrywomen's Association (active 1941-42 and revived 1974, with Maura Costello (1924-2011) as Chairwoman) and Comhaltas Ceoltóirí Éireann (branch established in 1966 with Paddy Corry (1916-1971) as Chairman).
People
Lived in Ardclough
Gerald Aylmer (c1500-1559), judge and enforcer for English King Henry VIII in Ireland at the time of the Dissolution of the Monasteries,
Valentine Lawless, 2nd Baron Cloncurry (1773-1853), a local landlord and member of the United Irishmen who helped finance both the 1798 and 1803 rebellions.
Baron Cloncurry (1840-1928), local landlord and Unionist and Conservative politician who served as High Sheriff of Kildare in 1867.
Ronan Keating (b.1977), lead singer with Boyzone, lived in Ardclough when he was growing up.
Nora J Murray (1888–1955), Carrick-on-Shannon born poet, author of "A Wind Upon the Heath" (1918), school teacher at Ardclough and subject of a notorious "sedition in the classroom" case in November 1917 when a local landlord complained about her teaching of Irish history.
James Butler, 4th Earl of Ormond (1393–1452), popularly known as 'the White Earl'. Lord Ormond, an Anglo-Irish nobleman, was granted Castlewarden and Oughterard in 1412 for supporting the Lancastrian cause.
Brabazon Ponsonby (1679–1758), founder of one of the most powerful political dynasties of the 18th century. Ponsonby descendants include Sir Alec Douglas-Home (British Prime Minister from 1963-4) and The Duke of Cambridge, heir to the British throne.
John Ponsonby (1713–1789) of Bishopscourt, speaker of the Irish House of Commons (1756–1769)
William Ponsonby, 1st Baron Ponsonby (1744–1806), leader of the Irish Whigs (1789–1803).
George Ponsonby (1755–1817), first counsel to the revenue commissioners.
Tony Ryan (1936–2007), aviator, founder of Ryanair and Guinness Peat Aviation and patron of the arts purchased a home in Lyons some years before his death.
Lydia Shackleton (1828–1914), botanical artist, lived in Ardclough between April 1853 when she moved to the family's newly acquired mill at Lyons, where she was housekeeper for her elder brother Joseph, until 1860.
Born in Ardclough
Emily Lawless (1845–1913), writer and granddaughter of Valentine Lawless, 2nd Baron Cloncurry born in Lyons.
Charlie McCreevy (b.1948), Minister for Finance in the Government of Ireland (1997–2004) and European Commissioner for the Internal Market and Services (2004-2010) grew up on the Grand Canal in the lock house at 14th lock and played under-age hurling and football for Ardclough.
George Ponsonby (1755–1817), opposition leader in the British House of Commons at Westminster and leader of the Whig Party (1808–1817), born in Bishopscourt he lived in Newlands in a house formerly owned by Arthur Wolfe.
Mary Ponsonby, wife of Charles Grey, British Prime Minister from 1830 to 1834 and best known nowadays as the Earl Grey of the tea brand.
William Ponsonby (1772–1815), Major-General whose inept charge at the Battle of Waterloo resulted in his death at the hands of the Polish Lancers and was studied as an example of failed battle strategy for generations afterwards,
Mary Redmond (1863–1930) sculptor responsible for the statue of Father Matthew on O’Connell Street Dublin was born in Ardclough and spent her childhood at the Canal Bank where her father was a quarry manager.
Buried in Ardclough
John Philpot Curran (1750–1817), lawyer, patriot and friend of Valentine Lawless, had his body deposited temporarily in the mausoleum at Lyons before being removed to a grave at Glasnevin, where it now reposes.
Arthur Guinness (1725–1803), founder of the famous brewery is buried in Oughterard cemetery. He was the son of Richard Guinness and Elizabeth Read (1698–1742) from Bishopscourt, who was agent and receiver of Dr Arthur Price and lived in Celbridge at the time of Arthur's birth.
Arthur Wolfe, 1st Viscount Kilwarden (1739–1803), first Viscount Kilwarden, judge and most famous victim of the rebellion of Robert Emmet is buried in the family vault of the Wolfes in Oughterard cemetery.
Bibliography
Eoghan Corry and Jim Tancred (2004): Annals of Ardclough
Ardclough Churches 1985 Souvenir Brochure.
W J Fitzpatrick: Life, Times and Contemporaries of Lord Cloncurry (1855). (Online version available)
Valentine Lawless, Personal recollections of the life and times, with extracts from the correspondence of Valentine Lord Cloncurry, Dublin: J. McGlashan; London: W.S. Orr, 1849. ()
Lyons House: A Guide (2001).
"Irish Geography" Vol 18 1985 DN Hall M Hennessy and Tadhg O'Keefe Medieval Agriculture and Settlement in Castlewarden and Oughterard pp16–25
"Kildare Archaeological Society Journal". Volume I: pp84–86, 195, 296, 297, 298, 299. Volume II: pp179, 183, 395. Volume III: pp361, 364, 456. Volume IV: pp64, 165, 179-183, 255, 257. Volume XII: pp264, 332, 339-341, 400, 429.
References
External links
Ardclough Community Council website (archived)
Village design statement
County Council planning links
GAA club website featuring local information
History timeline on Ardclough Community Council website
Towns and villages in County Kildare |
4108198 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jack%20Staff | Jack Staff | Jack Staff is a British superhero created by comic book writer/artist Paul Grist. While the title character is billed as "Britain's Greatest Hero", the series is known for being in the style of an anthology title and featuring an ensemble cast, largely inspired by extant American and British characters from comics and other mediums. The series was first published in 2000 via Grist's own Dancing Elephant Press, before moving to American publisher Image Comics in 2003.
Creation
While various sources have stated the series began as a reworked pitch for a series about the Marvel Comics character Union Jack, Grist would later clarify that this was only partially true, having gone no further than an enquiry as to whether Marvel would be interested in a series featuring the character. Having previously worked for Marvel on the 1996 limited series The Daily Bugle, Grist had picked Union Jack off a list of obscure Marvel characters, and was unaware at the time that Union Jack had recently been revived in a 1998 mini-series by Ben Raab and John Cassaday. Serious work on the story did not begin until after the decision was made to create Jack Staff as an original series though part of the first arc was influenced by a 1980s Captain America storyline featuring Union Jack and Baron Blood; Grist was only able to find part of the storyline at the time, so built an alternate conclusion instead.
The series was heavily influenced by the anthology format of British weekly comics produced by Fleetway Publications and DC Thomson, which featured several short serial episodes in each issue. The difference, Grist explained, was that the characters in Jack Staff frequently crossed over into each other's strips. This influenced by several characters being overt homages to classic British comic characters, including the Spider and the Steel Claw, while others were based on vintage television shows such as Steptoe and Son and Dad's Army.
Publication history
Grist initially published the series through his own Dancing Elephant Press imprint, with mainly black-and-white interiors. Strong reception led to the series being picked up by Image Comics, who switched it to full colour. The final Dancing Elephant issue was an extended 32 page special, finishing plot points from the first volume; unusually, it was published after the first issue of the Image series. The series soon became notorious for its irregular schedule, which remained unchanged after the move to Image. The second volume lasted 20 issues. In 2005, Comics International began exclusive publication of a monthly four-page strip featuring the supporting character Ben Kulmer (the Claw); this started in #185 of the magazine and ran for twelve episodes; these were subsequently collected in an Image one-shot called The Weird World of Jack Staff King-Size Special.
A crossover was planned between Jack Staff and Invincible, with Grist drawing and Robert Kirkman writing, but scheduling problems prevented it. Jack Staff himself had already appeared in a cameo in an earlier issue of the title, at the memorial service for the slain Guardians of the Globe, and later helping to defend the Earth from an army of other-dimensional Invincible doubles. A crossover with Savage Dragon also took place, in which Dragon visited Castletown as part of a storyline in which the character searched the world for his missing wife.
The series was relaunched as The Weird World of Jack Staff in 2010. Grist explained that the relaunch was driven partly by an attempt to allay confusion on the part of new readers to the anthology style of the series, noting that many were perplexed by issues often only featuring Jack Staff in a small role. Despite solicitations being published for two further issues, The Weird World of Jack Staff ended prematurely after six issues, with Grist instead focusing on Mudman.
In 2019, Grist would get his chance to actually work on Union Jack, writing new series The Union; after being delayed by the COVID-19 pandemic it was finally published in 2020. After an 11-year hiatus from the character, Grist contributed a new eight-page Jack Staff strip to the Image Comics 30th anniversary anthology Image! in 2022, appearing in the seventh issue.
Plot
Yesterday's Heroes
Castletown has recently been buffeted by a storm caused by supervillain Doc Tempest before he was taken down by hero Tom-Tom the Robot Man, while the city is also being haunted by a serial killer dubbed the Castledown Slasher. Reporter Becky Burdock meanwhile is narrowly saved from a falling sign thanks to the fast reaction of builder John Smith. Burdock is investigating the disappearance of British superhero Jack Staff for tabloid newspaper The World's Press. Jack Staff was a prominent figure of World War II who performed heroically in the aftermath of the 'Castledown Blitz' as part of the Freedom Fighters but who hasn't been sighted since 1980; however, her editor Gerald Skinner is unmoved and redirects her to reporting on the Slasher. The killings have also attracted the attention of Helen Morgan, Ben Kulmer (a.k.a. The Claw) and Harry Crane - Fortean investigators Q. Using Helen as bait, they draw out a suspect, who is cornered by Tom-Tom and confesses to the killings. However, Tom-Tom is able to detect that the man is lying. Tom-Tom and Becky both converge on a scream, and find Jack Staff standing over Helen's body. Before he can explain he is flattened by Tom-Tom, who only stops his attack when D.I. Maveryk of the police turns up to arrest Jack. However, Crane also arrives and pulls rank, getting Jack handed over to Q instead. Under interrogation, Jack tells Crane his name and that he has seen similar killings in 1940, and the archives of World War II intelligence agency Unit D confirm his story before American hero Sgt. States turns up to vouch for Jack. Burdock is informed of Jack's release, and begins to realise that he and Smith are one and the same. Back at his home, Jack tells his old comrade that he has returned to action to investigate Templar Richard. Burdock attempts to confront Smith, but is killed by a shadowy figure. She awakens to find local vampire hunter Albert Bramble about to drive a stake through her heart; Bramble had been saved from Templar Richard by the Freedom Fighters in August 1940. In the present, Jack Staff and Sgt. States head to Richard's old lair, with the American suffering bouts of nausea. Above ground, Bramble and his son Harold tell Becky she was killed by a vampire and is now one herself, though Harold refuses to let his father kill her. She claims her killer was Sgt. States, while below Jack finds Templar's body unmoved from 1940 as a vampiric Sgt. States leaps at him. The American military is complicit in his vampirism and turns back Maveryk and Q when they arrive at the caverns in pursuit of Jack, so Crane calls in Tom-Tom, while Becky is also drawn to the caverns. Their attacks give Jack a chance to kill Sgt. States. After the fight, John and Becky discover than inside Tom-Tom is a young girl, and get her to safety. Maveryk attempts to arrest Jack Staff for the murder of Becky, but is forced to let him go due to her survival, while American authorities cover up the Sgt. States fiasco.
Everything Used to Be Black and White
Patricia 'Trisha' Carthy, the paraplegic pilot of Tom-Tom, is recuperating in Castledown Royal Infirmary, where Tempest - having deduced her identity - tries to kill her, only to accidentally propel her wheelchair into his face, paralysing himself. Crane meanwhile returns home to find Helen Morgan waiting for him, alive and well. Helen explains that Q brought her back to life, and persuades Crane to remain working for Q. John meanwhile arrives at the home of the elderly Alfred Chinard to carry out some building work, but the man leads him into a pit. He comes around to find he is now wearing his Jack Staff costume, and realises that Chinard is notorious criminal the Spider, who robbed the Bank of England in 1986, leading to the shutdown of Unit D. Maveryk gains a new partner in D.S. 'Zipper' Nolan as he investigates a theft. After finding the Spider's calling card he decides to set a trap for the super-criminal. The Spider himself is after Jack's help as one of his suits has been stolen, and could be dangerous in the wrong hands. Meanwhile Becky is being chased by the Hounds of Hell, set on her by the mysterious Man of Shadows; she tries to call Jack for help, but he and the Spider are busy walking into Maveryk's trap while tracking the thief to the Eisner Building. They capture him, but the Spider knocks Jack out and leaves him as the Maveryk arrives. Becky meanwhile is saved by Harold Bramble; the Man of Shadows tells her she has to pick a side in a war before vanishing.
Another serial killer arrives in Castletown, this time seemingly mimicking the organ-stealing methods depicted in The Jigsaw Man by author Iain M. Angel, also in town. Maveryk arrests the writer at a signing, as his recent tour coincides with the killings. John is also arrested by Maveryk, but Helen and Ben realise the real killer is a mystical concept attempting to build itself a body. With help from the mystical Druid they are able to stop the Jigsaw Man from becoming corporeal. Becky angrily confronts John for not helping her when under threat of the Shadow, but their bickering is stopped when his colleague unearths a coffin. Becky's editor turns the opening of the coffin into a publicity event, involving a £10,000 prize for guessing the contents, model Lynda Jones and a host of others. Doctor Spex's x-ray eyes are unable to penetrate the casket, and neither are Morlan the Mystic's psychic senses before the event is crashed by thief the Claw and the Spider, who steals the prize in the resulting confusion. The coffin also comes open, revealing its contents to be the still-living Victorian escapologist Charlie Raven. Meanwhile Maveryk and Nolan are called to the town nursing home, where worker Hannah Noone has been found aged to death despite only being 22. Meanwhile Raven escapes from police custody. Raven was trapped by a Time Leech after he refused to ally with its plans for world domination, which were delayed when its human form - a dark-haired woman - suffered amnesia but has recently reawakened in Castletown, revitalising itself with Noone's life-force. Raven visits Becky for help. On their way through town they run into the woman in a bank that is in the process of being robbed. Acting on a tip-off from Becky, John is also in the bank and attempts to stop the robbers as Jack Staff but they take Becky hostage. Jack, Maveryk, Raven and the woman are locked in the vault together but Raven is able to get them out. Jack finds the mysterious woman not breathing, and she vanishes when he tries to resuscitate her. Raven also vanishes, while Becky dresses down Jack for the weirdness he brings to her life. Meanwhile, back in its original form the Time Leech plots its return.
Soldiers
In 1981, Britain's secret Hurricane escapes and rampages towards Castletown. its progress is tracked by Project H commander Malone. The Hurricane is an enraged, powerful superhuman known as the Hurricane, and is met two miles outside town by Jack Staff, who he beats easily. Jack wakes up to find ally Mister Green on the scene, claiming to be unable to intervene. Exasperated, he follows the trail of destruction to the city centre, where he is able to use an ice cream truck to save a young Becky from Hurricane. As Malone is responsible for creating Hurricane - an officer by the name of Colonel Gust who had anger issues which were augmented by Storm Damage - he decides to kill all the witnesses, using the miniature military forces controlled by another Project H asset, General Tubbs. Tubbs' weapons force Jack and Becky into the sewers, where they are again confronted by Hurricane. Malone's subordinate Stewart expresses concern about overtaxing Tubbs, but the commander pulls a gun on her, takes Tubbs' remote and drops into Castletown to finish the job. However, Malone was unaware that Tubbs controlled the machines with his mind and that the remote was merely a prop. Having learnt about Hurricane's power from Malone, Jack uses his powers to drain the excess anger from Gust, returning him to normal. He is berated by Mister Green, who had intentionally released Hurricane as a potential ally in a forthcoming cosmic war. Disgusted at the attitude of both Mister Green and Malone, Jack Staff quits. The true cause of the damage is covered up by the government, who instead blame it on an earthquake.
Twenty years later, Castletown is hit by a spike in rage-based crimes - Kane is present as a blind man beats a helpful youth to death, Tom Tom causes huge property damage and hospitalises minor villain Shock! while John has to save Becky from a murderous mob. Jack and Becky compare notes with Trisha, who has no memory of Tom Tom's rampage, but they are menaced by more of the townspeople. Meanwhile Maveryk also falls victim to the rage and kills Helen, who once again comes back to life and shares her theories about the causes of the anger with Q and the police, realising the link with the events of 1981. Jack, Becky and Trisha are saved by Commander Hawkes, former leader of Unit D, who teleports them and a man attacked by the mob to his Thunder Ship. They get the man to hospital, where Hawkes discovers he has no records. The hospital is then hit by a blackout; they come under attack from the Claw, and are joined by Stewart. Now commander of intelligence agency S.M.I.L.E., she has also realised the attacks are linked to the Hurricane, and that the injured man is actually Gust. The Claw escapes, having acted as a decoy so Helen could take Gust away. Q assemble at the Quake Circle, a roundabout decorated with debris from Hurricane's attack in 1981. There, Helen is able to transfer the rage back into Gust, who she then suggests would make a good ally for Q.
Echoes of Tomorrow
In 1942, the Freedom Fighters are called to Castletown, where a German soldier has been found dead. The team come under fire from a nearby house and investigate. Jack discovers a lab inside ran by his enemy Brain Head, who has used a teleporter to bring the German superhero Kapitan Krieg to the town. One by one the team are knocked out by Krieg and captured. Brain Head explains to the captive Freedom Fighters he plans to teleport the German army to Castletown as revenge for the way he feels the country has treated him, also getting to transfer his mind to Krieg's body as a reward. However, Jack and Sgt. States are able to get free. Krieg also turns on Brain Head, giving Jack an opening to destroy the machine. Struggling with some sort of possession, Krieg allows Jack and Sgt. Stripes to get team-mates Blazing Glory and Tommy Twister out of the house, which then implodes.
In the present day, a cult leader hires Bramble & Son to capture Becky, a job that Harold reluctantly accepts. She is taken to sacrificial ceremony, where Harold and Arthur turn on the cultists, only for the trio to be trapped. The Shadow offers Becky help to escape, but she refuses to leave Harold. The cult leader then kills himself as the sacrifice, and a block of vampires arrive and proclaim her the 'Bringer of the Night'; she bluntly refuses to lead them. Helen Morgan meanwhile experiences recurring dreams featuring Mister Green, which warn her something will be happening at the town's branch of Tesco.
Maveryk meanwhile investigates a murder at the home of polymath Lord Gilbert Pearce MP, who masquerades as a police officer and captures Maveryk, proclaiming he has been set up. Tom Tom attempts a rescue, but Pierce slips away and hides in plain sight as one of the town's homeless. Elsewhere, Ben Kulmer continues to commit theft in his spare time, but is being hunted by Mason and his pink-clad assassin for stealing the Claw in the first place. 'Zipper' Nolan is also suffering ominous dreams, featuring his childhood imaginary friends and a battle between the Druid, Lord Nod and the sinister Jim Bones.
John is accosted in Tesco by Morlan the Mystic, who has had visions of Jack Staff losing a battle against a powerful foe. Sure enough, in the car park the cosmic hero known as the Eternal Warrior appears through a portal. Smith is able to best the Warrior after a long fight, but it turns out the real danger is Brain Head's house, sent forward in time. Kapitan Kreig is still inside, unaged and possessed by the demon. After Helen's visions warn her of events, Kane and Kulmer arrive in the car park and try to reason with Krieg, who swipes out one of Kane's eyes in response. He is even able to see the invisible Kulmer, and blows a hole in Tom-Tom when the hero tries to help. Despite Hans' efforts to regain control and Jack's efforts to fight him, Vorty Krill emerges in his own body, and declares himself conqueror of Tesco. Helen arrives and battles Krill, who takes possession of the Eternal Warrior's body. However, the cosmic hero is able to drive the creature out, and it is eaten by Morlun before it can take another host. The Eternal Warrior returns to patrolling the cosmos and John buries old enemy Krieg.
Rocky Realities
A being called Molachi the Immortal seeks the Star Stone, but is beheaded by the Eternal Warrior. Meanwhile John is struck by dreams of himself standing over the head body of Helen Morgan and then battling an armoured figure. The Star Stone resurfaces in a museum, where Ben Kulmer prepares to steal it - only for Molachi to turn up with a new cyborg body, which Becky has unwittingly repaired. Jack turns up as well but - thanks to having another cloned self as an ally - Molachi is able to take the Star Stone and signal the Nagarik for an invasion of Earth. However, as the invasion was planned to take place a thousand years beforehand the Nagarik have moved on to other things and are no longer interested. In the confusion, Kulmer sneaks away with both the Star Stone and the sword.
In an alternate reality, Jack is Britain's greatest criminal - and a former romantic partner of Becky Burdock, vampire hunter - the pair had a son named Matthew, who was killed by vampires. She has a creeping suspicion something is not right, and this is confirmed when Temporal Reality Agent Rocky Reality appears to mend the timeline. They meet the regular Becky, and the alternate version is less than happy at the idea that she should have been a vampire. Against her wishes, Jack uses a reality rock to change the reality and things seemingly go back to normal. However, a vampire version of Alfred Bramble has crossed over from the alternate reality.
Nolan receives a tip-off that the villain Mister Punch will be outside the swanky restaurant Tuppers, where John is having dinner with model Lynda Jones. Their meal is crashed by Punch, and John changes to Jack Staff and fights the villain without success. Nolan plans to intervene and is seemingly knocked out - but when he comes around Punch has been dealt with, seemingly by his childhood imaginary friends Dish and Goldie. Another of Nolan's childhood heroes, the Druid, appears at Nolan's home, and is distraught to find he is only a comic character. Elsewhere, Albert is attacked by his vampire doppelganger, while Becky visits Harold, who shares some of the Brambles' vampire literature with her and then unwittingly invites the vampire Albert into his home. To save Harold from the vampire, Becky is forced to make a deal with the Man of Shadows, who brings Alfred back to life. Rocky Reality then appears and is successfully able to correct the timeline, returning Alfred to normal, while the Shadow tells Becky she is now in his debt. Kulmer meanwhile is captured by old enemy Sommerset Stone, but his captor is killed by old employer Mason and his assassin. Kulmer finds the Claw seems to be acting to protect him, and kills Mason.
While this is happening, John is accused of armed robbery, and Maveryk attempts to bring him in with the aid of Tom-Tom. He swears his innocence, but Jack and Tom Tom are attacked by Shock! Shock! takes out Tom-Tom and Jack before being confronted by another hero called The Butler, who helps Jack defeat the villain. Trisha is convinced of Jack's innocence and has Tom-Tom fly him away from the police. At her base, Jack realises the real robber is a shape-shifter. Searching for him, Maveryk and Nolan head to the Costello Academy for gifted children, where the Head Master takes over Maveryk's mind with his telepathy. However, another of Nolan's imaginary friends, Mister Balloons, appears to save him. When the Head Master attempts to control Nolan's mind, he recoils at what he sees. Elsewhere a group of superpowered students, including the shapeshifter, capture Trisha. Jack follows and seeing him alongside the shapeshifter as John convinces Maveryk, before the students use their abilities to escape. Later, Zipper's friends order pizza, but unknown to them the delivery boy is attacked by Mister Bones.
The Weird World of Jack Staff
In 1875, Charlie Raven is trapped by fellow music hall act Professor Fate at the Empire Theatre in Castledown. Fate, wearing the Mask of Destiny, goes on stage and picks a man from the audience called John Smith, who has been "chosen by the fates". Raven begins to escape from Fate's trap, despite a stagehand unwittingly detonating an explosive device. On stage, Fate places Smith in a cabinet, and when he emerges the man has energy coursing off him. Fate attempts to siphon the power off him in order to wield the Sword of Devastation but realises he has chosen the wrong man. Raven confronts Fate, and Smith flees as the theatre catches fire. It burns to the ground, with Raven escaping and Fate trapped underground.
In 1973 at Castletown's Alternate Energy Research Centre, Jack Staff and Unit D battle the Skull, an energy-powered alien being who Jack overloads and seemingly destroys it.
In the present, Commander Hawkes attempts to find John to warn him of the return of the Skull. However, John seems to have three weeks missing from his life - and no recollection of being Jack Staff. Instead Becky attempts to talk him down, claiming Jack Staff has not been seen until 1981, and has some success until Maveryk arrives with armed police - giving the game away about John into the bargain. Tom Tom arrives and attacks the Skull, watched by Fate - who has awakened in the recently-refurbished theatre. Becky decapitates the villain with a sledgehammer, and John's memory partly returns, allowing Jack Staff to help her. The pair begin to investigate the gaps in John's memory, which include missing a date with calendar model Lynda Jones - triggering more of his memories. They go to confront her at her book launch. Fate is buried again when the battle between the Skull and Tom Tom collapses the theatre, also burying construction worker Andrew Owens, who is discovered by Tom Tom wearing the Mask of Destiny.
Meeting Lynda restores John's memory. Three weeks earlier, Jack had attempted to foil a theft at the town museum by the Claw, with help from the Butler. However, during the fight Jack is taken out of time by an armoured figure, who transports him to "the end of everything". Professor Fate and Morlan the Mystic also watch on the latter's television. They see "the Destroyer" wearing the complete Valiant Stone among the ruins of Castletown, killing a battered Jack before being challenged by Becky, clad in a green cloak and carrying the Sword of Devastation. The villain spots the observers, and smashes the time-traveller's helmet - revealing her to be Lynda Jones, Calendar Girl. She is a Clock Cop charged with making sure the time stream, and transports them both back to the present - where Lynda bemoans that everything has gone wrong. Fate is able to use the Mask to take control of Andrew, having realised the true champion he was searching for was Becky all along. The Devil with an Angel's face arrives in Castletown and confronts John, Lynda and Becky; Jack battles him but is stabbed saving Becky's life. Lynda puts the area in a time lock and opens a portal to the Sword of Devastation but Andrew arrives and passes the Mask of Destiny to Becky. She is able to reject the Mask's control. Jack berates Lynda for meddling, noting that none of this would have happened if she hadn't taken him out of time, and collects the Mask.
Characters
Collected editions
Reception
Despite low sales, Jack Staff consistently drew strong critical acclaim. Writing for ComicsAlliance, both Benito Cereno and Chris Sims praised Grist's draughtsmanship, characterisation and storytelling on the series. Sims called it "hands down one of the best comics ever printed". Four years later he stood by the description, and again noted Grist's ability to blend inventive artistic techniques with intelligent superhero stories.
Charles Murphy of TGR praised the central character's moral compass and the depiction of the British in general in the series, something also picked up on by Matthew Meylikhov in an article for Multiversity Comics. Meylikhov also noted the series' pace and rich characters. In his book British Comics - A Cultural History, James Chapman noted the series' ability to keep a strong British identity, something he felt was comparable to the sensibilities of Grant Morrison's Zenith.
Awards
2001: Won "Favourite British Small Press Title" Eagle Award
2002: Nominated for "Best Self-Published/Independent" National Comics Award
2003:
Won "Best Self-Published/Independent" National Comics Award
Nominated for "Best New Comic" National Comics Award
2005: Nominated for "Favourite British Small Press Title" Eagle Award
2007: Nominated for "Favourite Colour Comicbook (American)" Eagle Award
References
External links
Jack Staff at Paul Grist Comics Index
Jack Staff discussion forum at Image comics
Comics characters introduced in 2000
British small press comics
Fictional stick-fighters
Image Comics titles
Image Comics superheroes
United Kingdom-themed superheroes
2003 comics endings
2003 comics debuts
2009 comics endings |
4108481 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nebraska%20Cornhuskers%20football | Nebraska Cornhuskers football | The Nebraska Cornhuskers football team competes as part of the NCAA Division I Football Bowl Subdivision, representing the University of Nebraska–Lincoln in the West Division of the Big Ten. Nebraska plays its home games at Memorial Stadium, where it has sold out every game since 1962.
Nebraska is among the most storied programs in college football history and has the eighth-most all-time victories among FBS teams. Nebraska claims forty-six conference championships and five national championships (1970, 1971, 1994, 1995, and 1997), and has won six other national championships the school does not claim. NU's 1971 and 1995 title-winning teams are considered among the best in college football history. Famous Cornhuskers include Heisman Trophy winners Johnny Rodgers, Mike Rozier, and Eric Crouch, who join twenty-two other Cornhuskers in the College Football Hall of Fame. Notable among these are players Bob Brown, Guy Chamberlin, Tommie Frazier, Rich Glover, Dave Rimington, and Will Shields, and coaches Bob Devaney and Tom Osborne.
The program's first extended period of success came just after the turn of the century. Between 1900 and 1916, Nebraska had five undefeated seasons and completed a stretch of thirty-four consecutive games without a loss, still a program record. Despite a span of twenty-one conference championships in thirty-three seasons, the Cornhuskers didn't experience major national success until Bob Devaney was hired in 1962. In eleven seasons as head coach, Devaney won two national championships, eight conference titles, and coached twenty-two All-Americans, but perhaps his most lasting achievement was the hiring of Tom Osborne as offensive coordinator in 1969. Osborne was named Devaney's successor in 1973, and over the next twenty-five years established himself as one of the best coaches in college football history with his trademark I-formation offense and revolutionary strength, conditioning, and nutrition programs. Following Osborne's retirement in 1997, Nebraska has cycled through five head coaches, with Mickey Joseph serving as interim head coach following the firing of Scott Frost.
On November 26, 2022 Nebraska announced the hiring of Matt Rhule to become the next head coach of the Cornhusker football program.
History
Seasons
Conference affiliations
Independent (1890–1891; 1898–1906; 1919–1920)
Western Interstate University Football Association (1892–1897)
Big Eight (1907–1918; 1921–1995)
Missouri Valley Intercollegiate Athletic Association (1907–1918; 1921–1927)
Big Six (1928–1947)
Big Seven (1948–1959)
Big 12 (1996–2010)
Big Ten (2011–present)
Head coaches
Nebraska has had 31 head coaches in the program's history, with five others coaching at least one game on a non-permanent basis. The current head coach is Matt Rhule.
Six past Nebraska head coaches have been inducted into the College Football Hall of Fame: Edward N. Robinson, Fielding H. Yost, Dana X. Bible, Biff Jones, Bob Devaney, and Tom Osborne. Osborne is the program's all-time leader in most major categories; his .836 career winning percentage is fourth-highest in major college football history. Thirteen Nebraska coaches have won a conference championship at the school, and Devaney and Osborne combined to win five national titles.
Championships
National championships
Nebraska has won five consensus national championships from NCAA-designated major selectors.
Unclaimed national championships
Nebraska has been awarded six other national championships from NCAA-designated major selectors that the school does not claim. Major selectors for each are shown below.
† Co-champions
‡ Claimed by both Nebraska and Oklahoma due to a dispute over Oklahoma's forfeiture of games
Bowl games
Nebraska has played in fifty-three bowl games, including an NCAA-record thirty-five straight from 1969 to 2003, with a record of 26–27.
Memorial Stadium
Memorial Stadium, known as The Sea of Red, has been home of the Cornhuskers since 1923 and is the location of an ongoing NCAA-record 394-game sellout streak. The sellout streak dates back to 1962, Bob Devaney's first season at Nebraska. The stadium becomes the "third-largest city in Nebraska" on game days, as its capacity exceeds that of every Nebraska town except for Omaha and Lincoln.
The stadium has undergone a series of expansion since 1923, bringing the official capacity to 85,458. The largest crowd in Memorial Stadium history occurred on September 20, 2014, a Nebraska win over Miami with an announced attendance of 91,585.
Three statues sit outside of the stadium. The oldest, unveiled in 1997, depicts six Nebraska defenders tackling a ball carrier. Creator Fred Hoppe said, "the monument displays the sense of pride that Nebraskans have for their football team." In 2006, Hoppe created a statue of Tom Osborne with his arm around quarterback Brook Berringer, which is located outside the Osborne Athletic Complex. On August 30, 2013, a bronze statue of Bob Devaney was unveiled at the main entrance of the newly remodeled east stadium. Sculptor Joe Putjenter also created the Tunnel Walk gates inside the stadium.
Before the construction of Memorial Stadium, Nebraska played its home games at Antelope Park and Nebraska Field.
Traditions
Tunnel Walk
Since 1994, Nebraska's home games have opened with the "Tunnel Walk". Just before kickoff, Memorial Stadium plays "Sirius" as the Huskers take the field from the northwest tunnel. Immediately before the Tunnel Walk, half of Memorial Stadium yells "Husker" in unison, while the other half response with "Power."
Balloon release
At every home game since the 1930s, fans have released red helium balloons when the Huskers score their first points. In 2012, a global helium shortage threatened the tradition, but the university allowed for a limited number of balloon releases throughout the season. The tradition returned to normal the following year. In 2022, citing another global helium shortage, athletic director Trev Alberts put the tradition on hold for the year.
Walk-on program
Nebraska has a long-standing walk-on program, designed to attract student-athletes who did not receive scholarship offers. NU accepted its first walk-on in the early 1960s, and Tom Osborne began an official program in 1973 after the NCAA reduced the number of scholarships schools could offer. The size and stature of the program means that Nebraska's rosters are often unusually large; NU had 141 players on its 1996 Fiesta Bowl team, while opponent Florida had only ninety-four. Osborne credited his walk-ons with providing flexibility to better scout future opponents. Unlike some other schools, Nebraska's walk-ons have the same access to training facilities and academic counseling as those with scholarships. Six Nebraska walk-ons have become All-Americans and twenty-nine have played in the National Football League.
Uniform history
Helmets
Nebraska's first helmet was red with a single white stripe, later changed to plain white with a black number on the side. From 1967 to 1969, the helmet featured a red, offset "NU" on each side. In 1970, this was changed to the now-familiar single "N", although a few "NU" helmets remained as late as 1971. The change was necessitated due to a shortage of "U" stickers, and when the program claimed its first national championship, the single N remained. The helmet design has remained essentially unchanged since, with the exception of a facemask switch from grey to red in 1982.
Jerseys
The Huskers wore full shoulder stripes in the late 1960s and early 1970s, but these were gradually phased out as mesh and tearaway jerseys became popular. From 1980 to 1983, Nebraska's jerseys featured only a block "N" on the sleeves. In 1984, stripes and TV numbers were permanently re-added, although both have decreased in size as jersey sleeves have shortened. A patch was added to the left shoulder to commemorate the 100th season of Nebraska football in 1989; it remained the following season and was altered to read "Nebraska Football: A Winning Tradition." Players' last names first appeared on jerseys for road games and bowl games in the late 1970s, but home jerseys remained nameless except for seniors playing their final home game. In 1988, last names were permanently affixed to all jerseys.
Nebraska's defense has been referred to as the "Blackshirts" since the 1960s, a reference to the black jerseys worn by starting defensive players during practice. Depictions of the Blackshirts often include a skull and crossbones. The tradition originated when Bob Devaney had the defense use contrasting jerseys to offset the red worn by the offense in practice.
Pants
The team traditionally wears white pants at home and red on the road, although there have been exceptions. Nebraska first donned red pants with red jerseys for its 1986 contest with Oklahoma; the combination was unofficially retired after a late Nebraska loss. Nebraska wore all-white uniforms for the first in the 1991 Florida Citrus Bowl, a 45–21 loss to Georgia Tech. NU used the white-on-white combination for its first three road games in 1992, but lost two of them, including an upset loss to Iowa State. The "surrender suits", as they became known, were not seen again for over a decade. In 2007, the white-on-white combination was worn for Bill Callahan's final game as head coach, an embarrassing loss to Colorado. Nebraska again donned all-white in 2014 to contrast Fresno State's all-red uniforms. NU won 55–19 and wore white pants in three more road games that season.
From 1968 through 1994, Nebraska's pants had two stripes down each side. These were removed prior to the 1995 season, and the pants remained stripe-less until 2001. In 2002, Nebraska experimented with large side panels on its jersey and pants, and wore all-white in every road game. The changes were unpopular among fans, and Nebraska quickly reverted most changes, which included the permanent return of pant stripes. When Scott Frost became head coach in 2018, pant stripes were again removed, as a tribute to the uniform style from Frost's playing career. Stripes returned to the pants in 2023 under Matt Rhule.
Alternate uniforms
Nebraska wore throwback uniforms for the first time in 2009, to honor Memorial Stadium's 300th consecutive sellout. In 2012, Nebraska and Wisconsin played in the first "Adidas Unrivaled" game; Both schools' uniforms featured block letters instead of front numbers and proved to be hugely unpopular. The following year, Nebraska wore black jerseys with white stencil font numbers against UCLA. In 2014, Nebraska wore an all-red uniform featuring black metallic stripes on the jersey and pants, and used a similar design for all-black and all-white uniforms over the next two years.
In 2017, Nebraska wore throwback uniforms to celebrate the 20th anniversary of the school's 1997 national championship team. Unlike previous years, this design was well received. Nebraska again wore throwback uniforms in 2018 to honor the 100th anniversary of the end of World War I. Nebraska wore Blackshirt-themed alternate uniforms in 2019, which featured a black jersey and a Blackshirts logo on both sleeves. Frost suggested this iteration may be a permanent design, to be worn after Nebraska's defense plays particularly well.
Adidas has been Nebraska's official shoe and uniform sponsor since 1996. In 2017, the school and sponsor agreed to a record-setting eleven-year, $128 million apparel deal.
Rivalries
Colorado
The rivalry between Nebraska and Colorado, one-sided for much of its history, gained traction with Colorado's resurgence in the 1990s. The teams have met 71 times, with the series dating back to 1898, a 23–10 Nebraska win. The Cornhuskers lead the series 49–21–2. The rivalry began when Colorado joined the Big Eight in 1947; they played in the same conference as Nebraska until 2010. A bison head named Mr. Chip was presented to the winning team throughout the 1950s, but this exchange ended when Colorado misplaced the trophy in 1961. The teams have not played annually since both programs exited the Big 12 in 2011.
Iowa
The Iowa–Nebraska rivalry debuted in 1891, a 22–0 Iowa win. Since 2011, the game is held annually the Friday after Thanksgiving. Also, the game was named the Heroes Game, and the winner keeps the Heroes Trophy. The teams have met 53 times, with the Cornhuskers leading the series 30–20–3. Nebraska holds the trophy after defeating the Hawkeyes in 2022. They will meet next on November 23, 2023.
Kansas
Nebraska and Kansas share a natural border rivalry and maintained the longest non-interrupted rivalry in college football history at 105 years. The teams have met 117 times, with the series dating back to 1892, a 12–0 Kansas win. The Cornhuskers lead the series 91–23–3, which includes 36 consecutive victories from 1969 to 2004. Since Nebraska's move to the Big Ten in 2011, the series has been dormant. No future games are scheduled.
Kansas State
Nebraska and Kansas State were conference rivals from 1913 to 2010. With only 135 miles separating the schools, they were the nearest cross-border rivals in the Big Eight and Big 12 conferences. The teams have met 95 times, with the series dating back to 1911, a 59–0 Nebraska win. Nebraska leads the series 78–15–2, which includes 29 consecutive victories from 1969 to 1997. Since Nebraska's move to the Big Ten in 2011, the series has been dormant. No future games are scheduled.
The 1939 game was televised in Manhattan, Kansas, making it the second televised college football game. The 1992 contest was held in Tokyo as the Coca-Cola Classic.
Miami (FL)
Nebraska's series with Miami is among the most significant "bowl rivalries" in college football. The teams have met twelve times, with the series dating back to 1951, a 19–7 Miami win. The series is tied, 6–6. No future game is yet scheduled.
The rivalry's most notable game is the 1984 Orange Bowl. Top-ranked Nebraska scored with seconds remaining to make the game 31–30, but NU head coach Tom Osborne opted to try for a two-point conversion instead of an extra point, even though a tie would have given Nebraska the national championship. Miami won the game and its first national title.
Minnesota
The $5 Bits of Broken Chair Trophy has been awarded to the winner of the Minnesota–Nebraska game since 2014. The teams have met 61 times, dating back to 1900, a 20–12 Minnesota win. The Golden Gophers lead the series 34–25–2. Minnesota holds the trophy after defeating the Cornhuskers in 2022. The teams play annually and will meet next on August 31, 2023.
Missouri
The Victory Bell (also known as the Missouri–Nebraska Bell) has been awarded to the winner of the Missouri–Nebraska game since 1927. The teams have met 104 times, with the series dating back to 1892, a 1–0 NU win when Missouri forfeited to protest the presence of African-American George Flippin on Nebraska's roster. The Cornhuskers lead the series 65–36–3. Nebraska holds the Victory Bell after defeating the Tigers in 2010. Since Nebraska's move to the Big Ten in 2011, the series has been dormant. No future games are scheduled.
Oklahoma
Nebraska and Oklahoma has long been considered one of the great college football rivalries. The teams have met 87 times dating back to 1912, a 13–9 Nebraska win. The Sooners lead the series 46–38–3. Since Nebraska's move to the Big Ten in 2011, the series was dormant until 2021 when Oklahoma beat Nebraska 23–16 in Norman. Future non-conference games are scheduled for 2029 and 2030. Notably, the 2021 game in Norman marked the 50th anniversary of Nebraska's 35–31 victory over Oklahoma in the "Game of the Century".
Nebraska dominated the series until 1942, going 16–3–3 in the first twenty-two meetings. The Sooners then won sixteen consecutive games, the longest streak in the series. Nebraska's 1959 win both ended the Cornhuskers' drought against the Sooners and snapped Oklahoma's 74-game conference win streak. Nebraska won the "Game of the Century" in 1971, of which Dave Kindred of The Courier-Journal wrote, "They can quit playing now, they have played the perfect game." Oklahoma won every matchup from 1972 to 1977, a streak that ended in 1978, when Nebraska upset No. 1 Oklahoma; less than two months later, OU won a rematch in the Orange Bowl. Nebraska controlled the 1990s, including a 69–7 win in 1997, the largest margin of victory in series history. When the Big 12 was formed in 1996, the schools no longer played annually, ending a stretch of 68 consecutive years they had met. The teams met for the last time as conference opponents in the 2010 Big 12 Championship Game, when Oklahoma defeated Nebraska 23–20.
The two programs combined to win 74 of 89 Big Eight championships, 41 by Nebraska and 33 by Oklahoma. The teams played eighteen times when both were ranked in the AP Poll top ten, and nine times when both were in the top five.
Texas
Nebraska and Texas were conference rivals from 1996 to 2010. The teams have met fourteen times dating back to 1933, a 26–0 Nebraska win. Texas leads the series 10–4. Since Nebraska's move to the Big Ten in 2011, the series has been dormant. No future games are scheduled.
In the first-ever Big 12 Championship game, unranked Texas upset two-time defending national champion Nebraska. In the 2009 Big 12 Championship Game Nebraska's own upset bid was spoiled when a last-second Texas field goal gave the Longhorns the win and a spot in the national championship game.
Wisconsin
The Freedom Trophy has been awarded to the winner of the Nebraska–Wisconsin game since 2014. The teams have met fifteen times, with the series dating back to 1901, an 18–0 Wisconsin win. The Badgers lead the series 11–4. Wisconsin holds the Freedom Trophy after defeating the Cornhuskers in 2022. The teams play annually and will meet next on November 18, 2023.
Honors and awards
Individual award finalists
Winners in bold.
College Football Hall of Fame
Twenty-six former Nebraska coaches and players have been inducted into the College Football Hall of Fame.
Retired numbers and jerseys
Nebraska has retired the number of three players and the jersey of seventeen others. Rodgers permitted his No. 20 to be worn by his son Terry, from 1986 to 1990. No. 20 was also worn by Marlon Lucky and Michael Booker.
Retired numbers
Retired jerseys
Jerseys retired but numbers available to be worn:
All-Americans
Academic All-Americans
Nebraska leads the nation in Academic All-America selections, both in football and across all sports. Nebraska boasts seventy CoSIDA First-Team and 108 overall Academic All-America selections, both tops in the nation. The list includes fifteen Huskers that have been named first team Academic All-Americans twice in their careers. The Huskers also lead the nation with a total of 330 Academic All-Americans across all sports.
Nebraska has four players that have been selected as a First Team Academic All-American by entities other than CoSIDA: Don Fricke (1960), Pat Clare (1960), Jim Osberg (1965), and Tony Jeter (1965).
Cornhuskers in the NFL
Pro Football Hall of Fame
Five Nebraska players have been enshrined in the Pro Football Hall of Fame:
Cornhuskers in the NFL
There are twenty-seven Huskers on NFL rosters, along with five coaches.
Future opponents
As a member of the Big Ten's West division, Nebraska faces Illinois, Iowa, Minnesota, Northwestern, Purdue, and Wisconsin annually, with three other games against Big Ten East opponents and three games against non-conference opponents.
See also
College football national championships in NCAA Division I FBS
References
External links
American football teams established in 1890
Cornhuskers |
4109042 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell%20signaling | Cell signaling | In biology, cell signaling (cell signalling in British English) or cell communication is the ability of a cell to receive, process, and transmit signals with its environment and with itself. Cell signaling is a fundamental property of all cellular life in prokaryotes and eukaryotes. Signals that originate from outside a cell (or extracellular signals) can be physical agents like mechanical pressure, voltage, temperature, light, or chemical signals (e.g., small molecules, peptides, or gas). Cell signaling can occur over short or long distances, and as a result can be classified as autocrine, juxtacrine, intracrine, paracrine, or endocrine. Signaling molecules can be synthesized from various biosynthetic pathways and released through passive or active transports, or even from cell damage.
Receptors play a key role in cell signaling as they are able to detect chemical signals or physical stimuli. Receptors are generally proteins located on the cell surface or within the interior of the cell such as the cytoplasm, organelles, and nucleus. Cell surface receptors usually bind with extracellular signals (or ligands), which causes a conformational change in the receptor that leads it to initiate enzymic activity, or to open or close ion channel activity. Some receptors do not contain enzymatic or channel-like domains but are instead linked to enzymes or transporters. Other intracellular receptors like nuclear receptors have a different mechanism such as changing their DNA binding properties and cellular localization to the nucleus.
Signal transduction begins with the transformation (or transduction) of a signal into a chemical one, which can directly activate an ion channel (ligand-gated ion channel) or initiate a second messenger system cascade that propagates the signal through the cell. Second messenger systems can amplify a signal, in which activation of a few receptors results in multiple secondary messengers being activated, thereby amplifying the initial signal (the first messenger). The downstream effects of these signaling pathways may include additional enzymatic activities such as proteolytic cleavage, phosphorylation, methylation, and ubiquitinylation.
Each cell is programmed to respond to specific extracellular signal molecules, and is the basis of development, tissue repair, immunity, and homeostasis. Errors in signaling interactions may cause diseases such as cancer, autoimmunity, and diabetes.
Taxonomic range
In many small organisms such as bacteria, quorum sensing enables individuals to begin an activity only when the population is sufficiently large. This signaling between cells was first observed in the marine bacterium Aliivibrio fischeri, which produces light when the population is dense enough. The mechanism involves the production and detection of a signaling molecule, and the regulation of gene transcription in response. Quorum sensing operates in both gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria, and both within and between species.
In slime moulds, individual cells aggregate together to form fruiting bodies and eventually spores, under the influence of a chemical signal, known as an acrasin. The individuals move by chemotaxis, i.e. they are attracted by the chemical gradient. Some species use cyclic AMP as the signal; others such as Polysphondylium violaceum use a dipeptide known as glorin.
In plants and animals, signaling between cells occurs either through release into the extracellular space, divided in paracrine signaling (over short distances) and endocrine signaling (over long distances), or by direct contact, known as juxtacrine signaling such as notch signaling. Autocrine signaling is a special case of paracrine signaling where the secreting cell has the ability to respond to the secreted signaling molecule. Synaptic signaling is a special case of paracrine signaling (for chemical synapses) or juxtacrine signaling (for electrical synapses) between neurons and target cells.
Extracellular signal
Synthesis and release
Many cell signals are carried by molecules that are released by one cell and move to make contact with another cell. Signaling molecules can belong to several chemical classes: lipids, phospholipids, amino acids, monoamines, proteins, glycoproteins, or gases. Signaling molecules binding surface receptors are generally large and hydrophilic (e.g. TRH, Vasopressin, Acetylcholine), while those entering the cell are generally small and hydrophobic (e.g. glucocorticoids, thyroid hormones, cholecalciferol, retinoic acid), but important exceptions to both are numerous, and the same molecule can act both via surface receptors or in an intracrine manner to different effects. In animal cells, specialized cells release these hormones and send them through the circulatory system to other parts of the body. They then reach target cells, which can recognize and respond to the hormones and produce a result. This is also known as endocrine signaling. Plant growth regulators, or plant hormones, move through cells or by diffusing through the air as a gas to reach their targets. Hydrogen sulfide is produced in small amounts by some cells of the human body and has a number of biological signaling functions. Only two other such gases are currently known to act as signaling molecules in the human body: nitric oxide and carbon monoxide.
Exocytosis
Exocytosis is the process by which a cell transports molecules such as neurotransmitters and proteins out of the cell. As an active transport mechanism, exocytosis requires the use of energy to transport material. Exocytosis and its counterpart, endocytosis, the process that brings substances into the cell, are used by all cells because most chemical substances important to them are large polar molecules that cannot pass through the hydrophobic portion of the cell membrane by passive transport. Exocytosis is the process by which a large amount of molecules are released; thus it is a form of bulk transport. Exocytosis occurs via secretory portals at the cell plasma membrane called porosomes. Porosomes are permanent cup-shaped lipoprotein structures at the cell plasma membrane, where secretory vesicles transiently dock and fuse to release intra-vesicular contents from the cell.
In exocytosis, membrane-bound secretory vesicles are carried to the cell membrane, where they dock and fuse at porosomes and their contents (i.e., water-soluble molecules) are secreted into the extracellular environment. This secretion is possible because the vesicle transiently fuses with the plasma membrane. In the context of neurotransmission, neurotransmitters are typically released from synaptic vesicles into the synaptic cleft via exocytosis; however, neurotransmitters can also be released via reverse transport through membrane transport proteins.
Forms
Autocrine
Autocrine signaling involves a cell secreting a hormone or chemical messenger (called the autocrine agent) that binds to autocrine receptors on that same cell, leading to changes in the cell itself. This can be contrasted with paracrine signaling, intracrine signaling, or classical endocrine signaling.
Paracrine
In paracrine signaling, a cell produces a signal to induce changes in nearby cells, altering the behaviour of those cells. Signaling molecules known as paracrine factors diffuse over a relatively short distance (local action), as opposed to cell signaling by endocrine factors, hormones which travel considerably longer distances via the circulatory system; juxtacrine interactions; and autocrine signaling. Cells that produce paracrine factors secrete them into the immediate extracellular environment. Factors then travel to nearby cells in which the gradient of factor received determines the outcome. However, the exact distance that paracrine factors can travel is not certain.
Paracrine signals such as retinoic acid target only cells in the vicinity of the emitting cell. Neurotransmitters represent another example of a paracrine signal.
Some signaling molecules can function as both a hormone and a neurotransmitter. For example, epinephrine and norepinephrine can function as hormones when released from the adrenal gland and are transported to the heart by way of the blood stream. Norepinephrine can also be produced by neurons to function as a neurotransmitter within the brain. Estrogen can be released by the ovary and function as a hormone or act locally via paracrine or autocrine signaling.
Although paracrine signaling elicits a diverse array of responses in the induced cells, most paracrine factors utilize a relatively streamlined set of receptors and pathways. In fact, different organs in the body - even between different species - are known to utilize a similar sets of paracrine factors in differential development. The highly conserved receptors and pathways can be organized into four major families based on similar structures: fibroblast growth factor (FGF) family, Hedgehog family, Wnt family, and TGF-β superfamily. Binding of a paracrine factor to its respective receptor initiates signal transduction cascades, eliciting different responses.
Endocrine
Endocrine signals are called hormones. Hormones are produced by endocrine cells and they travel through the blood to reach all parts of the body. Specificity of signaling can be controlled if only some cells can respond to a particular hormone. Endocrine signaling involves the release of hormones by internal glands of an organism directly into the circulatory system, regulating distant target organs. In vertebrates, the hypothalamus is the neural control center for all endocrine systems. In humans, the major endocrine glands are the thyroid gland and the adrenal glands. The study of the endocrine system and its disorders is known as endocrinology.
Juxtacrine
Juxtacrine signaling is a type of cell–cell or cell–extracellular matrix signaling in multicellular organisms that requires close contact. There are three types:
A membrane ligand (protein, oligosaccharide, lipid) and a membrane protein of two adjacent cells interact.
A communicating junction links the intracellular compartments of two adjacent cells, allowing transit of relatively small molecules.
An extracellular matrix glycoprotein and a membrane protein interact.
Additionally, in unicellular organisms such as bacteria, juxtacrine signaling means interactions by membrane contact. Juxtacrine signaling has been observed for some growth factors, cytokine and chemokine cellular signals, playing an important role in the immune response. Juxtacrine signalling via direct membrane contacts is also present between neuronal cell bodies and motile processes of microglia both during development, and in the adult brain.
Receptors
Cells receive information from their neighbors through a class of proteins known as receptors. Receptors may bind with some molecules (ligands) or may interact with physical agents like light, mechanical temperature, pressure, etc. Reception occurs when the target cell (any cell with a receptor protein specific to the signal molecule) detects a signal, usually in the form of a small, water-soluble molecule, via binding to a receptor protein on the cell surface, or once inside the cell, the signaling molecule can bind to intracellular receptors, other elements, or stimulate enzyme activity (e.g. gasses), as in intracrine signaling.
Signaling molecules interact with a target cell as a ligand to cell surface receptors, and/or by entering into the cell through its membrane or endocytosis for intracrine signaling. This generally results in the activation of second messengers, leading to various physiological effects. In many mammals, early embryo cells exchange signals with cells of the uterus. In the human gastrointestinal tract, bacteria exchange signals with each other and with human epithelial and immune system cells. For the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae during mating, some cells send a peptide signal (mating factor pheromones) into their environment. The mating factor peptide may bind to a cell surface receptor on other yeast cells and induce them to prepare for mating.
Cell surface receptors
Cell surface receptors play an essential role in the biological systems of single- and multi-cellular organisms and malfunction or damage to these proteins is associated with cancer, heart disease, and asthma. These trans-membrane receptors are able to transmit information from outside the cell to the inside because they change conformation when a specific ligand binds to it. There are three major types: Ion channel linked receptors, G protein–coupled receptors, and enzyme-linked receptors.
Ion channel linked receptors
Ion channel linked receptors are a group of transmembrane ion-channel proteins which open to allow ions such as Na+, K+, Ca2+, and/or Cl− to pass through the membrane in response to the binding of a chemical messenger (i.e. a ligand), such as a neurotransmitter.
When a presynaptic neuron is excited, it releases a neurotransmitter from vesicles into the synaptic cleft. The neurotransmitter then binds to receptors located on the postsynaptic neuron. If these receptors are ligand-gated ion channels, a resulting conformational change opens the ion channels, which leads to a flow of ions across the cell membrane. This, in turn, results in either a depolarization, for an excitatory receptor response, or a hyperpolarization, for an inhibitory response.
These receptor proteins are typically composed of at least two different domains: a transmembrane domain which includes the ion pore, and an extracellular domain which includes the ligand binding location (an allosteric binding site). This modularity has enabled a 'divide and conquer' approach to finding the structure of the proteins (crystallising each domain separately). The function of such receptors located at synapses is to convert the chemical signal of presynaptically released neurotransmitter directly and very quickly into a postsynaptic electrical signal. Many LICs are additionally modulated by allosteric ligands, by channel blockers, ions, or the membrane potential. LICs are classified into three superfamilies which lack evolutionary relationship: cys-loop receptors, ionotropic glutamate receptors and ATP-gated channels.
G protein–coupled receptors
G protein-coupled receptors are a large group of evolutionarily-related proteins that are cell surface receptors that detect molecules outside the cell and activate cellular responses. Coupling with G proteins, they are called seven-transmembrane receptors because they pass through the cell membrane seven times. Ligands can bind either to extracellular N-terminus and loops (e.g. glutamate receptors) or to the binding site within transmembrane helices (Rhodopsin-like family). They are all activated by agonists although a spontaneous auto-activation of an empty receptor can also be observed.
G protein-coupled receptors are found only in eukaryotes, including yeast, choanoflagellates, and animals. The ligands that bind and activate these receptors include light-sensitive compounds, odors, pheromones, hormones, and neurotransmitters, and vary in size from small molecules to peptides to large proteins. G protein-coupled receptors are involved in many diseases.
There are two principal signal transduction pathways involving the G protein-coupled receptors: cAMP signal pathway and phosphatidylinositol signal pathway. When a ligand binds to the GPCR it causes a conformational change in the GPCR, which allows it to act as a guanine nucleotide exchange factor (GEF). The GPCR can then activate an associated G protein by exchanging the GDP bound to the G protein for a GTP. The G protein's α subunit, together with the bound GTP, can then dissociate from the β and γ subunits to further affect intracellular signaling proteins or target functional proteins directly depending on the α subunit type (Gαs, Gαi/o, Gαq/11, Gα12/13).
G protein-coupled receptors are an important drug target and approximately 34% of all Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved drugs target 108 members of this family. The global sales volume for these drugs is estimated to be 180 billion US dollars . It is estimated that GPCRs are targets for about 50% of drugs currently on the market, mainly due to their involvement in signaling pathways related to many diseases i.e. mental, metabolic including endocrinological disorders, immunological including viral infections, cardiovascular, inflammatory, senses disorders, and cancer. The long ago discovered association between GPCRs and many endogenous and exogenous substances, resulting in e.g. analgesia, is another dynamically developing field of pharmaceutical research.
Enzyme-linked receptors
Enzyme-linked receptors (or catalytic receptors) are transmembrane receptors that, upon activation by an extracellular ligand, causes enzymatic activity on the intracellular side. Hence a catalytic receptor is an integral membrane protein possessing both enzymatic, catalytic, and receptor functions.
They have two important domains, an extra-cellular ligand binding domain and an intracellular domain, which has a catalytic function; and a single transmembrane helix. The signaling molecule binds to the receptor on the outside of the cell and causes a conformational change on the catalytic function located on the receptor inside the cell. Examples of the enzymatic activity include:
Receptor tyrosine kinase, as in fibroblast growth factor receptor. Most enzyme-linked receptors are of this type.
Serine/threonine-specific protein kinase, as in bone morphogenetic protein
Guanylate cyclase, as in atrial natriuretic factor receptor
Intracellular receptors
Steroid hormone receptor
Steroid hormone receptors are found in the nucleus, cytosol, and also on the plasma membrane of target cells. They are generally intracellular receptors (typically cytoplasmic or nuclear) and initiate signal transduction for steroid hormones which lead to changes in gene expression over a time period of hours to days. The best studied steroid hormone receptors are members of the nuclear receptor subfamily 3 (NR3) that include receptors for estrogen (group NR3A) and 3-ketosteroids (group NR3C). In addition to nuclear receptors, several G protein-coupled receptors and ion channels act as cell surface receptors for certain steroid hormones.
Signal transduction pathways
When binding to the signaling molecule, the receptor protein changes in some way and starts the process of transduction, which can occur in a single step or as a series of changes in a sequence of different molecules (called a signal transduction pathway). The molecules that compose these pathways are known as relay molecules. The multistep process of the transduction stage is often composed of the activation of proteins by addition or removal of phosphate groups or even the release of other small molecules or ions that can act as messengers. The amplifying of a signal is one of the benefits to this multiple step sequence. Other benefits include more opportunities for regulation than simpler systems do and the fine-tuning of the response, in both unicellular and multicellular organism.
In some cases, receptor activation caused by ligand binding to a receptor is directly coupled to the cell's response to the ligand. For example, the neurotransmitter GABA can activate a cell surface receptor that is part of an ion channel. GABA binding to a GABAA receptor on a neuron opens a chloride-selective ion channel that is part of the receptor. GABAA receptor activation allows negatively charged chloride ions to move into the neuron, which inhibits the ability of the neuron to produce action potentials. However, for many cell surface receptors, ligand-receptor interactions are not directly linked to the cell's response. The activated receptor must first interact with other proteins inside the cell before the ultimate physiological effect of the ligand on the cell's behavior is produced. Often, the behavior of a chain of several interacting cell proteins is altered following receptor activation. The entire set of cell changes induced by receptor activation is called a signal transduction mechanism or pathway.
A more complex signal transduction pathway is the MAPK/ERK pathway, which involves changes of protein–protein interactions inside the cell, induced by an external signal. Many growth factors bind to receptors at the cell surface and stimulate cells to progress through the cell cycle and divide. Several of these receptors are kinases that start to phosphorylate themselves and other proteins when binding to a ligand. This phosphorylation can generate a binding site for a different protein and thus induce protein–protein interaction. In this case, the ligand (called epidermal growth factor, or EGF) binds to the receptor (called EGFR). This activates the receptor to phosphorylate itself. The phosphorylated receptor binds to an adaptor protein (GRB2), which couples the signal to further downstream signaling processes. For example, one of the signal transduction pathways that are activated is called the mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathway. The signal transduction component labeled as "MAPK" in the pathway was originally called "ERK," so the pathway is called the MAPK/ERK pathway. The MAPK protein is an enzyme, a protein kinase that can attach phosphate to target proteins such as the transcription factor MYC and, thus, alter gene transcription and, ultimately, cell cycle progression. Many cellular proteins are activated downstream of the growth factor receptors (such as EGFR) that initiate this signal transduction pathway.
Some signaling transduction pathways respond differently, depending on the amount of signaling received by the cell. For instance, the hedgehog protein activates different genes, depending on the amount of hedgehog protein present.
Complex multi-component signal transduction pathways provide opportunities for feedback, signal amplification, and interactions inside one cell between multiple signals and signaling pathways.
A specific cellular response is the result of the transduced signal in the final stage of cell signaling. This response can essentially be any cellular activity that is present in a body. It can spur the rearrangement of the cytoskeleton, or even as catalysis by an enzyme. These three steps of cell signaling all ensure that the right cells are behaving as told, at the right time, and in synchronization with other cells and their own functions within the organism. At the end, the end of a signal pathway leads to the regulation of a cellular activity. This response can take place in the nucleus or in the cytoplasm of the cell. A majority of signaling pathways control protein synthesis by turning certain genes on and off in the nucleus.
In unicellular organisms such as bacteria, signaling can be used to 'activate' peers from a dormant state, enhance virulence, defend against bacteriophages, etc. In quorum sensing, which is also found in social insects, the multiplicity of individual signals has the potentiality to create a positive feedback loop, generating coordinated response. In this context, the signaling molecules are called autoinducers. This signaling mechanism may have been involved in evolution from unicellular to multicellular organisms. Bacteria also use contact-dependent signaling, notably to limit their growth.
Signaling molecules used by multicellular organisms are often called pheromones. They can have such purposes as alerting against danger, indicating food supply, or assisting in reproduction.
Short-term cellular responses
.
Regulating gene activity
.
Notch signaling pathway
Notch is a cell surface protein that functions as a receptor. Animals have a small set of genes that code for signaling proteins that interact specifically with Notch receptors and stimulate a response in cells that express Notch on their surface. Molecules that activate (or, in some cases, inhibit) receptors can be classified as hormones, neurotransmitters, cytokines, and growth factors, in general called receptor ligands. Ligand receptor interactions such as that of the Notch receptor interaction, are known to be the main interactions responsible for cell signaling mechanisms and communication. notch acts as a receptor for ligands that are expressed on adjacent cells. While some receptors are cell-surface proteins, others are found inside cells. For example, estrogen is a hydrophobic molecule that can pass through the lipid bilayer of the membranes. As part of the endocrine system, intracellular estrogen receptors from a variety of cell types can be activated by estrogen produced in the ovaries.
In the case of Notch-mediated signaling, the signal transduction mechanism can be relatively simple. As shown in Figure 2, the activation of Notch can cause the Notch protein to be altered by a protease. Part of the Notch protein is released from the cell surface membrane and takes part in gene regulation. Cell signaling research involves studying the spatial and temporal dynamics of both receptors and the components of signaling pathways that are activated by receptors in various cell types. Emerging methods for single-cell mass-spectrometry analysis promise to enable studying signal transduction with single-cell resolution.
In notch signaling, direct contact between cells allows for precise control of cell differentiation during embryonic development. In the worm Caenorhabditis elegans, two cells of the developing gonad each have an equal chance of terminally differentiating or becoming a uterine precursor cell that continues to divide. The choice of which cell continues to divide is controlled by competition of cell surface signals. One cell will happen to produce more of a cell surface protein that activates the Notch receptor on the adjacent cell. This activates a feedback loop or system that reduces Notch expression in the cell that will differentiate and that increases Notch on the surface of the cell that continues as a stem cell.
See also
Scaffold protein
Biosemiotics
Molecular cellular cognition
Crosstalk (biology)
Bacterial outer membrane vesicles
Membrane vesicle trafficking
Host-pathogen interface
Retinoic acid
JAK-STAT signaling pathway
Imd pathway
Localisation signal
Oscillation
Protein dynamics
Systems biology
Lipid signaling
Redox signaling
Signaling cascade
Cell Signaling Technology, an antibody development and production company
Netpath – A curated resource of signal transduction pathways in humans
Synthetic Biology Open Language
Nanoscale networking – leveraging biological signaling to construct ad hoc in vivo communication networks
Soliton model in neuroscience—Physical communication via sound waves in membranes
Temporal feedback
References
Further reading
"The Inside Story of Cell Communication". learn.genetics.utah.edu. Retrieved 2018-10-20.
"When Cell Communication Goes Wrong". learn.genetics.utah.edu. Retrieved 2018-10-24.
External links
NCI-Nature Pathway Interaction Database: authoritative information about signaling pathways in human cells.
Signaling Pathways Project: cell signaling hypothesis generation knowledgebase constructed using biocurated archived transcriptomic and ChIP-Seq datasets
Cell biology
Cell communication
Systems biology
Human female endocrine system |
4109186 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/122%20mm%20howitzer%20M1938%20%28M-30%29 | 122 mm howitzer M1938 (M-30) | The 122 mm howitzer M1938 (M-30) (GRAU index: 52-G-463) is a Soviet 121.92 mm (4.8 inch) howitzer. The weapon was developed by the design bureau of Motovilikha Plants, headed by F. F. Petrov, in the late 1930s, and was in production from 1939 to 1955. The M-30 saw action in World War II, mainly as a divisional artillery piece of the Red Army (RKKA). Captured guns were also employed later in the conflict by the German Wehrmacht and the Finnish Army. Post World War II the M-30 saw combat in numerous conflicts of the mid- to late twentieth century in service of other countries' armies, notably in the Middle East.
Development
In 1930 Red Army (RKKA) authorities started to look for a new divisional-level howitzer to replace the pre-World War I 122 mm howitzer M1909 and 122 mm howitzer M1910. Although both pieces were eventually modernized, resulting in the 122-mm howitzer M1909/37 and the 122-mm howitzer M1910/30 respectively, these upgrades did not address some shortcomings in the original designs.
The first attempt to develop a new howitzer was made by the KB-2 design bureau under the supervision of German engineers. The design, known as Lubok, reached trials in 1932 and in 1934 was adopted as the 122-mm howitzer model 1934. It had a 23 caliber barrel, a maximum elevation of 50°, traverse of 7°, and a combat and travelling weight of 2,250 and 2,800 kg respectively. Like its predecessors, Lubok had a fixed trail carriage and although it was equipped with suspension, its wheels lacked tires, limiting towing speed to only 10 km/h. Nevertheless, it was undoubtfully superior to the M1910/30 which remained in production until 1941. However, after eight pieces were built in 1934–1935, production was stopped for unclear reasons, possibly relating to the disbanding of KB-2.
In the mid-1930s, the Main Artillery Directorate (GAU) considered a switch to 105 mm guns as used by some other armies. A smaller shell meant that the gun could be lighter and consequently more mobile. On the other hand, a 105 mm gun would also be less powerful. Moreover, there was no Russian or Soviet experience with 105 mm ammunition, while for the 122 mm the country already possessed both production lines and large numbers of already manufactured shells (however similar 107 mm manufacturing equipment and ammunition—for the 107-mm gun M1910—was available). Finally in 1937 the RKKA Head of General Staff I. I. Egorov supported retaining 122 mm ammunition.
Consequently, three howitzers were trialled in 1938–1939. The design bureau of UZTM (Ural Heavy Machinery Plant, Russian: Уральский Завод Тяжёлого Машиностроения, УЗТМ), which was ordered by GAU to design the new howitzer, developed a piece designated U-2. Similar projects were privately undertaken by the design bureaus of Motovilikha Plants, headed by F. F. Petrov (M-30), and by the No. 92 plant under V. G. Grabin (F-25).
The U-2 (barrel length 21 calibers, chamber volume 3.0 litres, horizontal sliding breechblock from Lubok, muzzle brake, combat weight 2,030 kg) reached trials on 5 February 1939 and was rejected because of insufficient carriage strength and inferior ballistics. The F-25 project (barrel length 23 calibers, chamber volume 3.7 litres, horizontal sliding breechblock from Lubok, muzzle brake, combat weight 1,830 kg) was closed by GAU on 23 March 1939 as GAU considered it redundant to the M-30 which had reached trials earlier. The latter, after being returned several times for revision, was finally adopted in September 1939 as the 122 mm divisional howitzer M1938 (). Its GAU index number was 52-G-463.
M-30 versus F-25
A. B. Shirokorad, a well-known author of books detailing the history of the Soviet artillery, has claimed that the F-25 could have been developed into a better gun than the M-30. Grabin's design was about 400 kg lighter, had a greater traverse and had better ground clearance – all this was achieved, according to Shirokorad, without sacrificing ballistics (same barrel length, chamber volume and muzzle length). Considering how long it took to finish the development of the M-30, the F-25's schedule possibly did not significantly lag behind.
There is no official document explaining the advantages the M-30 had over the F-25. Factors that could have influenced the GAU decision were:
Unlike the F-25, the M-30 was not equipped with a muzzle brake. While softening recoil and thus allowing for a lighter carriage, the muzzle brake has a disadvantage of redirecting some of the gases that escape the barrel toward the ground where they raise dust, revealing the gun's position. Another side-effect of a muzzle brake is the increased muzzle blast behind the gun, adversely affecting the working conditions of its crew.
The M-30 used many elements from existing guns, most notably the interrupted-screw breechblock of the M1910/30. Since at that time Soviet industry had experienced major difficulties with manufacturing sliding breechblocks (as used by the F-25) for large caliber guns, the lowered technical risk can be considered a significant advantage.
The stronger carriage of the M-30 could be used – and in fact was used – for more powerful artillery pieces (see 152-mm howitzer M1943 (D-1)).
Production
Mass production of M-30 howitzers began in 1940 at Plant No. 92 in Gorky and No. 9 in Sverdlovsk. The former took part in the production of M-30s only in 1940, building a total of 500 pieces. In addition to towed howitzers, Plant No. 9 produced M-30S barrels for arming SU-122 assault guns. Some 700 barrels (including both serial-production and experimental articles) were manufactured for this purpose. Mass production continued into 1955. In 1950–1960, the M-30 was also produced by Huta Stalowa Wola in Poland where it was known as Wz.1938.
Description
The barrel of the M-30 was of built-up construction and consisted of a liner, jacket and breech. The breechblock was of interrupted screw type, with forced cartridge case extraction. The gun was equipped with a hydraulic recoil buffer and hydropneumatic recuperator. A panoramic sight was used for both indirect and direct fire.
The M-30 had a modern split trail carriage with leaf spring suspension and steel wheels with rubber tires. It was usually towed by vehicle without a limber. The carriage allowed for a towing speed of up to 50 km/h on paved road and up to 35 km/h on gravel or dirt roads, although the gun could also be moved by a team of six horses, in which case a limber was used. When the trails were swung open the suspension locked automatically . In an emergency it was possible to shoot in a "single trail" mode, at the price of a drastically reduced traverse (1°30'). The time required to set the gun up for combat was about 1–1.5 minutes.
The carriage of the M-30 was later used for the D-1 152 mm howitzer.
Organization and employment
Red Army
The M-30 was a divisional level howitzer. According to the organization of 1939, each rifle division had two artillery regiments; one light regiment (a battalion of 76 mm guns; two mixed battalions with one battery of 76 mm guns and two batteries of 122 mm howitzers) and one howitzer regiment (a battalion of 122 mm howitzers and a battalion of 152 mm howitzers), giving 28 122 mm howitzers per division. In June 1940 one more battalion of 122 mm howitzers was added to the howitzer regiment, bringing the number of guns in each unit to 32. In June 1941 the howitzer regiment was removed and the number of howitzers dropped to 16. This organization was used throughout the war, except in Russian Guards rifle divisions which from December 1942 had three artillery battalions (two batteries of 76 mm guns and one battery of 122 mm howitzers each), totaling 12 howitzers. From December 1944 they received an extra howitzer regiment (5 batteries, 20 howitzers) and from June 1945 rifle divisions were reorganized identically.
Mountain rifle divisions in 1939–1940 had one battalion of 122 mm howitzers (3 batteries, 9 guns). From 1941 they received instead one artillery regiment (2 battalions, each from 3 four-gun batteries) with 24 howitzers, but in early 1942 only one battalion (2 batteries, 8 howitzers) remained. From 1944 howitzers were removed from mountain rifle divisions.
Motorized divisions had two mixed battalions (a battery of 76 mm guns and two batteries of 122 mm howitzers), totaling 12 howitzers. Tank divisions had one battalion with 12 howitzers. Cavalry divisions until August 1941 had two batteries of 122 mm howitzers, totaling eight, before the divisional artillery was removed.
Until late 1941 rifle brigades had a battery of four 122 mm howitzers. 122 mm howitzers were also used by the howitzer brigades of the Reserve of the Main Command (72–84 pieces).
By 1 June 1941 1,667 M-30s were in service, comprising only a fraction of the RKKA divisional howitzers. As the war progressed, their share grew rapidly due to mass production and because many older guns were lost in combat in 1941–42.
M-30 howitzers were primarily employed for indirect fire against enemy personnel. They were also used against field fortifications, for clearing minefields and for breaching barbed wire. Their HE-fragmentation shells presented a danger to armoured vehicles. Fragments created by the explosion could penetrate up to 20 mm of armour, – enough against thinly armoured vehicles. The shells could also damage chassis, sights or other elements of heavier armoured vehicles.
For self-defense against enemy tanks a HEAT shell was developed in 1943. Before 1943, crews were required to rely on the high-explosive action of their regular ammunition, with some degree of success. According to a German report from 1943, even a Tiger was once heavily damaged by SU-122 assault guns firing high-explosive shells.
M-30 howitzers were towed by a variety of means, from horses, oxen and both Soviet and American-produced Lend-Lease trucks (such as the Dodge WC series and Studebaker US6s) and STZ-5 and Ya-12 purpose-built artillery tractors. When necessary, the gun could be manhandled by its artillery crew.
In 1944, the Artillery Regiment of a typical Russian Rifle Division was armed with 36 122mm Howitzers, along with 72 76.2mm ZiS-3 field guns.
The gun was eventually replaced by the 122-mm howitzer D-30 after the latter was adopted for service in 1960. A small number of operational M-30 howitzers are still present in Russian Army ordnance depots. They are being gradually withdrawn from reserve. M-30s featured in many Soviet movies used for novice artillery crew training. These movies were made in the 1960s when more modern D-30 howitzers were becoming available, however the M-30 was considered by authorities as much more suitable for training purposes. The movies are still in use despite the absence of M-30 howitzers even in practice exercises.
Other operators
A number of M-30s fell into the hands of the Wehrmacht in 1941–1942 and were adopted as 12,2 cm s.F.H.396(r) heavy howitzers. Germany began mass production of 122 mm ammunition for these and other captured howitzers, producing 424,000 shells in 1943, 696,700 in 1944 and 133,000 in 1945. Some captured M-30s were used in the Atlantic Wall fortifications.
The Finnish Army captured 41 guns of the type and adopted them as the 122 H 38. These guns fired 13,298 shells in combat; only a few pieces were lost. The gun was well liked; some were used for training or stored in depots until the mid-1980s.
The Kingdom of Romania captured in 1941 a number of 477 various types of 122 mm howitzers and guns including M1931/37 and were used as divisional artillery for units rebuilt in 1943. The M-30 was used on the first four prototypes of the Mareșal tank destroyer, having a muzzle brake attached to it by the Romanians.
After World War II the gun was supplied to many countries around the globe. With the Egyptian and Syrian armies it saw action in the Arab-Israeli Wars. Some of these guns were captured by Israel, although it is unclear whether they were ever employed by the Israeli Defense Forces. The People's Republic of China organized their own production of M-30 howitzers under the Type 54 designation.
According to Ian V. Hogg, the M1938 howitzer "must, surely, be the most prolific piece of artillery in history".
Users
The M-30 and the Type 54 are still being used in several armies.
Current
– n/a
– n/a
– 60
– 57 Type 54/Type 54-1
– 36 Type 54-1
– Type 54
– Type 54-1
– less than 77
– 324
– less than 464
– 9–18
– 28
– 100 Type 54
– n/a
– Peshmerga
– 35
– less than 20
– 26
– transferred from Russia to the Libyan National Army in 2017
– 17
– less than 24
– 56
– 490 Type 54
– 72 (modernized M-30M variant)
– 3,750, in reserve
– 13 est.
– Type 54/Type 54-1
– 24 M-30 and 76 Type 54
– 80 Type 54-1
– 18
– 540
– Type 54
– 50
– 24 Type 54
Former
– 108 sold to Macedonia in 1999
– 45 in 2002
– Vz 38/74
– Captured.
– 230 Tarack 38/68M
– 24, sold to Russia
– 6 delivered from Romania
– Wz.1938/1985, 280 in 2002
– 46 in 2002
– 240 delivered in 1962–1963
Variants
Former Soviet Union
M-30S – Slightly modified variant; was used as the main armament of the SU-122 assault gun.
U-11 – A gun with identical ballistics, but equipped with a more compact recoil mechanism for easier mounting in vehicles. It was tried on the experimental SU-122M and rejected due to insufficient reliability. A variant of the same gun was also mounted on the experimental Obiekt 234 tank, also known as Iosif Stalin no. 2 (not to be confused with the IS-2).
D-6 – Another vehicle mounted gun with identical ballistics. It was used on the experimental SU-122-III and, like the U-11, proved unreliable.
People's Republic of China
Type 54 – Licence version.
Type 54-1 – Slightly improved version.
Poland
Wz.1938/1985 – Existing Wz.1938 that was fitted with a castor wheel, PGO-9H sight and a second firing mechanism for direct fire.
Romania
M-30M – In the 1980s Romanian Army M-30s were upgraded with new, larger pneumatic wheels, new brakes, a new optical sight for direct fire and a second height sighting mechanism for anti-tank combat. These upgraded howitzers were designated M-30M.
Self-propelled mounts
Former Soviet Union
The M-30 was mounted on the following armoured fighting vehicles (AFV):
SU-122, the Soviet medium assault gun built on a T-34 chassis. The mass production continued from December 1942 until September 1943. In total 638 SU-122s were built.
, Soviet self-propelled artillery vehicles based on captured German Pz Kpfw III or StuG III AFVs. About twenty were built in the early months of 1943.
12,2-cm Kanone (r) auf Geschützwagen Lorraine-Shlepper (f), the German self-propelled artillery vehicle, based on a captured armoured French artillery tractor (the Lorraine 37L). There was at least one vehicle of this type, which fought in France on a railroad car as part of a German armoured train.
People's Republic of China
Type WZ302 – Combination of the Type 54 or Type 54-1 with a tracked vehicle Type B531. The military designator is Type 70 SPH. The initial model had only 4 roadwheels, but the improved Type WZ302A or Type 70-1 has 5. The final production model with new signals equipment is known as Type WZ302B or Type 70-2. All models have a basic load of 40 rounds of 122 mm.
Romania
Mareșal – World War II tank destroyer whose first four prototypes used the 122 mm M-30 howitzer with a muzzle brake attached to it. It was replaced with the Romanian 75 mm Reșița M1943 anti-tank gun for later prototypes and the serial production vehicles.
Summary
In the M-30, RKKA units finally received a modern divisional howitzer which successfully combined increased firepower and better mobility with reliability and ease of use. A summary of its employment by the Red Army was provided by Marshal , who said "Nothing can be better". The long post-war employment of the howitzer is additional testimony to its combat and operational utility and effectiveness.
It is hard to compare the M-30 directly with contemporary foreign guns since the artillery of France, Germany and United States employed in similar roles was either the much smaller 105 mm (Great Britain used the even smaller—87.6 mm—25 pounder gun-howitzer) or much larger 150 to 155 mm caliber guns. Howitzers of similar calibers existed but most of those were World War I era pieces, such as the Vickers 114 mm howitzer used by the Finnish Army. Naturally, 150 mm howitzers were more powerful, but much heavier than the M-30; while 105 mm pieces were lighter but their smaller shells contained less explosive.
The most direct German equivalent was the 10.5 cm leFH 18 light howitzer. Weighing 1985 kg, it had a maximum elevation of 42°, muzzle velocity of 470 m/s and maximum range of 10,675 m. In the upgraded leFH 18/40 version, muzzle velocity was improved to 540 m/s, elevation to 45° and range to 12,325 m. About equal in range, the German howitzer had a less powerful HE shell and its smaller maximum elevation made it less effective against dug-in troops, although it also weighed some 400 kg less than M-30. Both guns were well suited for mass production with 16,887 M-30s and 15,388 leFH 18 built in 1941–45.
Ammunition data
The M-30 could fire all types of 122 mm howitzer ammunition used by the RKKA, including old Russian and imported shells. During and after World War II new types of ammunition were developed, notably HEAT shells. The World War II era HEAT shell BP-460A could pierce 100–160 mm of armor at 90°; the post-war BP-1 managed 200 mm at 90°, 160 mm at 60°, and 80 mm at 30°. HE-Frag projectiles of type OF-462 that were initially developed for the M-30 howitzer can be fired from modern 122 mm ordnance pieces and are still in Russian Army service.
Surviving pieces
M-30 howitzers are on display in a number of military museums and are widely used as memorial pieces. Among other places, the gun can be seen at the following locations:
Central Armed Forces Museum and in the Museum of Great Patriotic War, Moscow.
Museum of Artillery and Engineering Forces, Saint Petersburg.
Museum of Heroic Defense and Liberation of Sevastopol on Sapun Mountain, Sevastopol
Nizhny Novgorod, as a memorial piece at Marshal Zhukov's square.
Artillery Museum in Hämeenlinna, Finland.
IDF History Museum (Batey ha-Osef; Tel Aviv) and IDF Artillery Museum (Beyt ha-Totchan; Zichron Yaakov), Israel.
Central Museum of The Royal Regiment of Canadian Artillery, Shilo Manitoba
Zone 5 Military Museum, Danang
In the National Military Museum, Romania, Bucharest.
Captured piece at the War Museum, Huntington Park, Newport News, Virginia, United States (behind the museum, Mar 2021)
Another captured piece at the Texas Military Forces Museum, Camp Mabry, Austin, Texas, United States.
Notes
References
Shirokorad A. B. – Encyclopedia of Russian Artillery, Mn. Harvest, 2000 (Широкорад А. Б.Энциклопедия отечественной артиллерии. — Мн.: Харвест, 2000. — 1156 с.: илл., )
Shirokorad A. B.The God of War of The Third Reich, M. AST, 2002 (Широкорад А. Б.Бог войны Третьего рейха. — М.,ООО Издательство АСТ, 2002., )
Shirokorad A. B.The genius of the Soviet Artillery, M. AST, 2002 (А.Б.Широкорад.Гений советской артиллерии.М.,ООО Издательство АСТ, 2002., )
Ivanov A.Artillery of the USSR in Second World War, SPb Neva, 2003 (Иванов А. Артиллерия СССР во Второй Мировой войне. — СПб., Издательский дом Нева, 2003., )
Shunkov V. N.The Weapons of the Red Army, Mn. Harvest, 1999 (Шунков В. Н.Оружие Красной Армии. — Мн.: Харвест, 1999., )
Zheltov I. G., Pavlov I. V., Pavlov M. V., Solyankin A. G.Soviet Medium Self-propelled Artillery 1941–1945, M. Exprint, 2005 (Желтов И. Г., Павлов И. В., Павлов М. В., Солянкин А. Г.Советские средние самоходные артиллерийские установки 1941—1945 гг. — М.: ООО Издательский центр «Экспринт», 2005. — 48 с. )
Third Axis Fourth Ally: Romanian Armed Forces in the European War, 1941–1945, 1 May 1995, p. 142, p. 224
External links
M-30 walkaround at Dishmodels.ru
World War II field artillery
World War II artillery of the Soviet Union
122 mm artillery
Howitzers of the Soviet Union
Motovilikha Plants products
World War II howitzers
Military equipment introduced in the 1930s |
4109253 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20auxiliary%20ship%20classes%20in%20service | List of auxiliary ship classes in service | The list of auxiliary ship classes in service includes all auxiliary ships in naval service in the world. For combatant ships, see the list of naval ship classes in service.
Command and support ships
Command ships
Andenes command ship
Builder:
Displacement: 3,000 tons
Operator: : 3 in commission
HSwMS Trossö Command ship
2,140 tones
Operator:
River command ships
Kozara river command ship
Builder:
Displacement: 600 tons
Operator:
Amphibious command ships
Blue Ridge-class joint command ship (LCC-19)
Builder:
Displacement: 19,700 tons
Operator: : 2 in commission
Minecraft command and support ships
Godetia minecraft tender
Displacement: 2,500 tons
Operator:
Multi-role support ships
Absalon-class flexible support ship / flexible combat vessel
Builder:
Displacement: 4500 tons (light), 6,600 tons (full load)
Operator: : 2 ships commissioned. (Arguably a support ship, armed as a frigate)
Karel Doorman-class multi-function support ship
Builder:
Displacement: max 27,500 tons
Operator: : 1 commissioned around 2014
multi-role offshore support ship
Builder:
Displacement: 5,741 tons
Operator:
Shichang multi-role training/support ship
Displacement: 9,500 tons
Operator:
Medical ships
Hospital ships
Mercy-class hospital ship (AH-19)
Builder:
Displacement: 69,360 tonnes
Operator: : 2 in commission
Project 320A hospital ship
Builder:
Displacement: 11570 tonnes
Operator: : 2 in commission
RFA Argus Primary Casualty Receiving Ship (A135)
builder: converted by
Displacement: 28,081 tonnes
Operator: (Royal Fleet Auxiliary)
Daishan Dao-class hospital ship (866)
Builder:
Displacement: 14,000 tonnes
Operator:
Medical evacuation ships
Zhuanghe medical evacuation ship
Builder:
Operator:
Ambulance transport ships
Qiongsha class ambulance transport ship
Builder:
Displacement: 2,150 tonnes
Operator: : 1 in commission
Ambulance craft
Beiyi 01-class fast ambulance craft
Builder:
Operator: : 5 in commission
Ammunition ships
Builder:
Displacement: 410 tonnes
Operator: : 1 in service
Type 072-class ammunition ship
Builder:
Displacement: 4,170 tonnes
Operator: : 3 in service
Missile/rocket ammunition ships
Yuan Wang 21 missile/rocket ammunition ship
Builder:
Displacement: 9,080 tonnes
Operator:
Yuan Wang 22 missile/rocket ammunition ship
Builder:
Operator:
Replenishment ships
Fort Rosalie-class replenishment ship
Builder:
Displacement: 23,890 tons
Operator: , ( Royal Fleet Auxiliary), 2 in service
Lewis and Clark-class dry cargo/ammunition ship (T-AKE-1)
Builder:
Displacement: 41,000 tons
Operator: : 14 in commission
Poolster-class replenishment ship
Builder:
Displacement: 16,836 tons
Operator: : 1 in service
Type 903 (Fuchi-class) replenishment ship
Builder:
Displacement: 20,500 tons
Operator: : 2 in commission
Type 903A-class replenishment ship
Builder:
Displacement: 23,400 tons
Operator:
Type 904 (Dayun-class) stores ship
Builder:
Displacement: 10,975 tons
Operator: : 2 in service
Type 908 (Fusu- or Nancang-class) replenishment ship
Builder:
Displacement: 37,000 tons
Operator: : 1 in commission
Westerwald-class transport ship
Builder:
Displacement: 4,042 tons
Operator: : 1 in service
Fast combat support ships
Cheonji-class fast combat support ship
Builder:
Displacement: 9,113 tons
Operator : 3 in service
Panshih-class (AOE-532) fast combat support ship
Builder:
Displacement: 20,000 tons
Operator: : 1 in service
Supply-class fast combat replenishment ship (AOE-6)
Builder:
Displacement: 50,000 tons
Operator: : 2 in commission
Type 901 class fast combat support ship
Builder:
Displacement: 45,000 tons
Operator: : 2 in commission
Tankers
Replenishment oilers
Akar-class replenishment oiler
Builder:
Displacement: 19,350 tons
Operator: : 2 in service
replenishment oiler
Builder:
Displacement: 26,000 tons
Operator:
Berlin-class (Type 702) combat support ship
Builder:
Displacement: 20,240 tons
Operator : 3 in service
Cantabria (A15) replenishment oiler
Builder:
Displacement: 19,500 tons
Operator: , 1 in service
Durance-class replenishment oiler
Builder: /
Displacement: 17,900 tons
Operators:
: 4 in service
: 1 in service, former Durance
: 1 in service as HMAS Success (built in Australia)
Fort Victoria-class replenishment oiler
Builder:
Displacement: 32,818 tons
Operator: , ( Royal Fleet Auxiliary), 1 in service
Mashū-class replenishment oiler
Builder:
Displacement: 25,000 tons
Operator: : 2 in service
replenishment oiler
Builder: /
Displacement: 27,500 tons
Operator:
Patiño replenishment oiler
Builder:
Displacement: 17,045 tons
Operator: , 1 in service
replenishment tanker
Builder:
Displacement: 25,000 tons
Operator: : 1 in service
Stromboli-class replenishment ship
Builder:
Displacement: 8,700 tons
Operator: : 2 in service
Tide-class replenishment oiler
Builder: /
Displacement: 39,000 tons
Operator: , ( Royal Fleet Auxiliary), 4 in service
Towada-class replenishment oiler
Builder:
Displacement: 15,000 tons
Operator: : 3 in service
Beiyou 572-class replenishment oiler
Builder:
Operator: : 4 in service
Type 631-class replenishment oiler
Builder:
Displacement: 2,300 tons
Operator: : 7 in service
Type 905 (Fuqing-class) replenishment oiler
Builder:
Displacement: 21,750 tons
Operator: : 1 in service
Transport tankers and oilers
Alyay-class fleet oiler (Project 160)
Builder:
Displacement: 7,225 tons
Operator: : 4 in service
Boris Chilikin-class fleet oiler (Project 1559)
Builder:
Displacement: 22,460 tons
Operator: : 4 in service
BAP Tacna fleet oiler
Builder:
Displacement: 17,040 tons
Operator: , 1 in service
Chesapeake-class transport tanker (AOT-5084)
Builder:
Displacement: 65,000 tons
Operator: : 2 in commission
Dubna-class fleet oiler
Builder:
Displacement: 11,140 tons
Operator: : 2 in service
Gus W. Darnell-class transport tanker (AOT-1125)
Builder:
Displacement: 40,000 tons
Operator: : 5 in commission
Henry J. Kaiser-class fleet oiler
Builder:
Displacement: 42,000 tons
Operators:
: 13 in commission
: 1 in commission
Olekma-class fleet oiler
Builder:
Displacement: 6,440 tons
Operator: : 2 in service
Panarea-class gasoline tanker
Builder:
Displacement: 863 tons
Operator: : 4 in service
Rhön-class tanker
Builder:
Displacement: 14,169 tons
Operator: , 2 in service
Rover-class tanker
Builder:
Displacement: 11,500 tons (loaded)
Operators:
, 1 in service
, 1 in service
( Royal Fleet Auxiliary), 2 in service
Uda-class fleet oiler (Project 577)
Builder:
Displacement: 7,160 tons
Operator: : 5 in service
Vyaz'ma fleet oiler
Displacement: 8,900 tons
Operator:
Walchensee-class tanker
Builder:
Displacement: 2,191 tons
Operator: , 2 in service
Wave-class tanker
Builder:
Displacement: 34,500 tons
Operator: , ( Royal Fleet Auxiliary), 2 in service
Coastal tankers
Fuzhou-class coastal tanker
Builder:
Displacement: 1,200 tons
Operator: : 32 in service
Jinyou-class coastal tanker
Builder:
Displacement: 4,800 tons
Operator: : 3 in service
Khobi-class coastal tanker
Builder:
Displacement: 1,525 tons
Operators:
: 1 delivered in 1959
Leizhou-class coastal tanker
Builder:
Displacement: 900 tons
Operator: : 9 in service
Type 620 (Shengli-class) coastal tanker
Builder:
Displacement: 4,940 tons
Operator: : 2 in service
Type 632 (Fulin-class) coastal tanker
Builder:
Displacement: 2,200 tons
Operator: : 19 in service
Water tankers
Simeto-class water tanker
Builder:
Displacement: 1,968 tons
Operators:
: 2 in service
: 1 in service
Tenders
Elbe-class (Type 404) tender
Builder:
Displacement: 3,586 tons
Operator : 6 in service
Lubin-class small craft support ship
Builder: BSO Split
Displacement: 880 tons
Operator: : 1 in service of 3 built
Rhin-class tender
Displacement: 2,445 tons
Operator: : 2 in service
Vis small craft command and support ship
Builder: ??
Displacement: 680 tons
Operator:
Buoy tenders
Class A Balsam-class buoy tender
Builder:
Displacement: 1,025 tons
Operators:
: 1 delivered in 1997 from the US Coast Guard
: 5 in commission
Gasconade-class river buoy tender (WLR-75401)
Builder:
Displacement: 141 tons
Operator: : 9 in commission
Juniper-class buoy tender (WLB-201)
Builder:
Displacement: 2,000 tons
Operator: : 16 in commission
Keeper-class buoy tender
Builder:
Displacement: 840 tons
Operator: : 14 in commission
Ouachita-class buoy tender (WLR-65501)
Builder:
Displacement: 143 tons
Operator: : 6 in service
Type 066 class buoy tender
Builder:
Displacement: 70 tons
Operator:
Type 744-class buoy tender
Builder:
Displacement: 1750 tons
Operator:
Type 911I-class buoy tender
Builder:
Displacement: 135 tons
Operator:
Type 999-class buoy tender
Builder:
Displacement: 95 tons
Operator:
Buoy tugs
Alcyon-class ocean tug and buoy tender
Displacement: 1,500 tons
Operator: : 2 in service
Dive tenders
Type 904I-class dive tender
Builder:
Displacement: 1,354.8 tons
Operator:
Type 904II-class dive tender
Builder:
Displacement: 1,327 tons
Operator:
Vulcain diving tender
Builder:
Displacement: 490 tons
Operator:
Submarine tenders
Kashtan submersible support ship
Displacement: 5,250 tons
Operator:
Kommuna submersible support ship
Displacement: 2,450 tons
Operator:
Malina-class submarine tender (Project 2020)
Builder: /
Displacement: 13,900 tons
Operator: : 3 in service
Mercuur class submarine tender
Builder:
Displacement: 1,400 Tons
Operator:
Pionier Moskvyy-class submersible support ship (Project 05360)
Builder:
Displacement: 7,960 tons
Operator: : 4 in service
Ugra-class submarine tender (Project 1886.1)
Builder:
Displacement: 9,650 tons
Operator: : 2 in service
Type 925 (Dajiang-class) submarine tender and salvage ship
Builder:
Displacement: 10,087 tons
Operator: : 3 in service
Type 926-class submarine support ship
Builder:
Displacement: 9,500 tons
Operator: : 3 in service
Degaussing ships
Bereza-class degaussing ship (Project 130)
Builder:
Displacement: 2,050 tons
Operators:
: 17 in service
: 1 in service
Pelym-class degaussing ship (Project 1799)
Builder:
Displacement: 1,200 tons
Operator: : 17 in service
Type 911 degaussing ship
Builder:
Operator: : 2 in service
Type 912 degaussing ship
Builder:
Displacement: 828 tons
Operator: : 1 in service
Type 912I degaussing ship
Builder:
Operator: : 1 in service
Type 912III (Yanbai class) degaussing ship
Builder:
Displacement: 570 tons
Operator: : 1 in service
Type 912IIIA degaussing ship
Builder:
Operator: : 2 in service
Type 912IIIAH degaussing ship
Builder:
Operator: : 3 in service
Repair ships
Aditya-class replenishment and repair ship
Builder:
Displacement: 24,612 tons
Operator: : 1 in service
Amur-class repair ship (Project 304)
Builder:
Displacement: 5,500 tons
Operator: : 11 in service
Emory S. Land-class submarine tender/repair ship (AS-39)
Builder:
Displacement: 22,900 tons
Operator: : 2 in commission
Garonne-class small repair ship
Displacement: 2,320 tons
Operator:
Oskol-class repair ship (Project 300/301/303)
Builder:
Displacement: 2,700 tons
Operator: : 8 in service
Type 648 (Dadao-class) submarine repair ship
Builder:
Displacement: 1,962 tons
Operator: : 1 in service
Dry docks
120t class dry dock
Builder:
Displacement: 526.49 tons
Operator: : 1 in service
Dongxiu 912-class dry dock
Builder:
Operator: : 1 in service
Hua Chuan No. 1-class dry dock
Builder:
Displacement: 13,000 tons
Operator: : 1 in service
Engineering vessels
Dredgers
Dredger 1 dredger
Builder:
Operator:
8-m3 class dredger
Builder:
Operator:
Beijun 204-class dredger
Builder:
Operator:
Dongjun 417-class dredger
Builder:
Operator:
Dongjun 433-class dredger
Builder:
Operator:
Dongjun 434-class dredger
Builder:
Operator:
Nanjun 610-class dredger
Builder:
Operator:
Crane ships
Diamond State-class crane ship (ACS-7)
Builder:
Displacement: 31,500 tons
Operator: : 2 in commission
Gopher State-class crane ship (ACS-4)
Builder:
Displacement: 25,000 tons
Operator: : 3 in commission
Green Mountain State-class crane ship (ACS-9)
Builder:
Displacement: 31,500 tons
Operator: : 2 in commission
Keystone State-class crane ship (ACS-1)
Builder:
Displacement: 31,500 tons
Operator: : 3 in commission
Construction ships
Anvil-class inland construction tender (WLIC-75301)
Builder:
Displacement: 145 tons
Operator: : 8 in service
Pamlico-class inland construction tender (WLIC-800)
Builder:
Displacement: 416 tons
Operator: : 4 in commission
Cable laying ships
Type 890 (Youzheng-class) cable ship
Builder:
Displacement: 750 tons
Operator: : 3 in service
Type 991II (Youdian-class) cable ship
Builder:
Displacement: 1,550 tons
Operator: : 9 in service, including 3 modified as buoy tenders
USNS Zeus cable ship (ARC-7)
Displacement: 15,000 tons
Operator:
Surveillance and intelligence vessels
Ocean surveillance ships
Hibiki-class ocean surveillance ship
Builder:
Displacement: 3,861 tons
Operator: : 2 in service
Impeccable-class Ocean Surveillance Ship (T-AGOS-23)
Displacement: 5,368 tons
Operator:
Stalwart-class Ocean Surveillance Ship (T-AGOS-1)
Builder:
Displacement: 2,285 tons
Operators
: 2 in service
Victorious-class Ocean Surveillance Ship (T-AGOS-19)
Builder:
Displacement: 3,370 tons
Operator: : 4 in commission
Electronic surveillance ships
Alpinist-class electronic surveillance ships (Project 503M)
Builder:
Displacement: 1,140 tons
Operator: : 3 in service
Bougainville electronic surveillance ship
Displacement: 10,250 tons
Operator:
FS Eger electronic surveillance ship
Builder:
Displacement: 7,560 tons
Operator:
Elettra-class electronic surveillance ship
Builder
Displacement: 3,180 tons
Operators:
, NATO: 1 in service
: 1 in service
: 1 in service
Lira-class electronic surveillance ship (Project 1826)
Builder:
Displacement: 4,900 tons
Operator: : 1 in service
FS Marjata electronic surveillance ship
Builder:
Displacement: 5,300 tons
Operator:
Oste-class (Type 423) electronic surveillance ship
Builder:
Displacement: 3,200 tons
Operator: : 3 in service
Primor'ye-class electronic surveillance ship (Project 394B)
Builder:
Displacement: 4,340 tons
Operator: : 2 in service
Vishnaya-class electronic surveillance ship (Project 864)
Builder:
Displacement: 3,470 tons
Operator: : 7 in service
Type 814A (Dadie-class) electronic surveillance ship
Builder:
Displacement: 2,198 tons
Operator: : 1 in service
Type 815-class electronic surveillance ship
Builder:
Displacement: 6,000 tons
Operator: : 1 in service
Type 815A-class electronic surveillance ship
Builder:
Operator: : 4 in service
Type 815G-class electronic surveillance ship
Builder:
Operator: : 4 in service
Missile tracking ships
Monge missile tracking ship
Displacement: 21,040 tons
Operator:
Observation Island Missile Range Instrumentation Ship (T-AGM-23)
Displacement: 17,000 tons
Operator:
Waters navigation research and missile tracking ship (T-AGS-45)
Displacement: 12,000 tons
Operator:
Yuan Wang-class missile tracking and space event support ship
Builder:
Displacement: 21,000 tons
Operator: : 4 in service
Research and scientific vessels
Alliance (A 5345) research ship
Builder:
Displacement: 3,120 tons
Operator: , NATO
experimental ship
Builder:
Displacement: 6,299 tons
Operator:
RV Belgica coastal research ship
Displacement: 835 tons
Operator:
Helmsand-class trial and fleet service ships (Type 748)
Builder:
Operator: : 3 in service
Leonardo (A 5301) research ship
Builder
Displacement: 337 tons
Operator:
Planet-class (Type 751) research ship (SWATH vessel)
Builder:
Displacement: 3,500 tons
Operator: : 1 in service
Rossetti-class research ship
Builder:
Displacement: 324 tons
Operator: , 2 in service
Shijian-class research ship
Builder:
Displacement: 3,000 tons
Operator: : 3 in service
Type 6610 (Shuguang-class) research ship
Builder:
Displacement: 2,400 tons
Operator: : 8 in service
Wilhelm Pullwer-class trial boat (Type 741)
Builder:
Operator: : 1 in service
Xiangyanghong-class research ship
Builder:
Displacement: 10,000 tons
Operator: : 12 in service in various configurations
Yanlun-class research ship
Builder:
Displacement: 2,000 tons
Operator: : 3 in service
Yannan-class research ship
Builder:
Displacement: 1,750 tons
Operator: : 4 in service
Acoustic research vessels
USNS Hayes acoustic trials ship (T-AG-195)
Displacement: 4,000 tons
Operator:
acoustic research ship
Builder:
Displacement: 2,083 tons
Operator:
Survey vessels
Baldur-class coastal survey ship
Builder:
Displacement: 50 tons
Operator: : 1 in commission
ARA Comodoro Rivadavia coastal hydrographic survey ship
Builder:
Displacement: 827 tons
Operator:
USNS John McDonnell coastal survey ship (T-AGS-51)
Builder:
Displacement: 2,000 tons
Operator: : 2 in commission
Lapérouse-class survey ship
Displacement: 980 tons
Operator: : 4 in service
Makar-class hydrographic survey catamaran
Builder:
Displacement: 500 tons
Operator:
Moma-class survey ship (Project 861)
Builder: /
Displacement: 1,600 tons
Operator: : 1 in service
Sandhayak-class survey ship
Builder:
Displacement: 1,960 tons
Operator: : 7 in service
HMS Scott ocean survey vessel
Builder
Displacement: 13,500 tons
Operator: 1 in service
Type 635 A/B/C (Yanlai class) hydrographic survey ship
Builder:
Displacement: 1,100 tons
Operator: : 4 in service
Valerian Uryvayav-class survey ship
Builder:
Displacement: 1,050 tons
Operators:
: 1 delivered in 1991 for training and coastal survey
Hydro-oceanographic Survey vessels
ARA Austral (Q-21) hydro-oceanographic survey ship
Builder:
Displacement: 4,952 tons
Operator:
Ninfe-class hydro-oceanographic research ship
Builder
Displacement: 415 tons
Operator: : 2 in service
Oceanographic Research vessels
Cabo de Hornos oceanographic research ship
Builder: / ASMAR Chile
Displacement: 3,020 tons
Operator: : 1 in service
Ammiraglio Magnaghi oceanographic research ship
Builder
Displacement: 1,744 tons
Operator:
Melville-class oceanographic research/survey ship (T-AGOR-14)
Builder:
Displacement: 2,670 tons
Operator: : 2 in commission
Pathfinder-class oceanographic research/survey ship (AGS 60)
Builder:
Displacement: 4,750 tons
Operator: : 6 in commission
Thomas G. Thompson class oceanographic research/survey ship (T-AGOR-23)
Builder:
Displacement: 3,250 tons
Operator: : 3 in commission
Polar Oceanographic Research vessels
BIO Las Palmas polar oceanographic research vessel
Builder:
Displacement: 1,500 tons
Operator:
ARA Puerto Deseado polar oceanographic survey vessel
Builder:
Displacement: 2,400 tons
Operator:
Icebreakers
Eisvogel-class icebreaker
Builder:
Displacement: 560 tons
Operators:
: 1 in service
: 1 in service
Type 272 class icebreaker
Builder:
Displacement: 4,860 tons
Operator: : 2 in service
Lake icebreakers
USCGC Mackinaw lake icebreaker (WLBB-30)
Displacement: 3,500 tons
Operator:
Electronic surveillance icebreakers
Type 071G class icebreaker and electronic surveillance ship
Builder:
Displacement: 3,192 tons
Operator: : 1 in service
Electronic surveillance / hydrographic research icebreakers
Type 210 class electronic surveillance / hydrographic research icebreaker
Builder:
Displacement: 4,420 tons
Operator: : 1 in service
Polar icebreakers
USCGC Healy polar icebreaker (WAGB-20)
Builder:
Displacement: 16,400 tons
Operator:
Polar-class polar icebreaker (WAGB-10)
Builder:
Displacement: 13,600 tons
Operator: : 1 in commission
Shirase (AGB-5003) polar icebreaker
Builder:
Displacement: 20,000 tons
Operator:
Polar patrol icebreakers
NoCGV Svalbard polar icebreaker/offshore patrol vessel
Builder:
Displacement: 6,500 tons
Operator:
Polar research icebreakers
ARA Almirante Irízar polar research icebreaker
Builder:
Displacement: 14,899 tons
Operator:
Polar oceanographic research icebreakers
BIO Hespérides polar oceanographic research icebreaker
Builder:
Displacement: 2750 tons
Operator:
Icebreaking tugs
Bay-class icebreaking tug (WTGB-101)
Builder:
Displacement: 660 tons
Operator: : 9 in commission
Logistical support ships
Etna-class Logistics Support Vessel
Builder:
Displacement: 13,400 tons
Operator:
: 1 in service
: 1 in service
Honqui-class coastal freighter
Builder:
Displacement: 1,950 tons
Operator: : 7 in service
Qiongsha-class cargo ship
Builder:
Displacement: 2,150 tons
Operator: : 1 in service
HNoMS Valkyrien support ship
Builder:
Displacement: 3,000 tons
Operator: : 1 in service
Vulcano-class Logistics Support Ship
Builder:
Displacement: 23,500 tons
Operator: : 1 on building
Multi role vessels
multi role vessel
Builder: /
Displacement: 9,000 tons
Operator:
General cargo ships
Cape Ann-class general cargo ship (AK-5009)
Builder:
Displacement: 20,110 tons
Operator: : 4 in commission
Cape Breton-class general cargo ship (AK-5056)
Builder:
Displacement: 21,000 tons
Operator: : 4 in commission
Cape Girardeau-class container/bulk cargo ship (AK-2039)
Builder:
Displacement: 32,000 tons
Operator: : 2 in commission
Cape John-class general cargo ship (AK-5022)
Builder:
Displacement: 23,000 tons
Operator: : 4 in commission
Costa Sur-class container/general cargo ship
Builder:
Displacement: 10,894 tons
Operator: : 3 in service
Container ships
MV Asterix container ship
Builder:
Operator:
Page class container ship (AKR-4496)
Builder:
Displacement: 74,500 tons
Operator: : 2 in commission
Prepositioning ships
1st Lt Harry L. Martin Marine Corps prepositioning ship (AK-3015)
Builder:
Displacement: 51,531 tons
Operator:
2nd Lieutenant John P. Bobo-class Marine Corps prepositioning ship (AK-3008)
Builder:
Displacement: 46,000 tons
Operator: : 5 in commission
Gordon-class army prepositioning ship (AKR-296)
Builder: /
Displacement: 65,000 tons
Operator: : 2 in commission
Corporal Louis J. Hauge Jr.-class Marine Corps prepositioning ship (AK-3000)
Builder:
Displacement: 44,000 tons
Operator: : 5 in commission
Sergeant Matej Kocak-class Marine Corps prepositioning ship (AK-3005)
Builder:
Displacement: 51,612 tons
Operator: : 3 in commission
LCPL Roy M. Wheat Marine Corps prepositioning ship (AK-3016)
Builder: /
Displacement: 50,570 tons
Operator:
Shughart-class army prepositioning ship (AKR-295)
Builder:
Displacement: 54,300 tons
Operator: : 2 in commission
Vehicle ships
Algol-class fast vehicle cargo ship (AKR 287)
Builder:
Displacement: 55,355 tons
Operator: : 8 in commission
Bob Hope-class army vehicle prepositioning ship (AKR-300)
Builder:
Displacement: 62,000 tons
Operator: : 7 in commission
Cape Ducato-class roll-on/roll-off vehicle cargo ship (AKR-5051)
Builder: /
Displacement: 34,790 tons
Operator: : 5 in commission
Cape Hudson-class vehicle cargo ship (AKR-5066)
Builder: /
Displacement: 51,000 tons
Operator: : 3 in commission
Cape Island-class vehicle cargo ship (AKR-10)
Builder:
Displacement: 33,900 tons
Operator: : 4 in commission
Cape Knox-class vehicle cargo ship (AKR-5082)
Builder:
Displacement: 29,200 tons
Operator: : 2 in commission
Cape Lambert-class vehicle cargo ship (AKR-5077)
Builder:
Displacement: 30,360 tons
Operator: : 2 in commission
Cape Rise-class vehicle cargo ship (AKR-9678)
Builder:
Displacement: 32,000 tons
Operator: : 3 in commission
Cape Texas-class vehicle cargo ship (AKR-112)
Builder:
Displacement: 24,550 tons
Operator: : 3 in commission
Cape Vincent-class vehicle cargo ship (AKR-9666)
Builder:
Displacement: 28,200 tons
Operator: : 2 in commission
Cape Washington-class vehicle cargo ship (AKR-9961)
Builder:
Displacement: 53,600 tons
Operator: : 2 in commission
General Frank S. Besson-class Logistics Support Vessel (LSV-1)
Builder:
Displacement: 4,199 long tons
Operator:
: 8 in commission
: 2 in commission
GySgt Fred W. Stockham army prepositioning ship (AK-3017)
Builder:
Displacement: 55,500 tons
Operator:
Round Table-class Landing Ship Logistic
Builder:
Displacement: 6,000 to 8,751 tons
Operator: : 2 in service
LTC Calvin P. Titus-class container/vehicle cargo ship (AK-5089)
Builder:
Displacement: 48,000 tons
Operator: : 3 in commission
Watson-class army prepositioning ship (AKR-310)
Builder:
Displacement: 62,600 tons
Operator: : 8 in commission
Aviation logistics ships
Wright-class aviation logistics ship (T-AVB-3)
Builder:
Displacement: 23,800 tons
Operator: : 2 in commission
Barge Carrier ships
Cape Fear-class barge carrier (AK-5061)
Builder:
Displacement: 44,250 tons
Operator: : 2 in commission
Cape Flattery-class barge carrier (AK-5070)
Builder:
Displacement: 62,300 tons
Operator: : 2 in commission
Troop ships
Qiongsha-class troop ship
Builder:
Displacement: 2,150 tons
Operator: : 4 in service
Polar logistics ships
Green Wave polar logistics ship (AK-2050)
Builder:
Displacement: 9,500 tons
Operator:
Rescue and salvage ships
Heavy-lift ships
Type 633 class heavy-lift ship
Builder:
Operator: : 1 in service
Salvage ships
Type 922 class rescue and salvage ship
Builder:
Displacement: 3,400 tons
Operator: : 1 in service
Type 922II (Dalang class) rescue and salvage ship
Builder:
Displacement: 4,450 tons
Operator: : 1 in service
Type 922III (Dalang II class) rescue and salvage ship
Builder:
Operator: : 1 in service
Type 922IIIA (Dalang II class) rescue and salvage ship
Builder:
Operator: : 3 in service
Salvage tugs
Abeille Flandre-class large salvage tug
Displacement: 3,800 tons
Operator: : 2 in service
Daozha-class salvage tug
Builder:
Displacement: 4,000 tons
Operator: : 1 in service
Fehmarn-class (Type 720) salvage tug
Builder:
Displacement: 1,310 tons
Operator:
Ingul-class salvage tug (Project 1452/1453)
Builder:
Displacement: 4,000 tons
Operator: : 4 in service
Neftegaz-class salvage tug (Project B-92)
Builder:
Displacement: 4,000 tons
Operator: : 3 in service
Prut-class salvage tug (Project 527M)
Builder:
Displacement: 3,330 tons
Operator: : 2 in service
Safeguard-class salvage tug (ARS-50)
Builder:
Displacement: 3,300 tons
Operator: : 4 in commission
Sliva-class salvage tug (Project 712)
Builder:
Displacement: 3,000 tons
Operator: : 3 in service
Tuozhong-class salvage tug
Builder:
Displacement: 3,600 tons
Operator: : 4 in service
Fire tugs
Fire-class fireboat
Builder:
Displacement: 140 tons
Operator: : 1 in service
Iva-class fire rescue tug (Project B-99)
Builder:
Displacement: 2,300 tons
Operator: : 4 in service
Katun-class fire tug (Project 1893/1993)
Builder:
Displacement: 1,200 tons
Operator: : 13 in service
Search and Rescue Vessels
San Juan-class Search and Rescue Vessel
Builder:
Displacement: 540 tons
Operator: Philippine Coast Guard: 4 in service
Ilocos Norte class Search and Rescue Vessel
Builder:
Displacement: 120 tons
Operator: Philippine Coast Guard: 4 in service
Type 917 class rescue ship
Builder:
Operator: : 2 in service
Submarine Rescue ships
Alagez submarine salvage and rescue ship (Project 537)
Displacement: 14,300 tons
Operator:
submarine rescue ship
Builder:
Displacement: 4,200 tons
Operator:
Amatista Mod-class submarine rescue ship
Builder:
Displacement: 1,860 tons
Operator: : 1 in service
HSwMS Belos submarine rescue ship.
Operator:
Anteo submarine rescue ship
Builder:
Displacement: 3,874 tons
Operator:
Cheonghaejin class submarine rescue ship
Builder:
Displacement: 4,300 tons
Operator: : 1 in service
submarine rescue ship
Builder:
Displacement: 7,011 tons
Operator:
submarine rescue ship
Builder:
Displacement: 7,214 tons
Operator:
Type 930 (Hudong class) submarine rescue ship
Builder:
Displacement: 2,500 tons
Operator: : 1 in service
Type 946 (Dazhou class) submarine rescue ship
Builder:
Displacement: 1,100 tons
Operator: : 2 in service
Type 946A (Dadong class) submarine rescue ship
Builder:
Displacement: 1,500 tons
Operator: : 1 in service
Torpedo recovery vessels
torpedo launch and recovery vessel
Builder:
Displacement: 650 tons
Operator:
Builder:
Displacement: 1190 tons
Operator: : 2 in service
Type 803 class torpedo retriever
Builder:
Displacement: 94.67 tons
Operator:
Type 906 class torpedo trials craft
Builder:
Displacement: 2,300 tons
Operator: : 1 in service
Type 907A class torpedo trials craft
Builder:
Displacement: 615 tons
Operator: : 1 in service
Type 917 class torpedo retriever
Builder:
Displacement: 742.5 tons
Operator: : 7 in service
Pollution control ships
Bottsand-class (Type 738) oil recovery ship
Builder:
Displacement: 650 tons
Operator: : 2 in service
Halli pollution control ship
Builder:
Displacement: 2,100 tons
Operator:
Hylje pollution control ship
Builder:
Displacement: 1,400 tons
Operator:
Louhi pollution control ship
Builder:
Displacement: 3,450 tons
Operator:
Tugs
Glen-class tug
Builder:
Displacement: 259 tons
Operator: : 5 in service
Habagat-class MT Tug (TB-271)
Builder:
Displacement: unknown
Operator: Philippine Coast Guard
IRS-class tug
Builder:
Displacement: 472 tons
Operator: : 3 in service
Anchor tugs
Chieftain anchor handling tug supply vessel
Builder:
Displacement: 2,028 tons
Operator: : 1 in service
Supply tugs
Rari-class supply tug
Displacement: 1,550 tons
Operator: : 2 in service
Harbour tugs
Capstan-class (65 Foot) small harbour tug (WYTL-65601)
Builder:
Displacement: 72 tons
Operator: : 10 in commission
Lütje Hörn-class (Type 725) harbour tug
Builder:
Operator: : 6 in service
Porto-class harbour tug
Builder:
Displacement: 412 tons
Operator: : 11 in service
Sleipner-class harbour tug
Builder:
Displacement: 300 tons
Operator: : 2 in service
Sylt-class (Type 724) large harbour tug
Builder:
Operator: : 2 in service
Ville-class harbour tug
Builder:
Displacement: 46 tons
Operator: : 5 in service
Wustrow-class (Type 414) harbour tug
Builder:
Operator: : 2 in service
Coastal tugs
Belier-class coastal tug
Displacement: 800 tons
Operator: : 3 in service
Chamois-class coastal tug and logistical support ship
Displacement: 505 tons
Operator: : 1 in service
Offshore tugs
Abnaki class fleet ocean tug
Builder:
Displacement: 1,589 tons
Operators:
: 2 in service
: 1 in service
Atlante-class ocean tug
Builder:
Displacement: 750 tons
Operator: : 2 in service
Barentshav-class offshore patrol vessel
Builder:
Displacement: 3,200 tons
Operator: : 3 in commission
Ciclope-class ocean tug
Builder:
Displacement: 660 tons
Operator: : 6 in service
offshore tug
Builder:
Displacement: 560 tons
Operator:
Goliat-class ocean tug (Project 733)
Builder:
Displacement: 890 tons
Operator: : 25 in service
Helgoland-class large sea-going tug
Builder:
Operators:
: 1 in service
: 1 in service
MB-330 class ocean tug
Builder:
Displacement: 1,180 tons
Operator: : 1 in service
Powhatan class fleet ocean tug (ATF 168)
Builder:
Displacement: 2,260 tons
Operator: : 5 in commission
Roslavl-class ocean tug (Project A-202)
Builder: /
Displacement: 625 tons
Operators:
: 11 in service
: 4 in service
Sorum-class fleet seagoing tug (Project 745)
Builder:
Displacement: 1,656 tons
Operator: : 22 in service
Tenace-class ocean tug
Displacement: 1,400 tons
Operator: : 2 in service
Type 802 Gromovoy class ocean tug
Builder: /
Displacement: 890 tons
Operator: : 17 in service
Type 837 Hujiu class ocean tug
Builder:
Displacement: 750 tons
Operator: : 8 in service
Wangerooge-class seagoing tug
Builder:
Displacement: 798 tons
Operators:
: 2 in service
: 1 in service
Fleet tugs
Dinghai-class fleet tug
Builder:
Displacement: 1,470 tons
Operator: : 2 in service
Goryn-class fleet tug (Project 563)
Builder:
Displacement: 2,200 tons
Operator: : 9 in service
Training ships
See :Category:Training ships
Amerigo Vespucci Tall ship
Builder:
Displacement: 4,146 tons
Operator: : 1 in service
RFA Argus Aviation training ship
Builder
Displacement 28,081 tons
Operator: , ( Royal Fleet Auxiliary), 1 in service
Arung Samudera Tall ship
Operator:
Capitán Miranda Tall ship
Builder:
Displacement: 852 tons
Operator:
Cisne Branco Tall ship
Builder:
Displacement: 1,038 tons
Operator:
UAM Creoula Tall ship
Builder:
Displacement: 1,321 tons
Operator:
Tall ship
Builder:
Operator:
Fabian Wrede-class training ship
Builder:
Displacement: 65 tons
Operator: : 3 in service
USCGC Eagle Tall ship
Builder:
Displacement: 1,813 tons
Operator:
NRP Sagres Tall ship
Builder: Blohm & Voss
Displacement: 1,755 long tons (1,783 tons)
Operator:
Sister ship to USCGC Eagle
Mircea Tall ship
Builder: Blohm & Voss
Operator:
Sister ship to USCGC Eagle and NRP Sagres
Gorch Fock Tall ship
Builder:
Displacement: 2,006 tons
Operator:
Sister ship to USCGC Eagle, NRP Sagres, and Mircea
ARC Gloria Tall ship
Builder:
Displacement: 1,300 tons
Operator:
BAE Guayas Tall ship
Builder:
Displacement: 1,300 tons
Operator:
Sister ship to ARC Gloria
Simón Bolívar Tall ship
Builder:
Displacement: 1,260 tons
Operator:
Sister ship to ARC Gloria and BAE Guayas
ARM Cuauhtémoc Tall ship
Builder:
Displacement: 1,800 tons
Operator:
Sister ship to ARC Gloria, BAE Guayas, and Simón Bolívar
Hiuchi-class training support ship
Builder:
Displacement: 1,000 tons
Operator: : 5 in service
HNoMS Horten training ship
Builder:
Displacement: 2,535 tons
Operator:
Intermares training ship
Builder:
Displacement: 3,200 tons
Operator:
Juan Sebastián de Elcano Tall ship
Builder:
Displacement: 3,673 tons
Operator:
Esmeralda Tall ship
Builder:
Displacement: 3,754 tons
Operator:
Sister ship to Juan Sebastián de Elcano
ARA Libertad Tall ship
Builder:
Displacement: 3,765 tons
Operator:
Mhadei-class training sailboat
Builder:
Displacement: 23 tons
Operator: : 2 in service
training sailboat
Builder:
Displacement: 93 tons
Operator:
Palinuro Tall ship
Builder:
Displacement: 1,341 tons
Operator: : 1 in service
Shiyan training ship
Displacement: 6,000 tons
Operator:
Tall ship
Builder:
Displacement: 513 tons
Operator:
Tall ship
Builder:
Displacement: 513 tons
Operator:
Sister ship to
training ship
Builder:
Displacement: 3,200 tons
Operator:
Type 82 training ship
Builder:
Displacement: 6,000 tons
Operator: 1 in service
Type 679 (Zheng He-class) (NATO Daxing-class) training ship
Builder:
Displacement: 5,548 tons
Operator:
Type 680 (Qi Jiguang-class) training ship
Builder:
Displacement: 9,000 tons
Operator:
Type 0891A (Shichang-class) training ship
Builder:
Displacement: 9,700 tons
Operator:
BAP Unión Tall ship
Builder: /
Displacement: 3,200 tons
Operator:
Yanxi-class training ship
Builder:
Displacement: 1,200 tons
Operator:
Yachts
Argo (MEN209) Presidential Yacht
Builder:
Displacement: 64.47 tons
Operator:
HDMY Dannebrog Royal Yacht
Builder:
Displacement: 1,295 tons
Operator:
ARA Fortuna III racing yacht
Builder:
Displacement: 15.5 tons
Operator:
accommodation yacht
Builder:
Displacement: 490 tons
Operator:
HNoMY Norge Royal Yacht
Builder:
Displacement: 1,628 tons
Operator:
See also
List of naval ship classes in service
List of submarine classes in service
References
Auxiliary ship classes in service
Auxiliary ship classes |
4109390 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olpe%2C%20Germany | Olpe, Germany | Olpe is a town situated in the foothills of the Ebbegebirge in North Rhine-Westphalia, roughly 60 km east of Cologne and 20 km northwest of Siegen. It is part of the Regierungsbezirk of Arnsberg and is the seat of the district of Olpe.
Geography
Location
Olpe lies in the Sauerland on the southern edge of the Ebbegebirge Nature Park. In the town's north lies South Westphalia's biggest reservoir, the Biggesee.
Rivers and mountains
The highest mountains are:
Engelsberg (589 m)
Rother Stein (583 m)
Feld-Berg (556 m)
Hohe Rhonard (526 m)
The inner town is ringed by the following hills:
Imberg
Hatzenberg
Gallenberg
Lindenhardt
Eichhardt
Kimicker Berg
Bratzkopf
Kreuzberg
The municipal area also has a few rivers or brooks that all empty into the Biggesee:
Bigge, fed by:
Olpe, itself fed by:
Günse
Felmicke (underground),
Kortemicke (underground),
Ahe
Other rivers in the municipal area:
Brachtpe
Neger
The Veischedebach does not empty into the Biggesee, but rather into the Lenne near Grevenbrück.
Geology
Olpe is found in a broad stretch of hilly country. In the town's north, the slopes are steeper and the dales narrower (for instance near the centres of Rhode and Neger); in the south, the hills have soft knolls and the dales are more spacious. There are also no plateaux there.
The area around the Biggesee and the main town of Olpe, as the Bundesamt für Bauwesen und Raumordnung (Federal Office for Building and Regional Planning) sees them, are included in the Mittelbiggebergland (Middle Bigge Mountain Land), while the eastern and southern portions of the municipal area are designated Südsauerländer Rothaarvorhöhen (South Sauerland Rothaar Foothills).
The municipal area is an integral part of the Rheinisches Schiefergebirge (Rhenish Slate Mountains).
The underlying minerals around the middle and upper Bigge are made up to a considerable degree of schistose, partly chalky clays and coarse clay. Furthermore, there are sandstones with quartzitelike characteristics.
Municipal area’s extent
Olpe's municipal area has a total area of 86 km2. Its greatest extent is in both the north–south and east–west directions, reaching 11 km. Olpe's lowest point is the Biggesee lying at 307.5 m above sea level, and its highest point is the Engelsberg near Neuenkleusheim at 589 m above sea level.
Neighbouring communities
Town of Attendorn
Town of Drolshagen
Town of Lennestadt
Community of Kirchhundem
Town of Kreuztal (in Siegen-Wittgenstein district)
Community of Wenden
Constituent communities
The municipal area is divided into the following centres:
Altenkleusheim, Apollmicke, Bruch, Dahl, Eichhagen, Fahlenscheid, Friedrichsthal, Griesemert, Grube Rhonard, Günsen, Hardt, Hanemicke, Hitzendumicke, Hof Siele, Hohl, Howald, Hüppcherhammer, Kessenhammer, Lütringhausen, Möllendick, Neger (divided into Unter-, Mittel- and Oberneger), Neuenkleusheim, Neuenwald, Oberveischede, Rehringhausen, Rhode, Rhonard, Ronnewinkel, Rosenthal, Rüblinghausen, Saßmicke, Siedenstein, Sondern, Stachelau, Stade, Tecklinghausen Thieringhausen and Waukemicke.
Climate
Owing to the location of the hills and the west wind, it rains often in Olpe. The clouds gather water vapour over the Atlantic Ocean, and when they run into the slopes in the hilly country around Olpe, they rise and the water vapour condenses into bigger droplets because of the cooler temperatures. These then fall as rain.
The coldest month is January, and the warmest July. The high humidity in the winter months often leads to fog.
History
Olpe supposedly got its name from an older name for the land at the forks of the Olpe and Bigge ("Ol-apa" = brook in moist meadowland)
The first archaeological finds in the Olpe area date to about AD 900: potsherds and slag (from iron mining and working) in the abandoned centre of Kimickerberg, coins in Dahl (from after 1005).
Olpe had its first documentary mention in 1220. In 1311 it was granted town rights on the Soest model by the archbishop-elector of Cologne, Count Heinrich II of Virneburg. In 1500, the Kreuzkapelle (Cross Chapel) was first mentioned. The first evidence of a shooting society followed in 1525.
History also records evidence of witch trials being held in the Olpe judicial area between 1587 and 1697.
In 1615, Olpe had its first schoolteacher, and in 1634 it had a great fire. The first vow to Saint Agatha of Catania for protection against conflagrations, however, was not recorded until 1665. Eight years later came the first vow to Saint Roch of Montpellier against the Plague and other pestilences. In 1696, the last witch was sentenced.
In 1711, the post first came to Olpe. In 1795, the Great Fire of Olpe destroyed 83% of the town. When the town was built once again, the old mediaeval appearance was cast aside in favour of a master plan that saw three broad, parallel streets built, connected by sidestreets running at right angles to them.
In 1819 Olpe became a district seat. At that time, it was the seat of the Bilsteiner Kreis; today it fills that place in the district of Olpe.
In 1828, the shooting club was refounded. Its name is St.-Sebastianus-Schützenverein. The Evangelical community was founded between 1842 and 1844. In 1863, the Arme Franziskanerinnen von der ewigen Anbetung (Poor Franciscans of the Everlasting Worship), a Catholic women's order whose main work is in taking care of children and nursing, was founded. It is nowadays known as the Franziskanerinnen von der ewigen Anbetung zu Olpe (Franciscans of the Everlasting Worship at Olpe).
In 1864, there was a telegraph station in Olpe. In 1875, the railway reached Olpe, running at first to Attendorn and Finnentrop. Then came an Olpe-Rothemühle line in 1880, and in 1903, another to Bergneustadt. In 1888, the town had its first electric light.
In 1908, the St.-Martinus-Kirche (church) burnt down almost utterly owing to, it is believed, arson. It was built anew in 1909, but this time in the Gothic Revival style.
On 28 March 1945, in the Second World War’s dying days, Olpe was heavily bombed. In 1965, the Bigge Reservoir (Biggetalsperre) was created through damming.
The Bundesautobahn 45 and the Bundesautobahn 4 were opened in 1971 and 1976 respectively.
Religion
Olpe’s population is overwhelmingly Catholic. The town’s patron is Saint Martin of Tours.
Catholic
Olpe belongs to the Archbishopric of Paderborn. At the middle level, Olpe is ecclesiastically administered by the Deanery of the South Sauerland, which was formed out of the former deaneries of Attendorn, Elspe and Olpe on 1 July 2006, and is coëxtensive with the district of Olpe.
At the lowest level, there are two parish clusters (Pastoralverbünde) in Olpe:
Olpebach-Täler, consisting of the Pfarrei St. Mariae Himmelfahrt Olpe (Parish of St. Mary’s Assumption, Olpe) with the chapel parishes of Günsen, Lütringhausen, Rhonard, Stachelau, Thieringhausen along with the Kirchspiel Kleusheim (parish) with the centres of Altenkleusheim, Neuenkleusheim and Rehringhausen. * Pastoralverbund Olpe-Biggesee, consisting of the Pfarrei St. Martinus Olpe (Parish of St. Martin, Olpe) with the branch parishes of Dahl-Friedrichsthal and Saßmicke, the parish vicary of Heilig Geist (“Holy Ghost”, west area of Olpe and Rüblinghausen) and the parish region of Hatzenberg along with the Pfarrei St. Cyriakus (parish) in Rhode with the branch parish of Sondern and the parish vicaries of Oberveischede and Neger.
Once a year, in early July, at the Festival of the Assumption, hundreds take part in the town pilgrimage from Olpe to Werl.
Moreover, there are two monastic establishments:
a convent run by the Franciscan Sisters of Perpetual Adoration at Olpe;
the Pallottine monastery at the Pallotti-Haus.
The Pallottines’ provincial head has stated that his congregation will, at least in the medium term, stay in Olpe. For economic reasons, however, the order has sold the building to an investor who wants to set up 40 dwellings for the aged and 100 fully equipped nursing care places. The Brethren and the Father are staying in rented accommodations in town while the conversion is being done. They are to return to the Pallotti-haus afterwards as renters. Spiritual work is to continue unchanged.
Protestant
There has been a Protestant parish since 1844. To it belongs Olpe's oldest church, which was built of red brick in 1898.
Other religious communities
An Evangelical Free Church community, the Jehovah's Witnesses, the New Apostolic Church, an Islamic community and the Greek Orthodox Church are all represented in town.
Amalgamations
As a result of municipal restructuring on 1 July 1969, the “old town” (the older town of Olpe and the outlying former Amt) has now been joined by the formerly autonomous communities of Kleusheim, Olpe-Land and Rhode as well as by parts of the old communities of Helden (Oberveischede, Tecklinghausen, Neuenwald), Rahrbach (Fahlenscheid) and Kirchveischede (Apollmicke) to form a new, expanded municipal area swelling from a former 12.78 km2 to 85.65 km2 in area, and from 14,184 to 21,705 in population
Population development
(for 31 December in each case)
Politics
Town council
Youth parliament
The Jugendparlament has existed since late 2005. It represents youth's interests with the goal of developing proposals for improving the situation for children in Olpe and of suggesting measures to be taken, so that the town's council and administration can be more strongly responsive to children's and youths’ wishes.
The youth parliament currently consists of 25 members, each elected for a two-year mandate by secondary schools. For every 150 students, one representative is elected, although each school gets at least two representatives. All students, even those from neighbouring communities, in Years 5 to 10 may vote at the schools in Olpe. Only students who live in Olpe, however, may stand as candidates.
The youth parliament sits, usually publicly, at least four times each year. If it is so wished, working groups can be formed at sittings for various projects in which even unelected member children and youths may work.
Mayors and Directors
From 1946 until 1997, the chief administrative office in Olpe was known as the Stadtdirektor (“Town Director”). The Bürgermeister (“Mayors”) were honorary and had mostly ceremonial duties.
Coat of arms
The arms show an episode from Saint Martin's life, when he gave a beggar half his coat. As early as 1360, this scene adorned the town's oldest seal. In 1911, as a sign of the long membership in the Archbishop-Electorate of Cologne (1180-1802), the cross of the Archbishop-Electors of Cologne was added to the upper right corner.
Town partnerships
Since 28 July 2001 there has been a partnership arrangement with the French town of Gif-sur-Yvette. The town Gymnasium in Olpe has for years been conducting student exchanges with a collège in Gif-sur-Yvette.
Culture and sightseeing
Culture plays an important role in the district seat. The town cultural office's regular events, as well as those staged by clubs from various fields form the portrait of cultural work in Olpe. Concerts of all kinds, plays, musicals, cabaret acts, exhibitions and other events appear regularly in the programmes.
The following venues are on hand:
Stadthalle Olpe (“town hall”, but an event hall rather than the administration centre)
Marktplatz (marketplace)
Lorenz-Jaeger-Haus
Altes Lyzeum
Kreishaus Olpe (district administration centre)
Kreuzkapelle (chapel)
Museums
Since 1997, the Förderverein Stadtmuseum Olpe (“Olpe Town Museum Development Association”) has been trying to establish a local museum. Owing to the town's difficult financial situation, however, it has not yet been possible to realize this. Nevertheless, the Association's goal is still to open such a museum in time for Olpe's 700-year jubilee in 2011.
Buildings
Seventy-three buildings are listed on the town's list of monumental buildings, among them churches, rectories and chapels, but also houses and monuments. Not all the buildings listed here are protected monuments, but each has an important function for Olpe:
Historic town wall with Engelsturm and Hexenturm (towers)
Once Olpe was raised to town in 1311, the fortified town wall appeared no later than 1373. It consisted of three great and two lesser town gates and a few round towers. Today all that is left of the old town wall is some remnants in the Weierhohl with the Engelsturm (“Angels’ Tower”) and Hexenturm (“Witches’ Tower”). The latter, built in the 14th century, is the town's oldest preserved profane building. Its name might refer to those accused or found guilty of being witches, for which the tower might have been used as a prison. However, there is no proof of this. The Olpe Heimatforscher (“homeland researcher”, roughly “local historian”) Manfred Schöne assumed that the name came from Hessenturm (“Hesse Tower”).
Furthermore, under the town wall has lain the memorial site created by Ewald Mataré in 1963. It recalls the war's victims and serves as a memorial for the living, and since 1996 there has also been a “Hounds’ Memorial” commemorating a particular breed that arose in Olpe.
Waterwheel
The waterwheel stands at the former site of the Oberste Stadtmühle (“Uppermost Town Mill”) in the Weierhohl. It is complemented by the old mill's remains. The Unterste Stadtmühle (“Lowermost Town Mill”) persisted into the 1960s on Mühlenstraße, where the new cinema now stands. The mills were supplied from the Olpe and Bigge through two millraces.
Martinus-Kirche with Agatha statue
After the arson fire in 1907, Saint Martin's Church was built in the Gothic Revival style as a three-naved hall church with transept and twin-tower façade. One of the two towers was destroyed in the bombing on 28 March 1945 and was never repaired, being left in its damaged state today as a memorial for peace. The current mayor, however, is trying to raise an endowment whose goal would be to rebuild the tower. Before the north exit, a statue of Saint Agatha has stood since 1979.
Evangelical church
This was built in 1897 and 1898 and is thereby the town's oldest church. It was built of red brick.
Marketplace with Pannenklöpper (local word for “tinsmiths”) Memorial
After the Great Fire in 1795, the mediaeval layout was abandoned and a new one built from the ground up. This was conceived by Johann Adam Stahl. The marketplace’s current shape was drawn from this plan. Many houses that were built at this time stand on cellars of the older houses that burnt down. In places, they jut into the street. In the 1990s, the marketplace was overhauled, and, except on Sundays when High Mass is celebrated at Saint Martin’s Church, it is a carfree area. The Panneklöpper-Denkmal was erected in 1982 and recalls the former importance of this profession in the town of Olpe.
Chapels (Kreuzkapelle, Rochuskapelle and Valentinskapelle)
Kurkölner Platz (“Electoral-Cologne Square”) with the Geschichtsbrunnen (“History Fountain/Well”)
Natural monuments
Biggesee
Kölsches Heck
Kölsches Heck (roughly “Cologne Hedge”) refers to what is now the administrative boundary between the districts of Olpe and Siegen-Wittgenstein. It once served as a border defence, consisting of ditches and walls with hedges cut to a man’s height and interlaced with each other. Beyond a space of 15 to 100 m there often followed another ditch or wall structure. Today, traces of this old fortification may be found above Altenkleusheim.
Sport
Locally, Olpe has a number of places where people can involve themselves in athletic activities. For example, there are eleven gymnasia, nine tennis courts, and ten football/soccer fields. Also, Olpe is the birthplace of Markus Obermeier, a professional footballer.
Kreuzbergstadion
Olpe's largest sports site is the Kreuzbergstadion. It holds both natural and artificial turf, and is equipped with a 150–lux projection system. The Kreuzbergstadion is the center of the German Football Association's under-12 through under-21 development programs. There is also an eight-lane track, a high jump pit, a long jump pit, and triple jump pit for the athletes.
Aquatics
In Olpe's newly renovated pool, there are several different pools and hot tubs. The same building also houses a sauna and an outdoor pool.
Football
Olpe is home to eleven football clubs who play on ten fields.
Diving
The Biggesee offers a great place for diving. Not only do locals come: there have also been many groups that come from abroad to have the opportunity to dive in the Biggesee.
The Athletic Club
With over 3,000 members, the Turnverein Olpe or TVO is the largest athletic club in the municipality of Olpe. It has an eclectic lot of activities such as gymnastics, badminton, basketball, handball, track and field, taekwondo, and volleyball.
Regular events
Many of the customs observed in town and in the outlying countryside are many hundreds of years old. They often have roots in church tradition.
Shooting festivals are held in many of the town's centres. The biggest one in the municipal area is the Olpe Shooting Festival held by the St.-Sebastianus-Schützenverein, always on the weekend of the third Sunday in July. It is held on the Ümmerich, the shooting range on the Imberg. The club boasts almost 5,000 members.
Agatha-Tag (Saint Agatha's Day), 5 February, and a procession the following Sunday.
Poschefeuer, an Easter fire on the Gallenberg, the Bratzkopf and in almost every village in the town.
Rochus-Gelübde (“Vow to Saint Roch”) with procession following.
Muggelkirmes (third Sunday in September), a great festival for a good cause offering many things for young and old without the usual carney trade, but instead with much amateur participation and a family atmosphere.
St. Martin's Day with procession
Organ piece Der alte Zimmermann (“The Old Carpenter”) at Christmas
Between the Days-Festival (known as such even in German) – For more than 30 years this musical event, known far beyond the town, has beckoned many concertgoers every 29 December to Olpe with its broad array of pop and rock bands.
Ölper Tied (11 o’clock in the morning – traditional “Ölper” time for a drink)
Culinary specialities
Shooting festival specialities
The Olper Beff is a kind of beef patty into which potato is also mixed. It is served with a brown gravy – oxtail soup – and served warm together with a breadroll. Its quality is officially tested the Friday before the shooting festival at the Beff-Probe.
Only at the Olpe Shooting Festival do a few of the town's butcher shops offer Spürne for sale, a cold meat made of pickled cow's udder. There is also a children's drink at the shooting festival called Quatsch (literally “balderdash” or “hokum”, although it is actually raspberry juice).
Butterbrezel
A genuine Olpe speciality is the Butterbrezel (butter pretzel) which was originally made by the Gastreich Bakery, then later by the Sommerhoff Bakery and nowadays by the Konditorei Lüning.
Kemper's Korn
At the Kemper distillery, owned by Arens, with water from its own well, a grain schnapps is produced, along with various liqueurs.
Veischeder Landbier
In the outlying centre of Oberveischede for a few years now, the Müller Brewery has been brewing dark and light Pils in a house brewery, which is also sold outside the house. A neighbouring bakery also uses the beer to bake Veischeder Landbierbrot (beer bread).
Economy and infrastructure
Historical
The wealth of forest, ore and water was the foundation on which the iron foundries, hammerworks, tinsmithies and tanneries were built. Moreover, the town's location between the Siegerland on one side and the Brandenburg-ruled Sauerland on the other favoured economic development. No later than the 18th century, Olpe and its outlying areas were one of the economic centres of the Duchy of Westphalia.
Tinsmithing
This has a long tradition in Olpe, thereby having played an important rôle in the town's life. There was already a smiths’ guild by 1567, the Schmiedeamt. The smiths gradually came to concentrate mainly on making sheet metal or plate. Protected as they were by the guild privileges that were continually confirmed by the Electors, Olpe's smiths managed to secure a virtual monopoly position in sheet metal manufacture in south Westphalia. The bronze memorial at the marketplace recalls the old guild.
Hammerworks
These craftsmen also had their own guild and took up the important preparatory work for the tinsmiths, and also for other smiths. The works were powered by water.
Mining
There is evidence of copper mining since the mid 16th century in the Rhonard. Alongside many other small pits in Olpe the Grube Rhonard was the biggest. It belonged until 1805 to the Brabeck family estate. Until it closed in 1890, it was the oldest and biggest pit in Olpe. Alongside copper, iron ore was also mined. Moreover, there were also small yields of silver, quicksilver and cinnabar.
Other important occupations in the Olpe area were the charburners and tanners.
Today
Midsize and nationally active businesses in various fields are the underpinnings of today's economic life in the district seat. Among these are foundries, tube drawing factories, drop forges, valve factories, machine factories and electronics manufacture. Furthermore, there are many businesses in crafts, trade and service industries. Tourism is also important.
Important enterprises in Olpe are:
Karl Jungbecker GmbH & Co, Olpe
Ohm & Häner GmbH & Co. KG, Olpe
Peterseim GmbH & Co. KG, Olpe
Gebr. Kemper GmbH & Co. KG, Olpe
Schell GmbH & Co. KG
Metallwerke Gustav Imhäuser GmbH &
Polygonvatro GmbH
Transport
Rail and bus transport
Olpe's railway station lies on the single-tracked Biggetalbahn (KBS 442) on which hourly runs the Biggesee-Express (RB 92) passenger service to Finnentrop with connections to the Ruhr-Sieg-Express (RE 16). In the outlying centre of Sondern is a “lake station” which allows a direct transfer from the railway to a passenger boat. It is the only one in North Rhine-Westphalia.
The line was built by the Bergisch-Märkische Eisenbahn (railway), going into operation between Finnentrop and Olpe on 1 November 1875. Originally it ran by way of Gerlingen and Rothemühle (both belonging to the community of Wenden) to Freudenberg in Westphalia where it joined to the Asdorftalbahn by way of Niederfischbach to Kirchen (Sieg) with a further connection to another line, the Siegstrecke (KBS 460). Another line ran from Olpe by way of Drolshagen and Bergneustadt to Dieringhausen with a connection to the Aggertalbahn (KBS 459).
Today, Olpe is the endpoint of the line to Finnentrop. The tracks of the other lines have been removed during the 1990s and the early 2000s. In 2013, the train and bus stations were relocated downstream the Bigge River. On the premises of the former railway station and the neighboring industrial sites, new commercial and recreation areas developed, including a lake-view restaurant. The construction of a new town hall, integrating the old railway station building, is planned.
As for local road transport, many buslines run, joining Olpe to the neighbouring towns and communities. The operators are the Verkehrsbetriebe Westfalen-Süd (VWS, “Westphalia-South Transport Services”) whose seat is in Siegen, and the Busverkehr Ruhr-Sieg (BRS, “Ruhr-Sieg Bus Transport”). Also, lines of the Regionalverkehr Köln bus company run to Olpe.
Local rail and road transport are integrated with the Westphalia South Transport Community (Verkehrsgemeinschaft Westfalen Süd, VGWS).
Streets and roads
There are three traffic thoroughfares in the town of Olpe. Bruchstraße carries north–south traffic to the Autobahn interchanges. Westfälische Straße leaves the historic Old Town towards the northeast while Martinstraße, which is barred to heavy vehicles, leads out of the town centre towards the east. The inner town has at its disposal four free parking garages.
At almost every street junction within the town, a roundabout has been installed. Bundesstraße 55 serves as a northern town bypass and comes together with Bundesstraße 54, which serves as an eastern town bypass, near Rhode. In the south and west, the Autobahnen A 4 and A 45 surround the municipal area. It is thereby possible for heavy traffic to bypass the town altogether on any side.
The town of Olpe is connected to two Autobahnen:
A 4 (E 40) Aachen–Görlitz, interchange: Wenden (Olpe-Süd)
A 45 (Sauerlandlinie) (E 41) Dortmund–Aschaffenburg, interchange: Olpe and Wenden (Olpe-Süd)
as well as to the Bundesstraßen 54 (Münster–Lünen–Dortmund–Hagen–Olpe–Siegen–Limburg–Wiesbaden) and 55 (Olpe-Lennestadt-Meschede).
Water transport
Boat tours can be taken on the Biggesee. The waters are plied from April until late October by two boats run by the Personenschifffahrt Biggesee. A trip round the reservoir lasts roughly two hours, and may be boarded at any of five docks. A few years ago there were still four boats in this Weiße Flotte (“White Fleet”), as it is known. Along with the still available MS Westfalen and MS Bigge, a further boat plied the reservoir. In the reservoir's forward basin (called the Obersee, or “Upper Lake”) was a canal boat by the name of Olpe. Its low-slung design was necessary so that the boat could get under the low railway bridge.
Cycling paths
Around the Biggesee and the Lister Reservoir (Listertalsperre) is a closed cycling path network. This leads to the Biggedamm in Attendorn. Furthermore, Olpe is connected to the North Rhine-Westphalia Cycling Transport Network (Radverkehrsnetz NRW).
Hiking paths
Through Olpe runs the 1 080 km-long Wanderweg der Deutschen Einheit (“Hiking Path of German Unity”). Also, there are many smaller, well marked hiking paths that lead around the town.
Media
Newspapers
The following newspapers publish local editions daily:
Siegener Zeitung
Westfälische Rundschau
Westfalenpost
Furthermore, each of these newspapers also has a local office in Olpe. Currently, all three publish in the morning, although until 2000, the Siegener Zeitung was an afternoon paper. The Siegener Zeitung is a midsize family business with its headquarters in Siegen. The other two papers both belong to the WAZ newspaper group.
Also published, on Wednesdays and Saturdays, is the free advertising sheet Sauerlandkurier with information from the whole Sauerland. Other advertising sheets such as Sonntags-Anzeiger, Stadtanzeiger and the Sauerländer Wochenanzeiger, have been discontinued.
On special occasions such as the shooting festival, the Sauerländer Börse, a glossy DIN-A-4-format advertising sheet, appears.
Until some time around 1980, Olpe was the publishing site of the Sauerländisches Volksblatt.
Radio
The Olpe district has no local transmitter or radio station at its disposal. Current news about Olpe is to be had only through the WDR 2 programme from the Siegen regional studio, sending out news from south Westphalia on the half-hour. With a decision on 28 April 2006, however, Olpe was chosen by the Landesanstalt für Medien Nordrhein-Westfalen (LfM), the responsible overseeing authority for radio broadcasts in North Rhine-Westphalia, as a possible area for expansion of local broadcasting. An organizing association has existed for many years.
Television
Olpe belongs to WDR Fernsehen’s Siegen studio’s broadcast area. The Lokalzeit Südwestfalen reports on the region.
Public institutions
Agentur für Arbeit Siegen, Olpe office (employment agency)
Amtsgericht Olpe (court)
Finanzamt Olpe (financial office)
Regionalforstamt Kurkölnisches Sauerland, Olpe service building (regional forest office)
Since 1 August 2007, there has been this current forest office made up of the former Attendorn (partly) and Olpe forest offices. The first time that a forest office in Olpe was mentioned was in 1810.
Kreishaus Olpe (district administration)
LWL-Archäologie für Westfalen, Olpe branch
In a former school on 31 August 1982, the Olpe branch was officially opened. The main task is taking care of monuments in the Regierungsbezirk of Arnsberg. This is done through undertaking to propose monumental protection, taking part in procedures as sponsors of public concerns, onsite studies, publishing work and “small monument care” (exchange with interested persons or groups).
St.-Martinus-Hospital
The hospital was founded in 1856 under the St. Martinus Olpe parish's sponsorship and at first it was run by two Vincentine sisters. Each year, just under 11,000 patients, mainly from Olpe, Wenden and Drolshagen are treated. A staff of roughly 800 full-time and part-time workers have 385 beds in their care. The hospital has a surgical clinic, a medicinal clinic, a women's clinic, an anaesthesia department, an intensive care unit whose main task is pain control and diagnostic radiology, and a psychiatric department. Sisters of the Olpe Franciscan congregation took over nursing duties in 1900. As of 1997, the St.-Martinus-Hospital was run as a not-for-profit limited company (GmbH), and it merged in 2000 with the Catholic St.-Josef-Hospital in Lennestadt-Altenhundem into the Katholische Hospitalgesellschaft Südwestfalen gGmbH (gemeinnützige Gesellschaft mit beschränkter Haftung, or “not-for-profit company with limited liability”). Attached to the hospital are, among other things, a nursing school, a course in geriatric care and a mobile dialysis centre. Since that time, the Franciscan sisters have no longer been working at the St.-Martinus-Hospital, and the convent found there was dissolved in late 2005.
Kinderhospiz Balthasar
When this children's hospice opened in 1998, it was the first of its kind in Germany. “A second home for the whole family” is one of the hospice's guiding principles. As well as living and laughing, dying and weeping can take place here. The whole family is to some extent guided over years until the child's death. Each year, several stays of up to four weeks each are possible.
The sponsor is the Gemeinnützige Gesellschaft der Franziskanerinnen zu Olpe mbH (“Not-for-profit Company of the Franciscan Sisters at Olpe, limited”, or GFO). It is one-third financed by sponsors such as longterm care insurance and two-thirds by donations and by the families themselves.
Education
Olpe is a regionally important school centre. There are many different educational institutions here.
The former Realschule Olpe and Hakemicke Hauptschule merged to the new Sekundarschule between 2013 and 2018. It is located in the former Hakemicke Hauptschule. The building of the former Realschule was abandoned and will be demolished.
Notable people
Sons and daughters of the town
Johann Bergmann von Olpe (1460–1531), theologian and publisher
Rudolf Bertram (1893–1975), medic
Mother Maria Theresia Bonzel (1830–1905), beatified founder of the Sisters of St. Francis of Perpetual Adoration
Rötger Hundt (1711–1773), theologian
Anton Deimel (1865–1954), theologian and researcher
Jochen Feldmann (born 1961), physicist
Adolf von Hatzfeld (1892–1957), poet
Franz Hitze (1851–1921), sociopolitical and theologian
Michael Kügler (born 1981), footballer
Monica Pick-Hieronimi (born 1943), sopranist and professor of music
Patrick Rakovsky (born 1993), football player
Johannes Rosenthal (1903–1975), Pallottine bishop and first Bishop of Queenstown in South Africa
Paul-Werner Scheele (1928–2019), Bishop of Würzburg
Josef Schrage (1881–1953), Landrat and Member of the Landtag
Joseph Schrage (1818–1892), Wisconsin businessman and public official
Sigmar Solbach (born 1946), actor
Helmut Stahl (born 1947), politician (CDU)
Hermann Tilke (born 1951), architect
Famous people connected with the town
Johann Nikolaus Düringer (c. 1700–1756), sculptor
Wilhelm Marx (1851–1924), Chief Mayor of Düsseldorf (buried in Olpe)
Theodor Mietens (1804–1885), printer and cofounder of the Evangelical parish in Olpe
Herbert Straube (1904–1977), celebrity entrepreneur in the postwar years
Otto Müller (1870–1944), priest and resistance fighter in National Socialist times
Lorenz Jaeger (1892–1975), Cardinal
Hans Krüger (1902–1971), Minister for Displaced Persons in the Erhardt Cabinet
Gerhard Schneider (born 1938), collector of degenerate art
Gerd vom Bruch (born 1941), former trainer for Spvg. Olpe (1972–1976)
Further reading
Westfälischer Städteatlas; Band: VIII; 3 Teilband. Im Auftrage der Historischen Kommission für Westfalen und mit Unterstützung des Landschaftsverbandes Westfalen-Lippe, published by the late Heinz Stoob and Wilfried Ehbrecht. Stadtmappe Olpe, Author: Manfred Wolf, ; Dortmund-Altenbeken 2004.
Gretel Kemper: Olpe, Stadt und Land; published by the Heimatverein für Olpe und Umgebung, publishing house: Die Wiehlandschmiede, , Olpe
References
External links
Siegener Zeitung (Newspaper)
Westfälische Rundschau (Newspaper)
Westfalenpost (Newspaper)
The Sisters of Saint Francis of Perpetual Adoration
Olpe (district) |
4109452 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kirchhundem | Kirchhundem | Kirchhundem is a German community in North Rhine-Westphalia. It belongs to the Olpe district.
Geography
Location
The community of Kirchhundem lies in the Olpe district's southeast in the south Sauerland and belongs to the so-called Bilsteiner Bergland (mountain region). The Kirchhundem rural areas also include, in the east, the West (Rüsper) Rothaar and part of the Auer Ederbergland, in the south the Brachthäuser Hohe Waldberge (all mountain ranges), in the west the Rahrbacher Mulde (basin) and in the north the Hundemgrund. The crest of the Rothaar forms a watershed between the Rhine and the Sieg. The community's highest elevation can be found here, the Hohe Hessel at 743 m. The Kirchhundem area is drained by the Hundem, which rises near Oberhundem and flows northwest to the Lenne. The Hundem is fed from the south by the Heinsberger Bach – also known as the Albaumer Bach (Bach is German for "brook") – whose mouth is near Würdinghausen, the brook variously known as the Brachthauser-, Wirmer- or Flaperbach and the Olpe, whose mouth is in Kirchhundem. The Silberger Bach empties into the Olpe near Heidschott. The Rüspe area east of the Rothaar crest is drained by streams flowing to the Eder.
Kirchhundem is roughly 20 km east of Olpe and 25 km north of Siegen.
Municipal area’s extent
Kirchhundem, with an area of 147.9 km², is the Olpe district's biggest municipality by land area. It stretches for 12 km from north to south and 22 km from east to west.
Neighbouring communities
The community of Kirchhundem lies in the east of the district area. It borders in the west and north on the towns of Olpe and Lennestadt and in the far northeast on the town of Schmallenberg in the Hochsauerlandkreis. In the east and south, the towns of Bad Berleburg, Erndtebrück, Hilchenbach and Kreuztal, all lying in Siegen-Wittgenstein district, also abut Kirchhundem.
Municipal limit
The community's southern limit with the neighbouring district of Siegen-Wittgenstein has more than one function: in the east, it is the watershed between the Rhine and Weser and in the west between the Sieg and Ruhr. It is also a dialectal boundary, with Franconian speech heard to the south and Saxon to the north, and a religious boundary, with areas to the south traditionally Evangelical and those to the north Catholic. Historically it was also the border between the Duchy of Westphalia, a possession of the Electorate of Cologne in the north, and the Principality of Nassau-Siegen and the County of Wittgenstein-Berleburg in the south. This time is still witnessed by many historic border stones and old fortification walls known to people in the victorious lands as the Kölsches Heck (roughly "Cologne Hedge").
Constituent communities
The community of Kirchhundem consists of the following centres:
Climate
Yearly precipitation averages between 900 and 1 300 mm while the average temperature for the year as a whole ranges between 6 and 8 °C.
History
Up until roughly the 8th century, thick broadleaf forests blanketed what is now Kirchhundem's municipal area. Beeches dominated the hills and slopes while oaks, elms, maples and other kinds of trees held sway in the dales.
The first people are believed to have settled in the area of the Altes Feld ("Old Field") near Kirchhundem and in the Olpe Valley. About the 9th century they began clearing and settling activities, which lasted until the 13th century.
The Hundem area's – "curia nomine homede" – first documentary mention might be the one found in one of Emperor Frederick I's documents from the year 1153. This attribution, however, is as much disputed as the other documents. The oldest undisputed reference is a document from the Kirchhundem parish archive from the year 1249, in which the conditions are laid out whereby Vogt (roughly "reeve") Widekind of Hundem (a mediaeval name for Kirchhundem's main centre) was to allow his people and others to make the Margaretenaltar at Hundem their own.
As a second centre, Würdinghausen was mentioned in 1270. Only nine years later, so were Bettinghusen (Bettinghof), Böminghausen, Emlinghausen and Flape. In the two centuries that followed, almost all the centres that now make up today's community were mentioned in documents. Furthermore, many other centres are named that have since been forsaken.
At its beginnings, the area was held by the Noble Lords of Gevore-Bilstein. Johann II von Bilstein relinquished his lordly claim to Count Gottfried IV of Arnsberg in 1350. After Johann's death in 1363, however, Gottfried could not assert his claim to the land of Bilstein and it fell to Count Engelbert III von der Mark. As a result of the Soest Feud, the land of Bilstein, and thereby also the area that is now the community of Kirchhundem, ended up in the ownership of the Archbishop of Cologne in 1445. The area was held by the Electorate of Cologne right up until 1802-1803, its overlordship ending only with Secularization. The former Duchy of Westphalia passed to the Landgrave at Hesse-Darmstadt. He introduced, through many reforms after 350 years of church control, the end of the Middle Ages in the southern Sauerland. After Napoleon's abdication, Grand Duke Ludwig I also had to relinquish his holdings in Prussia, which he had only acquired a few years earlier. The area was incorporated into the newly formed Prussian Province of Westphalia. Under Prussian governance, other reforms were implemented. Among other things, the Amt of Kirchhundem, the current community's forerunner, was brought into being in the course of the introduction of the Landgemeindeordnung ("Rural Community Ordinance") in 1843.
The community of Kirchhundem in its current form came into being on 1 July 1969 on the occasion of municipal reforms. Kirchhundem was assigned areas formerly belonging to the communities of Heinsberg, Kohlhagen and Oberhundem in the old Amt of Kirchhundem, parts of the former community of Kirchhundem and the community of Rahrbach (excepting the villages of Fahlenscheid and Benolpe), formerly belonging to the Amt of Bilstein.
Religion
Owing to its long historical connection with possessions of the Archbishop of Cologne, the community of Kirchhundem is overwhelmingly Catholic in character. Although it is right near the overwhelmingly Evangelical Siegerland, there were only a few Evangelical inhabitants here in the past. A considerable mix of the two denominations came about only through the population shifts that resulted from the Second World War.
Catholic
Within the municipal area are twelve Catholic parishes (Albaum, Benolpe, Heinsberg, Hofolpe, Kirchhundem, Kohlhagen, Marmecke, Oberhundem, Rahrbach, Silberg, Welschen-Ennest and Würdinghausen). The oldest parishes in Kirchhundem, Oberhundem and Rahrbach, have existed since at least the 13th century. Two parishes split away from the parish of Kirchhundem in the 17th century to form separate parishes: Heinsberg (1628) and Kohlhagen (1655).
Owing to a dearth of priests and money over the last few years, it has been impossible to fill some ecclesiastical posts. Instead, the Church has organized groups of parishes into clusters called Pastoralverbunde, each overseen by several priests. The parishes of Albaum, Heinsberg, Hofolpe, Kirchhundem, Marmecke, Oberhundem and Würdinghausen form one such cluster, named the Pastoralverbund Hundemtal and another such cluster is made up of the parishes of Benolpe, Kohlhagen, Rahrbach, Silberg and Welschen-Ennest and named the Pastoralverbund Am Cölschen Heck.
Evangelical
The greater part of the Evangelical parishioners within Kirchhundem's municipal area are served by the parish of Lennestadt-Kirchhundem while a smaller number are served by the parish of Krombach. In Würdinghausen stands the Emmauskirche, Kirchhundem's only Evangelical church.
Politics
Municipal council
Mayor
The current mayor is Björn Jarosz (CDU), elected in September 2020.
Mayors of the BürgermeistereiThe “Bürgermeisterei” was an old Prussian arrangement whereby several municipalities would have the same government-appointed mayor. and of the Amt of Kirchhundem
1829–1830: Schwermer (Heinsberg)
1830–1851: Johann Adam Engelbert Sommer (Kirchhundem)
1851–1859: Haverkamp (Würdinghausen)
1859–1872: Engelbert Brüning (Vasbach)
1872–1902: Friedrich Brüning (Vasbach)
1902–1912: Clemens Statzner
1912–1931: Johann Henken
1931–1934: Dr. Adolf Marx (on leave by 1933)
1934–1945: Dr. Siegfried Hucke (as of 1942 called into the forces)
1942–1943: Wurm (Wenden) commissary
1943-1945: Fritz Contzen (Attendorn) commissary
1945–1945: Josef Schmidt (Altenhundem)
In 1946 came the separation of administration (Amtsdirektor) and representation (Bürgermeister, or mayor).
Honorary Amtsbürgermeister
1946–1946: Bernhard Oppenheim (Kirchhundem)
1946–1948: Dr. Wilhelm Deitmer (Saalhausen)
1948–1961: Johann Stangier (Altenhundem)
1961–1969: Karl Nöcker (Altenhundem, later Selbecke)
Amtsdirektoren
1947–1961: Ernst Großheim
1961–1969: Franz-Josef Hackmann
In 1969, the Amt of Kirchhundem was dissolved. Great parts of the Amt area passed to the newly created community of Kirchhundem. At the same time, the official nomenclature changed.
Honorary Mayors
1969–1994: Karl-Josef Luster-Haggeney
1994–1999: Elmar Greiten
Community Directors
1969–1982: Franz-Josef Hackmann
1982–1992: Rudolf Lange
1993–1999: Hans-Adolf Bender
Mayors
1999–2004: Elmar Greiten
2004–2013: Michael Grobbel
2014–2020: Andreas Reinery
2020–incumbent: Björn Jarosz
Coat of arms
The municipal arms were conferred on the community of Kirchhundem on 24 February 1972, and they are those formerly borne by the old Amt of Kirchhundem. The billets (small rectangles) are an historical reference; they were taken from the coat of arms borne by the Knights of Hundem. The hart’s antlers refer to the wealth of red deer in the Kirchhundem area. The Wolfsangel symbolizes the community’s agricultural character.
Town partnerships
Since 1989 there has been a partnership arrangement with the French town of Houplines. The partner community lies in the northeast of France near Lille. Contacts between Kirchhundem and Houplines take place mainly at the club level. On the occasion of a visit by members of the Kirchhundem municipal council to Houplines in November 2006, a new housing estate there called the Résidence Kirchhundem was dedicated by both communities’ mayors. To strengthen the town partnership, the club Freunde von Houplines ("Friends of Houplines") has been founded.
Culture and sightseeing
Kirchhundem offers, with its location on the Rothaarsteig trail, which runs from Brilon to Dillenburg, recreational activity that is especially interesting for hikers. As well, there is another trail, the Kirchhundemer Rundwanderweg running for roughly 90 km along the municipal limits. A favourite hiking destination is the Rhein-Weser-Turm (tower) near Oberhundem, from which there are good views over the southern Sauerland.
Also in Oberhundem are found the Schloss Adolfsburg, a Baroque residential castle with a moat, and the amusement park Panorama-Park Sauerland, which is even open in the winter. Entrance to the wilderness park area is then free.
Conservation
The Biologische Station Initiative Oberhundem e.V. occupies itself with conservation. It supports schools, holds exhibitions and acts as adviser in the remodelling of the spa gardens.
Theatre
The Theaterverein Oberhundem, an amateur theatrical troupe, presents a folk play every year at Christmastime at the village community hall (Dorfgemeinschaftshalle) in Oberhundem.
The community of Kirchhundem lies within the area served by the Kulturgemeinde Hundem-Lenne e. V. ("Cultural Community") which customarily offers high-class theatre and concert programmes at the educational centre (pädagogisches Zentrum) in Lennestadt-Meggen.
Museums
The Steinacker family's Oberhundem Embroidery Museum presents embroidery works from several centuries in the historical surroundings of a more than 300-year-old timber frame house. Address: Stickereimuseum Oberhundem, Rüsper Straße 1, 57399 Kirchhundem.
Music
Choirs
Music clubs
Modern music groups
And Bob's y'r uncle – rock, Wirme
Horizont – new spiritual, Welschen Ennest
Wild bunch – country, Benolpe
Naturtrüb - rock, Rahrbach/Welschen Ennest
Social Distrust – punk, Flape
Dirty Pins – bam bam rock, Flape
Historic organs
Brachthausen, Nikolaus-Kapelle, historic ranks of pipes, likely from the 17th century. Although it is unexplained where they came from, they might be from Düren in the Rhineland.
Kirchhundem, Pfarrkirche St. Peter und Paul, Baroque organ from 1701 by the Bielefeld organ builder Peter Henrich Varenholt. Considerable changes made in 1814 by Christian Roetzel. Stately Baroque housing by cabinetmaker Johann Viegener from Netphen with carving by sculptor Johann Sasse, Attendorn. As well, the church owns an organ from the firm Feith, Paderborn from 1940 made to imitate those of the Late Romantic period in Germany.
Kohlhagen, Pfarr- und Wallfahrtskirche St. Mariae Heimsuchung, Baroque organ from 1745, probably by Johann Heinrich Kleine from Eckenhagen. At the turn of the 19th century the organ's whole aspect was changed and the console, once built onto the back of the housing, was moved to the short side on the north end. The addition of a further windchest was likely done at the same time.
Oberhundem, Pfarrkirche St. Lambertus, Renaissance organ, built in 1650 for the parish church in Stockum coming in 1811 to Oberhundem. The organ has undergone many changes, such as the one in 1772 when the windchest was expanded to 49 tones by organ builder Gerhard Nohl, and another in 1811 which saw a further five-tone windchest and an independent four-rank pedalboard. In 1907 a far-reaching overhaul of the organ's aspect was done by Gerhard Peekel from Hagen as well as the installation of a four-rank addition with pneumatic tracker action.
Rahrbach, Pfarrkirche St. Dionysius, Baroque organ by organ builder Ruhm from 1700/1701. In 1835 came a thorough overhaul by Christian Roetzel that removed or rearranged one rank. He also moved the console to the instrument's south end. After many changes, the most serious of which was undertaken by the Kemper firm of Lübeck in 1953, there came in 1992 a thorough restoration bearing in mind that there were historic and monumental considerations to be observed in the work.
Buildings
Currently, 97 buildings in Kirchhundem are on the community's monument list (Denkmalliste), among them the parish churches in the centres of Albaum, Benolpe, Heinsberg, Kirchhundem, Kohlhagen, Oberhundem, Rahrbach and Welschen Ennest as well as the chapels in Brachthausen, Emlinghausen, Kruberg and Selbecke. The private chapel on the Vasbach estate near Kirchhundem is likewise listed. One of the most outstanding monumental building works is the Adolfsburg, a residential castle built in the 1670s, near Oberhundem. Important buildings in the community of Kirchhundem are the art nouveau town hall built between 1903 and 1905 and the many timber-frame houses in the community's various centres. The Heitmickeviadukt in Kirchhundem, the Kirchhundem-Flape railway station reception building, the aqueduct in the Krenkel Valley near Heinsberg and the portals of the Heinsberger Tunnel are witnesses to the old Altenhundem–Birkelbach Railway, most of which ran through Kirchhundem's current municipal area. The community's hallmark is the Rhein-Weser-Turm, an observation tower built in 1932 to afford views of the Rhine-Weser watershed.
Kirche St. Peter und Paul
As the oldest parish in the eastern part of the lordly domain of Bilstein, having split away from the mother parish of Wormbach, "Hundem’s" own church, the Church of Saints Peter and Paul, is known to history as far back as 1261. Of the forerunner building, all that still stands now is two bays and the tower's foundation, which according to cornerstones were built in 1340 and 1470. The old organ with its carving work comes from the years 1701/02 from the Sasse sculpture studio in Attendorn. Today's Late Gothic parish church was built between 1915 and 1917 by Prof. Joseph Buchkremer during the First World War crosswise to the old Romanesque church. The old church had three naves each with four bays. The south nave's west bay had two floors and a groin vault.
Further reading (churches)
Overmann, Anton, 1940, Teil II, Die kirchlichen Baudenkmäler des Kreises Olpe
Dehio/Gall, 1935, Erster Band, Handbuch der Deutschen Kunstdenkmäler in Niedersachsen und Westfalen
Ludorf, Bau- und Kunstdenkmäler des Kreises Olpe
Breer und Höffer, 1999, Kirchen und Kapellen in Attendorn. Lennestadt, Kirchhundem
Parks
The community of Kirchhundem lies in the Ebbegebirge and Rothaargebirge nature parks.
Conservation areas
The following areas in the community of Kirchhundem are set aside as conservation areas (Naturschutzgebiete): Albaumer Klippen, Danzplatz, Dollenbruch, Haberg, Hardt, Kihlenberg, Krähenpfuhl, Krenkeltal, Schwarzbachtal, Sellenbruch, Stelborner Klippen, Vorspanneiche and Teufelsbruch.
Most of these conservation areas are made up of juniper heathlands. The Sellenbruch conservation area, on the other hand, also harbours widespread royal fern growth. Some of the areas mentioned above were given conservation area status under initiatives by Wilhelm Münker (1874-1970) from Hilchenbach. At the Albaumer Klippen (cliffs), which are composed of silicate, is found crevice vegetation that has been deemed worthy of protection, surrounded by mixed forests on the slopes full of ravines and oaktrees. The Stelborner Klippen are only moderately shaded silicate cliffs made up of cinder and crystal tuffs with crevice vegetation and partly beech and oak forests growing on scree.
Sport
For various sporting activities, a great number of sport clubs have been founded.
Artificial turf fields have been built in Albaum, Brachthausen, Heinsberg, Kirchhundem, Oberhundem and Rahrbach. Gymnasia exist at the Gemeinschaftshauptschule Kirchhundem (triple gymnasium) and at primary schools in Heinsberg, Kirchhundem, Oberhundem and Welschen Ennest. Also, the TuS Silberg-Varste e. V. (gymnastic and sport club) has a gymnasium in Silberg. There is an athletics facility at the Gemeinschaftshauptschule Kirchhundem. The TC Rot-Weiß Kirchhundem (tennis club) owns tennis courts.
Regular events
Among the community's regular events are the shooting festivals held in all the bigger centres each year.
In Kirchhundem-Silberg, each year on 1 May, the Großer Preis von Silbergstone ("Grand Prix of Silbergstone"). This event is the origin of what is now the Europe-wide pastime of Bobbycar racing.
Economy and infrastructure
Transport
With the Kirchhundem and Welschen Ennest stations, Kirchhundem lies on the Ruhr-Sieg railway, which runs between Hagen and Siegen. Furthermore, buslines of the Verkehrsbetriebe Westfalen-Süd (VWS, "Westphalia-South Transport Services") and Busverkehr Ruhr-Sieg (BRS, "Ruhr-Sieg Bus Transport") run to Lennestadt, Olpe and Hilchenbach.
Bundesstraße 517 runs through the community.
Media
The Westfalenpost and the Westfälische Rundschau appear in Kirchhundem as daily newspapers. As well, the advertising sheets Sauerlandkurier and Sauerländer Wochenanzeiger come out on Wednesdays and Sundays.
Kirchhundem belongs to the Westdeutscher Rundfunk Siegen studio area. News from the South Sauerland is broadcast on WDR 2 and in local broadcasts on WDR Fernsehen.
Public institutions
Albaum is the seat of the Landesanstalt für Ökologie, Bodenordnung und Forsten NRW ("North Rhine-Westphalia State Institute for Ecology, Land Division and Forests"), fishery and waterway ecology department.
Businesses
balcom electronic GmbH, electrical articles
Bals Elektrotechnik GmbH & Co. KG, electrical articles
Egon Behle GmbH & Co. KG, building company
Gebr. Grünewald GmbH und Co. KG, papermaking
Mennekes Elektrotechnik GmbH und Co. KG, electrical articles
Straßen- und Tiefbau GmbH
DURA Automotive in Selbecke, vehicle supplier
Education
Kindergartens and daycare
Kindergarten "Kleine Strolche", Brachthausen
Kindergarten "Wilma's Kuckucksnest" Heinsberg
Kath. Kindergarten Hofolpe
Kath. Kindergarten, Kirchhundem
Kath. Kindergarten, Oberhundem
Kath. Kindergarten, Welschen Ennest
Montessori-Kinderhaus, Schwerpunkteinrichtung für Integration, Welschen Ennest
Kindergarten "Rappelkiste", Würdinghausen
Primary schools
St. Nikolaus, Brachthausen
St. Katharina, Heinsberg
St. Christophorus, Kirchhundem (open, all-day school)
St. Lambertus, Oberhundem
St. Johannes, Welschen Ennest
Gemeinschaftsgrundschule, Würdinghausen
Hauptschulen
Gemeinschaftshauptschule, Kirchhundem
Realschulen and Gymnasien
The community of Kirchhundem has no Realschulen or Gymnasien at its disposal. Instead, students must go to the ones in neighbouring Lennestadt and Olpe.
Post-secondary
Kirchhundem lies in the feeder area of the University of Siegen.
Music school
Musikschule Lennestadt-Kirchhundem
Educational institutions
Institut für Lernen & Entwicklung. development of talents, attention training, creative learning. Dr. Judith Pasquale, Schlerreweg 1, Brachthausen.
Josef-Gockeln-Haus der KAB, Josef-Gockeln-Str. 23, Rahrbach
Jugendbildungsstätte Benolpe, Zur Nothelle 23, Benolpe
Studienhaus Rüspe, Rüspe
Youth clubs
Kleine offene Tür in Kirchhundem
Jugendtreff der kath. Kirchengemeinde St. Peter und Paul, Kirchhundem
Jugendtreff "Blue Ocean", Brachthausen (Catholic parish St. Mariae Heimsuchung Kohlhagen)
Jugendtreff der kath. Kirchengemeinde Heinsberg
Jugendtreff der evangelichen Kirchengemeinde Lennestadt-Kirchhundem, Würdinghausen
Katholische Landjugendbewegung (KLJB), Welschen Ennest
Homes for the aged
Alten- und Pflegeheim Haus Sauerland, Ortsteil Kirchhundem
Seniorenheim Bremm'sche Stiftung, Ortsteil Silberg
Famous people
Honorary citizens
Paul Josef Kardinal Cordes (born 5 September 1934 in Kirchhundem, main centre) is a Cardinal in the Roman Catholic Church, President of the papal council Cor Unum and is said to be one of the founding fathers of World Youth Day. On 24 November 2007 Pope Benedict XVI appointed him Cardinal Deacon with the titular diaconia of San Lorenzo in Piscibus in the College of Cardinals. Since 13 December 2007, Paul Josef Cardinal Cordes has been an honorary citizen of the community of Kirchhundem.
Josef Schmelzer (born 30 July 1876 in Oberhundem; died 8 October 1962 in Oberhundem), known in his hometown simply as Tiennes Papa, was member of the Prussian Landtag (1920–1933), from September 1930 to July 1932 member of the German Reichstag for the Centre Party (Germany) and Member of the Landtag (1946–1950). He worked on the so-called Lex Schmelzer as part of the reforms to the dissolution of the Fideikommiss (an old fee tail law in Germany) and was a tireless promoter for development in the mountainous regions. He was also the initiator behind the building of the Rhein-Weser-Turm.
Dr. Dr. h. c. Wilhelm Arnoldi (born 30 December 1884 in Siegen; died 18 April 1965 in Altenhundem) was a Centre Party politician and ministerial director from Altenhundem. As Prussian representative on the state board for agricultural emergency programmes, he safeguarded many local families during the Great Depression in the late 1920s, a livelihood in which he had an experimental station for birdlife conservation built near Altenhundem and also an experimental farm in what was then the community of Rahrbach. Furthermore, he was also the driving force behind the building of the viewing tower on the Hohe Bracht.
Sons and daughters of the community
Jacob von Albaum, abbot of the Grafschaft Abbey
Heinrich Bals (born 18 October 1868 in Oberalbaum; died after 1958), writer
(born about 1536 in Kirchhundem; died May 1609 in Bilstein) survived a witch trial despite heavy torture.
Paul Josef Cordes (born 5 September 1934 in Kirchhundem main centre), Cardinal
Joachim Grünewald (born 21 November 1933 in Kirchhundem), politician (CDU)
Ulla Hahn (born 30 April 1946 in Brachthausen), writer
Johannes Hatzfeld (born 14 April 1882 in Benolpe; died 5 July 1953 in Paderborn), musician
Chrysologus Heimes (born 2 April 1765 in Oberhundem; died 2 May 1835 in Reiste), organ expert
Kerstin Jürgens (born 19 December 1977), skeleton competitor
Wilhelm Liese (born 27 April 1876 in Würdinghausen; died 19 March 1956 in Paderborn), Catholic priest, writer, editor and archivist.
Benedikt Lindemann, abbot
Ina-Maria Mihályhegyi-Witthaut (born 20 March 1946 in Kirchhundem; died 5 October 1987 in Siegen), artist
Mediatrix Nies, Superior General of the Sisterhood of Olpe Franciscans
Helmut Josef Patt (born 23 July 1926 in Flape; died 11 June 2003 in Lippstadt), clergyman
Hartmut Schauerte (born 13 September 1944 in Kirchhundem), politician
Johann Friedrich Joseph Sommer (born 26 January 1793 in Kirchhundem; died 13 November 1856 in Arnsberg), lawyer
Heinrich Steinhoff (born about 1550 in Würdinghausen; died 20 October 1611), abbot of the Grafschaft Monastery
Willi Weiskirch (born 1923 in Welschen Ennest; died 1996 in Lennestadt), Wehrbeauftragter (≈ armed forces commissioner) of the German Bundestag
Petra Weschollek, biathlete
Famous people connected with the community
Johann Adolf von Fürstenberg (born 16 March 1631 in Cologne; died 15 April 1704 in Herdringen), Capitular in Münster, Hildesheim and Paderborn, Drost of the Ämter of Bilstein, Fredeburg and Waldenburg, builder of the Adolfsburg near Oberhundem.
Heinrich Luhmann (born 22 December 1890 in Hultrop, died 6 May 1978 in Hamm), writer. In his novels Wo die Wälder Wache halten ("Where the Forests Keep Watch", 1920) and Walddoktor Willibald ("Forest Doctor Willibald", 1921) Lumann describes life in fictional villages in the Rüspe Forest, which lies in today's community of Kirchhundem.
Further reading
Community
A. Ludorff: Die Bau- und Kunstdenkmäler des Kreises Olpe. Kommissions-Verlag von Ferdinand Schöningh, Verlagsbuchhandlung in Paderborn, Münster i. W. 1903
Wilhelm Liese: Geschichte der Pfarrei Kirchhundem und ihrer Tochterpfarreien Altenhundem, Heinsberg, Kohlhagen. printed as manuscript, Paderborn 1920
Otto Lucas: Das Olper Land – Arbeiten der Geographischen Kommission im Provinzialinstitut für westfälische Landes- und Volkskunde. Universitätsbuchhandlung Franz Coppenrath, Münster 1941
Albert K. Hömberg: Heimatchronik des Kreises Olpe. Archiv für Deutsche Heimatpflege, Köln 1958, 2. expanded edition 1967
Martin Vormberg: Kirchhundem in alten Ansichten. Europäische Bibliothek, Zaltbommel/NL 1983, .
Martin Vormberg: Beiträge zur Geschichte des Bergbaus im Kreis Olpe – Teil 1: Der Bergbau in der Gemeinde Kirchhundem. In: Der Oberkreisdirektor des Kreises Olpe (Hrsg.): Schriftenreihe des Kreises Olpe Nr. 11. Olpe 1985, ISSN 0177-8153
Ernst Henrichs (ed.): Die Protokollbücher des ehemaligen Amtes Kirchhundem, der zugehörigen Gemeinden und der früheren Gemeinde Rahrbach, Band 1: Die Protokollbücher von 1843–1869, publisher: Verkehrs- und Verschönerungsverein Kirchhundem 1881, Kirchhundem 1988
Ernst Henrichs (ed.): Die Protokollbücher des ehemaligen Amtes Kirchhundem, der zugehörigen Gemeinden und der früheren Gemeinde Rahrbach, Band 2: Die Protokollbücher von 1870–1899, publisher: Verkehrs- und Verschönerungsverein Kirchhundem 1881, Kirchhundem, 1989
Ernst Henrichs (ed.): Die Protokollbücher des ehemaligen Amtes Kirchhundem, der zugehörigen Gemeinden und der früheren Gemeinde Rahrbach, Band 3: Die Protokollbücher von 1900–1924, publisher: Verkehrs- und Verschönerungsverein Kirchhundem 1881, Kirchhundem 1990
Claus-Dieter Clausen: Erläuterungen zu Blatt 4914 Kirchhundem – Geologische Karte von Nordrhein-Westfalen 1:25.000. Geologisches Landesamt Nordrhein-Westfalen, Krefeld 1991
Günther Becker, Martin Vormberg: Kirchhundem – Geschichte des Amtes und der Gemeinde. Gemeindedirektor der Gemeinde Kirchhundem, Kirchhundem 1994,
Martin Vormberg: 100 Jahre Rathaus Kirchhundem. Festschrift zum Tag des offenen Denkmals am 11. September 2005. Kirchhundem 2005
Individual centres
Claus Heinemann: Ein kleines Dorf und die große Geschichte – Herrntrop im Sauerland. Hilbeck 1981
Various authors: Unser Dorf Kruberg – 1340–1990 – Beiträge zum 650-jährigen Jubiläum. published by the Dorfgemeinschaft Kruberg e. V., Kirchhundem-Kruberg 1990
Jochen Krause: Geschichten aus dem Sauerland – Ein Dorf erzählt – Würdinghausen im Hundemtal. Heike Schriever, Plettenberg, 1998,
References
External links
Olpe (district) |
4109488 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urban%20forest | Urban forest | An urban forest is a forest, or a collection of trees, that grow within a city, town or a suburb. In a wider sense, it may include any kind of woody plant vegetation growing in and around human settlements. As opposed to a forest park, whose ecosystems are also inherited from wilderness leftovers, urban forests often lack amenities like public bathrooms, paved paths, or sometimes clear borders which are distinct features of parks. Care and management of urban forests is called urban forestry. Urban forests can be privately and publicly owned. Some municipal forests may be located outside of the town or city to which they belong.
Urban forests play an important role in ecology of human habitats in many ways. Aside from the beautification of the urban environment, they offer many benefits like impacting climate and the economy while providing shelter to wildlife and recreational area for city dwellers.
Examples
In many countries there is a growing understanding of the importance of the natural ecology in urban forests. There are numerous projects underway aimed at restoration and preservation of ecosystems, ranging from simple elimination of leaf-raking and elimination of invasive plants to full-blown reintroduction of original species and riparian ecosystems.
Some sources claim that the largest man-made urban forest in the world is located in Johannesburg in South Africa. Others have disputed this claim due to satellite pictures revealing how developed the city is with roads and buildings. Johannesburg, however, is still a very densely wooded city with reportedly 6.0 million trees planted throughout streets and private lots.
Rio de Janeiro is also home to two of the vastest urban forests in the world, one of which is considered by some sources to be the largest one. Tijuca Forest is the most famous. It began as a restoration policy in 1844 to conserve the natural remnants of forest and replant in areas previously cleared for sugar and coffee. Despite the worldwide recognition of Tijuca Forest, another forest in the same city encompasses roughly three times the size of its more prominent neighbor: Pedra Branca State Park occupies 12,500 hectares (30,888 acres) of city land, against Tijuca's 3,953 hectares (9,768 acres). The larger metropolitan area encircles the forests which moderate the humid climate and provide sources of recreation for urban dwellers. Along with seven other smaller full protection conservation units in the city, they form an extensive natural area that contains the Transcarioca Trail, a 180-km footpath.
Sanjay Gandhi National Park in Mumbai, Maharashtra, India is also an example of an urban forest. It covers roughly around 20% area of the city. The forest is filled with many animals freely roaming around. It also has an important cultural site of ancient history situated in it known as the Kanheri caves.
Nebraska National Forest is the largest man-made forest in the United States located in the state of Nebraska. It lies in several counties within the state and is a popular destination for campers year-round.
Several cities within the United States have also taken initiative investing in their urban forests to improve the well-being and economies of their communities. Some notable cities among them are Austin, Atlanta, New York, Seattle, and Washington, D.C. New York, for example, has taken initiative to combat climate change by planting millions of trees around the city. In Austin, private companies are funding tree-planting campaigns for environmental and energy-saving purposes.
Environmental impact
Urban forests play an important role in benefitting the environmental conditions of their respective cities. They moderate local climate, slowing wind and stormwater, and filter air and sunlight. They are critical in cooling the urban heat island effect, thus potentially reducing the number of unhealthful ozone days that plague major cities in peak summer months.
Air pollution reduction
As cities struggle to comply with air quality standards, trees can help to clean the air. The most serious pollutants in the urban atmosphere are ozone, nitrogen oxides (NOx), sulfuric oxides (SOx) and particulate pollution. Ground-level ozone, or smog, is created by chemical reactions between NOx and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in the presence of sunlight. High temperatures increase the rate of this reaction. Vehicle emissions (especially diesel), and emissions from industrial facilities are the major sources of NOx. Vehicle emissions, industrial emissions, gasoline vapors, chemical solvents, trees and other plants are the major sources of VOCs. Particulate pollution, or particulate matter (PM10 and PM25), is made up of microscopic solids or liquid droplets that can be inhaled and retained in lung tissue causing serious health problems. Most particulate pollution begins as smoke or diesel soot and can cause serious health risk to people with heart and lung diseases and irritation to healthy citizens. Trees are an important, cost-effective solution to reducing pollution and improving air quality.
Trees reduce temperatures and smog
With an extensive and healthy urban forest air quality can be drastically improved. Trees help to lower air temperatures and the urban heat island effect in urban areas. This reduction of temperature not only lowers energy use, it also improves air quality, as the formation of ozone is dependent on temperature. Trees reduce temperature not only by directly shading: when there is a large number of trees it create a difference in temperatures between the area when they are located and the neighbor area. This creates a difference in atmospheric pressure between the two areas, which creates wind. This phenomenon is called urban breeze cycle if the forest is near the city and park breeze cycle if the forest is in the city. That wind helps to lower temperature in the city.
As temperatures climb, the formation of ozone increases.
Healthy urban forests decrease temperatures, and reduce the formation of ozone.
Large shade trees can reduce local ambient temperatures by 3 to 5 °C
Maximum mid-day temperature reductions due to trees range from 0.04 °C to 0.2 °C per 1% canopy cover increase.
In Sacramento County, California, it was estimated that doubling the canopy cover to five million trees would reduce summer temperatures by 3 degrees. This reduction in temperature would reduce peak ozone levels by as much as 7% and smoggy days by 50%.
Lower temperatures reduce emissions in parking lots
Temperature reduction from shade trees in parking lots lowers the amount of evaporative emissions from parked cars. Unshaded parking lots can be viewed as miniature heat islands, where temperatures can be even higher than surrounding areas. Tree canopies will reduce air temperatures significantly. Although the bulk of hydrocarbon emissions come from tailpipe exhaust, 16% of hydrocarbon emissions are from evaporative emissions that occur when the fuel delivery systems of parked vehicles are heated. These evaporative emissions and the exhaust emissions of the first few minutes of engine operation are sensitive to local microclimate. If cars are shaded in parking lots, evaporative emissions from fuel and volatilized plastics will be greatly reduced.
Cars parked in parking lots with 50% canopy cover emit 8% less through evaporative emissions than cars parked in parking lots with only 8% canopy cover.
Due to the positive effects trees have on reducing temperatures and evaporative emissions in parking lots, cities like Davis, California, have established parking lot ordinances that mandate 50% canopy cover over paved areas.
"Cold Start" emissions
The volatile components of asphalt pavement evaporate more slowly in shaded parking lots and streets. The shade not only reduces emissions, but reduces shrinking and cracking so that maintenance intervals can be lengthened. Less maintenance means less hot asphalt (fumes) and less heavy equipment (exhaust). The same principle applies to asphalt-based roofing.
Active pollutant removal
Trees also reduce pollution by actively removing it from the atmosphere. Leaf stomata, the pores on the leaf surface, take in polluting gases which are then absorbed by water inside the leaf. Some species of trees are more susceptible to the uptake of pollution, which can negatively affect plant growth. Ideally, trees should be selected that take in higher quantities of polluting gases and are resistant to the negative effects they can cause.
A study across the Chicago region determined that trees removed approximately 17 tonnes of carbon monoxide (CO), 93 tonnes of sulfur dioxide (SO2), 98 tonnes of nitrogen dioxide (NO2), and 210 tonnes of ozone (O3) in 1991.
Carbon sequestration
Urban forest managers are sometimes interested in the amount of carbon removed from the air and stored in their forest as wood in relation to the amount of carbon dioxide released into the atmosphere while running tree maintenance equipment powered by fossil fuels.
Interception of particulate matter
In addition to the uptake of harmful gases, trees act as filters intercepting airborne particles and reducing the amount of harmful particulate matter. The particles are captured by the surface area of the tree and its foliage. These particles temporarily rest on the surface of the tree, as they can be washed off by rainwater, blown off by high winds, or fall to the ground with a dropped leaf. Although trees are only a temporary host to particulate matter, if they did not exist, the temporarily housed particulate matter would remain airborne and harmful to humans. Increased tree cover will increase the amount of particulate matter intercepted from the air.
Large evergreen trees with dense foliage collect the most particulate matter.
The Chicago study determined that trees removed approximately 234 tonnes of particulate matter less than 10 micrometres (PM10) in 1991.
Large healthy trees greater than 75 cm in trunk diameter remove approximately 70 times more air pollution annually (1.4 kg/yr) than small healthy trees less than 10 cm in diameter (0.02 kg/yr).
Rainwater runoff reduction
Urban forests and trees help purify water sources by slowing down rain as it falls to the earth and help it soak into the soil, thereby naturally filtering out pollutants that can potentially enter water supply sources. They reduce storm water runoff and mitigate flood damage, protecting the surrounding rivers and lakes. Trees also help alleviate the load on "grey" infrastructure (such as sewers and drains) via evapotranspiration. Trees are ideally suited as their canopies can intercept water (and provide dense vegetation), whilst their roots can pump substantial amounts of water back into the atmosphere as water vapor, all with a relatively small footprint.
Urban wildlife
Trees in urban forests provide food and shelter for wildlife in cities. Birds and small mammals use trees as nesting sites, and reptiles use the shade they provide to keep cool in the hot summer months. Furthermore, trees provide shade necessary for shrubbery. Not only do urban forests protect land animals and plants, they also sustain fish and water animals that need shade and lower temperatures to survive. Wealthier neighborhoods often have more tree cover (both community-subsidized and on private property) which results in an accumulation of benefits on those sections of a city; a study of neighborhoods in Los Angeles found higher levels of bird diversity in historically richer sections of town, and larger populations of synanthropic birds in historically poorer sections of town.
Economic impacts
The economic benefits of trees and various other plants have been understood for a long time. Recently, more of these benefits are becoming quantified. Quantification of the economic benefits of trees helps justify public and private expenditures to maintain them. One of the most obvious examples of economic utility is the example of the deciduous tree planted on the south and west of a building (in the Northern Hemisphere), or north and east (in the Southern Hemisphere). The shade shelters and cools the building during the summer, but allows the sun to warm it in the winter after the leaves fall. The physical effects of trees—the shade (solar regulation), humidity control, wind control, erosion control, evaporative cooling, sound and visual screening, traffic control, pollution absorption and precipitation—all have economic benefits.
Energy and CO2 consumption
Urban forests contribute to the reduction of energy usage and CO2 emissions primarily through the indirect effects of an efficient forestry implementation. The shade provided by trees reduces the need for heating and cooling throughout the year. As a result, energy conservation is achieved which leads to a reduction of CO2 emissions by power plants. Computer models indicate that annual energy consumption can be reduced by 30 billion kWh using 100 million trees in U.S. urban areas. This energy consumption decrease equates to monetary savings of $2 billion. Additionally, the reduction of energy demand would reduce power plant CO2 emissions by 9 million tons per year.
Water filtration
The stormwater retention provided by urban forests can provide monetary savings even in arid regions where water is expensive or watering conservation is enforced. One example of this can be seen in a study carried out over 40 years in Tucson, AZ, which analyzed the savings of stormwater management costs. Over this period, it was calculated that $600,000 in stormwater treatment costs were saved. It was also observed that the net water consumption was reduced when comparing the water required for irrigation against power plant water consumption due to the effects of urban forests on energy usage.
In another instance, New York City leaders in the late 1990s chose to pursue a natural landscape management instead of an expensive water treatment system to clean the Catskill/Delaware watershed. New Yorkers today enjoy some of the healthiest drinking water in the world.
Tourism and local business expansion
The USDA Guide notes on page 17 that "Businesses flourish, people linger and shop longer, apartments and office space rent quicker, tenants stay longer, property values increase, new business and industry is attracted" by trees.
Increases in property values
Urban forests have been linked to an increase in property value surrounding residents. An empirical study from Finland showed a 4.9% increase in property valuation when located just one kilometer closer to a forest. Another source claims this increase can range as high as 20%. The reduction of air, light, and noise pollution provided by forests is cause for the notable pricing differentials.
Sociological impacts
Community health impact
Urban forests offer many benefits to their surrounding communities. Removing pollutants and greenhouse gases from the air is one key reason why cities are adopting the practice. Removing pollutants from the air, urban forests can lower risks of asthma and lung cancer. Communities that rely on well-water may also see a positive change in water purity due to filtration. The amenities provided by the city of each urban forest varies. Some amenities include trails and pathways for walking or running, picnic tables, and bathrooms. These healthy spaces provide for the community a place to gather and live a more active lifestyle.
Mental health impact
Living near urban forests have shown positive impacts on mental health. As an experimental mental health intervention in the city of Philadelphia, trash was removed from vacant lots, some of them being selectively "greened" by plantings trees, grass, and installing small fences. Residents near the "greened" lots who had incomes below the poverty line reported a 68% decrease in feelings of depression, while residents with incomes above the poverty line reported a decrease of 41%. The Biophilia hypothesis argues that people are instinctively drawn to nature, while Attention Restoration Theory goes on to demonstrate tangible improvements in medical, academic and other outcomes, from access to nature. Proper planning and community involvement are important for the positive results to be realized.
See also
Green belt found around various urban clusters
Million Tree Initiative in multiple urban areas in the world
Tree Cities of the World
Urban forestry
Urban green space
Urban reforestation
Urban forest inequity
3-30-300 Rule by Cecil Konijnendijk
References
Notes
Bibliography
Nowak, D. (2000). Tree Species Selection, Design, and Management to Improve Air Quality Construction Technology. Annual meeting proceedings of the American Society of Landscape Architects (available online, pdf file).
Nowak, D. The Effects of Urban Trees on Air Quality USDA Forest Service (available online, pdf file).
Nowak, D. (1995). Trees Pollute? A "Tree Explains It All". Proceedings of the 7th National Urban Forest Conference (available online, pdf file).
Nowak, D. (1993). Plant Chemical Emissions. Miniature Roseworld 10 (1) (available online, pdf file).
Nowak, D. & Wheeler, J. Program Assistant, ICLEI. February 2006.
McPherson, E. G. & Simpson, J. R. (2000). Reducing Air Pollution Through Urban Forestry. Proceedings of the 48th meeting of California Pest Council (available online, pdf file).
McPherson, E. G., Simpson, J. R. & Scott, K. (2002). Actualizing Microclimate and Air Quality Benefits with Parking Lot Shade Ordinances. Wetter und Leben 4: 98 (available online, pdf file).
External links
Urban Forestry South
Center for Urban Forest Research
Urban Forest Ecosystems Institute
Urban Forestry
USDA Forest Service Northeastern Area
Environmental design
Forestry and the environment |
4109505 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solstice%20Cyclists | Solstice Cyclists | The Solstice Cyclists (also known as The Painted [Naked] Cyclists of the Solstice Parade, or The Painted Cyclists) is an artistic, non-political, clothing-optional bike ride celebrating the summer solstice. It is the unofficial start of the Summer Solstice Parade & Pageant, an event produced by the Fremont Arts Council in the Fremont district of Seattle.
The event was started by streakers who crashed the parade. The first people to do so were a small group of friends and roommates from the adjacent (Wallingford) neighborhood, several of whom were bicycle couriers by trade. Participants now emphasize bodypainting and other artistry. The group is the largest and fastest growing ensemble associated with the parade. The parade, put on by Fremont Arts Council, is held on a Saturday close to the actual solstice.
Art bikes are common and cycles include BMX bikes, cycle rickshaws, unicycles, clown bicycles, tall bikes, lowrider bicycles, tandem bicycles and tricycles. People come from all over the country to ride. Full and partial (especially topfree) nudity is popular, but not mandatory.
While cyclists open the parade, they are not in the parade line-up (except in 2003 when they had a float). Parade rules say "any printed communications, written words, recognizable logos, signage, leaf-letting, or advertising in any form are prohibited on the parade route."
Recent events include a pre-ride bodypainting party, a party ride through the city, and the parade itself at noon.
Controversy
2001 and subsequent years were controversial for the naked cyclists, including references to them as "parade crashers". In 2001, police and organizers posted laws against indecent exposure to warn of possible prosecution. Organizers claimed cyclists were getting in the way of the event's artistic freedom.
"Here in the self-anointed center of the universe, where the Waiting for the Interurban sculptures wear more clothing than the nude cyclists who grace the annual Solstice Parade, high-tech is moving in."
"Meanwhile, Hadrann says the scent of rebellion is in the air in Fremont - or maybe it's just another rumor. 'Some people in the community are going to get nude if he (Sidran) starts arresting the cyclists,' he says. ... 'First, there was 50, now there's like 100 people. . . . Who knows what kind of chain reaction this is going to bring.'" This article also includes Seattle Police Department Lt. Mark Kuehn's suggestions for safety for nude cyclists such as: "Refrain from trying out saddles in the nude, for obvious sanitary reasons. Hadrann suggests shoppers take along a few pairs of Chinese disposable underwear (made of paper) for saddle-buying expeditions."
"The council decided this week against posting 'no nudity' signs for the neighborhood's arts parade, where two men were arrested for naked bike riding last year. Police had asked that the signs be posted for this year's parade, set for Saturday. ...Council President Bradley Erhlich said the public nudity might be a form of artistic expression. ... 'If it is art, then the Arts Council should support them,' Erhlich said. ... Crowds booed when last year's naked riders were arrested and handcuffed."
2000
In the nude cyclists' ninth year, bodypainting artist Steven Bradford joined the bodypainting team and assisted in transforming 4 women into Fire, Earth, Air, and Water at the painting party at Fire's home.
2001
In 2001, according to The Seattle Times, there were 50 cyclists, mostly in bodypaint. To the amusement of many, this year an artist had a painting in the parade showing a naked female bicyclist next to a baton-wielding police officer. The pose itself could have either shown the apprehension or the cop gleefully stopping for a picture next to the bicyclist. The panel was put on a small platform on wheels and parade goers were invited to have their pictures taken with their heads poking out of the holes of the naked bicyclists and the officer.
In 2001, the city threatened to withdraw the event permit for the Fremont Arts Council because of the nudity. Signs were actually made warning naked cyclists that they may be subject to arrest. The city ended up backing off before the event day. Fremont Arts Council parade organizers urged riders to participate within the artistic spirit of the event. Many locals were very upset that the city would threaten to arrest one of the parade's most popular and creative ensembles. The blowback effect, as predicted by Seattle City Council Chair Nick Licata, ended up being more publicity and popularity for the cyclists which, in turn, led to more cyclists wanting to join the ensemble.
In efforts to combat this effect, the Seattle City Council was invited by the Fremont Arts Council to participate in the parade. Nick Licata was the only one who agreed and ended up cycling through as the "un-naked cyclist". After jeers of "Take your clothes off" he was met by a parade monitor who told him to get off the parade route, stating "Yeh? We still don't have bike riding in the parade. If one person rides then others will and then the whole parade will have bikes riding all over the place." Licata later lamented in a Seattle Times article, "I was waving to the photographer - smack in the middle of a pack of painted, naked bicyclists."
"There was no better illustration of the fair's quirkiness than in its parade - with its wild costumes, floats and giant puppets - and nude bicyclists, which led to a flap over the permit for this year's parade. ... Before the city issued this year's parade permit, police said they have gotten numerous complaints about the nude cyclists every year. They asked the Fremont Arts Council to post signs along the parade route warning cyclists, who are not a sanctioned part of the parade, about laws against indecent exposure. The council said no, even though members discouraged the nudity. ... In 1998, two bikers in the buff were arrested. None were arrested this year."
2002
"What solstice is complete without nude cyclists? To get your annual fix, see the Fremont Summer Solstice Parade and Fair on Saturday and Sunday."
"As has been the tradition, a number of unauthorized naked bicycle riders start the parade. Last year there were 50 — most in body paint."
2003
2003 marked the twelfth year of naked cyclists taking part in the Solstice Parade. The parade took place on June 21, 2003. Numbers quadrupled from previous years to between 75 and 80 riders. An internet discussion forum was established for the first time. The bodypainting party took place at the host's house in the Ravenna neighborhood, with a photo shoot at Cowen Park. The procession then began south through the University District on Roosevelt and then on 45th through Wallingford to Phinney Ridge. This is also the first year that the cyclists were officially part of the parade with their Helios-themed float, which several cyclists (partially dressed) climbed aboard after they cycled through the parade. The float featured wispy clouds and gold-painted "chariot" exercise bikes to evoke a sense of pulling the sun through the summer. Ironically, toward the end of the parade, and despite all the "Happy Solstice" chants, the sky clouded over and it began to rain. Two digital video films were produced from footage of this year's event. One is called Naked & Painted: The Fremont Solstice Riders 2003 and is sold to friends and future potential riders with proceeds going to a local charity. The other video was called Solstice: A Celebration of the Art of Bodypainting produced by James W. Taylor/Circle Rock Productions and premiered at Naked Freedom Film Festival , held at the Seattle Art Museum on May 15, 2004. Unusually cool weather this year resulting in a number of weather-themed paint jobs.
Also in 2003, much publicity was focused on David Zaitzeff's determination to walk naked through the Solstice Parade. Zaitzeff sued Seattle police Chief Gil Kerlikowske in a federal lawsuit because he "desires to go nude at the Fremont Solstice Parade without fear of unjust arrest". U.S. District Judge Robert Lasnik said that because Zaitzeff had not been arrested for indecent exposure, the court couldn't make a prospective ruling on the matter.
Much later in the year there was a suggestion to have the group become part of a larger international naked bike ride, later known as the World Naked Bike Ride (WNBR). The idea was unpopular because the Solstice Parade, unlike WNBR, is a non-political arts event. Secondary reasons for not liking the idea included that WNBR would not be as spontaneous of an event and some may not be as inclined to participate in an artistic way.
2004
The parade took place on June 19, 2004. About 116 cyclists participated, setting a new record. The main group started to ride from the pre-parade bodypainting party at the old Segway building in Ballard. (The building was later demolished to make way for Ballard Civic Center Park.) The ride proceeded down NW Market Street to Leary Way to the parade. The cyclists did not have a float in the parade in 2004, but there were more elaborate art installations on bikes. 2004 also marked the beginning of the Synchronised Cycling Drill Team within the group. The year's theme was Noah's Ark animals. One of the cyclists provided rides to children along the parade route in her cycle rickshaw.
A week prior to the event, on June 12, was the first annual World Naked Bike Ride Seattle event and was the first time a major naked cycling event has crossed the channel into downtown Seattle. This ride featured a pre-ride bodypainting party at Gas Works Park, where the end of the painted cyclists ride traditionally took place.
2005
The parade took place on June 18, 2005. Approximately 138 cyclists leave bodypainting party on the south side of the Lake Washington Ship Canal, and once joined by those waiting at the parade, the numbers probably grew to around 160 cyclists. Part of the ride included going down the Ballard Bridge on 15th Avenue and turning again on NW Market Street. About five cyclists broke off from the group after the end of the parade ride and rode around Green Lake and came back to Fremont.
One of the big controversies in 2005 was the Fremont Arts Council excluding People Undergoing Real Experiences (PURE) (now known as Pure cirkus) from dressing "up as pirates with two people suspended on a pirate ship float from hooks in their skin" as they go through the parade. Much of the media noted that while the naked cyclists are tolerated and widely popular, this has become the new controversial area for the council.
A week later, a third painted ride, called the Body Pride Ride, was started by one of the painted cyclists, and took place for the first time in the Seattle Gay Pride Parade on Capitol Hill. A WNBR mini-ride in September marked 2005 as a record-setting year not only for the number of painted cyclists participating, but also for doubling the number of painted naked rides in Seattle to a total of four.
"If bike riders rode nude in a Los Angeles summer solstice celebration, the LAPD would shoot them dead, after a 'slow speed' chase televised on all 28 local channels."
"Really, that's just the crazy naked bicyclists who precede the parade every year. They get all the press, all the hype, all the lasting impressions. People who work on the parade openly despise them. ... The nude bikers take away from all the legitimate art that volunteers spend countless hours creating. With one exhibitional blow, months of hard work by solstice parade artists is knocked from our collective conscious."
2006
The 18th Annual Summer Solstice Parade & Pageant, on June 17, 2006, marked the 15th year that naked cyclists have participated in the parade. On March 27, 2006, the Painted Cyclists went public with a public portal website: The Painted Cyclists. KUOW-FM in Seattle did an interview for their program called Weekday with the cyclists at the Ballard neighborhood where the bodypainting party was taking place, taking up at least three residential lots. The interview was reportedly about cycling safety in Seattle. This is confirmed by several cyclists and pictures taken at the bodypainting party. The segment aired on June 22, 2006.
2007
The 19th Annual Solstice Parade took place on June 16, 2007, marking the sixteenth consecutive year the painted cyclists have ridden in the parade. 267 cyclists took to the streets at 11:45 a.m. with little or no confrontation, legal or otherwise. The annual painting party took place at a nearby residence on NW 48th Street in Ballard. For the first time, a video presented by a painted inline skater was shot at the painting party and posted to the website of The Stranger newspaper.
2008
The 20th Annual Solstice Parade took place on June 21, 2008, marking the 17th consecutive year that the painted cyclists have accompanied. Slightly fewer cyclists than in previous years rode, and tension between both the Seattle police and the Fremont Arts Council was minimal. The painting party took place this time in Belltown, meaning the cyclists had to ride a full three miles through the Seattle neighborhood of Queen Anne to get to Fremont. Painting parties were also going on independently of the main party downtown, so riders had to coordinate meeting up at a common location before entering the parade. After making a surprise entrance by entering through the crowd at the middle of the parade route, on Fremont Avenue (which had never been done before), riders were initially rerouted because of the timing of the permits. They later reentered the parade route closer to the traditional starting point and proceeded through the parade, ending the ride at Gas Works Park.
2009
The 21st Annual Solstice Parade took place on June 20, 2009, marking the 18th consecutive year of the painted cyclists. The painting party took place at Hale's Ales in Ballard, and attracted an estimated 430 cyclists, plus painters. After riding through Ballard and watching their numbers swell as riders from independent paint parties joined the group, the riders traversed the parade route in Fremont, ending once again at Gas Works Park. Media coverage included an article and video by the Seattle P-I. Ensembles included the "Stimulus Package" group, appropriate for a year of controversial economic bailouts. This year was also the first year of the Gardens Everywhere Bike Parade.
2010
The 22nd Annual Solstice Parade took place on Saturday, June 19, 2010, marking the nineteenth consecutive year of the painted (and some not-so-painted) solstice cyclists. The painting party again took place at Hale's Ales in Ballard, and attracted hundreds of cyclists, plus painters. Then they jumped on their bikes and headed to Ballard for a warm-up ride in the relatively chilly mid-50s air, surprising unsuspecting drivers and whooping it up down Market Street before returning for the noon start of the parade, where the riders completed the parade route in Fremont. An optional repeat loop-back plan through part of the route was added in 2010, designed to extend the experience for both the riders who opted for it as well as the crowd lining the streets, with a side benefit of minimizing any time gap between the end of the cyclists and the start of the parade proper. That plan met with some confusion due to communication issues with parade officials, and therefore mixed results, but riders vowed to remedy that in 2011. The cyclists ended at the now-traditional clothing-optional "victory celebration" at and around Kite Hill in Gas Works Park.
2011
The parade took place on June 18, the day before Fathers Day. The skies were overcast and the temperature was in the mid-50s with intermittent misty light rain—for the second year in a row, the third Saturday in June was unseasonably cool. But that did not deter the 600+ riders nor curb their enthusiasm. For many, the day started at the old Ballard Library building, which had been rented as the central location for body painting. Earlier in the week, plastic had been laid on the floor and taped into one big surface, then tables set out to delineate separate painting areas. Aisles were painted on the floor in orange with "Keep Clear" to keep the fire marshal happy and facilitate movement around the area; bumping into someone covered in paint leaves a mark. In the northwest corner was the film crew for Beyond Naked, a documentary about four first time riders.
The parade riders gathered in the parking lot next to the library awaiting the go-ahead for the trip through Ballard. Most participants shivered in the cold while logistics were confirmed. Then, off through Ballard, to the amazement of unsuspecting pedestrians, many whooping and hollering encouragement. From there the parade snaked through Fremont in a circuitous route, getting longer at each pass, until it finally ended at Gas Works Park.
2012
The solstice cyclists rode for the 21st consecutive year, starting out by hosting their painting party at the Old Ballard Library, on NW 57th St. and 24th Avenue (the same place as the previous year). The weather was overcast with temperatures in the 60's.
2013
After a morning paint party at a marine hangar in Seattle's Shilshole neighborhood, hundreds of cyclists and skaters rode through Ballard, pausing for a group photo at Ross Park, before entering the parade course in Fremont at 2:45 pm. For the first time in several years the weather was hot and sunny, and as a result the crowd watching the parade was especially dense, and the number of participants was much larger than in previous years, with estimates ranging from several hundred to 1000.
2015
A small group of longtime organizers once again hosted a mass paint party in the Silshole neighborhood. The organizers took a video of the painted cyclists heading out through the gate and counted well over 945 cyclists just at this paint party. En route to the parade starting point they were joined by hundreds of other painted cyclists who swelled the ranks at each passing intersection . The artistry displayed on naked riders' bodies has become more and more intricate each year with some riders bringing their own personal painters to the party. Donations were collected at the entrance and after all expenses were paid the paint party volunteers donated $4,500 to the Fremont Art Council in order to help pay the parade expenses.
2016
In the weeks prior to the parade this year there was some friction between the Fremont Arts Council, the official parade organizers, and the cyclist organizers, a non-hierarchical consensus group that comes together once a year and has no formal organization. The FAC wanted the cyclists to become official members of the parade and under their control. The cyclist group are basically anarchists in the way they operate and refused. They agreed to disagree and things went on as usual with close cooperation between the two groups.
The numbers dwindled this year as the day dawned cold and damp. A seasoned group of 10 volunteers once again opened the gates to the large, group paint party at a private marina in the 4100 block of Shilshole Ave. N.W. At an entry portal donations were taken and only people who were cyclists to be painted or their painters were allowed to enter. Over several hours 600 clothed cyclists entered and at noon 600 cold (but exuberant) painted naked cyclists exited. The group rode through the Ballard neighborhood and then on to the Fremont Solstice Parade route where they were joined by approximately 100 more painted cyclists from private paint parties. After subtracting expenses, the organized paint party group was able to donate $2,000 to the Fremont Arts Council to help defray the parade costs the following spring.
2019
The warm and sunny weather brought over 700 people to the main cyclist paint party this year. As in past years, the painted, naked (mostly) cyclists filed out of the boat marina in the Ballard neighborhood and did a ride through the streets of the Ballard neighborhood. As the riders entered the parade route, prior to the start of the actual parade, they were not allowed to circulate on the route as had been arranged beforehand with the official Fremont Solstice Parade organizers. Instead they were forced to ride straight through the route with no slow looping back as had become the custom and agreed upon pattern for many years. This left the artists who had spent hours painting, and those who had come to view the parade and the cyclists with a less than satisfactory experience. The alliance between the free-spirited biking artists and the Fremont Arts Council who holds the permit for the actual parade is rapidly fraying at the edges and the outcome remains to be seen. The cyclist paint party group donated $4,000 to the Fremont Arts Council to help toward the cost of the parade.
2020 and 2021
There was no parade either year due to COVID-19, but a small group of cyclists met up at Gasworks Park and rode through the city.
See also
References
External links
Recurring events established in 1992
Culture of Seattle
Festivals in Seattle
Fremont, Seattle
Naked cycling events
Pacific Northwest art
Clothing-optional events
Unofficial observances
1992 establishments in Washington (state)
Summer solstice |
4109690 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formosa%2C%20Goi%C3%A1s | Formosa, Goiás | Formosa is a municipality located in the state of Goiás, Brazil, approximately 80 kilometers northeast of Brasília. The population was 123,684 (estimation 2020) in a total area of 5,813.637 km2. Formosa is known for its waterfalls and natural environment. It is a large producer of cattle and grains and is one of the fastest-growing cities in the state.
History
Arraial dos Couros was the first name of Formosa, which was founded in the second half of the eighteenth century on an uncertain date. For lack of documentation the early history is fragmented and historians can only speculate about the real facts.
What is known is that problems connected to the area of health were the motive for the transfer of the old settlement which was founded and built by black slaves, located on the banks of the Itiquira River and the Paranã in the tropical Paranã valley. At the time a devastating fever swept the place, probably caused by the unhealthy climate of the river location, and the population was afflicted by a degenerative malaria. For fear of getting the disease the move was made very quickly.
Even today it is not known who was responsible for the move or the date in which it occurred. The historians register the existence of a new settlement called Couros. It is believed that the name Arraial dos Couros comes from the improvised houses which were covered with the leather of the loads of the tradesmen. The first huts were set up in the old Street of the Crioulos which has been transformed into the present-day Alves de Castro Street. Another theory is that the name could have come from the existence in the site of an artisan who made saddlebags and rawhides for transporting small loads such as hard molasses, salt, rice and other food items.
On August 1, 1843, the settlement was elevated to the category of Vila (town), and received the name of Vila Formosa da Imperatriz, chosen for the beauty of the area and to pay homage to the Empress Teresa Cristina.
The municipality of Formosa was only created on February 22, 1844.
Other important dates are:
1910 - founding of Colégio São José, the Catholic school
1913 - the weather station was established
1920 - arrival of the first automobile in Formosa
1926 - arrival of the first airplane
1928 - inauguration of the telegraph
1932 - the first electric light
1943 - the first Agro-Pecuária (Agro-Cattle) Fair
1960 - the first public telephone
Geography
Formosa belongs to the micro-region called Entorno do Distrito Federal, which is composed of 20 municipalities with 960,000 inhabitants in a total area of 38,212.00 km².
It has municipal boundaries with:
North: São João d'Aliança
South: Cabeceira Grande, Minas Gerais
East: Buritis, Minas Gerais
West: Federal District
The average elevation of this large area is around 1000 meters, about the same as Brasília, eighty kilometers away. The terrain is for the most part characterized by gently undulating flat plateau lands, especially to the north and south. There is a deep valley formed by the Paranã river which begins just on the northeastern limits of the urban area. This valley has a more tropical vegetation and once had dense forests, now cleared for the most part for cattle raising. The flatlands surrounding Formosa are characterized by cerrado vegetation, consisting of grasslands, interspersed by low, thorn-covered trees, many of which are protected against the annual fires by thick bark.
Land
Formosa is located in the second largest of Brazil's eco-regions, the Cerrado. The term "Cerrado" means "dense" or "closed" in both Portuguese and Spanish, an unusual term for a region that consists mainly of tree and scrub savannah. Local diversity in parts of the Cerrado is quite impressive. Just within the limits of Brasília, the 37-year-old capital of Brazil located at the heart of the Cerrado, there are some 81 mammals, 429 birds, 40 snakes and lizards, 11 amphibians, 1,000 butterflies, and 550 bees and wasps recorded to date.
Where rivers cut the flatlands there are still areas of dense vegetation, which once had stands of hard tropical wood such as aroeira, angico, peroba, jacaranda, jatobá and pau ferro. One of the most notable trees is the ipê roxo (tabebuia), or purple ipê. Most of this vegetation has been eliminated by the need to find hard woods for fenceposts and other uses. Even the typical cerrado vegetation has gradually disappeared and been replaced by expanses of soybeans or cattle pasture. See List of plants of cerrado vegetation.
The fauna has trickled to traces of what it once was, especially in those areas suitable for mechanized agriculture. Only in the Paranã valley, a land of few people and cattle ranches that have caused less damage than soy beans has there been some preservation of wildlife. Birds abound, with parakeets, araras, caracara hawks, wild doves, and toucans a not uncommon sight. The urubu (black vulture), nature's dustman, is ubiquitous. Mammals consist of the guará wolf, the armadillo, the ema (a small rhea), deer, two species of monkey: the prego (nail) monkey and the guariba or howler monkey, and the occasional onça pintada or jaguar. In addition, the Cerrado harbors 80 species of bats, which roughly correspond to 60% of the 138 Brazilian bat species, and more than 40% of the total South American bat fauna. Considering only the Cerrado, which has 109 species of non-flying mammals, bats represent 42% of the total mammalian fauna, being, by far, the richest group, followed by rodents (46 sp), carnivores (21) and marsupials (18).
The most common insect is probably the leaf cutting ant, but common sights are the termites with their innumerable termite hills covering the landscape, several species of spiders, wild bees, dung beetles, especially around the cattle ranches, enormous night moths, and the fireflies with their eerie nocturnal lights. One species of black spider lives in a compact group like a large ball during the daylight hours, their thick as fish line web stretching between large trees. At dusk the spiders scurry out from their cluster to take up positions on the long web and catch the nocturnal insects as they fly blindly to their fate.
One insect which is harmful to man is the barbeiro or barber bug (a species of assassin bug) which lives in the walls of poor, country hovels and feeds on the inhabitants at night. It is responsible for the Chagas disease, which has no cure and is usually fatal. New cases are rare because of a national campaign of elimination of the insect host.
Ticks are abundant, especially in high grass, as are screwworm flies (called berne in Portuguese) which cause havoc in cattle herds and can even lay their eggs on humans. The damage to the cow's hide can be disastrous unless controlled.
A common parasite on farms is the bicho do pe or foot worm (Tunga penetrans), which especially embeds itself between the toes. Luckily, at this elevation other tropical illnesses such as malaria and yellow fever are rare.
The upper Paranã valley though, with its lower elevation and higher temperatures is quite unhealthy and its inhabitants run the risk of a wide gamut of tropical diseases as well as the added attraction of poisonous snake bites. Medical care in this region is nonexistent.
Rivers, lakes and waterfalls
Formosa lies at the source of three Brazilian river basins: the Amazon River represented by the Ribeirão Bandeirinha, the Río de la Plata represented by the Ribeirão Pipiripau and the São Francisco River represented by the Ribeirão Santa Rita, being called by the poet from Goiás, Leo Lince – "Cradle of the Waters of Brazil".
There are many rivers and waterfalls in the surrounding area. An attractive lake with a rather paradoxical name - Lagoa Feia - is located on the edge of the city. One of Brazil's highest waterfalls - Itiquira Falls is located about 30 km to the north. The main rivers of the Municipality are:
The Paranã River – is the most important with a length of 500 km. It begins in a series of streams and in the eastern valley of the Serra Geral do Paranã, 4 km from the city. It flows through the interior of the municipality in a northern direction and receives more than 30 tributaries. It separates the municipalities of Formosa and São João d'Aliança. In the extreme north it receives the Paraim on the border with Flores de Goiás.
The Preto River – it begins in Lagoa Feia, on the border with the Federal District and serves as a boundary between the DF and the state of Goiás. It receives several tributaries, the most important being the Ribeirão Bezerra.
The Urucuia – its source is located to the east, 26 km from Formosa.
Climate
The climate is characterized as tropical altitude. The average temperature is about 25 °C. Temperatures vary little from month to month with perhaps a slight increase in the rainy season. The south of the municipality is higher and therefore temperatures are lower while the Paranã valley has hot and humid weather. What characterizes the climate of Formosa is less temperature than rainfall. The year may be divided into two seasons, the summer or rainy season lasting from October to April and the winter or dry season lasting from May to September.
Economy
Economic activity in Formosa is based primarily on services and agriculture with soybeans, cattle raising, rice, manioc and corn being the main sources of income. The GDP in 2005 was R$428 million, of which 290 million was generated by services. There are several small industries producing furniture and bricks.
Cattle raising
Extensive cattle raising for meat is still the main economic activity of the municipality. The 2006 census showed that there were 237,000 cows, of which 25,800 were dairy cows. Most of this cattle is exported, especially to the nearby market of two million people in the Federal District. Sheep raising is an activity - 1,899 - and is mainly done by Gaucho immigrants from Rio Grande do Sul.
In recent years more enterprising farmers, especially those who have come from the south - the Gauchos - have utilized soil correction, replacement of traditional grasses by imported, drought resistant varieties (braquiara), and pasture rotation to increase productivity.
Other than poor grasses the biggest problem in this area has always been the long period of drought during the winter months of June, July, and August. In some years not one drop of rain falls. Pastures turn brown and reservoirs and streams dry up. Cattle begin to lose weight and mortality increases. Ranches must have a substantial stand of elephant grass and sugar cane to serve as the basis for feed which is supplemented by ground corn (the corn is picked and left to dry in storage) or rice bran (farelo). Many farms produce these crops only for cattle feed purposes. Silage is also becoming popular but traditional ranchers resist any change.
Dairy farming is in the incipient stage in Formosa and mechanical milking is still rare. The low price of milk paid to the producers, the high cost of technology, and the lack of trained personnel discourage improvement in this area.
Agriculture
Agriculture is characterized by the moderate production of soybeans and corn. The growing of soybeans was associated not only to modernization but to the obtaining of easy rural credit by producers who came from the south of the country - Rio Grande do Sul and Paraná - looking for abundant and cheap land. The arrival of these farmers caused a revolution in the development of the municipality. Soybeans, corn, rice, and beans began to be planted with advanced techniques - mechanization, soil correction, chemical fertilizers, and even pivot irrigation.
The local economy, which had been based entirely on cattle raising, went through a transformation which created more jobs and service enterprises. Huge grain storage facilities have appeared on the outskirts of town and there are now dozens of shops specializing in supporting the agricultural economy.
Other important agricultural products from the region are rice, sugar cane, beans, manioc, tomatoes, and pineapples. Fruit trees are planted in every back yard and on the fazendas, but production is mainly for local consumption. Common fruits are oranges, lemons, tangerines, papaya, mango and passion fruit.
Agricultural data (2006)
Farms: 2,501
Total area: 303,633
Area in permanent crops: 5,798
Area in perennial crops: 43,569 hectares
Natural Pasture: 185,318 hectares
Woodland and Forest: 78,638 hectares
Persons connected to agriculture: 6,500
Cattle herd: 237,000 head
Tractors: 479
Main crops: soybeans (7,500 hectares), corn (3,500 hectares),beans (1,300 hectares), and rice (800 hectares)
Industry, commerce, and services
The economic scene in Formosa is made up of small enterprises including cereal processing, brickworks, lumber mills, furniture factories, and bakeries. Almost all of them are family owned. Out of the 1463 economic entities listed in 2004, 997 had fewer than 4 workers. There were only 9 with more than 50 workers.
Commerce and services are probably the fastest growing segment of the local economy. With a population of 90,000 in the region there is a need for a variety of goods and services. As mentioned above, there are a large number of enterprises selling agricultural products or connected to agriculture such as tractor repair or machine repair shops. Construction materials firms are also important.
Health and education
In 2005 there were 37 health establishments. These consisted of 18 public clinics and 15 private clinics. There were 03 private hospitals and 01 public hospital. There were 113 hospital beds available to the public. In the educational sector there were 60 public and 10 private primary schools. There were 12 public and 7 private middle schools. There were 50 pre-schools—40 public and 10 private. In higher education there were 02 schools, one public and 01 private. Total enrollment in 2005 was 3,300 students.
Quality of life
Since housing is cheaper in Formosa than in nearby Brasília many people live there and commute, usually by bus, to the capital. This influx of new dwellers has caused the population of Formosa to grow rapidly in recent years. This fact, in addition to the lack of public investment, has overburdened services such as health and education. the city had no sewage system or sewage treatment plant, although extensive construction began in 2005 to remedy this problem. Almost all of the houses use septic tanks, endangering the groundwater which is vital to this region where so many important rivers have their source. Most public schools give poorly taught lessons to students, mainly because the government funds are not enough to assist the education professionals, keep adequate spaces or teaching tools and materials. Private schools provide little better, mainly just paying the yearly fees is enough for the students to receive a high school diploma. Public security is minimal, waiting times for police to arrive when called is up to an hour. When large public shows appear in the outskirts of the city, the infrastructure is quickly overwhelmed and violence soon starts. Lack of oversight of local police also contributes to public safety problems.
Human Development Index 2000
MHDI: 0.750
State ranking: 75 (out of 242 municipalities)
National ranking: 1,867 (out of 5,507 municipalities).
Tourist sites
The most important tourist attraction in Formosa is Itiquira Falls, but the surrounding area is rich in caves, waterfalls, and rushing rivers. In recent times groups of criminals have taken to robbing people walking the pathways to Itiquira and so caution is recommended when visiting this site is small groups. All information about tourist sites is from the Prefeitura de Formosa
Lagoa Feia
Lagoa Feia means "ugly lake" in Portuguese. Located four kilometers from the center of the town, the Preto River, which flows south into the São Francisco, begins here. The south bank is part of an army base which is used for field training.
O Buraco das Araras
This cave, called Hole of the Macaws, is 41 kilometers from Formosa, following BR-20 north as far as the village of Bezerra. The cave is located in the middle of a flat landscape with scarce vegetation. One may see high trees and a river which forms a lake at the entrance of a cavern. This crater is 126 meters deep. The cave itself is one of the largest dolinas (caves formed by the caving in of the ceiling) in the world and was discovered in 1912.
Inside the immense hole there are tropical vegetation, ancient trees, volcanic rocks, and several species of animals like monkeys, wild cats and assorted birds. The parrots, who lent their name to the place, no longer live here, mainly due to destruction of the population for the illegal pet trade by local inhabitants . There are no tourist conveniences, and descent into the crater is considered dangerous.
Buraco das Andorinhas
There is another crater called Buraco das Andorinhas (Hole of the Swallows) which is located in the same area. It too has a subterranean lake and was formed by the caving in of the ceiling of a cavern. Access is very difficult and recommended for the young and adventurous. To reach the mouth of the cavern one must use ropes because the wall has no steps, and is covered with loose rock, wet clay, and moss. Once down, one will arrive at the entrance of one of the caverns which is surrounded by ferns. From this point on it is completely dark, so the use of helmets and lights is required.
Lajeado
It is a rock formation that cover over 500 meters of the riverbed which makes its descent forming falls that end in a pool of crystal water, two meters deep. The site has no tourist facilities.
The Upper Itiquira and Indaiá
Located in the micro-basin of the Itiquira River, the Indaiá Falls take their name from the company that bottles mineral water in the site. The walk down to the river and the falls is slightly difficult since it follows a very steep series of steps, which can be treacherous in the rainy season. The landscape has one thousand waterfalls, the smallest having 50 meters height. There are many pools for swimming in the polluted water. The river passes through a canyon and is surrounded by dense vegetation. Another poorly marked path will take the hardy walker to the top of the Itiquira Falls. In the area there is a camping site with adequate bathrooms. Recently it has become an hangout for armed robbers who wait for people either walking to or from the waterfalls and then rob people of all their possessions knowing that there isn't a big chance of the police interfering. No caution is recommended before venturing to the falls in large groups or into areas where there are bunches of people.
See also
List of municipalities in Goiás
References
Frigoletto
Sepin
External links
City Hall of Formosa website
Cachoeira de Itiquira
Museu dos Couros
Formosa seen from space
Municipalities in Goiás |
4109769 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20the%20Calvinist%E2%80%93Arminian%20debate | History of the Calvinist–Arminian debate | The history of the Calvinist–Arminian debate begins in early 17th century in the Netherlands with a Christian theological dispute between the followers of John Calvin and Jacobus Arminius, and continues today among some Protestants, particularly evangelicals. The debate centers around soteriology, or the study of salvation, and includes disputes about total depravity, predestination, and atonement. While the debate was given its Calvinist–Arminian form in the 17th century, issues central to the debate have been discussed in Christianity in some form since Augustine of Hippo's disputes with the Pelagians in the 5th century.
Quinquarticular Controversy
The Quinquarticular Controversy is a term used to refer to the purely theological Calvinist–Arminian clashes of the period 1609 to 1618, a time in which the debate had serious political overtones in the Netherlands. This controversy was addressed by the Dutch Reformed churches at the Synod of Dort in 1618–1619, a meeting to which Protestant representatives from Reformed churches in other countries were invited. Quinquarticular (i.e. "having to do with five points") refers to points of contention raised by the Arminian party in its publication of five articles of Remonstrance in 1610. These were rejected by the Synod in the Canons of Dort, the essence of which is commonly referred to as the Five Points of Calvinism.
The Controversy marked the transformation of the Arminian movement into a separate, persecuted church organization in the Netherlands. For Arminians it was the start of full persecution after the imposition of an edict, while for Calvinists it resulted in the settling in clear points of doctrine that were initiated by John Calvin and clarified by Theodore Beza. For Lutherans the controversies saw the ending of any possibility of unification with the Calvinists.
Theological background
Augustine and Pelagius
Pelagius was a British monk who journeyed to Rome around the year 400 A.D. and was appalled at what he perceived as the improper behavior within churches. To combat this lack of holiness, he preached a Gospel that began with justification through faith alone (it was actually Pelagius, not Luther, who first added the word alone to Paul's phrase) but finished through human effort and morality. He had read Augustine's Confessions and believed it to be a fatalistic and pessimistic view of human nature. Pelagius' followers, including Caelestius, went further than their teacher and removed justification through faith, setting up the morality- and works-based salvation known as Pelagianism. The only historical evidence of the teachings of Pelagius or his followers is found through the writings of his two strongest opponents—Augustine and Jerome.
In response to Pelagius, Augustine adopted a theological system that included not only original sin (which Pelagius denied), but also a form of predestination. Some authors maintain that Augustine taught the doctrines of limited atonement and of irresistible grace, later associated with classic Calvinism; however, others insist that Augustine's writings conflict with these doctrines. Critics maintain that part of Augustine's philosophy might have stemmed from his expertise in Greek philosophy, particularly Platonism and Manichaeism, which maintained a high view of a man's spirit and low view of a man's body. Against the Pelagian notion that man can do everything right, he taught that man could do little right. Thus, he reasoned, man cannot even accept the offer of salvation — it must be God who chooses for himself individuals to bring to salvation.
A group of Italian bishops, led by Julian, defended the Pelagian view against the Augustinian concept of predestination but was rejected by the Council of Ephesus in 431. Later a monastic movement in Southern Gaul (modern-day France) also sought to explain predestination in light of God's foreknowledge, but a flurry of writings from Augustine (Grace and Free Will, Correction and Grace, The Predestination of the Saints and The Gift of Perseverance) helped maintain the papal authority of his doctrines.
Semi-Pelagianism and Semi-Augustinianism
After the death of Augustine, a more moderate form of Pelagianism persisted, which claimed that man's faith was an act of free will unassisted by previous internal grace. The Second Council of Orange (529) was convened to address whether this moderate form of semi-Pelagianism could be affirmed, or if the doctrines of Augustine were to be affirmed.
The determination of the Council could be considered "semi-Augustinian". It defined that faith, though a free act, resulted even in its beginnings from the grace of God, enlightening the human mind and enabling belief. However, it also denied strict predestination, stating, "We not only do not believe that any are foreordained to evil by the power of God, but even state with utter abhorrence that if there are those who want to believe so evil a thing, they are anathema." The document received papal sanction.
Calvinist Reformers used the Council's canons to demonstrate that their formulations of original sin and depravity had already been taught much earlier in the church. Arminian theologians also refer to the Council of Orange as a historical document that strongly affirms man's depravity and God's prevenient grace but does not present grace as irresistible or adhere to a strictly Augustinian view of predestination.
Middle Ages
Augustine's teaching on divine grace was considered a touchstone of orthodoxy within the western church throughout the Middle Ages. Nevertheless, within an Augustinian context, theologians continued to debate the precise nature of God and man's participation in salvation, as well as attempting to work out a place for the church's emerging system of sacraments in the overall scheme of salvation.
Thomas Aquinas, the most influential Catholic theologian of the Middle Ages, taught that, from man's fallen state, there were three steps to salvation:
Infusion of grace (infusio gratiae) – God infuses grace into the human soul – the Christian now has faith and, with it, the ability to do good – this step is entirely God's work and is not done by man, and once a man has faith, he can never entirely lose it – however, faith alone is not enough for salvation;
Faith formed by charity (fides caritate formata) – with man's free will restored, man must now do his best to do good works in order to have a faith formed by charity; and then;
Condign merit (meritum de condigno) – God then judges and awards eternal life on the basis of these good works which Aquinas called man's condign merit.
Aquinas believed that by this system, he had reconciled Ephesians 2:8 ("By grace are ye saved through faith, and that not of yourselves: it is the gift of God") and James 2:20 ("faith without works is dead") and 2:24 ("by works a man is justified and not by faith only"), and had provided an exposition of the Bible's teaching on salvation compatible with Augustine's teachings.
A second stream of medieval thought, commonly referred to as the Ockhamists after William of Ockham and also including Duns Scotus and Gabriel Biel rejected Aquinas’ system as destroying man's free will. The Ockhamists argued that if a man loved God simply because of "infused grace", then man did not love God freely. They argued that before a man received an infusion of grace, man must do his best in a state of nature (i.e. based on man's reason and inborn moral sense). They argued that just as God awards eternal life on the basis of man's condign merit for doing his best to do good works after receiving faith as a gift from God, so too, the original infusion of grace was given to man on the basis of "congruent merit", a reward for man's doing his best in a state of nature. (Unlike condign merit, which is fully deserved by man, congruent merit is not fully deserved, and includes a measure of grace on God's part. Congruent merit is therefore also sometimes called "semimerit". According to the Ockhamists, a gracious God awards an individual with congruent merit when he or she does the best that he or she is able to do.)
Aquinas’ followers, commonly referred to as the Thomists, accused the Ockhamists of Pelagianism for basing the infusion of grace on man's works. The Ockhamists defended themselves from charges of Pelagianism by arguing that, in the Ockhamist system, God was not bound to award the infusion of grace on the basis of congruent merit; rather, God's decision to award the infusion of grace on the basis of congruent merit was an entirely gracious act on God's part.
Martin Luther's condemnation of "justification by works" clearly condemned Ockhamism. Some proponents of ecumenism argue that the Thomist view of salvation is not opposed to Luther's view of grace, and, since Ockhamism was rejected as Semipelagian by the Catholic Church at the Council of Trent, theology of salvation need not pose a bar to Protestant-Catholic reunion. (The major streams of modern Catholic thought on the theology of salvation are Thomism and Molinism, a theology developed by Jesuit theologian Luis Molina in the 16th century and also held today by some Protestants such as William Lane Craig and Alvin Plantinga.)
However, since the Catholic Church's rejection of Jansenism in the bull Unigenitus (1713), it has been clear that Calvinism could not be accommodated within Catholicism. Arminianism, on the other hand, while it might not square entirely with Catholic theologies of salvation, probably could be accommodated within the Catholic Church, a fact which Arminianism's Protestant opponents have often pointed out. (Augustus Toplady, for example, famously claimed that Arminianism was the "Road to Rome.")
Martin Luther and Erasmus of Rotterdam
Martin Luther was an Augustinian friar in Erfurt. In his Disputation Against Scholastic Theology of 4 September 1517, Luther entered into the medieval debate between the Thomists and the Ockhamists by attacking the Ockhamist position and arguing that man by nature lacks the ability to do good that the Ockhamists asserted he had (and thus denying that man could do anything to deserve congruent merit). Modern scholars disagree about whether Luther in fact intended to criticize all scholastics in this Disputation or if he was concerned only with the Ockhamists. Arguing in favor of a broader interpretation is the fact that Luther went on to criticize the use of Aristotle in theology (Aristotle was the basis of Thomist as well as Ockhamist theology). If this is the case, it is likely that Luther saw Aquinas' fides caritate formata as merely a more cautious form of Pelagianism (or as Semipelagianism).
Luther continued to defend these views. In 1520, Pope Leo X issued the papal bull Exsurge Domine, which condemned a position which Luther had maintained at the 1518 Heidelberg Disputation, namely that "After the Fall free will is something in name only and when it does what is in it, it sins mortally." Luther subsequently defended the proposition in his Defense and Explanation of All the Articles Unjustly Condemned by the Roman Bull of Leo X (1520), in the process stating that "free will is really a fiction...with no reality, because it is in no man's power to plan any evil or good. As the article of Wycliffe, condemned at Constance, teaches: everything takes place by absolute necessity."
Desiderius Erasmus of Rotterdam, though first sympathetic to Luther, reacted negatively to what he saw as Luther's determinism. In his De libero arbitrio diatribe sive collatio (A Disquisition on Freedom of the Will) (1524), Erasmus caricatures the limitations of free will that he saw Luther espousing. Though at times in the Diatribe, Erasmus sounded like an Ockhamist, for the most part he attempted to espouse a middle course between grace and free will, attempting to avoid on the one hand the errors of the Pelagians and the Ockhamists, and on the other hand, the "Manichaean" error of Luther and other strict Augustinians.
Luther responded with his De Servo Arbitrio (On the Bondage of the Will) (1525) in which he argued that man was not free to do good. Rather, man's fallen nature is in bondage to sin and to Satan and man can only do evil. The only way an individual can be saved is if God freely chooses to give that person the gift of faith. Luther's position in On the Bondage of the Will became the position adopted by the Protestant movement.
Jacobus Arminius and the Synod of Dort
Jacobus Arminius enrolled at Leiden University, and after five years of education traveled in the early 1580s to study in Geneva. Theodore Beza was the chairman of theology at the university there. Beza later defended Arminius by saying "let it be known to you that from the time Arminius returned to us from Basel, his life and learning both have so approved themselves to us, that we hope the best of him in every respect…" In late 1587, at the age of 28, Arminius returned to Amsterdam to fulfill his desire to be a pastor.
Arminius' entry into the predestination debate in Amsterdam was two years after his return, when he was asked by city officials to refute a modified form of Beza's Lapsarianism. According to historic tradition, Arminius' study of the Scriptures led him to the conclusion that the Bible did not support Calvinism. Other scholars believe that Arminius never accepted Beza's views, even while a student at Geneva. Arminius avoided adding to the controversy apart from two incidents regarding sermons on Romans 7 and Romans 9.
When Arminius received his doctorate and professorship of theology at Leiden in 1603, the debate over Calvinism came back to life. Conflicts over predestination had appeared early in the Dutch Reformed Church, but "these had been of a local nature, occurring between two fellow ministers, for instance, but since the appointment of Jacobus Arminius as a professor at Leyden University (1603) the strife had moved to the place where the education of future ministers took place."
Arminius taught that Calvinist predestination and unconditional election made God the author of evil. Instead, Arminius insisted, God's election was an election of believers and therefore was conditioned on faith. Furthermore, Arminius argued, God's exhaustive foreknowledge did not require a doctrine of determinism.
Arminius and his followers believed that a national synod should confer, to win tolerance for their views. His opponents in the Dutch Reformed Church maintained the authority of local synods and denied the necessity of a national convention. When the States of Holland called together the parties, Arminius's opponents, led by his colleague Franciscus Gomarus, accused him not only of the teaching of the doctrines characteristic of Arminianism as it would become (see below), but also of errors on the authority of Scripture, the Trinity, original sin, and works salvation. These charges Arminius denied, citing agreement with both Calvin and Scripture.
Arminius was acquitted of any doctrinal error. He then accepted an invitation to a "friendly conference" with Gomarus but his health caused the conference to end prematurely. Two months later, on 19 October 1609, Jacobus Arminius died.
The Remonstrants and Calvinist reaction
After the death of Arminius, the Hague court chaplain, Johannes Wtenbogaert, one of the professor's followers "who dogmatically and theologically was on one line with him, but who in the field of Church politics was a much more radical supporter of state influence championed his cause". This was seen as a betrayal on Gomarus' side, for earlier in his career (as a minister of Utrecht) Wtenbogaert "had resisted state influence with all his might".
Gradually Arminian-minded candidates for ordination into the ministry ran into ever greater difficulties. In their classes examinations, not only was subscription to the Dutch Confession and the Heidelberg Catechism demanded (which most were willing to do), "but they were asked questions that were formulated in such a way that ambiguous answers were no longer possible."
In reaction to this growing pressure Wtenbogaert drew up a petition to the State General, called a Remonstrance in late 1609, early 1610. The "Remonstrants" highlighted five aspects of their theology: (1) election was conditional on foreseen faith; (2) Christ's atonement was unlimited in extent; (3) total depravity; (4) prevenient and resistible grace; and (5) necessity of perseverance and the possibility of apostasy. The Remonstrants first expressed an uncertainty about the possibility of apostasy. They removed it latter in the document they presented officially at the Synod of Dort, The Opinion of The Remonstrants (1618), holding to conditional preservation of the saints.
Forty-four ministers (mostly from the province of Holland) signed onto the Remonstrance, and on 14 January 1610 it was submitted to the Grand Pensionary, Johan van Oldenbarnevelt. (Due to this document the followers of Arminius became known as Remonstrants.) Oldenbarnevelt held onto the Remonstrance for an unusually long period and it was not until June 1610 that it was submitted in an altered form to the States of Holland. "The States sent the five articles to all classes, forbidding them to go 'higher' in their examinations of ordinands than what was expressed in the articles. Needless to say, most classes did not take the slightest notice of this prohibition."
In another attempt to avoid a provincial synod, the States held The Hague Conference which lasted from 11 March to 20 May 1611 (with intermissions). It was at this conference that the delegates of Arminius' opponents submitted a response to the Remonstrance, called the Counter-Remonstrance (from which the name Contra- or Counter-Remonstrants was given them).
Leading influences among Arminius' followers (now called Remonstrants) were Arminius' close friend and Roman Catholic-turned-Reformed pastor Johannes Wtenbogaert, lawyer Hugo Grotius, and a scholar named Simon Episcopius. Due to the Remonstrants’ view of the supremacy of civil authorities over church matters, King James I of England came out in support of the Remonstrance (later he would join with their opponents against Conrad Vorstius).
Behind the theological debate lay a political one between Prince Maurice, a strong military leader, and his former mentor Johan van Oldenbarnevelt, Grand Pensionary of Holland and personification of civil power. Maurice, who had Calvinist leanings, desired war with Holland's enemy, Roman Catholic Spain. Oldenbarnevelt, along with Arminius and his followers, desired peace.
Numerous historians hold that many of the civic officials that sided with the Remonstrants did so because of their shared position of State supremacy over the Church and not because of other doctrinal ideas, saying "the alliance between the regents and the Remonstrants during the years of the Truce is merely a coalition suited to the occasion, not the result of principal agreement...the magistracy of Delft was Counter-Remonstrant-minded, but in the States of Holland the city supported Oldenbarnevelt's policy regarding the convocation of a National Synod [to avoid calling one]. Incidentally, suspectedly Calvinistic opinions went together in Oldenbarnevelt's person."
In the years after Arminius' death, Maurice became convinced that Oldenbarnevelt (and by association, Arminians) had strong Catholic sympathies and were working to deliver Holland to Spain. As insurance, Maurice and his militia systematically and forcibly replaced Remonstrant magistrates with Calvinist ones. Thus, when the State General called for a synod in 1618, its outcome was predetermined. Oldenbarnevelt and Grotius were arrested, and the synod, held at Dordrecht (Dort), was convened.
This Synod of Dort included Calvinist representatives from Great Britain, Switzerland, Germany, and France, though Arminians were denied acceptance. Three Arminian delegates from Utrecht managed to gain seats, but were soon forcibly ejected and replaced with Calvinist alternates.
The Synod was a six versus six style of representation that lasted over six months with 154 meetings. The synod ultimately ruled that Arminius' teachings were heretical, reaffirming the Belgic Confession and Heidelberg Catechism as its orthodox statements of doctrine. One of the results of the synod was the formation of the five points of Calvinism in direct response to the five articles of the Remonstrants.
Robert Picirilli gives this summary of the aftermath of the Synod of Dort:
Somewhat later, after Maurice died, the Remonstrants were accorded toleration by the state and granted the freedom to follow their religion in peace, to build churches and schools. The Remonstrant Theological Seminary was instituted in Amsterdam, and Episcopius and Grotius were among its first professors. Today both the seminary and the church have shifted from their founders' theology.
Seventeenth century English politics
Early Stuart society was religious, and religion at that time was political. King James I managed religious conflicts for most of the 1610s, but most Protestants maintained a fear of Catholicism. Though Arminians were Protestant, they were perceived as being less antagonistic to Catholicism than the Calvinists were. James I initially moved to keep them out of his realm, and supported the official position of the Synod of Dort.
In 1618, the Thirty Years' War began. It was a religious war, and many of James's subjects (particularly in Parliament) wanted his kingdom to go to war on the side of the king's son-in-law, Frederick V, Elector Palatine. James, however, preferred diplomacy. The loudest of the supporters for war were Puritans, a term presenting difficulties of definition but who doctrinally were in general orthodox Calvinists. Some scholars believe that the Arminians' support for the king's efforts to prevent war led to him promoting a number of them in order to balance out the Puritans. Others argue that these promotions were simply the result of meritocratic considerations: 'James promoted Arminians because they were scholarly, diligent and able men in their diocese.' In 1625, James I died, leaving the throne to his son, Charles I.
Charles I supported the Arminians, and continued the trend of promoting them; Charles tended to promote only Arminians. The religious changes which Charles imposed on his subjects, in the form of Laudianism, were identified (rightly or wrongly) with Arminian theology. They brought him into direct conflict with the Scottish Presbyterian Calvinists of the Church of Scotland. The resulting Bishops' Wars were a trigger for the English Civil War, both of them part of the larger Wars of the Three Kingdoms which had complex roots, among which religious beliefs were a major factor.
Four-point Calvinists
The so-called "four-point Calvinists" claim that the doctrine of limited atonement is non-scriptural and that it was never endorsed by Calvin or the Synod of Dort.
The four-point Calvinists, like five-point Calvinists, accept a distinction initially made by Peter Lombard and subsequently adopted by Thomas Aquinas that the atonement was sufficient for the whole world but efficient only to the elect. Put another way, Christ's death atones for the whole world (it is sufficient to atone for the sins of the whole world), but the benefits of Christ's death are applied only to the elect (it is efficient only to atone for the sins of the elect).
The four-point Calvinists argue that Calvin adopted this position when he wrote that "It is also a fact, without controversy, that Christ came to atone for the sins 'of the whole world.'" They also believe that the four-point position was endorsed by the Synod of Dort under Article 3 of the Second Main Point of Doctrine where the synod proclaimed that "This death of God's Son is the only and entirely complete sacrifice and satisfaction for sins; it is of infinite value and worth, more than sufficient to atone for the sins of the whole world."
This is the position which the leader of the English Presbyterians, Richard Baxter, asserted in his controversy with the leader of the English Congregationalists, John Owen.
Early Methodism
These theological issues played a divisive part in the early history of Methodism in the 18th century. Heated discussions on Arminianism took place between Methodist ministers John Wesley and George Whitefield. From 1740 Wesley broke with Calvinism. His position caused initially the rupture with the Welsh Calvinistic Methodists under Howell Harris in 1742–1743; and then the creation of the Countess of Huntingdon's Connexion in 1756, about the same time when Wesley broke with James Hervey. In the 1770s a sharp debate occurred between Wesley and Augustus Montague Toplady.
Wesley was a champion of the teaching of Arminius, defending his soteriology in a periodical entitled The Arminian and writing articles such as Predestination Calmly Considered. He defended Arminius against charges of semi-Pelagianism, holding strongly to beliefs in original sin and total depravity. At the same time, Wesley attacked the determinism that he claimed characterized unconditional election and maintained a belief in the ability to lose salvation. Whitefield debated Wesley on every point (except for their agreement on total depravity) but did not introduce any additional elements into the Calvinists' conclusions set forth at Westminster.
Denominational Views
Protestant denominations
To this day, Methodism and offshoots of the denomination: Pentecostals, and Third Wave, along with General Baptists, usually are the ones to subscribe to Arminianism, while Presbyterians, Reformed Churches, Reformed Baptists, and others subscribe to Calvinism. Largely because of its origins in Germany and Scandinavia rather than the British Isles or Holland, Lutheranism was uninvolved in the dispute, and official Lutheran doctrine does not fully support either group, preferring instead its own doctrinal formulations about the relation of human freedom to divine sovereignty. This is also true of Primitive Baptist belief.
Restorationist fellowships are customarily free will in their soteriology. Within this trend, Churches of Christ are prone to cite Biblical passages in support of the view while often intensely locked in contention with Presbyterians and (usually Calvinistic) Baptists. The doctrinal components, in small towns particularly in the United States, often ally the Churches of Christ with their Methodist neighbors on opposition to "once-saved-always-saved" doctrine despite the similarity between Churches of Christ and Baptists on immersion baptism.
Roman Catholic views
Post-reformation Roman Catholicism has remained largely outside the debate, although Thomist and Molinist views continue within the church. Augustinian theodicy, including those elements wherein Calvin was influenced by Augustine of Hippo, continues to be the prevalent soteriology in Roman Catholicism. Also, Jansenism has been seen by many as similar to Calvinist doctrine, and was condemned as such by the Catholic Church in the late 17th century.
Eastern Orthodox views
A Synod of Eastern Orthodox Churches was called in Jerusalem in 1672 to refute attempted encroachments of Protestant Calvinism. The Synod of Jerusalem (1672) also referred to as The Confession of Dositheus in 1672, strongly rejected Calvinistic formulations and named them heresy. In part, it stated,
In the same document, the synod renounced Calvin by name and pronounced an anathema upon anyone teaching that God predestined anyone to evil or Hell.
References
Citations
Sources
Arminianism
Calvinist theology
Calvinist-Arminian debate
Salvation in Protestantism
Protestantism-related controversies
Jacobus Arminius
Calvinism in the Dutch Republic
Philosophy and thought in the Dutch Republic
Synod of Dort
Debates |
4109835 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gotthard%20railway | Gotthard railway | The Gotthard railway (; ) is the Swiss trans-alpine railway line from northern Switzerland to the canton of Ticino. The line forms a major part of an important international railway link between northern and southern Europe, especially on the Rotterdam-Basel-Genoa corridor. The Gotthard Railway Company () was the former private railway company that financed the construction of and originally operated that line.
The railway comprises an international main line through Switzerland from Basel (French Bâle) or Zürich to Immensee to Chiasso, together with branches, from Immensee to Lucerne and Rotkreuz, from Arth-Goldau to Zug, and from Bellinzona to Chiasso, via Locarno and Luino. The main line, second highest standard railway in Switzerland, penetrates the Alps using the Gotthard Tunnel at above sea level. The line then descends as far as Bellinzona, at above sea level, before climbing again to the pass of Monte Ceneri, on the way to Lugano and Chiasso. The extreme differences in altitude necessitate the use of long ramped approaches on each side, together with seven spirals.
Construction of the line started in 1872, with some lowland sections opening by 1875. The full line opened in 1882, following the completion of the Gotthard Tunnel. The line was incorporated into the Swiss Federal Railways in 1909 and electrified in 1922. The line has 36 tunnels totaling 31,216 meters.
The approaches to the existing tunnel continue to restrict speed and capacity on this important international route, and in 1992 it was decided to build a new lower level route on the Gotthard axis as part of the NRLA project. This route involves the construction of the new Gotthard Base Tunnel and Ceneri Base Tunnel. The Gotthard Base Tunnel has been completed and was integrated with the existing route in 2016, while the Ceneri Base Tunnel was opened in 2020.
History
Conception
By the early 1870s, northern Switzerland had a significant network of railways, with links to the adjoining railways of Germany and France. To the west, a line had reached , in the upper Rhone valley, from Lausanne. In the central north, lines linked Olten, Lucerne, Zug and Zürich. However, no line had yet reached through the Alps to southern Switzerland or the border with Italy. All north-to-south rail traffic had to pass either to the west or east of Switzerland through the Mont-Cenis, Semmering or Brenner railways.
A north-south route through Switzerland had been discussed as far back as 1848. An international conference in Bern in 1869 had decided that the best route would be via the valleys of the rivers Reuss and Ticino, linked by a tunnel under the Gotthard Pass. The selected route was an ancient one that pilgrims and traders had used since at least the 13th century.
Treaties for the construction of the line were made with the Kingdom of Italy, in 1869, and the German Empire, in 1871. The Gotthard Railway Company was incorporated in Lucerne in 1871. To the overall costs of CHF 238 million (in 1869/71) the Italian government eventually contributed CHF 58 million (£2.25 million), with Germany contributing CHF 30 million (£1.25 million).
Construction and opening
Construction of the Gotthard railway started in 1872, and the first lowland sections from Biasca to Locarno and Lugano to Chiasso were opened by 1874.
The whole line was inaugurated with festivities in Lucerne and Chiasso from 21 May to 25 May 1882. Scheduled operations started on 1 June. At the time, the Gotthard Rail Tunnel was the world's longest rail tunnel (seconded by the Simplon Tunnel in 1906). Soon after construction, the army secured the line with fortresses (for instance, above Airolo, and at Biasca) and ways to block the tunnel in case of an invasion (among others, an artificial landslide to block the southern tunnel entrance).
At the same time, the Aargauische Südbahn completed the section from Rotkreuz to Immensee, which provided a rail link from Aarau. The additional feeder lines from Lucerne to Immensee, and from Zug to Arth-Goldau were completed in 1887.
Early railway operations
The Gotthard railway timetable from 1899
The Gotthard Railway graphic timetable contains a great variety of information with regards to material and especially operational aspects in the year 1899, 17 years after the inauguration of the Gotthard tunnel and completion of the railway. The map key and captions to each column are to be found at the top of the page. Leading from left to right information is given on the location of each station's elevation in relation to sea level, the longitudinal profile, signal lights, tunnels and their length, for each route section on southbound journeys the greatest gradient, distances, employed telegraphs and their networking, signal bells and their connection, telephones, block stations, track layout of the respective station and their equipment, total usable length of the remaining tracks, the longest side track, station names and distances between them, distance to point of origin and between main stations. Departure and arrival times are displayed within the graphic timetable.
Information can be drawn as to the tunnel's vertex which lies at 1154.5 meters above sea level and the fact that the tunnel does not run in a straight line but rather in a slope down from either side of its vertex. The tunnel was designed in such a way that inflowing water would be able to drain. From the railway station of Göschenen to the tunnel's vertex the train lines ascend at an angle of 6 ‰ and descend at 2 ‰ from vertex to the village of Airolo. The tunnel's length is indicated to be 14,998 meters, its vertex being at kilometre 80. The old Gotthard railways' distances were measured from the town of Immensee, as clearly indicated on the graphic timetable.
Electrical Telegraphs and signal bells are listed on the distance column's right and a detailed description thereof is to be found in the chapters The Gotthard railway Telegraph Network and The Gotthard railway Signal Bells.
The track layout of each station shows that in 1899 the Gotthard railway ran on double-tracks from the villages of Flüelen to Giubiasco. Facing north the picture on the right shows the watchman's house at the Mondascia bridge depicts the double-tracks and advance signal to the entry signal before Biasca (at 132.5 km), mentioned in the timetable. The next picture on the right shows the Pianotondo viaduct and the Pianotono-spiral tunnel's upper gate with its watchman's house, which came into use during the days of the double-track steam service, roughly at the time of the graphic timetable's validity.
The graphic timetable sees two tracks running southwards from Giubiasco station. One is signposted "Chiasso", the other "Luino/Locarno". From this point onwards the railway runs on single tracks. Giubiasco's neighbouring stations to the south, Rivera-Bironico and Cadenazzo, are all on single tracks. At each underpass on the Ceneri section it is clearly visible to this day that these were built at greatly different points in time. The Giubiasco-Al Sasso and Al Sasso-Rivera sections were equipped with double-tracks in 1922 and 1934 respectively.
The graphic timetable is a two-dimensional image of the train journeys. Time is displayed horizontally from midnight XII o'clock to midnight XII o'clock. The stations along the journey, from Zug and Lucerne to Chiasso, Locarno and Luino are displayed vertically. The first scheduled train, an express train with 1st, 2nd and 3rd class carriages, leaves Bellinzona at 03:17. The train with the number 55 is powered by a steam locomotive and, according to the timetable, does not make a scheduled stop at Giubiasco, Rivera-Bironico and Taverne. Arrival at Lugano is scheduled at 04:09, from where it leaves again at 04:14. In 1899 the entire train journey from Bellinzona to Lugano was scheduled to be 52 minutes. Today (2017), the same journey on one of the EC trains takes 27 minutes. The illustrations shows that between Giubiasco and Rivera Bironico trains do not pass each other as in 1899 this was, as mentioned in the paragraph above, a single track line. This information can thus be drawn form both, the stations' track layout and the graphic timetable. Also visible on the graphic timetable is the fact that between Osogna and Biasca, trains however do pass each other along their journeys, it being a double-track line. Further, the Arth-Rigi-Bahn's trains (nowadays Rigi Railways), are also listed in the Gotthard railways' timetable. The timetable's scale is 15mm/hour horizontally and 1.75mm/km vertically.
The Gotthard railway telegraph network
To coordinate trains, the Gotthard railway used a telegraph-network, which linked up all railway stations on the entire line from Luzern to Chiasso, Locarno and Luino. This network is pointed out on the left hand side of the graphic timetable dated 1899. The telegraphs for every railway station shown on the timetable are marked with a black dot. As a detailed section from the timetable shows, the Biasca station used four telegraphs at that time. One of those telegraphs linked all stations from Biasca to Bellinzona. Whatever message was tapped out on this telegraph (sent by morse code), was transmitted to all stations up to Bellinzona. A second telegraph linked all stations from Biasca to Göschenen. What was tapped out on the third telegraph, reached only the railway stations Bellinzona, Faido, Airolo, Göschenen, Wassen and Erstfeld. The fourth telegraph was for long distances. Messages transmitted from there reached Bellinzona, Airolo, Erstfeld, Goldau and Luzern. The telegraphs with their Morse keys and the telegraph-relays were produced by (Bern).
The Gotthard railway signal bells
The Gotthardbahn employed signal bells within its stations and along the line to signal any approaching train. An alarm was triggered once a train had left a neighbouring station or block station. These signal bells were partly installed along the line and signalled any construction worker of an approaching train. In addition, any railway watchman's house and railroad crossing would be equipped with a signal bell. Southbound trains were signalled by 3 triple chimes, northbound trains by two double chimes. The signalling mechanism at each signal bell had to be manually wound up every day by station employees and railway watchmen. Part of the mechanism was a weight having to be raised by help of a pulley. The electric signal triggering the alarm operated a relay, activating the bell's hammer through force of the aforementioned weight. Each signal bell within the Gotthard railway's network is marked on the graphic timetable. The railway watchman's house number 159 (Casello 159) signal bell on the Monte Ceneri line between Giubiasco and Rivera-Bironico is shown as an example in the timetable's excerpt. A southbound train departing Giubiasco for Rivera-Bironico would trigger alarms of eleven different signal bells on its 11 kilometres long journey. Around 1980 these signal bells were decommissioned.
Track maintenance and safety
In the Gotthard Railway's early days ultrasound was not available to examine the tracks. Fractures within these were far more common than today, when special ultrasound equipped trains are employed in the maintenance process. The railway watchman was especially important in ensuring the Gotthard railway's safe operation. A railway watchman was assigned to a special segment of tracks which he had to inspect every day. Fractures, deformations and the tracks' general condition were to be reported to the track master. Tending to loose screws and cutting down shrubs were also part of the watchman's job description. Also putting out small shrub fires, caused by the heavily employed brakes of downhill running cargo trains, were part of his duty. The railway watchman was equipped with a red flag to be able to stop trains in an emergency. The Gotthard railway's watchmen lived in specially provided watchman houses along the line. In Italian Language these watchman's houses are called Casello. Every day they had to inspect the tracks up to the next watchman's segment. The watchman houses were built along the entire Gotthard line with distances of up to 4 kilometres between them and were all numbered. From 1950 onward the track inspections didn't require as many inspections as before. Between Giubiasco and Rivera the railway watchmen then only had to perform such an inspection every other day. Their former watchman houses now remained unmanned and were subsequently used as holiday homes or private dwellings. From 1995 onward the Swiss Federal Railways (SBB) turned to selling these watchman houses.
Swiss Federal Railways
The Gotthard Railway Company worked the Gotthard railway until 1909, when it became part of the Swiss Federal Railways. This was seven years after the creation of that state owned railway, and the Gotthard railway was the last major railway to be absorbed. In 1922, the whole line was electrified by Brown, Boveri & Cie with supplied by overhead line.
The approaches to the Gotthard Tunnel are susceptible to rockfalls, regularly leading to closures of the railway line. In the worst such incident in recent times, the Gotthard line was closed to all traffic for almost one month following a rockfall near Gurtnellen on 5 June 2012, which killed one rail worker and injured two others. The closure caused massive disruption of both passenger and international freight traffic.
Route
North of Arth-Goldau
The Lucerne branch of the Gotthard railway commences in Lucerne station, facing the south shore of Lake Lucerne. From here it undertakes a 270 degree turn, heading first south, then west, north and east, as well as crossing the river Reuss, to reach the north shore of the lake. From here it continues along the west shore of the Küssnacht arm of the lake to reach Immensee station. Here it meets the Rotkreuz branch, which runs from Rotkreuz to the north.
Immensee station is considered the starting point of the main line of the Gotthard railway, and official distances to all points south are measured from here. From Immensee, the line follows the Lake of Zug to Arth-Goldau station, at an altitude of . Here it joined by the Zug branch of the Gotthard railways, and there is a junction with the Südostbahn route to Rapperswil and Romanshorn. Connection is also made with the Arth-Rigi-Bahn, a rack railway climbing the mountain Rigi.
The Zug branch of the Gotthard railway commences in the city of Zug. It makes a junction, in Zug station, with the line to Zürich via Thalwil. The line then follows the east shore of the Lake of Zug to reach Arth-Goldau.
Arth-Goldau - Erstfeld
From Arth-Goldau, the line then follows the Lauerzer See and passes Schwyz, the capital of the canton of Schwyz, at an altitude of . From Brunnen to Flüelen, the line follows the Lake Lucerne (that part of it is also referred to as Urnersee). In that section, the Axen, the two tracks follow two different routes mainly in tunnel because the second track was built later (up to 1943) and on a straighter route through longer tunnels.
At Flüelen station, the railway makes a connection with the steamer services on Lake Lucerne. Steamers operate a shorter, in distance, but longer, in time, service to the city of Lucerne, serving many other towns and villages along the lake shore. The Gotthard Panorama Express uses this interchange to provide its tourist oriented boat and rail service between Lucerne and Lugano.
Erstfeld, at an altitude of , is reached via Altdorf. The depot at Erstfeld station houses rolling stock needed for the Gotthard route, i.e. for banking service. A Ce 6/8 "crocodile" serves as a memorial for the legendary Gotthard locomotives.
Northern ramp, Erstfeld - Göschenen
For the whole of the northern ramp from Erstfeld to Göschenen, the line follows the valley of the Reuss. The track now gets steeper with a gradient of up to 27 ‰. After Amsteg the line passes the Chärstelenbach Bridge and changes the side of the valley over the Intschireuss Bridge, which is, with its , the highest bridge in the SBB network.
After Gurtnellen, at an altitude of , the first of several tunneled railway spirals is encountered; their purpose is mainly to gain height where no space is available. Two of them form the double loop of Wassen, at an altitude of , which allows the famous church of Wassen to be seen three times from different perspectives, first from below and the last time from above. The line passes over the Reuss twice, and the Meienreuss three times in this section.
After a tunnel, the line reaches Göschenen station, at an altitude of . Here the Gotthard line meets the Schöllenenbahn, a metre gauge rack operated branch of the Matterhorn Gotthard Bahn that ascends to Andermatt, where connections can be made over the Oberalppass to Chur or through the Furka Base Tunnel to Brig.
Gotthard Tunnel
Immediately after Göschenen station, the Gotthard railway enters the Gotthard Tunnel, a , double-track tunnel, built as one tube. The highest point of the Gotthard line is within this tunnel, above sea level, which makes it the second highest standard railway in Switzerland, after the Lötschberg railway line, the other main north-south axis in the country. Here the tunnel crosses the border between the canton of Uri and the canton of Ticino, and line passes from the German-speaking part of Switzerland to the Italian-speaking part.
The line exits the tunnel at Airolo, at an altitude of in the valley of the river Ticino, which it follows as far as Bellinzona. Both north and south portals are within a few hundreds metres from those of the Gotthard Road Tunnel.
Southern ramp, Airolo - Bellinzona
After passing through Airolo station, the line crosses the Ticino and descends through its valley in the Leventina. Between Airolo and Biasca the line falls by no less than in .
At Piotta, the Funicolare del Ritom ascends to the Ritom dam. Beyond Rodi-Fiesso, at an altitude of , the most impressive section of the southern ramp begins. The valley narrows to the Piotta canyon, and the line passes two spirals ("Piottino-Loops") to lose in height before reaching Faido. Two more spirals, known as the "Biaschina-Loops", lead the line down to Giornico, at an altitude of .
By the time the line has arrived at Biasca, at an altitude of , the valley has widened, and the gradient reduced. From Biasca station the line continues to follow the Ticino as far as Bellinzona, at an altitude of and the capital of the canton of Ticino.
Bellinzona - Luino / Locarno
Just beyond Bellinzona station, a major junction is reached at Giubiasco. Here the original main line branches off what is now considered the main Gotthard line to Lugano and Chiasso.
What was originally considered the main line continues down the valley of the Ticino, crossing the Italian border and continuing to meet the Italian railway system at Pino on the eastern shore of Lake Maggiore. The line beyond Pino to the Italian town of Luino, although Italian-owned, has always been operated as part of the Swiss system.
At Cadenazzo on the line to Pino, a further branch crosses the Ticino and runs a short distance down the western shore of Lago Maggiore to a terminus at the Swiss resort town of Locarno. Transfer can be made at Locarno station to the international metre gauge Domodossola–Locarno railway.
Bellinzona - Chiasso
At Giubiasco, the line from Immensee to Chiasso reaches its lowest point of above sea level. From here the line rises again to Monte Ceneri, the pass between the Sopraceneri and the Sottoceneri, and then passes through the two parallel, single-track Monte Ceneri Tunnels. It reaches the highest point on this part of the line, at Rivera-Bironico station, at an altitude of , before descending to Lugano, at an altitude of .
At Lugano station interchange is made with the Lugano–Ponte Tresa railway, a metre gauge railway to the town of Ponte Tresa. Following the western waterside of Lake Lugano, the line crosses Lake Lugano at the Melide causeway, a causeway and bridge.
The track follows the eastern waterside from the Melide causeway to Capolago-Riva San Vitale station. Here interchange is made with the Monte Generoso railway, a rack railway to the summit of Monte Generoso. The Gotthard line then continues to Mendrisio and Chiasso. Chiasso station houses the border controls and has a large international marshalling yard. Conventional trains change locomotives here due to different traction voltages and train protection systems in Italy.
Operation
Services
The Gotthard line carries a mixture of freight and long distance passenger trains over the full length of the line. The long distance passenger trains include EuroCity (EC) trains between Zürich and Milan, and ICN and IR trains between a number of cities in northern Switzerland and various points in Ticino. Passenger trains using the Gotthard line in the past included the Trans Europ Express trains Gottardo, Roland, and Ticino.
Regional commuter rail services also operate on the northern and southern sections of the Gotthard line. To the north, line S2 of the Zug Stadtbahn operates hourly between Zug, Arth-Goldau and Erstfeld, whilst line S3 of the S-Bahn Luzern operates hourly between Luzern, Arth-Goldau and Brunnen.
To the south, the Gotthard line is served by trains on line S10 of the Treni Regionali Ticino Lombardia (TILO), which operate every half-hour between Bellinzona, Lugano and Chiasso, with some trains extending northwards to Airolo and southwards to Milan. The same operator's lines S20 and S30 also operate over the Gotthard railway in the Bellinzona area, before proceeding down the branches to Locarno and Luino respectively, with some S30 trains extended to Milan Malpensa Airport.
Besides trains operated by the Swiss Federal Railways, other railway companies have also been able to run trains on the Gotthard route since the introduction of open access in 2001. Companies that have taken advantage of this include Deutsche Bahn AG, who operate through freight trains from Germany to Italy.
Rolling stock
Most of the Swiss locomotives were originally constructed for the Gotthard line, so many of them were called "Gotthardlokomotiven", for instance C 5/6 "Elephant", Ce 6/8 and Be 6/8 "Krokodil", Ae 8/14 "Landilok", Ae 6/6, Re 620. Famous trainsets on the Gotthard route are the Trans Europ Express and the Roter Pfeil, as well as the tilting train, Cisalpino Pendolino.
Nowadays passenger trains are mostly pulled by Re 4/4 II (up to two for long trains) and sometimes by Re 460, freight trains by Re 6/6 and Re 4/4 III. Up to 1300 tons may be pulled by an Re 6/6 with an Re 4/4 III. This combination is sometimes called a Re 10/10. If the trains are heavier, then any additional locomotives must be used as banking locomotives at the rear of the train, because the tractive effort of more power at the front of the train would exceed the capacity of the couplers within the train.
Civil engineering
Bridges
The Gotthardbahn and its branchlines pass over a total of 1234 bridges and open passages which span a total of . Arch bridges from stone were only constructed up to a clear width of , bridging larger distances with iron superstructures, which therefore became a frequent sight on the original Gotthard line, their iron representing a weight of 17723 tons. The construction of each bridge represented its own individual challenge, depending on the surrounding geography and geology.With the exception of three arch bridges all steel bridges consisted of very simple, straight, single beam truss constructions. These had to be reinforced already before 1914 still during steam operation of the Gotthardbahn due to quickly increasing traffic and load. Fish-belly truss structures were attached to the bridges from below where possible and an arch truss structure was added from the top, where a short clear height made this necessary, besides other measures. Eventually all original iron bridges had to be replaced with modern bridges because they had been built and were repeatedly reinforced to specifications that again and again were surpassed by increasing traffic, velocity and load.
Notable originally single beam truss bridges on the Gotthardbahn are:
The Chärstelenbach Bridge has two passage ways with clear widths of each and rails at above low water. The bridge was reinforced with a fish-belly structure. The modern replacement still uses the centre column and the stone arch abutments of the original.
The Intschireuss Bridge spans the widest clear width of , with rails at above low water. The bridge was reinforced with a "fish-belly" before the iron structure was replaced.
The Middle Meienreuss Bridge spans with rails above the river bottom. The original iron construction has been replaced.
Current developments
The historical route, with its long climbs and spiral routings, restricts speed and capacity on this important international route. As a result, a largely new lower level route was constructed as the Gotthard axis of the NRLA project.
The Gotthard Base Tunnel, running from a point near Erstfeld to a point near Biasca, opened to traffic on 1 June 2016, with full service starting in December of that year. With a route length of , this is the world's longest railway tunnel, surpassing the Seikan Tunnel in Japan. Its maximum altitude of is less than half the altitude of the current Gotthard Tunnel, and obviates the need to haul trains up long approach grades. Although given its name, because it bypasses the Gotthard Tunnel, the base tunnel's route is actually some to the east, passing under Sedrun, rather than the Gotthard Pass, but still below the Saint-Gotthard Massif.
The Ceneri Base Tunnel, from Camorino to the south of Bellinzona, and Vezia to the north of Lugano, opened in 2020. This tunnel has a route length of and allows trains to bypass the steep grades of Monte Ceneri.
The Gotthard Base Tunnel opened in 2016, and the Ceneri Base Tunnel in 2020. Now that they have opened, all rail traffic still needs to use the existing route north of Erstfeld, between Biasca and Bellinzona, and south of Lugano. The bypassed sections of the existing route are being retained for local passenger services, for general capacity and as a diversionary route.
Further bypasses have been planned as part of the Gotthard axis of the NRLA project, including a new largely tunnelled route from Arth-Goldau to Erstfeld, and an extension of the existing Zimmerberg Base Tunnel on the route between Zürich and Zug. No commitment to construct these sections of line has yet been made.
Operator Sudostbahn has announced, as of 13 December 2020, it will run a new service from Basel and Zurich via the original Gotthard line, using Stadler Flirt units which are also used on the Voralpen express.
See also
NRLA and the Lötschberg railway, Switzerland's other major Alpine freight corridor.
Saint-Gotthard Massif
Gotthard Pass
Gotthard Base Tunnel
References
Further reading
External links
Detailed description by Bruno Lämmli (in German)
Gotthardbahn-website by Waldis Carl (in German)
illustrated description of the route
Defunct railway companies of Switzerland
International railway lines
Railway lines in Switzerland
Railway lines opened in 1882
Transport in the canton of Uri
Transport in the canton of Schwyz
Transport in Ticino
Cross-border railway lines in Italy
Transport in the Alps |
4109849 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rami%20Malek | Rami Malek | Rami Said Malek (; , ; born May 12, 1981) is an American actor. He is known for portraying computer hacker Elliot Alderson in the USA Network television series Mr. Robot (2015–2019), for which he received the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Drama Series, and as Queen lead singer Freddie Mercury in the biographical film Bohemian Rhapsody (2018), for which he won numerous accolades, including the Academy Award for Best Actor, becoming the first actor of Egyptian heritage to win in that category. Time magazine named Malek one of the 100 most influential people in the world in 2019.
Born in Torrance, California, to Egyptian immigrant parents, he studied theater before acting in plays in New York City. He had supporting roles in film and television, including the Fox sitcom The War at Home (2005–2007), the HBO miniseries The Pacific (2010), and the Night at the Museum film trilogy (2006–2014). Since his breakthrough, Malek has starred in the crime film The Little Things (2021), played the main antagonist Lyutsifer Safin in the James Bond film No Time to Die (2021), and portrayed David Hill in Christopher Nolan's biographical film Oppenheimer (2023).
Early life and education
Rami Said Malek was born in Torrance, California, on May 12, 1981, the son of Egyptian immigrant parents Nelly Abdel-Malek and Said Malek (d. 2006). He has said he is also "an eighth Greek". His parents and older sister left Cairo in 1978 after his father, a travel agent and tour guide, became intrigued with Western visitors. They settled in Sherman Oaks, mostly staying in the San Fernando Valley. As a child, Malek rarely ventured into Hollywood, saying "I grew up in the San Fernando Valley in LA, but somehow, I had no idea that I lived right next to Hollywood... I truly thought that that was a million miles away, and it's just a 10-minute drive". His father sold insurance and was a travel agent, while his mother worked as an accountant. Malek was raised in his family's Coptic Orthodox Christian faith, and spoke Egyptian Arabic at home until the age of four. He has an identical twin brother named Sami, who is younger by four minutes and later became an ESL and English teacher. His older sister, Yasmine, is an ER doctor. His parents emphasized to their children the importance of preserving their Egyptian roots, and his father would wake him up in the middle of the night to talk on the phone to his Arabic-speaking extended family in Samalut.
As a first-generation American, Malek found it difficult to assimilate during his childhood because of cultural differences, even spending most of his childhood having his name mispronounced: "It only took me 'til high school where I found the confidence to tell everybody, 'No, my name is Rami.' It's a very upsetting thing to think about, that I didn't have the confidence to correct anyone at that point." As a result, he said it was difficult to form a self-identity as a child and gravitated towards "creating characters and doing voices" as he searched for an outlet for his energy.
Malek attended Notre Dame High School, where he was in the same class as actress Rachel Bilson. Actress Kirsten Dunst also attended the school and shared a musical theater class with him. His parents harbored dreams of him becoming a lawyer, so he joined the debate team in his freshman year. Though he struggled to form arguments, his debate teacher noted his talent in dramatic interpretation and encouraged him instead to perform the one-man play Zooman and The Sign at a competition. Reflecting on the moment, he said, "On stage I'm having this moment with my dad with a bunch of other people [in the audience], but then I thought, 'Wow, something really special is happening here.'" It was the first time he saw his father become emotional, and his parents' positive reaction to his performance left him feeling free to pursue an acting career. He and his brother were both involved in the school's drama department.
After graduating in 1999, Malek went on to study theater at the University of Evansville in Evansville, Indiana. He also spent a semester abroad in England, where he studied at Harlaxton College in Harlaxton, Lincolnshire. During the summer before his senior year, he interned at the Eugene O'Neill Theater Center in Waterford, Connecticut, where he became an acquaintance of playwright August Wilson. Of his decision to attend the University of Evansville theater program, he said, "The level of talent at the University of Evansville was formidable from faculty to fellow actors. There's a commitment and dedication that the theater program required that unearthed a work ethic I didn't know I had." He completed his BFA in 2003. The college later honored him with a 2017 Young Alumnus Award, given to those who have "achieved personal success and contribute services to their community and to UE".
Career
2004–2009: Early work
After his college graduation, Malek wanted to attend grad school for theater; with college debt growing, he moved to New York, where he shared a one-bedroom Lower East Side apartment with friends who were also in the theater community. His network of friends included writers and directors, many of whom would come together to form the Slant Theatre Project, and they would perform their own plays around the city. While visiting his family in Los Angeles, Malek met casting director Mali Finn, who convinced him to stay and look for work in Hollywood. After moving back in with his parents, he took jobs delivering pizzas and making falafel and shawarma sandwiches at a restaurant in Hollywood to make ends meet. Despite sending his resume to production houses, he found it difficult to get work as an actor, which led to bouts of depression and a loss of confidence. He considered getting a real estate license instead of pursuing an acting career.
After a year and a half, Malek finally received a call from casting director Mara Casey. She asked to speak to his agent. When he confessed he did not have one, she told him to get one first. After having a pleasant conversation, however, Malek suggested they meet anyway. She agreed, and the meeting led to him getting his first role in the TV sitcom Gilmore Girls; the episode he acted in first aired in January 2004. That same year, he starred in the theater production Johnny Boy at the 130-seat Falcon Theatre in Burbank, California and, later, in the production Shoes opposite Kelli Giddish with the Slant Theatre Project in New York City. He also voiced "additional characters" for the video game Halo 2, for which he was uncredited. In 2005, he received his Screen Actors Guild card for his work in two episodes of the Steven Bochco war drama Over There. Later that year, he appeared in an episode of Medium and was cast in the prominent recurring role of Kenny, on the Fox comedy series The War at Home. Kenny's "coming out" story earned accolades from GLAAD. In 2006, Malek made his feature film debut as Pharaoh Ahkmenrah in the comedy Night at the Museum. He reprised this role in the sequels Night at the Museum: Battle of the Smithsonian (2009) and Night at the Museum: Secret of the Tomb (2014). In the spring of 2007, he appeared on-stage as Jamie in the Vitality Productions theatrical presentation of Keith Bunin's The Credeaux Canvas at the Elephant Theatre in Los Angeles.
2010–2015: Supporting roles
Malek returned to television in 2010 in a recurring role as the suicide bomber Marcos Al-Zacar on the eighth season of the Fox series 24. Growing weary of playing characters he called "acceptable terrorists", he instructed his agent to reject any role that painted Arabs or Middle Easterners in a "bad light". Later that year, he received critical acclaim for his portrayal of Corporal Merriell "Snafu" Shelton in the Emmy Award-winning HBO World War II mini-series The Pacific. After the intensity of filming The Pacific, he chose to leave Hollywood and lived briefly in Argentina, though he says it was unsuccessful and he has "since found better ways of coping". During the filming of The Pacific, Malek received a letter from executive producer Tom Hanks praising Malek's performance. Hanks would then cast him as college student Steve Dibiasi in the feature film Larry Crowne, released in July 2011.
Those opportunities led to Malek securing supporting roles in a series of major films. In August 2010, it was announced that he had been cast as the "Egyptian coven" vampire, Benjamin, in The Twilight Saga: Breaking Dawn – Part 2. In 2013 he played Nate, a new employee at a group home for youths, in the indie film Short Term 12, opposite Brie Larson. He appeared in two Spike Lee films during this period, the 2012 remake of the South Korean film Oldboy, in a part that was trimmed significantly, and later in the crowdfunded picture Da Sweet Blood of Jesus. The two men have remained friends. He also had minor roles in Battleship, the Oscar-nominated The Master, and Ain't Them Bodies Saints. He appeared as Josh, one of the main characters in Until Dawn, a horror game released for the PlayStation 4 on August 25, 2015. He lent his voice and likeness to the character and was fully motion-captured for the game.
2015–present: Breakthrough and acclaim
Screenwriter Sam Esmail had auditioned over 100 actors to play the lead character of Elliot Alderson (a mentally unstable computer-hacker) for a show he was developing. Having failed to cast the part, he considered re-writing the character altogether. However, after seeing Malek's audition in late summer 2014, Esmail said, "It opened my eyes to who Elliot really was". The resultant psychological drama, Mr. Robot, premiered on June 24, 2015, on the USA Network, with Malek in the lead role. To accurately play the character, who suffers from mental and social disorders, he met with a psychologist. The role drew immediate acclaim from critics, with USA Today calling it his "breakout performance". Entertainment Weekly called Malek's "magnetic performance" the "best reason" to watch the show. Backstage remarked that Malek "anchored the drama" and that his "spin" on the anti-hero trope "promises a fresh direction for prestige TV". His performance earned him nominations for the Dorian Award, Satellite Award, Golden Globe Award, and Screen Actors Guild Award. He won the Critics' Choice Television Award for Best Actor in a Drama Series and the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Drama Series. He was the first non-white actor to win an Emmy in that category since 1998. The show concluded in December 2019 with its fourth season, for which Malek received a third Golden Globe nomination for Best Actor in a Television Series – Drama.
Though he was among 3000 actors considered to play Han Solo in Solo: A Star Wars Story, Malek had his first starring role in Buster's Mal Heart, which premiered in September 2016 at the Toronto International Film Festival to positive reviews. In it, Malek plays a man who leads two lives, one as Jonah and another as Buster. Casting him in the role before his success with Mr. Robot, the director, Sarah Adina Smith, said, "I had no idea how huge and adored he would become". Reviewing the actor's performance, John DeFore of The Hollywood Reporter wrote, "Fans of Mr. Robot won't be disappointed in the least by this vehicle for Emmy-winning series star Rami Malek, which both fits in with Mr. Robot's delusion-prone paranoia and lets the charismatic actor stretch out in his first feature lead". Malek next starred as Louis Dega in Papillon, a remake of the 1973 film, co-starring Charlie Hunnam. It premiered at the 2017 Toronto International Film Festival, and had a limited box office release in August 2018. In 2017, Malek joined the cast of the Netflix animated comedy series BoJack Horseman (season 4), voicing the character Flip McVicker, a writer who does not trust email.
In 2018, Malek portrayed Freddie Mercury in the Queen biopic, Bohemian Rhapsody. The film premiered in London on October 23, 2018, and became a major box office success, grossing over $900 million worldwide on a production budget of about $50 million. It became the sixth highest-grossing film of 2018 worldwide, and the highest-grossing musical biographical film of all-time. Though the film received mixed reviews overall, Malek's performance was acclaimed by critics. He won the Golden Globe for Best Actor in a Motion Picture Drama, the Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Male Actor in a Leading Role, the BAFTA Award for Best Actor in a Leading Role and the Academy Award for Best Actor for his performance in the film. In preparation for the role as Mercury, Malek moved to London where he worked with a dialect coach and a movement coach, and took piano and singing lessons. For four hours each day, he studied videos of Mercury with his movement coach, Polly Bennett. This included watching the 1985 Live Aid concert video on YouTube at least 1,500 times to perfect his performance for the film. He also had to get used to speaking and singing with a set of false teeth that mimicked Mercury's overbite. Brian May, Queen's guitarist who often attended filming, is quoted as saying that Malek's performance was so accurate that "we sometimes forgot he was Rami". Malek considers his role as Mercury the most important of his career, saying: This is a role I don't think can be outdone. I think we're always searching for that next great role, and I guess I'm fortunate that I've already been met with it. I'd like to think that there is more out there for me to do, and there is, but I do doubt that there is anything that lives up to how precious this role and this human being have been in my life.
In December 2018, it was announced that Malek would produce and star in an eight-episode podcast called Blackout. Scott Conroy was the writer of the podcast, a thriller about a small-town radio DJ who must "fight to protect his family and community from a coordinated attack that destroys the power grid and upends modern civilization". The podcast debuted with two episodes on March 19, 2019, with six subsequent episodes premiering weekly. It won the 2020 Webby Award for Best Scripted Podcast (Fiction). Malek also voiced Chee-Chee the gorilla in Dolittle, starring Robert Downey Jr.; the film was produced in 2018 and released in January 2020. In May 2019, Malek joined the cast of the crime thriller The Little Things, opposite Denzel Washington and Jared Leto. The film was released on January 29, 2021. On April 25, 2019, Malek was cast as the main villain in the James Bond film No Time to Die; he plays the "supervillain" Lyutsifer Safin. Principal photography on the film began in April 2019 and wrapped that October. It had an initial release date of April 2020, but, due to COVID-19 related delays, was moved to October 2021. To support the release of the film, Malek hosted Saturday Night Live in October 2021.
Malek was part of the all-star ensemble cast in David O. Russell's Amsterdam; the film was produced in early 2021 and released in October 2022. On December 2021, it was announced that Malek was joining the cast of Christopher Nolan's Oppenheimer. In it he portrayed physicist David L. Hill. The film premiered on July 11, 2023.
Forthcoming projects
From 2018, Malek was developing a film for Universal Pictures with Mr. Robot creator Sam Esmail based on the memoir American Radical by Tamer Elnoury and Kevin Maurer; the story centers on an undercover Muslim FBI agent working for the agency post-9/11. Nazrin Choudhury was chosen to pen the screenplay. In April 2022, Esmail stated that the project was not going ahead, but that he and Malek were determined to collaborate on something else, and previously mentioned their talks about another movie project. During the press tour for Bohemian Rhapsody, Malek said he is working on a film, one he plans to write, produce, and direct himself on a small budget, since it is a story that he says "might get passed on by studios looking for something a bit more broad and commercial".
In February 2023, Malek was announced to be starring in the thriller film The Amateur.
Acting style
Malek's early roles established him as a character actor. He has remarked that he enjoys the auditioning process, sees it as a "proving ground to test things out", and has created so many diverse characters for auditions that he wishes he could collect them as a package to show to others. After reading his own Wikipedia article, Malek elaborated and said, "I would take the time to prepare for auditions as if I was actually gonna perform. I would come with something fully formed and hope that that resonated. Sometimes it did, many times it didn't but that's the proving ground and I appreciate it". However, following his success with Mr. Robot, he began to be regarded as a "leading man", though an "unconventional" one. He is portrayed by comedian Pete Davidson in Saturday Night Live sketches parodying the character. In 2017, Malek accepted an invitation to join the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences, among 774 new members invited as part of the academy's efforts to diversify its members after criticism over the lack of diversity of the 88th Academy Awards.
To prepare for a role, he describes an initial stage of panic, followed by research into the character to create a world for that person. This includes finding music he thinks the character would listen to, as well as creating and imagining memories for that person to the point he has to perform as them. His most creative times are mornings and evenings. Malek likes to do experimental takes until he finds a take that will work. Director Sam Esmail noted that Malek is often dissatisfied with his work even when the director feels he has completed a perfect take. Because of their mutual insistence on getting a scene the best it can be, Esmail considers Malek a "co-creator". The actor has also been noted for his physical transformations to play his characters. He lost significant weight to play Elliot Alderson, Freddie Mercury, and Snafu Shelton, where Tom Hanks required that he maintain between six and eight-percent body fat. During the filming of The Pacific, Malek found it difficult to separate himself from his character, Snafu Shelton, which led to "some pretty intense mental anguish during and after filming". He noted the most valuable lesson from that experience was learning to distance himself from his characters, otherwise he would not have been able to take on complex roles later in his career, like Elliot Alderson in Mr. Robot.
Public image
Malek's appearance has inspired commentary in the industry and in the media. GQ Middle East called Malek's aspect "vampiric ... with one of those faces that looks young and mature, all at once. When you speak, Malek's oversized eyes give you full attention". In a letter to the producer after Malek's audition for The Pacific, Tom Hanks remarked, "This guy's got haunting eyes". The Globe and Mail, in an interview after the 2016 Toronto International Film Festival, described the actor as "startlingly handsome ... with tawny skin and close-cropped curly hair. ... He speaks in a slow, just-woke-up drawl that contrasts with his dazzling smile and anything-goes energy. And he's mostly eyes. Giant, chalky blue eyes, the colour of one of those preternaturally still mineral lakes in the Rockies. They seem to see both outwardly and inwardly. They're sad, yet amused. Thousand-mile eyes".
He has also garnered attention for his fashion sense, particularly for his bold color choices and "quirky touches".
He was chosen (along with Boy George and A$AP Rocky) to be part of Dior Homme's Spring 2017 campaign, and the face of Saint Laurent's Spring/Summer 2020 campaign. GQ Middle East launched in October 2018 with Malek on its first cover. Fashion commentators have included him on their "best-dressed" lists, often at red-carpet events. Placing him at number 29 on its list of Best Dressed Men 2019, GQ called his looks, "neat, elegant and perfectly put together, ... experimental on the surface, but underneath they're also surprisingly approachable". Ilaria Urbinati is his stylist.
Over time, Malek's prominence in the industry has grown. In 2015, The Hollywood Reporter included him on Next Gen 2015, its annual list of stars who are 35 and under and "on the rise". Time magazine named Malek one of the 100 most influential people in the world in 2019 under the category of Artists.
The actor has lent his support to charities, such as the Epidermolysis Bullosa Medical Research Foundation and the ACLU. In September 2018, Malek started working with the (RED) organization after being inspired by his Freddie Mercury role. As an ambassador to raise awareness and funds to help eliminate HIV/AIDS, Malek traveled to Eswatini to "learn more about the state of HIV/AIDS in sub-Saharan Africa". During his visit, Malek said, "To collectively come together and tackle, you know, arguably one of the largest, most horrific diseases anyone has ever known. That can happen right now. I can't think of anything that I'd rather be a part of, more than fulfilling any personal dream or aspiration".
Personal life
Malek tends to be reserved in interviews, having mentioned in one of them his desire to stay "anonymous" abroad. He avoids social media. The New York Times called him "extremely reluctant to dish about himself". He says he is the opposite of the introverted character of Elliot that he plays in Mr. Robot, saying, "I'm an exuberant person. I thrive on affection. I like chit chat ... One of the great things about living in New York is that you meet so many strangers, and I love encounters with strangers; I love meeting people and hearing their stories".
In 2009, Malek moved into a house in the Laurel Canyon neighborhood of Los Angeles, alongside his brother. He purchased a neighboring house in 2021.
Malek dated his Bohemian Rhapsody co-star Lucy Boynton from 2018 to 2023.
Awards and nominations
Malek has been nominated for and won several major industry awards. For his work on Mr. Robot, he has been nominated for three Golden Globes, an Emmy, two Satellite Awards, and two Screen Actors Guild Awards, among others, winning an Emmy for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Drama Series in 2016. He won an Academy Award for Best Actor, a Golden Globe for the Best Actor in a Motion Picture Drama, the Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Male Actor in a Leading Role, and the BAFTA Award for Best Actor in a Leading Role for his performance as Freddie Mercury in Bohemian Rhapsody.
He is the first actor of Egyptian heritage to win the Academy Award for Best Actor. While his win was celebrated in Egypt by the media and some government officials, Member of Parliament Mohamed Ismail criticized Malek's win: "I was surprised by the Egyptian media's celebration of Rami Malek, because the role played by Rami Malek in the film is far from his real character. He is trying to [spread] homosexuality among the youth... The award has a specific goal, which is to corrupt morality in the Arab world. Rami Malek is a bad example. If he was in Egypt, he would have been hanged". The organization Human Rights Watch stated that the country deserved an Oscar for hypocrisy for praising Malek, given its prohibition on LGBT people being celebrated in the media.
Filmography
Film
Television
Theater
Video games
Podcasts
References
Works cited
External links
1981 births
Living people
21st-century American male actors
Actors from Torrance, California
American identical twins
American male film actors
American male television actors
American male video game actors
American male voice actors
American people of Coptic descent
American people of Egyptian descent
American people of Greek descent
Best Actor AACTA International Award winners
Best Actor Academy Award winners
Best Actor BAFTA Award winners
Best Drama Actor Golden Globe (film) winners
HIV/AIDS activists
Identical twin male actors
Male actors from Los Angeles
Notre Dame High School (Sherman Oaks, California) alumni
Outstanding Performance by a Lead Actor in a Drama Series Primetime Emmy Award winners
Outstanding Performance by a Male Actor in a Leading Role Screen Actors Guild Award winners
University of Evansville alumni |
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