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4364925 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20Anatolia | History of Anatolia | The history of Anatolia (often referred to in historical sources as Asia Minor) can be roughly subdivided into: Prehistory of Anatolia (up to the end of the 3rd millennium BCE), Ancient Anatolia (including Hattian, Hittite and post-Hittite periods), Classical Anatolia (including Achaemenid, Hellenistic and Roman periods), Byzantine Anatolia (later overlapping, since the 11th century, with the gradual Seljuk and Ottoman conquest), Ottoman Anatolia (14th–20th centuries) and the Modern Anatolia, since the creation of the Republic of Turkey.
Prehistory
Prehistory of Anatolia encompasses the entire prehistoric period, from the earliest archeological records of human presence in Anatolia, to the advent of historical era, marked by the appearance of literacy and historical sources related to the territory of Anatolia ( 2000 BCE). In 2014, a stone tool was found in the Gediz River that was dated with certainty to 1.2 million years ago. The 27,000 years old homo sapiens footprints of Kula and Karain Cave are samples for human existence in Anatolia, in this period. Because of its strategic location at the intersection of Asia and Europe, Anatolia has been the center of several civilizations since prehistoric times. Neolithic settlements include Çatalhöyük, Çayönü, Nevalı Çori, Hacılar, Göbekli Tepe, and Mersin.
Ancient Anatolia
Early Bronze Age
Bronze metallurgy spread to Anatolia from the Transcaucasian Kura-Araxes culture in the late 4th millennium BCE, marking the beginning of the Bronze Age in the region. Anatolia remained in the prehistoric period until it entered the sphere of influence of the Akkadian Empire in the 24th century BCE under Sargon I. The oldest recorded name for any region within Anatolia is related to its central areas, known as the "Land of Hatti". That designation that was initially used for the land of ancient Hattians, but later became the most common name for the entire territory under the rule of ancient Hittites. The interest of Akkad in the region as far as it is known was for exporting various materials for manufacturing. While Anatolia was well endowed with copper ores, there is no trace as yet of substantial workings of the tin required to make bronze in Bronze-Age Anatolia. Akkad suffered problematic climate changes in Mesopotamia, as well as a reduction in available manpower that affected trade. This led to the fall of the Akkadians around 2150 BCE at the hands of the Gutians.
Middle Bronze Age
The Old Assyrian Empire claimed the resources for themselves after the Gutians were vanquished, notably silver. One of the numerous Assyrian cuneiform records found in Anatolia at Kanesh uses an advanced system of trading computations and credit lines.
The Hittite Old Kingdom emerges towards the close of the Middle Bronze Age, conquering Hattusa under Hattusili I (17th century BCE).
The Anatolian Middle Bronze Age influenced the Minoan culture on Crete as evidenced by archaeological recovery at Knossos.
Late Bronze Age
The Hittite Empire was at its height in the 14th century BCE, encompassing central Anatolia, north-western Syria as far as Ugarit, and upper Mesopotamia. Kizzuwatna in southern Anatolia controlled the region separating Hatti from Syria, thereby greatly affecting trade routes. The peace was kept in accordance with both empires through treaties that established boundaries of control. It was not until the reign of the Hittite king Suppiluliumas that Kizzuwatna was taken over fully, although the Hittites still preserved their cultural accomplishments in Kummanni (now Şar, Turkey) and Lazawantiya, north of Cilicia.
After the 1180s BCE, amid general turmoil in the Levant associated with the sudden arrival of the Sea Peoples, the empire disintegrated into several independent "Neo-Hittite" city-states, some of which survived until as late as the 8th century BCE. The history of the Hittite civilization is known mostly from cuneiform texts found in the area of their empire, and from diplomatic and commercial correspondence found in various archives in Egypt and the Middle East.
Iron Age
Beginning with the Bronze Age collapse at the end of the 2nd millennium BC, the west coast of Anatolia was settled by Ionian Greeks, usurping the related but earlier Mycenaean Greeks. Over several centuries, numerous Ancient Greek city-states were established on the coasts of Anatolia. Greeks started Western philosophy on the western coast of Anatolia (Pre-Socratic philosophy).
The Phrygian Kingdom essentially came into being after the fragmentation of the Hittite Empire during the 12th century BCE, and existed independently until the 7th century BCE. Possibly from the region of Thrace, the Phrygians eventually established their capital of Gordium (now in Yassıhüyük, Polatlı). Known as Mushki by the Assyrians, the Phrygian people lacked central control in their style of government, and yet established an extensive network of roads. They also held tightly onto a lot of the Hittite facets of culture and adapted them over time.
Shrouded in myth and legend promulgated by ancient Greek and Roman writers is King Midas, the last king of the Phrygian Kingdom. The mythology of Midas revolves around his ability to turn objects to gold by mere touch, as granted by Dionysos, and his unfortunate encounter with Apollo from which his ears are turned into the ears of a donkey. The historical record of Midas shows that he lived approximately between 740 and 696 BCE, and represented Phrygia as a great king. Most historians now consider him to be King Mita of the Mushkis as noted in Assyrian accounts. The Assyrians thought of Mita as a dangerous foe, for Sargon II, their ruler at the time, was quite happy to negotiate a peace treaty in 709 BCE. This treaty had no effect on the advancing Cimmerians, who streamed into Phrygia and led to the downfall and suicide of King Midas in 696 BCE.
Maeonia and the Lydian Kingdom
Lydia, or Maeonia as it was called before 687 BCE, was a major part of the history of western Anatolia, beginning with the Atyad dynasty, who first appeared around 1300 BCE. The succeeding dynasty, the Heraclids, managed to rule successively from 1185–687 BCE despite a growing presence of Greek influences along the Mediterranean coast. As Greek cities such as Smyrna, Colophon, and Ephesus rose, the Heraclids became weaker and weaker. The last king, Candaules, was murdered by his friend and lance-bearer named Gyges, and he took over as ruler. Gyges waged war against the intruding Greeks, and soon faced by a grave problem as the Cimmerians began to pillage outlying cities within the kingdom. It was this wave of attacks that led to the incorporation of the formerly independent Phrygia and its capital Gordium into the Lydian domain. It was until the successive rules of Sadyattes and Alyattes, ending in 560 BCE, that the attacks of the Cimmerians ended for good. Under the reign of the last Lydian king Croesus, Persia was invaded first at the Battle of Pteria ending without a victor. Progressing deeper into Persia, Croesus was thoroughly defeated in the Battle of Thymbra at the hands of the Persian Cyrus II in 546 BCE.
Classical Anatolia
Achaemenid Empire
By 550 BCE, the Median Empire, which had existed for barely a hundred years, was suddenly torn apart by a Persian rebellion. As Lydia's king, Croesus had a large amount of wealth which to draw from, and he used it to go on the offensive against the Persian king Cyrus the Great. In the end, Croesus was thrust back west and Cyrus burned the Lydian capital Sardis, taking control of Lydia in 546 BCE.
The remaining kingdom of Ionia and several cities of Lydia still refused to fall under Persian domination, and prepared defenses to fight them and sending for aid from Sparta. Since no aid was promised except for a warning to Cyrus from their emissary, eventually their stance was abandoned and they submitted, or they fled as in citizens from Phocaea to Corsica or citizens from Teos to Abdera in Thrace.
The Achaemenid Persian Empire, thus founded by Cyrus the Great, continued its expansion under the Persia king Darius the Great, in which the satrap system of local governors continued to be used and upgraded and other governmental upgrades were carried out. A revolt by Naxos in 502 BCE prompted Aristagoras of Miletus to devise a grandiose plan by which he would give a share of Naxos's wealth to Artaphernes, satrap of Lydia, in return for his aid in quashing the revolt. The failure of Aristagoras in fulfilling his promise of rewards and his conduct disturbed the Persians, so much so that he resorted to convincing his fellow Ionians to revolt against the Persians. This revolt, known as the Ionian Revolt, spread across Anatolia, and with Athenian aid, Aristagoras held firm for a time, despite the loss in the Battle of Ephesus. The burning of Sardis in 498 BCE enraged Darius so much that he swore revenge upon Athens. This event brought down the hammer upon Aristagoras as the Persian army swept through Ionia, re-taking city by city. It was the eventual Battle of Lade outside Miletus in 494 BCE that put an end to the Ionian Revolt once and for all.
Although the Persian Empire had official control of the Carians as a satrap, the appointed local ruler Hecatomnus took advantage of his position. He gained for his family an autonomous hand in control of the province by providing the Persians with regular tribute, avoiding the look of deception. His son Mausolus continued in this manner, and expanded upon the groundwork laid by his father. He first removed the official capital of the satrap from Mylasa to Halicarnassus, gaining a strategic naval advantage as the new capital was on the ocean. On this land he built a strong fortress and a works by which he could build up a strong navy. He shrewdly used this power to guarantee protection for the citizens of Chios, Kos, and Rhodes as they proclaimed independence from Athenian Greece. Mausolus did not live to see his plans realized fully, and his position went to his widow Artemisia. The local control over Caria remained in Hecatomnus's family for another 20 years before the arrival of Alexander the Great.
Hellenistic Anatolia
Alexander the Great
In 336 BCE, King Philip of Macedon was unexpectedly killed, making his son Alexander the new ruler of Macedon as he was very popular. He immediately went to work, raising a force large enough to go up against the Persians, gathering a navy large enough to counter any threats by their powerful navy. Landing on the shores of Anatolia near Sestos on the Gallipoli in 334 BCE, Alexander first faced the Persian army in the Battle of the Granicus, in which the Persians were effectively routed. Using the victory as a springboard for success, Alexander turned his attention to the rest of the western coast, liberating Lydia and Ionia in quick succession. The eventual fall of Miletus led to the brilliant strategy by Alexander to defeat the Persian navy by taking every city along the Mediterranean instead of initiating a very high-risk battle on the sea. By reducing this threat, Alexander turned inland, rolling through Phyrgia, Cappadocia, and finally Cilicia, before reaching Mount Amanus. Scouts for Alexander found the Persian army, under its king Darius III, advancing through the plains of Issus in search of Alexander. At this moment, Alexander realized that the terrain favored his smaller army, and the Battle of Issus began. Darius's army was effectively squeezed by the Macedonians, leading to not only an embarrassing defeat for Darius, but that he fled back across the Euphrates river, leaving the rest of his family in Alexander's hands. Thus, Anatolia was freed from the Persian yoke for good.
Wars of the Diadochi and division of Alexander's empire
In June 323 BCE, Alexander died suddenly, leaving a power vacuum in Macedon, putting all he had worked for at risk. Being that his half-brother Arrhidaeus was unable to rule effectively due to a serious disability, a succession of wars over the rights to his conquests were fought known as the Wars of the Diadochi. Perdiccas, a high-ranking officer of the cavalry, and later Antigonus, the Phrygian satrap, prevailed over the other contenders of Alexander's empire in Asia for a time.
Ptolemy, the governor of Egypt, Lysimachus, and Seleucus, strong leaders of Alexander's, consolidated their positions after the Battle of Ipsus, in which their common rival Antigonus was defeated. The former empire of Alexander was divided as such: Ptolemy gained territory in southern Anatolia, much of Egypt and the Levant, which combined to form the Ptolemaic Empire; Lysimachus controlled western Anatolia and Thrace, while Seleucus claimed the rest of Anatolia as the Seleucid Empire. Only the kingdom of Pontus under Mithridates I managed to gain their independence in Anatolia due to the fact that Antigonus had been a common enemy.
Seleucid Empire
Seleucus I Nicator first created a capital city over the span of 12 years (299–287 BCE) worthy of his personage, Antioch, named after his father Antiochus. He concentrated also on creating a large standing army, and also divided his empire into 72 satrapies for easier administration. After a peaceful beginning, a rift occurred between Lysimachus and Seleucus that led to open warfare in 281 BCE. Even though Seleucus had managed to defeat his former friend and gain his territory at the Battle of Corupedium, it cost him his life as he was assassinated by Ptolemy Keraunos, future king of Macedon, in Lysimachia.
After the death of Seleucus, the empire he left faced many trials, both from internal and external forces. Antiochus I fought off an attack from the Gauls successfully, but could not defeat the King of Pergamon Eumenes I in 262 BCE, guaranteeing Pergamon's independence. Antiochus II named Theos, or "divine", was poisoned by his first wife, who in turn poisoned Berenice Phernophorus, second wife of Antiochus and the daughter of Ptolemy III Euergetes. Antiochus II's son from his first wife, Seleucus II Callinicus, ended up as ruler of the Seleucids after this tragedy. These turn of events made Ptolemy III very angry, and led to the invasion of the empire (the Third Syrian War) in 246 BCE. This invasion leads to victory for Ptolemy III at Antioch and Seleucia, and he grants the lands of Phrygia to Pontus's Mithridates II in 245 BCE as a wedding gift.
Parthia and Pergamon before 200 BCE
Events in the east showed the fragile nature of the Seleucids as a Bactrian-inspired revolt in Parthia begun by its satrap Andragoras in 245 BCE led to the loss of territory bordering Persia. This was coupled with an unexpected invasion of northern Parthia by the nomadic Parni in 238 BCE and a subsequent occupation of the whole of Parthia by one of their leaders, Tiridates. Antiochus II Theos of the Seleucids failed to end the rebellion, and therefore a new kingdom was created, the Parthian Empire, under Tiridates's brother Arsaces I. Parthia extended to the Euphrates river at the height of its power.
The kingdom of Pergamon under the Attalid dynasty was an independent kingdom established after the rule of Philetaerus by his nephew Eumenes I. Eumenes enlarged Pergamon to include parts of Mysia and Aeolis, and held tightly onto the ports of Elaia and Pitane. Attalus I, successor of Eumenes I, remained active outside of the boundaries of Pergamon. He refused protection payment to the Galatians and won a fight against them in 230 BCE, and then defeated Antiochus Hierax three years later in order to secure nominal control over Anatolia under the Seleucids. The victory was not to last as Seleucus III reestablished control of his empire, but Attalus was allowed to retain control of former territories of Pergamon.
The dealings with Attalus proved to be the last time the Seleucids had any meaningful success in Anatolia as the Roman Empire lay on the horizon. After that victory, Seleucus's heirs would never again expand their empire.
Roman Anatolia
Roman intervention in Anatolia
In the Second Punic War, Rome had suffered in Spain, Africa, and Italy because of the impressive strategies of Hannibal, the famous Carthaginian general. When Hannibal entered into an alliance with Philip V of Macedon in 215 BCE, Rome used a small naval force with the Aetolian League to help ward off Hannibal in the east and to prevent Macedonian expansion in western Anatolia. Attalus I of Pergamon, along with Rhodes, traveled to Rome and helped convince the Romans that war against Macedon was supremely necessary. The Roman general Titus Quinctius Flamininus not only soundly defeated Philip's army in the Battle of Cynoscephalae in 197 BCE, but also brought further hope to the Greeks when he said that an autonomous Greece and Greek cities in Anatolia was what Rome desired.
During the period just after Rome's victory, the Aetolian League desired some of the spoils left in the wake of Philip's defeat, and requested a shared expedition with Antiochus III of the Seleucids to obtain it. Despite warnings by Rome, Antiochus left Thrace and ventured into Greece, deciding to ally himself with the League. This was intolerable for Rome, and they soundly defeated him in Thessaly at Thermopylae before Antiochus retreated to Anatolia near Sardis. Combining forces with the Romans, Eumenes II of Pergamon met Antiochus in the Battle of Magnesia in 189 BCE. There Antiochus was thrashed by an intensive cavalry charge by the Romans and an outflanking maneuver by Eumenes.
Because of the Treaty of Apamea the very next year, Pergamon was granted all of the Seleucid lands north of the Taurus mountains and Rhodes was given all that remained. This seemingly great reward would be the downfall of Eumenes as an effective ruler, for after Pergamon defeated Prusias I of Bithynia and Pharnaces I of Pontus, he delved too deeply into Roman affairs and the Roman senate became alarmed. When Eumenes put down an invasion by the Galatians in 184 BCE, Rome countered his victory by freeing them, providing a heavy indicator that the scope of Pergamon's rule was now stunted.
The interior of Anatolia had been relatively stable despite occasional incursions by the Galatians until the rise of the kingdoms of Pontus and Cappadocia in the 2nd century BCE. Cappadocia under Ariarathes IV initially was allied with the Seleucids in their war against Rome, but he soon changed his mind and repaired relations with them by marriage and his conduct. His son, Ariarathes V Philopator, continued his father's policy of allying with Rome and even joined with them in battle against Prusias I of Bithynia when he died in 131 BCE. Pontus had been an independent kingdom since the rule of Mithridates when the threat of Macedon had been removed. Despite several attempts by the Seleucid Empire to defeat Pontus, independence was maintained. When Rome became involved in Anatolian affairs under Pharnaces I, an alliance was formed that guaranteed protection for the kingdom. The other major kingdom in Anatolia, Bithynia, established by Nicomedes I at Nicomedia, always maintained good relations with Rome. Even under the hated Prusias II of Bithynia when that relationship was strained it did not cause much trouble.
The rule of Rome in Anatolia was unlike any other part of their empire because of their light hand with regards to government and organization. Controlling unstable elements within the region was made simpler by the bequeathal of Pergamon to the Romans by its last king, Attalus III in 133 BCE. The new territory was named the province of Asia by Roman consul Manius Aquillius the Elder.
The Mithridatic Wars
The Mithridatic Wars were preceded by infighting that drew Rome into a war against Italian rebels known as the Social War in 90 BCE. Mithridates VI of Pontus decided that it was time to strike in Anatolia while Rome was occupied, overrunning Bithynia. Though he withdrew when this was demanded of him by Rome he did not agree to all Romes demands. As a result, Rome encouraged Bithynia to attack Pontus but Bithynia was defeated. Mithridates then marched into the Roman province of Asia, where he persuaded Greeks to slaughter as many Italians as possible (the Asiatic Vespers). Despite a power struggle within Rome itself, consul Cornelius Sulla went to Anatolia to defeat the Pontian king. Sulla defeated him thoroughly in and left Mithridates with only Pontus in the Treaty of Dardanos.
In 74 BCE, another Anatolian kingdom passed under Roman control as Nicomedes IV of Bithynia instructed it to be done after his death. Making Bithynia a Roman province soon after roused Mithridates VI to once again go after more territory, and he invaded it in the same year. Rome this time sent consul Lucius Licinius Lucullus to take back control of the province. The expedition proved to be very positive as Mithridates was driven back into the mountains.
The failure of Lucius Licinius Lucullus to rid Rome once and for all of Mithridates brought a lot of opposition back at home, some fueled by the great Roman consul Pompey. A threat by pirates on the Roman food supply in the Aegean Sea brought Pompey once again to the forefront of Roman politics, and he drove them back to Cilicia. The powers granted Pompey after this success allowed him to not only throw back Mithridates all the way to the Bosphorus, but made neighboring Armenia a client kingdom. In the end, Mithridates committed suicide in 63 BCE, and therefore allowed Rome to add Pontus as a protectorate along with Cilicia as a Roman province. This left only Galatia, Pisidia and Cappadocia, all ruled by Amyntas in whole, as the last remaining kingdom not under a protectorate or provincial status. However, in 25 BCE, Amyntas died while pursuing enemies in the Taurus mountains, and Rome claimed his lands as a province, leaving Anatolia completely in Roman hands.
Christianity in Anatolia during Roman times
Jewish influences in Anatolia were changing the religious makeup of the region as Rome consolidated its power. In about 210 BCE, Antiochus III of the Seleucid Empire relocated 2,000 families of Jews from Babylonia to Lydia and Phrygia, and this kind of migration continued throughout the remainder of the Empire's existence. Additional clues to the size of the Jewish influence in the area were provided by Cicero, who noted that a fellow Roman governor had halted the tribute sent to Jerusalem by Jews in 66 BCE, and the record of Ephesus, where the people urged Agrippina to expel Jews because they were not active in their religious activities.
The blossoming religious following of Christianity was evident in Anatolia during the beginning of the 1st century. The letters of St. Paul in the New Testament reflect this growth, particularly in his home province of Asia. From his home in Ephesus from 54 AD to 56 AD he noted that "all they which dwelt in Asia heard the word" and verified the existence of a church in Colossae as well as Troas. Later he received letters from Magnesia and Tralleis, both of which already had churches, bishops, and official representatives who supported Ignatius of Antioch. After the references to these institutions by St. Paul, the Book of Revelation mentions the Seven Churches of Asia: Ephesus, Magnesia, Thyatira, Smyrna, Philadelphia, Pergamon, and Laodicea. Even other non-Christians started to take notice of the new religion. In 112 the Roman governor in Bithynia writes to the Roman emperor Trajan that so many different people are flocking to Christianity, leaving the temples vacated.
Anatolia before the 4th century: Peace and the Goths
From the rule of Augustus onwards until that of Constantine I, Anatolia enjoyed relative peace that allowed itself to grow as a region. The emperor Augustus removed all debts owed to the Roman Empire by the provinces and protectorates there, making advanced progress possible. Roads were built to connect the larger cities in order to improve trade and transportation, and the abundance of high outputs in agricultural pursuits made more money for everyone involved. Settlement was encouraged, and local governors did not place a heavy burden upon the people with regards to taxation. The wealth gained from the peace and prosperity prevented great tragedy as powerful earthquakes tore through the region, and help was given from the Roman government and other parties. Through it all was produced some of the most respected scientific men of that period- the philosopher Dio of Bithynia, the medical mind of Galen from Pergamon, and the historians Memnon of Heraclea and Cassius Dio of Nicaea.
By the middle of the 3rd century, everything that had been built by peace was being threatened by a new enemy, the Goths. As the inroads to central Europe through Macedonia, Italy, and Germania were all defended successfully by the Romans, the Goths found Anatolia to be irresistible due to its wealth and deteriorating defenses. Using a captured fleet of ships from the Bosphorus and flat-bottomed boats to cross the Black Sea, they sailed in 256 around the eastern shores, landing in the coastal city of Trebizond. What ensued was a huge embarrassment for Pontus — the wealth of the city was absconded, a larger number of ships were confiscated, and they entered the interior without much to turn them back. A second invasion of Anatolia through Bithynia brought even more terror inland and wanton destruction. The Goths entered Chalcedon and used it as a base by which to expand their operations, sacking Nicomedia, Prusa, Apamea, Cius, and Nice in turn. Only the turn of the weather during a fall season kept them from doing any more harm to those outside the realm of the province. The Goths managed a third attack upon not only the coastline of western Anatolia, but in Greece and Italy as well. Despite the Romans under their emperor Valerian finally turning them away, it did not stop the Goths from first destroying the Temple of Diana in Ephesus and the city itself in 263.
Byzantine Anatolia
The constant instability of the Roman Empire as a whole gradually made it more and more difficult to control. Upon the ascension of the emperor Constantine in 330, he made a bold decision by removing himself from Rome and into a new capital. Located in the old city of Byzantium, now known as Constantinople after the emperor, it was strengthened and improved in order to assure more than adequate defense of the whole region. What added to the prestige of the city was Constantine's favor of Christianity. He allowed bishops and other religious figures to aid in the government of the empire, and he personally intervened in the First Council of Nicaea to prove his sincerity.
The next forty years after the death of Constantine in 337 saw a power struggle amongst his descendants for control of the empire. His three sons, Constantine, Constans, and Constantius were unable to coexist peacefully under a joint rule, and they eventually resorted to violent means to end the arrangement. A short time after taking power, a purge of a majority of their relations began and the blood of Constantine's progeny flowed. Eventually Constans came after and killed Constantine II near Aquileia, but was soon removed and himself murdered by his own army. This left Constantius II as the sole emperor of the Byzantines, but even this would not last. Despite supporting his cousin Julian as commander of the armies in Gaul, events soon forced Julian to ignore Constantine's orders to move eastward with his armies and to head straight for Constantinople to claim the imperial purple. The death of Constantius II in Tarsus resulted in a bloodless transfer of power in 361. Julian did not survive but a scant year and a half thanks to a Persian spear, but during that time he tried to revert what progress Christianity had made after the founding of the empire. Even on his deathbed he was supposed to have said "Thou hast conquered, Galilean.", a reference to Christianity besting him.
The threat of barbarian invasion and its effects upon the Roman Empire in the west carried over into the east. After a short rule by the emperor Jovian and a joint rule of both empires by Valentinian II in the west and Valens in the east, the young emperor Gratian made what was to be a very fortunate decision. He chose the favored general Theodosius I to rule with his as a co-emperor, granting him authority over all of the domains of the Byzantine empire in 379. This proved to be a wise decision with regards to the survival of his newly obtained dominion, for he immediately set about healing the religious rifts that had emerged during the insecurity of past years. The practice of Arianism and pagan rites were abolished, and the standards set by Constantine in Nicaea were restored by law. By 395, the year in which the Roman Empire was officially divided in half and the aptly named Theodosius the Great died, the east was so strong that it could now be considered an equal.
The Byzantine Empire was the predominantly Greek-speaking continuation of the Roman Empire during Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages. Its capital city was Constantinople (modern-day Istanbul), originally known as Byzantium. Initially the eastern half of the Roman Empire (often called the Eastern Roman Empire in this context), it survived the 5th century fragmentation and fall of the Western Roman Empire and continued to exist for an additional thousand years until it fell to the Ottoman Turks in 1453.
Persian intervention
The Sassanid Persians, after having fought centuries of wars against the Byzantines and at their peak sieged Constantinople together with the Avars, paved the way for a new threat to enter onto the scene; the Arabs.
Arab conquests and threats
Arab attacks throughout the empire reduced significantly the territory once held under Justinian.
The Seljuks and Anatolian beyliks
The population of Anatolia and Balkans including Greece was estimated at 10.7 million in 600 CE, whereas Asia Minor was probably around 8 million during the early part of Middle Ages (950 to 1348 CE). The estimated population for Asia Minor around 1204 CE was 6 million, including 3 million in Seljuk territory. The migration of Turks to the country of modern Turkey occurred during the main Turkic migration across most of Central Asia and into Europe and the Middle East which was between the 6th and 11th centuries. Mainly Turkic people living in the Seljuk Empire arrived in Turkey during the eleventh century. The Seljuks proceeded to gradually conquer the Anatolian part of the Byzantine Empire.
The House of Seljuk was a branch of the Kınık Oğuz Turks who resided on the periphery of the Muslim world, north of the Caspian and Aral Seas in the Yabghu Khaganate of the Oğuz confederacy in the 10th century. In the 11th century, the Turkic people living in the Seljuk Empire started migrating from their ancestral homelands towards east of Anatolia, which eventually became a new homeland of Oğuz Turkic tribes following the Battle of Manzikert on August 26, 1071.
The victory of the Seljuks gave rise to the Seljuk Sultanate of Rum, a separate branch of the larger Seljuk Empire and to some Turkish principalities (beyliks), mostly situated towards the east which were vassals of or at war with Seljuk Sultanate of Rum.
The Crusades and their effects
The four Crusades that involved the Byzantines severely weakened their power, and led to a disunity that would never be successfully restored.
Mongol invasion and aftermath
On June 26, 1243, the Seljuk armies were defeated by the Mongols in the Battle of Kosedag, and the Seljuk Sultanate of Rûm became a vassal of the Mongols. This caused the Seljuks to lose their power. Hulegu Khan, grandson of Genghis Khan founded the Ilkhanate in the southwestern part of the Mongol Empire. The Ilkhanate ruled Anatolia through Mongol military governors. The last Seljuk sultan Mesud II, died in 1308. The Mongol invasion of Transoxiana, Iran, Azerbaijan and Anatolia caused Turkomens to move to Western Anatolia. The Turkomens founded some Anatolian principalities (beyliks) under the Mongol dominion in Turkey. The most powerful beyliks were the Karamanids and the Germiyanids in the central area. Along the Aegean coast, from north to south, stretched Karasids, Sarukhanids, Aydinids, Menteşe and Teke principalities. The Jandarids (later called Isfendiyarids) controlled the Black Sea region round Kastamonu and Sinop. The Beylik of the Ottoman Dynasty was situated in the northwest of Anatolia, around Söğüt, and it was a small and insignificant state at that time. The Ottoman beylik would, however, evolve into the Ottoman Empire over the next 200 years, expanding throughout the Balkans, Anatolia.
Breakaway successor states and the fall
The newly forming states of the Turks gradually squeezed the empire so much that it was only a matter of time before Constantinople was taken in 1453.
See also
History of Turkey
History of the Middle East
Timeline of Middle Eastern history
Anatolianism
Anatolian peoples
Anatolian hypothesis
References
Sources
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Botsford, George Willis (1922). Hellenic History. The Macmillan Company.
Bury, John Bagnell (1913). A History of Greece to the Death of Alexander the Great. Macmillan.
Duncker, Max (1879). The History of Antiquity, Volume III. Richard Bentley & Son.
Freeman, Charles (1999). Egypt, Greece and Rome: Civilizations of the Ancient Mediterranean. Oxford University Press. .
Hornblower, Simon; Antony Spawforth (1996). The Oxford Classical Dictionary. Oxford University Press.
Marek, Christian (2010), Geschichte Kleinasiens in der Antike C. H. Beck, Munich, (review: M. Weiskopf, Bryn Mawr Classical Review 2010.08.13 ).
Mommsen, Theodor (1906). The History of Rome: The Provinces, from Caesar to Diocletian. Charles Scribner's Sons.
Ramsay, W.M. (1904). The Letters to the Seven Churches of Asia. Hodder & Stoughton.
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History of West Asia
Geographic history of Greece
History of Turkey |
4365444 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George%20Alan%20Vasey | George Alan Vasey | Major General George Alan Vasey, (29 March 1895 – 5 March 1945) was an Australian Army officer. He rose to the rank of major general during the Second World War, before being killed in a plane crash near Cairns in 1945.
A professional soldier, Vasey graduated from Royal Military College, Duntroon in 1915 and served on the Western Front with the Australian Imperial Force, for which he was awarded the Distinguished Service Order and twice Mentioned in Despatches. For nearly twenty years, Vasey remained in the rank of major, serving on staff posts in Australia and with the Indian Army.
Shortly after the outbreak of Second World War in September 1939, Lieutenant General Sir Thomas Blamey appointed Vasey to the staff of the 6th Division. In March 1941, Vasey took command of 19th Infantry Brigade, which he led in the Battle of Greece and Battle of Crete. Returning to Australia in 1942, Vasey was promoted to major general and became Deputy Chief of the General Staff. In September 1942, he assumed command of the 7th Division, fighting the Japanese in the Kokoda Track campaign and the Battle of Buna-Gona. In 1943, he embarked on his second campaign in New Guinea, leading the 7th Division in the Landing at Nadzab and the subsequent Finisterre Range campaign.
By mid-1944, his health had deteriorated to the extent that he was evacuated to Australia, and for a time was not expected to live. By early 1945 he had recovered sufficiently to be appointed to command the 6th Division. While flying to assume this new command, the RAAF Lockheed Hudson aircraft he was travelling in crashed into the sea, killing all on board.
Early life
George Alan Vasey was born in Malvern East, Victoria on 29 March 1895, the third of six children of George Brinsden Vasey, a barrister and solicitor, and his wife Alice Isabel, née McCutcheon. Because his father was also George Vasey, George Alan Vasey's family always called him Alan. He was educated at Camberwell Grammar School and Wesley College, Melbourne, where his schoolmates included Robert Menzies and Edward James Milford. At Wesley, Vasey served in the Australian Army Cadets, in which he became a second lieutenant.
In 1913, he entered the Royal Military College, Duntroon in Canberra. Of 33 members of his class, in which Vasey graduated tenth, nine died in the Great War. Six later became generals: Leslie Beavis, Frank Horton Berryman, William Bridgeford, John Chapman, Edward James Milford and George Vasey. The war caused his class to be graduated early, in June 1915.
First World War
Vasey was commissioned as a lieutenant in the Permanent Military Forces (regular army), and joined the Australian Imperial Force (AIF). He was posted to the 2nd Division Artillery, and sailed for Egypt in December 1915. The 2nd Division moved to France in March 1916, where Vasey was promoted to captain in August, and given command of the 13th Field Battery in November.
In February 1917 Vasey was posted to Brigadier General James Cannan's 11th Infantry Brigade as a trainee staff captain. Vasey became brigade major of the 11th Infantry Brigade in August 1917, General Cannan having formed a high opinion of him. The brigade, part of Major General John Monash's 3rd Division, was involved in heavy fighting at Messines and Passchendaele, for which Vasey was promoted to major in September 1917 and awarded the Distinguished Service Order. His recommendation read:
In July 1918 Vasey was assigned to 3rd Division Headquarters as a staff officer (GSO3) but this appointment was brief; his successor at the 11th Infantry Brigade was wounded and Vasey returned to his former post. As such, he participated in the defence of Amiens, the Battle of Amiens in August 1918 and the attack on the Hindenburg Line in September. He was also twice Mentioned in Despatches. He served for a time as GSO2 of the 3rd Division before embarking for Australia on 14 September 1919.
Between the wars
Vasey returned to the PMF, in which he held the substantive rank of lieutenant and the honorary rank of major. He became so discouraged at his prospects with the Army that, studying at night, he qualified as an accountant. He married Jessie Mary Halbert at St Matthew's Church of England, Glenroy, Victoria on 17 May 1921. They bought a house in Kew, Victoria with a War Service Loan.
Vasey held a series of staff postings in Australia and India. From 1928 to 1929 he attended the Staff College at Quetta, India, where Bernard Montgomery was an instructor. In October 1934 he was appointed as a brigade major once more. Following a brief stint as a GSO2 on the headquarters of the 1st Indian Division, his final posting in India was again as a brigade major, from April 1936 to March 1937. By November 1934 his substantive rank was that of captain, but while he held the brevet and local rank of major, he was not promoted to the substantive rank of major until 1 March 1935. Vasey was finally promoted to brevet lieutenant colonel on 12 May 1937, after nearly 20 years as a major, although he was only promoted to the substantive rank on 2 November 1939. This was not unusual, and it fostered a sense of injustice and frustration among regular officers, who found themselves outranked by CMF officers who had enjoyed faster promotion.
Second World War
Middle East and Greece
Shortly after the outbreak of the Second World War in September 1939, Lieutenant General Sir Thomas Blamey appointed Vasey to the 6th Division as his Assistant Adjutant General and Quartermaster General (AA&QMG), the senior logistics staff officer of the division. He received the Second AIF serial number VX9. Vasey embarked for Palestine as commander of the advance party of the division in December 1939.
Gavin Long noted that Vasey was "highly strung, thrustful, hard working... concealed a deeply emotional even sentimental nature behind a mask of laconic and blunt speech. Although he was appointed to head the administrative staff there burned within him a desire to lead Australian troops as a commander." Nonetheless, Vasey remained AA&QMG during the Battle of Bardia. Following the capture of Tobruk in January 1941, he replaced Frank Berryman as GSO1.
In March 1941, Vasey was promoted to temporary brigadier and took command of the 6th Division's 19th Infantry Brigade following the departure of Horace Robertson to Australia on medical grounds. He led it in Greece, suffering a defeat at the Battle of Vevi. Vasey's instructions to his men were couched in typical Vasey terms: "Here you bloody well are and here you bloody well stay. And if any bloody German gets between your post and the next, turn your bloody bren around and shoot him up the arse." The 19th Infantry Brigade was evacuated to Crete, where it fought in the Battle of Crete. Vasey was commended for his work in Crete and was among the last to be evacuated to Egypt, but some 3,000 Australians were taken prisoner. Although it was a bitter defeat, Vasey's performance was considered outstanding; he was appointed a Commander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE), awarded a Bar to his DSO, and later the Greek War Cross.
Papuan Campaign
Vasey returned to Australia in December 1941 to become Chief of Staff of Home Forces, with the rank of major general, which became substantive on 1 September 1942. At age 46, this made him the youngest general in the Australian Army for a time. His new command had the role of training and organising the Army in Australia, a task which became urgent with the entry of Japan into the war. In March 1942, Vasey, along with Major General Edmund Herring and Brigadier Clive Steele, approached Army Minister Frank Forde with a proposal that all officers over the age of 50 be immediately retired and Major General Horace Robertson appointed Commander in Chief. The "revolt of the generals" collapsed with the welcome news that Blamey was returning from the Middle East to become Commander in Chief. In the reorganisation that followed his return, Blamey appointed Vasey as Deputy Chief of the General Staff (DCGS). The two men worked closely, with Vasey conveying Blamey's orders to commanders in the field. With the establishment of Advanced Land Headquarters (Landops) at St Lucia, Queensland, Vasey became the principal operational staff officer there.
In September 1942, Blamey decided to send the 6th Division to Papua to help stem the Japanese advance along the Kokoda Trail. He visited Lieutenant General Sydney Rowell, commander of New Guinea Force and I Corps, in Port Moresby and asked him who he would prefer to command the division. Rowell selected Vasey, so Vasey became commander of the 6th Division, and was replaced as DCGS by Berryman. Later that month, General Douglas MacArthur and Prime Minister John Curtin ordered Blamey to take personal command of New Guinea Force. After a falling out, Blamey relieved first Rowell, replacing him with Herring, and then Major General Arthur "Tubby" Allen of the 7th Division. On 27 October, Vasey flew up to Myola to relieve Allen.
Under Vasey's command, the 7th Division recaptured Kokoda on 2 November. It pushed on towards the north coast of Papua, only to be stopped by the Japanese short of their ultimate objective. The division was forced to fight a bloody battle around Buna, and, together with American troops under Lieutenant General Robert L. Eichelberger, ultimately defeated the Japanese and captured Gona. After the campaign, the 7th Division returned to Australia. The men went on leave before reassembling for training on the Atherton Tableland. Vasey went on leave in Melbourne but wound up being admitted to the Heidelberg Military Hospital for treatment for Malaria.
New Guinea Campaign
By July 1943, the 7th Division was on its way back to Port Moresby. Vasey flew up to work out arrangements with Herring and the air commander in New Guinea, Major General Ennis Whitehead of the US Fifth Air Force. Probably inspired by his experience on Crete, Vasey proposed using paratroops, and pressed his superiors for an entire regiment instead of the battalion he was originally allotted. The new campaign opened in spectacular fashion on 5 September 1943 with a parachute drop of the US 503rd Parachute Infantry Regiment in broad daylight to seize the airstrip at Nadzab in the Markham Valley. They were soon reinforced by Australian and Papuan troops that had advanced overland from Wau, and then by the 7th Division's 25th Infantry Brigade, which flew in by air.
The 25th Infantry Brigade advanced down the Markham Valley and entered Lae on 16 September. The division then advanced up the Markham Valley and down the Ramu Valley. A series of operations followed. First, commandos of the 2/6th Independent Company seized Kaiapit in the Battle of Kaiapit on 19 September. Vasey flew there on 21 September in a Piper Cub, followed by his 21st Infantry Brigade, under Brigadier Ivan Dougherty. The 21st Infantry Brigade advanced on Gusap and then Dumpu, where Vasey established his headquarters on 10 October. Finally, it pushed on into the Finisterre Range, where it was halted by logistical difficulties. In the Finisterre Range campaign, the 7th Division captured Shaggy Ridge and advanced across the mountains towards Madang.
Death and legacy
Despite his achievements, Vasey was twice passed over for promotion. In November 1943, the announcement of the appointment of Lieutenant General Iven Mackay as High Commissioner to India, and the subsequent elevation of Lieutenant General Leslie Morshead to command New Guinea Force and Second Army, created a vacancy at II Corps, which was filled by Vasey's old rival, Frank Berryman. Then in February 1944, the appointment of Lieutenant General Sir Edmund Herring as Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of Victoria, led to a vacancy at I Corps, for which General Blamey nominated both Vasey and Major General Stanley Savige, but recommended the latter. Army Minister Frank Forde queried Blamey's recommendation, which was very unusual, and asked who was the senior officer. On being informed that Savige was senior to Vasey—although not as senior as Arthur "Tubby" Allen or James Cannan—he dropped his objection. General Douglas MacArthur considered Vasey's supersession "outrageous". Yet Blamey had not lost faith in Vasey; asked at a social function about his opinion of Vasey, Blamey called out to him across the room. "There, ladies and gentlemen," Blamey declared, "is my ideal fighting commander."
Blamey had reason to be concerned about Vasey's health. Vasey was drinking heavily, and was hospitalised in New Guinea in February 1944 with a skin condition, and again in Australia in March 1944 with a respiratory tract infection. In June 1944, he became seriously ill with malaria and acute Peripheral neuropathy, and for a time was not expected to live. 7th Division soldiers in the hospital constantly asked the nursing staff about his progress. The men called him 'Bloody George', not after his casualties, but after his favourite adjective, and Vasey's personable style of command attracted immense loyalty from his men. "Vasey owns the 7th," wrote a Melbourne journalist, "but every man in the division believes he owns Vasey." He was again Mentioned in Despatches on 21 July 1944.
Vasey slowly recovered. In October 1944, Blamey set up a Post-War Army Planning Committee headed by Vasey to report on the future of the Royal Military College and the training and education of Staff Corps officers. Vasey called for a greatly expanded regular army of 20,000 men. His report recommended that the course at Duntroon be deepened professionally and academically to the level of an undergraduate university degree. The report's recommendations were not accepted or welcomed by the government but pointed the way to the future, in which the Army would become increasingly professional. In February 1945, Frank Forde pressed for Vasey to be given another active command. Blamey, who still had doubts about Vasey's physical fitness despite Vasey being given an A by an Army medical board, reluctantly appointed him to command the 6th Division, then in action in the Aitape-Wewak campaign.
Vasey flew north to take up his new command. The aircraft Vasey was travelling in, RAAF Lockheed Hudson A16-118, took off from RAAF Station Archerfield on the afternoon of 5 March 1945. Due to a cyclone that was ravaging the Queensland coast at the time, the aircraft crashed into the sea about out from Machans Beach, just north of the mouth of the Barron River, short of the Cairns Airport. Vasey was killed in the crash along with all those on board. He became the fourth most senior Australian officer to die in the Second World War, after General Sir Cyril Brudenell White (who died in another Hudson crash in 1940), Lieutenant General Henry Wynter, and Major General Rupert Downes (who died in the same plane crash as Vasey). Vasey's body was recovered from the crash site and was buried with full military honours in Cairns cemetery along with those of Downes and Lieutenant Colonel G. A. Bertram. Generals Blamey and Morshead were chief mourners. For pall bearers, Vasey had Major Generals Edward Milford and George Wootten and Brigadiers Frederick Chilton, Ivan Dougherty, Kenneth Eather, John O'Brien, Henry Wells and David Whitehead.
Vasey's concern for his men outlived him. Jessie went on to found the War Widow's Guild, serving as its president until her death in 1966. Thus, "the legacy of George Vasey's war was a more compassionate Australian society." As a military commander, Vasey demonstrated that a regular officer could be an "ideal fighting commander" and not just a competent staff officer. Vasey hastened the post-war transition of the Australian Army to a professional force dominated by regular soldiers. Historian David Horner wrote: "Not only was his command marked by tactical flair, innovation and imagination, but he also displayed remarkable qualities of leadership in adverse situations. Vasey led not just through technical expertise but by example, personality, and a genuine concern for his men."
Today, Vasey's papers are in the National Library of Australia, and his decorations are held by the Australian War Memorial, as is his portrait. A final Mention in Despatches was published three days after his death. The Mulgrave Shire Council (Cairns) named the esplanade at Trinity Beach "Vasey Esplanade" in his honour and erected a plaque on a brick memorial wall to commemorate all eleven service personnel lost in the crash.
Notes
References
External links
Vasey Biography at the Australian War Memorial
Vasey Biography at the Australian Dictionary of Biography
5 March 1945 – Crash of a Hudson into the sea at Machan's Beach, just north of the Barron River, killing Major General George Alan Vasey
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1895 births
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4365490 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Banksia%20serrata | Banksia serrata | Banksia serrata, commonly known as the saw banksia, the old man banksia, the saw-tooth banksia or the red honeysuckle and as wiriyagan by the Cadigal people, is a species of woody shrub or tree of the genus Banksia, in the family Proteaceae. Native to the east coast of Australia, it is found from Queensland to Victoria with outlying populations on Tasmania and Flinders Island. Commonly growing as a gnarled tree up to 16 m (50 ft) in height, it can be much smaller in more exposed areas. This Banksia species has wrinkled grey bark, shiny dark green serrated leaves and large yellow or greyish-yellow flower spikes appearing over summer. The flower spikes, or inflorescences, turn grey as they age and pollinated flowers develop into large, grey, woody seed pods called follicles.
B. serrata is one of the four original Banksia species collected by Sir Joseph Banks in 1770, and one of four species published in 1782 as part of Carolus Linnaeus the Younger's original description of the genus. There are no recognised varieties, although it is closely related to Banksia aemula. Throughout its range, it grows exclusively in sandy soil, and is usually the dominant plant in scrubland or low woodland. B. serrata is pollinated by and provides food for a wide array of vertebrate and invertebrate animals in the autumn and winter months, and is an important source of food for honeyeaters. It is a common plant of parks and gardens.
Description
Banksia serrata usually grows as a gnarled and misshapen tree up to 16 m (50 ft) tall, although in some coastal habitats it grows as a shrub of 1–3 m (3–10 ft), and on exposed coastal cliffs it has even been recorded as a prostrate shrub. As a tree it usually has a single, stout trunk with warty, knobbly grey bark up to 3 cm (1.2 in) thick. Trunks are often black from past bushfires, and ooze a red sap when injured. New growth appears in spring, summer and autumn. New branchlets are hairy, remaining so for two to three years. Leaves are usually crowded together at the upper end of branches, giving the canopy a thin, sparse appearance. The leaves themselves are dark glossy green above and light green below, (rarely up to ) long by (rarely up to ) wide, and oblong to obovate (egg-shaped) in shape. The leaf margins are serrated, except near the base, with lobes between deep.
Cylindrical flower spikes, or inflorescences, grow from the ends of 1- to 2-year-old branchlets and have leaves at their base. The spikes are generally wide with hundreds of individual flowers arising from an upright woody axis. The woody axis is high and wide. The flowers are cream-grey in colour with cream styles. Old flower spikes develop into "cones" that consist of up to thirty follicles that develop from the flowers that were pollinated. Old withered flower parts remain on the cones, giving them a hairy appearance. Each follicle is oval in shape, wrinkled in texture, covered with fine hair and long, thick, and wide.
The obovate seed is long, fairly flattened, has a papery wing and weighs around . The seed is composed of the obovate seed body (containing the embryonic plant) and measures long by wide. One side, termed the outer surface, is pitted and dark brown and the other is brown-black and warty, sparkling slightly. The seeds are separated in the follicle by a sturdy dark brown seed separator, which is about the same shape as the seeds, with a depression where the seed body sits adjacent to it. The first pair of leaves (called cotyledons) produced by seedlings are obovate, dull green and measure long by wide. The auricle at the base of the cotyledon leaf is pointed and measures long. The hypocotyl is thick, hairy and red. The cotyledons are linear to lance-shaped with the narrow end towards the base, long with serrated margins and a v-shaped sinus at the tip.Banksia serrata closely resembles B. aemula, but the latter can be distinguished by an orange-brown, rather than greyish, trunk, and adult leaves narrower than in diameter. The inflorescences of B. serrata are generally a duller grey-yellow in colour, have longer (23mm), more fusiform or cylindrical pollen presenters on the tips of unopened flowers and the follicles are smaller.
Taxonomy
Banksia serrata was first collected at Botany Bay on 29 April 1770, by Sir Joseph Banks and Daniel Solander, naturalists on the British vessel HMS Endeavour during Lieutenant (later Captain) James Cook's first voyage to the Pacific Ocean. Solander coined the (unpublished) binomial name Leucadendrum serratifolium, with Leucadendron serratum also appearing under the finished drawing in Banks' Florilegium. The first formal description of the species was not published until April 1782, when Carolus Linnaeus the Younger described the first four Banksia species in his Supplementum Plantarum, commenting that it was the showiest species in the genus. As the first named species of the genus, Banksia serrata is considered the type species. Banksia serrata has the common names of old man banksia, saw banksia, saw-toothed banksia and saw-leaved banksia. It is also known as red honeysuckle and red banksia from the colour of its timber. The Cadigal people who lived in the Sydney region prior to the arrival of Europeans, called the plant wiriyagan.
German botanist Joseph Gaertner described Banksia conchifera in 1788 in the first volume of his work De Fructibus et Seminibus Plantarum. Alex George noted this description was taken from Linnaeus' original and was hence a nomen illegitimum (illegitimate name). Joseph Knight described Banksia mitis and Banksia serræfolia in his 1809 On the cultivation of the plants belonging to the natural order of Proteeae, both later determined to be B. serrata and hence superfluous. In 1830, John Lindley wrote of a plant in cultivation in England with short wavy leaves in Edwards's Botanical Register, giving it the name Banksia undulata "wavy-leaved banksia" but conceding it may have been a variety of B. serrata.
Under Brown's taxonomic arrangement, B. serrata was placed in subgenus Banksia verae, the "true banksias", because the inflorescence is a typical Banksia flower spike. Banksia verae was renamed Eubanksia by Stephan Endlicher in 1847, and demoted to sectional rank by Carl Meissner in his 1856 classification. Meissner further divided Eubanksia into four series, placing B. serrata in series Quercinae on the basis of its toothed leaves. When George Bentham published his 1870 arrangement in Flora Australiensis, he discarded Meissner's series, replacing them with four sections. B. serrata was placed in Orthostylis, a somewhat heterogeneous section containing 18 species.
In 1891, Otto Kuntze, in his Revisio Generum Plantarum, rejected the generic name Banksia L.f., on the grounds that the name Banksia had previously been published in 1776 as Banksia J.R.Forst & G.Forst, referring to the genus now known as Pimelea. Kuntze proposed Sirmuellera as an alternative, referring to this species as Sirmuellera serrata. For the same reason, James Britten transferred the species to the genus Isostylis as Isostylis serrata in 1905. These applications of the principle of priority were largely ignored, and Banksia L.f. was formally conserved and Sirmuellera rejected in 1940.
Current placement
Alex George published a new taxonomic arrangement of Banksia in his 1981 monograph "The genus Banksia L.f. (Proteaceae)". Endlicher's Eubanksia became B. subg. Banksia, and was divided into three sections. B. serrata was placed in B. sect. Banksia, and this was further divided into nine series, placing B. serrata in B. ser. Banksia (formerly Orthostylis).
In 1996, Kevin Thiele and Pauline Ladiges published a new arrangement for the genus, after cladistic analyses yielded a cladogram significantly different from George's arrangement. Thiele and Ladiges' arrangement retained B. serrata in series Banksia, placing it in B. subser. Banksia along with B. aemula as its sister taxon (united by their unusual seedling leaves) and B. ornata as its next closest relative. This arrangement stood until 1999, when George effectively reverted to his 1981 arrangement in his monograph for the Flora of Australia series.
Under George's taxonomic arrangement of Banksia, B. serrata is placed in the Genus Banksia, Subgenus Banksia, Section Banksia and Series Banksia along with B. aemula, B. ornata, B. baxteri, B. speciosa, B. menziesii, B. candolleana and B. sceptrum.
In 2002, a molecular study by Austin Mast again showed that the three eastern species formed a natural group, or clade, but they were only distantly related to other members of the series Banksia. Instead, they formed a sister group to a large group comprising the series Prostratae, Ochraceae, Tetragonae (including Banksia elderiana), Banksia lullfitzii and Banksia baueri.
In 2005, Mast, Eric Jones and Shawn Havery published the results of their cladistic analyses of DNA sequence data for Banksia. They inferred a phylogeny greatly different from the accepted taxonomic arrangement, including finding Banksia to be paraphyletic with respect to Dryandra. A new taxonomic arrangement was not published at the time, but early in 2007 Mast and Thiele initiated a rearrangement by transferring Dryandra to Banksia, and publishing B. subg. Spathulatae for the species having spoon-shaped cotyledons; in this way they also redefined the autonym B. subg. Banksia. They foreshadowed publishing a full arrangement once DNA sampling of Dryandra was complete. In the meantime, if Mast and Thiele's nomenclatural changes are taken as an interim arrangement, then B. serrata is placed in B. subg. Banksia.
Intraspecific variation
Banksia serrata is a fairly uniform species, showing little variation between different habitats other than occasionally occurring as a shrub in coastal areas. No subspecific taxa are recognised. In 1896, Richard Thomas Baker found a clump of B. serrata at Kelgoola on the Central Tablelands with large leaves, with hairs on leaves and stems, further west of any other collection of the species. He named it B. serrata var. hirsuta. In his 1981 monograph, George was unable to locate a collection that corresponded with the report.
Distribution and habitat
Banksia serrata occurs on the Australian mainland from Wilsons Promontory, Victoria (39°08′ S) in the south, to Maryborough, Queensland (25°31′ S) in the north. There is also a large population at Sisters Creek in Tasmania and another in the south west corner of the Wingaroo Nature Reserve in the northern part of Flinders Island. The Wingaroo NR Conservation Plan (2000) reports that the population comprises around 60 to 80 individual trees, the majority of which are believed to be "quite old". It adds that there is evidence of slow and continuous regeneration, which appears to be occurring in the absence of fire.
Throughout its range, Banksia serrata is found on well-drained sandy soils that are low in nutrients, and is often found on stabilised soil near the coast but just behind the main dune system. In the Sydney region it is found with other typical woodland species, including yellow bloodwood (Corymbia eximia), red bloodwood (C. gummifera), silvertop ash (Eucalyptus sieberi), blue-leaved stringybark (E. agglomerata) and Sydney peppermint (E. piperita).
In the Upper Myall River region, B. serrata grows in dry sclerophyll forest on sandy soils that have recently formed (in the Holocene) or in shallow soils over differing substrates, while its close relative B. aemula grows on dry heath forest that occurs on ancient Pleistocene sands that have not been disturbed in 125,000 years. In intermediate communities both species are found.
Banksia serrata is a component of the Eastern Suburbs Banksia Scrub (ESBS), designated an endangered ecological community. This community is found on windblown sands which are younger than the heathlands to the north.
Ecology
This species is a food source for several bird species. Nectar-eating birds that have been observed feeding at the flowers include bell miner (Manorina melanophrys), noisy miner (Manorina melanocephala), white-cheeked honeyeater (Phylidonyris nigra), New Holland honeyeater (Phylidonyris novaehollandiae), white-eared honeyeater (Nesoptilotis leucotis), brown honeyeater (Lichmera indistincta), tawny-crowned honeyeater (Gliciphila melanops), white-naped honeyeater (Melithreptus lunatus), white-plumed honeyeater (Ptilotula penicillata), crescent honeyeater (Phylidonyris pyrrhopterus), yellow-tufted honeyeater (Lichenostomus melanops), eastern spinebill (Acanthorhynchus tenuirostris), red wattlebird (Anthochaera carunculata), little wattlebird (A. chrysoptera), noisy friarbird (Philemon corniculatus), spangled drongo (Dicrurus bracteatus), and rainbow lorikeet (Trichoglossus moluccanus). The immature follicles are eaten by yellow-tailed black cockatoo (Calyptorhynchus funereus).
A 1988 field study found that most flowers of B. serrata opened at night, and recorded the brown antechinus (Antechinus stuartii), sugar glider (Petaurus breviceps), eastern pygmy possum (Cercartetus nanus), and bush rat (Rattus fuscipes) as nocturnal mammalian visitors and pollinators. Other mammals recorded eating the flowers include the grey-headed flying fox (Pteropus poliocephalus), little red flying fox (P. scapulatus) and common blossom bat (Syconycteris australis). Banksia serrata is a host plant for the larval and adult stages of the banksia jewel beetle (Cyrioides imperialis). Native bees and European honey bees visit the flowers.
Banksia serrata has a central taproot and few lateral roots. Clusters of fine branched proteoid roots up to 15 cm (6 in) long arise from larger roots. These roots are particularly efficient at absorbing nutrients from nutrient-poor soils, such as the phosphorus-deficient native soils of Australia.
Banksia serrata has shown a variable susceptibility to dieback from the pathogen Phytophthora cinnamomi, the plants in sandier soils showing more resistance than those in heavier soils. Plants from Wilsons Promontory were sensitive. The resistance of plants from Flinders Island is unknown. The small size of the stand renders it vulnerable to eradication.
Response to fire
Banksia serrata plants generally become fire tolerant by five to seven years of age in that they are able to resprout afterwards. Regrowth is generally from epicormic buds under their thick bark if the plant is between 2 and 6 m (7–20 ft) high or possibly from the woody subterranean base known as the lignotuber of younger and smaller plants. There is doubt as to whether recovery from a lignotuber is possible, although it has been demonstrated in other Banksia species such as B. menziesii. Stem size is a critical factor; stems with a DBH of under 1 cm (0.4 in) are unable to withstand low intensity fires. A stem/trunk DBH of 2 cm (0.8 in) is needed to survive low intensity fires and of around 5 cm (2 in) to withstand a high intensity fire.
As with other species in the genus, B. serrata trees are naturally adapted to the presence of regular bushfires and exhibit a form of serotiny known as pyriscence. The seedbank in the plant's canopy is released after bushfire. Fire intervals of 10 to 15 years are recommended for the Eastern Suburbs Banksia Scrub, as longer leads to overgrowth by coastal tea tree (Leptospermum laevigatum), while an interval of at least nine years was indicated in a study at Brisbane Water National Park. Repeated intervals of five years' duration or less will result in decline of population as young plants are not yet resistant to fire, and their tall habit makes them especially vulnerable. The seedbank is most productive between 25 and 35 years after a previous fire, although seedlings may be outcompeted by seedlings of obligate seeder species. A field study found that seeds were dispersed up to from the parent plant in an hour by strong wind.
Seeds are also released spontaneously in the absence of fire. The degree to which B. serrata trees exhibit bradyspory seems to depend on the nature of the site where they grow. One study recorded plants at coastal sites having more than 30% of their follicles open, compared to those further inland having fewer than 5% open. Follicles also open when part of the tree dies.
Uses
Use in horticulture
The gnarled lumpy bark, saw-toothed leaves and silvery-yellow spikes in bud are horticultural features of B. serrata. It can be grown readily from seed, collected after heating the "cone". A sterile, free-draining seed-raising mixture prevents damping off. In cultivation, though relatively resistant to P. cinnamomi dieback, it grows best in a well-drained soil, preferably fairly sandy with a pH from 5.5 to 7.5, and a sunny aspect. Summer watering aids in growth. The plant may take several years to flower, although plants grown from cuttings may flower in two years. Banksia serrata is also used in bonsai.
Use in construction
Red-pink in colour, the timber resembles English oak. It has been used in boatbuilding and is strong, durable and distinctively patterned.
Cultivars
Banksia 'Pygmy Possum' – originally propagated by Austraflora Nursery, this is a prostrate form originally from the Green Cape area on the New South Wales far south coast. Similar plants are seen in nurseries called simply B. serrata (Prostrate) collected from the same area. This plant is suitable for rockeries and small gardens.
Banksia 'Superman' – selection from large-flowered (spikes to high) and large-leaved population from Scotts Head on New South Wales mid north coast. As yet, it is not in commercial cultivation, though is registered with ACRA.
Notes
References
External links
serrata
Trees of Australia
Flora of Tasmania
Trees of mild maritime climate
Ornamental trees
Flora of New South Wales
Flora of Queensland
Flora of Victoria (state)
Plants described in 1782
Garden plants of Australia
Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus the Younger |
4365573 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cardwell%20Reforms | Cardwell Reforms | The Cardwell Reforms were a series of reforms of the British Army undertaken by Secretary of State for War Edward Cardwell between 1868 and 1874 with the support of Liberal prime minister William Ewart Gladstone. Gladstone paid little attention to military affairs but he was keen on efficiency. In 1870, he pushed through Parliament major changes in Army organisation. The German Empire's stunning triumph over the Second French Empire in the Franco-Prussian War proved that the Prussian system of professional soldiers with up-to-date weapons was far superior to the traditional system of gentlemen-soldiers that Britain used.
The Reforms were not radical; they had been brewing for years and Gladstone seized the moment to enact them. The goal was to centralise the power of the War Office, abolish the purchase of officers' commissions, and create reserve forces stationed in Britain by establishing short terms of service for enlisted men. Ending the purchase system was controversial. The families of officers had invested millions of pounds in the commissions and when a man was promoted he sold his junior commission to help pay for the more expensive senior commission. Legislation in the Commons would reimburse the officers for their full purchase price but the measure was defeated, whereupon the government announced that all purchases were abolished, thereby destroying the value of those commissions. The House of Lords passed the remedial legislation and the final expenditure made by officers was reimbursed.
Background
Five royal commissions dealt with Army reforms before 1870. The one in 1857 was most controversial, with Sir Charles Trevelyan campaigning for the abolition of purchase of commissions. The going rate was £2400 for a captaincy and £7000 for promotion to Lieutenant Colonel. The middle class ideal of selection by merit and education was found only in the artillery and engineers, with the other branches in the hands of the rich landed gentry. The pool was limited so that the provision of an army of only 25,000 in the Crimea had stripped Britain of almost every trained soldier. The lesson was reinforced by the Indian Mutiny, which once again required almost the entire usable British Army to suppress. The Commission reported in 1862, but few of its lessons were immediately implemented. The main obstacle had been objections by the defunct East India Company and its directors, who wished to maintain their own military establishment, and by the "die-hards", senior officers who opposed almost any reform on principle. The arch-conservatives among the Army's officers were led by the Commander-in-Chief of the Forces, Prince George, Duke of Cambridge, who was Queen Victoria's cousin, and:
... almost the last of the typically Hanoverian characters thrown up by the English ruling dynasty, and derived his ideas on drill and discipline from Butcher Cumberland and the Prussian school of Frederick the Great.
On 2 August 1870, Parliament voted for 20,000 additional men for the army and two million pounds on a vote of credit. This was followed by one of the most successful military pamphlets to appear in all Victorian England, titled The Battle of Dorking. Written by Colonel (later General) Sir George Tomkyns Chesney, head of the Indian Civil Engineering College, it raised the idea that, despite the acts of Parliament during the previous year in regard to the military, Britain faced the possibility of a German invasion.
Cardwell, protégé of Gladstone and Secretary of State for War since 1868, was determined not merely to increase the British military but to reform it as well. Both were to be an uphill battle, but the need was great. Even the hard lessons of the Crimea had been dismissed, ignored or forgotten by this time, leaving critical needs unmet.
As R. C. K. Ensor wrote about that era:
If ... [any] criticism had made headway, it was that England had no notion of the art of war. British officers were expected to be gentlemen and sportsmen; but outside the barrack-yard they were ... 'entirely wanting in military knowledge'. The lack of it was deemed no drawback, since Marlborough's and Wellington's officers got along without it. Only the rise of the Prussian military ... availed to shake this complacency."
First reforms
Cardwell set about with three initial reforms:
In 1868, he abolished flogging and other harsh disciplinary measures in the Army during peacetime. This action was opposed by nearly every senior officer, who used the opinions of the Duke of Wellington to validate their objections. Yet, it was imperative to attract good quality recruits by ensuring the private soldier's life was better than a kind of penal servitude. Flogging was retained as a punishment on active service, on the pretext that extraordinary powers of punishment might be required in the field, until finally abolished in 1881.
In 1869, troops were withdrawn from self-governing colonies, which were encouraged to raise their own local forces. This scattering of troops over far-flung colonies was likewise a Wellingtonian policy. Its initial motives had been to avoid the traditional British suspicion of a standing army (led by the Whigs). The policy was a failure on economic practicality, and also prevented training at any level above that of battalion. By 1871, 26,000 British troops had been withdrawn from overseas territories and returned to Great Britain.
1870 saw the abolition of bounty money for recruits, and the setting out of guidelines for the swift discharge of known bad characters from both the army and the navy.
Army Enlistment Act
As his first major legislative step towards military reform, Cardwell introduced the Army Enlistment (Short Service) Act 1870, which reached the floor of the House of Commons in late spring, 1870.
From the end of the Napoleonic Wars until 1847, men were enlisted for twenty-one years, practically for life (the seven year short service option available during the wars ended when the wars did). Together with the continued existence of flogging, it had given the army its character of a near prison. A shortfall in Army numbers had resulted in the Time of Service in the Army Act 1847, under which enlistment was for ten years, later increased to twelve; but this was still too long. On completion of their enlistment, soldiers had the choice between accepting discharge without pension or signing on for a further ten- or twelve-year term. If they chose the latter, they would be rewarded with two months furlough, another enlistment bounty, and a pension on completion of their term. After many years with no trade other than that of soldiering, more than half of all discharged soldiers chose to re-enlist immediately. Of those who took a voluntary discharge, fully one in five signed on again within six months.
The Army's existing system of enlistment therefore produced an army of experienced or even veteran soldiers, but no class of reserves that could be recalled to serve in case of a national emergency. The lesson of the Franco-Prussian War was the absolute necessity of a trustworthy army reserve of well trained men in good health and vigour. Almost every British soldier served more than half his enlistment abroad, most often in tropical climates, such as India. After returning to Britain, their physique was seldom good.
Under the Army Reserve Act of 1867, a "First Class Army Reserve" had been created, of soldiers released from active service who had not completed their terms of service, to have an establishment of 20,000 men in theory. In practice, as of 1868, only 2,033 were in this body of men. The "Second Class Army Reserve" was to consist of army pensioners and of discharged soldiers having at least five years regular service. The First Class Army Reserve was liable for overseas service in the event of war, whereas the Second Class Army Reserve was for home service to defend against invasion.
Cardwell therefore brought before Parliament the idea of "short service". The Act of 1870 allowed a soldier to choose to spend time in the reserves rather than the regulars and be paid fourpence a day, in return for a short period of training each year and an obligation to serve when called up. Men now enlisted for a maximum term of twelve years. The minimum length of actual service required varied according to branch: six years for infantry, eight years for line cavalry and artillery, twelve years for the Household Cavalry, three years for the Army Service Corps. On discharge, a soldier in any corps would now remain with the reserves for the remainder of his twelve-year term, under the umbrella of the First Class Army Reserve. (In subsequent years, soldiers entering the reserve to serve the remainder of their time would be classified as either Section A or Section B Army Reserve.) As to the proportion of time spent on active service with the colours versus the balance in the reserve, this was to be laid down from time to time by the Secretary of State for War. In 1881, short service for the infantry was increased to seven years with the colours, and five with the reserve, of the twelve-year enlistment period.
There was opposition to short-term enlistment both in Parliament and among the Army's senior officers. The Queen is said to have signed the Act into Law "most reluctantly", but the system worked, producing an immediate increase in the army's strength. While a number of long-service NCOs still chose to remain with the colours for the maximum service permitted of twenty-one years, the great majority of soldiers passed into the reserve at the end of their initial enlistments. By 1900 the reservists numbered about 80,000 trained men, still relatively young and available to be recalled to their units at short notice in the event of general mobilisation.
Localisation scheme
Cardwell then passed the comprehensive Regulation of the Forces Act 1871. Previously, soldiers had enlisted for General Service, and were liable to be drafted into any regiment regardless of their own preferences, another factor that had made service harsh and unpopular. It had been recognised as early as 1829 by Lord Palmerston that:
... there is a great disinclination on the part of the lower orders to enlist for general service; they like to know that they are to be in a certain regiment, connected, perhaps, with their own county, and their own friends, and with officers who have established a connection with that district. There is a preference frequently on the part of the people for one regiment as opposed to another, and I should think there would be found a great disinclination in men to enlist for general service, and to be liable to be drafted and sent to any corps or station.
Nevertheless, the Army had insisted for years that it could be administered only on the basis of General Service.
Under Cardwell's localisation scheme, the country was divided into 66 Brigade Districts (later renamed Regimental Districts), based on county boundaries and population density. All line infantry regiments would now consist of two battalions, sharing a depot and associated recruiting area. One battalion would serve overseas, while the other was stationed at home for training. The militia of that area then (usually) became the third battalion. There were limitations to the extent that localisation could be implemented. Certain recruiting regions (for example London and much of Ireland) offered more recruits than could be absorbed by the linked regiment. Equally, thinly populated rural areas in some English counties or the Scottish Highlands could not always provide the numbers needed.
The senior twenty-five regiments of the line already consisted of two battalions, but almost all the higher-numbered regiments had only one battalion. Many regiments were linked to produce two-battalion regiments, a complicated internal process involving much debate over regimental traditions and seniority, which was not finally completed until the ensuing Childers Reforms of 1881.
Other reforms
In addition to his two major pieces of legislation, Cardwell also introduced a number of reforms through Orders in Council or other Statutory Instruments.
An Order of 1871 abolished some little-used disciplinary practices such as branding;
The sale of commissions was abolished, as were the subaltern ranks of cavalry Cornet and infantry Ensign, replaced with Second Lieutenant. (In practice, the style "Cornet" is still used for Second Lieutenants in the Blues and Royals and the Royal Hussars, and the term "Ensign" is still used by the Foot Guards regiments, for instance during the ceremony of Trooping the Colour.)
Units were assigned to the same establishment whether serving at home (a definition which included not only the UK but also the Channel Islands, Gibraltar and Malta) or overseas. (To an extent, this was made possible by steamship transport and the Suez Canal.) Units serving overseas had previously had a larger authorised troop strength, to provide for losses to disease or climate, which would be difficult to replace, but this left the units at home chronically undermanned as they were stripped of soldiers to bring units departing overseas up to their authorised strength. With the separate establishments removed, the home units could now be used to form an effective expeditionary force.
Cardwell also reformed the administration of the War Office, preventing infighting and bickering between the various departments and abolishing the separate administration of the Reserves and Volunteers. The defence policy of Canada, the Australian colonies and New Zealand was devolved to those dominions, and several small garrisons were replaced by units raised locally.
Role of Garnet Wolseley
Then-Colonel (later Field Marshal Lord) Garnet Wolseley was appointed assistant adjutant-general at the War Office in 1871, and was regarded by Cardwell as his principal military adviser and protégé. He played a critical role in the Cardwell schemes of army reform. As he rose rapidly through the ranks, Wolseley continued to battle for what he saw as the main pillar of the reforms: providing a double framework for large scale expansion in war, namely regular reserves, generated by short service, together with revitalised militia integrated into the new geographic regimental structure.
Cardwell lobbied for him to command the Ashanti expedition in 1873. On his return he was appointed inspector-general of auxiliary forces in April 1874. In this role, he directed his efforts to building up adequate volunteer reserve forces. Finding himself opposed by the senior military, he wrote a strong memorandum and spoke of resigning when they tried to persuade him to withdraw it. He became a lifelong advocate of the volunteer reserves, later commenting that all military reforms since 1860 in the British Army had first been introduced by the volunteers. Long after Cardwell's departure, on his appointment back at the War Office as Quartermaster-General to the Forces in July 1880, he found that there was still great resistance to the short service system and used his growing public persona to return to the fight, including making a speech at a banquet in Mansion House in which he commented: '...how an Army raised under the long service system totally disappeared in a few months under the walls of Sevastopol'. The unexpectedly large force required for the initial phase of the Second Boer War in 1899 was mainly furnished by means of the system of reserves Cardwell had designed and Wolseley had built. By drawing on regular reservists and volunteer reserves, Britain was able to assemble the largest army it had ever deployed abroad.
Evaluation
These reforms started to turn British forces into an effective Imperial force. A change of government put Cardwell out of office in 1874, but his reforms remained despite attempts from the Regular Army to abolish them and return to the comfortable and familiar old post-1815 situation.
The Reserve Force Act of 1867 had failed to meet the aim of recruiting the numbers of reserves which were needed, so low a rate of pay having been offered for the First Class Army Reserve that very few joined it. To address this, their pay was doubled, subject to their accepting the new conditions of service contained in the Army Enlistment Act of 1870. Unlike its predecessor, recruiting under this new Act was very satisfactory and had the desired effect of filling up their numbers to the regulated strength.
Historians of the British army have generally praised the Cardwell reforms as essential to full modernisation. They point out that the Duke of Cambridge blocked many other reforms, such as the adoption of a general staff system as pioneered by the successful Prussian army.
However a minority of historians, chiefly political specialists, have criticised the limited nature of the reforms. Theodore Hoppen says these reforms were at best partial, at worst ineffective.... No planning department was established and no chief of staff appointed to set out the purpose and strategy of the army as a whole because politicians, Civil Servants, and soldiers all proved reluctant to take seriously the idea that Britain could ever again be involved in a large scale European war.
See also
List of Regiments of Foot
List of British Army regiments (1881)
First Gladstone Ministry
Recruitment in the British Army
Further reforms of the British Army
Childers Reforms of 1881
Haldane Reforms of 1906–1912
Footnotes
Further reading
Bailes, Howard. "Patterns of thought in the late Victorian army." Journal of Strategic Studies 4.1 (1981): 29–45.
Barnett, Correlli (1970). Britain and her army 1509-1970: a military, political and social survey pp 299–324.
Bond, B. "The Effect of the Cardwell Reforms in Army Organisation 1874–1904" Royal United Services Institute Vol. 105 (1960), pp. 515 – 524.
Erickson, Arvel B. "Edward T. Cardwell: Peelite" Transactions of the American Philosophical Society (1959) 49#2 pp. 1–107 online
Gallagher, Thomas F. "‘Cardwellian Mysteries’: The Fate of the British Army Regulation Bill, 1871." Historical Journal 18#2 (1975): 327-348. online
Gosling, Edward Peter Joshua. "Tommy Atkins, War Office Reform and the Social and Cultural Presence of the Late-Victorian Army in Britain, c. 1868–1899." (PhD thesis, Plymouth U. 2016). Bibliography, pp 375–95.online
Spiers, Edward. “The late Victorian Army 1868-1914” in David Chandler, ed, The Oxford history of the British Army (1996) pp 187–210.
Stockings, Craig (2015). Britannia's Shield: Lieutenant-General Sir Edward Hutton and Late-Victorian Imperial Defence Cambridge UP, .
Tucker, Albert V. "Army and Society in England 1870–1900: A Reassessment of the Cardwell Reforms" Journal of British Studies (1963) 2#2 pp. 110–141 in JSTOR
External links
The Highland Regiments
1868 establishments in the United Kingdom
1874 disestablishments in the United Kingdom
1860s in military history
1870s in military history
19th-century history of the British Army
British defence policymaking
Military reforms
Reform in the United Kingdom
William Ewart Gladstone |
4365644 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20song | List song | A list song, also called a laundry list song or a catalog song, is a song based wholly or in part on a list. Unlike topical songs with a narrative and a cast of characters, list songs typically develop by working through a series of information, often humorous or comically, articulating their images additively, and sometimes use items of escalating absurdity.
The form as a defining feature of an oral tradition dates back to early classical antiquity, where it played an important part of early hexameter poetry for oral bards like Homer and Hesiod.
In classical opera the list song has its own genre, the catalogue aria, that was especially popular in Italian opera buffa and comic opera in the latter half of the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. Leporello's aria (), also nicknamed The Catalogue Aria, is a prominent example, and often mentioned as a direct antecedent to the 20th-century musical's list song.
The list song is a frequent element of 20th-century popular music and became a Broadway staple. Cole Porter, Irving Berlin, Noël Coward, and Stephen Sondheim are composers and lyricists who have used the form. The very first commercial recording of a Cole Porter tune was his list song "I've a Shooting Box in Scotland" originally from See America First (1913). Berlin followed soon after with the list song "When I Discovered You" from his first complete Broadway score Watch Your Step (1914).
Porter would frequently return to the list song form, notable examples include "You're the Top" from the 1934 musical Anything Goes, "Friendship", one of Porter's wittiest list songs, from DuBarry Was a Lady, and "Farming" and "Let's Not Talk About Love" both from Let's Face It! (1942), and both written for Danny Kaye to showcase his ability with tongue-twisting lyrics. In "You're the Top" Porter pays tribute to his colleague Irving Berlin by including the item "You're the top! You're a Berlin ballad."
Irving Berlin would likewise often write songs in the genre, notable examples include "My Beautiful Rhinestone Girl" from Face the Music (1932), a list song that starts off with a sequence of similes, "Outside of That I Love You" from Louisiana Purchase, and "Anything You Can Do (I Can Do Better)" a challenge-duet, and Berlin's starkest antithesis-driven list song, "You Can't Get a Man with a Gun", and "Doin' What Comes Natur'lly", all three from the 1946 musical Annie Get Your Gun.
Examples of list songs, and their composers/performers, include the following. Songs are in alphabetical order by title (omitting the definite article where not important to the title).
&
"&" (Tally Hall)
A
"'A' You're Adorable" (Sid Lippman, Buddy Kaye and Fred Wise)
"A Boy Without a Girl" (1960) by Anthony Newley
"A Hard Rain's a-Gonna Fall" (Bob Dylan)
"A Little Priest" by Stephen Sondheim and Hugh Wheeler from Sweeney Todd: The Demon Barber of Fleet Street
"A Little Something Refreshing" (Eric Stefani), performed by No Doubt
"A13 Trunk Road to the Sea" by Billy Bragg, first released in 1991 on The Peel Sessions Album; based on "(Get Your Kicks on) Route 66" by Bobby Troup
"Ah, Paris!" by Stephen Sondheim, a geographical list song for the 1971 musical Follies
"All I Really Want to Do" a song written by Bob Dylan and featured on his Tom Wilson-produced 1964 album, Another Side of Bob Dylan
"Area Codes" (Ludacris)
"Around the World" (Red Hot Chili Peppers)
"Art Eats Art" (Orchestral Manoeuvres in the Dark) lists many historical arts figures
"A Well-Dressed Hobbit" (Rie Sheridan Rose, Marc Gunn)
"Ain't Got No" (from the musical Hair)
"All My Ex's Live in Texas" (George Strait and Whitey Shafer)
"American Bad-ass" (Kid Rock)
"All the Words in the English Language" from Animaniacs
"Anything You Can Do (I Can Do Better)"
"As Some Day It May Happen" (from The Mikado by Gilbert & Sullivan)
"At Long Last Love" by Cole Porter, for his 1938 musical You Never Know
"At the Hop" (Danny and the Juniors) lists many popular dances of the late 1950s.
B
"The Bad Touch" (Bloodhound Gang) lists many euphemisms for sexual acts.
"The Bare Necessities" from the animated 1967 Disney film The Jungle Book.
"Bahay Kubo" (traditional) lists vegetables found in the surrounding of a farm.
"Before He Cheats"
"The Begat" (Burton Lane and E.Y. Harburg)
"Better Than Anything" (David "Buck" Wheat & Bill Loughborough) lists all the things love is better than.
The Big Bamboo (traditional Caribbean)
"Black Boys" from the musical Hair
"Blue" from the 2014 musical Heathers: The Musical with music, lyrics, and a book by Laurence O'Keefe and Kevin Murphy
"BOB, a song on Poodle Hat" ("Weird Al" Yankovic) lists palindromes, in a parody of "Subterranean Homesick Blues" by Bob Dylan.
"The Booklovers" (The Divine Comedy)
"Brothers and Sisters" (Blur)
"Brush Up Your Shakespeare" (Cole Porter) from Kiss Me, Kate
C
"California Girls" (The Beach Boys)
"Can U Dig It" (Pop Will Eat Itself)
"Carol Brown" (Flight of the Conchords)
"Cherry Pies Ought to Be You" with music and lyrics by Cole Porter for his 1950 musical Out of This World
"Coda: I Have A Dream" (King Crimson)
"Chop Suey," music by Richard Rodgers, words by Oscar Hammerstein II, introduced by Juanita Hall and Patrick Adiarte in Flower Drum Song
"Coded Language" (Krust / Saul Williams)
"Come Back To Me" with lyrics by Alan Jay Lerner for Burton Lane's On a Clear Day You Can See Forever
"Come Together" (The Beatles)
"Come To the Supermarket In Old Peking" (Cole Porter)
"Comedy Tonight" from A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Forum by Stephen Sondheim
"Conga!", music by Leonard Bernstein, words by Betty Comden and Adolph Green, introduced by Rosalind Russell in Wonderful Town
"Could I Leave You?" by Stephen Sondheim for the 1971 musical Follies
"Count It Up" from Field Music's 2018 album Open Here
"Cuntry Boner" (Puscifer)
D
"Datura" (Tori Amos)
"Destroy Rock & Roll" (Mylo)
"Disappointing" (John Grant)
"DJ Bombay" (Michael V.) list down things that are sold by Indian nationals in the Philippines.
"Do I Love You?" (Cole Porter) from DuBarry Was a Lady
"Done Too Soon" (Neil Diamond)
"Don't Let's Be Beastly to the Germans" (Noël Coward)
"Don't Put Your Daughter on the Stage, Mrs Worthington" (Noël Coward)
"Do You Remember These" (The Statler Brothers)
"DuBarry Was a Lady" (Cole Porter) from DuBarry Was a Lady
E
"Eclipse" (Pink Floyd)
"Eight Easy Steps" (Alanis Morissette)
"88 Lines About 44 Women" (The Nails)
"The Elements" (Tom Lehrer)
"Elephant Talk" (King Crimson)
"Endless Art" (A House)
"Every Tube Station Song" (Jay Foreman)
"Everybody Knows" (1988) by Leonard Cohen
"Everybody Loves Raymond" (Lemon Demon)
"Everything Is Alright" (Motion City Soundtrack)
F
"Farming" by Cole Porter from Let's Face It! (1942)
"F.E.A.R." (Ian Brown)
"Female" from Keith Urban's 2018 album Graffiti U
"50 Things You Should Think About to Stop You Doing Your Beans" (Kunt and the Gang)
"50 Ways to Leave Your Lover" (Paul Simon)
"50 Ways to Say Goodbye" (Train)
"52 Girls" (B-52s)
"Forever Young" (Bob Dylan)
"Foxtrot Uniform Charlie Kilo" (The Bloodhound Gang)
"Friendship" (Cole Porter) from DuBarry Was a Lady
G
"Gee, Officer Krupke" by Stephen Sondheim (lyrics) and Leonard Bernstein (music) from West Side Story
"Get Me Bodied" (Beyoncé)
"Girl of 100 Lists" (Go-Go's)
"Gin Soaked Boy" (The Divine Comedy)
"God" (John Lennon)
"God Bless" (Combichrist) lists infamous murderers and cult leaders
"Going Nowhere Slow" (The Bloodhound Gang) lists cities across the USA
"Good Doctor" (Robbie Williams)
"The Green Grass Grows All Around" (Traditional)
"Green Grow the Rushes, O" (Traditional)
H
"Hair" (from the musical Hair)
"Hank Williams Said it Best" (Guy Clark)
"Hardware Store" ("Weird Al" Yankovic)
"Hashish" (from the musical Hair)
"Hello" (The Beloved)
"High Tech Redneck" (George Jones)
"Hot Topic" (Le Tigre)
"How About You?" (Burton Lane/Ralph Freed)
"Hypersonic Missiles" - Sam Fender
I
"I Can't Get Started (With You)" (Ira Gershwin and Vernon Duke)
"I Dreamed Of A Hillbilly Heaven" (Tex Ritter)
"I Get a Kick Out of You" by Cole Porter, first sung in the 1934 musical Anything Goes
"I Got Life" (from the musical Hair)
"I Like It" (Cardi B)
"I Started a Blog Nobody Read" (Sprites)
"If I Were a Boy (Beyoncé)
"I'm Black/Ain't Got No" from the musical Hair
"I'm Proud of the BBC" (Mitch Benn)
"I'm Still Here" (Stephen Sondheim)
"I'm Trying" from Adam Gwon's 2008 musical Ordinary Days
"Imperfect List" (Big Hard Excellent Fish)
"Ironic" (Bo Burnham)
"Isang Linggong Pag-Ibig" (Imelda Papin)
"It Ain't Necessarily So" with lyrics by Ira Gershwin from George Gershwin's opera Porgy and Bess
"It's an Elk" from the 2013 musical Bubble Boy with music and lyrics by Cinco Paul
"It's Grim Up North" (The Justified Ancients of Mu Mu)
"It's the End of the World as We Know It (And I Feel Fine)" (R.E.M.)
"I've a Shooting Box in Scotland" (Cole Porter) from See America First
"I've Been Everywhere" (Lucky Starr (original), Geoff Mack (U.S.A. adaptation))
J – L
"Jung Talent Time" (TISM)
"Kidney Bingos" (Wire)
"Kokomo (song)" (The Beach Boys)
"La Vie Bohème" (Jonathan Larson)
"The Lady Is a Tramp" from the 1937 Rodgers and Hart musical Babes in Arms
"Let 'em In" (Wings)
"Let's Call the Whole Thing Off" (George Gershwin and Ira Gershwin)
"Let's Do It, Let's Fall in Love" (Cole Porter)
"Let's Not Talk About Love" by Cole Porter from Let's Face It! (1942)
"Liaisons" by Stephen Sondheim from A Little Night Music
"Life Is a Rock (But the Radio Rolled Me)" (Reunion)
"Lime Jello Marshmallow Cottage Cheese Surprise" (William Bolcom, performed by Joan Morris)
"List of Films" (Nick Helm)
"Losing My Edge" (LCD Soundsystem)
"Lost Property" (The Divine Comedy)
"Love Is..." (Bo Burnham)
"Love Your Love the Most" Eric Church Lists everything he loves
"Lower 48" The Gourds
"Lydia the Tattooed Lady" by Groucho Marx from At The Circus
M
"Mad Dogs and Englishmen" (Noël Coward)
"Madamina, il catalogo è questo" (Mozart) ("The Catalogue Aria" from Don Giovanni)
"Mambo No. 5" (performed by Lou Bega and Perez Prado)
"Man on the Moon" (R.E.M.)
"Manhattan" (Richard Rodgers, Lorenz Hart)
"Marz" (John Grant)
"Matangi" (M.I.A.)
"MfG" (Die Fantastischen Vier)
"Miracles" (Insane Clown Posse)
"Miss Sarajevo" (U2)
"Mr. Goldstone" (music, Jule Styne; lyrics, Stephen Sondheim)
"? (Modern Industry)" (Fishbone)
"Moments to Remember" (Robert Allen and Al Stillman)
"Mope" (The Bloodhound Gang)
"My Favorite Things" (Rodgers and Hammerstein)
"My Kind of Town (Chicago Is)" (Jimmy Van Heusen and Sammy Cahn) Big hit for Frank Sinatra extolling the virtues of Chicago.
"My Funny Valentine" (Richard Rodgers)
"My Ship" (music by Kurt Weill and lyrics by Ira Gershwin)
N
"Name Game" (Shirley Ellis)
"Napoleon" with lyrics by Yip Harburg and music by Harold Arlen from Jamaica
"Never Gonna Give You Up" (Rick Astley)
"New Direction" (Sugar Ray) (lists things you can do to make yourself a better person)
"New Math" (Bo Burnham)
"New Rules" (Dua Lipa)
"No Hay Nadie Como Tú" (Calle 13)
"Not" (Big Thief)
"Numb" (U2)
"Nunal" (Vincent Daffalong)
O – Q
"One By the Venom" (Finn Andrews)
"One Hundred Easy Ways (To Lose a Man)" from Leonard Bernstein's 1953 musical Wonderful Town
"One Bourbon, One Scotch, One Beer" (Rudy Toombs)
"One More Minute" ("Weird Al" Yankovic)
"One Week" (Barenaked Ladies)
"Overdrive" (Eraserheads) mentions places in the Philippines.
"Paren de Venir" (The Sacados)
"Pencil Full of Lead" (Paolo Nutini)
"Penny Lane"
"People Who Died" (Jim Carroll)
"Pennsylvania" (The Bloodhound Gang)
"Pepper" (Butthole Surfers)
"The Physician" with music and lyrics by Cole Porter for his 1933 musical Nymph Errant
"Plane Too" (Loudon Wainwright III)
"Play with Me" (Extreme (band))
"Pokerap" (Pokémon)
"Polkamon" ("Weird Al" Yankovic)
"Poor Young Millionaire" (Cole Porter)
"Porn Star Dancing" (My Darkest Days featuring Zakk Wylde and Chad Kroeger)
"Portobello Road" (from Walt Disney film Bedknobs and Broomsticks)
"Poster Child" (Red Hot Chili Peppers)
"The Pride" (Five Finger Death Punch)
"Questions and Answers (The Three B's)" from the musical On Your Toes (Rodgers and Hart)
R
Reunion Life is a Rock
"Raise Up" (Petey Pablo)
"Ramblin' Man" (Lemon Jelly)
"The Rattlin' Bog" (Traditional)
"Reasons to be Cheerful, Part 3" (Ian Dury & the Blockheads)
“Red" (Taylor Swift)
"The Referee's Alphabet" (Half Man Half Biscuit)
"Rickets" (Deftones)
"Rhode Island Is Famous For You" with lyrics by Howard Dietz and music by Arthur Schwartz from Inside U.S.A.
"Rock & Roll Heaven" (The Righteous Brothers)
"Rock Lobster" (The B-52's)
"(Get Your Kicks on) Route 66" (Bobby Troup)
"Royals" Lorde lists subjects of modern pop songs
S
"Sad" (Bo Burnham)
"The Saga of Jenny" with music by Kurt Weill and lyrics by Ira Gershwin written for the 1941 Broadway musical Lady in the Dark
"Said the Hobbit to the Horse" (Marc Gunn)
"The Sample Song" (Dorothy Shay)
"Short Memory" (Midnight Oil)
"Show Me What You Got" (Limp Bizkit)
"Seven Curses" (Bob Dylan)
"7 Things" (Miley Cyrus)
"Sidekick Heaven" (Riders in the Sky (band))
"Sinaktan mo ang puso ko" (Michael V.) lists down the hurtful things that his lover did
"Sixteen Reasons"(Bill and Doree Post) (#3 hit for Connie Stevens in 1960)
"Slow Train" (Flanders and Swann)
"Sodomy" (from the musical Hair)
"Soldier's Things" (Tom Waits)
"Song for Whoever" (The Beautiful South)
"Starfish and Coffee", (Prince)
"Stars on 45" (Stars on 45)
"Start Button" (Private Thoughts in Public Places featuring Streamer, on As Heard On Radio Soulwax Pt. 2)
"The Stately Homes of England" by Noël Coward from his 1938 musical Operette
"Subterranean Homesick Blues" (Bob Dylan)
"Super Supper March" (Nigel Pilkington)
T
"Tschaikowsky (and Other Russians)" with lyrics by Ira Gershwin and music by Kurt Weill lists the names of fifty-three composers of Tsarist and Soviet Russia
The chorus of "Tam Pierce" (Widdecombe Fair) lists all the people accompanying the narrator to the fair.
"Teachers" (Daft Punk)
"Technologic" (Daft Punk)
"Telecide" (The Tubes)
"Telefonbuchpolka" (Georg Kreisler)
"Ten Commandments of Love" (The Moonglows)
"Ten Crack Commandments" (The Notorious B.I.G.)
"That Is the End of the News" by Noël Coward from his 1945 musical revue Sigh No More
"That Funny Feeling" (Bo Burnham)
"That's a Rectangle" (Storybots)
"That's Country Bro" (Toby Keith)
"There Ain't No Easy Run" (Dave Dudley)
"There Is Nothing Like a Dame" (Richard Rodgers with lyrics by Oscar Hammerstein II)
"These Foolish Things" (Eric Maschwitz and Jack Strachey)
"They All Fall In Love" (Cole Porter)
"They All Laughed" (George Gershwin and Ira Gershwin)
"They Are Night Zombies!! They Are Neighbors!! They Have Come Back from the Dead!! Ahhhh!" (Sufjan Stevens)
"Things In My Jeep" (The Lonely Island and Linkin Park)
"Things to Do (I've Tried)" (David Byrne)
"The Things You Left Behind" by The Nails (1986)
"Third Uncle" (Brian Eno, Brian Turrington)
"Thou Shalt Always Kill" (Dan le sac Vs Scroobius Pip)
"Thou Shalt Not" with lyrics by Don Black and music by Jule Styne from Bar Mitzvah Boy
"Till the End of Time" (Buddy Kaye and Ted Mossman)
"To Keep My Love Alive" composed by Richard Rodgers with lyrics by Lorenz Hart for the musical A Connecticut Yankee
"To Kokoraki" (the Cockerel) (Flanders and Swann)
"Transmetropolitan" (The Pogues)
"Turn a Blind Eye" (Half Man Half Biscuit)
"Turn! Turn! Turn!" (Pete Seeger, after King Solomon) (Ecclesiastes)
"The Twelve Days of Christmas" (Traditional)
"21 Things I Want in a Lover" (Alanis Morissette)
"The Unthinkable" (Boom Bip)
U – W
"Van Lingle Mungo" (Dave Frishberg)
"Vinyl Records" (Todd Snider)
"Vogue" (Madonna)
"Vuelve" (Shakira)
"Wakko's America" from Animaniacs
"Walk Away", Franz Ferdinand
"Waters of March" (Antonio Carlos Jobim)
"Welcome to the Internet" (Bo Burnham)
"We Care a Lot" (Faith No More)
"We Didn't Start the Fire" (Billy Joel)
"We're All Gonna Die!!!" (Baby FuzZ)
"What a Wonderful World" (Thiele and Weiss)
"When I Had a Uniform On" (Cole Porter)
"White Woman's Instagram" (Bo Burnham)
"Who's Gonna Fill Their Shoes" (George Jones)
"Who's Next" (Tom Lehrer) lists countries acquiring nuclear weapons.
"The Whole World Lost its Head" (Go-Go's)
"White Boys" (from the musical Hair)
"Why Do the Wrong People Travel" by Noël Coward from the 1961 musical Sail Away
"The Windmills of Your Mind" (Michel Legrand, Eddy Marnay, Alan and Marilyn Bergman)
"Wish (Komm Zu Mir)", From the film Run Lola Run (Thomas D)
"Wishlist", Pearl Jam
"Wonderful World", (Sam Cooke)
X – Z
"Yakko's World" from Animaniacs
"You Can't Get a Man with a Gun" from Annie Get Your Gun
"You're Moving Out Today" (Carole Bayer Sager)
"You're the Top" (Cole Porter)
"You've Seen Harlem at Its Best" by Ethel Waters
"Zip" (Rodgers and Hart)
Patter songs
Many patter songs fall into this genre such as:
KoKo's Little list song from The Mikado (see "As Some Day It May Happen" above)
"Tschaikowsky (and Other Russians)" (Kurt Weill and Ira Gershwin) (see "Tschaikowsky" above)
"The Major-General's Song" (Gilbert and Sullivan)
"If You Want a Receipt" from Patience (Gilbert and Sullivan)
References
Lists of songs about a topic
Song forms |
4365707 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%87anakkale%20Onsekiz%20Mart%20University | Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University | Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University (informally ÇOMÜ) is a Turkish public research university located in Çanakkale (Dardannelles) province (near Gallipoli) and its surrounding towns. It is a member of the Balkan Universities Network, the European University Association (EUA), International Association of Universities (IAU), and the Thrace Universities Union. It hosted the World Universities Congress in 2010.
The ÇOMÜ is listed among the world's top 1,000 best universities in the 2012 annual Scimago Institutions Rankings World Reports and one of the top innovative universities in Turkey The university was named as one of the top innovative Turkish universities in 2013 by the Turkish Ministry of Science, Industry and Technology.
History
Thrace University Period
Some of the ÇOMÜ colleges were part of the Trakya (Thrace) University before 1992. The Faculty of Education is rooted in the 1950s. The Çanakkale Vocational School was also part of the Thrace University (Edirne).
Foundation
The ÇOMÜ was founded in 1992 based upon the Faculty of Education on the Anafartalar Campus by the Turkish Parliament law. Before this the facilities had housed a teacher training institute that was a branch of Trakya University. The first rector of the university was Prof. Dr. Mete Tuncoku.
With its new status and intake from Turkey's large youth population, the university developed quickly in terms of the number of students, staff and facilities, spurring the opening of new faculties and colleges.
The university has expanded over the last few years and in the 2005–2006 academic year there were over 19,000 students participating in a variety of programs taught by 960 academic staff in two graduate schools, nine faculties, two polytechnic colleges (four-year programs) and 11 vocational colleges (two-year programs). There are several campuses in Chanakkale itself, and some of the academic units are located in other towns of the province.
The number of academicians in the ÇOMÜ is over 1800 and the student number is over 48.610 in 2020.
Rector of the university currently is Prof. Dr. Sedat Murat.
Academics
As of 2020, ÇOMÜ has approximately 48,800 students, of which 30,100 are enrolled in undergraduate programs, 13,600 in 2-years programs, and about 3,600 in MA and PhD programs. Each academic year, the ÇOMÜ hosts over 2000 regular international students from 68 different countries.
As of 2020, the number of academical personnel is 1920. The total number of personnel reaches 3,000.
The number of the alumni exceeds 112,000. The languages of instructions at ÇOMÜ are Turkish and English.
Faculties
Biga Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences
Faculty of Agriculture
Faculty of Education
Faculty of Engineering
Faculty of Fine Arts
Faculty of Marine Sciences and Technologies
Faculty of Medicine
Faculty of Sciences and Arts
Faculty of Theology
Faculty of Communication
Faculty of Political Sciences in Çanakkale
Faculty of Architecture and Design
Biga Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences, BIIBF
The Biga Faculty of Economics and Managements Studies is located in Biga, a town approximately 70 kilometers from the Canakkale city center. It offers courses at undergraduate and postgraduate levels.
The faculty publishes a quarterly journal: Journal of Administrative Sciences (YBD).
The departments are International Relations, Business Studies, Economics, Labor economics & Industrial Relations, Public Finance, Public Management.
Dean: Prof. Dr. Ercan SARIDOĞAN
Deputy Dean: Prof. Dr. Sedat MURAT
Department of International Relations: Prof. Dr. Mete Tunçoku (Asia-Pacific), Prof. Dr. Yucel Acer (International Law); Assoc. Prof. Dr. Mehmet HASGULER (Cyprus), Assist. Prof. Dr. Bulent Uludağ (Caucasus), Assoc. Prof. Dr. Soner Karagül (International Relations), Asst. Prof. Dr. Bestami Sadi Bilgiç (Political History), Assist. Prof. Dr. Dr. Gurol BABA (Australia and Pacific), Assist. Prof. Dr. Ruhi Güler (International Politics).
Department of Administrative Studies: Prof. Dr. Hamit Palabıyık (Urbanisation and Public Administration), Prof. Dr. Ibrahim Kaya (Sea Law), Assist. Prof. Kutay Üstün (Political Sciences), Assist. Prof. Dr. Assiye Aka (Political Sciences), Assist. Prof. Dr. Hikmet Yavaş (Law and Politics).
Department of Labour Studies: Asst. Prof. Dr. Mahir Gümüş
Web:
Faculty of Agriculture
The Faculty of Agriculture is located on the main Terzioglu Campus in Canakkale and has practical training facilities at its farm in the village of Saricaali (TETAM) and on the Dardanos Campus.
The departments are Agricultural Economics, Agricultural Construction and Irrigation, Agricultural Mechanisation, Animal Science, Field Crops, Horticulture, Landscaping, Plant Protection, Soil Science.
Faculty of Education
This is the largest faculty of the university, with approximately 4,500 students, and is on the Anafartalar Campus in the centre of Çanakkale. Departments are Computer and Educational Technology Teaching, Education Studies, Fine Arts Teaching, Foreign Language Teaching, Physical Education and Sports Teaching, Primary School Teaching, Secondary Education Social Subjects Teaching, Turkish Language Teaching.
Faculty of Engineering
The Faculty of Engineering and Architecture is temporarily located in the Faculty of Sciences and Arts building on the Terzioglu Campus, until its own building is complete. Departments are Geomatics Engineering, Computer Engineering, Food Engineering, Geological Engineering, Geophysical Engineering and Environmental Engineering.
Faculty of Fine Arts
The Faculty of Fine Arts is housed in the buildings of Faculty of Agriculture, Faculty of Theology, Canakkale Vocational College. Nedime Hanim Friendship House is the nest for the departments of Textile, Performing and Visual Arts and Cinema and Television.
Departments are Ceramics, Cinema and Television, Performing and Visual Arts, Graphics, Painting, Photography, Sculpture, Textiles, Traditional Handicrafts.
Faculty of Marine Sciences and Technologies
The Faculty of Marine Science and Technologies was temporarily housed in the Faculty of Sciences and Arts building until the construction of its own building on the Terzioglu Campus. Its first name was Fisheries Faculty which founded in 1992 and started its academic program in 1995. It offers courses at undergraduate and postgraduate levels. It has several research facilities and laboratories for fisheries and aquatic research that encompasses a broad range of topics such as: aquaculture, water chemistry and pollution, fish diseases, biotechnology and genetics, seafood processing and quality, limnology and marine biology, and fisheries biology.
Departments are Aquaculture, Fishing and Processing, Hydrobiology.
Faculty of Medicine
The Faculty of Medicine received its first intake of students in 2002 and at present they are being educated at another university in Istanbul. Since 2007 students are educated in the Faculty of Medicine building in the main campus, Çanakkale.
The school has 320 students in 2012.
Faculty of Sciences and Arts
The Faculty of Sciences and Arts is on the Terzioglu Campus. Its departments are Archaeology, Art History, Sociology, Biology, Chemistry, English Language and Literature, Geography, History, Mathematics, Physics, Turkish Language and Literature.
The astronomical observatory ÇOMÜ Ulupınar Observatory, established in 2002, is run by the faculty.
Faculty of Theology
The ÇOMÜ Faculty of Theology is in its own building on the Terzioglu Campus. It offers undergraduate and postgraduate programmes to train students who will be able to offer their services to the community as Islamic clergymen or scholars or teachers of religious subjects in schools. Students who elect to study appropriate optional courses can also find employment in state archives or similar institutions.
Importance is also given to academic undertakings. Members of the faculty have organized national and international conferences and panel discussions, participated in interdisciplinary and regional projects (one of these funded by the Turkish Academy of Sciences), and presented papers at national and overseas conferences. Results of research undertakings are presented in publications and information about religious subjects given to the general public through participation in TV programmes and the like.
Departments are Basic Islamic Studies, Islamic History and Art, Philosophy and Religious Studies.
Faculty of Communication
Founded in 2011. It is one of latest faculties of the university with 320 students.
Faculty of Political Sciences in Çanakkale
Founded as "Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences" in 2012, began its first year with 11 departments (Political Science and Public Administration, Department of Economics, Department of Business Administration, Department of International Relations, Labour Economics and Industrial relations Department, Finance Department, Health Administration, Department of Social Services, Department of Econometrics, International Trade and Finance Department and the Management Information Systems Department).
Faculty's International Relations Department received its first students in the 2018–2019 academic year, on a 100% English program. As of the 2019–2020 academic year, our Business Administration department continued its education in 30% English. In addition, departments of "International Management", "Local Governments, "Urban and Environmental Policies" were established at the faculty as master programs with opened thesis and education started. Since the 2019–2020 academic year, graduate students have also been admitted to the Department of Management and Organization.
As of 2020/2021 over 2000 undergraduate students attend this faculty at various departments.
Faculty of Architecture and Design
It was part of the Faculty of the Engineering and Architecture. It became a separate faculty with the Governmental Chart in 2012 February.
Institutes
Institute of Social Sciences
Offers MA and PhD degrees in international relations, political sciences, Middle East, labour relations, Turkish literature, sociology, theology, Balkans studies, management, economics. Established in 1995.
Institute of Science
Offers MA and PhD degrees in chemistry, marine sciences, geography, physics, astronomy, biology, engineering. Established in 1995.
Institute of Education
MA and PhD degrees in education established in 2011. It was part of the Institute of Social Sciences before 2011.
Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University Institute of Education or ÇOMÜ Graduate School of Educational Sciences was established in 2010 to conduct graduate education (Master's and Doctorate) as well as scientific research and practice in areas related to educational sciences.
The Graduate School began operations with 4 PhD and 14 MA degrees that were transferred from the Graduate Schools of Social Sciences and of Natural and Applied Sciences in the Autumn Semester of the 2011–2012 academic year.
Institute of Medical Sciences
Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University Graduate School of Health Sciences or the ÇOMÜ Institute of Medical Sciences was founded in 2010 and began education and training activities in 2011 with the Department of Physical Education and Sports Teaching.
The Graduate School is engaged in efforts to open MSc and PhD programmes in the Faculty of Medicine, School of Health and School of Physical Education and Sports Teaching. It is also planned that graduates from the Departments of Dentistry, Pharmacy, Veterinary Medicine and Biology will be enrolled in these programmes for MSc and PhD degrees.
Other Schools
The following 4-year schools are also part of the university.
School of Tourism
School of Sports
School of Foreign Languages
School of Health
School of Applied Sciences (Biga)
Gökçeada School of Applied Sciences
School of Applied Sciences in Çan
Vocational Schools
The following schools are 2-year colleges:
Çanakkale Vocational School of Social Sciences
Çanakkale Vocational School of Technical Sciences
Çanakkale Vocational School of Marine Technologies
Biga Vocational School
Gelibolu Vocational School (Gallipoli)
Lapseki Vocational School
Yenice Vocational School
Çan Vocational School
Ayvacık Vocational School
Bayramiç Vocational School
Ezine Vocational School
Gökçeada Vocational School
Bozcada Vocational School Branch
Eceabat Vocational School Branch
Campuses
Terzioğlu Campus (Main Campus, Southern Çanakkale)
Anafartalar Campus (Faculty of Education etc., City centre)
Dardanos Campus (Dardanelles town)
Ulupinar Campus (Observatory)
İskele (Peer) Campus (Old Rectorate)
Biga Ağaköy Campus (Biga) & Biga Campus 2
Gökçeada Campus
Çan Campus
Gelibolu Campus (Gallipoli)
Ezine Campus
Yenice Campus
Bayramiç Campus
Lapseki Campus
Ayvacık Campus
Kepez Medical Campus
Eceabat Campus
Hamzakoy Campus (Gallipoli)
Bozcada Campus
Main Campus (Terzioğlu)
Main campus (Terzioğlu Campus) is located in between Çanakkale and Kepez on the upper bank of the Bursa-İzmir highway. The campus is also known as the Terzioğlu Campus or Terzioğlu Hill.
In this campus, the following schools are located: The Senate House, Rectorate (A and B Blocks), Faculty of Medicine, Faculty of Agriculture, Faculty of Marine Sciences and Technologies, Faculty of Engineering, Faculty of Arts and Sciences, Faculty of Political Sciences, Institute of Social Sciences, Institute of Medical Sciences, Institute of Science, School of Health, School of Foreign Languages, Vocational School of Social and Technical Sciences, School of Sports and Sports Halls, Faculty of Fine Arts, Faculty of Divinity, Faculty of Communication and Journalism, the Main Library (ÇOMÜ Library), social areas, student accommodation offices and dormitories, Student Union, mosque, University Radio etc.
The Anafartalar Campus
The Anafartalar Campus is the founding campus of ÇOMÜ. It is located in the Cevatpaşa District. The Faculty of Education, The Institute of Education, Süleyman Demirel Conference Hall and the ÇOMÜ Sport Hall are housed here.
The Dardanos Campus
The Dardanos Campus is located in Dardanos (Dardanelles) historical town. The campus includes social sites, swimming poll, application hotel of the university, restaurants, football pitch, sports hall, tennis court, university beach, sailing clup, agriculture gardens, accommodation area, playing grounds etc. The campus is about 8 km to the city centre.
The Kepez Campus
It is located in Kepez town. The campus is the house of the Medicine School Hospital and related medical research facilities.
The Ulupınar Campus
The Ulupınar Campus is situated close to the Ulupınar village about 10 km to the Terzioğlu Main Campus of the university and is home to the Ulupınar Observatory and Space Research Centre.
The University Library
ÇOMÜ's library facilities are spread across its three campuses. The collections encompass over 520,000 printed books, as well as thousands of journals and electronic resources.
The ÇOMÜ Library or the main research library of the University of Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart, is one of the oldest libraries in Southern Marmara, Turkey and the first in size in the Southern and the Western Marmara region. The library is at the centre of the main campus and owns a collection of 690,000 books (520,000 of them are printed). The ÇOMÜ Library is a 7/24 library, open 365 days a year including holidays.
Main Library in Terzioğlu Campus
The Main Library is ÇOMÜ's largest library and is housed in the Terzioğlu Campus near the Rectorate Building. It is home to the books and journals of the Schools of Letter and Sciences, Engineering, Marine Sciences, Administrative and Political Sciences, Divinity, Arts, Humanities. It also houses the Special Collections and rare books.
Other libraries
The Biga Library in Ağaköy Campus houses a collection of over 60,000 printed works as well as thousands of slides, sound recordings and some manuscript material.
The Anafartalar Library in Anafartalar Campus houses a collection of over 5,000 books on education.
College libraries: Each college and schools in the towns also have their own libraries.
International Relations Office
The ÇOMÜ International Relations Office coordinates activities with an international dimension; assists incoming/outgoing students and staff with all necessary procedures and provides support during the preparation and administration of the projects. The ÇOMÜ International Relations Office offers support for students and staff in several areas:
EU Erasmus Programme
The Erasmus Programme in ÇOMÜ aims to improve the quality of higher education by encouraging cooperation between participating countries. Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University has been participating in Erasmus Mobility Programmes (student & staff exchange) since 2004.
EU Youth Programme
The main aim in this programme is to provide students with an opportunity to participate in international social responsibility projects and in the EVS (European Volunteer Service) programme.
EU Leonardo da Vinci Programme
Leonardo mobility and pilot projects have been carried out at COMU since 2004. The ÇOMÜ academic staff have also taken part in research or other multinational projects intended to stimulate innovation and to enhance the quality of training and vocational guidance.
EU Comenius Programme
Several projects have been carried out and students participate in the "Comenius Teaching Assistant" scheme. In addition, members of the university have been involved in multilateral projects and several Comenius-Grundtvig in-service training programmes have been held.
EU Grundtvig Programme
The programme funds a range of activities, particularly those enabling staff in adult education to travel abroad for learning experiences, through participation in exchanges and various other professional experiences. Canakkale Onsekiz Mart University has participated in several Grundtvig projects.
International Cooperation Agreements
COMU is aware of the importance of encouraging, developing and supporting educational, cultural and scientific cooperation with overseas higher education institutions and has been successful in developing and implementing cooperation agreements with an increasing number of universities abroad.
International Research Support
The main aim is to provide information about available international research funds. In addition, seminars and workshops on project preparation are organized to inform academic staff about related opportunities and support them in their applications.
Student life
Student body
For the 2020–21 academic year, ÇOMÜ had a total full-time student body of 48,772.
30,073 undergraduate students (13,602 out of them are on two-years programs) and 5,098 postgraduates.
Students currently come from 68 countries around the world and study a wide range of subjects.
Imperial's male:female ratio for undergraduate students is almost 1:1 ratio.
ÇOMÜ Student Union
ÇOMÜ Student Union or Student Council is part of the ÇOMÜ Senato and the head of the council is elected by the ÇOMÜ students.
Facilities
Sports facilities at Çanakkale city campuses include three gyms, one swimming pool and three sports halls. The university has its own beach in the Dardanelles Campus 6 km from the Main Campus. The Dardanelles Campus has a football pitch, a tennis court, two basketball court a sports hall.
Student Media
Kampüs FM
ÇOMÜ Kampüs FM was founded in March 2012. 94:00 FM
ÇOMÜ FM
ÇOMÜ FM is an internet radio and run by the university students.
Student organizations
Students at the University of Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart run over 220 clubs and organizations. These include social, athletic, cultural and religious groups, academic clubs and teams, and common-interest organizations.
See also
COMU Hospital, affiliated research and teaching hospital
References
External links
Turkish Universities, State and Private. From USAK Pages
Universities and colleges established in 1992
Çanakkale
Buildings and structures in Çanakkale Province
1992 establishments in Turkey |
4365818 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pilot%20%28Lost%29 | Pilot (Lost) | "Pilot" is the two-part television pilot of the ABC television series Lost, with part 1 premiering on September 22, 2004, and part 2 one week later on September 29. Both parts were directed by J. J. Abrams, who co-wrote the script with series co-creator Damon Lindelof. Jeffrey Lieber, who had been commissioned by ABC to write the first version of the script, earned a story credit. Filmed in Oahu, Hawaii, it was the most expensive pilot episode up to that time, costing between $10 and $14 million, largely due to the expense of purchasing, shipping, and dressing a decommissioned Lockheed 1011 to represent Flight 815's wreckage. Many changes were made during the casting process, including the selected actors, the characters' behaviors and fates.
The pilot introduces the survivors of Oceanic Flight 815, who experience a plane crash and end up on a mysterious island. Three of the characters, Jack Shephard (Matthew Fox), Kate Austen (Evangeline Lilly) and Charlie Pace (Dominic Monaghan), are featured before the crash in flashbacks of their experiences on the plane as it breaks apart in mid-air; this narrative technique would be reused in almost every subsequent episode of the series. The Lost pilot is one of the most critically acclaimed television pilots of all time. Both parts earned high ratings, and the episode would later win many awards and accolades.
Plot
Part 1
Jack Shephard awakens disoriented in a jungle, and follows a yellow Labrador retriever through the bamboo. He emerges on a beach, confronted by the wreckage of Oceanic Flight 815, a plane he was on that was travelling from Sydney to Los Angeles. A surgeon, Jack administers medical aid to several survivors, assisting the pregnant Claire Littleton and giving CPR to an unconscious Rose Nadler. After the initial shock passes, Jack retreats to a quiet area to tend to his own injuries. He notices Kate Austen and asks her for assistance suturing a wound on his back.
Sayid Jarrah organizes a clean-up group, while Hurley salvages food from the plane's galley and distributes them to survivors. Shannon Rutherford refuses chocolate offered by her stepbrother Boone Carlyle, believing rescue is imminent. A Korean man, Jin-Soo Kwon, tells his wife Sun that she should remain close to him at all times. After night falls, the survivors hear loud roaring noises and crashing trees in the jungle.
The following morning, Jack and Kate set out to retrieve the plane's transceiver from its front section, which landed in the jungle. They are accompanied by Charlie Pace. The trio find it leaning against a tree, forcing them to climb up to reach the cockpit. Charlie disappears into the bathroom while Jack and Kate awaken the concussed pilot. He tells that the plane lost radio contact six hours after takeoff, whereupon it turned back for Fiji and hit wake turbulence. He estimates that they were a thousand miles off course before the crash, meaning that any rescuers would be looking in the wrong place. He tries using the transceiver, but cannot get a signal.
Suddenly the strange roaring noise is heard again, and the pilot is seized by something outside the plane, prompting the trio to grab the transceiver and flee. During the escape, Charlie falls and Jack returns to help him while a terrified Kate runs on. After the unseen monster leaves, the three reunite and discover the pilot's mangled body suspended in a treetop.
Flashbacks
On the plane, Charlie runs by Jack while being called after by flight attendants. Turbulence shakes the plane, scaring Rose, who is sitting across from Jack. The two talk, and Rose mentions that her husband is in the bathroom. The turbulence gets worse until the plane starts to veer wildly, causing a man to hit the ceiling and oxygen masks to fall.
Part 2
Jack, Kate, and Charlie head back to the beach, where ten-year-old Walt discovers a pair of handcuffs, which he shows to his father, Michael. A man known only as "Sawyer" gets into a fistfight with Sayid, calling him a terrorist, but they're stopped by Jack and Michael. Jack determines that, with no prospects of immediate rescue, he has to try his best to treat the worst-injured survivor, an unconscious U.S. marshal with a piece of wreckage lodged in his side. He enlists Hurley's help.
Sayid repairs the transceiver, but it has little remaining battery life and no signal. He explains that getting to higher ground will make it more likely to get a signal. He and Kate decide to go inland, alongside Charlie, Shannon, Boone, and Sawyer. Along the way, a polar bear emerges and charges the group. Sawyer shoots and kills it with a gun he took off the marshal, and Sayid accuses him of being the marshal's prisoner. Kate seizes the gun before the situation can escalate. Back at the beach, the marshal awakens and asks Jack, "Where is she?"
As the inland team reaches higher ground, Sayid turns on the transceiver and gets a signal. However, it is being blocked by a looping transmission in French, which Shannon translates as "I'm alone now, on the island alone. Please someone come. The others... they're dead. It killed them. It killed them all." Since the transmission lasts 30 seconds and each iteration states the number of repeats thus far, Sayid calculates that it has been broadcasting for over 16 years.
Flashbacks
Anxious and under suspicion from the flight attendants, Charlie runs to the bathroom, where he locks himself in to snort heroin. As the turbulence hits, Charlie is slammed against the ceiling and he rushes out, strapping himself into a seat as the plane starts to go down.
Kate is revealed to be the marshal's prisoner, wearing the handcuffs Walt found in the jungle. As the turbulence hits, the luggage compartment is shaken open and the marshal is knocked unconscious by a falling suitcase. Kate struggles to put on her oxygen mask due to the handcuffs, so she frees herself using the marshal's keys and puts his oxygen mask on him before attaching her own. The tail section of the plane breaks off and falls away.
Production
Conception and writing
The series began development in the summer of 2003, when ABC senior vice president Thom Sherman decided to order from Spelling Television a script based on an idea of network president Lloyd Braun, who envisioned a series that was a cross between the novel Lord of the Flies, the movie Cast Away, the television series Gilligan's Island and the popular reality show Survivor. Braun had titled his concept Lost after a failed reality show that had broadcast in 2001. Writer Jeffrey Lieber was contacted by Spelling's vice president of series development Ted Gold, and in September 2003 pitched to ABC the concepts for what he called Nowhere. Sherman approved the idea and hired Lieber to write a script, but Braun wound up rejecting Lieber's draft and subsequent rewrites. In January 2004 Braun contacted J. J. Abrams, who developed the TV series Alias for ABC, to write a new pilot script, which would retain the title Lost. Although initially hesitant, Abrams warmed up to the idea on the condition that the series would have a supernatural angle to it and he was assigned a writing partner. ABC executive Heather Kadin sent him Damon Lindelof, who had long intended to meet Abrams as he wished to write for Alias. Together, Abrams and Lindelof developed the characters and plot of Lost, along with creating a series "bible" which would store the major mythological ideas and plot points for an ideal five to six season run for the show. Lindelof and Abrams worked between January 13 and 16, when Lindelof sent a 21–page outline to ABC's executives. A complete first draft of the pilot script was delivered on February 24, and the teleplay kept on being revised, with the final script arriving on April 19. The development of the show was constrained by tight deadlines, as it had been commissioned late in the 2004 season's development cycle and Braun estimated that the whole process from writing to post-production took 6 to 8 weeks. Despite the short schedule, the creative team remained flexible enough to modify or create characters to fit actors they wished to cast.
Though Abrams and Lindelof did not use Lieber's work as inspiration for their own, Lieber's request for arbitration at the Writers Guild of America pointing out the similarities in both scripts earned him a story credit. Lieber would later say the series would drift much from his concepts in Nowhere, declaring Lost was "more like Lord of the Rings than Lord of the Flies". Writer-producer Anthony Spinner later sued ABC on the accounts that he submitted a script titled "L.O.S.T." to the network in 1977, but the case was dismissed on the accounts that none of the people involved with Lost had read Spinner's work.
Casting
In the initial plans for the series, Jack was going to die midway through the first episode. The role of Jack was originally offered to Michael Keaton, but when the producers quickly changed their minds about Jack's death, making him the leader, Keaton gave up the job. After Matthew Fox's casting as Jack, the character was established as a leader, and the airplane pilot was introduced to take Jack's place as The Monster's first victim. The pilot wound up being played by Greg Grunberg, a childhood friend of Abrams who the producer brings into most of his projects. Around seventy-five women of different shapes, sizes, ethnicities and ages auditioned to be Kate. In the initial plans, Kate would emerge as the leader after Jack died. She was not going to be a fugitive, instead her husband was going to go to the bathroom shortly before the plane split in mid air, and she would remain adamant on the Island that he was alive. This ended up being used for Rose's (L. Scott Caldwell) character instead. The producers were impressed with Canadian Evangeline Lilly's audition for Kate, as she displayed the confidence with vulnerability that they were looking for. Lilly had difficulty obtaining a visa to work in America. She was supposed to start on the first day of filming, but the schedule was rearranged to give her more time, and in the meantime, the producers began auditioning again in case the visa did not come through. However, during one of the auditions, they got an email confirming that she had obtained her visa and could start work on the show.
Matthew Fox, Dominic Monaghan and Jorge Garcia originally auditioned for the role of Sawyer, who at the time was supposed to be a suit-wearing city con man, but the role was given to Josh Holloway. Garcia was the first actor the producers knew they were going to cast. While the producers thought Garcia was spectacular, they did not think he fit in the role of Sawyer, so they created the Hurley character for him instead. When Holloway auditioned for Sawyer, the producers liked his southern accent and the edge he brought to the character (Holloway reportedly forgot his lines and kicked a chair in frustration). The producers knew he did not suit the role, but thought he was very watchable, so they rewrote the role to suit him, making him more feral, Southern, but kept the same intelligence he originally had. After appearing in The Lord of the Rings, Dominic Monaghan was offered many fantasy-based roles, like elves and pixies. He was keen to portray a different role, so he wanted a contemporary part that had layers and an edge. Originally Charlie was an older rocker that has been a big hit in the 1980s but now had a heroin addiction. After the producers enjoyed Monaghan's audition of Sawyer, they decided to cast him as Charlie and rewrote the script to make Charlie a young has-been instead.
When the producers were auditioning actors for roles in Lost, Harold Perrineau was in the area. The producers called it a "natural move" to have him audition. Although initially skeptical about the show, he took the role when Lost creator J. J. Abrams explained more about it. A lot of children were seen for the role of Walt. They were narrowed down to the top three, with Malcolm David Kelley winning it, after the producers were impressed with his role in Antwone Fisher. Abrams had worked with Terry O'Quinn previously on Alias, and was keen to work with him again. He explained to O'Quinn that although the role of John Locke in the first episodes would be fairly small, the character will develop afterwards. O'Quinn took the role as he trusted Abrams. He was also the only actor who did not have to officially audition for a part of a main character. The producers were looking for someone who had a "Paris Hilton quality" to play Shannon, but she could not just be shallow, as the storyline would require more than that. A lot of women were auditioned before the producers finally settled on Maggie Grace. She was written to be an antipathetic character in the first season as the producers needed a character they could use to create opposition and conflict. Unlike many other characters of the first season, who were rewritten based on their actors, Boone was largely the same through production. He was originally going to be named Boone Anthony Markham V, going by the nickname, "Five". Ian Somerhalder was cast in the role, but he did not want to shoot a pilot; however, he jumped at the opportunity once he found out he would be working with Abrams.
Lost was planned to be a multi-cultural show with an international cast. The producers thought it was essential that an Australian was cast for the part of Claire, and the Oceanic 815 was leaving from Sydney. Emilie de Ravin was working in Edmonton, so was unable to go to the auditions, which were being held in Los Angeles. From a video she sent to the producers, they were able to tell that de Ravin had the youth and sweetness required for the role, but also looked as though she had some life experience. Sayid was not in the original draft of the pilot episode, but executive consultant Jeff Pinkner had worked with Naveen Andrews on a short-lived ABC series called The Beast, and was keen to have him on Lost. The producers were surprised that Andrews was interested in the role. When they cast him, all Andrews was told was that Sayid was from Iraq and had been in the army. Yunjin Kim originally auditioned for Kate. At her audition she told the producers that she spoke fluent Korean, having been raised in South Korea, where she had starred in several films. The producers were impressed with Kim's performance and wrote her the character of Sun, who was planned to be someone who could not speak English, but after examining her relationship with her husband, the audience would learn that she does in fact speak it. Daniel Dae Kim was cast in the role of Jin, Sun's husband. Dae Kim described his audition as a "really interesting experience". He found it especially hard as it was his first time acting in Korean, and he had not spoken in it regularly since being in high school, when he would talk to his parents.
Filming
Filming began on March 11, 2004, with soundstage shooting in Los Angeles for the scenes set inside the flight. The primary location was the Hawaiian island of Oahu. The wreckage of Flight 815 was made with a Lockheed L-1011 built in 1972 and previously used by Delta Air Lines until 1998, that after being purchased by ABC was broken up and sent to Hawaii by ship. which at an estimated $10 to $14 million was the most expensive pilot episode up to that time.
Filming wrapped on April 24, Lindelof's birthday.
Reception
The pilot episode's world premiere was on July 24, 2004, at San Diego Comic-Con. Part 1 had its first ABC broadcast on September 22, 2004, and was seen by 18.6 million viewers, the best for an ABC drama pilot since Murder One in 1995. The following week, part 2 scored 10.5/17 on the Nielsen ratings, watched by 17 million viewers. Both parts aired on the same night for its first UK broadcast on Channel 4, August 10, 2005, and it became an instant hit. It was the second most watched programme for Channel 4 for that week, with ratings of 6.75 million, second only to Big Brother.
Reviews were favorable upon release. IGN gave it a 10/10 score declaring that Lost "delivers on every promise it makes to its audience." In IGN's 2008 series of "Flashback Reviews", IGN's Chris Carabott changed the scores; he gave part 1 a 9.5/10, saying that the show's mysteries "would keep many of us captivated for the next four years"; he gave part 2 a 9/10, saying that "It really is a roller coaster of emotion and that sense of dread that sets in here is brilliantly portrayed." Entertainment Weekly gave an 'A', stating that even non-science fiction and fantasy fans can like it, and USA Today gave it 4 stars praising the cast. The Futon Critic later chose the pilot as the fifth best TV episode of 2004. TV Guide ranked the episode fifth on a list of the top 100 television episodes of all time. For its 65th anniversary, TV Guide picked it as the second best episode of the 21st century.
At the 2005 Emmy Awards, Lost won a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Drama Series. J. J. Abrams won an Emmy for Outstanding Directing for a Drama Series for the pilot, with Mary Jo Markey winning Outstanding Single-Camera Picture Editing for a Drama Series and Michael Giacchino winning Outstanding Music Composition for a Series (Dramatic Underscore). The show in general won Outstanding Special Visual Effects for a Series and Outstanding Casting for a Drama Series, while receiving additional nominations for Outstanding Sound Editing for a Series and Outstanding Writing for Drama Series. Casting director April Webster won an Artios Award for her work in the pilot. The first part of the pilot also won two Golden Reel Awards for Best Sound Editing in Television Short Form: Sound Effects & Foley and Dialogue & ADR, and a VES Award for visual effects. The episode was nominated for a Hugo Award and awards from the American Society of Cinematographers, Art Directors Guild and Directors Guild of America. "Pilot", along with "House of the Rising Sun" and "The Moth", won a Prism Award for Charlie's drug storyline.
References
External links
"Pilot (Part 1)" at ABC
"Pilot (Part 2)" at ABC
2004 American television episodes
Lost
Pilot
Television episodes written by J. J. Abrams
Emmy Award-winning episodes
Television episodes written by Damon Lindelof |
4366385 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skaggs%20family | Skaggs family | The Skaggs Family, starting from a small frontier town in southern Idaho, came to have an important impact on merchandising across much of the United States. During most of the 20th century, the Skaggs name was prominent on hundreds of stores throughout the West and Midwest.
The origins of a wide range of these grocery and drug store enterprises can be traced to this one Skaggs family. The father in the family was a Baptist minister and had moved west for a better climate. He had a large family; to supplement his income he opened a grocery store. He and six of his sons, with varying degrees of collaboration, introduced in the early 20th century two important changes in merchandising: the low-margin, cash-and-carry approach to business, and rapidly growing a multitude of common outlets, now called chain stores. Their entrepreneurial interests became a major retailing force resulting in large, retail chains that carried not only the Skaggs name itself, but names like Safeway, Osco, PayLess, Albertsons, Longs Drug Stores, Katz and others.
Biography
Circa 1887 Samuel M. Skaggs, with his wife Nancy (E. Long) and two of his brothers and their families, moved from Tennessee to Missouri.[2,8] There Sam tried farming, managed a store and post office in Cato, Missouri. Between 1888 and 1900 he entered the Baptist Ministry and by 1900 settled in Newton County, Missouri. At the time of their move from Tennessee, Sam and Nancy had five children; in Missouri they had 10 more. Of the first 11 children, 9 were alive in 1900.
Of these there were six sons who came to be known by their initials:
Pepper Oscar Skaggs, born January 7, 1881, became O.P.
Aron Sylvester Skaggs, born January 14, 1886, became S.A.
Marion Barton Skaggs, born April 5, 1888, became M.B.
Loronzo L. Skaggs, born May 5, 1891, became L.L.
Samuel Olnie Skaggs, born November 14, 1895, became L.S.
Levi Justin Skaggs, born May 4, 1899, became L.J.
Between 1908 and 1910, Samuel Skaggs brought his family from Missouri to Idaho. As a minister of a small group in a small frontier town, American Falls, Idaho, he needed additional support for his large family. He opened a small grocery store, but to compete with the few that were already operating, he changed its business model from one of credit accounts, which were tailored to the sporadic and seasonal income of farmers, to a cash-only basis. Attracting customers to this simpler arrangement would make sense if he could sell for much less than his competitors. While the margin would be lower, he avoided the risk of non-payment of accounts. To drive down the wholesale price of the groceries he sold, he bought them in larger lots than competitors. In those days large lots were defined by some fraction of a railroad carload, and because American Falls was a stop on the Union Pacific Railroad, this afforded Sam Skaggs an opportunity to buy and sell for less. Perhaps more important to his expansion-oriented sons than to Sam, the savings of large-lot buying increased as more stores came on line.
To portray the evolution and impact of the merchandising practiced by Skaggs and to track the creation of stores and their ownership transfers, a nearly 100-year chronology is used. In it lies the genesis of much of the modern merchandising . The Skaggs family anticipated what customers wanted, so the Skaggs brothers and their merchandising model comprise a thread in the fabric of the present commercial world. This chronology begins with Sam Skaggs moving his growing family west:
Timeline of events in the history of the Skaggs family
1907 S.M. Skaggs leaves Missouri and moves west with his family in search of a better climate. They settle in American Falls, Idaho before 1910 where he is located in that year's census.
1914 In a separate commercial effort Sam Seelig founds a chain of four stores in California called Sam Seelig Grocers. According to the Safeway web site, this chain grew to over 322 stores by 1926. In 1925 he renamed them Safeway.
1915 In April, S. M. opens the Skaggs Cash Store "with his own hands, on rented property, on borrowed money." The store was about 18x32 feet. It was located in the original town of American Falls, adjacent to the Union Pacific railroad tracks, and he apparently bought large lots from the rail cars and sold them to the public. That store became Skaggs Store No. 1 and is now beneath the American Falls Reservoir. When the town was relocated between 1923 and 1925, that store was situated at the corner of Ft. Hall and Idaho Street, now housing the Senior Center. Unusual for the time, the Rev. Skaggs had a cash only, no credit policy, which all his sons later adopted. (See adjacent newspaper ads.)
1916 S.M. sells this store to his third son, M.B. (then 29 and a well driller), for $1,088, and moves to eastern Oregon. Though M.B. didn't at first contemplate having multiple stores, he saw his principle of economical buying and quantity distribution going only so far with a single store. The following year M.B., with the help of some of his brothers, starts expanding; opening stores in Blackfoot, Rupert and Burley, Idaho. This process continues elsewhere to form a grocery store chain that reached 428 stores by 1926. In the meantime O.P. also starts Skaggs Cash Stores in Idaho Falls, Elko NV, and elsewhere, including California. He numbers his stores with even numbers and they have orange fronts while M.B. uses odd numbers and uses blue fronts. L.J. goes to work for O.P. in Ogden.
1917 Five small grocery chains in the Philadelphia area combine to form American Stores Company. This group would be acquired by a Skaggs enterprise in 1978.
1918 L.S. returns from military duty and reenters the grocery business with his brothers.
1919 The brothers form a partnership called Skaggs United Stores. In Ogden, Utah L.J. meets and marries Mary Dee, daughter of a Mormon convert from the Netherlands. They work together to open a chain of Pay’n Takit Stores. These would eventually (1928) become part of Safeway.
1926 About this time O.P. sells some of his grocery chain to his brothers bringing the total Skaggs United Stores to 428 stores in ten states. This included some of O.P.’s Skaggs Cash Stores in California. (Probably does not include O.P.’s drug stores or all of his California food stores. See below.) This year Charles Merrill, a co-founder of the Merrill Lynch investment firm in 1914, engineered the merger of Skaggs United Stores and Safeway. M.B. became President of the new company and the stores were initially called Skaggs Safeway. They reverted to just Safeway after about 18 months. Merrill temporarily withdrew from the financial industry in 1930 to help oversee the expansion of the Safeway enterprise. M.B. remained the head until 1934. Also, by this time, one C.J. Call purchased a chain of California food stores from O.P.
1928 Mainly through acquiring grocery chains in California, Washington, DC, and Kansas City, Safeway expands to 2020 stores, 855 of which are combination stores with meat markets. Sales in 1929 were $203 million. Part of the expansion involved Safeway acquiring the Pay’n Takit stores of L.J. that ranged from the mountain states into California, Arizona, and Texas. For many years they were called Safeway Pay’n Takit.
1930 L.S. is intermountain director for Safeway, residing in Salt Lake City.
1931 Safeway stores in the U.S. and Canada now number 3527. This would be the largest number of Safeway stores.
1932 L.J. Skaggs opens his first self-service drug store, PayLess Drug, in Tacoma, Washington. The PayLess chain grew throughout the West, but L.J. would sell most of his interests to his brothers and associates. By 1965 three companies would result: one in Washington and Oregon, a 4-store chain in Tacoma, Washington, and one company he would retain in California. L.J.’s California stores, headquartered in Oakland, California, would be sold to the Washington-Oregon chain in 1980 and then to Rite-Aid sometime around 2000.
1933 The Skaggs brothers' cashonly policy helps them weather the depression.
1934 M.B. retires as head of Safeway. Allen Rosenberg opens Arizona’s first self-service drug store called Thrifty Payless Drugs selling it eight years later (1942) to the L.L. Skaggs chain.
1936 Death of Samuel M. Skaggs 30 October.
1937 L.L. Skaggs and Harold Finch found Pay-Less Drug in Rochester, Minnesota. It was the Midwest's first self-service drug store. With the opening of a second store in Mason City, Iowa the following year, the name was changed to Self-Service Drug, Inc. It would later (1942) become Osco Drug, which would grow to approximately 600 stores in 19 states by 2003.
1938 Joe Albertson, a district manager for Safeway, enters into partnership with L.S. Skaggs and the latter's accountant, Tom Cuthbert, and opens first store in Boise, Idaho. M.B.’s son-in-law, with his brother, form Longs Drugs that today has 450 stores in six western states. Coincidentally, the brothers, Joe and Tom, had the same last name as that of M.B.’s mother, Nancy E. Long.
1939 L.S. resigns from Safeway to enter the drugstore business. Two associates from Safeway join him and they buy four Pay Less stores from his brother L.J. They were located in Salt Lake, Ogden, Boise, and Great Falls. O.P. sells some stores in Nebraska to George W. Martin, whose family operated them until selling them in 1964. In 1959 Martin started a new set of stores in Nebraska called Skagway and several are operating today in Omaha and Grand Island.
1942 L.L. Skaggs forms a partnership with H.B. Finch, Paul Stratton and George Hilden and call it the Owners Service Company, hence Osco. The headquarters was then moved from Waterloo, Iowa to the Merchandise Mart in Chicago, Illinois. By 1961 they had 31 stores in six states.
1945 C.J. Call (see 1926), with Ira Brown, open the first Sav-on Drug Store in San Bernardino, California. Sav-on Drugs would be acquired by Jewel Companies. who would, in turn be bought by American Stores, headed by L.S.’s son.
1948 Some PayLess Drug Stores change their name to Skaggs Drug Stores.
1949 Death of L.S. at age 54. His son, L.S. Skaggs Jr. (“Sam”), takes over his father's role at age 26. At that point there were 11 drug stores with $9.5M sales. L.S. Jr.’s expansion drive was remarkable for by 1978 he had grown that number to 202 stores and 39 super-centers in 21 states with over $1B sales.
1950 The M.B. and Estella Skaggs Foundation builds a community hospital just north of Branson, Missouri.
1951 Albertson’s opens first combination food and drug store, a superstore.
1955 Safeway control passes to Robert Magowan, Charles Merrill’s son-in-law, who continued Safeway expansion to become the second largest grocery chain in the U.S. But by the 1970s it was in financial difficulty and losing market share.
1956 General Electric sues a group of Western retailers for selling its products at below recommended price. Skaggs Companies counter-sues and wins, overturning so-called “fair trade” laws in Utah and other states that prohibited discounting.
1961 Jewel Companies acquires the L.L. Skaggs-founded Osco Drug chain.
1962 Using the name of the island on which it had been located early in World War II, a Navy radio receiving station in north San Francisco Bay officially adds Skaggs Island to its name. The island had been named for M.B. when he financially helped the struggling Sonoma Land Co. during the depression of the 1930s. The Navy station was decommissioned in 1993.
1965 Skaggs Drug Stores incorporates as Skaggs Drug Centers and over the next few years acquires drug chains called Josco, Harts, Cook's in the South and West, and Katz, which had stores in the Midwest and also owned the non-California operations of L.J. Skaggs's old PayLess chain.
1969 Albertson's and Skaggs partner to create Skaggs-Albertsons combination stores and over the next few years opened 58 such stores in Oklahoma and the Southeast.
1970 Death of L.J. They had set up a large foundation which his wife Mary continued to lead. Total grants have exceeded $32M. Queen Elizabeth II named Mary an honorary commander of the Order of the British Empire in 1999 for her philanthropic work in England.
1977 Because managing their 1969 venture became difficult and for other financial and legal reasons, Albertson's and Skaggs separate amicably...both taking equal shares.
1978 L.S. Jr., 55, initiates the Skaggs Companies Inc. (formerly Skaggs Drug Centers) acquisition of American Stores, completing it by the spring of 1979. He keeps the latter name and relocates headquarters to Salt Lake City. American had 785 food stores and 139 drug stores to 241 Skaggs stores. Alpha Beta and Acme food stores were part of American Stores.
1980 Peter Magowan takes over Safeway and through several efficiency moves, makes Safeway the most profitable grocery chain in the country if not the largest. L.J. sells his PayLess Drug Stores of Oakland, California to the Washington-Oregon PayLess stores formed in 1932. Jewel Co. buys Sav-On Drugs of Southern California.
1984 In a hostile takeover, American Stores acquired Jewel Companies (for $1.1B). One aim was to become the first coast-to-coast drug store chain. Curiously, this purchase added Sav-On Drugs, which Jewel had bought in 1980 and which had its beginning with the partnership of O.P. Skaggs, and also returned the Osco drug chain, which L.L Skaggs had started, to the Skaggs fold. The Skaggs Drug Centers were also converted to Osco Drug Stores. According to an Associated Press wire story by Jennifer Brandlon on 11 Dec. 1984, L.S. Jr. is "a private person, a wizard at acquisition, has great enthusiasm for his work, has a management style that pays great attention to detail, and is bare bones…parsimoniously allowing no company cars or credit cards." American has 102,000 employees and after the first nine months of the year, over $8B revenue. American Stores later grew to 1700 stores in 40 states with $15 billion in sales.
1986 To avoid a hostile takeover by Herbert Haft and family, Safeway agreed to acquisition by Kohlberg, Kravis, Roberts & Co. for $5.3B, taking the company private in the second largest leverage buyout in history. To pay off incurred debt, nearly half of its 2200 stores were sold, including those in England and Australia. Peter Magowan remained CEO until forced out in 1992, but continued as a director until 2005. Magowan, with supporting partners, later purchases the San Francisco Giants.
1988 After considerable positioning that moved the purchase price from $45 to $65 per share and opposition from California's attorney general, American Stores acquires Lucky Stores of Dublin CA. [20] Lucky had started as Peninsula Stores (on the San Francisco Peninsula) in 1931 and had become one of California's largest chains with operations in Northern and Southern California. But L.S. Jr. reached the mandatory retirement age of 65 and stepped down as CEO of American Stores; ...moving to Chairman. A period of consolidation and debt reduction begins with sell-offs occurring into the 1990s. Its total holding of stores drops from 1,848 in 1990 to 1,695 in 1996 but profits increased over that period nearly $100M.
1990 Safeway again goes public and in late 1990 and resumes buying regional chains such as Randalls in Texas, Carrs in Alaska, Dominick's in Illinois, and Vons in Southern California.
1992 Albertsons purchases 74 Jewel-Osco combination stores from American Stores.
1995 L.S. Skaggs Jr. relinquishes the Chairmanship of American Stores, and within two years the company purchased $550 million of his shares, leaving him with insufficient ownership to keep his seat on the board. Thus ended the Skaggs family's leadership in the commercial world.
1998 Albertsons acquires Seessels, Smittys, Buttrey, and some Bruno Stores.
1999 Albertsons acquires American Stores for $12.7B to become the nation's biggest supermarket chain. Prior to this, Albertsons was the nation's fourth largest supermarket chain with 994 supermarkets in 25 states, while American Stores Company was the nation's second largest supermarket chain with 802 supermarkets and 773 stand-alone drug stores in 31 states. Lucky Stores change name to Albertsons. This merger was so large that the Federal Trade Commission (June 22, 1999) required its largest divestiture ever in forcing the sale of 144 of the combine's supermarkets and sites and also imposed future growth restrictions in specified geographic regions.
2003 Safeway has approximately 1700 stores across the US and Canada which include 329 Vons stores in Southern California and Nevada, 132 Randall and Tom Thumb stores in Texas, 42 Genuardi's in the Philadelphia area, and 21 Carr's stores in Alaska. Albertsons operates over 2500 stores in 38 states.
2005 Albertsons, Inc. announced in September that it is considering putting the company up for sale; that the board is exploring strategic alternatives to increase shareholder value. Among the reasons given was increased pressure from Wal-Mart type supercenters.
2006 On January 23, Albertsons made known that it had agreed to be sold for about $17.4B and broken into three parts. A Minnesota-based grocery chain Supervalu would buy 1,124 Albertsons stores and in-store pharmacies and with 2,656 stores will become the nation's second largest grocery chain after Kroger. CVS, the nation's largest drug store chain, will purchase about 700 stand-alone Sav-on and Osco drug stores for about $4B. The remaining set of about 655 Albertsons grocery stores will be purchased by a financial group led by New York-based Cerberus. The Albertsons name will continue. The sale was said to be due to increased competition from "large-box stores" such as Wal-Mart and specialty stores such as Whole Foods Market.
2009 - Death of Mary Skaggs in Santa Rosa, California on October 2, age 109 years and 8 months.
2013 - Albertsons is split from SuperValu along with the former ASC properties (Jewel-Osco, Acme, and Shaws/Star) and sold to Albertsons LLC/Cerebus.
2013 March 21 Death of L.S. “Sam” Skaggs.
Skaggs Foundations
The Skaggs sons were frugal men and wanted to give their customers that same opportunity for frugality through low margins, compensated from a business perspective through wide replication of retail outlets. In the spirit of their minister father or grandfather, they have shared and are still sharing their good fortune through a number of foundations.
Their ALSAM Foundation has given hundreds of millions of dollars to education and health research in the form of scholarships, the establishment or funding of a number of university and research centers, and probably the nation's largest single parochial elementary and secondary complex, located in Draper, Utah. Called the Skaggs Catholic Center, which contains Juan Diego Catholic High School, St. John the Baptist Middle School, St. John the Baptist Elementary School and Guardian Angel Daycare. All four of these facilities are on the same Skaggs Catholic Center. Other notable gifts from the ALSAM Foundation include $100 million for the creation of The Skaggs Center for Chemical Biology at The Scripps Research Institute—one of the largest gifts ever made to medical research.
Skaggs Community Health Center in Branson, Missouri (now Cox Health Branson) was named after M.B. and Estella Skaggs. M.B. was a Missouri native who owned a home and game preserve in eastern Taney County.
See also
Skaggs Island
Notes
References |
4366578 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pinguicula%20moranensis | Pinguicula moranensis | Pinguicula moranensis is a perennial rosette-forming insectivorous herb in the flowering plant family Lentibulariaceae. It is native to El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras and Mexico. A species of butterwort, it forms summer rosettes of flat, succulent leaves up to 10 centimeters (4 in) long, which are covered in mucilaginous (sticky) glands that attract, trap, and digest arthropod prey. Nutrients derived from the prey are used to supplement the nutrient-poor substrate that the plant grows in. In the winter the plant forms a non-carnivorous rosette of small, fleshy leaves that conserves energy while food and moisture supplies are low. Single pink, purple, or violet flowers appear twice a year on upright stalks up to 25 centimeters long.
The species was first collected by Humboldt and Bonpland on the outskirts of Mina de Morán in the Sierra de Pachuca of the modern-day Mexican state of Hidalgo on their Latin American expedition of 1799–1804. Based on these collections, Carl Sigismund Kunth described this species in Nova Genera et Species Plantarum in 1817. The extremely variable species has been redefined at least twice since, while several new species have been segregated from it based on various geographical or morphological distinctions, although the legitimacy of some of these is still debated. P. moranensis remains the most common and most widely distributed member of the Section Orcheosanthus. It has long been cultivated for its carnivorous nature and attractive flowers, and is one of the most common butterworts in cultivation.
The generic name Pinguicula is derived from the Latin pinguis (meaning "fat") due to the buttery texture of the surface of the carnivorous leaves. The specific epithet moranensis refers to its type location, Mina de Moran.
Plant characteristics
Habit
Pinguicula moranensis is seasonally dimorphic, in that it undergoes two distinct growth habits throughout the year. During the summer when rain and insect prey are most plentiful, the plant forms a ground hugging rosette composed of 6–8 generally obovate leaves, each up to 95 millimeters ( in) long. These leaves are carnivorous, having a large surface area densely covered with stalked mucilaginous glands with which they attract, trap, and digest arthropod prey, most commonly flies. These so-called "summer leaves" are replaced by "winter rosettes" of small, glandless succulent leaves with the onset of the dry season in October. This protective winter rosette allows the plant to undergo winter dormancy until the first rains begin in May. Flowers born singly on upright 10–25 centimeters (4–10 in.) peduncles emerge twice during the year (from the summer rosette and again from the winter rosette), a feature rare among the Mexican species. In the summer these appear in June, peak in August and September, and disappear with the return to the winter rosette in October or November.
Leaves and carnivory
The leaf blades of the summer rosettes of P. moranensis are smooth, rigid, and succulent, varying from bright yellow-green to maroon in colour. The laminae are generally obovate to orbicular, between 5.5 and 13 centimeters (2–5 in.) long and supported by a 1 to 3.5 centimetre (–1 in.) petiole.
As with all members of the genus, these leaf blades are densely covered by peduncular (stalked) mucilaginous glands and sessile (flat) digestive glands. The peduncular glands consist of a few secretory cells on top of a single-celled stalk. These cells produce a mucilaginous secretion which forms visible droplets across the leaf surface. This wet appearance probably helps lure prey in search of water; a similar phenomenon is observed in the sundews. The droplets secrete only limited enzymes and serve mainly to entrap insects. On contact with an insect, the peduncular glands release additional mucilage from special reservoir cells located at the base of their stalks. The insect struggles, triggering more glands and encasing itself in mucilage. P. moranensis can bend its leaf edges slightly by thigmotropism, bringing additional glands into contact with the trapped insect. The sessile glands, which lie flat on the leaf surface, serve to digest the insect prey. Once the prey is entrapped by the peduncular glands and digestion begins, the initial flow of nitrogen triggers enzyme release by the sessile glands. These enzymes, which include amylase, esterase, phosphatase, protease, and ribonuclease break down the digestible components of the insect body. These fluids are then absorbed back into the leaf surface through cuticular holes, leaving only the chitin exoskeleton of the larger insects on the leaf surface.
The holes in the cuticle which allow for this digestive mechanism pose a challenge for the plant, since they serve as breaks in the cuticle (waxy layer) that protects the plant from desiccation. As a result, P. moranensis is usually found in relatively humid environments. The production of the stalked capture glands and sessile digestive glands is also costly. A recent study found that the density of these respective glands can be correlated to environmental gradients. For example, capture gland density was found to be highest where prey availability was low, whereas digestive glands density showed direct correlation to prey availability. These results suggest that the amount of investment in carnivorous features is an adaptation to the environmental gradients.
Winter rosette
The "winter" or "resting" rosette of P. moranensis is two to three (maximum five) centimeters (–2 in.) in diameter and consists of 60 to 100 or more small, fleshy, non-glandular leaves. These are each 10 to 30 millimeters (–1 in.) long and three to eight millimeters (– in.) wide, generally spatulate or oblong-spatulate, and densely covered with fine hairs. The rosette is either open or compact and bulb-like, depending on variety (see below).
Flowers
Pinguicula moranensis produces one to seven flowers during each flowering period. These are borne singly on upright flower stalks which are green to brown-green in color and usually, like the upper surface of the carnivorous leaves, are densely covered in glandular hairs; the peduncles do, in fact, trap insect prey. The peduncles are 10 to 25 centimeters (4–10 in.) long and taper from two to three millimeters ( in.) at the base to one millimeter ( in.) at the top.
The flowers themselves are composed of five petals which are fused at one end. The throat, the portion of the flower near the attachment point which holds the reproductive organs, is funnel shaped, and the petals flare out from there into a five-lobed zygomorphic corolla. The flowers 30 to 50 millimeters (1 –2 in.) long. Below the attachment point to the stem the petals are fused into a 15–30 millimeter long spur which protrudes backwards roughly perpendicular to the rest of the flower.
The ovary and attached pistil protrude from the top of the floral tube near its opening, with the receptive stigma surface toward the front. Two 1 millimeter anthers hang from recurved, 2 millimeter filaments behind the pistil. Pollinators exiting after collecting nectar from the spur brush against the anther, transferring pollen to the stigma of the next flower they visit. The flowers can last up to 10 days but will wilt once they are pollinated. Pollinated ovaries ripen into 5 millimeter ( in.) dehiscent seed capsules containing numerous 1 millimeter long seeds. The chromosome count for this species is 2n=44.
The color and morphology of the flowers of this species is extremely variable, a source of delight to the horticulturist and headache to the taxonomist. Some generalizations, however, can be made.
The corolla flares open into five lobes, two upper lobes and three lower lobes. The upper lobes are 7–16 millimeters (– in.) long by 4–9 millimeters (– in.) wide and generally oblong, obovate, or cuneate. The lower lobes are similarly shaped and are 7–20 millimeters (– in.) long by 4–18 millimeters (– in.) wide. The central lower lobe is usually slightly longer than its neighbors. All of the petal lobes have rounded ends. The floral tube that houses the reproductive organs and is visible at the base of corolla lobes is white or lilac in color and 4–6 millimeters (– in.) long. The white color of the floral tube can extend to a variable distance onto the corolla lobes, particularly in a stripe on the lower middle lobe. The color of the corolla lobes generally varies from pink to purple, but has been described by collectors as being "purple, scarlet, rosy-lavender to bluish-purple, dark pink to lavender, pinkish-purple, deep violet-purple, dark purple, bright mauve-pink, bright purple-pink, magenta with [white eye], [and] reddish pale with white eye." A rare white-flowered form is also known.
Taxonomy
Sergio Zamudio Ruiz, in his 2001 revision of the section Orcheosanthus, called the identity and exact delimitation of P. moranensis "perhaps the most difficult problem to solve within the genus". This difficulty is due mainly to the high variability and large geographic distribution of the species, which has given rise to the description of many synonyms since the species was first described nearly 200 years ago. Botanists have attempted to delimitate the species through various morphological, ecological and genetic methods, though to this date some debate remains as to the placement and description of P. moranensis and its relationship to the species to which it is closely related.
Botanical history
Prior to Alexander von Humboldt and Aimé Bonpland's Latin American expedition in 1799–1804, only 8 Pinguicula species were known to science — 5 from Europe, 2 from North America and P. involuta from Peru. From 1803–1805, three additional species from Europe and North America were described, bringing the total of known species to 11. In 1817, Carl Sigismund Kunth described 3 new species from Alexander von Humboldt and Aimé Bonpland'sLatin American expedition: The Peruvian P. calyptrata and the first known Mexican species: P. macrophylla and P. moranensis. At this point no infrageneric classification had yet been suggested.
In 1844, a French-Swiss botanist by the name of Alphonse Pyrame de Candolle (who created the first Code of Botanical Nomenclature) proposed a division of the genus into three sections based on floral morphology. He placed in the section Orcheosanthus those species with purple, deeply bilabiate corollas with 5 sub-equal lobes, a short floral tube, and a large spur not protruding past this tube. He included four species in this section, all of them from Mexico: P. oblongiloba, P. orchidioides, P. caudata and P. moranensis. He excluded P. macrophylla H.B.K. on the grounds that it was a "dubious species".
The section Orcheosanthus grew as Charles Morren described P. flos-mulionis in 1872, Eugene Fournier added P. sodalium in 1873 and Sander proposed P. bakeriana in 1881. In 1879–1888, however, botanist William Hemsley, after studying multiple specimens in herbariums and in culture, came to the conclusion that all the taxa placed in the section Orcheosanthus up to that point belonged to the same single species. Due to doubts as to the identity of the original two species described by Kunth, Hemsley decided to use the name P. caudata Schltdl. for his conglomerate species. This name has been "indiscriminately" applied to members of the complex ever since.
Twentieth century
When Barnhart revised the family Lentibulariaceae in 1916, he recognized six species in the section Orcheosanthus, admitting however that this number was likely to change as others studied the section in the future. Sprague in 1928 proposed that the species joined by Hemsley were probably distinct, but that they were likely so interrelated that distinguishing between them would require observing characteristics that were usually or always indistinct in dried specimens. Sprague recognized eight species in the section: P. moranensis H.B.K, P. caudata Schltdl., P. oblongiloba, P. flos-mulionis, P. bakeriana, a P. moranensis-like P. rosei described by Watson in 1911, and the very distinct P. gypsicola.
In 1966, Casper published the first ever monograph of the genus. He clearly defined his taxonomic organization according to a broad range of morphological and phenotypic characteristics. Casper considered P. caudata, as well as various other taxa, to be synonyms of P. moranensis. He therefore recognized only 6 species for the section Orcheosanthus: P. moranensis, P. gypsicola, P. macrophylla H.B.K., P. oblongiloba, and the two recently discovered species P. colimensis and P. cyclosecta. Since that time 14 additional species have been discovered and assigned to the section. When Zamudio redefined the section in 1999, however, he chose to include only 12 species, including all six of Casper's choices. P. moranensis, therefore, remains in the section Orcheosanthus, along with over a dozen synonyms it has inherited in its 200-year taxonomic history.
Phylogenetics
The varying importance which different authors have placed on various morphological characteristics when determining the taxonomy of the genus has long made the resulting subdivision of the genus a subject of controversy. Zamudio (2001) supported his revision of the section Orcheosanthus with a phylogenetic analysis, using 20 morphological and phenological characteristics. In 2005, Cieslak et al. conducted the first comprehensive phylogenetic analysis of the entire genus Pinguicula. Using molecular data, they were able to isolate those morphological characteristics that were synapomorphies for various groups, providing evidence for a genetically based taxonomic structure. Their overall results did not support the placement of P. moranensis in the section Orcheosanthus, rather indicating that it should be placed in the section Longitubus along with P. laueana.
In further disagreement with Zamudio's 2001 revision of the section Orcheosanthus, Cieslak et al.'s phylogenetic data indicated that P. rectifolia and several unnamed taxa that had been treated as synonyms of P. moranensis are in fact a distinct complex. They isolated several morphological characteristics that could be used to differentiate between the complexes, including floral spur length (longer in P. moranensis), flower color (never with a blue tinge in P. moranensis), and the shape of the lateral corolla lobe (exhibiting a twist in P. rectifolia). A more thorough study analyzing numerous P. moranensis populations and other members of closely related taxa is needed to resolve this complex.
Varieties
After extensively studying P. moranensis in habitat, Zamudio (1999) came to the conclusion that the species could be divided into two distinct varieties, mainly on the basis of the shape of the leaves composing their winter (resting) rosettes:
Pinguicula moranensis Kunth in Humb., Bonpl. et Kunth. var. moranensis
This variety has open winter rosettes composed of leaves which are spatulate in shape and have an obtuse or rounded end. It tends to grow in limestone-based substrates.
Pinguicula moranensis Kunth in Humb., Bonpl. et Kunth. var. neovolcanica
This variety has a closed, bulb-like rosette of winter leaves which are acicular (pointy) at the tip. It tends to grow on igneous substrates.
Zamudio also noted that these subspecies differed in their preference of soil substrate. He first noted this while attempting to find the population of plants from which Humboldt and Bonpland had collected their type specimens in 1803. Although Zamudio was able to find many populations of the species growing in the areas that Humboldt and Bonpland had visited in the vicinity if Mina de Moran, only one population, the only one growing on limestone, matched H.B.K.'s description and their type and isotype specimens now housed in the herbarium of the French national museum of natural history. The other populations in the area grew on substrate of igneous origin and more closely matched Hooker's 1846 description of P. orchidioides. These latter plants then became the new variety, P. moranensis ssp. neovolcanica.
Distribution and habitat
Pinguicula moranensis is the most widely distributed member of the Section Orcheosanthus. It is also the most common and widely distributed Pinguicula species in Mexico, being found in all the major mountain ranges except Sierra Madre Occidental and Baja California. Locations are known from the Mexican states of Tamaulipas, Guanajuato, Nuevo León, Campeche, Chiapas, Oaxaca, Puebla, Distrito Federal, Veracruz, México, Querétaro, San Luis Potosí, Morelos, Hidalgo, Guerrero, Zacatecas, Tlaxcala, Quintana Roo, and Michoacán and the Guatemalan departments of Huehuetenango, Quiché, San Marcos, Quetzaltenango, Totonicapán, Sololá, Chimaltenango, Baja Verapaz, Guatemala and El Progreso. Here it grows in mountainous regions between 800 and 3200 meters (2600–10500 ft) in altitude. Generally, the species tends to follow sedimentary outcrops of the Cretaceous period. P. moranensis var. neovolcanica, however, tends to grow on igneous rocks of the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt.
Pinguicula moranensis most often grows in oak, pine-oak, or temperate montane woodlands. However, its distribution penetrates into tropical forests and xerophytic shrublands, as well as in gorges and canyon walls with high environmental humidity. P. moranensis prefers humid and shady environments, such as slopes by streams, gullies, or road cuts, or among leaf litter in sandy soil high in organic matter. Its ability to gather nutrients from the arthropod prey it catches allows it to grow in low-nutrient environments where other plants would usually out-compete it. As a result, it is often found in disturbed areas or on steep cliffs or hillsides. Since its roots do little more than provide anchorage, the plant requires little or no soil, and dense clusters can be found clinging onto boulders, moss or crags in rock faces, or even epiphytically on tree trunks. Common companion plants include mosses, Selaginella, ferns and other herbaceous plants, as well as canopy trees such as pines and oaks.
Cultivation
Pinguicula moranensis is one of the most popular and commonly cultivated Pinguicula, in part due to its large size, large and pretty flowers, and the ease with which it can be grown as a container plant. Most growers use an open soil mix composed of some combination of washed sand, perlite, vermiculite, peat moss, gypsum and/or decomposed granite. Soil should be kept well drained, but watered regularly with distilled water in the summer and only very rarely once the plant enters its winter rosette. The species grows readily on well-lit windowsills, under fluorescent lights, or in warm to hot greenhouses.
Hybrids and cultivars
Although no natural hybrids involving P. moranensis have been reported, the species is known to hybridize quite readily in cultivation. As a result, a number of cultivars involving the species have been registered and are recognized by the International Carnivorous Plant Society:
{| border="2" class="wikitable"
|+ Hybrid cultivars involving Pinguicula moranensis
! cultivar name !! parentage !! description
|-
|Pinguicula 'George Sargent' Hort. Slack
|P. moranensis × gypsicola
|Lilac flowers, strap-shaped leaves, large winter rosettes.
|-
|Pinguicula 'Hameln' Hort. Studnicka
|P. gypsicola × moranensis
|Wider, P. moranensis like foliage.
|-
|Pinguicula 'John Rizzi' Hort. D'Amato
|P. moranensis × ?
|Large, full flowers; oval, marginless undulating leaves.
|-
|Pinguicula 'L'Hautil' Hort. L.Legendre & S.Lavayssiere
|P. (ehlersiae × moranensis) × moranensis
|Two forms ("Grande" and "Petite"). P. 'Sethos' × P. 'Huahuapan'
|-
|Pinguicula 'Mitla' Hort. Studnicka
|P. gypsicola × moranensis
|Wider, P. moranensis like foliage.
|-
|Pinguicula 'Pirouette' Hort. J.Brittnacher, B.Meyers-Rice & L.Song
|P. agnata × (moranensis × ehlersiae)
|Hardy clone, attractive rosettes of pink leaves.
|-
|Pinguicula 'Sethos' Hort. Slack
|P. ehlersiae × moranensis
|Large flowers with a white star-like center.
|-
|Pinguicula 'Weser' Hort. Slack
|P. moranensis × ehlersiae
|Large flowers with single white streak down central lower lobe and dark veins.
|}
Additionally, three clones of P. moranensis have been registered as cultivars:
{| border="2" class="wikitable"
|+ Cultivars of Pinguicula moranensis
! cultivar name !! origin !! description
|-
|Pinguicula 'Huahuapan' Hort. Slack
|Huajuapan de León, Oaxaca, Mexico
|Lilac-pink flowers with crimson touches at their base.
|-
|Pinguicula 'Libelulita' Hort. Rice & Salvia
|southern Mexico
|Square-tipped petals, pale purple at edges darkening to deep velvet-red near base, heavily veined, white center.
|-
|Pinguicula'' 'Vera Cruz' Hort. Slack
|Veracruz, Mexico
|Deep rose with basal markings.
|}
Notes
References
Alcalá, R.E. & Dominguez, C.A. 2005 Differential Selection for Carnivory Traits Along an Environmental Gradient in Pinguicula moranensis; Ecology, 86(10), 2005, pp. 2652–2660
Casper, S.J. 1966. Monographie der Gattung Pinguicula L. Heft 127/128, Vol 31. Stuttgart: Bibliotheca Botanica
Cieslak, T., Polepalli, J.S., White, A., Müller, K., Borsch, T., Barthlott, W., Steiger, J., Marchant, A. & Legendre, L. 2005. Phylogenetic analysis of Pinguicula (Lentibulariaceae): chloroplast DNA sequences and morphology support several geographically distinct radiations; American Journal of Botany. 2005;92:1723–1736.
Candonelle, A.P. De. 1844. Prodromus systematis naturalis regni vegetabilis; Tomo VIII. Paris. pp. 26–32.
D'Amato, P. 1998. The Savage Garden: Cultivating Carnivorous Plants. Berkeley, California: Ten Speed Press.
Ernst, A. 1961 Revision der Gattung Pinguicula Bot. Jahrb. Syst. 80(2): 145–194
Hemsley, W.B. 1879–1888. Botany. In: Godwin, F.D. & O. Salvin, Biologia Centrali-Americana. R.H.Porter, London. 5 vol.
Hooker, J.D. 1846 P. orchidioides. Botanical Magazine. 72: tab. 4231
Humboldt, A., A. Bonpland & C.S. Kunth. 1817. Nova genera et species plantarum. II: pp. 225–226
Legendre L (2000). "The genus Pinguicula L. (Lentibulariaceae): an overview". Acta Botanica Gallica 141 (1): 77–95.
Mc Vaugh, R. & J.T.Mickel 1963. Notes on Pinguicula, sec. Orcheosanthus. Brittonia, Vol. 15, Issue 2 (apr. 15, 1963), p. 134–140
Morren, E. 1872. Notice sure le Pinguicula flos-Mulionis Ed. Mn. ou Grassette Fleur de Muletier, Fig. Pl. XXVII. Belgique Hort. 22:371–374
Zamudio Ruiz, S. 2001 Revision de la seccion Orcheosanthus del Genero Pinguicula (Lentibulariaceae) Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México.
Sessé, M. & J. M. Mociño. 1893. Plantae Novae Hispaniae. 2a. Ed. México. Oficina Tipográfica de la Secretaria de Fomento, México, D.F. 175 pp.
Speta, F. & F. Fuchs 1989 Drei neue Pinguicula-Arten der Sektion Orcheosanthus DC. aus Mexiko; Phyton (Austria), vol. 29, fasc. 1, pp. 93–103
Sprague, T.A. 1928. The orchid-flowered butterworts. Kew Bull. 6: 230–234
Watson, W. 1911. Pinguicula rosei. Gard. Chron. ser. 3, 29: 82.
Zamudio, S. 1999 Notas sobre la identidad de Pinguicula moranensis H.B.K., con la description de una variedad nueva'', Acta Botanica Mexicana, 1999, vol.49, pages 23–34
External links
A World of Pinguicula — Articles, photos, taxonomic and horticultural information
Carnivorous Plant Photo Finder: Pinguicula
International Carnivorous Plant Society
Pinguicula Discussion Forum
moranensis
Carnivorous plants of North America
Flora of Guatemala
Flora of the Yucatán Peninsula
Flora of Central Mexico
Flora of Campeche
Flora of Chiapas
Flora of Guerrero
Flora of Hidalgo (state)
Flora of Michoacán
Flora of Morelos
Flora of Oaxaca
Flora of Puebla
Flora of Querétaro
Flora of Quintana Roo
Flora of San Luis Potosí
Flora of the State of Mexico
Flora of Tlaxcala
Flora of Yucatán
Flora of Zacatecas
Plants described in 1817
Taxa named by Carl Sigismund Kunth
Taxa named by Aimé Bonpland
Taxa named by Alexander von Humboldt |
4366781 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red%20coat%20%28military%20uniform%29 | Red coat (military uniform) | Red coat, also referred to as redcoat or scarlet tunic, is a military garment formerly much used by British infantry servicemen, so customarily that the term became a common synecdoche for the servicemen themselves.
The red coat was widely (though not exclusively) used by the infantry units of the British military, including the British Army and Royal Marines, from the 16th to 19th centuries. The garment was also widely used by the British Colonial Auxiliary Forces and the British Indian Army during the 18th and 19th centuries. Though, by the 20th century, the red coat was abandoned for practical duties in favour of khaki by all British Empire military units, it continues to be used for ceremonial full dress and mess dress uniforms in many countries of the Commonwealth of Nations.
The usage of red coats by English soldiers dates back to the Tudor period, when the Yeomen of the Guard and the Yeomen Warders were both equipped in the royal colours of the House of Tudor, red and gold. During the Tudor conquest of Ireland and the Wars of the Three Kingdoms, units of English soldiers were equipped in red coats, most notably the New Model Army, which fought on the Parliamentary side.
From the mid-17th century to the 19th century, the uniform of most British soldiers (apart from artillery, rifles and light cavalry) included a madder red coat or coatee. From 1873 onwards, the more vivid shade of scarlet was adopted for all ranks, having previously been worn only by officers, sergeants and all ranks of some cavalry regiments.
History
Earlier instances
There had been instances of red military clothing pre-dating its general adoption by the New Model Army. The uniforms of the Yeomen of the Guard and the Yeomen Warders, both formed in 1485, have traditionally been in Tudor red and gold. The Gentlemen Pensioners of King James I wore red uniforms with yellow feathers in their hats. At the Battle of Edgehill, the first battle of the English Civil War, Royalist troops wore red coats, as did at least two Parliamentary regiments. However, none of these examples constituted the national uniform that the red coat was later to become.
16th century
In the Kingdom of Ireland, during the reign of Queen Elizabeth I, the soldiers of the queen's Lord-Lieutenant were occasionally referred to as "red coats" by Irish commentators, from the colour of their clothing. As early as 1561 the Irish named a victory over these troops as , literally meaning 'The Battle of the Red Cassocks' but usually translated as the Battle of the Red Sagums – sagum being a cloak. Note the Irish word is ("cassock") but the word may be translated as coat, cloak, or even uniform, in the sense that all of these troops were uniformly attired in red.
That the term "redcoat" was brought to Europe and elsewhere by Irish emigrants is evidenced by Irish nobleman and soldier Philip O'Sullivan Beare, who mentions the 'Battle of the Redcoats' event in his 1621 history of the Tudor conquest of Ireland, written in Latin in Spain. He wrote of it as "that famous victory which is called 'of the red coats' [] because among others who fell in battle were four hundred soldiers lately brought from England and clad in the red livery of the viceroy."
O'Sullivan alludes to two other encounters in which Irish rebels defeated English forces wearing 'red coats'. One concerns an engagement, twenty years later in 1581, during the Second Desmond Rebellion, in which he says, "a company of English soldiers, distinguished by their dress and arms, who were called 'red coats' [], and being sent to war [in Ireland] by the Queen were overwhelmed near Lismore by John Fitzedmund Fitzgerald, the seneschal." The other relates to a rout by William Burke, Lord of Bealatury, in 1599 of "English recruits clad in red coats" ().
English sources confirm that royal troops in Ireland wore red uniforms. In 1584, the Lord President of the Council informed the Sheriffs and Justices of Lancashire who were charged with raising 200 foot soldiers for service in Ireland that they should be furnished with "a cassocke of some motley, sad grene coller, or russett". Seemingly, russet was chosen. Again, in the summer of 1595, the Lord Deputy William Russell, writing to William Cecil, 1st Baron Burghley, about the relief of Enniskillen, mentions that the Irish rebel Hugh O'Neill, Earl of Tyrone, had "300 shot in red coats like English soldiers" – the inference being that English soldiers in Ireland were distinguished by their red uniforms.
During the Anglo-Spanish War, English pike men and arquebusiers fighting with their Dutch ally were also clad in red cassocks. This was noted during the Siege of Ostend, where 1,600 Englishman under the command of Sir Francis Vere arrived as reinforcements there in July 1601. The 16th-century military historian Julius Ferretus stated that the reason behind the red uniform of the English soldiers was to conceal blood stains but this claim is questionable because blood does in fact show on red clothing as a black stain.
17th century
The red coat evolved from being the British infantryman's normally worn uniform to a garment retained only for ceremonial purposes. Its official adoption dates from February 1645, when the Parliament of England passed the New Model Army ordinance. The new English Army was formed of 22,000 men, paper strength, comprising eleven regiments of cavalry each of 600 men for a total of 6,600, twelve regiments of infantry each of 1,200 men for a total of 14,400, and one regiment of 1,000 dragoons and the artillery, consisting of 900 men. The infantry regiments wore coats of Venetian red with white, blue or yellow facings. A contemporary comment on the New Model Army dated 7 May 1645 stated: "the men are Redcoats all, the whole army only are distinguished by the several facings of their coats."
Outside of Ireland or Britain, the English red coat made its first appearance on a European continental battlefield at the Battle of the Dunes in 1658. A Protectorate army had been landed at Calais the previous year and "every man had a new red coat and a new pair of shoes." The English name from the battle comes from the major engagement carried out by the "red-coats". To the surprise of continental observers they stormed sand-dunes high, fighting experienced Spanish soldiers from their summits with musket fire and push of pike.
The adoption and continuing use of red by most British/English soldiers after The Restoration (1660) was the result of circumstances rather than policy, including the relative cheapness of red dyes. Another factor favouring red was that dyes of this colour were "fast" and less inclined to fade when exposed to weather. Red was by no means universal at first, with grey and blue coats also being worn.
18th century
Prior to 1707, colonels of regiments made their own arrangements for the manufacture of uniforms under their command. This ended when a royal warrant of 16 January 1707 established a Board of General Officers to regulate the clothing of the army. Uniforms supplied were to conform to the "sealed pattern" agreed by the board. The style of the coat tended to follow those worn by other European armies. From an early stage red coats were lined with contrasting colours and turned out to provide distinctive regimental facings (lapels, cuffs and collars). Examples were blue for the 8th Regiment of Foot, green for the 5th Regiment of Foot, yellow for the 44th Regiment of Foot and buff for the 3rd Regiment of Foot.
In 1747, the first of a series of clothing regulations and royal warrants set out the various facing colours and distinctions to be borne by each regiment. The long coat worn with a white or buff-coloured waistcoat was discontinued in 1797 in favour of a tight-fitting coatee fastened with a single row of buttons, with white lace loops on either side.
American Revolutionary War
In the United States, "Redcoat" is associated in cultural memory with the British soldiers who fought against the Patriots during the American Revolutionary War. The Library of Congress possesses several examples of the uniforms the British Army used during this time. Most soldiers who fought the Patriots wore the red coat, though some German auxiliaries and some Loyalist units had blue or green clothing.
Accounts of the time usually refer to British soldiers as "Regulars" or "the King's men". However, there is evidence of the term "red coats" being used informally, as a colloquial expression. During the Siege of Boston, on 4 January 1776, General George Washington used the term "red coats" in a letter to Joseph Reed. In an earlier letter dated 13 October 1775, Washington used a variation of the expression, stating, "whenever the Redcoat gentry pleases to step out of their Intrenchments." Major General John Stark of the Continental Army was purported to have said during the Battle of Bennington (16 August 1777), "There are your enemies, the Red Coats and the Tories. They are ours, or this night Molly Stark sleeps a widow!"
Other pejorative nicknames for British soldiers included "bloody backs" (in a reference to both the colour of their coats and the use of flogging as a means of punishment for military offences) and "lobsters", most notably in Boston around the time of the Boston Massacre. The earliest reference to the association with the lobster appears in 1740, just before the French and Indian War.
19th–20th century
Following the discomfort experienced by troops in the Crimean War, a more practical tunic was introduced in 1855, initially in the French double-breasted style, but replaced by a single-breasted version in the following year. An attempt at standardisation was made following the Childers Reforms of 1881, with English and Welsh regiments having white facings (collar and cuffs), Scottish yellow, Irish green and Royal regiments dark blue. However some regiments were subsequently able to obtain the reintroduction of historic facing colours that had been uniquely theirs.
British soldiers fought in scarlet and blue uniforms for the last time at the Battle of Gennis in the Sudan on 30 December 1885. They formed part of an expeditionary force sent from Britain to participate in the Nile Campaign of 1884–85, wearing the "home service uniform" of the period. This included scarlet frocks as their undress uniform (plain jackets in harder-wearing material designed for informal wear), although some regiments sent from India were in khaki drill. A small detachment of infantry which reached Khartoum by steamer on 28 January 1885 were ordered to fight in their red coats in order to let the Mahdist rebels know that the real British forces had arrived.
Even after the adoption of khaki Service Dress in 1902, most British infantry regiments (81 out of 85) and some cavalry regiments (12 out of 31) continued to wear scarlet tunics on parade and for off-duty "walking out dress", until the outbreak of the First World War in 1914. While nearly all technical and support branches of the army wore dark blue, the Royal Engineers had worn red since the Peninsular War in order to draw less fire when serving amongst red-coated infantry.
Scarlet tunics ceased to be general issue upon British mobilisation in August 1914. The Brigade of Guards resumed wearing their scarlet full dress in 1920, but for the remainder of the army red coats were only authorised for wear by regimental bands and officers in mess dress or on certain limited social or ceremonial occasions (notably attendance at court functions or weddings). The reason for not generally reintroducing the distinctive full dress was primarily financial, as the scarlet cloth requires expensive cochineal dye dyed in the grain of the cloth by old-fashioned methods.
As late as 1980, consideration was given to the reintroduction of scarlet as a replacement for the dark blue "No. 1 dress" and khaki "No. 2 dress" of the modern British Army, using cheaper and fadeless chemical dyes instead of cochineal. Surveys of serving soldiers' opinion showed little support for the idea and it was shelved.
Colonial forces throughout the Empire
Red and scarlet uniforms were widely worn by British organised or allied forces during the Imperial period. This included the presidency armies of the East India Company from 1757 onwards (along with the succeeding British Indian Army), and colonial units from Canada.
History with the Royal Marines
Red coats were first worn by British sea-going regiments when adopted by the Prince of Denmark's Regiment in 1686. Thereafter red coatees became the normal parade and battle dress for marine infantry, although the staining effects of salt spray meant that white fatigue jackets and subsequently blue undress tunics were often substituted for shipboard duties. The Royal Marine Artillery wore dark blue from their creation in 1804. The scarlet full-dress tunics of the Royal Marine Light Infantry were abolished in 1923 when the two branches of the Corps were amalgamated and dark blue became the universal uniform colour for both ceremonial and ordinary occasions. Scarlet for the Royal Marines now (2021) survives only in the mess uniform jackets of officers and senior NCOs.
Modern use in the Commonwealth
The scarlet tunic has been retained as the full dress, band or mess uniforms by several armed forces of the Commonwealth of Nations. These include the Australian, British, Canadian, Fijian, Ghanaian, Indian, Jamaican, Kenyan, New Zealand, Pakistani, Singaporean, and Sri Lankan armies.
Canada
Use of the scarlet tunic originates with the Canadian Militia, a militia raised to support the British Army in British North America, as well as the Canadian government following Confederation in 1867. Present dress regulations relating to the scarlet tunic originated from a simplified system ordered by the sovereign in 1902, and later promulgated in the Canadian Militia Dress Regulations 1907 and Militia Order No. 58/1908. The dress regulations, including the scarlet tunic, were maintained after the Canadian Militia was reorganized into the Canadian Army in 1940.
The Canadian Army's universal full dress uniform includes a scarlet tunic. Although scarlet is the primary colour of the tunic, its piping is white, and the unit's facing colours appear on the tunic's collar, cuffs, and shoulder straps. The universal design also features a trefoil-shaped Austrian knot embroidered atop the facing on the tunic's cuff. The variation of the scarlet tunic is also worn by cadets of the Royal Military College of Canada. However, some units in the Canadian Army are authorized regimental differences from the Army's universal full dress. As a result, some armoured regiments and artillery units substitute dark blue, Canadian-Scottish regiments "archer green", and all rifle/Voltigeur regiments "rifle green" for scarlet tunics as a part of their full dress.
In addition to the full dress uniform, a scarlet-coloured mess jacket is a part of the authorized mess dress for members of the Canadian Army. Several other Canadian uniforms are also derived from the scarlet tunic. Members of the City of Toronto Honour Guard, a group of veterans that are employed in the local civil service, wear a scarlet tunic based on Governor General's Foot Guards. The dress uniform of the Royal Canadian Mounted Police, a federal law enforcement agency, also incorporates elements of a red coat, referred to as the Red Serge.
New Zealand
During the 19th century, several volunteer militias in New Zealand wore a variety of scarlet, dark blue, or green tunics, closely following the contemporary uniforms of the British Army. Presently however, the New Zealand Army Band and the Officer Cadet School are the only units of the New Zealand Army that use the scarlet tunic as part of their ceremonial full dress uniforms.
In addition to full dress, the standard mess dress for the New Zealand Army includes a scarlet jacket with dark blue/black lapels.
United Kingdom
The scarlet tunic remains in the current British Army Dress Regulations. It is one of three coloured tunics used by the British Army; alongside dark green tunics (used by The Rifles and Royal Gurkha Rifles), and dark blue tunics (used by several units, such as the Royal Artillery). The scarlet tunic is presently used as part of the full dress uniforms for the Life Guards and several other cavalry units, the Foot Guards, the Royal Engineers, line infantry regiments, generals, and most army staff officers of the British Army. The locally recruited Royal Gibraltar Regiment also uses a scarlet tunic as part of its winter ceremonial dress.
In addition, the scarlet tunic is still used by some regimental bands or drummers for ceremonial purposes. Officers and NCOs of those regiments which previously wore red retain scarlet as the colour of their "mess" or formal evening jackets. Some regiments turn out small detachments, such as colour guards, in scarlet full dress at their own expense, e.g. the Yorkshire Regiment before amalgamation.
Use with the Sovereign's Bodyguard
The Honourable Corps of Gentlemen at Arms, the Military Knights of Windsor and the Yeoman of the Guard, are ceremonial units known as the Sovereign's Bodyguard. The first two wear an early 19th century scarlet officer tunic when performing ceremonial tasks. The Yeomen wear a scarlet frock of Tudor style.
Rationale for red
From the modern perspective, the retention of a highly conspicuous colour such as red for active service appears inexplicable and foolhardy, regardless of how striking it may have looked on the parade ground. However, in the days of the musket (a weapon of limited range and accuracy) and black powder, battle field visibility was quickly obscured by clouds of smoke. Bright colours provided a means of distinguishing friend from foe without significantly adding risk. Furthermore, the vegetable dyes used until the 19th century would fade over time to a pink or ruddy-brown, so on a long campaign in a hot climate the colour was less conspicuous than the modern scarlet shade would be. As formal battles of the time commonly involved deployment in columns and lines, the individual soldier was not likely to be a target by himself.
Within the British Empire
There is no universally accepted explanation as to why the British wore red. As noted above, the 16th century military historian Julius Ferretus asserted that the colour red was favoured because of the supposedly demoralising effect of blood stains on a uniform of a lighter colour.
In his book British Military Uniforms (Hamylyn Publishing Group 1968), the military historian W. Y. Carman traces in considerable detail the slow evolution of red as the English soldier's colour, from the Tudors to the Stuarts. The reasons that emerge are a mixture of financial (cheaper red, russet or crimson dyes), cultural (a growing popular sense that red was the sign of an English soldier), and simple chance (an order of 1594 is that coats "be of such colours as you can best provide").
Before the Tudor period, red frequently appeared in the cloth livery provided for the household personnel—including guard troops—of many European royal houses and Italian or Church principalities. Red or purple had provided a rich distinction for senior clerics through the Middle Ages in the hierarchy of colours distinguishing the Roman Church.
During the English Civil War red dyes were imported in large quantities for use by units and individuals of both sides, though this was the beginning of the trend for long overcoats. The ready availability of red pigment made it popular for military clothing, and the dying process required for red involved only one stage. Other colours required the mixing of dyes in two stages and accordingly involved greater expense; blue, for example, could be obtained with woad, but more popularly it became the much more expensive indigo. In financial terms the only cheaper alternative was the grey-white of undyed wool—an option favoured by the French, Austrian, Spanish and other Continental armies. The formation of the first English standing army (Parliamentarian New Model Army in 1645) saw red clothing as the standard dress. As Carman comments, "The red coat was now firmly established as the sign of an Englishman."
On traditional battlefields with large engagements, visibility was not considered a military disadvantage until the general adoption of rifles in the 1850s, followed by smokeless powder after 1880. The value of drab clothing was quickly recognised by the British Army, who introduced khaki drill for Indian and colonial warfare from the mid-19th century on. As part of a series of reforms following the Second Boer War (which had been fought in this inconspicuous clothing of Indian origin), a darker khaki serge was adopted in 1902 for service dress in Britain itself. From then on, the red coat continued as a dress item only, retained for reasons both of national sentiment and its value in recruiting. The British military authorities were more practical in their considerations than their French counterparts, who incurred heavy casualties by retaining highly visible blue coats and red trousers for active service until several months into World War I.
As a symbol
The epithet "redcoats" is familiar throughout much of the former British Empire, even though this colour was by no means exclusive to the British Army. The entire Danish Army wore red coats up to 1848, and particular units in the German, French, Austro-Hungarian, Russian, Bulgarian and Romanian armies retained red uniforms until 1914 or later. Amongst other diverse examples, Spanish hussars, Japanese Navy and United States Marine Corps bandsmen, and Serbian generals had red tunics as part of their gala or court dress during this period. In 1827 United States Artillery company musicians were wearing red coats as a reversal of their branch facing colour. However the extensive use of this colour by British, Indian and other Imperial soldiers over a period of nearly three hundred years made red uniform a veritable icon of the British Empire. The significance of military red as a national symbol was endorsed by King William IV (reigned 1830–1837) when light dragoons and lancers had scarlet jackets substituted for their previous dark blue, hussars adopted red pelisses, and even the Royal Navy were obliged to adopt red facings instead of white. Most of these changes were reversed under Queen Victoria (1837–1901). A red coat and black tricorne remains part of the ceremonial and out-of-hospital dress for in-pensioners at the Royal Hospital Chelsea.
Material used
Whether scarlet or red, the uniform coat has historically been made of wool, with a lining of loosely woven wool known as bay to give shape to the garment. The modern scarlet wool is supplied by Abimelech Hainsworth and is much lighter in weight than the traditional material, which was intended for hard wear on active service.
The cloth for private soldiers used up until the late 18th century was plain weave broadcloth weighing , made from coarser blends of English wool. The weights often quoted in contemporary documents are given per running yard, though; so for a cloth of width a yard weighed . This sometimes leads to the erroneous statement that the cloth weighed 24 oz per square yard.
Broadcloth is so called not because it is finished wide, 54 inches not being particularly wide, but because it was woven nearly half as wide again and shrunk down to finish 54 inches. This shrinking, or milling, process made the cloth very dense, bringing all the threads very tightly together, and gave a felted blind finish to the cloth. These factors meant that it was harder-wearing, more weatherproof and could take a raw edge; the hems of the garment could be simply cut and left without hemming as the threads were so heavily shrunk together as to prevent fraying.
Officers' coats were made from superfine broadcloth; manufactured from much finer imported Spanish wool, spun finer and with more warps and wefts per inch. The result was a slightly lighter cloth than that used for privates, still essentially a broadcloth and maintaining the characteristics of that cloth, but slightly lighter and with a much finer quality finish. The dye used for privates' coats of the infantry, guard and line, was rose madder. A vegetable dye, it was recognised as economical, simple and reliable and remained the first choice for lower quality reds from the ancient world until chemical dyes became cheaper in the latter 19th century.
Infantry sergeants, some cavalry regiments and many volunteer corps (which were often formed from prosperous middle-class citizens who paid for their own uniforms) used various mock scarlets; a brighter red but derived from cheaper materials than the cochineal used for officers' coats. Various dye sources were used for these middle quality reds, but lac dye, extracted from a kind of scale insect "lac insects" which produce resin shellac, was the most common basis.
The noncommissioned officer's red coat issued under the warrant of 1768 was dyed with a mixture of madder-red and cochineal to produce a "lesser scarlet"; brighter than the red worn by other ranks but cheaper than the pure cochineal dyed garment purchased by officers as a personal order from military tailors. Officers' superfine broadcloth was dyed true scarlet with cochineal, a dye derived from insects. This was a more expensive process but produced a distinctive colour that was the speciality of 18th-century English dyers.
The most notable centre for dying "British scarlet" cloth was Stroud in Gloucestershire, which also dyed cloth for many foreign armies. An 1823 recipe for dying 60 pounds (lbs) - about 27 kg - of military woollen cloth lists: 1 lb of cochineal, 3 lbs madder, 6 lbs argol (potassium tartrate), 3 lbs alum, 4 pints tin liquor (stannous chloride), 6 lbs cudbear (orcein) and two buckets of urine. The alum, argol and tin liquor, which acted as mordants or dye fixatives, were boiled together for half an hour, and the madder and cochineal were added for another ten minutes. The cloth was added and boiled for two hours; after that, the cloth was drained and immersed in cudbear and urine for another two hours. The cloth was stretched out to dry on tenters, then finally brushed with teasels and tightly rolled to produce a sheen.
During the 18th and much of the nineteenth centuries the cheaply made coats of other ranks in the British army were produced by a variety of contractors, using the laborious process of dyeing described above. Accordingly, even when new, batches of garments sent to regiments might be issued in different shades of red. This tendency towards variations in appearance, commented on by contemporary observers, would subsequently be compounded by weather bleaching and soaking.)
Red uniforms in non-Commonwealth armed forces
Although the term red coat is most often associated with British soldiers in the English language, several other armed forces have used red-coloured coats as a part of their uniform.
The term redshirts was also used in mid-19th century Italy to refer to volunteers who followed Giuseppe Garibaldi during the unification of Italy. However, the term redshirt is derived from the red shirts or loose-fitting blouses worn by volunteers, as opposed to a specific piece of military garment.
Historic uses
Several military forces have used red-coloured coats in the past. The combined Denmark–Norway army wore red uniforms from the 17th century to the union's dissolution in 1814. A number of Danish Army infantry, cavalry and artillery regiments continued to wear red coats from 1814 to 1848, when they were replaced by dark blue service tunics. Members of the Paraguayan Army also wore red-coloured coats during the War of the Triple Alliance (1864–1870). Members of the Royal Burmese Armed Forces were also recorded to have worn western-style red-coloured uniforms during the 18th and 19th centuries.
Certain specific military units have also historically worn red-coloured coats. The Royal Polish Guards of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, wore a red cloth jacket with white lapels and a blue or turquoise vest, and a red coat made of wool during the winter season. The line infantry regiments of the Army of the Papal States were characterised by red coats and breeches during the 1730s. During the Venezuelan War of Independence, the Ejército Libertador (Army of Liberation) adopted the red hussar cavalry uniforms used by the British Legions' Company of Honor Guard for Simón Bolívar. Prior to World War I, officers of the Prussian Army's Guard Cuirassier Regiment wore scarlet tunics as part of their gala uniform for court functions.
Several French Army units have also historically worn red-coloured coats, including the Irish Brigade (1690–1792), who supposedly wore red-coloured coats to show their origins and continued loyalty to the cause of Jacobitism; and Swiss mercenary regiments in the French Army, including the Swiss Guards, from the mid-17th to early 19th centuries. The French North African spahi regiments also wore madder-red zouave style jackets until their disbandment in 1962.
Modern uses
Several military units continue to use a red-coloured coat as a part of their ceremonial uniform. In Europe, red-coloured coats are still used by the Danish Royal Life Guards, and the Garderegiment Fuseliers Prinses Irene of the Royal Netherlands Army. The latter unit's red-coloured tunics are derived from British style red coats, in commemoration of the unit's foundation in exile in the United Kingdom during World War II.
Several South American units continue to wear red-coloured coats for ceremonial purposes, including the Brazilian Marine Corps, and the Bolivian Colorados Regiment (colorados meaning red in the Spanish language). Several Venezuelan Army units also use a red-coloured coat as a part of their parade uniforms, including the Presidential Honor Guard, the Compañia de Honor "24 de Junio" (Company of Honor "24 de Junio") and the Bolivarian Militia of Venezuela.
Red-coloured coats also see some use in Asia, forming a part of a unit's ceremonial uniform. The ceremonial honour guard uniform for the military of Myanmar includes a red-coloured tunics. In Indonesia, a detachment from the Presidential Security Force of Indonesia uses a red-coloured tunic with as a part of their full dress.
United States
Members of the United States Army Old Guard Fife and Drum Corps, United States Marine Band and the United States Marine Drum and Bugle Corps wear red coats for performances at the White House and elsewhere. This is a rare survival of the common 18th-century practice of having military bandsmen wear coats in reverse colors to the rest of a given unit. (United States Marines wear dark blue (almost black in appearance) tunics with red piping, so United States Marine bandsmen wear red tunics with dark blue piping.)
Gallery
See also
The Thin Red Line (Battle of Balaclava)
References
Sources
British Army equipment
British military uniforms
Canadian military uniforms
Combat occupations
History of clothing (Western fashion)
New Model Army |
4367162 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/McInerney | McInerney | The name McInerney is of noble Irish origin where it is found in the modern Irish form of Mac an Airchinnigh () and in the old and literary forms of Mac an Oirchinnigh and Mac an Oirchindig. The pronunciation of Mac an Oirchinnigh led the name to be sometimes anglicised as McEnherheny in Irish documents from the 16th–19th centuries. The name translates to "son of the erenagh" in Irish ("erenagh" being airchinneach), literally meaning "son of the Lord of church lands". Airchinneach may in turn derive from the twin components of air ("noble") and ceann ("head"), therefore meaning a 'noble-head' or 'Lord', denoting its aristocratic status in medieval Ireland. The coat of arms is three red lions passant, and the motto is Veritas, meaning "Truth". In some places, the motto can be found as Vincit Veritas, meaning "Truth Conquers", or "Truth Prevails".
Naming conventions
Erenagh origins
The erenagh was an important position in early medieval Ireland and originally was associated with hereditary ecclesiastical office among certain custodian families of monasteries and churches. Later, the office of erenagh passed into the hands of laymen. After the disorder of the Norse wars in the 10th and 11th centuries, the erenaghs were generally lay families who controlled the lands and therefore the economic base of the important churches and monasteries on behalf of the overlord clan. In turn, the erenagh received part of the rents from the land and normally held their own mensal estate which was generally hereditary and passed down among the principal family lineage (Irish, 'derbhfine') and occupied by the 'chief' of the erenagh family. The erenagh families held high social status and were often at odds with the ecclesiastical authorities over the ownership and management of church lands and were often in conflict with rival churches located in hostile clan lands. Some erenagh families maintained their influence over ecclesiastical property right down until the collapse of the Gaelic social system in the beginning of the 17th century.
Because of the proliferation of lay erenagh families, there are many unrelated erenagh families throughout Ireland. The name McInerney is by far the most popular form of the Irish Mac an Airchinnigh and the most numerous as well. Indeed, by 1890 the surname McInerney was the seventh most popular in County Clare, though it seems that its popularity sank over time as many of the family emigrated from Clare during the course of the 20th century. Nonetheless, the name is well established in its historical homeland of Co Clare where it is still a well known local surname.
The surname McInerney has retained a relatively close phonetic approximation of the original Irish surname Mac an Oirchinnigh, aka, Mac an Airchinnigh (son of the airchinneach) which has been anglicised in many different forms such as McEnerhynny, McInerhenny, McKinnerteny,Mckinnerney, Nerhinny, McEnearney, McEnerney, McNertny, and even Kinnerk. Another well known erenagh family is the present-day family of Nerney found in County Roscommon and who historically were the erenaghs of St Patrick's church in the Diocese of Elphin and at Tuam. Their forebears are occasionally mentioned in the Irish Annals during the Middle Ages (in AD1487 for example) and also among the native Irish who received Transplanter Certificates in the 1650s in the vicinity of Stokestown. Despite their ancient lineage, the Roscommon Nerneys appear not to have been as numerous as the McInerneys of County Clare who historically are an offshoot of the important Dál gCais line of the powerful McNamaras of eastern County Clare (historically known as Clann-Cuilein).
McInerney of Thomond
The McInerney surname gave rise to a well known sept based in eastern Thomond, or Co Clare, where the name was first recorded in the early 14th century document 'Triumphs of Torlough' (Caithréim Thoirdhealbhaigh). In the 'Triumphs of Torlough' the McInerney sept is referred to on several occasions as being followers of the McNamaras and were present at the Battle of Dysert O'Dea in 1318 in which the English forces under De Clare were decisively defeated. The sept was an offshoot of the powerful McNamara clan and, tracing their descent to the 12th century Donnchadha Mac Con Mara (Donnough MacNamara) who was recorded as an airchinneach (erenagh) and from whom his son took the name Mac an Airchinnigh (i.e.'son of the airchinneach'). Some pedigrees indicate that this Donnchadha Mac Con Mara was the brother of Cu Mara beg, the Lord of Ui Caisin who was slain in 1151 and one of the early chiefs of the leading branch of the Mac Con Mara family. This would suggest that the McInerneys were an offshoot sept of the leading Mac Con Mara household of eastern Clare.
It is possible that this Donnchadh Mac Con Mara was an airchinneach based at Killaloe or another religious establishment in East Clare. The sept held extensive lands in the townlands of Ballysallagh, Ballynacraggie and Dromoland (parish of Kilnasoolagh near present-day Newmarket-on-Fergus) and were recorded as being in possession of the tower houses of Ballynacraggie and Ballysallagh during the 16th and 17th centuries respectively. These lands seem to have been the traditional 'mensal lands' of the head of the McInerney sept as the leading members of the family were variously recorded as residing on these lands from the 1560s–1650s.
According to papers the antiquarian R. W Twigge copied, the McInerneys built Dromoland Castle and Ballyconeely castle, of which the former has been rebuilt and was until recently the residence of the O'Brien Earl of Inchiquin, and the latter destroyed. R. W Twigge based his research off an 18th-century Irishman named William O’Lionain who wrote that Thomas, the son of Shane Mac Anerheny, erected Dromoland – probably between the 1450s–1550s. The Elizabethan Inquisition records (legal assessments of property transactions) of the late 16th century refer to a long-running land dispute between the two leading factions of the McInerneys. According to the Inquisition record of 1579:
Inquisition, taken at Ennis, on the May 16, 21st year of Elizabeth, before John Crofton, finds that John M‘Inerney, late of Ballykilty, died on the November 5, 1565, seized in fee of Ballysallagh and Ballykilty; that Mahone M‘Inerney, aged 17, at his father’s death, is the son and heir of said John; finds that Mahone, son of Loghlen, and Mahone’s son, Loghlen the younger, both relations of John, had laid claim to his lands and appropriated them to their own use for thirteen years past.
A subsequent Inquisition in 1606 during the reign of James I found that:
Inquisition, taken at the Windmill, on the March 13, 1606, by Humphrey Wynch, finds that Mahone, son of Loghlen MacInerney, died at Ballysallagh, on the November 12, 1572, being then owner in fee of Ballysallagh, Ballykilty with its water-mill, and of Carrigoran, and leaving his son Loghlen his heir-at-law. This son died at Carrigoran on the November 14, 1576, leaving his son Donogh, then aged six years, but now of full age, as his heir; finds that Mahone, son of John MacInerney, disputes the right of his cousin to the ownership of these lands, alleging that his father John, who was the true owner, had died at Dromoland, on the November 5, in the 7th year of the reign of Queen Elizabeth, leaving him, the said Mahone, his son and heir.
A subsequent Inquisition, taken in 1632, finds that Mahone had been in possession, and that he died about the year 1617, leaving a son John to succeed him, a man then of full age.
Clan McInerney at the time of Elizabeth I
Several members of the family are variously recorded in the Elizabethan Fiant records as receiving pardons for various rebellious acts during the upheavals of the 1570s-early 17th century. It can be surmised that most of the 'rebellious activity' was due to the Crown's push for control of feudal duties and rents that were paid by the 'urraghts', or lesser landowners, to their more powerful overlord clans such as the O’Briens and McNamaras. The English policy of establishing a fixed rent for land that was to be paid to the English administration was consolidated in the 1585 agreement known as the 'Composition of Connaught'. During this period the Elizabethan Fiants record a 'Mahowne McShane McInErrihine of Ballykilly [sic Ballykilty] Co Clare, gent', as obtaining a pardon in 1577 for rebellious activities. The same man, 'Maghowne McInerinn of Ballesolloghe, gent' was again record as being pardoned for rebellion in 1589 while in 1602 a 'Mahowne ne Teige McInyrrymy of Ballsallagh', and a 'John Sellenger McEnerie of Ballisallagh gent', were recorded as pardoned rebels. These last two references appeared in the aftermath of Tyrone's Rebellion and these landowners possibly had some local involvement as some Thomond clans supported Hugh O'Neill despite the Earl of Thomond's support for the Tudor royal forces.
The two reliable lists of 'gentlemen and their castles in Thomond' during the reign of Elizabeth record a 'McEnerhyney' (no first name given) as having possession a tower house at 'Ballynacraggie' (now destroyed) in 1574, while the list of 'castles and their gentlemen' in 1570 conspicuously leaves the entry for Ballynacraggie blank, but does record a 'Conogher Oge MacClancy, a Brehon' as being the occupier of Ballysallagh castle – a castle and lands that in the 17th century were closely associated with the McInerneys.
Despite the upheavals following the 'Composition of Connaught' and the land changes of the early 17th century such as the introduction of English Common Law and the abolition of Brehon Law, the sept as a whole remained undisplaced as in 1641 they held, in fee, over 1,400 Irish acres (around 2,240 statute acres) of good pasture land, all primarily in the parishes of Kilnasoolagh, Quin and Clonloghlan.
From these records it appears that three main branches of the sept were active: those associated with the lands in and around Clonloghlan parish (centered on the townland of Caherteige and probably a junior line of the family); another leading branch headed by Mahone McInerney centred on the parish of Kilnasoolagh (especially in the townland of Ballysallagh) and a third branch (which may have a close connection with the Ballysallagh McInerneys) centered exclusively on the townland of Ballykilty in the parish of Quin and represented by John McInerney. It was this John McInerney who appears a direct descendant of the McInerney 'airchinneach' line from the 12th century, as shown by several Gaelic genealogical tracts of the family, and also from an unregistered 'Milesian Pedigree' currently lodged in the Genealogical Office in Dublin showing that on the death of Mathghamhain (Mahone) Mac an Oirchinnigh in 1617, his son John was his sole heir.
Seventeenth-century upheavals
The Cromwellian settlement of 1651 resulted in a massive loss of lands and influence for the McInerneys, with much of their ancestral lands transferred in ownership to Sir Henry Ingoldsby. Much of the remainder of the sept sank in poverty and relative obscurity by the beginning of the 18th century. Notably, at least one member of the family suffered martyrdom during the Cromwellian wars and whose description comes down to us through Fr. Anthony MacBrody's 17th century compilation Propugnaculum Catholicæ Veritatis:
[in 1652] were also hanged Hugh Carrige a parish priest, Roger M‘Namara, Daniel Clancy, and Jeremiah McInerney, friars of Quin convent who were born in Tradree.
It appears that Jeremiah McInerney was born of wealthy Tradree parents, related to the Bunratty Barony and according to other descriptions he was initially beaten with sticks and, after refusing to recant his Catholic faith, the Cromwellian soldiers then dragged him to a tree and hanged him. Edward MacLysaght, in his book "The Surnames of Ireland", also mentions a Fr Lawrence McInerheny who was martyred in 1642, however there appears to be no reference to this individual in the historical record.
The 1659 Census shows that several members of the family (described as 'gent') managed to hold on to some of their traditional lands, while others were recorded in the 'Transplantation to Connacht' book as of receiving less fertile land in the north and west of Co Clare because of their 'rebellious activities' during the 1641 uprising. Several leading McInerneys were transplanted from their original lands in Bunratty barony to other areas including the infamous Burren. It appears that several members of the family were active during the 1641 rebellion, most notably Loghlin McInerney who was present at the siege of Ballyally Castle (he possibly served as a Justice of the Peace for the O’Brien Earl of Thomond) and Mahone McInerney. Both of these men were recorded as being transplanted under the Transplantation to Connacht scheme but it is likely that at least Mahone maintained a portion of his previous lands, as evidenced by his record 1659 as having 19 sub-tenants on his lands in Kilnasoolagh parish.
Several other prominent McInerneys were recorded in the 1659 Census and the name was ranked as one of the more numerous in the barony of Bunratty, having 29 'tituladoes' (landowners of some merit). In the barony of Bunratty 'John McInerhidny gent' held lands in Dromkeeny in the parish of Killraghtrish along with 9 tenants under him. This John could have been the John McInerney who occupied Ballykilty near Quin in 1641. Nearby Bunratty is the barony of Inchiquin where 'Loghlen McInerny gent' held lands in 'Rathrahan East' and a total of 13 tenants. This Loghlen is probably the Loghlen McInerney who was an active rebel in the 1641 uprising and was one of the besiegers of Ballyally castle. His name also appears in the 'Transportation to Connacht' lists as receiving several of re-granted lands in Inchiquin barony, and a Loghlen McInerney is recorded as the 'senechal' of the Earl of Inchiquin manor courts in the 1670s. Further afield, 'Covara McInerny gent' held lands and 13 tenants in Ballyconna South in the parish of Killneeny in Burren barony. This Covera may be the son of Mahone McInerney of Ballysallagh as the namesake Cowerra McInerney was recorded as holding lands there in 1641 and is later recorded in the Inchiquin Manuscripts as undertaking a land contract at Ballysallagh in the 1650s. From these records it appears that Covara is used interchangeably with the names Cumara/Cowerra. In the townland of Fyntra in Kilferboy parish in the barony of Ibricknane, 'Teige McInerny gent' is recorded as holding land and 30 tenants in joint with several other tituladoes.
Numerous references to the name can be found in the Inchiquin Manuscripts and in other various documents dealing with 17th and 18th century land transactions. After the loss of their ancestral estates, members of the family dispersed into the surrounding counties, becoming relatively numerous in Galway and Limerick, as well as in Tipperary. As can be found in the Tithe Applotment Books (c1826) and the Griffth Valuation (c1851) records, McInerneys were quite numerous in Co Clare, as well as in Limerick city and in clusters around the Killaloe and Ballina area, as well as in the district of Castletownarra in north-west Tipperary. Following the 1845–48 famine many of family emigrated to the US, Canada, UK, Australia and New Zealand. By 1876 some McInerneys were still located on lands nearby their traditional patrimony in Kilnasoolagh parish and in that year a Patrick McInerney of Clenagh held outright as a landowner.
McInerney folklore
According to the compilation of Clare folk stories by the antiquarian T.J. Westropp, stories from the peasantry point toward a connection between the McInerneys and massive iron-age hillfort at Moghane, nearby Newmarket-on-Fergus:
Near Sixmilebridge the tale ran that, in early days, Meihan mac Enerheny, a famous warrior, made the huge fort, or rather hill town, of Moghan as a 'fighting-ring' for himself. He would never allow his tribe to go to war until he had himself challenged and defeated all the enemy’s chiefs. He reigned in great esteem from the Fergus to the Owennagarna river. In his fighting-ring he always gave his opponents the choice of the sun and wind, in despite of which he overthrew them all. There was no king, nor soldier, nor monster that he feared to fight. His admiring tribe gave him a gold-embroidered cap, and the name of Oircheannach (Golden Head), and he died unconquered. I have never heard this tale in the neighbourhood of the fort. It seems artificial, and based on a folk-derivation to flatter the MacInerneys; it is perhaps genuine, though late.
It should be pointed out, however, that the translation of 'oircheannach' (or airchinneach) as 'golden head' is erroneous as it is the Irish word óir that means gold. The combined word airchinneach (air [noble] + ceann [head] ) is clearly the old Irish term for erenagh or steward of churches lands. Nonetheless, it should be remembered that Moghane hillfort lies almost adjunct to the traditional McInerney lands of Dromoland, Ballynacraggie and Ballysallagh.
Other origins
A 19th-century manuscript held at the Royal Irish Academy was scribed by Conchubhair Mac In Oirchinnigh of Baile Ban (Ballybawn) in Clare. The scribal note sets out his direct paternal line stretching back to the 17th century and claims descent from Donnchadha Mac Con Mara, the 12th century progenitor of the McInerney line and erenagh of Cill Da Luadh (Killaloe). The note also refers to the McInerneys as loyal chiefs of the lands of Caherteige, Clonloghan, Drumgeely and Tullyvarragh which locate nearby to the present-day Shannon Airport. It is possible that these lands consisted of the original McInerney patrimony and were awarded to the sept for services rendered as erenaghs. However, by the mid 17th century we can be sure to say that while there was a McInerney interest in these lands, it was only Caherteige that was owned in fee simple by a junior branch of the family, represented by Murtagh and Daniel, sons of Donagh McInerney
The surname should not be confused with the phonetically similar surname McEnery (MacEnery, MacEniry), of Uí Fidgenti origin, not Dalcassian. These MacEnerys, thus cousins of the O'Donovans, held large estates in south-west Limerick well after the disintegration of Uí Fidgenti in the 13th century, and were associated with their feudal overlord, Fizmaurice of Desmond. In Irish MacEnery is Mac Inneirghe (derived from eirghe 'to arise') and the sept held extensive lands in Castletown MacEniry and several of the family were noted émigré in the service of France and Spain in the 17th and 18th centuries.
Genealogical pedigree
MS 23 H.22 p. 11, Royal Irish Academy showing the two main branches of the McInerneys of Thomond. 19th century copy of the original pedigree dated c.1588.
Lochlainn
Mathghamhain (Mahone) |
(c1548-1617) Mathghamhain (Mahone)
| |
mac Sean (John) Lochlainn
| |
mac Con mara Mathghamhain (Mahone)
|_|
mac Tomais
|
mac Mathghamhain (Mahone)
|
mac Domhnaill (Donel)
|
mac Lochlainn
|
mac Lorcain
|
mac Murchadha (Murtagh)
|
mac Conchobhair (Connor)
|
mac Donnchadha i an airchineach agus Clann an oirchinnigh
|
mac Domhnaill (Donel)
|
mac Con mara
|
mac Domhnaill (Donel)
|
mac Meanman
|
mac Aodh Odhair (Hugh the paleface and 10th century ancestor of the McNamaras)
Several other genealogical pedigrees are in existence regarding the McInerney clan of Thomond.
Notable McInerneys
Bernie McInerney (born 1936), American character actor
Brandon McInerney, a student in the 2008 E.O. Green School shooting
George E. McInerney (1915–1972), lawyer and political figure in New Brunswick, Canada
George Valentine McInerney (1857–1908), lawyer and politician in New Brunswick
Gerry McInerney (Galway hurler) (born 1965), Irish hurler
Gerry McInerney (Clare hurler) (born 1961), Irish hurler
Ian McInerney (born 1964), British professional footballer
James O. McInerney (born 1969), Irish-born microbiologist
Jay McInerney (born 1955), American writer
Jeff McInerney (born 1960), head college football coach for the Central Connecticut State University Blue Devils
John McInerney (born 1957), British singer and songwriter, front person of Bad Boys Blue
John F. McInerney (1912–1967), physician and political figure in New Brunswick, Canada
Justin McInerney (born 2000), Australian rules footballer
Leo McInerney (1898-1963), Australian rules footballer who played for Essendon
Monica McInerney (born 1967), Australian-born author
Niall McInerney (1950–2004), Irish sportsperson
Nick McInerney (1897-1984), American football player
Oscar McInerney (born 1994), Australian rules footballer
Owen McInerney (1826–1890), Irish-born merchant and political figure in New Brunswick, Canada
Paddy McInerney (1895–1983), Irish sportsperson
Sarah McInerney, Irish journalist, radio broadcaster and television presenter
Shane McInerney (born 1970), Australian rules football field umpire
Thomas McInerney (born 1937), United States Air Force Lieutenant General
Tim McInnerny (born 1956), English actor
Tom McInerney (1905–1998), Irish sportsperson
See also
McAnearney
McInerney Holdings PLC, former Irish construction company
McEnaney
McEneaney
McInerny
References
External links
Survey of the McInerney Sept of Thomond by Luke McInerney
Irish Brehon families
Irish families
Families of Irish ancestry
Septs of the Dál gCais |
4367298 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mamelodi%20Sundowns%20F.C. | Mamelodi Sundowns F.C. | Mamelodi Sundowns Football Club (simply known as Sundowns) is a South African professional football club based in Mamelodi, Pretoria in the Gauteng province that plays in the Premier Soccer League, the first tier of South African football league system. Founded in the 1970s, the team plays its home games in the Loftus Versfeld Stadium.
Sundowns have won the Premier League title a record 13 times since its inception in 1996, hold the joint record of 3 National Soccer League Championships and have won 16 league titles in total. It is currently the most successful football club in the South African PSL era. They won the 2016 CAF Champions League, 2017 CAF Super Cup and were voted the 2016 CAF Club of the Year. Domestically, they have also won the Nedbank Cup six times, the MTN 8 four times and the Telkom Knockout four times. They are the first South African team to compete in the FIFA Club World Cup, where they finished in 6th place.
Sundowns is owned by South African business magnate Patrice Motsepe and is one of the most valuable clubs in Africa, by market value. The club takes pride in its unique style of attacking play, locally dubbed "Shoe Shine & Piano" which includes combinations of quick, short passes on the ground and this is likened to the Spanish Tiki-taka. Over the years, this style of play has been reflected in its Youth teams and Women's football team. In 2021, Sundowns became the first club in Africa to win both CAF Champions League and CAF Women's Champions League titles.
History
1964-1970: Beginnings
Sundowns Football Club originated around Marabastad, a cosmopolitan area north west of the Pretoria CBD in the early sixties, where it was formed by a group of youngsters residing in the area. The club mentions individuals such as Frank "ABC" Motsepe, Roy Fischer, Ingle Singh and Bernard Hartze as part of its founding young stars. The newly established team was named Marabastad Sundowns after an amateur club called Sundowns, which existed in the 1940s, also formed in Marabastad.
In 1969, Ingle "Jinx" Sigh, one of the founding players for Sundowns and later owner of both Marabastad Sundowns and Pretoria City (which later became SuperSport United F.C.), decided to sell the club to Dr. Bonny Sebotsane, Dr. Motsiri Itsweng and philanthropist Joseph Ntshimane "Fish" Kekana. The club was moved to the nearby township of Mamelodi and was officially established and renamed as Mamelodi Sundowns in 1970.
1970-1988: Zola Mahobe, Stan Tshabalala and the "Mr Cool" Years
The club was affiliated with the Federation Professional Football League in 1973 and in the same year reached the finals of the Coca-Cola Cup, where they played against Berea United and lost 5–3.
In 1978, the Federation Professional League threw their weight behind the then National Professional Soccer League. This meant the end of the Federation Professional League and the subsequent relegation of Sundowns to the second division.
For five years 'Downs battled to gain promotion and managed to earn its place in NPSL in 1983, but in their first season in top-flight football, they found the going difficult and during that period the Sundowns' management resolved to disband the club, until new owner Zola Mahobe came on board in 1985.
In the same year, 1985, South African football was the first sport in the country to become non-racial and the National Soccer League was formed, incorporating the top clubs in the country, including Sundowns. Dave Barber was in charge at the start of the new National Soccer League era but his tenure came to a swift end after the club found itself at the foot of the table and Zola Mahobe appointed Walter da Silver. Da Silver later quit after 5 games before the end of the season, claiming that Mahobe was interfering in team selection.
Zola Mahobe appointed Ben Segale as the coach, and the team ended the 1985 season in a flourish by winning the last 4 games to finish 11th place, which was a big improvement on their previous two top flight seasons. Under Mahobe, Sundowns fortunes changed for the better as they began to challenge for top honours in the domestic league. The big spending Sundowns boss recruited the services of elite South African footballers on a quest for supremacy, and changed their kit to resemble that of the Brazilian national team, earning them their nickname, "the Brazilians".
Mahobe went to Soweto to acquire the services of the highly rated coach Stanley "Screamer" Tshabalala, who was assisting Blackpool at the time, to lead the ambitious Sundowns team. Under the tutelage of Screamer Tshabalala, Sundowns played an entertaining and effective brand of football which became known as "The Shoe Shine and Piano." By the end of 1986, the club had won the Mainstay cup in a 1-0 brawl against Jomo Cosmos in Ellis Park and goalkeeper, Mark Anderson was voted Footballer of the Year as new players kept arriving. The next season, they finished third in the league, just three points behind champions Cosmos.
Sundowns were flying in 1988, with a victory against cross-town rivals Arcadia in the final of BP Top Eight Cup, and then later beating them again for the Ohlsson's Challenge Cup. Despite winning two trophies that year, trouble was brewing in the camp when players, led by Anderson demanded the resignation of coach Tshabalala and his assistant Trot Moloto. Stan resigned from his position, with a record of 54 wins, 29 draws and 25 losses. Captain, Mike Ntombela took charge over the club for four games while the management looked for a coach.
In the same year, the ownership of the club fell into the hands of Standard Bank, which repossessed the club from Zola Mahobe. The club went into liquidation and the football family Angelo and Natasha Tsichlas spoke to the bank and saved the club. They then formed a company with Abe Krok and bought 100% of the club.
1988-1995: Tsichlas/Krok leadership and First Championship
Chilean coach, Mario Tuane and his assistant Angelo Tsichlas took charge of a club at the top of the table and led it to its first league championship. There were rapturous celebrations at HM Pitje Stadium after Sundowns gained an unassailable point lead over Cosmos. However, the club could not defend the Ohlsson's challenge and BP Top Eight crowns and the Tuane era came to an end, with Angelo Tsichlas taking charge of the team as a caretaker coach until the club appointed Trott Moloto, and shortly after Stan Lapot. In the '89 season, Sundowns went on a 7-game unbeaten run in the league, but could only win one of their last 6 matches in the league, which ended the club's season at position 5.
This prompted the return of Stan Tshabalala, who took the team to the top of the table again in 1990. Sundowns only lost 2 league games during the campaign and won its first treble, managing to win the Top Eight Cup and the JPS Knockout Cup against Orlando Pirates with a 2–1 scoreline in the final.
This success was followed by a season of heartbreaking losses in 1991, with the team finishing second place in the league and failing to get into any cup final. 1992 was similar under Augusto Palacios, when Sundowns lost both the Top Eight cup and Castle Challenge to rivals Kaizer Chiefs and Orlando Pirates respectively, finishing 6th in the league.
Jeff Butler was appointed as the coach in 1993 after being turfed in a dispute with Bafana Bafana. He led the club to a 3rd league title win in a close 3 point race against Moroka Swallows and a 4th place league finish in the following year. Sundowns qualified for a continental title for the first time in the 1994 African Cup of Champions Clubs but lost to AS Vita Club in the second round.
1995-2004: Premier Soccer League and the Ted Dimitru era
National Soccer League was replaced by Premier Soccer League for the 1996–97 season. After a flurry of coaches and players came, went, and a third Stan Tshabalala stint in unsuccessful '96 and '97 campaigns, Sundowns signed Raphael Chukwu from Nigerian club, Shooting Stars S.C. and appointed Ted Dumitru as head coach in July 1997. Raphael's partnership with Daniel Mudau proved to be prolific in front of posts. Backed up by a super team of standout players such as Joel Masilela, Alex Bapela, Isaac Shai, Roger Feutmba and goalkeeper John Tlale amongst others, Sundowns went on to win three consecutive league titles from 1998 to 2000 as well as being Bob Save Super Bowl winners in 1998 and Rothmans Cup winners in 1999.
In 2001, Sundowns focused their efforts on continental glory and became only the second South African team to reach the prestigious CAF Champions League Final when they defeated Petro Atlético in the semifinals. The club played the 2001 CAF Champions League Final where they were defeated 4–1 on aggregate by Egyptian club Al Ahly.
The club underwent a period of rebuilding after the 1999/2000 season, enduring a period of bad performances in league and cup matches. Sundowns finished 3rd in the 2001/02 season, 10th in the 2002/03 season, 5th in the 2003/04 season and again 3rd in the 2004/05 season.
2004-Present: Patrice Motsepe Ownership
In 2004, mining magnate Patrice Motsepe bought a 51% share in the club and later took total control of the club by buying the remaining shares, thus becoming the sole owner and shareholder of the club. Under their new owner, Sundowns picked up their first piece of silverware for six years in May 2006 when co-coaches Miguel Gamondi and Neil Tovey oversaw Sundowns' triumph in the PSL, the seventh league title in their history.
After a slow start to the 2006–07 season, Gamondi and Tovey were relieved of their positions, and Gordon Igesund took over as head coach. Under Igesund, Sundowns defended their title in emphatic style, running away with the trophy. They failed to win the 'double', losing to Ajax Cape Town in the 2007 ABSA Cup final.
A stuttering start to the 2009–10 season saw an impressive run through the second half of the season which propelled the club to second position in the final league standings. The club nevertheless parted ways with coach Hristo Stoichkov.
In the 2010–11 season, Antonio Lopez Habas, who was the assistant coach under Stoichkov, took over the reins of the senior team. Sundowns made its best ever start to a League season and topped the league standings at the end of the first round. The second round of the league proved more competitive and Sundowns were in the hunt for the league title until the second last match. Habas resigned in February, citing personal reasons and went back to Spain. Assistant coach Ian Gorowa was appointed as interim head coach.
In 2011, highly rated Dutch tactician Johan Neeskens was appointed as the coach of Sundowns in a bid to awaken the sleeping giant that hadn't won silverware since winning the 2008 Nedbank cup. The Dutch-born coach gave a number of young players from the development team opportunities to impress in the senior team. Even though the Dutch mentor made the team play free-flowing and an entertaining brand of football, his failure to capture silverware led to his demise. On the 4th of March 2012, under the leadership of Neeskens, the team set a remarkable South African record in the Nedbank Cup when they beat Powerlines by a score of 24–0. The club went on to lose the 2012 Nedbank final 2–1 to Tshwane rivals Supersport United. His coaching stint at Chloorkop was short-lived as the impatient and demanding Sundowns supporters exerted pressure to the management to sack him. When the team failed to win the 2012 Telkom Knockout final against Bloemfontein Celtic, Neeskens got sacked as the head coach of the Tshwane-based side as the team was also languishing in the relegation zone.
2012-2019: The Pitso Mosimane Era
On the 2nd of December 2012, Pitso Mosimane took over as head coach and guided a turbulent Sundowns season to 9th place in the league. The 2013/14 season began on a better note, with a 6-game unbeaten streak including a 7-1 thumping of AmaZulu F.C. at home. However, in the mid-season, team performances became inconsistent and Sundowns found itself 11 points behind log leaders Kaizer Chiefs. There was still positivity in the camp however, and Mosimane was confident about a good end to the season. On the 9th of March 2014, Sundowns began an 11-game unbeaten streak that would end in an emphatic league title win after a 6-year trophy drought.
The acquisition of Khama Billiat in August 2013, Keagan Dolly and Leonardo Castro in the 2014/15 season bolstered the Sundowns attacking order that was backed by Hlompho Kekana, Samuel Mabunda, Themba Zwane, Teko Modise and academy wonder Percy Tau. The team finished 2nd in the league in the 2014 season, but won both the Nedbank Cup and Telkom Knockout. This would begin an era dominance in the league and Sundowns won the 2015/2016, 2017/2018, 2018/2019 and 2019/2020 league titles on the trot. 2015/16 was a record breaking season, which saw Sundowns become the first team to break the 70 point ceiling in the league since the South African top flight league became a 16-team league system.
In 2017, Mosimane oversaw Sundowns' first CAF Champions League win, which was the goal of owner Patrice Motsepe when he bought the club in 2004. Sundowns were eliminated in the preliminary rounds of the 2016 CAF Champions League, but were placed back in the competition after Congolese team Vita Club were disqualified from the competition for fielding a suspended player. In their journey for gold, Sundowns opened their campaign with an annulled 2–0 win against Algeria's ES Setif courtesy of Mabunda and Khama Billiat goals.
2017 CAF Champions Win
On 26 June 2016, they faced Nigeria club Enyimba International F.C. at Lucas Moripe Stadium. They defeated the Nigerians 2–1 with goals from Leonardo Castro and Wayne Arendse in the 42nd and 78th minutes, respectively. Their good form continued to Egypt, defeating Egyptian club Zamalek SC with a goal from Mabunda in the 17th minute, followed by an Ibrahim leveller in the 36th minute, prevailing with a 66th-minute goal from their star player Khama Billiat, which ended the match in favour of the Brazilians 2–1. They repeated this in the 2nd leg by beating the Egyptian club 1–0 with an own goal from Ali Gabr in the 79th minute. The win assured 'Downs a place in the semifinals, but they needed to end their group stage campaign on a high away against Enyimba. Playing with young players, 'Downs succumbed to their first defeat by 3–1 on a rainy slippery field.
In the semifinals, they faced Zambian team ZESCO United at the Levy Mwanawasa Stadium, where they lost to quick succession goals just a minute apart in the 54th and 56th minutes from Mwanza. Billiat netted a goal in the 86th minute to bring the score to 2–1, leaving 'Downs with much to do in the second leg. In the second leg, 'Downs did what was needed of them by winning the match 2–0, thanks to a goal from Liberian Anthony Laffor in the 5th minute and the young Percy Tau in the 64th minute. Mamelodi Sundowns F.C. reached the final of the competition for the first time since the 2001 CAF Champions League final (where they lost to Al Ahly SC). They also reached the 4th final for South African clubs (1 win and 2 losses).
In the final, they beat Egypt's Zamalek SC 3–1 on aggregate, claiming their first-ever continental title and becoming only the second South African team to be crowned champions of Africa, after Orlando Pirates.
Sundowns went on to win the 2017 CAF Super Cup in Loftus Versfeld Stadium by defeating TP Mazembe from the DRC in the same season. The club made the bold signings of Gaston Sirino from Bolivar and an ailing Rivaldo Coetzee in 2018. Despite losing a number of valuable players in the previous season, the club maintained good performances in domestic cups, winning a domestic treble (league, Telkom Knockout and Nedbank Cup) in the 2018/19 season.
2020-present: Rhulani Mokwena & Manqoba Mngqithi
In 2020, the team underwent changes in coaching personnel for the first time in almost 7 years and an influx of new players after the departure of Pitso Mosimane. The club appointed former assistant coaches, Rhulani Mokwena and Manqoba Mngqithi as joint Head Coaches with the opinion of Manqoba Mngithi prevailing when there isn't consensus. The club's board was keen on appointing South African coaches, and later appointed Steve Komphela as a senior coach to assist the coaching pair. The trio saw off a season which saw the rise of new top scoring marksman, Peter Shalulile and standout signings such as Neo Maema, Rushine De Reuck amongst many others. The club celebrated a successful 5th consecutive league win and a Nedbank Cup which showed that the club was heading in a good direction.
2021/22 was another record breaking league season played under Covid restrictions.
Honours
Shared record
Awards
African Club of the Year 2016
South African team of the year 2016
PSL team of the season 2015–16, 2013–14
Friendly cup competitions
Shell Helix Cup
Winners : 2018
Telkom Charity Cup
Winners(5) : 1991, 2000, 2004, 2005, 2006
Carling Black Label Cup
Winners: 2022
Ohlsson's Challenge Cup
Winners : 1988
Performance in CAF Competitions
NB: South African football clubs started participating in CAF Competitions in 1993, after 16 years of being banned from FIFA due to the apartheid system. The ban extended from 1976 to 1992.
African Cup of Champions Clubs / CAF Champions League: 15 appearances
The club has 1 appearance in African Cup of Champions Clubs 1994 and 14 appearances in CAF Champions League from 1999 until now. It has also recorded the biggest victory in the CAF Champions League by defeating Seychelles side Côte d’Or, 11–1 at home and 16–1 on aggregate in the first round of the 2019–2020 season.
CAF Confederation Cup: 4 appearances
CAF Super Cup: 1 appearance
CAF Cup: 2 appearances
African Cup Winners' Cup: 1 appearance
Note
DNQ - Did not qualify
CAF announced on 24 May 2016 that Mamelodi Sundowns won on walkover after AS Vita Club were disqualified for fielding an ineligible player in their preliminary round tie against Mafunzo. Mamelodi Sundowns played in the Confederation Cup play-off round before they were reinstated to the Champions League.
Overall matches
Club ranking
Club ranking is used for seeding in the CAF competitions. Sundowns are ranked 4th for the 2023–24 CAF club season.
Performance in FIFA Club World Cup
FIFA Club World Cup: 1 appearance
Mamelodi was the first football club from Southern Africa to represent CAF in FIFA Club World Cup, following their 2016 CAF Champions League success.
Club records
Records
Source:
Premier Soccer League record
Orange = In progress
Gold = Champions
Silver = Runner up
Source:
Players
Shirt sponsor & kit manufacturer
References
External links
Premier Soccer League
PSL Club Info
South African Football Association
Confederation of African Football
Confederation of African Football
Mamelodi Sundowns F.C. results
Soccer clubs in Pretoria
Association football clubs established in 1970
Premier Soccer League clubs
1970 establishments in South Africa
CAF Champions League winning clubs
CAF Super Cup winning clubs |
4367444 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Bhoys%20from%20Seville | The Bhoys from Seville | The Bhoys from Seville is a nickname used to refer to Celtic F.C.'s team and fans during Celtic's 2002–03 UEFA Cup campaign, which culminated in their defeat in the final against F.C. Porto in Seville, Spain. Around 80,000 Celtic fans travelled to support their team in the final. The name "The Bhoys from Seville" is a play on words from the book and film The Boys from Brazil, the nickname of Celtic F.C. (The Bhoys), and the location of the final (Seville). This UEFA Cup campaign was Celtic's most successful in Europe since their run to European Cup Final in 1970, and the first time in 23 years that they had remained in European competition beyond Christmas.
Although they lost in the final against F.C. Porto, the team has been compared to Celtic's European Cup winning team in 1967, the Lisbon Lions. The estimated 80,000 Celtic supporters who travelled to Seville for the final received widespread praise for their exemplary conduct, and were later awarded Fair Play Awards from UEFA and FIFA "for their extraordinarily loyal and sporting behaviour". The support of the Celtic supporters and the team's performance during the campaign provided the inspiration for a number of books, television programmes and DVDs, primarily highlighting the experiences of the travelling fans.
Background
Celtic F.C.'s participation in the 2002–03 UEFA Cup came as a result of their defeat in the UEFA Champions League third qualifying round against FC Basel (3–3 aggregate score with the Swiss team progressing to the group stage on away goals). During the 2003 UEFA Cup competition, Celtic goalkeeper Rab Douglas and defender Bobo Balde appeared in twelve matches, which led the team in that category. They both missed the 2nd leg of the first round against FK Sūduva. Douglas conceded twelve goals and had six clean sheets. Celtic outscored opponents 27 to 12 on their run to the final. Striker Henrik Larsson scored eleven goals, including a hat-trick in the first game against FK Sūduva.
The motto "V for Victory" was coined during the campaign as every team Celtic faced; FK Sūduva, Blackburn Rovers, Celta Vigo, VfB Stuttgart, Liverpool, and Boavista, each had V in their name, with the exception of the team Celtic played in the final, Porto, although it was highlighted that the game would be in Seville.
In another reference to the letter V, for the days leading up to the game the Daily Record, a Scottish tabloid newspaper, sent an open topped double decker bus to Seville with the slogan "Here V Go" on the side of the bus.
First round v FK Sūduva
The first game of the campaign was against Lithuanian team FK Sūduva. Sūduva stated that they could not send a scout to Glasgow to spy on Celtic to prepare for their match, and instead had to watch videotapes of their opponents.
Celtic all but won the tie in the first leg at home in Celtic Park on 14 August 2002 with their 8–1 win. Henrik Larsson scored a hat-trick, while Stilian Petrov, Chris Sutton, Paul Lambert, Joos Valgaeren and John Hartson all scored a goal each. Martin O'Neill rested a number of players for the second leg, with first-team regulars such as Larsson, Sutton, Lambert, Valgaeren, Petrov and Neil Lennon all being left in Glasgow. Celtic won the second leg 2–0 and went through to the second round on an aggregate of 10–1.
Second round v Blackburn Rovers
The next round caught media and football fans attention when Celtic were paired with Blackburn Rovers. The English side were enjoying a good season and eventually finished sixth in the Premiership. Their squad boasted former Man United strikers Dwight Yorke and Andy Cole as well as rising star David Thompson and Irish winger Damien Duff, who had impressed in the 2002 World Cup. Highlighted by the media was the fact that Blackburn Rovers manager Graeme Souness had previously been player-manager of Celtic's city rivals Rangers. The tie was dubbed the Battle of Britain.
Celtic were poor in the first leg at Parkhead, and were outplayed by Blackburn for long spells of the game. Nevertheless, a Henrik Larsson goal five minutes from full-time secured a crucial 1–0 win on the night and a narrow lead to take down to Ewood Park.
In the build-up to the return match, Blackburn captain Gary Flitcroft made public that Souness had commented in the dressing room after the first game that Blackburn should have won the game and that it was like watching "men against boys." Flitcroft also added his own opinion that no Celtic player had impressed him. In a press conference the day before the second game, Souness stated that if Celtic scored one goal then Blackburn would score three.
In the second leg, Celtic showed much more composure and scored after 14 minutes through Larsson. Celtic were now 2–0 ahead on aggregate and controlled the game after that to the joy of their 7,500 travelling fans. Former Blackburn striker Chris Sutton scored another goal for Celtic after 68 minutes and the match ended with Celtic winning 2–0 on the second leg and 3–0 on aggregate.
Third round v Celta Vigo
Celtic's third round UEFA cup opponents were Celta Vigo. In the first leg, Henrik Larsson scored the only goal of the game in Glasgow to give Celtic a slender 1–0 advantage to take to Spain. The match was overshadowed by the eccentric refereeing of Claude Columbo, who sent Celtic's Martin O'Neill from the home dugout during the game. O'Neill received a two-game touchline ban, but this was later reduced to a one match ban after an appeal.
The return match saw Celta Vigo's Jesuli level the tie on aggregate after 24 minutes. Celtic rallied, and on 37 minutes John Hartson used his body strength to force his way into the Spanish penalty box and score with a powerful shot. Crucially, due to the away goals rule, Celta Viga now had to score twice to avoid losing the tie. Benni McCarthy scored early in the second half for Celta Vigo but, despite a glaring miss from Jesuli near the end, Celtic held on to win the tie on away goals. The 1–2 loss on the night was the first of two defeats for Celtic on the way to the final.
This was the first time ever that Celtic had knocked out a Spanish club in European competition, and also the first time in 23 years that Celtic had remained in European competition beyond Christmas.
Fourth round v VfB Stuttgart
The opponent for Celtic in the fourth round was German Bundesliga team VfB Stuttgart. Celtic went into the first leg at Celtic Park with John Hartson suspended and Henrik Larsson absent due to sustaining a broken jaw in league match. Despite Stuttgart's Marcelo Bordon getting sent off on 16 minutes, the German's still took the lead with a goal from Kevin Kurányi on 27 minutes. Celtic rallied and were 2–1 up at half-time after goals from Paul Lambert and Shaun Maloney. A Stilyan Petrov goal in the second half clinched a 3–1 win.
A reported 10,000 Celtic fans travelled to Germany to cheer on Celtic in the second leg. John Hartson returned from suspension to the starting line-up whilst defender Ulrik Laursen also came into the side; with Shaun Maloney and Jackie McNamara dropping out. After early pressure from Stuttgart, Celtic scored on 12 minutes; Hartson played a pass from midfield out wide right to Didier Agathe, who raced down the wing and on reaching the bye-line crossed in to the Stuttgart penalty box. Hartson headed the ball towards the back post and Alan Thompson scored with a diving header. Two minutes later Celtic extended their lead. Agathe was again the provider, racing 50 yards down the right wing and cutting the ball into the penalty box to Chris Sutton who scored from close range with a powerful shot. That left Stuttgart requiring to score five goals to salvage the tie. A comeback by the Bundesliga club saw them eventually win 3–2 on the second leg, but Celtic won the tie 5–4 on aggregate.
Quarter-final v Liverpool
The quarter-finals saw another English Premiership opponent for Celtic, this time Liverpool. Liverpool was competing in the UEFA Cup after it finished third in Group B of the 2002–03 Champions League, which also featured Celtic's conquerors in the qualifying round, FC Basel, who finished second.
The first leg took place at Celtic Park on 13 March 2003. This clash was again billed as the "Battle of Britain". Before kick off, Gerry Marsden led both sets of supporters in a rousing version of "You'll Never Walk Alone". Celtic then started the match on the attack, John Hartson hitting the crossbar after only 12 seconds. Henrik Larsson, in his first match back after recovering from a broken jaw, then opened the scoring after 100 seconds from close range. Emile Heskey equalised for Liverpool on 16 minutes, latching on to a John Arne Riise cross from the left and shooting past Rab Douglas from a tight angle. The match finished at 1–1, with the away goal giving Liverpool the advantage going in to their home tie at Anfield. Liverpool player El Hadji Diouf spat at a Celtic supporter during the match, and was later fined £5,000 at Glasgow's Sheriff Court for the incident.
The return match at Anfield took place the following week. Celtic's Alan Thompson and Liverpool's Dietmar Hamann both came close to scoring in the opening quarter-hour with long range shots. On 19 minutes, Jerzy Dudek turned a 30-yard free kick from Henrik Larsson around the post. Two minutes from half time, Celtic were awarded a free kick 25 yards from goal. Thompson struck a low shot past Dudek from the set piece, with the ball going under the defensive wall, which had jumped up and appeared to distract the Liverpool goalkeeper. Celtic sealed their victory on 82 minutes when John Hartson played a one-two with Larsson, and then drove a swerving shot from 25 yards out into the top-right corner of Dudek's goal. Celtic's 2–0 win saw them win the tie 3–1 on aggregate and progress to the semi-finals.
Semi-final v Boavista
Celtic's first European semi-final since the early 1970s saw them paired against Portuguese team Boavista. As with all the previous rounds, Celtic were drawn to play the first leg of the tie at Celtic Park.
In the first leg Celtic went a goal down through an own goal from Joos Valgaeren on 48 minutes. Larsson equalised seconds later, but then missed a penalty kick on 75 minutes. Despite a couple of good chances near the end of the game, Celtic were unable to score a winning goal. The 1–1 draw, watched by around 60,000 fans, was Martin O'Neill's 50th unbeaten match at Celtic Park, a record of results that stretched back to their last home defeat which was against Ajax in August 2001.
In a difficult return leg, Celtic toiled to break down a dour Boavista side who knew that a scoreless draw was all they needed to reach the final. An opportunistic strike by Larsson on 80 minutes won the match and the tie for Celtic, meaning that Celtic went through to the final, preventing an all-Portugal, and all-Oporto, final.
Celtic fans in Seville
Celtic were the first Scottish team in 16 years to reach a European final and the first Celtic team to reach a European final since the 1970 European Cup Final. Their opponents in the final were Portuguese club Porto, who had defeated Lazio 4–1 on aggregate in the other semi-final. The match was played at the Estadio Olímpico in Seville.
Tickets for the match had been selling for £500 in the lead up to the game. UEFA and the Spanish police had warned Celtic fans to avoid buying the 700 estimated fake tickets that were circulating before the game. Many of the fans who were not able to get tickets for the final watched the game on a large screen placed a mile from the stadium.
There was a scramble to arrange travel to Spain, and Celtic fans travelled by plane, car, bus, train and ferry to get to Seville on time. Many fans travelled to Seville on day trips and returned to Scotland early the next morning after the match. The first charter flights to Spain on the day of the match left Scotland well before dawn. About 33 charter planes departed before midday with over 9,000 Celtic fans on board. 2,000 more travelled on scheduled flights. At Glasgow Prestwick Airport, 9 charter flights departed before 9 a.m. BST with 3,500 fans.
Tens of thousands of Celtic fans travelled to Seville during the days leading up to the match, partying in a carnival atmosphere. Many of the supporters congregated in the Cathedral area of the city. One Irish pub was reported to have sold 300 barrels in the day leading up to the final, to satisfy the thirst of supporters in the near 100 degree heat (~ 37 °C). By the day of the final, an estimated 80,000 Celtic supporters had arrived in Seville.
The final vs. F.C. Porto
The humid weather meant that the game was played at a relatively slow pace, which seemed to favour Porto. This caused a number of rash challenges from Celtic, one of which led to Joos Valgaeren getting a yellow card on 8 minutes. After this it was very much a stoic affair, until 32 minutes into the first half when Capucho played in Deco, but he could do no more than fire his shot straight at Celtic's goalkeeper Robert Douglas. Straight after this attack Celtic broke on the counter with Henrik Larsson, putting Didier Agathe through on the right, but his cross was too high for Chris Sutton. Larsson had a chance to make it 1–0 on 35 minutes, but from Sutton's assist he was unable to make enough contact with the ball. Porto came close on 41 minutes when Deco moved past Bobo Baldé to go one on one against Robert Douglas, who saved Deco's shot with his legs. Porto finally found a way through on 45 minutes when, after an offensive play from Deco, Derlei followed up Dmitri Alenichev's shot on target, which had been saved by Robert Douglas. This gave Porto a 1–0 lead on the stroke of half time and Derlei's 11th goal of the competition.
Porto were unable to hold onto their lead for long; two minutes after the restart, Celtic equalised when Henrik Larsson met Didier Agathe's cross to send a looping header in over Porto's goalkeeper Vítor Baía to get his tenth goal of the tournament and his 200th Celtic goal. However, within five minutes, it was 2–1 to Porto when Deco's through ball found Dmitri Alenichev, who scored with a low shot. Just three minutes later, Celtic equalised once again through Larsson when he headed in Alan Thompson's corner. After this, the game stagnated until a couple of minutes from the end of the game when Jackie McNamara's errant pass found Alenichev, who shot over the crossbar.
Normal time ended with the game at 2–2. The ensuing periods of extra time saw defensive football from both sides; Celtic was down to ten men when Bobo Balde was dismissed on 95 minutes after his second yellow card. On 112 minutes, Derlei reacted quickest to a Robert Douglas block and rounded McNamara make it 3–2 for Porto. Porto managed to hang on even after having Nuno Valente sent off just before the end of extra-time, ensuring that they ended their 16-year wait between European trophies. It was Porto's first UEFA Cup win, and they were also the first team to win a trophy on the silver goal rule.
After the match Henrik Larsson said in an interview that he was disappointed to have scored two goals in the final and still come away with a runners up medal. Larsson stated that there was nothing to be happy about the outcome of the final. He told BBC Sport, "I've said before, I'd much rather not score and be able to lift the UEFA Cup, than to score twice and finish up on the losing side. There's nothing to be happy about, but now we have to find a way to lift ourselves for the league game on Sunday."
The Porto manager, José Mourinho, led his team to the Champions League title the following year before moving to Chelsea. Reflecting on the final, Mourinho was happy to admit he played part of a historic moment in football. He said, "As a football game, Celtic-Porto in Seville was the most exciting football game I have ever been involved in. An unbelievable game. Every time I see Martin O'Neill I remember I was the lucky one that day. An incredible match. I've never seen such emotional people. It was unbelievable."
The team for the final
Match facts
Viewing figures
The cup final was broadcast live on BBC One in the UK, and the viewing figures were as follows:
Match average - 8.3 million, 34.8% audience share
Programme average - 7.8 million, 33.6% audience share
Viewing peaked at 10 million for the quarter-hour 10.00–10.15pm
BBC Head of Football, Niall Sloane said: "We're delighted that so many people tuned in to follow a British team's progress in the final. We're only sorry that Celtic didn't win."
Fans' awards
Approximately 80,000 Celtic supporters, the largest travelling support in history at that time, made the journey to Seville for this game. The exemplary conduct of the Celtic supporters (three arrests the night before the game, no arrests at all on the day of the final) received widespread praise from the people of Seville, and the fans were awarded Fair Play Awards from both UEFA and FIFA "for their extraordinarily loyal and sporting behaviour". Celtic Supporters Association general secretary Eddie Toner said, "The Fair Play Award is a fantastic tribute to the Celtic supporters who represented the club in Europe so magnificently last season. Celtic supporters have travelled in large numbers throughout Europe over many years and they have rightly earned an excellent reputation during this time. The Fair Play Award is further recognition of the Celtic supporters' high standing in Europe and an honour which is well deserved."
FIFA president Sepp Blatter also praised the Celtic fans when he presented the FIFA Fair Play award at Celtic Park; "I can only say that this is not the first time that Celtic fans have presented themselves as warm and wonderful supporters."
Sevilla fans travelling to the 2006–07 UEFA Cup in Glasgow noted that the visiting Celtic fans in 2003 had left them with a "great impression" of Glasgow.
In media and popular culture
The team and their supporters have since become known as "The Bhoys from Seville"; this is a play on words from the book and film The Boys from Brazil, the nickname of Celtic (the Bhoys), and the location of the UEFA Cup final (Seville). Although they lost in the final, the team is still compared favourably with European Cup winning team of 1967, the Lisbon Lions.
The support of the Celtic supporters and the team's performance during the campaign provided the inspiration for a number of books, television programmes, and DVDs. This included a book called Over and Over, which documented the experience of the travelling fans. The official video and DVD produced by the club was entitled The Road to Seville. The DVD edition included a bonus disc featuring the full away match with Liverpool at Anfield. A television programme and subsequent DVD produced by STV that took its name from the team was called The Bhoys from Seville.
The Bhoys from Seville DVD focused on the fans and their endeavours to get to Spain and see the final. The DVD also contained broadcasts from Scottish news programmes from Seville and a tribute piece to the Lisbon Lions.
Celts in Seville stage play
Actor and playwright Tony Roper wrote a play entitled Celts in Seville, the story of a typical Celtic supporting-family following the team over the course of their run to the final in Seville. The play enjoyed a successful initial run in 2008, and a similarly successful rerun in 2014. Roper wrote the play to highlight the passionate but good-natured support of Celtic fans during the campaign, stating "The reason I wrote this was not to celebrate Celtic not winning the UEFA cup, the reason I wrote the play was to celebrate Celtic supporters' way of not winning the cup."
Campaign results
See also
History of Celtic F.C.
Celtic F.C. in European football
References
Celtic F.C.
2002–03 in Scottish football
2008 plays
Culture in Glasgow
Association football fandom |
4367553 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal%20Academy%20of%20Art%2C%20The%20Hague | Royal Academy of Art, The Hague | The Royal Academy of Art (, KABK) is an art and design academy in The Hague, offering programs at both the HBO bachelor's and master's levels, as well as PhD programs. It is among the most prestigious universities in the Netherlands and enjoys international acclaim.
Succeeding the Haagsche Teeken-Academie (part of the Confrerie Pictura), the academy was founded on 29 September 1682, making it the oldest in the Netherlands and one of the oldest in the world. The academy has been the training ground for a number of significant artists of the Hague School. It was part of the art movement of Dutch Impressionism and in the immediate vicinity of the II. Golden Age of Dutch painting.
While training was strongly oriented towards the classic curriculum throughout much of the 19th century, the academy opened to modernism at the end of the 19th century. Influenced by the Bauhaus, the academy gradually shifted its focus toward a more contemporary art and design style. Within education, the focus on new technologies and new media has expanded dramatically, which is visible in new workplaces and facilities, but also in new study options such as ArtScience, Interactive/Media/Design and Non-Linear Narrative. In 1957, in celebration of the academy's 250-year existence, it was awarded the predicate "royal".
Nowadays, it maintains close ties in its curriculum with its mother institution, the University of the Arts The Hague (HDK), as well as Leiden University, under the name "Academy of Creative and Performing Arts" (ACPA). As a result, students are able to follow several elective classes from all institutions falling under that umbrella. Furthermore, the academy's students are 68% international and the academy values this internationalization greatly. It adopts an international approach in its curriculum structure wherever possible.
History
The Royal Academy of Art The Hague, was founded on September 29, 1682, by Willem Doudijns, Theodor van der Schuer, Daniel Mijtens the Younger, Robert Duval and Augustinus Terwesten as the Haagsche Teeken-Academie ("The Hague Drawing Academy"). In the evening there were drawings classes and on Saturday the society debated about art.
In the 18th century the Hague Academy was a thriving institution, but the end of the 18th century was a difficult time due to the absence of any financial support. The low point was around 1800, when the academy was working with fewer than ten students.
Under William I of the Netherlands, support returned and the old institute grew once again. In 1821, the drawing education was combined with the newly established School of Civil Engineering. After being housed in the Korenbeurs and Boterwaag in 1839, a new neoclassical building was designed by city architect Zeger Reyers (1790–1857), located at the Prinsessegracht.
In the 19th century, the artists Johannes Bosboom, Isaac Israëls, Willem Maris, Jan Hendrik Weissenbruch and George Hendrik Breitner were trained here. In 1937, a new academy building designed by J.H. Plantenga (1891–c. 1945), J.W.E. Buijs and J.B. Lürsen was completed on the site of the old neoclassical building.
In 1990, the Royal Academy merged with the Royal Conservatory of The Hague into the "School of Visual Arts, Music and Dance". In 2010 the Dutch government elevated the joint institutions to "University of the Arts in The Hague". The two still go by their original names as well, to underline their individual identities.
The academy awards the Gerrit Noordzij Prize initial designs every two years.
Buildings
After 1821, the academy grew in importance again, as the School voor Burgerlijke Bouwkunde was connected to it. Now it moved in the house of the Korenbeurs (Grain Exchange). This small building was important for the future of this school.
Later, it moved to the Boterwaag (weighing house for butter), but there was not enough light for the painting classes. Finally in 1839 the academy got its own building at the Prinsessegracht; it was designed by Zeger Reyers in the architectural style of neoclassicism.
In the 20th century, the classes grew, necessitating more space. Thus, from 1934 to 1937, the academy got a new building at Prinsessegracht 4. The building was built in the style of the Bauhaus.
Hague School
At the end of the 19th century, the art scene in The Hague flourished, in what was also known internationally as the Hague School. Many well-known artists like Breitner, the brothers Maris (Jacob Maris and Matthijs Maris) and Bosboom were trained in the academy. In the first half of the 20th century the academy played an important role in the Netherlands, too.
The new departments of photography and design arose under Bauhaus-influence.
At that time, the teachers of the avant-garde such as Gerrit Kiljan (1881–1961), Paul Schuitema (1897–1973), Paul Citroen (1896–1983) and Cor Alon (1892–1967) dominated the academy. The academy expanded its curriculum as one of the first Dutch schools by teaching in the field of industrial design.
In 1938 a new building erected on the site of the old house. The design was one of the architectural firm Plantenga, Buijs & Lürsen.
Modern times
In 1990, the academy and the Royal Conservatory joined into the Academy of Fine Arts, Music and Dance (now University of the Arts The Hague).
In 2000, a general overhaul led by architect Van Mourik Vermeulen was carried out, enlarging the campus.
In 2001, a collaboration between Leiden University and the Royal Academy of Art resulted in the first formalised collaboration between a Dutch university and art institute. The Royal Conservatory, the Royal Academy of Art and Leiden University now offer joint degree programmes, including ones at doctoral level.
The academy's focus on novel technologies and new media has resulted in state-of-the-art workshops, studios and departments such as ArtScience, Interactive/Media/Design and Non-Linear Narrative.
Administration and organization
Leadership
The management and administration of the KABK is led by director Ranti Tjan, with Fenna Hup acting as the deputy director. Administrative and managerial duties are divided among several heads of various departments, each responsible for different aspects of the academy's operations.
The broader organization of the academy includes several administrators. Each of these administrators plays a crucial role in maintaining the smooth operation of the institution, from overseeing technical services and facility management to quality assurance, international affairs, marketing and communications, and human resources.
The educational programs at the academy are managed by department heads responsible for their respective academic areas. They supervise a team of teachers and one or more coordinators, and ensure the quality and relevance of the educational programs at the academy. In addition to the administrative and academic roles, the KABK's administration also includes positions of lectors, such as Prof. Dr. Anke Haarmann (Lectorate Art Theory & Practice) and Prof. Dr. Alice Twemlow (Lectorate Design).
Student participation in the administration is emphasized in the Academy Council (DMR-KABK), University Council (CMR-HdK), and Study Programme Committee KABK. These bodies consist of student and staff representatives and are involved in decision-making, ensuring student voices are heard at the highest levels. Similarly, the University Council and Study Programme Committee include students and teaching staff alike.
The academy also has a separate examination board consisting of elected tutors.
Global staff
Lizzy Kok (Operations)
Esther van Oosten (Student Administration)
Bart Vissers (Workshops and Library)
Erik Mans (Housing and Facilities)
Leo Capel (Quality Assurance)
Meher Khan Muztar (Marketing/Communication)
Aparajita Dutta (Internationalization)
Inherited from University of the Arts, The Hague:
Dik van Rhijn (IT)
Gerard Zanoni (Financial Controller)
Jan Willem van der Wal (Human Resources)
Department structure
The KABK offers two broad bachelor's degrees to its students, a BA Design and a BA Autonomous Fine Arts. It divides these degrees into several departments or programs. These departments are the organizational unit within the Royal Academy of Art that are responsible for the curriculum of the bachelors' specializations. A specialization is an implementation of a degree program with a focus on a specific profile within the objectives of the program, e.g. on a specific artistic discipline. For example, the departments Graphic Design and Interactive/Media/Design, whilst being a separate department with a different faculty and curriculum, are both specializations of the same broader bachelor's degree, BA Design. All specializations within a degree program share the same final qualifications/learning objectives. Each department also has its own propaedeutic phase and its own main phase.
From the onset of the bachelor's program, there is a focus on activities related to research. The curriculum is designed to instill a research-oriented, critical attitude in students. This critical approach is evident in students' work, papers, and – where applicable – final theses. Emphasis is placed on reflection, critical assessment, and the analysis of one's own and others' work in both historical and contemporary perspectives. To facilitate this, research is conducted to understand the process and motivation behind work created elsewhere and in the past.
At KABK, this research-oriented approach is introduced in the academy-wide preparatory class Research&Discourse. It is also observed in later years in subjects such as fashion or photography criticism, and in numerous practical and studio assignments. In some departments, students initiate their own research, while others have established research groups.
The specialization Fine Arts (BA Autonomous Fine Arts) is also offered as a part-time program, and so is the specialization Photography (BA Design). Final qualifications of full-time and part-time programs are exactly the same, but have less contact hours than full-time programs, and thus require more independent work from students. The duration of the part-time programs in terms of calendar years depends on the time the student is able to spend on independent learning and possible exemptions that can be granted.
In addition, KABK offers various elective Individual Study Tracks (ISTs) which essentially serve as mini-departments. The goal of an IST is to facilitate new education and gauge the potential of programs to serve as future departments.
Fine Arts
4-years full-time or part-time bachelor's program that aims to align the past of fine art with its present and its future. The program covers a wide range of techniques and technologies relevant for the making of art, such as painting, drawing, printing, video, sculpture and performance.
The department is led by department co-heads Antoinette Vonder Mühll and Carl Johan Högberg. In addition, the department leadership consists of two coordinators, Collette Rayner and Wais Wardak.
The specialization Fine Arts is also offered as a part-time program. Also, in the same specialization, an opportunity is offered to selected students who successfully completed the propaedeutic phase to combine the program with the bachelor's degree program in Art History (Arts, Media and Society) of Leiden University. In this Combined Degree program, study components of the main phase of the specialization Fine Art of the KABK with study components of the Art History program of Leiden University are combined into one shared program of 180 ECs. This leads to the student obtaining both a BA degree at the Royal Academy of Art and a BA degree at Leiden University.
Faculty and emeriti faculty
Rachel Bacon
Cecilia Bengtsson
Maura Biava
Channa Boon
Dina Danish
Esiri Erheriene-Essi
Irene Drooglever Fortuijn
Carl Johan Högberg
Bram de Jonghe
Winnie Koekelbergh
André Kruysen
Frank Lisser
Tatjana Macić
Vibeke Mascini
Sanja Medić
Xue Mu
Jonas Ohlsson
Femmy Otten
Jorrit Paaijmans
Maria Pask
Antonis Pittas
David Powell
Thomas Raat
Ewoud van Rijn
Onno Schilstra
Leonie Schneider
Elly Strik
Agnieszka Wodzińska
Graphic Design
4-years full-time bachelor's program that aims to equip students to become a critical thinker and versatile practitioner who can develop outstanding concepts for visual communication. The program covers a wide range of techniques and technologies, such as design, interaction, image, coding and typography. The design department is internationally known for its high level of education, its investigative and conceptual teaching approach, and excellence in the fields of typeface design and typography.
The department is led by department co-heads Lauren Alexander and Chantal Hendriksen.
Global faculty and emeriti faculty
Peter Biľak
Erik van Blokland
Gert Dumbar
Gijs Bakker
Mitch Paone
Adam Broomberg
Oliver Chanarin
Rob Hornstra
Donald Weber
Kees Bol
Jacobus Josephus Eeckhout
Marcel van Eeden
Gerrit Noordzij
Paul Schuitema
Fred Smeijers
Nigel Thomson
Sybren Valkema
Campus
campus
Academics
Admissions
Admission to the programs at the KABK is highly selective, based on a comprehensive admission examination that includes an evaluation of portfolios, interviews, and often on-site or online exercises. The acceptance rate varies greatly per department. For instance, in the 2023–2024 academic year, around 1200 applicants competed for roughly 50 places in the graphic design program, putting the admission rate for that year at a mere 4%.
The graduation rate also varies. In the 2021–2022 academic year, 536 were admitted and 434 graduated. The number of admitted as well as graduating students has increased in previous years, with 390 admitted in the 2016–2017 academic year and 256 graduated, while in the 2019–2020 academic year, 465 were admitted and 353 graduated.
Grants and financial support
KABK offers financial support through the Profileringsfonds which is available for students who experience exceptional circumstances that cause study delays. Non-EU/EEA students who are ineligible for a study grant or loan may receive financial aid under certain conditions. Furthermore, the interfaculty School for Young Talent ensures that talented students are not kept from studying because their parents cannot afford tuition. There are various funds and institutions that can provide financial assistance to help bear the cost of their education.
For non-EU/EEA students, the Holland Scholarship is available, providing a one-time grant of €5,000 for the first year of study.
While the COVID-19 pandemic has had an impact on the mobility of students and staff, opportunities are being assessed on a case-by-case basis. In terms of scholarships, every academic year sees some students benefitting from the Erasmus+ program, Holland Scholarship, and other financial aid. For example, in the 2019–2020 academic year, the Erasmus+ program facilitated the mobility of 42 students and 15 staff members from KABK. In the following year, 42 students and one staff member participated in the program. For example, during the academic year 2019–2020 and 2020–2021, three students each year received the Holland Scholarship.
Students with refugee status are subject to a specific regulation. Lastly, EU/EEA/Swiss students younger than 30 years old starting at KABK can apply for a regular loan and a tuition fee loan with DUO. In contrast, those older than 30 can apply for a lifelong learning loan with DUO.
Collections
Student life
Demographics
The academy argues that art and design are pre-eminently international disciplines. As such, it assumes an international orientation.
KABK has a large international student population, with 63% of students being international. The student body is highly diverse, with about 60 different nationalities represented in the 2021–2022 academic year. Out of 565 international students, 384 were from the EU/EEA, and 181 were not. According to the OSIRIS report in 2018, EU students came mostly from Germany, France, Italy, and Poland. Non-EU students predominantly came from South Korea, the United States, Russia, and China. The teaching at KABK is primarily in English and, when necessary, bilingual.
The student body at KABK spans a variety of age groups, from teenagers to individuals in their late fifties, indicating a diverse age range within the institution. However, the largest proportion of students fall within the younger age brackets.
A consistent trend observed across all age groups is the vast predominance of female students, indicative of the overall gender distribution at KABK.
Government intervention of internationalization
The number of foreign students at Dutch universities has been rising for years, reaching 122,287 in 2023. About 40 percent of first-year students that year came from abroad.
The House of Representatives has long called for the flow of international students to be limited. According to the House, the accessibility of education is under pressure due to the large number of international students. While universities welcomed these students for the additional income and diversity they brought, the downside was increased pressure on institutions and greater workload for teachers. Additionally, the Netherlands is grappling with a housing problem.
By mid-2025, each program must demonstrate that using English as a language of instruction adds value. For this, universities must seek approval from the Commission for Efficiency in Higher Education (Dutch: Commissie Doelmatigheid Hoger Onderwijs, CDHO), which advises the minister on the efficiency of the program. By monitoring this, Minister of Education, Culture and Science Robbert Dijkgraaf aims to reduce the proliferation of English-language programs. Currently, separate approval for a program taught in another language is not required.
The existing law mandates that universities must teach in Dutch unless there is an incidental necessity to teach in another language. According to Dijkgraaf, these exceptions have been formulated too broadly, resulting in too many programs being offered in other languages. This point was brought forward by Dijkgraaf during a committee meeting of the House of Representatives.
Simultaneously, Dijkgraaf intends to allow English-language courses in Dutch bachelor programs. No more than a third of all courses may be taught in a language other than Dutch. This equates to 60 out of 180 credits in a three-year program.
A spokesperson for Minister Dijkgraaf confirmed reports from Trouw and De Volkskrant about the plans to curb the number of English-language programs. Dijkgraaf plans to enshrine these changes in law by the end of the summer of 2023.
Controversy
Sexual misconduct
2022 upskirt scandal
In August 2022, Pim Voorneman, a 60-year-old teacher and artist, was confronted by Ranti Tjan, the director at the time, over serious misconduct allegations. Voorneman admitted to his misbehavior and was dismissed from his position on September 1 of that year. Voorneman's activities came to light when he was caught surreptitiously photographing, or upskirting, a woman in a fitting room in Utrecht. Upon her report, an unannounced police house search in The Hague unveiled numerous additional photos, some taken at the KABK building.
In response, Ranti Tjan issued a statement to faculty and students expressing shock and reiterating the academy's commitment to ensuring a safe environment for all. He pledged a zero-tolerance approach towards any form of boundary-crossing behavior. While the police investigation continues, the exact scope of the incident remains uncertain. Voorneman himself claims to have not photographed minors, men or faculty staff of the KABK, and further states that the faces in the images are not identifiable. Many of the photographic incidents occurred outside the academy and seemed to involve only a limited number of students. The academy has chosen not to launch an internal investigation or report the incident itself, but rather to await the outcome of the judicial investigation.
As a senior member of the academy's faculty since 1990, Voorneman is described by peers to have had a distinguished career as an installation artist, sculptor, and typographer, as well as a significant role in The Hague's art scene.
2013 sexual misconduct scandal
According to a 2020 report by NRC, Julian Andeweg (also known as Juliaan Andeweg), a former student of the KABK, had been accused of sexual misconduct by multiple women, including some incidents that occurred while he was studying at the institution. These allegations have sparked a wider discussion about sexual harassment and abuse in the art world in both the Netherlands and Belgium.
Despite multiple warnings about Andeweg's behavior to art institutions, gallery owners, and educational institutions, the artist's career has continued to flourish. The accusations against him span a period of at least 14 years, and at least five victims have filed complaints with the police, prompting an investigation. NRC spoke with about eighty men and women, both domestically and abroad on the matter. During his time at the KABK, Andeweg's artistic (and, at the time, seemingly innocent) evolution was deemed "fascinating" by the KABK staff, according to a former student. Allegedly, influential faculty staff at the time had expressed their admiration for his work, praising his rock 'n roll image and quickly characterizing him as a "real artist", making it increasingly difficult for victims to come forward and file a complaint.
The Public Prosecutor's Office in Amsterdam has confirmed that Andeweg will be brought to court. He has been accused of rape, assault, intimidation, violence, stalking, and theft by at least twenty men and women. Six charges have been filed against him, one of which has been dismissed due to statute of limitations. The Prosecutor's Office stated that the investigative file on Andeweg has been "completed," and there is "enough reason for the public prosecutor to summon." They expect that the case against Andeweg will begin before the summer of 2023.
Notable alumni
Peter Alma
Kees Andrea
Pat Andrea
Joost Baljeu
Marius Bauer
Joop Beljon
Charles Bolsius
Loek Bos
Johannes Bosboom
George Hendrik Breitner
Rie Cramer
Jan Cremer
Toon Dupuis
Marcel van Eeden
Pierre Tetar van Elven
Johanna van Eybergen
Willem van Genk
Carli Hermès
Isaac Israëls
Karel Klinkenberg
Charles Leickert
Lambert Lourijsen
Jacob Jan van der Maaten
Johfra
Tom Manders
Jan Mankes
Willem Maris
Jacob Maris
Matthijs Maris
Gerrit Noordzij
Yvonne Oerlemans
Nancy van Overveldt
Ootje Oxenaar
Ru Paré
Alida Jantina Pott
Rahi Rezvani
Matthijs Röling
Dolly Rudeman
Toer van Schayk
Philip Vermeulen
Lida Lopes Cardozo Kindersley
References
External links
Official Website
Art schools in the Netherlands
1682 establishments in the Dutch Republic
Organisations based in The Hague
Organisations based in the Netherlands with royal patronage
Educational institutions established in the 1680s
Education in South Holland
Buildings and structures in The Hague |
4367754 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epoxyeicosatrienoic%20acid | Epoxyeicosatrienoic acid | The epoxyeicosatrienoic acids or EETs are signaling molecules formed within various types of cells by the metabolism of arachidonic acid by a specific subset of Cytochrome P450 enzymes termed cytochrome P450 epoxygenases. These nonclassic eicosanoids are generally short-lived, being rapidly converted from epoxides to less active or inactive dihydroxy-eicosatrienoic acids (diHETrEs) by a widely distributed cellular enzyme, Soluble epoxide hydrolase (sEH), also termed Epoxide hydrolase 2. The EETs consequently function as transiently acting, short-range hormones; that is, they work locally to regulate the function of the cells that produce them (i.e. they are autocrine agents) or of nearby cells (i.e. they are paracrine agents). The EETs have been most studied in animal models where they show the ability to lower blood pressure possibly by a) stimulating arterial vasorelaxation and b) inhibiting the kidney's retention of salts and water to decrease intravascular blood volume. In these models, EETs prevent arterial occlusive diseases such as heart attacks and brain strokes not only by their anti-hypertension action but possibly also by their anti-inflammatory effects on blood vessels, their inhibition of platelet activation and thereby blood clotting, and/or their promotion of pro-fibrinolytic removal of blood clots. With respect to their effects on the heart, the EETs are often termed cardio-protective. Beyond these cardiovascular actions that may prevent various cardiovascular diseases, studies have implicated the EETs in the pathological growth of certain types of cancer and in the physiological and possibly pathological perception of neuropathic pain. While studies to date imply that the EETs, EET-forming epoxygenases, and EET-inactivating sEH can be manipulated to control a wide range of human diseases, clinical studies have yet to prove this. Determination of the role of the EETS in human diseases is made particularly difficult because of the large number of EET-forming epoxygenases, large number of epoxygenase substrates other than arachidonic acid, and the large number of activities, some of which may be pathological or injurious, that the EETs possess.
Structure
EETS are epoxide eicosatrienoic acid metabolites of arachidonic acid (a straight chain eicosatetraenoic acid, omega-6 fatty acid). Arachidonic acid has 4 cis double bonds (see cis–trans isomerism which are abbreviated with the notation Z in the IUPAC chemical nomenclature used here. These double bonds are located between carbons 5–6, 8–9, 11–12, and 14–15; arachidonic acid is therefore 5Z,8Z,11Z,14Z-eicosatetraenoic acid. Cytochrome P450 epoxygenases attack these double bonds to form their respective eicosatrienoic acid epoxide regioisomers (see structural isomer, section on position isomerism (regioisomerism)) viz., 5,6-EET (i.e. 5,6-epoxy-8Z,11Z,14Z-eicosatrienoic acid), 8,9-EET (i.e. 8,9-epoxy-5Z,11Z,14Z-eicosatrienoic acid), 11,12-EET (i.e. 11,12-epoxy-5Z,8Z,14Z-eicosatrienoic acid), or, as drawn in the attached figure, 14,15-EET (i.e. 14,15-epoxy-5Z,8Z,11Z-eicosatrienoic acid). The enzymes generally form both R/S enantiomers at each former double bond position; for example, cytochrome P450 epoxidases metabolize arachidonic acid to a mixture of 14R,15S-EET and 14S,15R-EET.
Production
The cytochrome P450 (CYP) superfamily of enzymes is distributed broadly throughout bacteria, archaea, fungi, plants, animals, and even viruses. The superfamily comprises more than 11,000 genes categorized into 1,000 families. Humans have 57 putatively active CYP genes and 58 CYP pseudogenes; only a relatively few of the active CYP genes code for EET-forming epoxygenases, i.e. protein enzymes with the capacity to attach atomic oxygen (see allotropes of oxygen#atomic oxygen) to the carbon-carbon double bonds of unsaturated long chain fatty acids such as arachidonic acid. The CYP epoxygenases fall into several subfamilies including CYP1A, CYP2B, CYP2C, CYP2E, CYP2J, and within the CYP3A sub family, CYP3A4; in humans, CYP2C8, CYP2C9, CYP2C19, CYP2J2, and possibly CYP2S1 isoforms are the main producers of EETs although CYP2C9, CYP2C18, CYP3A4, CYP4A11, CYP4F8, and CYP4F12 are capable of producing the EETs and may do so in certain tissues. The CYP epoxygenases can epoxidize any of the double bounds in arachidonic acid but most of them are relatively selective in that they make appreciable amounts of only one or two EETs with 11,12-EET and 14,15-EET accounting for 67–80% of the product made by the cited CYP epoxidases as well as the main EETs made by mammalian tissues. CYP2C9, CYP2J9, and possibly the more recently characterized CYP2S1 appear to be the main produces of the EETs in humans with CYP2C9 being the main EET producer in vascular endothelial cells and CYP2J9 being highly expressed (although less catalytically active than CYP2C) in heart muscle, kidneys, pancreas, lung, and brain. CYP2S1 is expressed in macrophages, liver, lung, intestine, and spleen and is abundant in human and mouse atherosclerosis (i.e. Atheroma) plaques as well as inflamed tonsils.
ETEs are commonly produced by the stimulation of specific cell types. The stimulation causes arachidonic acid to be released from the sn-2 position of cellular phospholipids through the action of phospholipase A2-type enzymes and subsequent attack of the released arachidonic acid by a CYP epoxidase. In a typical example of this mechanism, bradykinin or acetylcholine acting through their respective bradykinin receptor B2 and muscarinic acetylcholine receptor M1 or muscarinic acetylcholine receptor M3 stimulate vascular endothelial cells to make and release EETs.
The CYP epoxygenases, similar to essentially all CYP450 enzymes, are involved in the metabolism of diverse xenobiotics and natural compounds. Since many of these same compounds also induce increases in the levels of the epoxygenases, CYP oxygenase levels and consequently EET levels in humans vary widely and are highly dependent on their recent consumption history.
Metabolism of EETs
In cells, the EETs are rapidly metabolized by a cytosolic soluble epoxide hydrolase (sEH) which adds water (H2O) across the epoxide to form their corresponding Vicinal (chemistry) diol dihydroxyeicosatrienoic acids (diHETrEs or DHETs), i.e. sEH converts 14,15-ETE to 14,15-dihydroxy-eicosatrienoic acid (14,15-diHETrE), 11,12-ETE to 11,12-diHETrE, 8,9-ETE to 8,9-diHETrE, and 5,6-ETE to 5,6-diHETrE. The product diHETrEs, like their epoxy precursors, are enantiomer mixtures; for instance, sEH converts 14,15-ETE to a mixture of 14(S),15(R)-diHETrE and 14(R),15(S)-diHETrE. However, 5,6-EET is a relatively poor substrate for sEH and in cells is more rapidly metabolized by cyclooxygenase-2 to form 5,6-epoxy-prostaglandin F1α. Since the diHETrE products are as a rule generally far less active than their epoxide precursors, the sEH pathway of EET metabolism is regarded as a critical EET-inactivating pathway. In some instances, however, the diHETrEs have been found to possess appreciable activity as indicated in the Biological activities section below.
Membrane-bound Microsomal epoxide hydrolase (mEH or Epoxide hydrolase 1 [EC 3.2.2.9.]) can metabolize EETs to their dihydroxy products but is regarded as not contributing significantly to EET inactivation in vivo except perhaps in brain tissue where mEH activity levels far outstrip those of sEH. Furthermore, two other human sEH, epoxide hydrolases 3 and 4 (see epoxide hydrolase), have been defined but their role in attacking EETs (and other epoxides) in vivo has not yet been determined. Besides these four epoxide hydrolase pathways, EETs may be acylated into phospholipids in an Acylation-like reaction. This pathway may serve to limit the action of EETs or store them for future release. EETs are also inactivated by being further metabolized though three other pathways: Beta oxidation, Omega oxidation, and elongation by enzymes involved in Fatty acid synthesis. These alternate to sEH pathways of EET metabolism ensure that blockade of sEH with drugs can increase EET levels only moderately in vivo.
Biological effects
Generally, EETs cause:
Calcium release from intracellular stores
Increased sodium-hydrogen antiporter activity
Increased cell proliferation
Decreased cyclooxygenase activity
Other effects are specific to certain cells or locations; EETs:
Are cardioprotective after ischemic heart attack and reperfusion.
Act in the corpus cavernosum to maintain penile erection.
Specific epoxidation of EET sites produces endogenous PPARα agonists.
Decrease release of somatostatin, insulin and glucagon from endocrine cells.
Stimulate blood vessel formation (angiogenesis.
Cause Vasodilation in the systemic arterial circulation.
Cause Vasoconstriction of the Liver sinusoidal and pulmonary venous systems.
Increased risk of tumor adhesion on endothelial cells
Decrease platelet aggregation responses
Increase axon growth in neurons.
Diol metabolites of the EETs, i.e. the diHETrEs (also termed DHETs), have relatively little or no activity compared to the EETs in most systems. However:
The chemotaxis response of human monocytes to monocyte chemotactic protein 1) in vivo and in vitro appears to depend on the generation of EETs and conversion of these EETs to diHETrEs.
Certain diHETrEs dilate human coronary arteries with efficacies approaching those of the EETs.
11,12-diHETrE but not 11,12-EET appears to support the maturation of the myelocyte cell line (i.e. support Myelopoiesis) in mice and to promote certain types of angiogenesis in mice and Zebrafish.
In opposition of the anti-inflammatory actions of EETs, diHETrEs may have some pro-inflammatory actions.
Clinical significance
Regulation of blood pressure
With respect to the regulation of blood pressure as well as the kidneys' regulation of salt and water absorption (which contributes to blood pressure regulation), EETS are counterpoises to another CYP-derived arachidonic acid metabolite, 20-Hydroxyeicosatetraenoic acid (20-HETE). In humans, the major CYPs making 20-HETE are CYP4A11, CYP4F2, and CYP4F3. In animal models, 20-HETE raises blood pressure by contracting arteries and stimulating the kidney to reabsorb salt and water to increase the intravascular volume (see 20-Hydroxyeicosatetraenoic acid). EETs have the opposite effects. They are one type of Endothelium-Derived Hyperpolarizing Factor, i.e. a substance and/or electrical signal synthesized or generated in and released from the vascular endothelium that hyperpolarize nearby vascular smooth muscle cells. This causes these cells to relax and thereby lowers blood pressure. In animal (primarily rodent) models, EETs dilate smaller sized resistance arteries involved in causing hypertension as well as cardiac and renal arteries. They cause smooth muscle hyperpolarization by opening vascular smooth muscle large-conductance calcium-activated potassium channels, opening certain vascular smooth muscle transient receptor potential channels, or facilitating the movement of excitatory signals through gap junctions between endothelium and smooth muscles or between smooth muscles. The actual mechanism(s) involved in these EET-induced effects have not been fully elucidated although some studies implicate EET binding to an unidentified Cell surface receptor and/or Gs protein-linked G protein–coupled receptor to initiate the signal pathway(s) leading to the cited channel and gap junction changes. With respect to the kidney, studies in rodents find that 20-HETE increases sodium and water reabsorption while the EETs, which are made in the proximal tubules and cortical collecting ducts, reduce sodium ion and water transport at both sites by inhibiting kidney Sodium–hydrogen antiporter (i.e. Na+/H+ exchanger) and/or Epithelial sodium channels. Mice lacking either of the EET-producing Cyp2c44 or Cyp4ac44 genes (by gene knockout) develop hypertension when fed high sodium or high potassium diets. These and large number of other studies included in the cited references implicate the EETs in the control of at least certain forms of hypertension in rodents.
In humans, vascular endothelium production of EETs involves mainly CYP2C9 and numerous indirect studies have implicated CYP epoxygenase, possibly CYP2C9, in producing a product which causes vasodilation. These studies find that selective (but not entirely specific) CYP epoxygenase-inhibiting drugs reduce human vasodilation responses elicited by the vasodilators bradykinin, acetylcholine, and methacholine; this suggests that these vasodilators operate by stimulation the production of EETs. Human studies also find that Caucasian but not African American subjects who have the Lys55Arg single nucleotide polymorphism variant in the polyunsaturated fatty epoxide-inactivating enzyme, sEH, express hyperactive sEH and show reduced vasodilation responses to bradykinin. Other studies find that women with pregnancy-induced hypertension and subjects with Renovascular hypertension exhibit low plasma ETE levels. Finally, 11,12-EET has been shown to relax the internal mammary artery in women, indicating that at least this EET has direct vasodilating actions in humans. On the other hand, several studies in humans with single nucleotide polymorphism in CYP epxoygenase genes have given negative or confusing results. The most common variant of CYP2J2, rs890293, similarly contradictive or negative results are reported in studies on the rs11572082 (Arg1391Lys) variant of CYP2C8 and the rs1799853 (Arg144Cys) and rs1057910 (Ile359Leu) variants of CYP2C9, all of which code for an epoxygenase with reduced arachidonic acid-metabolizing and EET-forming activities.
While many of the cited studies suggest that one or more of the EETs released by vascular endothelial cells are responsible for the actions of the vasodilators and that deficiencies in EET production or excessive EET inactivation by sEH underlie certain types of hypertension in humans, they are not conclusive. They do not exclude a possibility that other polyunsaturated fatty acid epoxides such as those derived from eicosatetraenoic, docosatetraenoic, or linoleic acids made by CYP2C9 or other CYP epoxygenases (see epoxygenase) contribute in small or large part to vasodilation responses and by this action promote blood flow to tissues and function in lowering high blood pressures. Furthermore, the genetic studies conducted to date on SNP variants do not give strong support for an antihypertensive role for the EETs or EET-forming epoxygenases in humans. Recently developed drugs which are metabolically stable analogs of the EETs and thereby mimic the EETs actions or, alternatively of drugs which inhibit sEH and thereby increase EET levels are in the Pre-clinical development stage for treating human hypertension. Testing for their usefulness in treating human hypertension is made difficult because of: 1) the large number of CYP epoxygenases along with their differing tissue distributions and sensitivities to drug inhibitors; 2) the diversity of EETs made by the CYP epoxygenases, some of which differ in activities; 3) the diversity of fatty acid substrates metabolized by the CYP epoxygenases some of which are converted to epoxides (e.g. the epoxide metabolites of linoleic, docosahexaenoic, eicosapentaenoic acids) with have different activities than the EETs or may even be overtly toxic to humans (see Coronaric acid); 4) the sEH-derived dihydroxy metabolites of the EETs some of which have potent vasodilating effects in the certain vascular networks in rodents and therefore potentially in humans; and 5) the non-specificity and side effects of the latter drugs.
As indicated on the ClinicalTrials.gov web site, a National Institutes of Health-sponsored clinical trial entitled "Evaluation of Soluble Epoxide Hydrolase (s-EH) Inhibitor in Patients With Mild to Moderate Hypertension and Impaired Glucose Tolerance" has not been completed or reported on although started in 2009.
Heart disease
As indicated elsewhere on this page, EETs inhibit inflammation, inhibit blood clot formation, inhibit platelet activation, dilate blood vessels including the coronary arteries, reduce certain types of hypertension, stimulate the survival of vascular endothelial and cardiac muscle cells by inhibiting apoptosis, promote blood vessel growth (i.e. angiogenesis), and stimulate smooth muscle cell migration; these activities may protect the heart. Indeed, studies on in vivo animal and in vitro animal and human cell model systems indicate that the ETEs reduce infarct (i.e. injured tissue) size, reduce cardiac arrhythmias, and improve the strength of left ventricle contraction immediately after blockade of coronary artery blood flow in animal models of ischemia-reperfusion injury; EETs also reduce the size of heart enlargement that occurs long after these experiment-induced injuries.
Humans with established coronary artery disease have higher levels of plasma EETs and higher ratios of 14,15-EET to 14,15-diHETrE (14,15-diHETrE is the less active or inactive metabolite 14,15-EET). This suggests that the EETs serve a protective role in this setting and that these plasma changes were a result of a reduction in cardiac sEH activity. Furthermore, coronary artery disease patients who had lower levels of EETs/14,15-di-ETE ratios exhibited evidence of a poorer prognosis based on the presence of poor prognostic indicators, cigarette smoking, obesity, old age, and elevation in inflammation markers.
Strokes and seizures
Indirect studies in animal models suggest that EETs have protective effects in strokes (i.e. cerbrovasular accidents). Thus, sEH inhibitors and sEH-Gene knockout have been shown to reduce the damage to brain that occurs in several different models of ischemic stroke; this protective effect appears due to a reduction in systemic blood pressure and maintenance of blood flow to ischemic areas of the brain by arteriole dilation as a presumed consequence of inhibiting the degradation of EETs (and/or other fatty acid epoxides). sEH-gene knockout mice were also protected from that brain damage that followed induced-subarachnoid hemorrhage; this protective effect appeared due to a reduction in cerebral edema which was also presumable due to the prolongation of EET half-lives. 14,15-EET levels have been shown to be elevated in the cerebrospinal fluid of humans suffering subarachnoid hemorrhage.
sEH inhibitors and gene knockout also reduce the number and severity of Epileptic seizures in several animal models; this effect is presumed due to the actions of EETs (and other epoxide fatty acids) in reducing cerebral blood flow changes, and reducing neuron production of Neuroactive steroids, reducing neuroinflammation,
Portal hypertension
Portal hypertension or hypertension in the venous hepatic portal system of blood flow is defined as an increase in portal pressure above normal values of 10 Millimeter of mercury. It is a serious, sometimes life-threatening complication of various diseases such as liver cirrhosis, liver fibrosis, massive Fatty liver, portal vein thrombosis, liver schistosomiasis, massive liver involvement in miliary tuberculosis or sarcoidosis, and obstruction of the venous circuit at any level between liver and right heart (see Portal hypertension). Vascular contraction in the portal system is mediated by several agents: nitric oxide, carbon monoxide, prostacyclin I2, and Endothelium-derived hyperpolarizing factors (EDHFs). EDHFs include endothelin, angiotensin II, thromboxane A2, certain leukotrienes, and the EETs. In portal hypertension, portal vein endothelium appears to be dysfunctional in that it overproduces EDHFs. The EETs, particularly 11,12-EET, have a quite different effect on the Liver sinusoidal veins than on arteries of the systemic circulation: they constrict the sinusoids. Levels of EETs in the plasma and liver of patients with cirrhosis and portal hypertension are reportedly elevated compared to normal subjects. These and other findings have led to the proposal that portal endothelium-derived EETs, perhaps acting in cooperation with another EDHF, endothelin, contribute to portal hypertension.
Cancer
The forced over-expression of CYP2J2 in or the addition of an EET to cultured human Tca-8113 oral squamous cancer cells, lung cancer A549 cells and NCL-H446 cells, HepG2 liver cancer cells, LS-174 colon cancer cells, SiHa uterine cervix cancer cells, U251 glioblastoma cancer cells, ScaBER urinary bladder cancer cells, and K562 erythroleukemia and HL-60 promyelocyte leukemic blood cancer cells caused an increase in their survival and proliferation.
Putative inhibitors of CYP2J2 inhibit the growth in culture of several human cancer cell lines that express relatively high levels of CYP2J2 viz., Tca-8113 cells, HeLa uterine cervix cell lines, A549 cells, MDA-MB-435 breast cells, and HepG2 cells but they had no significant inhibitory effects on two cell lines that expressed little or no CYP2J2.
A putative inhibitor of CYPJ2 also inhibited the growth of human K562 erythroleukemia in a mice model as well as the growth of mouse el4 lymphoma cells in mice that were forced to overexpress CYP2J2 cells in their vascular epithelium.
Forced expression of CYP2J2 also enhanced, while forced inhibition of its expression (using Small interfering RNA) reduced, the survival, growth, and metastasis of MDA-MB-231 human breast carcinoma cells in the mouse model and likewise enhanced or reduced, respectively, the survival and growth of these cells in culture.
Further studies found that the expression of CYP2J2 was in increased in the malignant cells, relative to the nearby normal cells, in the following specimens taken from humans suffering squamous-cell carcinoma and adenocarcinoma types of esophageal cancer and lung cancer, small cell lung carcinoma, breast cancer, stomach cancer, liver cancer, and colon adenocarcinoma;
this CYP was also highly expressed in the malignant cells of patients with acute leukemia, chronic leukemia, and lymphoma.
As a group, patients with these cancers exhibited increased levels of EETs in their urine and blood samples.
Studies of the CYP epoxygenases have not been restricted to the CYP2J subfamily.
Reduction in the expression of CYP3A4 or CYP2C using small interfering RNA inhibits the growth of cultured MCF7, T47D, and MDA-MB-231 human breast cancer cells; in these studies 14,15-EET stimulated the proliferation of cultured MCF7 cells, reduction in the expression of CYP3A4 by small interference RNA methods, inhibited these cells from proliferating, and 14,15-ETE reversed the effect of CYP3A4 interference;
in other studies, the forced overexpression of CYP3A4 stimulated the growth of human liver cancer (hepatoma) cell line, Hep3 .
In human breast cancer, not only CYP2J2 but also CYP2C8 and CYP2C9 levels appear elevated while sEH levels appear reduced in malignant compared to nearby normal tissues; associated with this finding, the levels of 14,15-EET as well as the levels of 14,15-EET plus 14,15-dihydroxy-EET were significantly elevated in the cancerous compared to noncancerous cells and the levels of CYP2C8 and CYP2C9 proteins correlated positively and sEH levels correlated negatively with the tumor cells rate of proliferation as accessed by their Ki67 levels while CYP2J2 levels correlated positively with poorer prognosis as predicted tumor histological grade and tumor size.
The cited findings suggest that various CYP epoxygenases along with the epoxide metabolites which they make promote the growth and spread of diverse types of cancer in animals and humans. Their effects may reflect the ability of the epoxide metabolites to stimulate the proliferation and survival of the target cancer cells but perhaps also to stimulate these cells to trigger new capillary formation (see angiogenesis#Tumor angiogenesis), invade new tissues, and metastasize.
A series of drugs derived from Terfenadine have been shown to inhibit CYP2J2 and to suppress the proliferation and cause the apoptosis of various types of human cancer cell lines in culture as well as in animal models. However, clinical studies targeting CYP epoxygenases and EETs and to successfully suppress cancer in humans have not been reported.
Pro-angiogenic and tumor promoting effects of EETs have been attributed to downstream cyclooxygenase (COX)-derived metabolites. Dual sEH/COX inhibitors or sEH inhibitors supplemented with an enhanced omega-3 fatty acid diet and a depleted omega-6 fatty acid diet have been shown to induce significant anti-angiogenic effects and blunt tumor growth.
Inflammation
In vitro and animal model studies indicate that the EETs possess anti-inflammatory activity that is directed toward reducing, resolving, and limiting the damage caused by inflammation. Most of these studies have focused on circulating leukocytes, blood vessel endothelium, and the occlusion of blood vessels due to pathological blood clotting. EETs a) inhibit vascular endothelial cells from expressing Cell adhesion molecules such as VCAM-1, ICAM-1, and E-selectin thereby limiting circulating leukocytes from adhering to blood vessel endothelium and migrating across this endothelium into tissues; 2) inhibit the expression and activity of cyclooxygenase-2 in blood monocytes thereby reducing their production of pro-inflammatory metabolites of arachidonic acid such as prostaglandin E2; 3) inhibit platelet aggregation thereby reducing thrombus (i.e. blood clot) formation; 4) promote fibrinolysis thereby dissolving blood clots; and 5) inhibit vascular smooth muscle cell proliferation thereby reducing blood vessel hypertrophy and narrowing.
Diabetes, non-alcoholic fatty liver disease, and kidney disease
EETs, pharmacological inhibition of sEH, and/or inhibition of sEH expression enhance insulin actions on animal tissues in vitro and have protective effects in ameliorating insulin resistance as well as many of the neurological and kidney complications of diabetes in various animal models of diabetes; the studies suggest that the EETs have beneficial effects in Type I diabetes as well as Type II diabetes. Treatment of EET analog is beneficial for hepatic insulin signaling in mouse model of insulin resistance. These interventions also gave beneficial results in animal models of non-alcoholic fatty liver disease and certain types inflammation-related kidney diseases including chronic kidney disease, renal ischemia-reperfusion injury, and polycystic kidney disease. The protective role of EETs in these animal model diseases may reflect, at least in part, their anti-inflammatory actions.
Pain
EETs have been shown to have anti-hyperalgesic and pain-relieving activity in several animal models of pain including Nociception resulting from tissue injury, inflammation, and Peripheral neuropathy (also see Neuropathic pain) including pain secondary to experimentally induced Diabetes in mice. The epoxides of omega-3 fatty acids appear far stronger and more involved in the relief of pain than the EETs (see epoxydocosapentaenoic acid).
References
Metabolic pathways
Cytochrome P450
Eicosanoids
Epoxides
Cell biology
Immunology
Inflammations
Blood pressure
Human physiology
Animal physiology |
4367801 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serializability | Serializability | In concurrency control of databases, transaction processing (transaction management), and various transactional applications (e.g., transactional memory and software transactional memory), both centralized and distributed, a transaction schedule is serializable if its outcome (e.g., the resulting database state) is equal to the outcome of its transactions executed serially, i.e. without overlapping in time. Transactions are normally executed concurrently (they overlap), since this is the most efficient way. Serializability is the major correctness criterion for concurrent transactions' executions. It is considered the highest level of isolation between transactions, and plays an essential role in concurrency control. As such it is supported in all general purpose database systems. Strong strict two-phase locking (SS2PL) is a popular serializability mechanism utilized in most of the database systems (in various variants) since their early days in the 1970s.
Serializability theory provides the formal framework to reason about and analyze serializability and its techniques. Though it is mathematical in nature, its fundamentals are informally (without mathematics notation) introduced below.
Correctness
Serializability
Serializability is used to keep the data in the data item in a consistent state. Serializability is a property of a transaction schedule (history). It relates to the isolation property of a database transaction.
Serializability of a schedule means equivalence (in the outcome, the database state, data values) to a serial schedule (i.e., sequential with no transaction overlap in time) with the same transactions. It is the major criterion for the correctness of concurrent transactions' schedule, and thus supported in all general purpose database systems.
The rationale behind serializability is the following:
If each transaction is correct by itself, i.e., meets certain integrity conditions, then a schedule that comprises any serial execution of these transactions is correct (its transactions still meet their conditions): "Serial" means that transactions do not overlap in time and cannot interfere with each other, i.e, complete isolation between each other exists. Any order of the transactions is legitimate, if no dependencies among them exist, which is assumed (see comment below). As a result, a schedule that comprises any execution (not necessarily serial) that is equivalent (in its outcome) to any serial execution of these transactions, is correct.
Schedules that are not serializable are likely to generate erroneous outcomes. Well known examples are with transactions that debit and credit accounts with money: If the related schedules are not serializable, then the total sum of money may not be preserved. Money could disappear, or be generated from nowhere. This and violations of possibly needed other invariant preservations are caused by one transaction writing, and "stepping on" and erasing what has been written by another transaction before it has become permanent in the database. It does not happen if serializability is maintained.
If any specific order between some transactions is requested by an application, then it is enforced independently of the underlying serializability mechanisms. These mechanisms are typically indifferent to any specific order, and generate some unpredictable partial order that is typically compatible with multiple serial orders of these transactions. This partial order results from the scheduling orders of concurrent transactions' data access operations, which depend on many factors.
A major characteristic of a database transaction is atomicity, which means that it either commits, i.e., all its operations' results take effect in the database, or aborts (rolled-back), all its operations' results do not have any effect on the database ("all or nothing" semantics of a transaction). In all real systems transactions can abort for many reasons, and serializability by itself is not sufficient for correctness. Schedules also need to possess the recoverability (from abort) property. Recoverability means that committed transactions have not read data written by aborted transactions (whose effects do not exist in the resulting database states). While serializability is currently compromised on purpose in many applications for better performance (only in cases when application's correctness is not harmed), compromising recoverability would quickly violate the database's integrity, as well as that of transactions' results external to the database. A schedule with the recoverability property (a recoverable schedule) "recovers" from aborts by itself, i.e., aborts do not harm the integrity of its committed transactions and resulting database. This is false without recoverability, where the likely integrity violations (resulting incorrect database data) need special, typically manual, corrective actions in the database.
Implementing recoverability in its general form may result in cascading aborts: Aborting one transaction may result in a need to abort a second transaction, and then a third, and so on. This results in a waste of already partially executed transactions, and may result also in a performance penalty. Avoiding cascading aborts (ACA, or Cascadelessness) is a special case of recoverability that exactly prevents such phenomena. Often in practice a special case of ACA is utilized: Strictness. Strictness allows efficient database recovery from failure.
Note that the recoverability property is needed even if no database failure occurs and no database recovery from failure is needed. It is, rather, needed to correctly automatically handle aborts, which may be unrelated to database failure and recovery from failure.
Relaxing serializability
In many applications, unlike with finances, absolute correctness is not needed. For example, when retrieving a list of products according to specification, in most cases it does not matter much if a product, whose data was updated a short time ago, does not appear in the list, even if it meets the specification. It will typically appear in such a list when tried again a short time later. Commercial databases provide concurrency control with a whole range of isolation levels which are in fact (controlled) serializability violations in order to achieve higher performance. Higher performance means better transaction execution rate and shorter average transaction response time (transaction duration). Snapshot isolation is an example of a popular, widely utilized efficient relaxed serializability method with many characteristics of full serializability, but still short of some, and unfit in many situations.
Another common reason nowadays for distributed serializability relaxation (see below) is the requirement of availability of internet products and services. This requirement is typically answered by large-scale data replication. The straightforward solution for synchronizing replicas' updates of the same database object is including all these updates in a single atomic distributed transaction. However, with many replicas such a transaction is very large, and may span enough of a number of several computers and networks that some of them are likely to be unavailable. Thus such a transaction is likely to end with abort and miss its purpose.
Consequently, Optimistic replication (Lazy replication) is often utilized (e.g., in many products and services by Google, Amazon, Yahoo, and the like), while serializability is relaxed and compromised for eventual consistency. Again, in this case, relaxation is done only for applications that are not expected to be harmed by this technique.
Classes of schedules defined by relaxed serializability properties either contain the serializability class, or are incomparable with it.
View and conflict serializability
Mechanisms that enforce serializability need to execute in real time, or almost in real time, while transactions are running at high rates. In order to meet this requirement, special cases of serializability, sufficient conditions for serializability which can be enforced effectively, are utilized.
Two major types of serializability exist: view-serializability, and conflict-serializability. View-serializability matches the general definition of serializability given above. Conflict-serializability is a broad special case, i.e., any schedule that is conflict-serializable is also view-serializable, but not necessarily the opposite. Conflict-serializability is widely utilized because it is easier to determine and covers a substantial portion of the view-serializable schedules. Determining view-serializability of a schedule is an NP-complete problem (a class of problems with only difficult-to-compute, excessively time-consuming known solutions).
View-serializability of a schedule is defined by equivalence to a serial schedule (no overlapping transactions) with the same transactions, such that respective transactions in the two schedules read and write the same data values ("view" the same data values).
Conflict-serializability of a schedule is defined by equivalence to a serial schedule (no overlapping transactions) with the same transactions, such that both schedules have the same sets of respective chronologically ordered pairs of conflicting operations (same precedence relations of respective conflicting operations).
Operations upon data are read or write (a write: insert, update, or delete). Two operations are conflicting if they are of different transactions, upon the same datum (data item), and at least one of them is write. Each such pair of conflicting operations has a conflict type: it is either a read–write, or write–read, or a write–write conflict. The transaction of the second operation in the pair is said to be in conflict with the transaction of the first operation. A more general definition of conflicting operations (also for complex operations, which may each consist of several "simple" read/write operations) requires that they are noncommutative (changing their order also changes their combined result). Each such operation needs to be atomic by itself (using proper system support) in order to be considered an operation for a commutativity check. For example, read–read operations are commutative (unlike read–write and the other possibilities) and thus read–read is not a conflict. Another more complex example: the operations increment and decrement of a counter are both write operations (both modify the counter), but do not need to be considered conflicting (write-write conflict type) since they are commutative (thus increment–decrement is not a conflict; e.g., already has been supported in the old IBM's IMS "fast path"). Only precedence (time order) in pairs of conflicting (non-commutative) operations is important when checking equivalence to a serial schedule, since different schedules consisting of the same transactions can be transformed from one to another by changing orders between different transactions' operations (different transactions' interleaving), and since changing orders of commutative operations (non-conflicting) does not change an overall operation sequence result, i.e., a schedule outcome (the outcome is preserved through order change between non-conflicting operations, but typically not when conflicting operations change order). This means that if a schedule can be transformed to any serial schedule without changing orders of conflicting operations (but changing orders of non-conflicting, while preserving operation order inside each transaction), then the outcome of both schedules is the same, and the schedule is conflict-serializable by definition.
Conflicts are the reason for blocking transactions and delays (non-materialized conflicts), or for aborting transactions due to serializability violation prevention. Both possibilities reduce performance. Thus reducing the number of conflicts, e.g., by commutativity (when possible), is a way to increase performance.
A transaction can issue/request a conflicting operation and be in conflict with another transaction while its conflicting operation is delayed and not executed (e.g., blocked by a lock). Only executed (materialized) conflicting operations are relevant to conflict serializability (see more below).
Enforcing conflict serializability
Testing conflict serializability
Schedule compliance with conflict serializability can be tested with the precedence graph (serializability graph, serialization graph, conflict graph) for committed transactions of the schedule. It is the directed graph representing precedence of transactions in the schedule, as reflected by precedence of conflicting operations in the transactions.
In the precedence graph transactions are nodes and precedence relations are directed edges. There exists an edge from a first transaction to a second transaction, if the second transaction is in conflict with the first (see Conflict serializability above), and the conflict is materialized (i.e., if the requested conflicting operation is actually executed: in many cases a requested/issued conflicting operation by a transaction is delayed and even never executed, typically by a lock on the operation's object, held by another transaction, or when writing to a transaction's temporary private workspace and materializing, copying to the database itself, upon commit; as long as a requested/issued conflicting operation is not executed upon the database itself, the conflict is non-materialized; non-materialized conflicts are not represented by an edge in the precedence graph).
Comment: In many text books only committed transactions are included in the precedence graph. Here all transactions are included for convenience in later discussions.
The following observation is a key characterization of conflict serializability:
A schedule is conflict-serializable if and only if its precedence graph of committed transactions (when only committed transactions are considered) is acyclic. This means that a cycle consisting of committed transactions only is generated in the (general) precedence graph, if and only if conflict-serializability is violated.
Cycles of committed transactions can be prevented by aborting an undecided (neither committed, nor aborted) transaction on each cycle in the precedence graph of all the transactions, which can otherwise turn into a cycle of committed transactions (and a committed transaction cannot be aborted). One transaction aborted per cycle is both required and sufficient in number to break and eliminate the cycle (more aborts are possible, and can happen under some mechanisms, but are unnecessary for serializability). The probability of cycle generation is typically low, but, nevertheless, such a situation is carefully handled, typically with a considerable amount of overhead, since correctness is involved. Transactions aborted due to serializability violation prevention are restarted and executed again immediately.
Serializability-enforcing mechanisms typically do not maintain a precedence graph as a data structure, but rather prevent or break cycles implicitly (e.g., SS2PL below).
Common mechanism — SS2PL
Strong strict two-phase locking (SS2PL) is a common mechanism utilized in database systems since their early days in the 1970s (the "SS" in the name SS2PL is newer, though) to enforce both conflict serializability and strictness (a special case of recoverability which allows effective database recovery from failure) of a schedule. Under this mechanism, each datum is locked by a transaction before its accessing it (in any read or write operation): the item is marked by and associated with a lock of a certain type depending on the operation being performed (and the specific transaction implementation; various models with different lock types exist; in some models, locks may change type during the transaction's life). As a result, access by another transaction may be blocked, typically upon a conflict (the lock delays or completely prevents the conflict from being materialized and be reflected in the precedence graph by blocking the conflicting operation), depending on lock type and the other transaction's access operation type. Employing an SS2PL mechanism means that all locks on data on behalf of a transaction are released only after the transaction has ended (either committed or aborted).
SS2PL is the name of the resulting schedule property as well, which is also called rigorousness. SS2PL is a special case (proper subset) of Two-phase locking (2PL)
Mutual blocking between transactions results in a deadlock, where execution of these transactions is stalled and no completion can be reached. Thus deadlocks need to be resolved to complete these transactions' execution and release related computing resources. A deadlock is a reflection of a potential cycle in the precedence graph that would occur without the blocking when conflicts are materialized. A deadlock is resolved by aborting a transaction involved with such a potential cycle and breaking the cycle. It is often detected using a wait-for graph (a graph of conflicts blocked by locks from being materialized; it can be also defined as the graph of non-materialized conflicts; conflicts not materialized are not reflected in the precedence graph and do not affect serializability), which indicates which transaction is "waiting for" the release of one of more locks by which other transaction or transactions, and a cycle in this graph means a deadlock. Aborting one transaction per cycle is sufficient to break the cycle. Transactions aborted due to deadlock resolution are restarted and executed again immediately.
Other enforcing techniques
Other known mechanisms include:
Precedence graph (or Serializability graph, Conflict graph) cycle elimination
Two-phase locking (2PL)
Timestamp ordering (TO)
Serializable snapshot isolation (SerializableSI)
The above (conflict) serializability techniques in their general form do not provide recoverability. Special enhancements are needed for adding recoverability.
Optimistic versus pessimistic techniques
Concurrency control techniques are of three major types:
Pessimistic: In Pessimistic concurrency control, a transaction blocks the data access operations of other transactions upon conflicts, and conflicts are non-materialized until blocking is removed. This is done to ensure that operations that may violate serializability (and in practice also recoverability) do not occur.
Optimistic: In Optimistic concurrency control, the data access operations of other transactions are not blocked upon conflicts, and conflicts are immediately materialized. When the transaction reaches the ready state, i.e., its running state has been completed, possible serializability (and in practice also recoverability) violation by the transaction's operations (relative to other running transactions) is checked: if violation has occurred, the transaction is typically aborted (sometimes aborting another transaction to handle serializability violation is preferred). Otherwise, it is committed.
Semi-optimistic: Mechanisms that mix blocking in certain situations with not blocking in other situations and employ both materialized and non-materialized conflicts.
The main differences between the technique types is the conflict types that are generated by them. A pessimistic method blocks a transaction operation upon conflict and generates a non-materialized conflict, while an optimistic method does not block and generates a materialized conflict. A semi-optimistic method generates both conflict types. Both conflict types are generated by the chronological orders in which transaction operations are invoked, independently of the type of conflict. A cycle of committed transactions (with materialized conflicts) in the precedence graph (conflict graph) represents a serializability violation, and should be avoided for maintaining serializability. A cycle of (non-materialized) conflicts in the wait-for graph represents a deadlock situation, which should be resolved by breaking the cycle. Both cycle types result from conflicts and should be broken. Under any technique type, conflicts should be detected and considered, with similar overhead for both materialized and non-materialized conflicts (typically by using mechanisms like locking, while either blocking for locks or not blocking but recording conflict for materialized conflicts). In a blocking method, typically a context switching occurs upon conflict, with (additional) incurred overhead. Otherwise, blocked transactions' related computing resources remain idle, unutilized, which may be a worse alternative. When conflicts do not occur frequently, optimistic methods typically have an advantage. With different transaction loads (mixes of transaction types) one technique type (i.e., either optimistic or pessimistic) may provide better performance than the other.
Unless schedule classes are inherently blocking (i.e., they cannot be implemented without data-access operations blocking; e.g., 2PL, SS2PL and SCO above; see chart), they can also be implemented using optimistic techniques (e.g., Serializability, Recoverability).
Serializable multi-version concurrency control
See also Multiversion concurrency control (partial coverage) and Serializable Snapshot Isolation in Snapshot isolation
Multi-version concurrency control (MVCC) is a common way today to increase concurrency and performance by generating a new version of a database object each time the object is written and allowing transactions' read operations of several last relevant versions (of each object), depending on scheduling method. MVCC can be combined with all the serializability techniques listed above (except SerializableSI, which is originally MVCC-based). It is utilized in most general-purpose DBMS products.
MVCC is especially popular nowadays through the relaxed serializability (see above) method Snapshot isolation (SI) which provides better performance than most known serializability mechanisms (at the cost of possible serializability violation in certain cases). SerializableSI, which is an efficient enhancement of SI to make it serializable, is intended to provide an efficient serializable solution. SerializableSI has been analyzed via a general theory of MVCC.
Distributed serializability
Overview
Distributed serializability is the serializability of a schedule of a transactional distributed system (e.g., a distributed database system). Such a system is characterized by distributed transactions (also called global transactions), i.e., transactions that span computer processes (a process abstraction in a general sense, depending on computing environment; e.g., operating system's thread) and possibly network nodes. A distributed transaction comprises more than one of several local sub-transactions that each has states as described above for a database transaction. A local sub-transaction comprises a single process, or more processes that typically fail together (e.g., in a single processor core). Distributed transactions imply a need for an atomic commit protocol to reach consensus among its local sub-transactions on whether to commit or abort. Such protocols can vary from a simple (one-phase) handshake among processes that fail together to more sophisticated protocols, like two-phase commit, to handle more complicated cases of failure (e.g., process, node, communication, etc. failure). Distributed serializability is a major goal of distributed concurrency control for correctness. With the proliferation of the Internet, cloud computing, grid computing, and small, portable, powerful computing devices (e.g., smartphones,) the need for effective distributed serializability techniques to ensure correctness in and among distributed applications seems to increase.
Distributed serializability is achieved by implementing distributed versions of the known centralized techniques. Typically, all such distributed versions require utilizing conflict information (of either materialized or non-materialized conflicts, or, equivalently, transaction precedence or blocking information; conflict serializability is usually utilized) that is not generated locally, but rather in different processes, and remote locations. Thus information distribution is needed (e.g., precedence relations, lock information, timestamps, or tickets). When the distributed system is of a relatively small scale and message delays across the system are small, the centralized concurrency control methods can be used unchanged while certain processes or nodes in the system manage the related algorithms. However, in a large-scale system (e.g., grid and cloud), due to the distribution of such information, a substantial performance penalty is typically incurred, even when distributed versions of the methods (vs. the centralized ones) are used, primarily due to computer and communication latency. Also, when such information is distributed, related techniques typically do not scale well. A well-known example with respect to scalability problems is a distributed lock manager, which distributes lock (non-materialized conflict) information across the distributed system to implement locking techniques.
See also
Strong strict two-phase locking (SS2PL or Rigorousness).
Making snapshot isolation serializable in Snapshot isolation.
Global serializability, where the Global serializability problem and its proposed solutions are described.
Linearizability, a more general concept in concurrent computing.
Notes
References
Philip A. Bernstein, Vassos Hadzilacos, Nathan Goodman (1987): Concurrency Control and Recovery in Database Systems, Addison Wesley Publishing Company,
Gerhard Weikum, Gottfried Vossen (2001): Transactional Information Systems, Elsevier,
Data management
Databases
Concurrency control
Transaction processing
Distributed computing problems
el:Σειριοποιησιμότητα Συγκρούσεων |
4368250 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marshall%20Fredericks | Marshall Fredericks | Marshall Maynard Fredericks (January 31, 1908 – April 4, 1998) was an American sculptor known for such works as Fountain of Eternal Life, The Spirit of Detroit, Man and the Expanding Universe Fountain, and many others.
Early life and education
Fredericks was born of Scandinavian descent in Rock Island, Illinois, on January 31, 1908. His family moved to Florida for a short time and then settled in Cleveland, where he grew-up. He graduated from the Cleveland School of Art in 1930 and journeyed abroad on a fellowship to study with Carl Milles (1875–1955) in Sweden. After some months he studied in other academies and private studios in Denmark, Germany, France, and Italy, and traveled extensively in Europe and North Africa.
In 1932, Milles invited him to join the staffs of Cranbrook Academy of Art and Cranbrook and Kingswood School in Bloomfield Hills, Michigan, where he taught until he enlisted in the armed forces in 1942. In 1945, Fredericks was honorably discharged from the Air Force as a lieutenant colonel.
Career
In 1936, Fredericks won a competition to create the Levi L. Barbour Memorial Fountain on Belle Isle in Detroit. This was to be the first of many public monuments created by Fredericks. After World War II, the sculptor worked continuously on his numerous commissions for fountains, memorials, free-standing sculptures, reliefs, and portraits in bronze and other materials. Many of his works have spiritual intensity, lighthearted humor and a warm and gentle humanist spirit like that found in Fredericks himself.
Fredericks was the recipient of many American and foreign awards and decorations for his artistic and humanitarian achievements. He exhibited his work nationally and internationally and many of his works are in national, civic, and private collections. In 1957, he was elected into the National Academy of Design as an Associate member, and became a full Academician in 1961.
He resided in Birmingham, Michigan, with his wife Rosalind Cooke until his death April 4, 1998. The couple had five children and eight grandchildren. He maintained studios at 4113 North Woodward Avenue in Royal Oak and on East Long Lake Road in Bloomfield Hills until his death. His estate donated the contents of both studios to the Marshall M. Fredericks Sculpture Museum on the campus of Saginaw Valley State University in Saginaw, Michigan.
Major works
Cleveland War Memorial Fountain: Peace Arising from the Flames of War
The Cleveland War Memorial Fountain: Peace Arising from the Flames of War, also known as the Fountain of Eternal Life was installed on The Mall in Downtown Cleveland to commemorate those who served in World War II. It bears the inscription, "IN HONORED MEMORY OF THOSE WHO GAVE THEIR LIVES FOR THEIR COUNTRY". The work was 20 years in the making and was dedicated on May 31, 1964.
Four groups in Norwegian emerald pearl granite, each , represent the religious aspirations from all over the globe that are the foundation for the soaring figure that represents eternal life. The figure was cast in Norway, where also the granite groups were carved. The globe under the figure was cast in Brooklyn, New York. The four groups represent the four "corners" of the Earth from which come the major religions, which in turn gave birth to the idea of eternal life, here represented by the human figure in the center of the sculpture.
Boy and Bear
Fredericks was one of six artists commissioned to design sculpture for Northland Shopping Center in Southfield, Michigan. When it opened in 1954, Northland was the country's largest shopping center as well as the first regional shopping center. The architects planned for sculpture to play an important role in the shopping center's courts and malls. Fredericks designed this sculpture with children in mind. As with his other large animal sculptures, he gave the bear a benevolent quality so it would not frighten children. This bear could be a child's best friend. The contrast of the massive body of the bear with the almost frail body of the boy on his back emphasizes this special relationship. The bear's head is down, communicating only amicable intentions. Its erect ears and furrowed brow suggest interest in a viewer at this low eye level. Fredericks' portrayal of the bear is not totally realistic, but like several of his animal sculptures, he portrayed the bear as in a child's imagination. The sculpture at Northland pleased children and adults alike from the day it was first installed until the center closed in 2015. In 2016, the city of Southfield purchased the center and moved the sculpture to the lobby of the Southfield Public Library.
Despite similarities between this sculpture and the characters in Walt Disney's 1967 film The Jungle Book, Fredericks disavowed any influence from Disney, The Jungle Book, originally published in 1894, or its author, Rudyard Kipling. Fredericks said that he simply wanted to make a sculpture of a boy and bear because it would be fun. On display at the Fredricks Sculpture Gallery is an earlier version of this sculpture in bronze. A similar casting is on display in the children's room of the Grosse Pointe Public Library and at the Frederik Meijer Gardens and Sculpture Park in Grand Rapids.
Christ on the Cross
Fredericks was commissioned to sculpt a crucifix, but instead designed this , full-scale model, for a bronze to be placed at the Indian River Catholic Shrine in Indian River, Michigan. The bronze Corpus is mounted on a redwood cross. When erected in 1959, it was believed to be the largest crucifix in the world. Since then, a crucifix was erected in the cemetery of St. Thomas Catholic Church hear Bardstown, Kentucky, however the Corpus on this work is only in height.
The Indian River figure required only three years to complete, however the plaster model on which it was based required seven-years of restoration before being put on permanent display at the Fredricks Sculpture Museum. It suffered from neglect during the two-decades it was in storage at the foundry in Scandinavia after the bronze was cast. In his depiction Fredericks chose not to depict the pain and suffering of Jesus and omitted the crown of thorns and the wound in the figure's side. Instead, he shows the powerful body of Jesus at peace in the moment after death.
Freedom of the Human Spirit
The Freedom of the Human Spirit was originally sculpted for the 1964 World's Fair in New York City and stood in the Court of States.
Fredericks is quoted explaining the Freedom of the Human Spirit:
"I tried to take the male and female figures and free them from the earth. The only reason they stand up in the space at all is because they are suspended by sort of semi-visible abstract forms that keep them in the air, and then there are three giant wind swans flying with them. The idea was that these human beings, these people-us, do not have to be limited to the earth, to the ground. We can free ourselves mentally and spiritually whenever we want to, if we just try to do so."
This sculpture was moved in 1996 to the plaza adjacent to Arthur Ashe Stadium at the USTA Billie Jean King National Tennis Center in New York City. In 1983, Fredericks donated a casting of the work to his adopted home of Birmingham, Michigan for that city's fiftieth anniversary. It occupies a site in the city's Shain Park.
Leaping Gazelle
This sculpture was the first commissioned work for which Marshall Fredericks was paid. In 1936, the sculpture won first prize in a national competition, and as a result, Fredericks became well known as a public sculptor. Since the gazelle is not native to Michigan, Fredericks made four animals that are, and placed them around the gazelle on Belle Isle. These animals are the otter, grouse, hawk, and rabbit. Fredericks sculpted the gazelle in a characteristic movement called wheeling, which is when an animal quickly changes direction while being pursued by a predator.
Leaping Gazelle is one of the most duplicated of Fredericks's sculptures. It can be found at numerous locations, including Brookgreen Gardens in South Carolina where it was one of four Purchase prize winners of a nationwide open sculpture competition in 1972.
Lion and Mouse
Fredericks said this sculpture illustrates Aesop's Fable of "The Lion and the Mouse". In the story, a lion caught a mouse. As the lion was about to eat him, the mouse pleaded for mercy, promising to help the lion one day. The lion was so amused by the prospect of a tiny mouse helping the king of the jungle that he freed the mouse. Some time later, the mouse came across the lion trapped in a hunter's net and gnawed through the ropes to free him. In a different version of the story, the mouse extracted from the lion's paw a troublesome thorn too tiny for the massive lion's claws to grasp. A fitting moral to the story is that kindness is seldom thrown away, be it given to the mightiest or lowliest of creatures. Fredericks captured the story in a single image by contrasting the tiny mouse with the much larger lion.
The J. L. Hudson Company commissioned this sculpture for Eastland Center in Harper Woods, Michigan, in 1957. Like many of Fredericks' sculptures, he designed it specifically for children. Both animals are humanized with friendly facial expressions. The lion's reclining position and his crossed legs are very human-like, yet his huge round head is stylized with uniformly coiled ringlets and his knees are abstracted. These alterations of nature make the king of the jungle non-threatening to children and adults alike.
The Poet, Lord Byron
When Fredericks was a teenager his inspiration was Lord Byron, the nineteenth-century Romantic poet who became associated with a haughty, melancholy mood. Fredericks presents Lord Byron in a dramatic pose with his head thrown back and hand raised to his forehead. He seems to suffer inner turmoil suggestive of the melancholic life of the poet. Lord Byron's left leg was slightly shorter than his right and he was sensitive about his lameness. Fredericks captured this aspect of Byron's personality by posing him draped in a long cape which partially conceals his legs. The Bronze full-scale sculpture resides on the campus of Saginaw Valley State University and was cast in 1999.
Man and the Expanding Universe Fountain
The Man and the Expanding Universe Fountain was installed in the South Court of the United States Department of State Headquarters Building in Washington, D.C., in 1964.
The fountain was erected to celebrate the nation's first exploration of outer space. The monumental central figure suggests a superhuman mythological being. He is seated upon a sphere, encrusted with a multitude of stars of various magnitudes set in a pattern of the bright-star constellations of the celestial system. In his hands, he holds two planets that he is sending off into space. His hair, designed with jagged lightning-like forms, is studded with clusters of multi-pointed stars. The dynamic spiral orbit-form swirling around the sphere represents the speed and perpetual movement of the heavenly bodies in space. Play of the water in a spiral pattern from numerous star-shaped sprays is intended to increase the feeling of movement upon the figure, sphere, and orbit.
The basin of the fountain is lined with colored glass mosaic tiles. The central figure and sphere are cast in bronze while the orbit, planets, water spouts, and the stars in the hair and on the surface of the sphere are of nickel alloy. According to Fredericks, the sculpture "represents this age of great interest, exploration and discovery in outer space...[and] the immensity, order and mystery of the universe."
Night and Day Fountain
The fountain was commissioned for the Henry G. McMorran Auditorium in Port Huron, Michigan. Fredericks also created a gold anodized aluminum Sculptured Clock on the building that was completed in 1957, two years before the fountain's installation. The sculptures and clock were conceived as a unified design.
In keeping with a long tradition in western art, the sculptor personified time with figures representing night and day. Night has long, smooth, graceful curves that are repeated in the lines of the swan in flight beneath her. In comparison, Day is more angular and his muscles are more pronounced, as are the veins in the arms and hands. Day rests upon an otter, hunting among a school of Northern pike and Night floats upon a swan in flight, holding a small bird in her hand.
The Night and Day Fountain can also be seen at the Fredricks Sculpture Gallery.
The Spirit of Detroit
Working from a small model, Fredericks made the full-scale model for the figure at the entrance to the Coleman A. Young Municipal Center in Detroit. For monumental sculpture, sculptors typically create a small model or maquette, then progressively larger models. This provides an opportunity to work out compositional details prior to construction of the large, expensive, and time-consuming full-scale model. Enlargement of the model is done with a point-up or pantograph machine. Three of the smaller models are on display in the Sculptor's Studio.
Fredericks stated that he never named the piece. He said:
"The theme was a verse from the Bible (2 Corinthians 3:17); 'Now the Lord is that Spirit, and where the Spirit of the Lord is, there is liberty.' I tried to express the spirit of man through the deity and the family,"
After it was installed in 1958, it became popularly known as The Spirit of Detroit. Not only did Fredericks waive his creative fee for this sculpture, but it actually cost him money to produce. However he believed this was merely part of his civic responsibility.
In 2013, art dealer and art historian Eric Ian Hornak Spoutz was quoted in The Detroit News stating that the value of the statue is in excess of $1,000,000.
The Thinker
Fredericks created this sculpture after George Gough Booth, the founder of Cranbrook Educational Community, asked him to make a "Thinker" for the steps of the Cranbrook Art Museum similar to Auguste Rodin's renowned The Thinker, a cast of which is at the entrance of the Detroit Institute of Arts. The pose Fredericks' Thinker assumes is a direct reference to Rodin's sculpture; however, Fredericks' replacement of Rodin's heroic male nude with a bemused chimpanzee is a thought provoking variation on the earlier statue and reveals his fondness for primates. Fredericks indicated that when Booth saw the compact composition of the chimp stroking his chin, he commented that it was not like Rodin would have done, but Booth was sure the chimp was thinking much more interesting thoughts than most of us.
Two Bears
Two Bears was originally created in 1962 for Lincoln Square, Urbana, Illinois. A large and small bear sit back-to-back in quiet contemplation. In nature, these two animals are enemies, however, Fredericks portrays the two in a gentle humanistic way, stressing tolerance. The bears are markedly different in their ears and noses and the small bear displays Fredericks' trademark teardrop-kneecap sculpting style. Other sculptures that display this characteristic are The Thinker, Lion and Mouse, and the Male Baboon and Female Baboon sculptures.
Other selected works
Ugly Duckling fountain
Levi L Barbour Memorial Fountain, Belle Isle Park, Detroit, 1936
Harlequins, Ballerina and Orchestral Parade, and The Ford Empire, Ford Auditorium, Detroit, 1955-56
Flying Pterodactyls, at the Detroit Zoo, Royal Oak, Michigan, 1961
Woodland Indian and Whistling Swans, Milwaukee Public Museum, 1963
Fountain of Eternal Life, Cleveland, 1964
Architectural sculpture
Horace H. Rackham Education Memorial Building, Detroit, 1942
Victory Eagle and History Pylons at the UAW-Ford National Programs Center, Detroit, 1948
American Eagle, John Weld Peck Federal Building, Cincinnati, 1964
Star Dream Fountain, Centennial Commons Park, Royal Oak, MI
See also
:Category:Sculptures by Marshall Fredericks
Art Deco
Harvey Littleton (glass sculptor; student of Milles)
Carl Milles
Frank Murphy
Notes
Further reading
[Winner Save Outdoor Sculpture Achievement Award Honorable Mention — a pictorial guide to Fredericks'sculptures.]
External links
Marshall M. Fredericks Sculpture Museum home page New and improved website with many images and videos.
Saginaw Valley State Sculpture Museum Chronology of Sculptures
Marshall M. Fredericks Collection Digital Archive
1908 births
1998 deaths
Cleveland School of Art alumni
Cranbrook Academy of Art faculty
Culture of Detroit
People from Rock Island, Illinois
Burials at Greenwood Cemetery (Birmingham, Michigan)
20th-century American sculptors
American male sculptors
United States Army Air Forces officers
United States Army Air Forces pilots of World War II
Military personnel from Illinois
20th-century American male artists |
4368276 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Para-alpine%20skiing | Para-alpine skiing | Paralympic alpine skiing is an adaptation of alpine skiing for athletes with a disability. The sport evolved from the efforts of disabled veterans in Germany and Austria during and after the Second World War. The sport is governed by the International Paralympic Committee Sports Committee. The primary equipment used includes outrigger skis, sit-skis, and mono-skis. Para-alpine skiing disciplines include the downhill, super-G, giant slalom, slalom, super combined, and snowboard.
Para-alpine skiing classification is the classification system for para-alpine skiing designed to ensure fair competition between alpine skiers with different types of disabilities. The classifications are grouped into three general disability types: standing, blind and sitting. A factoring system was created for para-alpine skiing to allow the three classification groupings to fairly compete against each other in the same race despite different functional skiing levels and medical challenges.
Alpine skiing was one of the foundation sports at the first Winter Paralympics in 1976 with Slalom and giant slalom events being held. Different disciplines were added to the Paralympic programme over time. The 2010 Winter Paralympics para-alpine skiing events were held at Whistler Creekside. The disciplines at Whistler included downhill, super combined, super-G, slalom and giant slalom.
History
Skiing as a sport for people with disabilities traces its origins back to the Second World War, which produced large numbers of wounded soldiers. In Germany, Franz Wendel, an amputee who had lost a leg, successfully attached a pair of crutches to short skis. Sepp "Peppi" Zwicknagel, an Austrian veteran who had lost both his legs to a hand grenade, taught himself to ski and eventually became a ski instructor at Kitzbühel, founded a division of the Austrian Ski Association for disabled skiers. By 1947, annual races were being held in Austria. Ludwig Guttmann, a key figure in the history of paralympic sport, helped organise ski events. In the United States, Gretchen Fraser began teaching skiing to amputees in army hospitals. By the 1960s, a number of organisations had been founded. For a long time, disability skiing was restricted to amputees, but in 1969, blind skier Jean Eymere, a former ski instructor before he lost his eyesight, began a skiing program in Aspen, Colorado for blind skiers. The first international competition, the World Disabled Alpine Championships, was held in France in 1974.
Events
Paralympics
Alpine skiing was one of the foundation sports at the first Winter Paralympics in 1976 with slalom and giant slalom events being held. At the 1984 Winter Paralympics, the downhill event was added to the para-alpine programme, along with sit-skiing as a demonstration sport. At the 1992 Winter Paralympics in Albertville, downhill, giant and slalom events were on the programme. At the 1994 Winter Paralympics, the super giant slalom was added to the para-alpine skiing programme. In 1998, para-alpine skiing classes for sitting and visually impaired skiers were added as full medal events after only having standing classes competing in previous Games.
At the 2002 Winter Paralympics, women's Downhill and men's visually impaired Downhill were held on day 1 with men's standing and sitting Downhill taking place on day 2. Men's standing and sitting Super-G took place on day 3, with men's visually impaired and women's Super-G taking place on day 5. Men's standing and sitting giant slalom took place on day 7, with women's and men's visually impaired giant slalom taking place on day 8. Men's standing and sitting Slalom took place on day 9, with women's and men's visually impaired Slalom taking place on day 10.
For the 2006 Winter Paralympics, major changes were made to the classification system used for the Games that combined the 14 classes used into three groups with the results factored across different classifications in the group. At those Games, in the Super-G, there were 55 male competitors compared to 18 women in the standing group.
The 2010 Winter Paralympics para-alpine skiing events were held at Whistler Creekside. The disciplines at Whistler included downhill, super-combined, super-G, slalom and giant slalom. It was the first time the super-combined was on the Paralympic programme. In the downhill event, there were 25 men and 18 women in the standing class, 25 men and 10 women in the sitting class and 12 men and 10 women in the vision impaired class. In the super-combined, there were 18 men and 14 women for standing, 18 men and 10 women for sitting and 10 men and 10 women for vision impaired. The Slalom race had the shortest course length of the major para-alpine events at the Games. The Downhill was held for both men and women in all classes on day 2. The Super-G was held for men and women in standing classes on day 3, with visual impaired and sit-skiers competing in the super-G on day 4. The Super Combined for all classes and both genders was held on day 5. The standing giant slalom for men and women was held on day 7 and the remaining classes on day 8. The Slalom was held for standing men and women on day 9 and remaining classes on day 10.
The 2014 Winter Paralympics para-alpine skiing took place at the Rosa Khutor Extreme Park. Added to this discipline these games was the para-snowboard cross which was held at Rosa Khutor along with the super-G, downhill, super-combined, slalom and giant slalom. In the downhill event for the visually impaired there were 11 men and 6 women. For the downhill standing, there were 17 men and 8 women. For the downhill sitting, 22 men and 6 women participated. In the Super-G for the visually impaired, there were 15 men and 6 women. The Super-G standing event had 31 men and 15 women. The Super-G sitting was contested by 31 men and 8 women. The men's and women's Super Combined Downhill and Super Combined Slalom took place on March 11 and both genders' Para-Snowboard Cross events took place on March 14.
World Championships
Governance, rules and events
International and national events for the sport include the Winter Paralympics, World Championships, World Cups, Continental Cups, National Championships, IPCAS Races and IPCAS Para-Snowboard. Skiers from 39 different countries actively compete in para-alpine skiing in a sport is that one of eight governed by the International Paralympic Committee Sports Committee, with rules for para-alpine skiing set forth in the IPCAS Rules and Regulations. Event specific rules may be created for events like the Paralympic Games. One set of rules was created in 1994 and were specified in the IPC Handbook. This was used to govern IPC-sanctioned events like the Paralympic Games for many years. Competition rules for classes use rules set by or modified from rules created by the International Ski Federation (ISF). These rules were set at the 42nd International Ski Conference in 2000. The two rule sets worked in concert with each other, with the ISF rules specifying the rules for alpine skiing, and the IPC providing modifications for para-alpine skiing. The IPC Alpine Sports Assembly Executive Committee can determine if skiers are eligible to compete in IPC sanctioned events at their own discretion regardless of what the rules say. National Paralympic Committees can have their own rule sets at national competitions.
Equipment
Sitting
The primary equipment used in the sport includes outrigger skis, sit-skis, and mono-skis. Depending on the classification, other equipment may be used by skiers including guide skiers, cut-down ski poles, orthopedic aids, or prostheses. For standing skiers, different class rules determine what sort of equipment is allowed in competition, such as one pole, two poles or no poles, or one or two skis. Rules for equipment use in competition are set by FIS and the IPC.
There are minimum lengths for skis used in competition, with men's skis needing to be at least long and women's skis needing to be at least long. Bindings used for skis have a maximum height of .
Sit-skis are designed for wheelchair users or other skiers with a form of paraplegia. The first sit-ski was built in 1967 by Josef Shrall from the Bavaria region of Germany. Early sit-skis used in para-alpine skiing had two wide skis, brakes, and were custom built to fit the specific skier. The weight of the ski prevented skiers from skiing moguls or steep slopes. Sit-ski development continued into the 1980s, with a more modern version demonstrated in Engelberg, Switzerland in 1987 at a workshop hosted by the . As the technology advanced, a chair was developed that could be attached to the skis which were used by non-disabled skiers. They are now made from fibreglass and polyester, and the weight has been dramatically reduced, allowing skiers to ski on steeper slopes and compete in the moguls. Current sit-skis include seat-belts. As skis for non-disabled skiers have evolved to specialise for the event, the skis that sit-skiers use have also changed.
Sit-skiers use a specially designed ski called a mono-ski, sometimes called a maxi mono-ski. It is used by skiers with lower limb disabilities including paralysis. A variation of the mono-ski exists for skiers with bilateral, above the knee amputations. The mono-ski was developed in Austria in the early 1980s by bilateral above-the-knee amputee Josef Feirsinger and engineer Horst Morokuti. The fundamental design they created is still the one used for mono-skis currently used in competition. The mono-ski was quickly used by German skiers who built their own at a workshop in Tübingen. The mono-ski uses the same skis used for non-disabled alpine skiing, adapted so that the skier sits on a chair attached to the ski via a spring. The mono-ski was first used at the 1988 Winter Paralympics.
A monoski, also known as a sit-ski, consists of a molded seat mounted on a metal frame. A shock absorber beneath the seat eases riding on uneven terrain and helps in turning by maximizing ski-snow contact. Modern monoskis interface with a single, ordinary alpine ski by means of a "ski foot," a metal or plastic block in the shape of a boot sole that clicks into the ski's binding. A monoskier uses outriggers for stability; an outrigger resembles a forearm crutch with a short ski on the bottom. People new to mono-skiing are often surprised to see how much terrain is skiable in a monoski; advanced monoskiers can be found not only carving turns on groomed runs but also skiing moguls, terrain parks, race courses, glades and even backcountry terrain—in short, wherever stand-up skiers can go.
As alpine ski technology has advanced, so has monoski technology. In North America in the 1970s and early 1980s, early "sit-skis" took the form of fiberglass sleds with metal runners. The first downhill sit-ski in the US, the Arroya, was invented by American Peter Axelson in 1978. Dragging very long poles or "slicks" in the snow were the method in which turns were actually made harder, although not effectively. Few users became proficient enough to descend even intermediate terrain without assistance from a "tetherer." By the early '80s, Europeans were experimenting with "ski-bobs" that mounted on two small skis. In place of today's minimal bucket seats were large fiberglass or Kevlar shells, and leaf springs at first were used instead of slide absorbers. The three-ski design proved accident prone, and it was soon abandoned for a single ski by most manufacturers. By the middle of the decade, the technology had migrated to Canada, and on both continents the modern monoski began to emerge. In the United States, Enabling Technologies' Unique, Sunrise Medical's Shadow, and Dan Fallon's Fallonski were some of the first commercially available monoskis. Praschberger (Austria), Tessier (France), and DynAccess (USA) are some of the major companies.
In 1984, monoskiers took part in the 1984 Innsbruck Paralympic Winter Games as a demonstration sport; in Innsbruck 1988, full medal categories were added for sitting skiers.
Standing
For standing competitors, outrigger skis can be used in some classifications. These are ski poles with small skis on the end. They assist a skier balancing as they ski down the slopes, and in moving uphill for short distances, enabling skiers to do things like a climb a slope to get on a chair lift.
Other equipment
Beyond this equipment, skiers also gear up wearing special boots, helmets, ski suits, and goggles. At the Paralympic Games, this equipment is prohibited from having advertisements on it. The boots attach to the ski at the heel and toe, and are designed to provide support to foot and ankle with the use of materials in boot construction like hard plastics. All helmets used in competition are required to be hard-shell helmets.
For skiers with visual impairments, guides are used to assist the skier down the course. Guides are skiers who do not have a vision impairment who assist a skier down the slopes by telling the skier where to go using their voice or a radio. Skiers can use more than one guide in the course of a competition, but the guide is only eligible for a medal if they have competed with the same skier for the duration of the discipline event. Like the skier, the guide is required to have an IPCAS Licence in order to participate in a competition and adhere to anti-doping rules.
Disciplines
Para-alpine skiing disciplines include the downhill, super-G, giant slalom, slalom, super combined, and snowboard. The rules for these disciplines are based on the rules set by the International Ski Federation, though some rules have been adapted for skiers with disabilities. While skiing in these disciplines, skiers can reach speeds of an hour.
Downhill
This is a speed based timed discipline, where competitors ski down a steep course that can finish to lower than it started while containing many turns and jumps. The winner is determined based on one run down the course, with the competitor with the fastest time being the winner. Skiers navigate between gates in the downhill, the fewest gates amongst all para-alpine disciplines, and if they miss a set, they are disqualified. In some competitions that require qualification for entry, a skier can qualify for this discipline through Downhill or Super-G. There are Disabled FIS points available in sanctioned events. This race is included on the current Paralympic programme.
Skis for women must be at least long with a tolerance of . For men, the ski length must be at least long with the same tolerance. Women and men's skis need a minimum radius of . Skiers used curved ski poles for this event. Men and women both need their skis to have a profile radius of . Top speeds in this event can be up to an hour. Before the start of the event, the skier is required to do a practice run, and is required to wear a helmet during all their runs.
Super-G
Developed in the 1980s, the Super-G is less technical than others, and is known for the speed of the skier, who navigate a course that has a vertical drop between to from top to bottom. Compared to other para-alpine skiing disciplines, this course tends to be mid-length. It is longer than the giant slalom and the slalom but shorter than the downhill course. In this discipline, competitors ski between alternating red and blue gates that are apart, with men needing to clear 35 gates and women needing to clear 30 gates. In some competitions that require qualification for entry, a skier can qualify for this discipline through Downhill, Slalom or Super-G. There are Disabled FIS points available in sanctioned events. This race is included on the current Paralympic programme.
Skis for women must be at least long with a tolerance of . For men, the ski length must be at least long with the same tolerance. Women and men's skis need a minimum radius of . Men and women both need their skis to have a profile radius of . Skiers used curved ski poles for this event.
Giant slalom
With a vertical drop of to , this is one of the more technical of the para-alpine skiing disciplines. This discipline involves two runs down a course straighter and shorter than the downhill, but longer and having fewer turns than the slalom course. The winner is determined based on the combined time for both races. After the first run, the bottom 20% of finishers can be eliminated from the competition at the discretion of the judges. The starting order for the second run is starts with the slowest of the top 15 skiers, with the fastest skier in the first run skiing 15th. Any skiers who finished outside the top 15 then ski in order based on their times from the first run. For example, the 18th fastest finisher in the first run skis 18th in the second run. In some competitions, this is modified using 30 skiers instead of 15. The IPC/FIS run jointly sanctioned events for Slalom. This race is included on the current Paralympic programme. Skiers used straight ski poles for this event.
Slalom
The name for this event is from a Norwegian word meaning "sloping path." This event is the most technical para-alpine skiing disciplines, with a vertical drop of only to on an intentionally iced course. This is the shortest of all the para-alpine skiing events and uses two different courses. Skiers go down each course once, with their finishing position being determined based on their combined course completion time. There are gates in this event, about 55-75 for men and 40-60 for women, and if a skier misses a gate, they are disqualified from the race. After the first run, the bottom 20% of finishers can be eliminated from the competition at the discretion of the judges. The starting order for the second run is starts with the slowest of the top 15 skiers, with the fastest skier in the first run skiing 15th. Any skiers who finished outside the top 15 then ski in order based on their times from the first run. For example, the 18th fastest finisher in the first run skis 18th in the second run. Skiers used straight ski poles for this event. In some competitions that require qualification for entry, a skier can qualify for this discipline through Downhill, Slalom or Super-G. The IPC/FIS run jointly sanctioned events for Slalom. This race is included on the current Paralympic programme. Skiers often wear pads when competing in this discipline.
Super combined
The Super Combined event is a combination of two disciplines such as the slalom and the Super G, or the downhill and the slalom. In the event, skiers go down the downhill course once, and the slalom course twice. The times for the races are combined, with the fastest time winning.
Snowboard
Snowboard has vertical drops between and for both men's and women's races with the course being run over a distance of to . The course has alternating gates. The sport is only open to standing competitors.
Classification
Para-alpine skiing classification is the classification system for para-alpine skiing designed to ensure fair competition between alpine skiers with different types of disabilities. The classifications are grouped into three general disability types: standing, blind and sitting. Classification governance is handled by International Paralympic Committee Alpine Skiing. Skiers are classified based on medical assessment, and their body position when they ski. Blind skiers are evaluated purely on a medical assessment. Prior to that, several sport governing bodies dealt with classification including the International Sports Organization for the Disabled (ISOD), International Stoke Mandeville Games Federation (ISMWSF), International Blind Sports Federation (IBSA) and Cerebral Palsy International Sports and Recreation Association (CP-ISRA). Some classification systems are governed by bodies other than International Paralympic Committee Alpine Skiing for systems not used in international competition. The sport is open to all competitors with a visual or physical disability. It is not open to people with intellectual disabilities.
The first classification systems for para-alpine skiing were developed in Scandinavia, with early systems designed for skiers with amputations. At the time, equipment had yet to be developed to allow participation for skiers with spinal cord injuries. The goal of the early classification systems was to be functional but ended up being medical classification systems. At the first Winter Paralympics in 1976, there were two classifications for the sport. By the 1980s, classification existed for skiers with cerebral palsy. At that time, with inspiration from wheelchair basketball classification, efforts were made to make classification more of a functional system. Ten classes existed by the 1980s, and since then, efforts have been made to improve the efficiency of classification by reducing the number of classes so fewer medals can be rewarded.
Factor system
A factoring system was created for para-alpine skiing to allow the grouping of classifications into three general groups: sitting, standing and visually impaired. One medal event can then be held for each group even though there is a wide range of functional mobility and medical differences. The factoring system works by having a number for each class based on their functional mobility or vision levels, where the results are calculated by multiplying the finish time by the factored number. The resulting number is the one used to determine the winner in events where the factor system is used. This means the faster skier down a hill may not be the winner of an event.
The factoring system is used at several para-alpine skiing competitions including the Alpine Cup, North American Races, European Cup, World Cup events, World Championships, and the Winter Paralympics. Disciplines use factored results to combine classes unless there are six or more skiers competing in a specific class.
See also
World Para Alpine Skiing World Cup
References
Bibliography
This is included as an appendix in the media guide, but it is not published by the APC.
External links
AdaptiveSkiing.net Adaptive Skiing Resource
IPC Alpine Skiing Homepage
Alpine Skiing
Alpine skiing
Types of skiing
Snow sports |
4368634 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taiwanese%20people | Taiwanese people | The term "Taiwanese people" has various interpretations. It may generally be considered the people living on the island of Taiwan who share a common culture, ancestry and speak Mandarin, Hokkien, Hakka, or indigenous Taiwanese languages as a mother tongue. Taiwanese people may also refer to the indigenous peoples of the areas under the control of the Government of the Republic of China since 1945, including Kinmen and Matsu Islands that collectively form its streamlined Fujian Province (see Taiwan Area). However, the inhabitants of Kinmen and the Matsu Islands themselves may not consider the "Taiwanese" label to be accurate as they are a part of Fujian and not Taiwan. They have a distinctive identity from that of the Taiwanese; viewing themselves as Kinmenese or Matsunese, respectively, or as simply Chinese.
At least three competing (occasionally overlapping) paradigms are used to identify someone as a Taiwanese person: nationalist criteria, self-identification (including the concept of "New Taiwanese") criteria and socio-cultural criteria. These standards are fluid and result from evolving social and political issues. The complexity resulting from competing and evolving standards is compounded by a larger dispute regarding Taiwan's identity, the political status of Taiwan and its potential de jure Taiwan independence or Cross-Strait Unification.
According to government figures, over 95% of Taiwan's population of 23.4 million consists of Han Chinese, while 2.3% are Austronesian Taiwanese indigenous peoples. The Han are often divided into three subgroups: the Hoklo, the Hakka, and waishengren (or "mainlanders"). Although the concept of the "four great ethnic groups" was alleged to be the deliberate attempt by the Hoklo-dominated Democratic Progressive Party (DPP) to defuse ethnic tensions, this concept has become a dominant frame of reference for dealing with Taiwanese ethnic and national issues.
Despite the wide use of the "four great ethnic groups" in public discourse as essentialized identities, the relationships between the peoples of Taiwan have been in a constant state of convergence and negotiation for centuries. According to Harrel and Huang, the distinction between non-aboriginal Taiwanese groups are "no longer definitive in cultural terms".
Definitions of Taiwanese
The word "Taiwanese people" has multiple meanings and can refer to one of the following:
All citizens of the Republic of China with household registration in the Taiwan (+ Streamlined Fujian) Free Area. This definition includes people living outside of Taiwan Province (Republic of China), including the peoples of the archipelagos of Kinmen, Matsu and Wuqiu (Kinmen), collectively part of Fujian Province (Republic of China) as well as other territories controlled by the Republic of China. Many of the people living in Kinmen, Matsu and Wuqiu are opposed to this definition, given that they view themselves as "Chinese from Fujian Province".
All people living in Taiwan (or originating from Taiwan) who identify with the "Taiwanese" nationality in some form or another, rather than with the "Chinese" nationality. These people have views which are generally aligned with those of the Pan-Green (Political) Coalition. This definition excludes people who support Chinese Unification and whose views are aligned with those of the Pan-Blue (Political) Coalition (which includes most of the inhabitants of Kinmen, Matsu, and Wuqiu).
All people living in Taiwan (of Han Chinese descent) whose ancestors endured life under Japanese colonial rule (in Taiwan). These people are commonly referred to as "Taiwanese Benshengren" within Taiwan (Republic of China), as opposed to "Taiwanese Waishengren" (which are Chinese Mainlanders who migrated to Taiwan after 1945, as well as their descendants). This definition can also include the various Taiwanese Aboriginal peoples, who are ethnically Austronesian.
All people who have historically lived in Taiwan, including people of ethnic Japanese, Dutch or Spanish descent (or various other ethnic ancestries) who historically colonized Taiwan or settled in Taiwan back when Taiwan was fully or partially controlled by the Empire of Japan, the Empire of the Netherlands or the Empire of Spain, respectively.
Only Taiwanese Aboriginal peoples, who have lived in Taiwan for up to 6000 years. This definition excludes all people groups who have settled in Taiwan in "recent" history (the past 1000 years), including the Han Chinese, the Manchus, the Japanese, the Dutch and the Spanish. This view is generally held by Chinese Mainlanders and by people living in Taiwan (Republic of China) whose views are aligned with the Pan-Blue Coalition, who do not agree with the view that the "Taiwanese Benshengren" should be allowed to self-identify as Taiwanese, given that they are "invaders" in Taiwan, rather than "natives".
The history of Taiwanese identity
The earliest notion of a Taiwanese group identity emerged in the form of a national identity following the Qing dynasty's ceding of Taiwan to Japan in the Treaty of Shimonoseki in 1895 . Prior to Japanese rule, residents of Taiwan developed relationships based on class solidarity and social connections rather than ethnic identity. Although Han often cheated Aborigines, they also married and supported one another against other residents of the same ethnic background.{source needed} Taiwan was the site of frequent feuding based on ethnicity, lineage and place of origin (; ; ).
Japanese era
In the face of the Japanese colonial hierarchy, the people of Taiwan were faced with the unequal binary relationship between colonizer/colonized. This duality between "one" and "other" was evident in the seven years of violence between the Japanese and groups of united anti-Japanese Han and Aborigines . Only later did the Japanese attempt to incorporate Taiwanese into the Japanese identity as "loyal subjects", but the difference between the experience of the colonized and the colonizer polarized the two groups .
The concept of "race" was utilized as a tool to confirm and facilitate Japanese political policies. A system of household registers (koseki) based on the notion of race to separate and define groups of subjects. From within the group of "non-Japanese" the government divided Han citizens into "Han" and "Hakka" based on their perception of linguistic and cultural differences. The Japanese also maintained the Qing era classification of aborigines as either "raw" or "cooked" , which to the Japanese embodied the social ramification of ethnic origin and perceived loyalty to the empire .
Martial law era
In 1945, the Taiwanese faced a new unequal binary relationship when Taiwan entered the political sphere of the Republic of China (ROC). Shortly following the Kuomintang (KMT) arrival, however, social conflict erupted in the midst of rampant government corruption, soaring inflation and an increasing flow of immigrants from China (see February 28 Incident). The latter were preferred for jobs in the civil service as opposed to Taiwanese who were regarded as "untrustworthy". Recurrent violent suppression of dissent also played an important role in enforcing a separate sense of "Taiwanese-ness" .
The KMT lost the Chinese Civil War and retreated to Taiwan in 1949. However, Chiang Kai-shek intended to eventually return to mainland China and retake control of it. In order to do this, the KMT attempted to "sinicize" the Taiwanese people. KMT's Taiwan Garrison Commander Chen Yi stated that after 50 years of Japanese rule, "Taiwanese customs, thought, and language would have to gradually return to that of the Chinese people". The KMT believed that a centrally controlled curriculum would forge a unified national sentiment in Taiwan. They also believed education would help build a martial spirit and stimulate enough military, economic, political, and cultural strength not only to survive, but also to recover the mainland.
Under the KMT structure, "Taiwanese" became a strong "regional" identity. The term has often been used synonymously with benshengren, a term which covered both Hokkien and Hakka whose ancestors arrived in Taiwan before the Japanese restrictions on immigration in 1895. "Taiwanese" was used in contrast with waishengren (mainlanders), who included the people who followed the KMT to Taiwan between 1945 and 1949 and their descendants. The government tended to stress provincial identities, with identification cards and passports issued until the late 1990s displaying one's ancestral province and county. During this period the terms "cooked" and "raw" Aborigines disappeared. The former "raw" Aborigines were termed Shandi Tongbao, Gaoshanzu (Mountain Race) or Gaoshan Tongbao (Mountain Compatriots).
Democratic era
With Taiwan's political liberalization in the 1970s and 1980s, encouraged by Taiwan's changing international status, the concept of a "Taiwanese people" became politicized by opponents of the KMT. The tangwai movement deployed concepts of "Taiwanese identity" against the authoritarian KMT government, often using extreme tactics to build a short-term ethno-centric opposition to the KMT.
The campaign saw resonance with the people of Taiwan and the term "Taiwanese" has been used by politicians of all parties to refer to the electorate in an effort to secure votes. The concept of a separate Taiwanese identity has become such an integral factor to the election culture in Taiwan, that identifying as a Taiwanese has become essential to being elected in Taiwan . These political reforms have since been credited with the renewal of interest in Taiwanese history, culture, and identity.
After the lifting of martial law in 1987, the Hoklo people, the largest ethnic group in Taiwan, were allowed to articulate their own interests and the idea emerged that Taiwan should be built primarily as a Hoklo nation based on Hoklo identity and culture. They advocated for the replacement of Mandarin Chinese, removal of geography lessons focused on the Yellow River and the Great Wall of China, historical focus on the Second Sino-Japanese War, and Beijing Opera as representative of culture. This was opposed by other ethnic groups such as the Hakka people and Taiwanese indigenous peoples who fought against using Hokkien as the national language and narratives of Han colonization of Taiwan. As a result, the Hoklo became more supportive of a multicultural policy that focused on equality of languages and ethnicty. However others were skeptical and said that the Hoklo do not have a strong ethnic identity since they define themselves and their language as primarily Taiwanese. The Hakka and indigenous peoples of Taiwan have also been redefined as "Taiwanese" in the following period. There have been criticisms of this movement as politically motivated. Authors such as Shih Chih-yu and Yih-jye Hwang described Taiwan's multiculturalism as a discursive construction of identity and that Taiwan identity only existed in discourse without a fixed, essential, or permanent state. There were strong political inclinations underlying both Taiwanese identity as well as pan-Chinese (Han) identity. They criticized the indigenous wing of the KMT for arguing that the Taiwanese were not Chinese and that pro-independence leaders were trying to generate a Taiwanese national consciousness through deliberately redrawing ethnic boundaries and rewriting histories. The division of Hoklo, Hakka and Mainlanders, originally introduced by the Hoklo, has gained popular support within Taiwanese society.
New Taiwanese
The term "New Taiwanese" (新臺灣人) was coined by former President of the Republic of China, Lee Teng-hui in 1995 to bridge the ethnic cleavage that followed the February 28 Incident of 1947 and characterized the frigid relations between waishengren and benshengren during forty years of martial law. Although originally aimed at the successive generations of Taiwanese with mainlander ancestry, it has been further articulated by Lee and other political and social leaders to refer to any person who loves Taiwan and is committed to calling Taiwan home. Although critics have called the "New Taiwanese Concept" a political ploy to win votes from benshengren who regarded the KMT as an alien regime, it has remained an important factor in the dialectic between ethnic identities in Taiwan. Despite being adopted early on by former Provincial Governor James Soong (1997) and later by, then Taipei mayoral candidate Ma Ying-jeou (1999), the term has since been dropped from contemporary political rhetoric .
Multicultural present
In contemporary Taiwan the phenomenon of mixed marriages between couples comprising different ethnic groups has grown to include people from the Indian subcontinent, southeast Asia, Europe, the Americas and the Pacific Islands. The increasing number of marriages between Taiwanese and other countries creates a problem for the rigid definitions of ethnic identity used by both the ROC and the PRC when discussing Taiwan . In one-fourth of all marriages in Taiwan today, one partner will be from another country and one out of every twelve children is born to a family of mixed parentage. As Taiwan's birthrate is among the lowest in the world, this contingent is playing an increasingly important role in changing Taiwan's demographic makeup. By 2010, this social-cultural group of people is typically known as "Taiwan's new resident (臺灣新住民 lit. "New Residents in Taiwan" ; ).
The current state of Taiwanese identity
Taiwanese national identity is often posed as either an exclusive Taiwanese identity separate from Chinese national identity, or a Taiwanese identity within a pan-Chinese national identity. Since democratization, there has been an increase in those identifying exclusively as Taiwanese, with those identifying as Taiwanese and Chinese nationals have fallen and those exclusively identifying as Chinese nationals have almost vanished.
National Chengchi University has conducted annual polls on national identity since 1991. In 1991, 17.6% of respondents identified as Taiwanese (臺灣人) only, 25.5% as Chinese (中國人) only, 46.4% as both, and 10.5% declining to state. In 2000, the numbers were 36.9% Taiwanese, 12.5% Chinese, 44.1% both and 6.5% declining. In 2008, 48.4% identified as Taiwanese, 4.0% as Chinese, 43.1% as both, and 4.5% declining. By 2016, 58.2% identified as Taiwanese, 3.4% as Chinese, 34.3% as both, and 4.1% declining. In 2020, 64.3% identified as Taiwanese, 2.6% as Chinese, 29.9% as both, and 3.2% declining.
Likewise, in a 2002 poll by the Democratic Progressive Party, over 50% of the respondents considered themselves "Taiwanese" only, up from less than 20% in 1991 . Polls conducted by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs (MOFA) in 2001 found that 70% of Taiwanese would support a name change of the country to Taiwan if the island could no longer be referred to as the Republic of China.
The discrepancy in identity becomes larger when polls only give the two options of "Taiwanese" versus "Chinese". In June 2008, a TVBS poll found that 68% of the respondents identify themselves as "Taiwanese" while 18% would call themselves "Chinese". In 2015, a poll conducted by the Taiwan Braintrust showed that about 90 percent of the population would identify themselves as Taiwanese rather than Chinese.
In 2006, Wu Nai-teh of Academia Sinica said that "many Taiwanese are still confused about identity, and are easily affected by political, social, and economic circumstances." However, since then the sense of a collective Taiwanese identity has continued to increase despite fluctuations in support for pro-independence political parties. This has been cited as evidence that the concept of Taiwanese identity is not the product of local political manipulation, but an actual phenomenon of ethnic and sociopolitical identities (; ).
The 2023 documentary "Nous sommes Taïwan" (French for "We are Taiwan") by Pierre Haski explored the current state of Taiwanese identity.
In 2023 the LA Times wrote "Taiwan’s odyssey to establish its distinct identity is manifold and complex. It won’t be worldwide recognition of any single component of the culture, history, politics or food that accomplishes this but a combination of them all."
Major socio-cultural subgroups
According to governmental statistics, over 95% of Taiwan's 23.4 million people are Han Chinese, of which the majority includes descendants of early Hoklo immigrants who arrived from Fujian in large numbers starting in the 17th century. A significant minority of the Han group are the Hakka people, who comprise about 15% of the total population. The Hakkas emigrated chiefly from eastern Guangdong, speak Hakka Chinese, and originally took up residence in hilly areas. The so-called waishengren (lit. extra-provincial person, sometimes translated "mainlander") Han subgroup includes and descends from the 1.2 million people who migrated to Taiwan from China between the Surrender of Japan in 1945 to the Nationalist retreat to Taiwan following the communist victory in the Chinese Civil War in 1949. The non-Han Austronesian population of Taiwanese aborigines comprises about 2.3% of the population and have inhabited the island for millennia.
Migration to Taiwan from southern Asia began approximately 12,000 BC, but large-scale migration to Taiwan did not occur until the 18th to the beginning of the 20th century as a result of political and economic chaos in mainland China. The first large scale migration occurred as a result of the Manchu invasion and conquest of China, overthrowing the Ming dynasty and establishing the Qing dynasty, which was established in 1644 and remained until 1911.
In 1624, the Dutch East India Company established an outpost in modern-day Anping, Tainan in southern Taiwan after expelling the Spanish. The Dutch soon realized Taiwan's potential as a colony for trading deer hide, venison, rice, and sugar. However, Aborigines were not interested in developing the land and transporting settlers from Europe would be too costly. Due to the resulting labor shortage, the Dutch hired Han farmers from across the Taiwan Strait who fled the Manchu invasion of Ming dynasty China.
Koxinga brought along many more Chinese settlers during the Siege of Fort Zeelandia in which he expelled the Dutch. Migration of male laborers from Fujian, steadily increased into the 18th and 19th century. In time, this migration and the gradual removal of ethnic markers (coupled with the acculturation, intermarriage and assimilation of plains Aborigines with the Han) resulted in the widespread adoption of Han patterns of behavior making Taiwanese Han the ethnic majority.
It was not until the Japanese arrival in 1895 that Taiwanese first developed a collective Taiwanese identity in contrast to that of the colonizing Japanese. When the Chinese Civil War broke out between Kuomintang nationalists and the Chinese communists in 1945, there was another mass migration of people from mainland China to Taiwan fleeing the communists. These migrants are known as the mainland Chinese.
Indigenous peoples
Taiwanese indigenous peoples are the indigenous peoples of Taiwan. They speak languages that belongs to the Austronesian language family, and are culturally, genetically and linguistically closely related to the ethnic groups of Maritime Southeast Asia and Oceania. Their ancestors are believed to have been living on the islands for approximately 8,000 years before major Han Chinese immigration began in the 17th century . Taiwan's Austronesian speakers were traditionally distributed over much of the island's rugged central mountain range and concentrated in villages along the alluvial plains. Today, the bulk of the contemporary Taiwanese indigenous population reside in the mountains and the major cities. The total population of recognized indigenous peoples on Taiwan is approximately 533,600, or approximately 2.28% of Taiwan's population. The cities of Yilan, Hualien, and Taitung are known for their communities. In the 1990s, Taiwanese indigenous peoples, which had traditionally viewed themselves as separate groups, united under the singular ethnonym '' or 'Indigenous peoples' .
Hoklo
The Hoklo people of Taiwan and Penghu speak Taiwanese Hokkien and mostly originated from Fujian (specifically Quanzhou, Zhangzhou, Xiamen and Kinmen). The Hoklos account for about 70% of the total population today. During Qing rule, some Hoklo men took aboriginal brides. Some of the plains aboriginals also adopted Chinese customs and language so as to be indistinguishable from the Han. Thus, many who categorize themselves as Hoklo have some degree of indigenous ancestry.
It is possible to find families where the older members still identify themselves as lowland aborigine, while the rest of the family may identify as Hoklo. Among the Hoklo, the common idiom, "has Tangshan father, no Tangshan mother" () refers how the Han people crossing the Taiwan Strait were mostly male, whereas their offspring would be through marriage with female Taiwanese aborigines.
Within the Taiwanese Han Hoklo community itself, differences in culture indicate the degree to which mixture with aboriginals took place, with most pure Hoklo Han in Northern Taiwan having almost no Aboriginal admixture, which is limited to Hoklo Han in Southern Taiwan. Plains aboriginals who were mixed and assimilated into the Hoklo Han population at different stages were differentiated by the historian Melissa J. Brown between "short-route" and "long-route". The ethnic identity of assimilated Plains Aboriginals in the immediate vicinity of Tainan was still known since a pure Hoklo Taiwanese girl was warned by her mother to stay away from them. The insulting name "fan" was used against Plains Aborigines by the Taiwanese, and the Hoklo Taiwanese speech was forced upon Aborigines like the Pazeh. Hoklo Taiwanese has replaced Pazeh and driven it to near extinction. Aboriginal status has been requested by Plains Aboriginals.
The term "Chinese Formosans" has been used to imply Hoklo descendants, though this term has also been used to denote the Taiwanese people (whether of pure or mixed origin) in contrast to the Japanese and mountain aborigines.
The deep-rooted hostility between Taiwanese aborigines and (Taiwanese) Hoklo, and the Aboriginal communities' effective KMT networks contribute to Aboriginal skepticism against the DPP and the Aboriginals tendency to vote for the KMT. Some aboriginal representatives such as May Chin, also known as Kao Chin Su-mei, ridiculed the "Han-native" Taiwanese independence supporters, and advocated for unification. She criticized the Japanese colonial period, probably because of her blue-camp affiliation, but ignored the period of KMT rule under which the aboriginals also suffered.
Hakka
Taiwan's Hakka people descend largely from Hakka who migrated from southern and northern Guangdong to Taiwan around the end of the Ming dynasty and the beginning of the Qing dynasty (ca. 1644).
The Taiwanese Hakka communities, although arriving to Taiwan from mountains of eastern Guangdong and western Fujian, have also likely mixed through intermarriage with lowland Aborigines as well. Hakka family trees are known for identifying the male ancestors by their ethnic Hakka heritage while leaving out information on the identity of the female ancestors. Also, during the process of intermarriage and assimilation, many of the lowland Aborigines and their families adopted Hoklo and Hakka family names. Much of this happened in Taiwan prior to the Japanese colonization of Taiwan, so that by the time of the Japanese colonization, most of the population that the Japanese classified as "Chinese" Hoklo and "Chinese" Hakka were in truth already of mixed ancestry. Physical features of both Taiwanese aborigine and Chinese can be found amongst the Taiwanese mainstream today.
Mainlander
"Mainlanders" or waishengren refer to the post-war immigrants (and sometimes also their descendants) who followed the KMT to Taiwan between 1945 and 1950. The descendants of mainlanders settled first within the heart of large urban centers in Taiwan such as Taipei, Taichung, or Kaohsiung. High numbers of government officials and civil servants who followed the KMT to Taiwan and occupied the positions of the colonial government moved into the official dormitories and residences built by the Japanese for civil servants. The ghettoization of mainlander communities exacerbated the divisions imagined by non-mainlander groups, and stymied cultural integration and assimilation into mainstream Taiwanese culture . Nationalization campaigns undertaken by the KMT established an official "culture", which reflected the KMT government's own preference for what it considered authentic Chinese culture. This excluded many of the local Taiwanese practices and local cultures, including the diverse cultures brought to Taiwan by the mainlanders from all parts of China . Unlike the Hoklo and Hakka of Taiwan, who felt excluded by the new government, the mainlanders and their families supported the nationalists and embraced the official "culture" as their own, with "national culture" being taught in school . The mainlanders used their embrace of Nationalist culture to identify themselves as the authentic Chinese people of Taiwan.
In addition to the Han people, there were also small numbers of Mongols, Hui, Manchu and other ethnic minorities among the Waishengren.
Burmese Chinese
Burmese Chinese have settled mostly in Zhonghe District, located in Taipei County. The job boom in the factories there has attracted an estimated 40,000 Burmese Chinese immigrants (c. 2008) which are 10% of the city's population. This is "believed to be the largest Burmese Chinese community outside of Burma."
New residents or immigrants
Taiwan Hsin Chu-min (臺灣新住民 lit. "New Residents in Taiwan" ; ) is a group that consists of mainly new residents, originally from other nations, who have either migrated to Taiwan or inter-married with a local Taiwanese. The majority of new residents originated from Vietnam, Indonesia, Thailand, and Philippines. As of 2018, there are more than 710,000 foreign labors employed in Taiwan in both blue and white collar industries. Taiwanese society has a surprisingly high degree of diversity. According to Ethnologue, published by US-based SIL international, over 20 living languages are found on the island as of 2016. These languages are spoken by the many Austronesian and Han ethnolinguistic groups that comprise the people of Taiwan.
Enmity between ethnic groups on Taiwan
The deep-rooted hostility between Aboriginals and (Taiwanese) Hoklo, and the Aboriginal communities effective KMT networks, contribute to Aboriginal skepticism against the Democratic Progressive Party (DPP) and the Aboriginals tendency to vote for the KMT.
Overseas Taiwanese
Overseas Taiwanese (Chinese: 海外臺灣人), also called "people of Taiwanese descent" (Chinese: 臺裔; pinyin: taiyi), are people who are living outside of Taiwan but are of Taiwanese ancestry or descent. Overseas Taiwanese may live in other territories such as the People's Republic of China and are not necessarily Taiwan nationals.
Taiwanese living in China (People's Republic of China)
Starting the 1980s, some Taiwanese businesspeople (Taishang) started to open factories and moved into the Mainland China for its lower labor-costs and tax-deduction policies enacted by Chinese government towards Taiwanese. Thus, manufacture-intensive cities like Kunshan and Dongguan had aggregated a significant amount of Taiwanese population, mostly Taishang and their families since then. In November 2014 the Taipei Times cited an estimate of 1 million Taiwanese living within China (PRC), i.e. "mainland China".
Historically, most Taiwanese people originated from China (under regimes before the PRC). Taiwanese people (of Chinese descent) have traveled between China and Taiwan throughout history. Taiwanese Aborigines also have a minor presence in China (PRC). After the Treaty of Shimonoseki was signed, with Taiwan (previously a Chinese province/prefecture) being ceded by Qing China to the Japanese Empire, an expatriate/refugee community of Taiwanese in China was created.
The original Taiwanese Communist Party was closely affiliated with the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) prior to the establishment of the People's Republic of China (PRC) in 1949. The failed party would later evolve into the Taiwan Democratic Self-Government League, one of eight officially-recognised political parties within China (PRC) which is ultimately subservient to the CCP. Many members of this party have been Taiwanese people residing in China (PRC), i.e. "mainland China".
Taiwanese Japanese
From 1895 until 1945, Taiwan was controlled by the Japanese Empire as a colony/dependency. It was known as "Japanese Formosa". Due to this period of close administrative connection between Taiwan and Japan, many Taiwanese people have been living in Japan for several generations, such as Momofuku Ando, the inventor of "instant ramen (noodles)", whose invention has been praised by Japanese people as one of the country's greatest national inventions.
The Taiwanese community in Japan tends to be treated separately from the Chinese (PRC) community, both officially and socially, and is quite close to the local Japanese population. However, controversies have arisen due to dual-citizenship of ethnic-Taiwanese politicians in Japan, e.g. Renhō, since Japan doesn't technically recognise the Republic of China on Taiwan as a legitimate country, and since Japan doesn't allow dual-citizenship, especially not in politics.
Japanese people tend to have positive views towards Taiwanese people due to shared history, shared culture, shared values, and the close ties between Taiwan and Japan. Following the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami in Japan, Taiwan was the most prominent humanitarian contributor, donating US$252 million in combined aid under then-ROC-president Ma Ying-jeou's administration. This is one major reason why Japanese people tend to have favourable views of Taiwan.
Historically, Zheng Cheng-gong (also known as Koxinga), who established the Kingdom of Tungning in Taiwan, was born to a Japanese mother and Chinese father. Chiang Wei-kuo, the second (adopted) son of Chiang Kai-shek (arguably the most well-known Taiwanese and ROC politician outside of Taiwan/China), was also born to a Japanese mother and Chinese father.
Taiwanese Americans (United States)
In the United States, there are 230,382 to 919,000 people of Taiwanese descent living there. They are mostly concentrated in California, New York, and Texas.
According to Census data from 2010, Taiwanese Americans have the highest education level of any ethnic group in the United States, if they are not classified together with Chinese Americans.
Taiwanese Canadians
There are over 91,000 Taiwanese people in Canada, mainly living in the provinces of British Columbia and Ontario.
Taiwanese Australians
The complete number of Taiwanese Australians is unknown since the Australian Census only records foreign ethnicities for the first two generations (i.e. the number of 3rd-gen Taiwanese Australians and beyond is unknown). However, it is known that there are around 45,000–55,000 Taiwanese Australians who are 1st-gen or 2nd-gen, and these people currently comprise around 90–95% of Australia's ethnically-Taiwanese population. In modern times, Australians of Taiwanese descent are mostly concentrated around the cities of Brisbane, Melbourne, and Sydney, with significant populations in other major Australian cities.
Genetic studies
The Hoklo and Hakka linguistic groups, which statistically make up the majority of Taiwan's population, can trace their historical and cultural roots to Hokkien and Hakka speaking peoples from China, predominantly the southern provinces of Fujian and Guangdong. The original migrations from China were male-dominated as they came as laborers under contract to the Dutch, so there is a belief in Taiwan that there was considerable intermarriage with women from Plains indigenous peoples. In 2007, a study by Marie Lin reported that the human leukocyte antigen typing study and mitochondrial DNA analysis demonstrated that 85% of the Taiwanese Han population had some degree of aboriginal origin. However, this study was criticised by other researchers and refuted by subsequent genetic studies.
Not long after Lin's 2007 publication, several academics pointed out errors in Lin's statistical analysis, and questioned why some of her numbers contradicted each other. Subsequent full genome studies using large sample sizes and comparing thousands of single nucleotide polymorphisms have come to the conclusion that Taiwanese Han people are primarily of mainland Chinese descent and have only very limited genetic mixture with the indigenous population.
A 2009 doctoral dissertation questions Lin's findings and claims that "the great number of Han immigrants after the 18th century is the main reason to consider that the early genetic contribution from Plains Indigenes to Taiwanese Han has been largely diluted and no longer exists in any meaningful way." The author, Shu-Juo Chen, called the belief that the majority of Taiwan's population have indigenous ancestry the "myth of indigenous genes." The lack of a totally complete and definite set of genetic record of Plains indigenous people, or conclusive understanding of their proto-Austronesian roots, further complicates the use of genetic data . It is important to mention that most Taiwanese Han descend from immigrants from southern China and that the southern Han Chinese people already have ancient Austronesian admixture (see Baiyue people).
The narrative of widespread intermarriage between Han men and indigenous women has also been challenged by Su-Jen Huang in a 2013 paper. According to Huang, intermarriage only involved a small minority of Han males. Historical sources only report men outnumbering women but not widespread intermarriage between Han men and native women. Only specific cases of intermarriage are mentioned while historical account indicate that the majority of Han men went back to the mainland to seek marriage. The gender imbalance also only lasted until the end of the early Qing period. Due to mass migration, within a few decades, the Han population vastly outnumbered the indigenous people so that even if intermarriage did happen it would have been impossible to meet demand. The fact that indigenous tribes survived all the way up until Japanese colonization indicates that the women did not marry with Han men en masse.
A 2016 study by Chen et al. found that the Taiwanese Han shared a common genetic background with Han Chinese populations worldwide but were quite distant from Taiwanese Austronesians. The Taiwanese Han Chinese clustered into three cline groups: 5% were of northern Han Chinese ancestry, 79.9% were of southern Han Chinese ancestry, and 14.5% belonged to a third (T) group. The southern Han Chinese were descended from an admixture of northern Han Chinese and the indigenous peoples (Baiyue) of southern China. The T group individuals were genetically distinct from neighbouring Southeast Asians and Taiwanese Austronesian tribes but were similar to other southern Han Chinese. The T group individuals may have experienced evolutionary events independent from the other southern Han.
A 2021 study by Lo et al. revealed that most Taiwanese Han had considerable proportions of Austronesian-related ancestry. However, this Austronesian-related ancestry was also observable in other Han Chinese populations in mainland China and among Chinese Singaporeans. The researchers suggested that this ancient Austronesian-related ancestry arose from admixture events between Han Chinese and pre-Austronesian populations (Baiyue) that occurred in mainland China. This did not rule out more recent Han Chinese and Taiwanese indigenous admixture as the wide range in the proportion of Austronesian ancestry (0.1–62%) may be attributed to more recent admixture, but only one person out of the five hundred Taiwanese Han individuals examined was grouped closer to the Dusun people (who are closer to the Taiwanese indigenous peoples than Sino-Tibetan populations). There were highly distinct patterns of genetic structure in two Taiwanese indigenous populations (Ami and Atayal) in comparison to the Taiwanese Han populations (Hakka and Hokkien). The Taiwanese Han display similar patterns of ancestry with other Sino-Tibetan populations such as the Cantonese people, Chinese Singaporeans, and Tujia people. The study's conclusion was that the admixture event resulting in Island Southeast Asian (ISEA) ancestry likely occurred before the Han migration to Taiwan. Lin herself helped co-author this paper despite it contradicting her previous claims.
Nevertheless, Lin's early research has been continuously used by many Taiwanese independence activists to build a Taiwanese identity based on genetics. Activists have used Lin's findings to argue the view that the majority of Taiwanese who did not descend from migrants from the Chinese Civil War are not descendants of Han Chinese but rather descendants of Plains indigenous peoples; and therefore Taiwan should not be considered as part of a Chinese state. However, this position has faced political strain. Taiwanese Plains indigenous people who have suffered racial and cultural assimilation often despise these so called "blood nationalists", whom they view as pushing a political agenda by claiming indigenous status. Alak Akatuang, secretary of the Pingpu (Plains) Indigenous Peoples Cultural Association, said that the pan-green camp used the indigenous peoples to create a national identity for Taiwan, but the idea that Taiwanese people are not overwhelmingly descended from Han settlers was false. According to Akatuang, Taiwan's independence shouldn't be established on the idea of blood relations and these people "ignore scientific evidence because they want to believe they are different from China." This harmed the legitimacy of the Pingpu movement for recognition and reparations, and they considered it deeply insulting: "The Pingpu were the first of Taiwan's Indigenous peoples to face colonization. After the Han people came, they stole our land. They murdered our ancestors. Then after a few hundred years, they said we were the same people. Do you think a Pingpu person can accept this?"
See also
Notes
Words in native languages
Other notes
References
Citations
Sources
External links
Taiwan, Bureau of East Asian and Pacific Affairs, U.S. Department of State |
4368682 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dogs%20in%20warfare | Dogs in warfare | Dogs in warfare have a very long history starting in ancient times. From being trained in combat, to their use as the scouts, sentries, messengers, mercy dogs, and trackers, their uses have been varied and some continue to exist in modern military usage.
History
War dogs were used by the Egyptians, Greeks, Persians, Sarmatians, Baganda, Alans, Slavs, Britons, and Romans.
Among the Greeks and Romans, dogs served most often as sentries or patrols, though they were sometimes taken into battle. The earliest use of war dogs in a battle recorded in classical sources was by Alyattes of Lydia against the Cimmerians around 600 BC. The Lydian dogs killed some invaders and routed others. At the Battle of Pelusium (525 BC), Cambyses II deployed dogs, cats, and other animals held sacred by the Egyptians. By putting these animals on the front lines, he was supposedly able to get the Egyptians to cease using their projectile weaponry.
During the Late Antiquity, Attila the Hun used large war dogs in his campaigns. Gifts of war dog breeding stock between European royalty were seen as suitable tokens for exchange throughout the Middle Ages. Other civilizations used armoured dogs to defend caravans or attack enemies.
In the Far East, 15th-century Vietnamese Emperor Lê Lợi raised a pack of over 100 hounds, tended and trained by Nguyễn Xí, whose skills were impressive enough to promote him to the commander of a shock troop regiment.
Later on, Frederick the Great of Prussia used dogs as messengers during the Seven Years' War with Russia. Napoleon also used dogs during his campaigns. Dogs were used until 1770 to guard naval installations in France.
The first official use of dogs for military purposes in the U.S. was during the Seminole Wars. Hounds were used in the American Civil War to protect, send messages, and guard prisoners. General Grant recounts how packs of Southern bloodhounds were destroyed by Union troops wherever found due to their being trained to hunt runaway slaves before the war. Dogs were also used as mascots in American WWI propaganda and recruiting posters.
Timeline
Dogs have been used in warfare by many civilizations. As warfare has progressed, their purposes have changed greatly.
Mid-seventh century BC: In the war waged by the Ephesians against Magnesia on the Maeander, their horsemen were each accompanied by a war dog and a spear-bearing attendant. Dogs were released first and broke the enemy ranks, followed by an assault of spears, then a cavalry charge. An epitaph records the burial of a Magnesian horseman named Hippaemon with his dog Lethargos, his horse, and his spearman.
525 BC: At the Battle of Pelusium, Cambyses II used a psychological tactic against the Egyptians, arraying dogs and other animals in the front line to effectively take advantage of the Egyptian religious reverence for animals.
490 BC: At the Battle of Marathon, a dog followed his hoplite master into battle against the Persians and was memorialized in a mural.
480 BC: Xerxes I of Persia was accompanied by vast packs of Indian hounds when he invaded Greece. They may have served in the military and were possibly being used for sport or hunting, but their purpose is unrecorded.
281 BC: Lysimachus was slain during the Battle of Corupedium and his body was discovered preserved on the battlefield and guarded vigilantly by his faithful dog.
231 BC: Roman consul Marcus Pomponius Matho led the Roman legions through the inland of Sardinia. The inhabitants engaged in guerrilla warfare, against the invaders. The Romans used "dogs from Italy" to hunt down the natives who tried to hide in the caves.
120 BC: Bituito, king of the Arverni, attacked a small force of Romans led by the consul Fabius, using just the dogs he had in his army.
1500s: Mastiffs and other large breeds were used extensively by Spanish conquistadors against Native Americans.
1902 Dogs of war were used by the Argentine Republic in Patagonia "for the colonization of the bottom of the country, a raid was made against these poor harmless children of nature, and many tribes were wiped out of existence. The Argentines let loose the dogs of war against them; many were killed and the rest - men, women and children - were deported by sea".
1914–1918: Dogs were used by international forces to deliver vital messages. Sergeant Stubby, a Bull Terrier or Boston Terrier, has been called the most decorated war dog of World War I, and the only dog to be nominated for rank and then promoted to sergeant through combat. Recognized in connection with an exhibition at the Smithsonian Institution. Among many other exploits, he's said to have captured a German spy. He also became mascot at Georgetown University. Rags was another notable World War I dog.
1941–1945: The Soviet Union deployed dogs strapped with explosives against invading German tanks, with limited success.
1943–1945: The United States Marine Corps used dogs, donated by their American owners, in the Pacific theatre to help take islands back from Japanese occupying forces. During this period, the Doberman Pinscher became the official dog of the USMC; however, all breeds of dogs were eligible to train to be "war dogs of the Pacific". Of the 549 dogs that returned from the war, only four could not be returned to civilian life. Many of the dogs went home with their handlers from the war. Chips was the most decorated war dog during World War II.
1966–1973: About 5,000 US war dogs served in the Vietnam War (the US Army did not retain records prior to 1968); about 10,000 US servicemen served as dog handlers during the war, and the K9 units are estimated to have saved over 10,000 human lives; 232 military working dogs and 295 US servicemen working as dog handlers were killed in action during the war. An estimated 200 Vietnam War dogs survived the war to be assigned to other US bases outside the US. The remaining canines were euthanized or left behind.
2011: United States Navy SEALs used a Belgian Malinois military working dog named Cairo in Operation Neptune Spear, in which Osama bin Laden was killed.
2019: United States 1st SFOD-D operators used a male Belgian Malinois named Conan during the Barisha raid.
2020: According to Democratic senator Richard Blumenthal, US military working dogs should be US breed instead of European. American breeders are said to become a necessity in the near term, Blumenthal said, solely due to an increase in demand for the dogs.
Roles
Dogs have been used for many different purposes. Different breeds were used for different tasks, but always met the demands of the handlers. Many roles for dogs in war are obsolete and no longer practiced, but the concept of the war dog still remains alive and well in modern warfare.
Fighting
In ancient times, dogs, often large mastiff-type breeds, would be strapped with armour or spiked collars and sent into battle to attack the enemy. This strategy was used by various civilizations, such as the Romans and the Greeks. While not as common as in previous centuries, modern militaries continue to employ dogs in an attack role. SOCOM forces of the US military still use dogs in raids for apprehending fleeing enemies or prisoners, or for searching areas too difficult or dangerous for human soldiers (such as crawl spaces).
Another program attempted during World War II was suggested by a Swiss citizen living in Santa Fe, New Mexico. William A. Prestre proposed using large dogs to kill Japanese soldiers. He persuaded the military to lease an entire island in the Mississippi to house the training facilities. There, the army hoped to train as many as two million dogs. The idea was to begin island invasions with landing craft releasing thousands of dogs against the Japanese defenders, then followed up by troops as the Japanese defenders scattered in confusion. One of the biggest problems encountered was getting Japanese soldiers with whom to train the dogs, because few Japanese soldiers were being captured. Eventually, Japanese-American soldiers volunteered for the training. Another large problem was with the dogs; either they were too docile, did not properly respond to their beach-crossing training, or were terrified by shellfire. After millions of dollars were spent with inconclusive results, the program was abandoned.
The Soviet Union used dogs for antitank purposes beginning in the 1930s. Earlier antitank dogs were fitted with tilt-rod mines and trained to run beneath enemy tanks, which would detonate the mines automatically. However, the dogs were trained with stationary Russian tanks and very seldom ran under the moving tanks; instead, they were shot as they ran beside the moving tanks. When both Russian and German tanks were present, the dogs would preferentially run towards the familiar Russian tanks.
Logistics and communication
About the time World War I broke out, many European communities used dogs to pull small carts for milk deliveries and similar purposes.
Several European armies adapted the process for military use.
In August 1914, the Belgian Army used dogs to pull their Maxim guns on wheeled carriages and supplies or reportedly even wounded in their carts. Two dogs of the sturdy and docile Martin Belge breed were used to pull each machine gun or ammunition cart. Already in common civilian use and cheap to buy and feed, the dogs proved hardier and more suitable for military use under fire than packhorses. The dogs were officially withdrawn from military use in December 1916, although several months were needed before horse-drawn carts and motor vehicles had fully replaced them.
The French had 250 dogs at the start of World War I. The Dutch army copied the idea and had hundreds of dogs trained and ready by the end of World War I (the Netherlands remained neutral). The Soviet Red Army also used dogs to drag wounded men to aid stations during World War II. The dogs were well-suited to transporting loads over snow and through craters.
Dogs were often used to carry messages in battle. They were turned loose to move silently to a second handler. This required a dog that was very loyal to two masters, otherwise the dog would not deliver the message on time or at all. Some messenger dogs also performed other communication jobs, such as pulling telephone lines or cables from one location to another.
A Yorkshire terrier named Smoky was used to run a telegraph wire through a , pipe to ensure communication without moving troops into the line of fire.
Mascots
Dogs were often used as unit mascots for military units. The dog in question might be an officer's dog, an animal that the unit chose to adopt, or one of their canines employed in another role as a working dog. Some naval dogs such as Sinbad and Judy were themselves enlisted service members. Some units also chose to employ a particular breed of dog as their standard mascot, with new dogs replacing the old when it died or was retired. The presence of a mascot was designed to lift morale, and many were used to this effect in the trenches of World War I. An example of this would be Sergeant Stubby for the US Army.
Medical research
In World War II, dogs took on a new role in medical experimentation, as the primary animals chosen for medical research. The animal experimentation allowed doctors to test new medicines without risking human lives, though these practices came under more scrutiny after the war. The United States' government responded by proclaiming these dogs as heroes.
The Cold War sparked a heated debate over the ethics of animal experimentation in the U.S., particularly aimed at how canines were treated in World War II. In 1966, major reforms came to this field with the adoption of the Laboratory Animal Welfare Act.
Detection and tracking
Many dogs were used to locate mines. They did not prove to be very effective under combat conditions. Marine mine detecting dogs were trained using bare electric wires beneath the ground surface. The wires shocked the dogs, teaching them that danger lurked under the soil. Once the dog's focus was properly directed, dummy mines were planted and the dogs were trained to signal their presence. While the dogs effectively found the mines, the task proved so stressful for the dogs they were only able to work between 20 and 30 minutes at a time. The mine-detecting war dogs anticipated random shocks from the heretofore friendly earth, making them extremely nervous. The useful service life of the dogs was not long. Experiments with laboratory rats show that this trend can be very extreme; in some tests, rats even huddled in the corner to the point of starvation to avoid electric shock.
Dogs have historically also been used in many cases to track fugitives and enemy troops, overlapping partly into the duties of a scout dog, but use their olfactory skill in tracking a scent, rather than warning a handler at the initial presentation of a scent.
Scouts
All scout dogs must be taught the difference between human and animal scent. Some dogs are trained to silently locate booby traps and concealed enemies such as snipers. The dog's keen senses of smell and hearing would make them far more effective at detecting these dangers than humans. The best scout dogs are described as having a disposition intermediate to docile tracking dogs and aggressive attack dogs.
Scouting dogs are able to identify the opposing threat within 1,000 yards of area. This method of scouting is more efficient compared to human senses.
Scout dogs were used in World War II, Korea, and Vietnam by the United States to detect ambushes, weapon caches, or enemy fighters hiding under water, with only reed breathing straws showing above the waterline. The US operated a number of scout-dog platoons (assigned on a handler-and-dog team basis to individual patrols) and had a dedicated dog-training school in Fort Benning, Georgia.
Sentries
One of the earliest military-related uses, sentry dogs were used to defend camps or other priority areas at night and sometimes during the day. They would bark or growl to alert guards of a stranger's presence. During the Cold War, the American military used sentry dog teams outside of nuclear weapons storage areas. A test program was conducted in Vietnam to test sentry dogs, launched two days after a successful Vietcong attack on Da Nang Air Base (July 1, 1965). Forty dog teams were deployed to Vietnam for a four-month test period, with teams placed on the perimeter in front of machine gun towers/bunkers. The detection of intruders resulted in a rapid deployment of reinforcements. The test was successful, so the handlers returned to the US while the dogs were reassigned to new handlers. The Air Force immediately started to ship dog teams to all the bases in Vietnam and Thailand.
The buildup of American forces in Vietnam created large dog sections at USAF Southeast Asia (SEA) bases; 467 dogs were eventually assigned to Bien Hoa, Binh Thuy, Cam Ranh Bay, Da Nang, Nha Trang, Tuy Hoa, Phù Cát, Phan Rang, Tan Son Nhut, and Pleiku Air Bases. Within a year of deployment, attacks on several bases had been stopped when the enemy forces were detected by dog teams. Captured Vietcong told of the fear and respect that they had for the dogs. The Vietcong even placed a bounty on lives of handlers and dogs. The success of sentry dogs was determined by the lack of successful penetrations of bases in Vietnam and Thailand. The United States War Dogs Association estimated that war dogs saved over 10,000 U.S. lives in Vietnam. Sentry Dogs were also used by the Army, Navy, and Marines to protect the perimeter of a large bases.
Modern uses
Contemporary dogs in military roles are also often referred to as police dogs, or in the United States and United Kingdom as a military working dog (MWD), or K-9. Their roles are nearly as varied as those of their ancient relatives, though they tend to be more rarely used in front-line formations. As of 2011, 600 U.S. MWDs were actively participating in the conflicts in Iraq and Afghanistan.
Traditionally, the most common breed for these police-type operations has been the German Shepherd; in recent years, a shift has been made to smaller dogs with keener senses of smell for detection work, and more resilient breeds such as the Belgian Malinois and Dutch Shepherd for patrolling and law enforcement. All MWDs in use today are paired with a single individual after their training. This person is called a handler. While a handler usually does not stay with one dog for the length of either's career, usually a handler stays partnered with a dog for at least a year, and sometimes much longer.
The latest canine tactical vests are outfitted with cameras and durable microphones that allow dogs to relay audio and visual information to their handlers.
In the 1970s, the US Air Force used over 1,600 dogs worldwide. Today, personnel cutbacks have reduced USAF dog teams to around 530, stationed throughout the world. Many dogs that operate in these roles are trained at Lackland Air Force Base, the only United States facility that currently trains dogs for military use.
Change has also come in legislation for the benefit of the canines. Prior to 2000, older war dogs were required to be euthanized. The new law permits adoption of retired military dogs. One notable case of which was Lex, a working dog whose handler was killed in Iraq.
Numerous memorials are dedicated to war dogs, including at March Field Air Museum in Riverside, California; the Infantry School at Fort Benning, Georgia; at the Naval Facility, Guam, with replicas at the University of Tennessee College of Veterinary Medicine in Knoxville; the Alfred M. Gray Marine Corps Research Center in Quantico, Virginia; and the Alabama War Dogs Memorial at the USS Alabama Battleship Memorial Park in Mobile, Alabama.
Law enforcement
As a partner in everyday military police work, dogs have proven versatile and loyal officers. They can chase suspects, track them if they are hidden, and guard them when they are caught. They are trained to respond viciously if their handler is attacked, and otherwise not to react at all unless they are commanded to do so by their handler. Many police dogs are also trained in detection, as well.
Drug and explosives detection
Both MWDs and their civilian counterparts provide service in drug detection, sniffing out a broad range of psychoactive substances despite efforts at concealment. Provided they have been trained to detect it, MWDs can smell small traces of nearly any substance, even if it is in a sealed container. Dogs trained in drug detection are normally used at ports of embarkation such as airports, checkpoints, and other places where security and a need for anti-contraband measures exist.
MWDs can also be trained to detect explosives. As with narcotics, trained MWDs can detect minuscule amounts of a wide range of explosives, making them useful for searching entry points, patrolling within secure installations, and at checkpoints. These dogs are capable of achieving over a 98% success rate in bomb detection.
Intimidation
The use of MWDs on prisoners by the United States during recent wars in Afghanistan and Iraq has been controversial. Dog ownership in the Middle East is relatively uncommon, as many Muslims consider dogs unclean.
Iraq War: The United States has used dogs to intimidate prisoners in Iraqi prisons.
In court testimony following the revelations of Abu Ghraib prisoner abuse, it was stated that Colonel Thomas M. Pappas approved the use of dogs for interrogations. Private Ivan L. Frederick testified that interrogators were authorized to use dogs and that a civilian contract interrogator left him lists of the cells he wanted dog handlers to visit. "They were allowed to use them to ... intimidate inmates", Frederick stated. Two soldiers, Sergeant Santos A. Cardona and Sergeant Michael J. Smith, were then charged with maltreatment of detainees, for allegedly encouraging and permitting unmuzzled working dogs to threaten and attack them. Prosecutors have focused on an incident caught in published photographs, when the two men allegedly cornered a naked detainee and allowed the dogs to bite him on each thigh as he cowered in fear.
Guantanamo Bay: The use of dogs to intimidate prisoners in Iraq is believed to have been learned from practices at Guantanamo Bay Naval Base.
The use of dogs on prisoners by regular U.S. forces in Guantanamo Bay Naval Base was prohibited by Donald Rumsfeld in April 2003. A few months later, revelations of abuses at Abu Ghraib prison were aired, including use of dogs to terrify naked prisoners; Rumsfeld then issued a further order prohibiting their use by the regular U.S. forces in Iraq.
Retirement
Traditionally, as in World War II, US MWDs were returned home after the war, to their former owners or new adoptive ones. The Vietnam War was different in that US war dogs were designated as expendable equipment and were either euthanized or turned over to an allied army prior to the US departure from South Vietnam. Due to lobbying efforts by veteran dog handlers from the Vietnam War, Congress approved a bill allowing veteran US MWDs to be adopted after their military service. In 2000, President Bill Clinton signed a law that allowed these dogs to be adopted, making the Vietnam War the only American war in which US war dogs never came home.
Other roles
Military working dogs continue to serve as sentries, trackers, search and rescue, scouts, and mascots. Retired MWDs are often adopted as pets or therapy dogs.
Gallery
In popular culture
I'd Like to Give my Dog to Uncle Sam (1944 Song), about a blind man who wishes to have his dog enlisted in the military during World War II. The dog is a service dog; its owner refers to himself as a "blind boy"
Max (2015 film), tells the fictional story of an American military dog rehabilitating into public life after his owner dies in combat.
Megan Leavey, (2017 film) tells the true story of US Marine corporal Megan Leavey and her military working dog Rex.
War Dog: A Soldier's Best Friend (2017), HBO feature documentary about soldier-canine relationships at war.
Sgt. Stubby: An American Hero (2018 film), tells the fictional story of a stray dog who befriends an Army battalion during World War I.
Dog (2022 film), tells the fictional story of an American Army Ranger who must escort his deceased partner's military dog to his funeral.
Books about Antis, a puppy rescued in WWII from no man's land in France by Czech fighter pilot Robert Bozdech:
See also
, London
, UK honour awarded to animals "for gallantry"
List of individual dogs
, Guam
Riot dog, a term used by media denoting dogs that accompany street protesters
Oketz – Canine special forces (sayeret) unit of the Israel Defense Forces.
References
Further reading
External links
Webcast Presentation by Marine Corps Sergeant Mike Dowling about Sergeant Rex his memoir about his deployment to Iraq in 2004 along with military working dog Rex
Dogs of the French Special Forces, published by Le Monde
War Dogs: The Use of Canines in Warfare |
4368822 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1700%E2%80%931750%20in%20Western%20fashion | 1700–1750 in Western fashion | Fashion in the period 1700–1750 in European and European-influenced countries is characterized by a widening silhouette for both men and women following the tall, narrow look of the 1680s and 90s. This era is defined as late Baroque/Rococo style. The new fashion trends introduced during this era had a greater impact on society, affecting not only royalty and aristocrats, but also middle and even lower classes. Clothing during this time can be characterized by soft pastels, light, airy, and asymmetrical designs, and playful styles. Wigs remained essential for men and women of substance, and were often white; natural hair was powdered to achieve the fashionable look. The costume of the eighteenth century, if lacking in the refinement and grace of earlier times, was distinctly quaint and picturesque.
Distinction was made in this period between full dress worn at court and for formal occasions, and undress or everyday, daytime clothes. As the decades progressed, fewer and fewer occasions called for full dress, which had all but disappeared by the end of the century.
Fashion designers became more recognizable during this period, as men and women were eager to be dressed in the latest trends and styles. Fashion magazines emerged during this era, originally aimed at educated readers, but quickly capturing the attention of lower classes with their colorful illustrations and up-to-date fashion news.
Women's fashion
Gowns and dresses
In the early decades of the new century, formal dress consisted of the stiff-bodiced mantua. A closed (or "round") petticoat, sometimes worn with an apron, replaced the open draped mantua skirt of the previous period. This formal style then gave way to more relaxed fashions.
The robe à la française or sack-back gown had a tight bodice with a low-cut square neckline, a decorated [stomacher], wide panniers, and was lavishly trimmed with all manner of lace, ribbon, and flowers. An early form of the robe à la française was worn as a less formal undress fashion. This version of the gown was unfitted both front and back and called a sacque, and was typically made in heavier fabrics such as satin or velvet. Later, for formal wear, the front was fitted to the body by means of a tightly-laced underbodice, while the back fell in loose box pleats called "Watteau pleats" from their appearance in the paintings of Antoine Watteau.These gowns were often made from lighter fabrics such as Indian cotton, silks, and damasks in pastel shades that gave off a warm, graceful and childlike appearance.
The less formal robe à l'anglaise, Close-bodied gown or "nightgown" could also have a pleated back, but these pleats would be sewn down to fit the back of the bodice to the body and waist. Other versions of the gown simply had a seam along the back of the bodice. This gown featured a snug bodice with a full skirt worn without panniers, usually cut a bit longer in the back to form a small train. The skirt of a robe à l'anglaise could be closed in front (a "round gown") or open to reveal a matching or contrasting petticoat.
Open-fronted bodices on either gown could be filled in with a decorative stomacher, and toward the end of the period a lace or linen kerchief called a fichu could be worn to fill in the low neckline.
Sleeves were bell- or trumpet-shaped, and caught up at the elbow to show the frilled or lace-trimmed sleeves of the shift (chemise) beneath. Sleeves became narrower as the period progressed, with a frill at the elbow, and elaborate separate ruffles called engageantes were tacked to the shift sleeves, in a fashion that would persist into the 1770s.
Necklines on dresses became deeper as time went on allowing for greater display of ornamentation on the neck area. A thick band of lace was often sewn onto the neckline of a gown with ribbons, flowers, and/or jewels adorning the lace. Jewelry such as strings of pearls, ribbons, or lace frills were tied high on the neck. Finally, one other large element of 18th century women's dress wear became the addition of the frilled neckband, a separate piece from the rest of the dress. This ornament was popularized sometime around 1730 .
Underwear
The stays of the early 18th century were long-waisting and cut with a narrow back, wide front, and shoulder straps; the most fashionable stays pulled the shoulders back until the shoulder blades almost touched. The resulting silhouette, with shoulders thrown back, very erect posture and a high, full bosom, is characteristic of this period and no other.
Skirts were worn over small, domed hoops, called panniers, in the 1730s and early 1740s. Depending on the occasion, these panniers varied in size. Smaller hoops were worn in everyday settings and larger hoops for more formal occasions, which later widened to as much as three feet to either side at the French court of Marie Antoinette.
The shift (chemise) or smock had full sleeves early in the period and tight, elbow-length sleeves in the 1740s as the sleeves of the gown narrowed.
Some women wore drawers (underpants) in England. For instance, as early as 1676 inventory of Hillard Veren had "3 pair of women drawers". Although they are not common in English or New England inventories during the 17th and 18th century.
Woolen waistcoats were worn over the corset and under the gown for warmth, as were petticoats quilted with wool batting.
Free-hanging pockets were tied around the waist and were accessed through pocket slits in the gown or petticoat.
Loose gowns, sometimes with a wrapped or surplice front closure, were worn over the shift (chemise), petticoat and stays (corset) for at-home wear, and it was fashionable to have one's portrait painted wearing these fashions.
Outerwear
Riding habits consisted of a fitted, thigh- or knee-length coat similar to those worn by men, usually with a matching petticoat. Ladies wore masculine-inspired shirts and tricorne hats for riding and hunting.
When outdoors, ladies also wore elbow-length capes, often lined with fur for warmth.
Fabrics and colors
In the early years of this period, pastel silk hoods and light colors became fashionable at the French court for mature women, under the influence of Madame de Maintenon. Younger women also wore light or bright colors, but the preference was for solid-colored or floral silks with ornamentation.
Gradually, trim in the form of applied lace and fabric robings (strips of ruched, gathered or pleated fabric) replaced the plain style. Ribbon bows, lacing, and rosettes became popular, as did boldly patterned fabrics. Silk gowns and stomachers were often intricately embroidered in floral and life motifs, demonstrating great attention to detail and care for an accurate portrayal of nature. A mid-century vogue for striped fabrics had the stripes running different directions on the trim and the body of the gown.
Chintz, Indian cotton fabric with block-printed imaging on a white base, was wildly fashionable. Bans against their importation to protect the British silk, linen and woolen industries did nothing to reduce their desirability. Brocaded silks and woolens had similar colorful floral patterns on light-colored grounds. Blends of wool and silk or wool and linen (linsey-woolsey) were popular. Until the 1730s, European textiles were of inferior quality that could not match the complex fashionable designs of Indian calicoes. Europe was able to produce high quality petit teints (colors that faded with light and washing), but they were unable to produce grand teints (permanent colors resistant to light and wear).
Footwear and accessories
The shoe of the previous period with its curved heel, squarish toe, and tie over the instep gave way in the second decade of the 18th century to a shoe with a high, curved heel. Backless mules were worn indoors and out (but not on the street). Toes were now pointed. This style of shoe would remain popular well into the next period. Shoes at the time had many variations of decoration, some even included metal wrapped threads.
Women, particularly in France, began wearing a boutonnière, or a small bouquet of fresh flowers in a "bosom bottle." About four inches in length, these glass or tin bottles were small enough to discreetly tuck into the bosom or hair, but also just large enough to contain water to keep the flowers from wilting.
Makeup
An 18th-century toilette began with a heavy white foundation made from white lead, egg white, and a variety of other substances. This was overlaid with white powder (typically potato or rice powder), rouge, and deep red or cherry lip color.
Tiny pieces of fabric, known as patches, in the shapes of dots, hearts, stars, etc. were applied to the face with adhesive. The fashion is thought to have originated as a way of disguising pox scars and other blemishes, but gradually developed coded meanings. A patch near the mouth signified flirtatiousness; one on the right cheek denoted marriage; one on the left cheek announced engagement; one at the corner of the eye signified a mistress.
Style gallery
1700–1730s
Adélaïde, Duchesse de Bourgogne wears a riding habit featuring a long coat similar to men's coats, with a matching petticoat.
Empress of Russia Catherine I, in full Court dress. She is wearing a voluminous white gown, with lace trimming the low, square neckline and sleeves, which are gathered at the elbow. Her red velvet mantel is lined with ermine. The portrait was painted in 1717.
Ulrika Eleonora, Queen Regnant of Sweden 1718–1720 wears a typical royal robe and gown.
Elisabeth Charlotte, Duchesse d'Orleans wears the black cap and veil of a widow with a gold-colored gown patterned with acorns and flowers. Her open sleeves are caught with jeweled clasps or pins over a shift with triple lace frills at the elbow. A royal French mantle of blue embroidered with gold fleur-de-lis and lined in ermine is draped around her shoulders, .
Attendants at a wedding wear solid-colored mantuas with closed petticoats and open-fronted bodices. Elbow-length sleeves are cuffed. The ruffles of the shift are visible at neck and elbow, England, 1729.
Queen Sophie Dorothea of Prussia wears a rose-colored velvet gown with ermine trim (and possibly lining).
Prussian court fashion: Queen Elizabeth Christine, wife of Frederick the Great, wears a gown with a slightly squared neckline and narrow lace frills at bodice and sleeve. Note the trim on the pocket slits in the skirt of her open gown. She wears a diamond choker around her neck.
Stomacher, silk satin with metallic-thread lace, appliqués, passementerie and tassels. France, 1700-1750. Los Angeles County Museum of Art M.67.8.99.
1740s
Comtesse de Tessin (Ulla Tessin), 1741, wears a black hood over a lace cap, and a red, fur-lined shoulder cape called a mantle or tippet. She carries a matching fur muff. A large ribbon bow trims her bodice at the neckline.
Mary Edwards, 1742, wears a red gown with a lace-trimmed kerchief or fichu tucked under the ribbon bow on her bodice. Her sleeves are bell-shaped, and she wears a lace hood or cap.
Hogarth's Marriage à la Mode series depicts a fashionable young wife wearing a sack-back jacket and stomacher with a contrasting petticoat. A linen hood or cap is tied under her chin, 1743–45.
Luisa Ulrika of Prussia, Queen of Sweden wears a gown with "split sleeves" (elbow frills and a lower sleeve tight to the wrist). Her overskirt is looped up over her petticoat and she wears a black cap set with diamond studs. Her choker necklace is set with a diamond-studded bow, 1744.
Madame de Sorquainville's open gown is laced with a wide blue ribbon over a stomacher and is worn with a matching petticoat. The front edges of the gown are trimmed with robings, rows of fabric ruched or gathered on both edges. Sleeves are narrower, and are worn with elaborate lace engageantes. She wears a small cap and a black ribbon or frill around her neck.
Surviving Robe à la française in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York features a matching petticoat and is shown with an elaborate stomacher. English, fabric from Holland or Germany, 1740s.
English silk shoes with shoe buckles, 1740s
Men's fashion
Suits
The male suit, also known as the habit à la française, made of three parts: the justaucorps, a jacket, and breeches. The waistcoat was the most decorative piece, usually lavishly embroidered or displaying patterned fabrics. In the early 18th century the Breeches usually stopped at the knee, with white stockings worn underneath and heeled shoes, which usually had large square buckles. Coats were worn closer to the body and were not as skirt-like as during the Baroque era. They were also worn more open to showcase the elaborate waistcoats... The skirts of the coat remained wide and were stiffened by buckram, horsehair, and other means to fan out over the hips. The front edges of the coat, which previously had been cut straight, began to curve slightly towards the back to reveal more of the waistcoat Fabrics for men were primarily silks, velvets, and brocades, with woolens used for the middle class and for sporting costumes.
Coat
When the coat began to be worn in the 1600s, it was cut with little shaping to the figure and hung loosely from the shoulders to just below the knee. There were long vents from waist to hem at the sides and center-back, generally edged with buttons and buttonholes. During the 1670s and 1680s, the coat became closer-fitting with a slight shaping at the waist to produce a longer, narrower, more severe line. Sleeves were worn longer and tighter but still with cuffs. The slim, straight line was emphasized by low-set vertical pockets, but in the late 1680s, these were largely replaced by horizontal pockets which were later given flaps.
Breeches
Knee-breeches had a center-front opening, fastened at the waist, and were worn without other support. The legs were gathered into a band above or below the knee, closing with ties, buttons or a buckle or strap. Stockings were drawn up over the knees and covered the lower edge of the breeches.
Footwear
In the early 18th century, men's shoes continued to have a squared toe, but the heels were not as high. From 1720-1730, the heels became even smaller, and the shoes became more comfortable, no longer containing a block toe. The shoes from the first half of the century often contained an oblong buckle usually embedded with stones.
Accessories
Upper-class men often wore a cane as part of their outfits, suspending it by a loop from one of their waistcoat buttons to allow their hands to properly hold snuff-boxes or handkerchiefs. The cane was thus less functional and rather for the sake of fashion.
Hairstyles and headgear
Wigs in a variety of styles were worn for different occasions and by different age groups.
The large high parted wig of the 1690s remained popular from 1700 until around 1720. During this time various colors were worn, but white was becoming more popular and the curls were getting tighter. The cadogan style of men's hair developed and became popular during this period, with horizontal rolls of hair over the ears. Later, wigs or the natural hair were worn long, brushed back from the forehead and clubbed or tied back at the nape of the neck with a black ribbon. From about 1720, a bag wig gathered the back hair in a black silk bag. Black ribbons attached to the bag were brought to the front and tied in a bow in a style called a "solitaire".
Wide-brimmed hats with brims turned up on three sides into tricornes were worn throughout the era. They were an essential element to the "domino", a stylish costume for masquerade balls, which became an increasingly popular mode of entertainment. The "domino" style consisted of a mask, a long cape, and a tricorne hat, all usually constructed of dark colors.
Style gallery
1700s–1720s
Sir Isaac Newton in old age, 1709–1712. He wears a banyan with a patterned lining. Note the T-shaped cut, without a shoulder seam.
Louis XIV wears a large periwig, justacorps, and stockings over his breeches.
A German prince shows his stiff turned-back cuffs, embroidered in gold, as is the centre of his coat, stockings over his breeches.
Back view of a coat of 1721 shows the center back vent and the pleated gores set into the side seams. The gentleman wears square-toed shoes and carries a tricorne tucked under his arm.
1730s–1740s
Joseph Leeson of Ireland, later 1st Earl of Milltown, wears a narrow-sleeved blue coat lined in red with a red waistcoat and breeches. He wears a tricorne and tall black riding boots, 1730s.
Man playing cards wears a tricorne. His long brown wig (or possibly hair) is tied back with a black ribbon. His plain coat has deep cuffs.
Dutch gentleman of 1736 wears a collarless grey coat with deep cuffs and a long waistcoat, both lined in sky blue, with matching breeches. His black shoes have square buckles.
English gentleman of 1738 wears a wide-hipped formal coat with applied lace over a plainer contrasting hip-length waistcoat and red breeches. His coat is lined in red. Shoes with elaborate buckles and white stockings complete the ensemble.
Waistcoat (Garthwaite/Lekeux) (1747) of silk brocade woven to shape, design by Anna Maria Garthwaite, collection of the Costume Institute, Metropolitan Museum of Art.
American William Bowdoin, 1748, wears a gold-embroidered waistcoat under a dark coat lined in white.
Portrait of Georg Friedrich Händel wearing a mulberry-colored coat trimmed with bands of embroidery and fastened with buttons and loops over a patterned waistcoat (barely visible under the coat) and a white shirt with ruffles, 1749.
Man's silk coat with wide cuffs, 1745–1750, in a lace-like floral pattern of white on brown, France. Los Angeles County Museum of Art, M.2007.211.795.
Children's fashion
Toddler boys and girls wore low-necked gowns. Leading strings—narrow straps of fabric attached to the gown at the shoulder—functioned as a sort of leash to keep the child from straying too far or falling as they learned to walk.
Children older than toddlers continued to wear clothing which was in many respects simply a smaller version of adult clothing. Although it is often said that children wore miniature versions of adult clothing, this is something of a myth. Girls wore back-fastening gowns, trimmed much more simply than women's. The skirt of a girl's gown was not split down the front, as women's typically were. Girls did not wear jackets or bedgowns. Boys wore shirts, breeches, waistcoats and coats a man would, but often wore their necks open, and the coat was fitted and trimmed differently from a man's, and boys often went bareheaded. During some decades of the 18th Century, boys' shirts and coats had different collars and cuffs than a man's. Even if the size is not apparent, it is usually possible to tell a child's garment from an adult's.
1. A simple trimmed lace and cloth dress English/French cut. (1710)
2. Silk dress supported by panniers. Note that there is no central parting to the dress. The low cut neckline is also less ornamented than a contemporary women's would be. (1718)
3. A group scene of a girl and two boys. Boys were breeched at around 5-10. The girl wears a low neckline that was customary for young girls and boys. (1724)
4. Portrait of the young archduchess and future Empress Maria Theresa. The neckline is still lower than a woman's but is more ornamented than that of a child. (1727)
5. The girl sitting holding a fan is displaying her leading strings that her mother would have used to make sure she didn't fall when learning to walk. (1730)
6. A boy of around 10 who has been breeched and wears a Frock coat of a child's pattern. The cuffs and frills would have been less obvious on a grown man. (1738)
7. A middle-class girl c. 1740. The simpler fabric and colours used in her dress show her not to be of noble birth but not in poverty either. Again the low neckline is typical of girls of that age. (1740)
8. A group portrait of children in fine clothes of the period. The boy has been newly breeched while the girls have the characteristic low neckline of children. (1745)
Satirising fashion
Joseph Addison in 1711 devoted an issue of The Spectator to satirising fashion, by noting how the country fashions lagged behind those in London. "As I proceeded in my journey I observed the petticoat grew scantier and scantier, and about threescore miles from London was so very unfashionable, that a woman might walk in it without any manner of inconvenience" and so on.
Notes
References
Arnold, Janet: Patterns of Fashion 2: Englishwomen's Dresses and Their Construction c. 1860–1940, Wace 1966, Macmillan 1972. Revised metric edition, Drama Books 1977.
Ashelford, Jane: The Art of Dress: Clothing and Society 1500–1914, Abrams, 1996.
Baumgarten, Linda: What Clothes Reveal: The Language of Clothing in Colonial and Federal America, Yale University Press, 2002.
Black, J. Anderson and Madge Garland: A History of Fashion, Morrow, 1975.
Cunnington, C. Willett and Phillis Emily Cunnington: Handbook of English Costume in the Eighteenth Century. London: Faber, 1972.
Payne, Blanche: History of Costume from the Ancient Egyptians to the Twentieth Century, Harper & Row, 1965. No ISBN for this edition; ASIN B0006BMNFS
Ribeiro, Aileen: Dress in Eighteenth Century Europe 1715–1789, Yale University Press, 2002,
External links
18th-century fashion
History of clothing (Western fashion)
Medieval European costume
1700s fashion
1710s fashion
1720s fashion
1730s fashion
1740s fashion
Fashion
18th century in North America
Fashion1700 |
4368937 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tenchi%20Muyo%21%20Ryo-Ohki | Tenchi Muyo! Ryo-Ohki | , known as simply Tenchi Muyo! in North America, is a collection of Japanese OVAs created by Masaki Kajishima and animated by AIC. Initially released in 1992, it marked the beginning of the Tenchi Muyo! franchise, composed of several manga, OVAs, TV series, and other related media. The first two OVA series were later licensed and distributed in North America by Pioneer Entertainment, with Funimation taking over the rights for the third series, and later taking over the rights for the first two OVAs. In 2020, Crunchyroll acquired worldwide streaming rights (outside Asia) for the fourth and fifth seasons of the OVA.
The distribution of the first OVA series was originally started in September 1992 and released six episodes that lasted until 1993. The first series was so successful that a seventh special episode was released in September 1993, followed by a second OVA series with six additional episodes that begun distribution in September 1994 and lasted for one year until September 1995. However, the second OVA series ended on a cliffhanger and it was not until nearly eight years later in 2003 that a third OVA series was distributed in Japan. The third OVA series continued the Tenchi Muyo OVA storyline with six episodes, followed by a special episode released in September 2005 that concluded the third OVA storyline.
The Ultimate Collection box set release of the first two OVAs from Geneon was one of the few releases from the company to feature THX-certified audio and video.
On October 16, 2015, a fourth OVA series was announced to be in production, the first episode of which was released on November 30, 2016. Subsequent episodes were released with an interval of three months each, and the final part of the series arrived on September 13, 2017. On July 12, 2019, it was announced that a fifth OVA series was in development with Masaki Kajishima again serving as chief director and Hideki Shirane writing and overseeing scripts. Keitaro Motonaga is credited as director. The six-episode OVA series was released from February 28, 2020 to May 28, 2021.
Plot summary
The story follows Tenchi Masaki, a teenager whose life changes drastically as soon as he releases an ancient space pirate from 700 years ago named Ryoko Hakubi. Although she appears to openly hostile to him at first, Ryoko nonetheless agrees to accompany Tenchi. Throughout the series, Tenchi encounters various other powerful and recurrently eccentric women from outer space.
Characters
Protagonists
Tenchi Masaki
A teenager who accidentally releases the space pirate Ryoko. His actions unintentionally cause the destruction of his school and the revelation that he is part-Juraian and a member of their royal family. In the 1st OVA it is revealed that he can create Light Hawk Wings (the power of the goddesses and Jurai ships) without the aid of a royal tree, and can also perform energy-matter conversion.
Ryoko Hakubi
A creation of the scientist Washu Hakubi (of her own egg and a substance called Masu), Ryoko was a space pirate in the service of Kagato until she was sealed in a cave for 700 years; she is released by Tenchi in the first episode. She draws most of her powers from three mysterious gems and is partnered with the cabbit spaceship Ryo-Ohki.
Ryo-Ohki
The title character appears as a grey-colored cabbit (a cross between a cat and rabbit), and can transform into a spaceship.
Ayeka Masaki Jurai
A princess of the Juraian Royal Family, she is searching the galaxy for her half-brother and future betrothed Yosho with her sister Sasami when she detects Ryoko (whom Yosho had been pursuing prior to his disappearance) her tree-ship Ryu-Oh crashes on Earth, where she reluctantly joins Tenchi and Ryoko.
Sasami Masaki Jurai
Ayeka's younger sister, and also a princess of the Juraian Royal Family. She stows away on Ayeka's ship prior to the search for Yosho. She has also merged with the Goddess Tsunami, which grants the Jurai family its royal trees. Sasami frequently cooks for the household.
Mihoshi Kuramitsu
A member of the powerful Kuramitsu family of the Seniwa empire and a Detective of the Galaxy Police, Mihoshi is prone to clumsiness and can act ditzy, despite being highly intelligent. Mihoshi is distantly related to Washu, and through that lineage has the power of improbably good luck. She crashes on Earth while looking for Kagato.
Washu Hakubi
A former Director of the Galaxy Academy and ranked as the top scientist in the universe, Washu's more recent pursuits involve investigating the three gems (the ones Ryoko were given) and creating lifeforms capable of harnessing their power (of which the Ryoko/Ryo-Ohki combination is one). She was trapped by Kagato and later released by Mihoshi. It is revealed in OVA 3 that Washu is a human manifestation of a sister-goddess to Tsunami and Tokimi.
Noike Kamiki Jurai
Noike Kamiki Jurai was raised in an orphanage, and later joined the Galaxy Police. She was Mihoshi's partner and was adopted by Seto Kamiki Jurai, Ayeka and Sasami's grandmother, and is introduced as Tenchi's fiancée in OVA 3. The engagement, however, is a political pretense to allow her to monitor the powerful members of the household.
Villains and antagonists
Kagato
A former student of Washu (revealed in spin-off media as a creation of hers) In the pursuit of science he frequently pillages ruins for relics with no regard to life or property, earning him the nickname 'Ruins Buster' and status of Eternally Wanted by the Galaxy Police. Kagato is the main antagonist of the 1st OVA making an attempt to recover Ryoko (whom he previously brainwashed into serving him) and use the power of her gems to capture Tsunami.
Doctor Clay
A former colleague and academic rival of Washu from the Galaxy Academy, he is in service to Lady Tokimi in OVA 2 (in which he is the primary adversary) and is ordered by her to capture Washu and bring her to Tokimi. Clay uses the shape-shifting android Zero to replace Ryoko and capture Washu. However he is outsmarted by Washu, captured and handed over to the Galaxy Police.
Tokimi
is a mysterious hyperdimensional being (stated to be beyond all dimensional space) who is one of the "Choushin", the greatest "goddesses" in existence. Her sisters are Tsunami and Washu. Introduced in the second OVA series, where she orders Dr. Clay to bring Washu to her. Tokimi is not portrayed as an antagonist in the 3rd OVA, since she considers Tenchi as the result of their research to find a being even more powerful than herself, theorising that it might have created the Choushin themselves. While Tsunami and Washu were experimenting within the lower universes to try to discover an even higher level being, Tokimi was left in-charge of all 22-dimensional reality and controls it from the Hyper-dimension through higher-dimensional supervisors to conduct higher order chaos experiments. Though Tokimi's actions lead to trouble for Tenchi and his group, Tokimi turns out not to be a true villain as there was no malice in her actions but simply lacked the wisdom of her sisters. Tokimi now currently lives with the Tenchi family, as a smaller form, Toki-Chan.
Z
(full name Z-0001332536893) is the principal antagonist of the third OVA series of Tenchi Muyo! Ryo-Ohki. An anomalous being of great power, capable of punching holes through planets seemingly without effort. He is capable of creating Lighthawk Wings created through the experiments of Lady Tokimi. Throughout the 3rd OVA, he stalks Tenchi and his household, setting up a confrontation between Tenchi and Misao Kuramitsu and ultimately battling Tenchi to prove his superiority and disrupt the choushin plans. Z is portrayed as suffering from the loss of his family and resentful of the Goddesses and their meddling, despite serving Tokimi.
The Counter-Actor
The is an anomalous being created as the sum total sentient "counter-force" from the Choushin Goddesses' sum total experimentation on 22-dimensional reality, and somehow merging with queen Misaki of Jurai. It is capable of causing their lower-dimensional shadows physical injury (visually appearing to corrupt their body, turning them black). Z found her in the future and used her in his plans to kill Tenchi and stop Tokimi's experiments. The counter-actor is stopped and healed by a kiss from the ascended future Tenchi and is revealed to be Masaki Misaki Jurai (The 2nd Empress of Jurai and mother of Ayeka and Sasami) from some point in the future.
Background information released by the series creator indicates the Counter-Actor is from a point in the distant future (ten thousand years or more) when both her husband Azusa, and her co-wife Funaho have passed on, which caused Misaki to eventually go mad from her grief and destructive power. According to this information, during his time travel after being struck by Z's Light Hawk Wing, Tenchi was to encounter Misaki in her future time. Unfortunately, while planned, it was cut from the OVA.
Minor
For other characters within the OVA continuity that make a brief appearance in the OVA series, see also: Tenchi Muyo! GXP.
Tenchi's three classmates who make brief appearances: Kazuhiko Amagasaki appears briefly in Episode 1 of OVA 1. Kamikura and Ikeda appear in the first episode of OVA 3. Amagasaki is also a recurring character in Tenchi in Tokyo.
Amagasaki voiced by: Toshiharu Sakurai (Japanese), Mark Tracy (English)
Kamikura voiced by: Wataru Takagi (Japanese), Crispin Freeman (English)
Ikeda voiced by: Yasuhiro Fujiwara (Japanese), Kirk Thornton (English)
Galaxy Police Commander
A Wau by birth, the Galaxy Police commander answers directly to the Galaxy Police Marshal, Minami Kuramitsu. He appeared in OVA 1, episode 4, then again in the final episode in OVA 2. His desk is always covered with a lot of paperwork, mostly concerning Mihoshi.
Voiced by: Hiroshi Masuoka (Japanese), Dan Butler (English ep. 4), Harry Johnson (English ep. 13)
Nobeyama is Mihoshi's immediate superior in the Galaxy Police. He is also secretly a member of Jurai Intelligence, and relayed Mihoshi's report on the Kagato Incident, since it contained sensitive information about Jurai's royal trees.
Voiced by: Takurō Kitagawa (Japanese), Harry Johnson (English, credited as David Johnson in OVA 1)
Yukinojo is Mihoshi's spacecraft, as well as the artificial intelligence that operates it.
Voiced by: Hideyuki Umezu (Japanese), Mark Tracy (English)
Akie Masaki (Onsen Keeper)
First appearing in OVA 1 episode 4, she is Tenchi's great-aunt on his father's side (making her a descendant of Yosho through his first wife, Kasumi (a niece of his mother, the Empress Funaho, not to be mistaken with Tenchi's cousin, Kasumi (Baby Taro's mother), who was named for her)). Her name was revealed in OVA 4, where she's also revealed to be a Masaki Clan Elder, and Kei Masaki's elder sister (or, at least, an elder sister-figure to her, as Kei addresses her as 'big sister'), making her also Kasumi Masaki's aunt and baby Taro Masaki's great-aunt. In episode 24, Akie and Kei, along with Washu, serve as midwives at Kenshi Masaki's birth.
Voiced by: Hisako Kyōda (Japanese), Zita Campisi (English OVA 1), Kate T. Vogt (English OVA 2)
Tenchi's infant cousin, he appears in the first episode of OVA 2. When his mother becomes ill, his grandmother, Tenchi's aunt, Kei Masaki, Tenchi's cousin Kasumi's mother (who's not to be mistaken with her ancestor, Yosho's first wife, Kasumi), sends Taro to live with Tenchi and the girls until his mother got better. Makes an appearance in the second episode of OVA 4.
Voiced by: Miki Narahashi (Japanese), Sherry Lynn (English)
Mass or Masu
Mass, or Masu, are communal creatures allegedly discovered by Naja Akara, and what Washu used to create Ryoko and Ryo-Ohki. These creatures have anti-matter capabilities, and often pattern their thought patterns after the strongest mind they find.
D3 is a dimensional supervisor, specifically the supervisor of the 3rd dimension. He serves Lady Tokimi and the other Goddesses.
Voiced by: Ryūzaburō Ōtomo (Japanese), Jack Fletcher (English OVA 2), Michael McConnohie (English OVA 3)
Nakita is the father of Mihoshi and Misao and a military officer that briefly appears at the end of episode 16.
Voiced by: Junichi Suwabe (Japanese), Kirk Thornton (English)
Mashisu Makibi
Misao Kuramitsu's assistant onboard the Choubimaru. Later, she becomes his wife.
Voiced by: Keiko Onodera (Japanese), Lara Cody (English OVA 3), Kari Wahlgren (English GXP, credited as Renee Emerson)
Kiyone Masaki (not to be confused with Kiyone Makibi) is the mother of Tenchi and Tennyo Masaki, as well as the younger sister of Minaho Masaki. Although she was a loving, kind person and an excellent cook (she had taught Rea Masaki how to cook), she also inherited the playful spirit of her mother Airi Masaki, such as pulling pranks and doing things in an outlandish fashion; it was revealed that, at the time of her death, Kiyone was 248 and suffering from senility. Prior to her death, Kiyone co-wrote a script for an outlandish explanation of her death for Tenchi when he came of age, titled "Mom is so carefree!"
Voiced by: Yuri Amano (Japanese), Petrea Burchard (English OVA 1), Wendee Lee (English OVA 3)
These are the muscle that Mashisu Makibi had accompany her when she tried to have Ryoko Hakubi framed by destroying the Choubimaru. Baguma is the more muscular of them, and also had telepathic abilities. Sorunāru relies on spider-like battle-mechas, while Fujimasa uses mechas resembling wolves.
Baguma voiced by: Yoshinori Sonobe (Japanese), Dan Woren (English)
Fujimasa voiced by: Hidenari Ugaki (Japanese), Sean Cw Johnson (English)
Sorunāru voiced by: Katsuyuki Konishi (Japanese), Kim Strauss (English)
Mamah
Sasami's nursemaid who appears in episode 9 in OVA 2, she is searching for Sasami during Ryoko's attack on Jurai.
Broadcast history
The English-dubbed version of OVAs 1 and 2 was originally aired on San Jose PBS superstation, KTEH in the late 1990s as part of its Sunday Late-Prime (9pm-after 12) Sci-Fi programming block, and then later picked up by Cartoon Network in July 2000 for broadcast on its Toonami block (US and Europe). The Toonami version was heavily edited for content and to remove blood, profanity and nudity, as well as to shorten the length of the episodes to fit broadcast standards, and featured custom opening and closing credits. The series also ran on Cartoon Network and then later CNX in the UK.
After Cartoon Network's rights to broadcast the show expired, the now-defunct International Channel (later AZN Television) picked up the rights to air the dubbed version in 2004.
As of April 1, 2012, only one episode of OVA 3 has aired on basic cable television in the United States. However, the Funimation Channel had the third season in rotation for a time.
Tenchi Muyo! Mihoshi Special
is a special episode of the series.
The special features the anime debut of Kiyone Makibi and Sasami's alter-ego, Pretty Sammy (the latter made her debut in the Tenchi Muyo! drama CD, Tenchi Muyo! Special: Creation of the Universe Journey across Space-Time).
Synopsis
As usual, Mihoshi Kuramitsu was asleep on the deck of the house while everyone else (with the notable exception of Ryoko) was doing chores. After Ayeka questions Mihoshi's qualifications of being a Galaxy Policewoman, Mihoshi then tells the story of her and her partner Kiyone's greatest adventure: the "Ultra-Energy Matter" caper.
In the story, Mihoshi casts the Masaki household as the various characters in the story: Ryoko as the thief, Tenchi as a Galaxy Policeman, Ayeka as Tenchi's heiress fiancée, Sasami as an apprentice detective, Washu as a mad scientist (not a far stretch of the imagination), and Ryo-Ohki as... Ryo-Ohki. As the investigation progresses (not to mention romantic rivalries between "Ryoko" and "Ayeka"), the detectives stumble onto a plot to destroy the universe.
Music
Background music was composed by Seikou Nagaoka for the first two series, Akifumi Tada for the third series, and Ryo Sakai for the fourth series.
Opening 1 (episodes 1–6):
Composed by Seikou Nagaoka
Opening 2 (episodes 8–13): , "I'm a Pioneer" for the English version
Performed by Chisa Yokoyama (Japanese version) and Sharyn Scott (English version)
Opening 3 (episodes 14–18):
Composed by Akifumi Tada
Opening 4 (episodes 21):
Performed by Serena Kozuki
Opening 5 (episodes 22): "P.N.K!!"
Performed by Usagi Dash
Opening 6 (episodes 23):
Performed by Haruna Oshima
Opening 7 (episodes 24): "Brand New Door"
Performed by Ayuka Watanabe
Ending 1 (episodes 1–7):
Performed by Chisa Yokoyama (Japanese version) and Sharyn Scott (English version)
Ending 2 (episodes 8–13): , "The Lonely Moon" for the English version
Performed by Ai Orikasa (Japanese version) and Scottie Haskell (English version)
Ending 3 (episodes 14–20): "Lovely Cookin'"
Performed by Tomoko Odajima
Ending 4 (episodes 21): "Shake the Dice" (stylized as "Shake the DiCE")
Performed by Serena Kozuki
Ending 5 (episodes 22): "Jumpin' Lovin' Girl"
Performed by +Earth☆Sky (featuring Ayaka Morikawa)
Ending 6 (episodes 23):
Performed by Aika Ito
Ending 7 (episodes 24):
Performed by Piyohina
Ending 8 (episodes 25-30): "Gravitation＝Love" (stylized as "Gravitation＝LOVE")
Performed by Kaori Oda
Insert Song (episode 8):
Performed by Yuko Kobayashi (Japanese version) and Scottie Haskell (English version)
Mihoshi Special
Background music was composed by Seikou Nagaoka.
Opening:
Performed by Yuko Mizutani and Etsuko Kozakura (Japanese version), and Ellen Gerstell (English version)
Ending: , "Pretty Sammy, the Magical Girl" for the English version
Performed by Chisa Yokoyama (Japanese version) and Sherry Lynn (English version)
Notes
References
External links
1992 anime OVAs
Adventure anime and manga
Anime International Company
Fantasy anime and manga
Funimation
Geneon USA
Harem anime and manga
NBCUniversal Entertainment Japan
Shōnen manga
Tenchi Muyo!
Toonami |
4368941 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New%20Zealand%20Ice%20Hockey%20League | New Zealand Ice Hockey League | The New Zealand Ice Hockey League (NZIHL) is New Zealand's top-level ice hockey league. Established in 2005 by Guenther Birgel, the NZIHL is sanctioned by New Zealand Ice Hockey Federation (a member of the International Ice Hockey Federation). The NZIHL is an amateur league with players not paid to play. The NZIHL champion is awarded the Birgel Cup. The NZIHL is currently contested by six teams from three affiliated regions, including three teams from the North Island and three teams from the South Island. The most successful team in NZIHL history is the SkyCity Stampede, who have claimed eight NZIHL championships. The current champion, from 2023, is the SkyCity Stampede.
History
The New Zealand Ice Hockey League (NZIHL) was formed in 2005 to develop the sport of ice hockey in New Zealand by Guenther Birgel, and to give the top players in the country regular competitive hockey to improve the skill level of the game domestically and make New Zealand more competitive on the international stage. The league was setup with restrictions on import players (players born outside of New Zealand and Australia) to assist in the promotion of local players to help achieve its founding goals. Scheduling for NZIHL would fit into the Northern Hemisphere's ice hockey offseason, to enable a small amount of quality import players to help grow the sport and teach local players. The league was founded with four teams that included the Canterbury Red Devils, West Auckland Admirals, Southern Stampede and South Auckland Swarm.
The first ever game of the NZIHL in the inaugural 2005 season, was played on 3 June 2005 at Paradice Botany Downs, Auckland. The game saw hosts, West Auckland Admirals, defeat the visiting Canterbury Red Devils 5–2, with all goals coming in the third period after blank first and second periods.
The maiden season ran for four rounds and twelve games followed by a best of three finals series in Dunedin. Southern Stampede finished top of the regular season standings, claiming the league premiership. The Stampede were joined by the Admirals in the finals series. Southern Stampede were crowned NZIHL champions and lifted the maiden NZIHL Trophy with a 2–0 clean sweep of the finals series. Simon Glass, from the Stampede, finished as the league's first top points scorer with 14 points and took out the league MVP award. Steven Reid, also of the Stampede, was named Finals MVP.
Prior to 2007 season, the South Auckland Swarm changed its name to the Botany Swarm in order to differentiate themselves with a more unique name from the West Auckland Admirals. Previously there had been confusion around the similar names. Botany was chosen as the Swarm's home rink is located in the Auckland suburb of Botany Downs.
In 2008, the league expanded for the first time and added a fifth team. The Dunedin Thunder joined the league as a second team from Otago, creating the first South Island derby in the league along with the Southern Stampede. The Stampede relocated to Queenstown leaving the Thunder to build its supporter base in Dunedin.
For the 2010 season, the league announced a change to the NZIHL championship trophy. The NZIHL trophy was retired and the league introduced the Birgel Cup to be handed to the league champion who wins the NZIHL Finals.
Teams
Foundation clubs
The NZIHL had four foundation clubs, Canterbury Red Devils, West Auckland Admirals, Southern Stampede and South Auckland Swarm. These four teams covered three of four affiliated regions that make up the New Zealand Ice Hockey Federation, this being Auckland, Canterbury and Southern.
Expansion
In 2008, the first expansion of the NZIHL took place. Dunedin Thunder was founded and admitted into the league. With the Thunder entering the league and basing itself in Dunedin, the Southern Stampede, who has been based in Dunedin, moved to Queenstown. In 2021, the NZIHL expanded for a second time by admitted a third Auckland based team into the league. Auckland Mako joined the league after being established in the same year as a youth development team following IIHF competition cancellations in response to the COVID-19 pandemic. Mako split home games between Paradice Avondale and Paradice Botany.
Future expansion
Future expansion of the NZIHL is limited due to small number of ice rink facilities across the country. There is ongoing discussions regarding construction of new ice facilities in different parts of New Zealand. If any new facility is built, expansion of the NZIHL is likely. Despite having a regional association with the Federation, Wellington, the capital of New Zealand, does not have any ice sports facilities. This has meant the third largest city in the country is not represented in the NZIHL. In 2011, it was reported that the local Wellington City Council was considering options for building a permanent ice rink facility, while they agreed to a privately paid for temporary rink to be constructed on Wellington's waterfront at Queens Wharf to attract Rugby World Cup fans and holidaying school children for the Wintergarden event. In 2015, the Wellington Regional Multi-Purpose Sports and Recreational Ice Arena Trust was incorporated with a view of planning, constructing and operating a 2,500 seat ice sports facility in the Wellington region. The project was estimated to cost $11 million, with the Trust looking to sign an agreement with the Wellington City Council for the land and then raise funding for the project through donations, fundraising and loans. However, as of 2023, no proposed ice rink project has been completed in Wellington despite the popularity of the temporary ice rinks in the city over the years.
New Zealand-Australia interaction
With the NZIHL quality improving over the years, there has been talk of creating a combined Oceania competition that would see the New Zealand league merge with the Australian league, Australian Ice Hockey League (AIHL). In 2011 the AIHL Chairman Tyler Lovering confirmed talks had taken place with NZIHL General Manager Gunther Birgel regarding the prospect of New Zealand based teams joining the AIHL within the next three years.
While no combined league has been subsequently established yet, in 2011 the Australian and New Zealand leagues did agree to set-up the Trans-Tasman Champions League. The Champions League would see the top two teams from each league qualify and compete in a tournament to be crowned Trans-Tasman champions. The first and only edition of the Champions League was played in Melbourne in 2012 with Botany Swarm, Southern Stampede, Newcastle North Stars and Melbourne Ice competing. The NZIHL teams failed to win a game in the tournament, and while the second edition was scheduled to be played in Queenstown in 2013, the tournament was cancelled and never contested again.
Instead, the federations for Australia and New Zealand ice hockey favoured setting up more regular international series between the two countries, with the New Zealand Winter Games identified as a platform for the two national teams to come together and face-off regularly. The two nations have played together in series at the 2009, 2011, 2017, 2018 and 2019 New Zealand Winter Games.
In 2022, a new Australian based league was announced named the Pacific Hockey League (PHL). This new league identified expansion into New Zealand from its outset to create an Oceanian league connecting Australia and New Zealand. Rather than try and come to an agreement with the NZIHL and its member clubs, the PHL decided to establish a new team in Queenstown named the Queenstown Rush in 2022. It was intended that this new team would join the league in 2023, allowing sufficient lead time for the Rush to establish itself properly and get ready for competition. However, the Rush never got the opportunity to take part in the PHL, when in early 2023, the league announced it was ceasing operations.
Also in 2022, the Australian and New Zealand federations jointly announced a new concept of an All-Star match between the winners of the AIHL and NZIHL. It was the first time since the Champions League in 2012 that there was the prospect of the two leagues interacting with each other. The game would be scheduled after the completion of both league seasons in 2022. However, the all-star game concept was shelved and instead a new international series between Australia and New Zealand was announced in its place. The first series was played in Melbourne in October 2022 and the second series was played in Queenstown in March 2023.
Season structure and rules
As per 2022.
Regular season
The NZIHL regular season is typically played between May and September each year. The regular season consists of 40 games in total, with each of the main five teams playing 16 games in a home and away round-robin season structure. Each team plays each other team four times, two at home and two away. The sixth team, Auckland Mako, are a U23 development team who play less games than the other five teams due to the varied nature of the team’s roster. Mako plays between four and ten games a season and are ineligible for the NZIHL finals. Because of this, Mako’s games do not count towards the NZIHL standings and player statistics are recorder separately from the rest of the league. The NZIHL regular season points system, follows similar systems widely used in Europe and Australian ice hockey leagues. 3 points is awarded for a regulation time win, 2 points for a shootout win, 1 point for a shootout loss and 0 points for a regulation time loss. In the unlikely event of a draw, both teams will be awarded 1 point each.
Game rules and governance
All games and NZIHL events are to be played in accordance to the rules set out in the NZIHL events manual, followed by the International Ice Hockey Federation Rule Book. The NZIHL has adopted the international standard three 20-minute stop-time regulation period length for all regular season and finals games. All regular season and finals overtime periods are five minutes long with golden goal rules (first to score wins). Where possible with ice rink facilities, and upon prior decision by the NZIHL General Manager, the three grand final games will implement a 3 on 3 single 20 minute overtime period followed by a shootout. Governance for the events manual falls to the NZIHL executive, headed by the General Manager (GM), and oversighted by the New Zealand Ice Hockey Federation (NZIHF) Management Committee. The NZIHL executive meet regularly with the NZIHF Management Committee, participate in NZIHF AGMs, prepare yearly budgets and write annual reports. All three NZIHF affiliated regions with NZIHL teams are evenly represented.
Roster & import rules
There are no maximum roster limits in the NZIHL. Players must be 16 years or older and registered with their regional association to play in the NZIHL. Female players are eligible to play as goaltenders. Mid-season player transfers between NZIHL teams are prohibited unless given special dispensation by the NZIHL General Manager. NZIHL players are broken up into two categories, regional players (New Zealand or Australian citizens) and import players (a citizen of any other country). This categorisation was updated in 2022 and replaced the old three category system of NZ player, naturalised player and import player, used prior to 2022. Import players and Australian citizens must have a cleared international transfer card (ITC) in order to be eligible to play an NZIHL game. There are no limits on the number of import players allowed on a team's roster, however there is a limit on the number of import players teams are allowed to dress for a game. As of 2022, four import players from each team (eight in total) are allowed to dress for any one game, with import goaltenders counting as two import players. The NZIHL covers the traveling costs of traveling teams up to 15 skaters, two goaltenders and five staff (22 in total). Any additional traveling players or staff need to be financial covered by the teams themselves.
Player status
Players in the NZIHL are amateur and are not paid to play. NZIHL teams are however allowed to assist with associated costs for players to play in the NZIHL, including: airfares, accommodation, transportation, food, international transfer card fees, registration fees, ice time fees, playing fees and equipment support. In addition, players may be paid reasonable rates for coaching ice hockey, with the rate no more than would be reasonable within the market for the services provided.
Playoffs
Playoffs in the NZIHL are called the Finals. The finals are played over two weekends with a best of 2 game semi-final series followed by a best of 3 game grand finals series. The top three teams from the regular season qualify for the finals. The top placed team qualifies automatically for the grand final series. The second and third placed teams qualify for the semi-final series. The winner of the semi-final series advances to the grand final series. The top placed team hosts the grand final series at their home venue. The second placed team hosts the semi-finals series at their home venue.
Previous season structures
Previously, the NZIHL has had a number of different season structures since foundation in 2005.
League champions and premiers
NZIHL champions and premiers by seasons (2005-present)
NZIHL champions all-time record
League trophies
Birgel Cup
The Birgel cup is the principle trophy in New Zealand ice hockey named after Gunther Birgel, founder of NZ ice hockey league . It is the NZIHL championship trophy and was first awarded in 2010, when it replaced the original NZIHL Trophy. The Birgel Cup is given to the winner of the NZIHL Finals series at the conclusion of the NZIHL season.
Toa Kauhanga Riri Tio
The Toa Kauhanga Riri Tio challenge trophy (TKRT) was introduced in the 2012 season. The Māori trophy name translates to "champions of the ice battlefield" and was designed and built by Wellington craftsman Mark Newnham. The premise of the trophy is loosely based on the Ranfurly Shield challenge system. The TKRT is contested during each NZIHL regular season. The current holders of the Riri Tio must defend the trophy on home ice in the second game of each round. The Auckland Mako are not entitled to challenge for the trophy and the TKRT was not challenged in 2020 due to the COVID-19 pandemic.
Former trophies
NZIHL Trophy
The NZIHL Trophy was the original championship trophy for the NZIHL. It was awarded five times between 2005 and 2009 before being replaced by the Birgel Cup. The Southern Stampede and Botany Swarm lifted the NZIHL trophy an equal record times, winning the trophy twice each. Canterbury Red Devils was the only other team to lift the trophy, winning the final trophy in 2009.
Glass Family Shield
The Glass Family Shield was awarded annually to the winner of the Skate Of Origin series between its inception in 2009 and conclusion in 2016. The shield was named after the South Island Glass family who were leaders and builder of the sport of ice hockey within New Zealand over the course of three generations. Ben Glass is a founding member of the NZIHF and patron of the Southern Ice Hockey League (SIHL). Graeme Glass is the past president of the NZIHF and inducted life member. While Simon Glass, Ben Lewis & Hamish Lewis have all previously represented New Zealand at international level with the Ice Blacks, with Simon also captaining the national team. In addition, Annabelle Lewis also represented the New Zealand women's national team, the Ice Fernz.
Skate Of Origin was introduced in 2009 and ran from 2009 to 2016. The series was used as an All-star game and often a national team selection process. The format saw the best players eligible to represent New Zealand at an international level play for the respective island on which they played their junior hockey. Players represented one of the two major islands of the New Zealand archipelago, namely the North Island or the South Island. The host of the Origin alternated each season with the North Island hosting the inaugural Skate of Origin at Paradice Botany Downs. Throughout the history of the Origin, the North Island won the series and lifted the Glass Family Shield five times compared to the South Island's three times.
Trans-Tasman Trophy
The Trans-Tasman Trophy was the championship trophy for the winner of the Trans-Tasman Champions League (TTCL). Established in 2012 as a joint venture between the New Zealand Ice Hockey League and the Australian Ice Hockey League, the TTCL was created to expand relations, cooperation and competition between the top ice hockey leagues of Australia and New Zealand. The TTCL was designed to be an annual event played over a single weekend with the host alternating between New Zealand and Australia. The champions and premiers of both the NZIHL and AIHL would qualify for the Champions League and would play each team from the other league twice over the weekend. The first, and so far only edition, of the Trans-Tasman Champions League, saw the NZIHL send the Botany Swarm and Southern Stampede to travel to Melbourne to contest the Champions League for the right to lift the Trans-Tasman Trophy. AIHL team, Melbourne Ice won the 2012 TTCL, with the NZIHL teams failing to win a game.
In 2013, the second edition of the tournament was intended to be played in New Zealand but costs prevented the AIHL sending any teams and the Champions League was cancelled. In 2016, there was discussions to revive the TTCL with the champions of the NZIHL and AIHL playing in a 3 game series in New Zealand, but the NZIHF and IHA decided an international series between the [Ice Blacks]] and Mighty Roos would be better, with a view to return to the Trans-Tasman Champions League and Trans-Tasman Trophy sometime in the future.
See also
New Zealand Ice Hockey Federation
New Zealand national ice hockey team
Australian Ice Hockey League
References
External links
Official website
NZ Ice Hockey Federation
Asian Ice Hockey.com NZIHL News Site
Ice hockey leagues
Ice hockey leagues in New Zealand
1
Professional sports leagues in New Zealand |
4369632 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potyvirus | Potyvirus | Potyvirus is a genus of positive-strand RNA viruses (named after its type species, Potato virus Y (PVY)) in the family Potyviridae. Plants serve as natural hosts. Like begomoviruses, members of this genus may cause significant losses in agricultural, pastoral, horticultural, and ornamental crops. More than 200 species of aphids spread potyviruses, and most are from the subfamily Aphidinae (genera Macrosiphum and Myzus). The genus contains 190 species and potyviruses account for about thirty percent of all currently known plant viruses.
Structure
The virion is non-enveloped with a flexuous and filamentous nucleocapsid, 680 to 900 nanometers (nm) long and is 11–20 nm in diameter. The nucleocapsid contains around 2000 copies of the capsid protein. The symmetry of the nucleocapsid is helical with a pitch of 3.4-3.5 nm.
Genome
The genome is a linear, positive-sense, single-stranded RNA ranging in size from 9,000 to 12,000 nucleotide bases. Most potyviruses have non-segmented genomes, though a number of species are bipartite. The typical base compositions of some of the most common, non-recombinant strains of the type species, PVY, range between ~23.4-23.8 % G; ~31-31.6 % A; ~18.2-18.8 % C; and ~26.5-26.8 % U.
In the species with a monopartite genome, a genome-linked VPg protein is covalently bound to the 5' end and the 3' end is polyadenylated. The genome encodes a single open reading frame (ORF) expressed as a 350 kDa polyprotein precursor. This polyprotein is processed into ten smaller proteins: protein 1 protease (P1-Pro), helper component protease (HC-Pro), protein 3 (P3), cylindrical inclusion (CI), viral protein genome-linked (Vpg), nuclear inclusion A (NIa), nuclear inclusion B (NIb), capsid protein (CP) and two small putative proteins known as 6K1 and 6K2. The P3 cistron also contains an overlapping reading frame called "Pretty interesting Potyviridae ORF" (PIPO). PIPO codes for an alternative C-terminus to the P3 protein, which is generated into a subset of transcripts by a +2 frameshift caused by a ribosome slippage mechanism at a conserved GA6 repeat sequence. The resulting protein is called P3N-PIPO. A similar mechanism is thought to produce an alternative reading frame within the P1 cistron, named "pretty interesting sweet potato potyvirus ORF" (PISPO), in a number of sweet potato-infecting potyviruses including sweet potato feathery mottle virus.
Proteome
P1 (~33 kiloDaltons (kDa) in molecular weight) is a serine protease which facilitates its own cleavage from the polyprotein at the P1-HC-Pro junction. P1 consists of a conserved C-terminal protease domain and an N-terminal region which has a high level of variation in sequence and length between potyvirus species but exhibits conserved patterns of intrinsic disorder. P1 is also promotes viral RNA replication, though it is not required for it.
HC-Pro (~52 KDa) is a cysteine protease which cleaves a glycine-glycine dipeptide at its own C-terminus. It also interacts with eukaryotic initiation factor 4 (eIF4). It acts as a viral RNA silencing suppressor through its interactions with host AGO proteins. HC-Pro's activity is regulated by the adjacent P1 protein: before P1 cleaves itself off the P1-HC-Pro intermediate, the P1 terminus reduces HC-Pro's RNA silencing suppression activity. The rate of P1 cleavage therefore regulates the level of RNA interference suppression during infection. HC-Pro is also involved in aphid transmission. Though the exact mechanism is unknown, HC-Pro has been proposed to attach to host aphid mouth parts through its N-terminal zinc finger-like domain and anchor virions through its interactions with the capsid protein.
P3 (~41 kDa) is a membrane protein which is required for viral replication and accumulates in viral replication vesicles. It mediates the interactions between replication vesicles and movement complex proteins which may allow replication vesicles to be recruited to the movement complex for efficient intercellular movement. P3 also interacts with large subunit of the ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase.
CI (~71 kDa) is an RNA helicase with ATPase activity. Its most unusual property is its ability to form large and highly symmetrical conical and cylindrical inclusions with a central hollow cylinder from which laminate sheets radiate outward and fold in on themselves in a pattern often described as "pinwheels". These inclusions are easily seen in transmission electron micrographs of infected tissues and were historically used as a diagnostic criterion for potyvirus infections. CI inclusions are a major component of the potyviral movement complex which is assembled at plasmodesmata. CI is also required for viral replication and is present on replication membranes. Its exact contributions to replication are not clear but, as an RNA helicase, CI is likely facilitating replication by dismantling the secondary structures of viral RNA.
NIa (~50 kDa) forms crystalline inclusions in the host nucleus. It is cleaved into NIa-Pro and VPg.
NIa-Pro (~27 kDa) is a cysteine protease which processes most of the cleavage sites of the polyprotein. The only exceptions are the self-cleavages of P1 and HC-Pro. The high degree of cleavage sequence specificity and conservation has made NIa-Pro (often that of Tobacco etch virus) a valuable tool in biotechnology, especially in applications which require removing affinity tags from recombinant proteins after affinity purification. NIa-Pro has also shown to exhibit sequence-independent DNase activity and to interfere with host DNA methylation suggesting that NIa and/or NIa-Pro are altering in host gene expression. Potyviral NIa-Pro shares a high level of homology with the picornaviral 3C protease.
VPg (~22 kDa) is covalently attched to the 5' end of the viral genomic RNA through uridylation and is thought to act as a primer for viral genome replication similarly to the VPg proteins of picornaviridae. It is a highly disordered protein and its flexibility has been suggested to allow it to interact with many other viral proteins. VPg also interacts with various host proteins including eukaryotic initiation factor 4E (eIF4E), eukaryotic elongation factor 1A (eEF1A), and poly(A)-binding protein (PABP).
NIb (~59 kDa) is a superfamily II RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRp) which polymerises viral RNA during replication. Like NIa, NIb forms inclusions in the host nucleus where it is transported due to its two nuclear localisation sequences. NIb has the three-domain "palm, thumb, and fingers" structure typical of RdRps.
6K1 (~6 kDa) the function is not known, but because it accumulates in replication vesicles and has a transmembrane domain, 6K1 is thought to contribute to virus-induced vesicle formation.
6K2 (~6 kDa) is a transmembrane protein which rearranges host membranes into virus-induced membrane structures. It interacts with various ER exit site proteins to produce vesicular and tubular extensions which eventually mature into replication vesicles. 6K2 has three main domains: the N-terminal domain which is required for cell-to-cell movement, the central hydrophobic transmembrane alpha helix, and the C terminal domain which is required for viral replication.
P3N-PIPO (~25 kDa) is a dedicated movement protein which anchors the movement complex to the plasmodesma. It may also modulate the plasmodesmatal size exclusion limit by interacting with host proteins which sever plasmodesmatal actin filaments and reduce callose deposition. It interacts with both the large and small subunits of the ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase.
CP (~30 - 35 kDa) is the capsid protein. It has two terminal domains which are disordered and exposed at the surface of the virion. The central core domain contains an RNA-binding pocket which binds to viral RNA. The structure of the capsid protein is highly conserved in potyviruses, though there is a relatively high degree of sequence variability. In addition to encapsidating the virion, CP core domain is required for intercellular movement and contributes to seed transmission.
Certain atypical potyviruses code for additional proteins or protein domains, such as P1-PISPO, Alkylation B (AlkB), and inosine triphosphate pyrophosphatase (known as ITPase or HAM1). Such anomalies are often situated in the hypervariable P1-HC-Pro region.
Life cycle
Transmission
Most potyviruses are trasmitted by aphids as they probe plant tissues with their stylet during feeding. They do not circulate or multiply within the aphid and typically only persist in the aphid for a few minutes. Certain potyviruses have been shown to alter the feeding patterns of their aphid vectors, which may manifest as longer periods of time spent on infected plants, reduced non-probing feeding time, and increased phloem sap ingestion.
Seed and pollen transmission has been documented in certain potyvirus species, for instance in PVY and Turnip mosaic virus (TUMV). Vegetative transmission by infected tubers or grafting material are of particular concern for certain agricultural crops, such as potato and fruit trees, respectively.
Transmission can also occur by physical contact with infected plants or with contaminated tools, clothes, or even water.
Translation
After entry, potyvirus particles are uncoated and genomic RNA is released into host cytoplasm. Potyviral RNA mimicks host mRNA: the 5' VPg protein shares functional similarities with the 5' cap and the 3' end is polyadenylated. VPg and its interactions with eIF4E and eIF4(iso)E allow the virus to utilise host cap-dependent translation machinery for its translation. Similarly to eukaryotic translation, the VPg-eIF4E interaction assembles the eIF4F complex around viral RNA.
A number of weak internal ribosome entry sites (IRES) have been identified in many potyvirus species but it is not known whether cap-independent translation is an important translation mechanism for potyviruses.
Replication
Like many other positive strand RNA viruses, potyvirus replication is heavily associated with host membranes. The viral 6K2 protein coordinates the rearrangement of host membranes into various infection-associated structures which, depending of the potyvirus species, can include anything from small round viral vesicles to complex globular structures with many cisternae or lobes. These structures are dotted with viral replication complexes and are often called "replication vesicles", "viroplasm" or "viral factories". Replication vesicle membranes are derived from a variety of host organelles and the sources differ between potyvirus species. Some membrane sources include the ER, chloroplasts, Golgi apparatus, and vacuoles.
The exact replication mechanism is not known but it involves a negative sense RNA intermediate and requires both viral and host proteins. Viral proteins detected in replication complexes include HC-Pro, P3, 6K1, 6K2, CI, VPg, NIa-Pro, and NIb. Host factors present in replication vesicles include eIF4A and several heat shock proteins.
Intercellular movement
Like most plant viruses, potyviruses have evolved to move from one plant cell to another through plasmodesmata. However, unlike some well-studied plant viruses, such as the Tobacco mosaic virus, potyviruses do not have a single movement protein but instead assemble a movement complex around the plasmodesma. This complex is primarily composed of three viral proteins: CI, CP, P3N-PIPO. Conical CI inclusions are anchored to plasmodesmata by P3N-PIPO during the early stages of potyvirus infection. This allows the inclusion to funnel either viral particles or viral RNA-CP complexes through the plasmodesma. Replication vesicles are also recruited to the movement complex, suggesting that replication and movement are coupled. Replication vesicles are recruited by P3N-PIPO, which interacts with both CI and P3 through the shared P3N-domain. P3's interaction with 6K2 allows replication vesicles to be tethered to the movement complex.
Evolution
Potyviruses evolved between 6,600 and 7,250 years ago. They appear to have evolved in southwest Eurasia or north Africa. The estimated mutation rate is about 1.15 nucleotide substitutions/site/year.
Geographical distribution
Agriculture was introduced into Australia in the 18th century. This introduction also included plant pathogens. Thirty eight potyvirus species have been isolated in Australia. Eighteen potyviruses have been found only in Australia and are presumed to be endemic there. The remaining twenty appear to have been introduced with agriculture.
Diagnostics
Historically, potyvirus diagnostics relied on the detection of various proteinaceous inclusions in infected plant cells. These may appear as crystals in either the cytoplasm or in the nucleus, as amorphous X-bodies, membranous bodies, viroplasms or pinwheels. The inclusions may or may not (depending on the species) contain virions. These inclusions can be seen by light microscopy in leaf strips of infected plant tissue stained with Orange-Green (protein stain) but not Azure A (nucleic acid stain).
Modern detection methods rely primarily on reverse transcription PCR.
Taxonomy
Potyvirus contains the following species:
African eggplant mosaic virus
Algerian watermelon mosaic virus
Alstroemeria mosaic virus
Alternanthera mild mosaic virus
Amaranthus leaf mottle virus
Amazon lily mosaic virus
Angelica virus Y
Apium virus Y
Araujia mosaic virus
Arracacha mottle virus
Asparagus virus 1
Banana bract mosaic virus
Barbacena virus Y
Basella rugose mosaic virus
Bean common mosaic necrosis virus
Bean common mosaic virus
Bean yellow mosaic virus
Beet mosaic virus
Begonia flower breaking virus
Bidens mosaic virus
Bidens mottle virus
Blue squill virus A
Brugmansia mosaic virus
Brugmansia suaveolens mottle virus
Butterfly flower mosaic virus
Calanthe mild mosaic virus
Calla lily latent virus
Callistephus mottle virus
Canna yellow streak virus
Carnation vein mottle virus
Carrot thin leaf virus
Carrot virus Y
Catharanthus mosaic virus
Celery mosaic virus
Ceratobium mosaic virus
Chilli ringspot virus
Chilli veinal mottle virus
Chinese artichoke mosaic virus
Clitoria virus Y
Clover yellow vein virus
Cocksfoot streak virus
Colombian datura virus
Commelina mosaic virus
Costus stripe mosaic virus
Cowpea aphid-borne mosaic virus
Cucurbit vein banding virus
Cypripedium virus Y
Cyrtanthus elatus virus A
Daphne mosaic virus
Daphne virus Y
Dasheen mosaic virus
Datura shoestring virus
Dendrobium chlorotic mosaic virus
Dioscorea mosaic virus
Diuris virus Y
Donkey orchid virus A
East Asian Passiflora distortion virus
East Asian Passiflora virus
Endive necrotic mosaic virus
Euphorbia ringspot virus
Freesia mosaic virus
Fritillary virus Y
Gloriosa stripe mosaic virus
Gomphocarpus mosaic virus
Habenaria mosaic virus
Hardenbergia mosaic virus
Henbane mosaic virus
Hibbertia virus Y
Hippeastrum mosaic virus
Hyacinth mosaic virus
Impatiens flower break virus
Iris fulva mosaic virus
Iris mild mosaic virus
Iris severe mosaic virus
Japanese yam mosaic virus
Jasmine virus T
Johnsongrass mosaic virus
Kalanchoe mosaic virus
Keunjorong mosaic virus
Konjac mosaic virus
Leek yellow stripe virus
Lettuce Italian necrotic virus
Lettuce mosaic virus
Lily mottle virus
Lily virus Y
Lupinus mosaic virus
Lycoris mild mottle virus
Maize dwarf mosaic virus
Malva vein clearing virus
Mashua virus Y
Meadow saffron breaking virus
Mediterranean ruda virus
Moroccan watermelon mosaic virus
Narcissus degeneration virus
Narcissus late season yellows virus
Narcissus yellow stripe virus
Nerine yellow stripe virus
Noni mosaic virus
Nothoscordum mosaic virus
Onion yellow dwarf virus
Ornithogalum mosaic virus
Ornithogalum virus 2
Ornithogalum virus 3
Panax virus Y
Papaya leaf distortion mosaic virus
Papaya ringspot virus
Paris mosaic necrosis virus
Paris virus 1
Parsnip mosaic virus
Passiflora chlorosis virus
Passiflora mottle virus
Passion fruit woodiness virus
Pea seed-borne mosaic virus
Peanut mottle virus
Pecan mosaic-associated virus
Pennisetum mosaic virus
Pepper mottle virus
Pepper severe mosaic virus
Pepper veinal mottle virus
Pepper yellow mosaic virus
Peru tomato mosaic virus
Pfaffia mosaic virus
Platycodon mild mottle virus
Pleione flower breaking virus
Pleione virus Y
Plum pox virus
Pokeweed mosaic virus
Potato virus A
Potato virus V
Potato virus Y
Potato yellow blotch virus
Ranunculus leaf distortion virus
Ranunculus mild mosaic virus
Ranunculus mosaic virus
Rhopalanthe virus Y
Saffron latent virus
Sarcochilus virus Y
Scallion mosaic virus
Shallot yellow stripe virus
Sorghum mosaic virus
Soybean mosaic virus
Spiranthes mosaic virus 3
Sudan watermelon mosaic virus
Sugarcane mosaic virus
Sunflower chlorotic mottle virus
Sunflower mild mosaic virus
Sunflower mosaic virus
Sunflower ring blotch virus
Sweet potato feathery mottle virus
Sweet potato latent virus
Sweet potato mild speckling virus
Sweet potato virus 2
Sweet potato virus C
Sweet potato virus G
Tamarillo leaf malformation virus
Telfairia mosaic virus
Telosma mosaic virus
Thunberg fritillary mosaic virus
Tobacco etch virus
Tobacco mosqueado virus
Tobacco vein banding mosaic virus
Tobacco vein mottling virus
Tomato necrotic stunt virus
Tradescantia mild mosaic virus
Tuberose mild mosaic virus
Tuberose mild mottle virus
Tulip breaking virus
Tulip mosaic virus
Turnip mosaic virus
Twisted-stalk chlorotic streak virus
Ugandan passiflora virus
Vallota mosaic virus
Vanilla distortion mosaic virus
Verbena virus Y
Watermelon leaf mottle virus
Watermelon mosaic virus
Wild melon banding virus
Wild onion symptomless virus
Wild potato mosaic virus
Wild tomato mosaic virus
Wisteria vein mosaic virus
Yam mild mosaic virus
Yam mosaic virus
Yambean mosaic virus
Zantedeschia mild mosaic virus
Zea mosaic virus
Zucchini shoestring virus
Zucchini tigre mosaic virus
Zucchini yellow fleck virus
Zucchini yellow mosaic virus
A further four viruses were previously classified as species in this genus but were abolished due to lack of genetic sequence information:
Cowpea green vein banding virus
Groundnut eyespot virus
Helenium virus Y
Tropaeolum mosaic virus
Species groups
Potyviruses were further divided into the PVY, SCMV, BYMV, BCMV species groups in 1992. Gibbs and Ohshima 2010 produced a more extensive molecular phylogeny with the same four, but also several new groups: the BtMV, ChVMV, DaMV, OYDV, PRSV, TEV, and TuMV.
PVY
Contains 16 species including the type species of the genus (potato virus Y). The primary hosts are: Nine Solanaceae, three Amaranthus, three Asteraceae, one Lilium, and one Amaryllis.
References
Bibliography
External links
UniProt taxonomy: Potyvirus
Viralzone: Potyvirus
ICTV
Virus genera
Potyviruses
Viral plant pathogens and diseases |
4369747 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David%20Boren | David Boren | David Lyle Boren (born April 21, 1941) is a retired American lawyer and politician from Oklahoma. A member of the Democratic Party, he served as 21st governor of Oklahoma from 1975 to 1979 and three terms in the United States Senate from 1979 to 1994. A conservative Democrat, to date, he is the last in his party to have served as U.S. Senator from Oklahoma. He was the 13th and second-longest serving president of the University of Oklahoma from 1994 to 2018. He was the longest serving chairman of the Senate Select Committee on Intelligence. On September 20, 2017, Boren officially announced his retirement as president of the University of Oklahoma, effective June 30, 2018.
Early life and career
Boren was born in Washington, D.C., the son of Christine (née McKown) and Lyle Hagler Boren. He graduated in 1963 from Yale University, where he majored in American history, graduated in the top one percent of his class and was elected to Phi Beta Kappa. He was a member of the Yale Conservative Party, Cannon and Castle ROTC Honor Society, elected president of the Yale Political Union and is a member of Skull and Bones. He was selected as a Rhodes Scholar and earned a master's degree in Philosophy, Politics, and Economics from University of Oxford (1965), serving later as a member of the Rhodes Scholarship selection committee.
In 1966 Boren defeated fellow Democrat William C. Wantland in a primary election and Clifford Conn Jr. in the general election to win a seat in the Oklahoma House of Representatives, where he served four terms, 1967 to 1975. In 1968, he received a J.D. degree from the University of Oklahoma College of Law.
While serving in the House, Boren was a member of the committee that investigated the University of Oklahoma after the school allowed black militant Paul Boutelle, a socialist and anti-Vietnam War activist, to give a speech there. During his House tenure Boren was also a professor at Oklahoma Baptist University.
Boren served in the Oklahoma Army National Guard from 1963 to 1974. He attained the rank of captain and served as commander of the 2120th Supply & Service Company in Wewoka.
Governor
In 1974, Boren ran for governor. In keeping with the anti-establishment movements of that Watergate scandal-era campaign season, Boren's effort included the "Boren Broom Brigade" to demonstrate his pledge to "sweep out the Old Guard" and bring fundamental reforms to state government.
Boren and Congressman Clem McSpadden defeated incumbent David Hall in the primary election and moved into a runoff for the Democratic nomination. Boren beat McSpadden in the runoff and subsequently defeated Republican Jim Inhofe in the general election. Coincidentally, Inhofe would go on to be his successor in the United States Senate in the 1994 special election after his resignation.
During his tenure Boren worked on: eliminating the inheritance tax for property left by one spouse to another; a reduction in the state income tax rate; improvements to the state corrections program in the wake of the 1973 Oklahoma State Penitentiary riot; and elimination of more than a hundred state agencies, commissions, and boards. Boren attracted national attention during the Energy Crisis when he advocated nationwide deregulation of natural gas prices.
Boren opted not to run for reelection in 1978, instead running for the United States Senate seat held by the retiring Dewey Bartlett. He won a multi-candidate primary with 46 percent of the vote to second-place finisher Ed Edmondson's 28 percent. Boren then defeated Edmondson in the runoff, and Republican Robert Kamm, former President of Oklahoma State University, in the general election.
Accusations in 1978 U.S. Senate Campaign
During his 1978 U.S. Senate campaign while holding the office of Governor, Boren's main rival for the Democratic party's nomination, former U.S. Rep Ed Edmondson, called Boren "a Republican" due to a Boren policy as Governor which eliminated the state tax for inheritances between spouses. Edmondson took a pledge recited on a biography of President Harry Truman, that he was not nor had never been "a Republican."
Another of Boren's primary opponents was Anthony Points, who ran under an assumed name, had faced charges of passing bogus checks, and accused Boren of being gay. Following his victory, Boren swore an oath on a family Bible, declaring "I know what homosexuals and bisexuals are. I further swear that I am not a homosexual or bisexual. And I further swear that I have never been a homosexual or bisexual. And I further swear that I have never engaged in any homosexual or bisexual activities nor do I approve of or condone them."
Despite the personal attacks which made The Washington Post describe the race as a "Gutter Shootout" Boren prevailed by wide margins in the primary, runoff and general election balloting.
U.S. Senator
In the U.S. Senate, Boren was known as a centrist or conservative Democrat, and was a protégé of Texas Sen. Lloyd Bentsen and was often aligned with southern Democrats Sam Nunn of Georgia and Howell Heflin of Alabama. He was a strong advocate of tax cuts across the board as the cornerstone of economic policy. He opposed the windfall profit tax on the domestic oil industry, which was repealed in 1988. At one point, the tax was generating no revenue, yet still required oil companies to comply with reporting requirements and the IRS to spend $15 million to collect the tax. Of the tax, Boren said: "As long as the tax is not being collected, the accounting requirements are needless. They result in heavy burdens for the private sector and unnecessary cost to the taxpayer."
Sen. Barry Goldwater (R-AZ), who served with him, publicly stated that Boren should be elected president. Boren's chief of staff was a respected Capitol Hill insider, Charles Ward, a former longtime administrative assistant to Speaker Albert.
Boren served on the Senate Committee on Finance and the Committee on Agriculture, Nutrition and Forestry. He also served as chairman of the Senate Select Committee on Intelligence from 1987 to 1993. His six years is the longest tenure for a Senate Intelligence Committee chairman, tied with Dianne Feinstein. Boren sponsored the National Security Education Act of 1991, which established the National Security Education Program.
Boren was one of only two Democratic senators to vote in favor of the controversially failed nomination of Robert Bork to the Supreme Court, in 1987. Boren also decided in 1991 to vote against the Persian Gulf War.
Boren was one of President Bill Clinton's top choices to replace Les Aspin as a U.S. Secretary of Defense in 1994. However, Clinton selected William J. Perry instead.
In a controversial public mea culpa in a New York Times Op/Ed piece, Boren expressed regret over his vote to confirm Supreme Court Associate Justice Clarence Thomas. Partly as a result of that statement, The Daily Oklahoman, the largest newspaper in Oklahoma, which had encouraged and endorsed Boren's entire career, began intensely criticizing him.
His opposition in 1993 was essential for the failure of a heat content based (for example British thermal unit or joule) energy tax proposed by the Clinton Administration as means to curb the deficit and reduce pollution.
In 1994, he resigned his Senate seat to accept the presidency of the University of Oklahoma.
As of 2023, he is the last Democrat to serve as a U.S. Senator from Oklahoma.
Praise from Nelson Mandela
As chairman of the U.S. Senate Select Committee on Intelligence, Boren was instrumental in building consensus and bipartisan support for the U.S. State Department initiatives to promote democracy abroad which helped lead to the release of Nelson Mandela. Boren was praised and received a standing ovation led by Mandela at a special broadcast of ABC News Nightline with Ted Koppel, which commemorated Mandela's historic release from prison in South Africa. During his first visit to the US after his release, Mandela was a dinner guest of Boren and wife Molly.
Post-Senate career
Boren served as president of the University of Oklahoma until June 30, 2018, and was succeeded by business executive Jim Gallogly. He has also served on the Board of Directors of Texas Instruments and AMR Corporation (then parent company of American Airlines). As of 2017, his salary as president of the University of Oklahoma was $383,852.88 annually. One semester every school year, Boren taught a freshman level political science class to 200 students.
In 1996, Reform Party presidential candidate Ross Perot unsuccessfully sought Boren to be his vice-presidential running mate. In 2001, Boren, along with fellow Democrat former governor George Nigh was listed as being in support of the Right-to-work law in Oklahoma. The measure, proposed and sponsored by then Gov. Frank Keating, was passed by the voters.
Boren is regarded as a mentor to former director of Central Intelligence George Tenet from his days as chairman of the Senate Intelligence Committee. On the morning of September 11, 2001, Boren and Tenet were having breakfast together when Tenet was called away to respond to the terror attacks. Boren said that in the weeks before the Iraq War began in March 2003, he warned Tenet that since he was not a member of President George W. Bush's closest circle of advisers, the White House would make him the scapegoat if things went badly in Iraq. "I told him they had your name circled if anything goes wrong," Boren recalls telling Tenet.
In June 2007, conservative political columnist Robert Novak claimed that Boren had met with New York Mayor Michael Bloomberg to discuss a possible third-party presidential campaign. Bloomberg had recently left the Republican Party, and speculation arose that he discussed the possibility of Boren joining him as a running mate. However, on April 18, 2008, Boren endorsed the leading Democratic candidate, Sen. Barack Obama of Illinois.
In 2008, he released a book titled A Letter to America.
Boren and former U.S. senator Chuck Hagel served as co-chairmen of the nonpartisan U.S. President's Intelligence Advisory Board under Barack Obama. He sits on the honorary board of the National Association for Urban Debate Leagues. He was inducted into the Oklahoma Hall of Fame in 1988. In 1996, Boren received the Foreign Language Advocacy Award from the Northeast Conference on the Teaching of Foreign Languages in recognition of his support for education and his authorship of the National Security Education Act of 1992.
Sigma Alpha Epsilon incident
In March 2015, a recording was made public of members of the University of Oklahoma's Sigma Alpha Epsilon fraternity singing a racially derogatory song which used the racial slur "N-word" and included reference to lynching and racial segregation. As university president, Boren appeared widely in US media and condemned the behavior, expelled two student members of the fraternity, and with the fraternity's national headquarters' help, ordered the OU chapter's closure. He also created a mandatory Diversity Training for the whole campus. Some legal scholars have argued that these expulsions were improper, as speech, even if offensive, is protected by the First Amendment to the U.S. Constitution. Other scholars have argued that the expulsion was based on the student code of conduct, and was not protected.
2019 Misconduct investigation
On February 13, 2019, while on sabbatical from health issues, following his 2018 retirement it was reported that the University of Oklahoma had hired the Jones Day law firm to investigate Boren after allegations of his "serious" misconduct arose at the university. The university and specifically the OU Board of Regents declined to specify whether the investigation was actually of Boren, or to specify its start or projected end date, instead referring to it generally as an ongoing personnel investigation. Oklahoma State Bureau of Investigation conducted a criminal investigation which lasted a year ending with no charges.
During the year long investigation which ended with no charges, six witnesses described interactions with Boren, shortly after the end of his 24-year tenure as the institution's president. University of Oklahoma regents received the findings of that Title IX investigation in April 2019, conducted by the law firm Jones Day, and turned it over to the Oklahoma State Bureau of Investigation for the agency's criminal investigation which lasted a year ending with no charges. Only a portion of the Title IX report has been released publicly to accuser and former OU student Jess Eddy, whose allegations were deemed "generally credible" by the law firm though Eddy admitted to "calling Boren personally and asking for financial compensation after The Oklahoman first reported Boren was being investigated." The four-page section released by OU referenced "six witnesses" who discussed interactions with Boren. Boren's successor, James L. Gallogly who ordered investigations of Boren, resigned May 12, 2019 after nine months and two weeks in office.
The investigation purportedly sought to determine whether Boren sexually harassed staff or students during his tenure as president. The allegations arose from a Fall 2010 Boren fundraising trip to Houston in a private jet and hotel events afterward. During the investigation, OU graduate and former Boren classroom aide Jess Eddy made his allegation of Boren's sexual misconduct public through media interviews. Boren has issued a blanket denial of any misconduct or illegal activity through his attorney.
Boren's attorney has stated that the investigation is "not an objective search for truth," and an attempted character assassination on Boren without basis in fact, adding that "Boren was unaware of any allegations until he heard about it in the press." Boren's attorney also stated that current OU President James L. Gallogly told a Vice President of the University of Oklahoma to deliver the message to Boren that "I am the meanest son of a bitch he has ever seen, and if he ever crosses me again, I will destroy him," after Boren wrote an op-ed defending the state of OU's finances in response to Gallogly's assertion that they were in disorder following Boren's tenure as president.
The University of Oklahoma regents received the results of the investigation in April 2019, and although they did not release any of the findings, the chairwoman described the probe as "fair, non-biased, thorough and objective." Boren accuser Jess Eddy has admitted to "calling Boren personally and asking for financial compensation after The Oklahoman first reported Boren was being investigated." Eddy responded to the non-disclosure of the findings by calling for the report by Jones Day to be released.
Personal life
He has been married twice. His first marriage to Janna Little, daughter of Reuel Little, occurred shortly after his graduation in 1968. They had two children, and divorced in 1976. He married Pontotoc County Special District Judge Molly W. Shi on November 27, 1977. It was the first time an Oklahoma Governor had married while in office. Shi was a native of Ada, Oklahoma and alumna of East Central University and the University of Oklahoma, where she earned her degree in law. She was a lawyer in private practice for two years before being appointed as a judge. His daughter, Carrie, is a former actress and current director for evangelism in the Episcopal Diocese of Dallas.
The Boren family has a strong interest in public policy and three generations of public service. His father, Lyle Boren, served in the U.S. House of Representatives (OK-04) from 1937 to 1947. His son, Dan Boren, served in the U.S. House of Representatives (OK-02) from 2005 to 2013.
Boren is the first cousin of singer, songwriter, and actor Hoyt Axton, best known for writing the song "Joy to the World."
See also
Boren–McCurdy proposals
Notes
References
External links
Encyclopedia of Oklahoma History and Culture - Boren, David
Voices of Oklahoma interview with David L. Boren. First person interview conducted on March 24, 2016, with David L. Boren.
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1941 births
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Boren family
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Living people
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4370145 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taiwan%20Miracle | Taiwan Miracle | The Taiwan Miracle () or Taiwan Economic Miracle refers to Taiwan's rapid economic development to a developed, high-income country during the latter half of the twentieth century.
As it developed alongside South Korea, Singapore, and Hong Kong, Taiwan became known as one of the "Four Asian Tigers". Taiwan was the first developing country to adopt an export-oriented trade strategy after World War II.
Background
After a period of hyperinflation in the late 1940s when the Kuomintang-led government of the Republic of China military regime of Chen Yi overprinted the Taiwanese dollar against the previous Taiwanese yen in the Japanese era, it became clear that a new and stable currency was needed. Along with the $4 billion in financial aid and soft credit provided by the US (as well as the indirect economic stimulus of US food and military aid) over the 1945–1965 period, Taiwan had the necessary capital to restart its economy. Further, the Kuomintang government instituted many laws and land reforms that it had never effectively enacted on mainland China.
A land reform law, inspired by the same one that the Americans were enacting in occupied Japan, removed the landlord class (similar to what happened in Japan), and created a higher number of peasants who, with the help of the state, increased the agricultural output dramatically. This was the first excedent accumulation source. It inverted capital creation, and liberated the agricultural workforce to work in the urban sectors. However, the government imposed on the peasants an unequal exchange with the industrial economy, with credit and fertilizer controls and a non monetary exchange to trade agrarian products (machinery) for rice. With the control of the banks (at the time, being the property of the government), and import licenses, the state oriented the Taiwanese economy to import substitution industrialization, creating initial capitalism in a fully protected market.
It also, with the help of USAID, created a massive industrial infrastructure, communications, and developed the educational system. Several government bodies were created and four-year plans were also enacted. Between 1952 and 1982, economic growth was on average 8.7%, and between 1983 and 1986 at 6.9%. The gross national product grew by 360% between 1965 and 1986. The percentage of global exports was over 2% in 1986, over other recently industrialized countries, and the global industrial production output grew a further 680% between 1965 and 1986. The social gap between the rich and the poor fell (Gini: 0.558 in 1953, 0.303 in 1980), even lower than some Western European countries, but it grew a little in the 80's. Health care, education, and quality of life also improved. The flexibility of the productive system and the industrial structure meant that Taiwanese companies had more chances to adapt themselves to the changing international situation and the global economy.
The economist S. C. Tsiang played an influential role in shifting towards an export-oriented trade strategy. In 1954, he called for Taiwan to deal with its chronic shortage of foreign exchange by increasing exports rather than reduce imports. In 1958, the policymaker K. Y. Yin pushed for the adoption of Tsiang's ideas.
In 1959, a 19-point program of Economic and Financial Reform, liberalized market controls, stimulated exports and designed a strategy to attract foreign companies and foreign capital. An exports processing area was created in Kaohsiung and in 1964, General Instruments pioneered in externalizing electronic assembly in Taiwan. Japanese companies moved in, reaping the benefits of low salaries, the lack of environmental laws and controls, a well-educated and capable workforce, and the support of the government. But the nucleus of the industrial structure was national, and it was composed by a large number of small and medium-sized enterprises, created within families with the family savings, and savings cooperatives nets called hui (; Pha̍k-fa-sṳ: Fi). They had the support of the government in the form of subsidies and credits loaned by the banks.
Most of these societies appeared for the first time in rural zones near metropolitan areas, where families shared work (in the parcels they owned and in the industrial workshops at the same time). For instance, in 1989 in Changhua, small enterprises produced almost 50% of the world's umbrellas. The State attracted foreign companies in order to obtain more capital and to get access to foreign markets, but the big foreign companies got contracts with this huge net of small sized, familiar and national companies, which were a very important percentage of the industrial output.
Foreign investment never represented an important component in the Taiwanese economy, with the notable exception of the electronic market. For instance, in 1981, direct foreign investment was a mere 2% of the GNP, foreign companies employed 4.8% of the total workforce, their production was 13.9% of the total production and their exports were 25.6% of nationwide exports. Access to the global markets was facilitated by the Japanese companies and by the American importers, who wanted a direct relationship with the Taiwanese brands. No big multinational corporations were created (like in Singapore), or huge national conglomerates (like South Korean chaebols), but some industrial groups, with the support of the government, grew, and became in the 90's huge companies totally internationalized. Most of the development was thanks to the flexibility of family businesses which produced for foreign traders established in Taiwan and for international trade nets with the help of intermediaries.
After retreating to Taiwan, Chiang learned from his mistakes and failures in the mainland and blamed them for failing to pursue Sun Yat-sen's ideals of Tridemism and welfarism. Chiang's land reform more than doubled the land ownership of Taiwanese farmers. It removed the rent burdens on them, with former land owners using the government compensation to become the new capitalist class. He promoted a mixed economy of state and private ownership with economic planning. Chiang also promoted a 9-years compulsory education and the importance of science in Taiwanese education and values. These measures generated great success with consistent and strong growth and the stabilization of inflation.
Era of globalization
In the 1970s, protectionism was on the rise, and the United Nations switched recognition from the government of the Republic of China to the government of the People's Republic of China as the sole legitimate representative of mainland China. It was expelled by General Assembly Resolution 2758 and replaced in all UN organs with the PRC. The Kuomintang began a process of enhancement and modernization of the industry, mainly in high technology (such as microelectronics, personal computers and peripherals). One of the biggest and most successful Technology Parks was built in Hsinchu, near Taipei.
Many Taiwanese brands became important suppliers of worldwide known firms such as DEC or IBM, while others established branches in Silicon Valley and other places inside the United States and became known. The government also recommended the textile and clothing industries to enhance the quality and value of their products to avoid restrictive import quotas, usually measured in volume. The decade also saw the beginnings of a genuinely independent union movement after decades of repression. Some significant events occurred in 1977, which gave the new unions a boost.
One was the formation of an independent union at the Far East Textile Company after a two-year effort discredited the former management-controlled union. This was the first union that existed independently of the Kuomintang in Taiwan's post-war history (although the Kuomintang retained a minority membership on its committee). Rather than prevailing upon the state to use martial law to smash the union, the management adopted the more cautious approach of buying workers' votes at election times. However, such attempts repeatedly failed and, by 1986, all of the elected leaders were genuine unionists. Another, and, historically, the most important, was the now called "Zhongli incident".
In the 1980s, Taiwan had become an economic power, with a mature and diversified economy, solid presence in international markets and huge foreign exchange reserves. Its companies were able to go abroad, internationalize their production, investing massively in Asia (mainly in People's Republic of China) and in other Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development countries, mainly in the United States.
Higher salaries and better organized trade unions in Taiwan, together with the reduction of the Taiwanese export quotas meant that the bigger Taiwanese companies moved their production to China and Southeast Asia. The civil society in a now developed country, wanted democracy, and the rejection of the KMT dictatorship grew larger. A major step occurred when Lee Teng-hui, a native from Taiwan, became President, and the KMT started a new path searching for democratic legitimacy.
Two aspects must be remembered: the KMT was on the center of the structure and controlled the process, and that the structure was a net made of relations between the enterprises, between the enterprises and the State, between the enterprises and the global market thanks to trade companies and the international economic exchanges. Native Taiwanese were largely excluded from the mainlanders dominated government, so many went into the business world.
In 1952, Taiwan had a per capita gross national product (GNP) of $170, placing the island's economy squarely between Zaire and Congo. But, by 2018 Taiwan's per capita GNP, adjusted for purchasing power parity (PPP), had soared to $53,074, around or above some developed West European economies and Japan.
According to economist Paul Krugman, the rapid growth was made possible by increases in capital and labor but not an increase in efficiency. In other words, the savings rate increased and work hours were lengthened, and many more people, such as women, entered the work force.
Dwight Perkins and others cite certain methodological flaws in Krugman and Alwyn Young's research, and suggest that much of Taiwan's growth can be attributed to increases in productivity. These productivity boosts were achieved through land reform, structural change (urbanization and industrialization), and an economic policy of export promotion rather than import substitution.
Future growth
Economic growth has become much more modest since the late 1990s. A key factor to understand this new environment is the rise of China, offering the same conditions that made possible, 40 years ago, the Taiwan Miracle (a quiet political and social environment, cheap and educated workers, absence of independent trade unions). To keep growing, the Taiwanese economy must abandon its workforce intensive industries, which cannot compete with China, Vietnam or other sub-developed countries, and keep innovating and investing in information technology. Since the 1990s, Taiwanese companies have been permitted to invest in China, and a growing number of Taiwanese businessmen are demanding easier communication between the two sides of the Taiwan Strait.
One major difference with Taiwan is the focus on English education. Mirroring Hong Kong and Singapore, the ultimate goal is to become a country fluent in three languages (Taiwanese; Mandarin, the national language of China, and Taiwan; and English, becoming a bridge between East and West).
According to western financial markets, consolidation of the financial sector remains a concern as it continues at a slow pace, with the market split so small that no bank controls more than 10% of the market, and the Taiwanese government is obligated, by the WTO accession treaty, to open this sector between 2005 and 2008.
However, many financial analysts estimate such concerns are based upon mirror-imaging of the Western model and do not take into account the already proven Asian Tiger model. Yet, recently, credit card debt has become a major problem, as the ROC does not have an individual bankruptcy law. Taiwan also remains undeveloped in some sectors, such as the lack of a bond market, a role that has been filled by small entrepreneur-oriented investment or direct investment by foreign persons.
Generally, transportation infrastructure is very good and continues to be improved, mainly in the west side of the island. Many infrastructure improvements are currently being pursued, such as the first rapid transit lines opening in Kaohsiung in 2008 and a doubling in size of Taipei's rapid transit system by 2013 now underway; the country's highways are very highly developed and in good maintenance and continue to be expanded, especially on the less developed and less populated east coast, and a controversial electronic toll system has recently been implemented.
The completion of the Taiwan High Speed Rail service connecting all major cities on the western coast, from Taipei to Kaohsiung is considered to be a major addition to Taiwan's transportation infrastructure. The ROC government has chosen to raise private financing in the building of these projects, going the build-operate-transfer route, but significant public financing has still been required and several scandals have been uncovered. Nevertheless, it is hoped that the completion of these projects will be a big economic stimulus, just as the subway in Taipei has revived the real estate market there.
Technology sector
Taiwan continues to rely heavily on its technology sector, a specialist in manufacturing outsourcing. Recent developments include moving up the food chain in brand building and design. LCD manufacturing and LED lights are two newer sectors in which Taiwanese companies are moving. Taiwan also wants to move into the biotechnology sector, the creation of fluorescent pet fish and a research-useful fluorescent pig being two examples. Taiwan is also a leading grower of orchids.
Taiwan's information technology (IT) and electronics sector has been responsible for a vast supply of products since the 1980s. The Industrial Technology Research Institute (ITRI) was created in the 1973 to meet new demands from the burgeoning tech industry. This led to start-up companies like Taiwan Semiconductor Manufacturing Company (TSMC) and the construction of the Hsinchu Science and Industrial Park (HSP), which includes around 520 high-tech companies and 150,000 employees. By 2015, a bulk of the global market share of motherboards (89.9 percent), Cable CPE (84.5 percent), and Notebook PCs (83.5 percent) comprise both offshore and domestic production. It placed second in producing Transistor-Liquid Crystal Display (TFT-LCD panels) (41.4 percent) and third for LCD monitors (27 percent) and LED (19 percent). Nonetheless, Taiwan is still heavily reliant on offshore capital and technologies, importing up to US$25 billion worth of machinery and electrical equipment from Mainland China, US$16 billion from Japan, and US$10 billion from the U.S.
In fact, the TFT-LCD industry in Taiwan grew primarily from state-guided personnel recruitment from Japan and inter-firm technology diffusion to fend off Korean competitors. This is due to Taiwan's unique trend of export-oriented small and medium enterprises (SME) – a direct result of domestic-market prioritization by state-owned enterprises (SOE) in its formative years. While the development of SMEs allowed better market adaptability and inter-firm partnerships, most companies in Taiwan remained original equipment manufacturers (OEM) and did not – other than firms like Acer and Asus – expand to original design manufacturing (OBM). These SMEs provide "incremental innovation" with regard to industrial manufacturing but do not, according to Dieter Ernst of the East–West Centre, a think-tank in Honolulu, surpass the "commodity trap", which stifles investment in branding and R&D projects.
The Taiwanese president Tsai Ing-wen, of the Democratic Progressive Party (DPP) enacted policies building on the continued global influence of Taiwan's IT industry. To revamp and reinvigorate Taiwan's slowing economy, her "5+2" innovative industries initiative aims to boost key sectors such as biotech, sustainable energy, national defense, smart machinery, and the "Asian Silicon Valley" project. President Tsai herself was the chairperson for TaiMed Biologics, a state-led start-up company for biopharmaceutical development with Morris Chang, the CEO of TSMC, as an external adviser. On 10 November 2016, the Executive Yuan formally endorsed a biomedical promotion plan with a budget of NT$10.94 billion (US$346.32 million).
At the opening ceremony for the Asia Silicon Valley Development Agency (ASVDA) in December 2016, Vice President Chen Chien-jen emphasized the increasing importance of enhancing not only local R&D capabilities, but also appealing to foreign investment. For example, the HSP now focuses 40 percent of its total workforce on "R&D and technology development". R&D expenditures have been gradually increasing: In 2006, it amounted to NT$307 billion, but it increased to NT$483.5 billion (US$16 billion) in 2014, approximately 3 percent of the GDP. The World Economic Forum's Global Competitiveness Report 2017–2018 profiled up to 140 countries, listing Taiwan as 16th place in university-industry collaboration in R&D, 10th place in company spending on R&D, and 22nd place in capacity for innovation. Approved overseas Chinese and foreign investment totaled US$11 billion in 2016, a massive increase from US$4.8 billion in 2015. However, the Investment Commission of the Ministry of Economic Affairs' (MOEAIC) monthly report from October 2017 estimated a decline in total foreign direct investment (between January and October 2017) to US$5.5 billion, which is a 46.09 percent decrease from the same time period of 2016 (US$10.3 billion).
Cross-strait relations
Debate on opening "Three Links" with the People's Republic of China were completed in 2008, with the security risk of economic dependence on PR China being the biggest barrier. By decreasing transportation costs, it was hoped that more money will be repatriated to Taiwan and that businesses will be able to keep operations centers in Taiwan while moving manufacturing and other facilities to mainland China.
A law forbidding any firm investing in the PR China more than 40% of its total assets on the mainland was dropped in June 2008, when the new Kuomintang government relaxed the rules to invest in the PR China. Dialogue through semi-official organisations (the SEF and the ARATS) reopened on 12 June 2008 on the basis of the 1992 Consensus, with the first meeting held in Beijing. Taiwan hopes to become a major operations center in East Asia.
Regional free trade agreements
While China already has international free trade agreements (FTA) with numerous countries through bilateral relations and regional organizations, the "Beijing factor" has led to the deliberate isolation of Taiwan from potential FTAs. In signing the Economic Cooperation Framework Agreement (ECFA) with China on 29 June 2010 – which permitted trade liberalization and an "early harvest" list of tariff cuts – former president Ma Ying-jeou wanted to not only affirm a stable economic relationship with China, but also to assuage its antagonism towards Taiwan's involvement in other FTAs. Taiwan later signed FTAs with two founding members of the Trans-Pacific Partnership (TPP) in 2013: New Zealand (ANZTEC) and Singapore (ASTEP). Exports to Singapore increased 5.6 percent between 2013 and 2014, but decreased 22 percent by 2016.
In 2013, a follow-up bilateral trade agreement to the ECFA, the Cross-Strait Service Trade Agreement (CSSTA), faced large student-led demonstrations – the Sunflower Movement – in Taipei and an occupation of the Legislative Yuan. The opposition contended that the trade pact would hinder the competency of SMEs, which encompassed 97.73 percent of total enterprises in Taiwan in 2016. The TPP, on the other hand, still presents an opportunity for Taiwan. After the APEC economic leaders' meeting in November 2017, President Tsai expressed deep support for the advancements made regarding the TPP – given that U.S. President Donald Trump pulled out of the trade deal earlier in the year. President Tsai has also promoted the "New Southbound Policy", mirroring the "go south" policies upheld by former presidents Lee Teng-hui in 1993 and Chen Shui-Bian in 2002, focusing on partners in the Asia-Pacific region such as the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), Australia and New Zealand.
See also
Made in Taiwan
Taiwanese Wave
Japanese economic miracle
Miracle on the Han River
References
External links
Official Website of Taiwan for WTO affairs, Documents
Official Website of Taiwan for WTO affairs
Separate Customs Territory of Taiwan, Penghu, Kinmen and Matsu (Chinese Taipei) and the WTO
Cross-Strait Relations between China and Taiwan
A New Era in Cross-Strait Relations? Taiwan and China in the WTO
China's Economic Leverage and Taiwan's Security Concerns with Respect to Cross-Strait Economic Relations
Economic booms
Taiwan under Republic of China rule
Economic history of Taiwan
Post–World War II economic booms |
4370435 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gothic%20War%20%28376%E2%80%93382%29 | Gothic War (376–382) | Between 376 and 382 the Gothic War against the Eastern Roman Empire, and in particular the Battle of Adrianople, is commonly seen as a major turning point in the history of the Roman Empire, the first of a series of events over the next century that would see the collapse of the Western Roman Empire, although its ultimate importance to the Empire's eventual fall is still debated. It was one of the many Gothic Wars with the Roman Empire.
Background
In the summer of 376, a massive number of Goths arrived on the Danube River, the border of the Roman Empire, requesting asylum from the Huns. There were two groups: the Thervings led by Fritigern and Alavivus and the Greuthungi led by Alatheus and Saphrax. Eunapius states their number as 200,000 including civilians but Peter Heather estimates that the Thervings may have had only 10,000 warriors and 50,000 people in total, with the Greuthungi about the same size. The Cambridge Ancient History places modern estimates at around 90,000 people.
The Goths sent ambassadors to Valens, the Eastern Roman emperor, requesting permission to settle their people inside the Empire. It took them some time to arrive, for the Emperor was in Antioch preparing for a campaign against the Sasanian Empire over control of Armenia and Iberia. The bulk of his forces were stationed in the East, far away from the Danube. Ancient sources are unanimous that Valens was pleased at the appearance of the Goths, as it offered the opportunity of new soldiers at low cost. With Valens committed to action on the Eastern frontier, the appearance of a large number of barbarians meant his skeleton force in the Balkans were outnumbered. Valens must have appreciated the danger when he gave the Thervings permission to enter the empire and the terms he gave them were highly favorable. This was not the first time barbarian tribes had been settled; the usual course was that some would be recruited into the army and the rest would be broken up into small groups and resettled across the empire at the Emperor's discretion. This would keep them from posing a unified threat and assimilate them into the greater Roman population. The agreement differed with the Thervings by allowing them to choose the place of their settlement, Thrace, and allowed them to remain united. During the negotiations, the Thervings also expressed a willingness to convert to Christianity. As for the Greuthungi, Roman army and naval forces blocked the river and denied their crossing.
The Thervings were probably allowed to cross at or near the fortress of Durostorum. They were ferried by the Romans in boats, rafts and in hollowed tree-trunks; "diligent care was taken that no future destroyer of the Roman state should be left behind, even if he were smitten by a fatal disease," according to Ammianus Marcellinus. Even so, the river swelled with rain and many drowned. The Goths were to have their weapons confiscated but, whether because the Romans in charge accepted bribes, the Romans did not have the manpower to check all of the incoming warriors, or warriors recruited into the Roman army would need their own arms, many Goths were allowed to retain their weapons. The Romans placed the Thervings along the southern bank of the Danube in Lower Mœsia as they waited for the land allocations to begin. In the interim, the Roman state was to provide them food.
Breakout
So many people in such a small area caused a food shortage and the Thervings began to starve. Roman logistics could not cope with the vast numbers, and officials under the command of Lupicinus simply sold off much of the food before it reached the hands of the Goths. Desperate, Gothic families sold many of their children into slavery to Romans for dog meat at the price of one child per one dog.
This treatment caused the Therving Goths to grow rebellious and Lupicinus decided to move them south to Marcianople, his regional headquarters. To guard the march south, Lupicinus was forced to pull out the Roman troops guarding the Danube, which allowed the Greuthungi promptly to cross into Roman territory. The Thervings then deliberately slowed their march to allow the Greuthungi to catch up. As the Thervings approached Marcianople, Lupicinus invited Fritigern, Alavivus and a small group of their attendants to dine with him inside the city. The bulk of the Goths were encamped some distance outside, with Roman troops between them and the city. Due to the persistent refusal of the Roman soldiers to allow the Goths to buy supplies in the town's market, fighting broke out and several Roman soldiers were killed and robbed. Lupicinus, having received the news as he sat at the banquet with the Gothic leaders, ordered Fritigern and Alavivus held hostage and their retainers executed. When news of the killings came to the Goths outside, they prepared to assault Marcianople. Fritigern advised Lupicinus that the best way to calm the situation was to allow him to rejoin his people and show them that he was still alive. Lupicinus agreed and set him free. Alavivus is not mentioned again in the sources and his fate is unknown.
Having survived the chaos of the night and the earlier humiliations, Fritigern and the Thervings decided it was time to break the treaty and rebel against the Romans, and the Greuthungi immediately joined them. Fritigern led the Goths away from Marcianople towards Scythia. Lupicinus and his army pursued them from the city, fought the Battle of Marcianople and were annihilated. All the junior officers were killed, the military standards were lost and the Goths secured new weapons and armor from the dead Roman soldiers. Lupicinus survived and escaped back to Marcianople. The Thervings then raided and pillaged throughout the region.
At Adrianople a small Gothic force employed by the Romans was garrisoned under the command of Sueridus and Colias, who were themselves Goths. When they received news of the events they decided to remain in place "considering their own welfare the most important thing of all." The Emperor, afraid of having a Roman garrison under Gothic control so close to a Gothic rebellion, ordered Sueridus and Colias to march east to Hellespontus. The two commanders asked for food and money for the journey, as well as a postponement of two days to prepare. The local Roman magistrate, angry at this garrison for having earlier pillaged his suburban villa, armed people from the city and stirred them against the garrison. The mob demanded that the Goths follow orders and leave immediately. The men under Sueridus and Colias initially stood still but when they were pelted with curses and missiles from the mob, attacked and killed many. The Gothic garrison left the city and joined Fritigern, and the Goths besieged Adrianople. But lacking the equipment and the experience to conduct a siege and losing many men to missiles, they abandoned the city. Fritigern declared he now "kept peace with walls". The Goths once again dispersed to loot the rich and undefended countryside. Using prisoners and Roman traitors, the Goths were led to hidden hoards, rich villages and such places.
377: Containing the Goths
Many Goths inside Roman territory joined Fritigern, as did assorted slaves, miners and prisoners. Roman garrisons in fortified towns held out but those outside of them were easy prey. The Goths created a vast wagon train to hold all the loot and supplies pillaged from the Roman countryside and they had much rage against the Roman population for what they had endured. Those who had started as starving refugees had transformed into a powerful army.
Valens, now recognizing the seriousness of the situation from his base in Antioch, sent general Victor to negotiate an immediate peace with the Sassanids. He also began to transfer the Eastern Roman army to Thrace. While the main army mobilized, he sent ahead an advance force under Traianus and Profuturus. Valens also reached out to the Western Roman emperor Gratian, his co-emperor and nephew, for aid. Gratian responded by sending the comes domesticorum Ricomer and the comes rei militaris Frigeridus to guard the western passes through the Haemus mountains with their soldiers. The aim was to contain the Goths from spreading westward and for the two forces to join up eventually with the East Roman army. These huge movements of troops and the cooperation of the West spoke to the grave threat the Goths posed.
Traianus and Profuturus arrived leading troops of Armenians, but Frigeridus, leading the Pannonian and the transalpine auxiliaries, fell ill from gout. Ricomer, having led a force cut from Gratian's palatine army, took command of the combined forces by the mutual consent of the other leaders, probably at Marcianople. The Goths withdrew north of the Haemus mountains, and the Romans moved to engage. At a place called Ad Salices ("The Willows"), they fought the Battle of the Willows. The Romans were outnumbered, and during the battle, their left wing began to collapse. Only with hasty reinforcements and Roman discipline was the situation retrieved. The battle lasted until dusk, when the opposing armies ceased combat and left the field. The Goths withdrew into their wall of wagons, leaving the battle a bloody draw. Both sides counted heavy losses, including Profuturus, who was slain on the battlefield.
After the battle, the Romans retreated to Marcianople, and the Goths of Fritigern spent seven days within their wagon fort before moving out. Frigeridus destroyed and enslaved a band of marauding Goths under Farnobius and sent the survivors to Italy. That autumn, Ricomer returned to Gaul to collect more troops for the next year's campaign. Valens meanwhile sent soldiers under magister equitum Saturninus to Thrace to join up with Traianus. Saturninus and Traianus erected a line of forts in the Haemus passes to block the Goths. The Romans hoped to weaken the enemy with the rigors of winter and starvation and then lure Fritigern into open battle on the plains between the Haemus mountains and the Danube to finish him off. The Goths, once again hungry and desperate, tried to break through the passes but were repulsed each time. Fritigern then enlisted the aid of mercenary Huns and Alans, who boosted his strength. Saturninus, realizing he could no longer hold the passes against them, abandoned the blockade and retreated. The Goths were thus free to raid anew, reaching as far as the Rhodope Mountains and the Hellespont.
The Goths, joined by their new allies the Huns and Alans, travelled south in search of plunder and close to the city of Deultum won the Battle of Deultum destroying most of the Eastern Roman army and the city. Barzimeres, tribunum scutariorum (Commander of the Guards), was killed and Equitius, cura palatii (Marshal of the Court), was captured. The Goths marched on Augusta Trajana to attack the general Frigiderus but his scouts detected the invaders and he promptly withdrew to Illyria but the city was also destroyed. Equitius later managed to escape from captivity.
Archaeological finds in this region and dated to this period reveal Roman villas with signs of abandonment and deliberate destruction. The devastation forced Valens to officially reduce taxes on the populations of Mœsia and Scythia.
378: The Battle of Adrianople
Valens finally extracted himself from the Eastern front, after granting many concessions to the Persians and arrived with most of his army in Constantinople on 30 May 378. His entry into the city caused small riots against him. According to the Historia Ecclesiastica of Socrates Scholasticus, the citizens of the capital accused Emperor Valens of neglecting their defense, exposing them to the raids of the Goths who now threatened Constantinople itself and urged him to leave the city and confront the invaders instead of continuing to delay. Valens left the city after twelve days and moved with his army to his imperial villa Melanthias, west of Constantinople, on 12 June. There he distributed pay, supplies and speeches to his soldiers to boost morale.
Blaming Traianus for the bloody draw at The Willows, Valens demoted him and appointed Sebastianus, who had arrived from Italy, to command and organize the Eastern Roman army. Sebastianus set out with a small force, drawn from the Emperor's own Scholae Palatinae, to engage separated Gothic raiding bands. He went first to Adrianople and such was the fear of the roving Goths, the city needed much persuasion to open its gates to him. After this, Sebastianus scored a few small victories. In one instance, he waited until nightfall to ambush a sleeping Gothic warband along the river Hebrus and slaughtered most of them. The loot Sebastianus brought back was, according to Ammianus, too much for Adrianople to hold. Sebastianus' success convinced Fritigern to recall his raiding parties to the area of Cabyle, lest they be picked off piecemeal.
Western Roman Emperor Gratian had meant to join up with Valens' army but events in the West detained him. First there was an invasion by the Lentienses into Gaul in February 378, which Gratian defeated. Then intelligence came from the other side of the Rhine warning of barbarian preparations for more invasions. This forced Gratian to preemptively cross the river himself and bring the situation under control as he successfully defeated the Alemanni. This took time however, and it was not until August that Gratian sent a message declaring his victories and his imminent arrival. Valens, who had been impatiently waiting since June for the Western Roman army, was envious of the glory of his nephew and that of Sebastianus, so when he heard that the Goths were moving south towards Adrianople, Valens decamped his army and marched there to head them off. Roman scouting erroneously reported that the Goths, who were seen raiding near Nika, numbered only 10,000 fighting men. Around 7 August Ricomer returned from the West with the Western armies' advanced guard and a new message: Gratian was nearing the Succi pass which led to Adrianople and he advised his uncle to wait for him. Valens called a council of war to decide the issue. According to Ammianus, Sebastianus advocated for an immediate assault upon the Goths and that Victor cautioned to wait for Gratian. According to Eunapius, Sebestianus said they should wait. In any case, the council and Valens decided to attack immediately, egged on by court flatterers of the easy victory to come.
The Goths sent envoys led by a Christian priest to the Romans to negotiate on the night of 8 August. With them Fritigern sent two letters. The first stipulated that the Goths only wanted lands in Thrace and in exchange would ally themselves to the Romans. The second letter, privately addressed to Valens, said that Fritigern truly wanted peace but the Romans would have to stay mobilized so that he could enforce the peace on his own people. Whether Fritigern was earnest or not is unknown, as Valens rejected the proposal. On the morning of 9 August, Valens left his treasury, imperial seal and civilian officials in Adrianople and marched north to engage the Goths. At around two in the afternoon the Romans came within sight of the Gothic wagon fort. Unlike the Romans, the Goths were well rested and the two sides drew up into battle formations. Fritigern sent more peace envoys and had long since sent for the aid of the Greuthungi cavalry under Alatheus and Saphrax who were separated from the main Gothic body. These remained undetected by Roman scouts.
The Eastern Roman army withered under the hot summer sun and the Goths lit fires to blow smoke and ash into the Roman formations. Valens reconsidered the peace offer and was preparing to send Ricomer to meet with Fritigern when two Roman elite Scholae Palatinae units, the Scutarii under Cassio and the Sagittarii under Bacurius, engaged the Goths without orders. This forced the Battle of Adrianople to begin. As the armies engaged, the Greuthungi and Alan cavalry arrived and swung the battle in favor of the Goths. The Roman left flank was surrounded and destroyed and a rout began all along the lines which became a bloodbath for the Roman forces. They were so tightly packed they could not maneuver and some could not lift their arms at all. Few managed to run.
Sebastianus, Traianus, tribune Aequitius and thirty-five senior officers had been slain, while Ricomer, Victor and Saturninus had escaped. Two-thirds of the Eastern Roman army lay dead upon the field. There are conflicting stories as to what happened to the Emperor himself. One claims that he was wounded and dragged off the field by some of his men to a farmhouse. The Goths approached it and were shot at with arrows, which caused the Goths to burn it down with the Emperor inside. The other report states Valens was slain in combat on the field with his army. Whatever happened, his body was never found.
The Goths, invigorated by their incredible victory, besieged Adrianople but the city resisted. Its walls were strengthened, huge stones were placed behind the gates and arrows, stones, javelins and artillery rained down upon the attackers. The Goths lost men but made no progress. So they resorted to trickery: they ordered some Roman traitors to pretend to be fleeing from the Goths and infiltrate the city, where they were to set fires to allow the Goths, while the citizens were busy putting the fires out, to attack the undefended walls. The plan did not work. The Roman traitors were welcomed into the city but when their stories did not match, they were imprisoned and tortured. They confessed to the trap and were beheaded. The Goths launched another assault but it too failed. With this final defeat, the Goths gave up and marched away. They together with some Huns and Alans went first to Perinthus and then to Constantinople. There they were fended off in the small battle of Constantinople with the help of the city's Arab garrison. At one moment, an Arab dressed only in a loincloth rushed forward against the Goths, slit one of their throats and sucked out the blood. This terrified the Goths and combined with the immense size of the city and its walls, they decided to march off once again to plunder the countryside.
With Valens dead, the Eastern Roman Empire had to operate without an Emperor. The magister militum of the East, Julius, feared the Gothic populations elsewhere in the Eastern Roman Empire, both civilians and those Goths serving within army units across the Empire. After the events of Adrianople, they could ally themselves to Fritigern and spread the crisis to even more provinces. Julius therefore had those Goths near the frontier lured together and massacred. By 379, word reached the Goths in the interior provinces of the massacres and some rioted, especially in Asia Minor. The Romans put down the riots and slaughtered the Goths in those places as well, both innocent and guilty.
379–382: Theodosius I and the end of the war
For the events of the Gothic War between 379 and 382, there are few sources, and accounts become more confused, especially concerning the rise of Theodosius I as the new Eastern Roman Emperor. Theodosius, born in Hispania, was the son of a successful general. As dux Mœsiae, he campaigned in the eastern Balkans against the Sarmatians in 374. After his father fell victim to court intrigue following the death of Western Roman Emperor Valentinian I, Theodosius decided to retire to his estates in Spain. Why he was recalled to the East is a mystery. Perhaps his military experience and the critical need for it in any new emperor played a part. It seems Theodosius regained his post as dux Mœsiae. He may have been campaigning against the Goths by late 378. On 19 January 379, Theodosius was made emperor. Sources are silent on how this happened. Whether Gratian initiated Theodosius' elevation himself or the surviving army in the East forced Gratian to accept Theodosius as his colleague is unknown. Whatever the cause, Gratian did acknowledge Theodosius as his co-emperor but promptly left for the West to deal with the Alemanni. Gratian offered little help to Theodosius for dealing with the Goths, outside of giving him control of the Western imperial dioceses of Dacia and Macedonia.
Theodosius set about recruiting a new army at his headquarters in Thessalonica. Farmers were drafted, and barbarian mercenaries from beyond the Danube were bought. The drafting of farmers created much resentment. Some mutilated their own thumbs, but many more hid themselves or deserted with the help of landowners, who were not pleased with losing their workers to the army. Theodosius responded with many harsh laws punishing those who hid deserters and rewarding those who turned them in. Even those who mutilated themselves were still forced into the Roman military.
Theodosius' general Modares, a Goth himself, won a minor victory against Fritigern. Even small victories such as these were massively lauded by imperial propagandists; there are records of victory celebrations equaling half that of the previous seven decades combined. Theodosius needed victories and needed to be seen as dealing with the Gothic crisis.
In 380, the Goths split. The Greuthungi went to Illyricum and invaded the Western province of Pannonia. What happened is again disputed; they were either defeated by Gratian's forces, or they peaceably signed a deal that settled them in Pannonia. The Thervings went south into Macedonia and Thessaly. Theodosius with his new army marched to meet them but, filled with unreliable barbarians and raw recruits, it melted away. The barbarian soldiers joined Fritigern, and many Romans deserted. With victory the Thervings were free to force the local Roman cities in this new region to pay them tribute. It was then that the Western Roman Empire finally offered some help. Having ended the Gothic invasion of Pannonia, Gratian met Theodosius at Sirmium and directed his generals Arbogast and Bauto to help drive the Goths back into Thrace, which they successfully accomplished by the summer of 381. Theodosius meanwhile left for Constantinople, where he stayed. After years of war, the defeat of two Roman armies and continued stalemate, peace negotiations were opened.
Peace and consequences
Ricomer and Saturninus conducted the negotiations for the Romans and peace was declared on 3 October 382. By then, the Gothic commanders from Adrianople were gone; Fritigern, Alatheus and Saphrax are never again mentioned in the ancient histories and their ultimate fates are unknown. Speculation ranges from death in battle to overthrown as the price for peace.
In the peace, the Romans recognized no overall leader of the Goths and the Goths were nominally incorporated into the Roman Empire. The Romans gained a military alliance with them as foederati: the Goths would be drafted into the Roman army and in special circumstances could be called upon to field full armies for the Romans. What differed from traditional Roman practice was that the Goths were given lands inside the Roman Empire itself, in the provinces of Scythia, Mœsia and possibly Macedonia, under their own authority and were not dispersed. This allowed them to stay together as a unified people with their own internal laws and cultural traditions. To seal the agreement, Theodosius threw the Goths a large feast.
Themistius, a Roman orator and imperial propagandist, while acknowledging that the Goths could not be militarily defeated, sold the peace as a victory for the Romans who had won the Goths over to their side and turned them into farmers and allies. He believed that in time the barbarian Goths would become steadfast Romans themselves like the barbarian Galatians had before them.
Despite these hopes, the Gothic War changed the way the Roman Empire dealt with barbarian peoples, both out of and within the imperial border. The Therving Goths would now be able to negotiate their position with Rome, with force if necessary, as a unified people inside the borders of the Empire and would transform themselves into the Visigoths. At times they would act as friends and allies to the Romans, at other times as enemies. This change in Rome's relationship with barbarians would lead to the sack of Rome in 410.
The Gothic War also affected the religion of the Empire. Valens had been an Arian Christian and his death at Adrianople helped pave the way for Theodosius to make Nicene Christianity the official form of Christianity for the Empire. The Goths, like many barbarian peoples, converted to Arianism.
See also
Sack of Rome (410)
Late Roman army
Late Ancient Christianity
Notes
References
Sources
Primary sources
Ammianus Marcellinus , The History, XXXI.
Secondary sources |
4370629 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American%20Stores | American Stores | American Stores Company was an American public corporation and a holding company which ran chains of supermarkets and drugstores in the United States from 1917 through 1998. The company was incorporated in 1917 when The Acme Tea Company merged with four small Philadelphia-area grocery stores (Childs, George Dunlap, Bell Company, and A House That Quality Built) to form American Stores. In the following eight decades, the company would expand to 1,575 food and drugstores in 38 states with $20 billion (~$ in ) in annual sales in 1998.
History
By 1925, American Stores had grown from five supermarkets in 1917 to nearly 1,800 stores. In 1946, a proposed acquisition of Grand Union supermarkets was turned down by Grand Union stockholders.
1960s-1970s
In 1961, American Stores company acquired California's Alpha Beta chain of supermarkets. In the 1970s, in order to compete with lower priced grocery retailers such as ShopRite and Pathmark (competitors which did not offer trading stamps), Acme Markets launched its Super Saver discount grocery chain in Pennsylvania.
American Stores itself was acquired in 1979 by the Skaggs Companies, Inc., which adopted the American Stores Company name, and relocated the company headquarters to Salt Lake City, Utah.
American Stores was by far the larger organization, with 758 supermarkets, 139 drugstores, 53 restaurants, and 9 general merchandise stores in nine states when compared to the 241 Skaggs stores. Although the resulting entity bore the American Stores Company name, it was controlled by Skaggs management headed by Leonard S. Skaggs Jr. more familiarly known as Sam Skaggs. Stores in several markets having both an Alpha Beta supermarket and a Skaggs Drug Center drugstore presence were combined (or expanded) to combination food and drug stores and re-branded Skaggs Alpha Beta.
In 1977, the Skaggs Companies, Inc. had amicably dissolved a partnership started in 1969 with the Albertsons supermarket chain which pioneered the first combination grocery/drug with stores named Skaggs Albertsons.
1980s
American Stores posted $83 million in earnings on sales of nearly $8 billion in 1983. But its presence was still weak in the midwest, New England, and Florida. To help overcome these remaining geographical shortcomings, Sam Skaggs made another attempt to merge with the Jewel Companies, Inc. in 1984.
In 1978, Skaggs Companies, Inc., originally had worked out an agreement to merge with Jewel Companies Inc., but the merger was torpedoed at the last minute when some of Skaggs's directors, concerned that they would lose their autonomy under the deal, failed to approve it.
Acquisition of the Jewel Companies
The Jewel Companies, Inc. chairman Weston Christopherson was opposed to a merger and Sam Skaggs was forced to engineer a hostile takeover. On June 1, 1984, American Stores tendered an offer worth $1.1 billion for 67 percent of Jewel's outstanding shares at $70 per share.
For two weeks, the Jewel Companies, Inc. management refused all comment on the offer, maintaining its silence even at a stormy shareholder's meeting before which Jewel shareholder groups controlling 20 percent of the company's stock had come out in favor of negotiating with American Stores. Finally, on June 14, Sam Skaggs and Jewel president Richard Cline reached an agreement after an all-night bargaining session. American Stores raised its bid for Jewel's preferred stock, increasing the total bid to $1.15 billion in cash and securities. In return, Jewel dropped plans for a defensive acquisition of Household International Inc. and accepted American Stores' offer. To help raise cash for the deal, American Stores sold its Rea and Derick, Inc. subsidiary comprising 134 drugstores in December 1984 to People's Drug, a division of Imasco Limited. 33 Alpha Beta grocery stores in Arizona sold to ABCO Foods, 22 Alpha Beta grocery stores and support facilities in northern California were also sold.
The acquisition of the Jewel Companies, Inc. consisted of the Illinois-based Jewel Food Stores supermarket chain, Illinois-based Osco Drug, Inc., Massachusetts-based Star Market, California-based Sav-on Drugs, Montana-based Buttrey Food Stores, and White Hen. This acquisition also returned L. L. Skaggs's Osco Drug chain to the Skaggs family ownership. And Sav-on Drugs, another Jewel Companies subsidiary, had been founded by C.J. Call, who had once been a business partner of another of Sam Skaggs's uncles, O.P. Skaggs.
This merger added 193 supermarkets, 358 drugstores, 140 combination food and drug stores, 301 convenience stores, and 132 discount stores to American Stores' holdings. But in 1985, the company found itself in legal trouble through its new subsidiary. A salmonella food-poisoning outbreak affecting some 20,000 people in the midwest was traced to Jewel's Hillfarm Dairy that had supplied tainted milk to Jewel stores in March and April 1985. In 1987, Jewel was found not liable for punitive damages in Illinois Cook County Circuit Court but agreed to pay compensatory damages estimated at $35 to $40 million.
In 1985, American Stores sold the White Hen chain, since convenience stores did not fit into the company's plans. Buttrey Food & Drug and Star Market were put up for sale in order to raise capital and pay down debt. Although the company continued to operate these subsidiaries, investment in remodeling and new construction for these stores and for Acme Markets was minimal throughout the 1980s.
By 1987, American Stores Company was the largest drug retailer in the United States, but only the third-largest grocery retailer and underperforming its peers. In October 1987, the company exited the Idaho and Washington drugstore markets with the sale of 25 Osco Drug units to Pay Less Drug Stores.
Acquisition of Lucky Stores
In March 1988, American Stores made an unsolicited tender offer for Lucky Stores, an Alpha Beta competitor noted for high efficiency and low prices. American Stores’ Alpha Beta chain in California was struggling, plagued by high prices and a reputation for poor service. At the time, Lucky was California's leading grocery retailer, due in part that it was the only chain with a significant presence in both northern California and southern California. Lucky refused American Stores' first offer. Within a month, American Stores proposed to up its bid if Lucky would agree to a friendly takeover. Again Lucky management rejected the offer as inadequate and was said to be contemplating defensive strategies. Later, American Stores upped its bid to $2.5 billion, or $65 per share. Lucky accepted and American Stores was on track to become the largest supermarket chain in the United States, over the Kroger and Safeway chains.
The acquisition included then Dublin, California-based Lucky Stores, with stores in California, Nevada, and Arizona; Tampa-based Kash n' Karry, with stores in Florida; and a minority interest in Milan, Illinois-based Eagle Food Centers.
In August 1988, California Attorney General John Van de Kamp asked the Federal Trade Commission to void the sale, claiming that a Lucky-Alpha Beta juggernaut would cost California consumers $400 million (~$ in ) by reducing competition. The Federal Trade Commission refused but did force the divestiture of 37 Alpha Beta stores, which were sold in December 1988, the same month 38 Lucky stores in Arizona were also sold. Van de Kamp then initiated a lawsuit against American Stores under the Clayton Antitrust Act, and on September 1988, a federal judge in Los Angeles issued a preliminary injunction against the merger. American Stores appealed, and in April 1989, a Ninth Circuit panel in San Francisco overturned the injunction. Van de Kamp appealed this reversal to the U.S. Supreme Court. Meanwhile, American Stores continued to plan its integration of Lucky while it waited for the district court to lift the injunction as ordered by the Ninth Circuit.
However, on August 22, 1989, Associate Justice Sandra Day O'Connor, in her capacity as Circuit Justice for the Ninth Circuit, issued an interlocutory order staying the Ninth Circuit's issuance of its mandate back to the district court, which kept the preliminary injunction in place while the parties briefed the issues before the high court. After oral argument on January 19, the U.S. Supreme Court issued a unanimous decision on April 30, 1990 (although Justice Anthony Kennedy filed a concurring opinion separately from Justice John Paul Stevens' opinion for the Court) in favor of the state of California. The Court ruled that the words "injunctive relief" in Section 16 of the Clayton Act impliedly included the power to force divestiture of assets in order to ameliorate harm to the market from an anticompetitive merger.
Wishing to avoid additional lengthy litigation, the following month American Stores reached an agreement with Van de Kamp whereby the company was allowed to convert 14 Alpha Beta stores to the Lucky name but also had to sell 161 southern California stores (152 Alpha Beta stores and 9 Lucky stores) within 5 years. The deal put no restrictions on American Stores' future growth in California and did not require state approval of the buyer or terms of the sale.
In 1989, Kash n' Karry was acquired by its management from American Stores for $305 million (~$ in ). American Stores also sold the minority interest in Eagle Food Centers that it had acquired from Lucky and sold it to New York-based Odyssey Partners.
Headquarters move to Southern California
Based on a recommendation by Booz-Allen, American Stores relocated its corporate headquarters from Salt Lake City to Irvine, California, in July 1988. At the time, the company indicated the reason for the move was to place the headquarters in one of the company's major operating market areas and therefore closer to its business interests. However, the corporate headquarters was moved back to Salt Lake City in 1989 with little explanation.
Sav-on Name Change
American Stores plans to build a coast-to-coast drugstore chain in the United States were underway. The strategy was to build a nationwide network of pharmacies, streamline operations and advertising in order to gain national recognition for the brand, especially for the high-margin private label products. The name Osco Drug was chosen as the national chain banner because of the large number of stores which already had that name and existed in various parts of the United States. The name change was completed for the Skaggs drugstores in 1985 and then for the Sav-on stores in 1986.
The name 'Osco' did not resonate well with Sav-on's southern California customer base. American Stores eventually made the decision to change the name of the former Sav-on stores back to Sav-on Drugs. Rumors circulated at the time claiming that the reason for the name change back to 'Sav-on' was due to 'Osco' having the same pronunciation as the Spanish word 'asco' (oss-ko) which means disgust or loathing, a considerable factor within southern California’s heavily Hispanic market. This explanation for the name change was refuted by American Stores.
The name change on all stores was completed in 1989 and the Sav-on Drugs brand was re-launched in southern California and Nevada.
American Drug Stores, Inc.
In 1989, a new subsidiary American Drug Stores, Inc. was formed and consisted of American Stores drugstore holdings of Osco Drug, Sav-on Drugs, the Osco side of the Jewel-Osco food-drug combination stores and RxAmerica. RxAmerica began earlier in 1989 as a mail service prescription fulfillment center with a facility in Salt Lake City.
Jewel-Osco Florida
On March 16, 1989, the company opened a 75,000-square-foot Jewel-Osco combination store in Largo, Florida. This marked American Stores’ re-entry into the Southeast after an absence of nearly two decades. Mark S. Skaggs, son of Sam Skaggs was president of the new Jewel-Osco of Florida division. This was a wholly separate division of the company and was not part of the Jewel Food Stores chain in the midwest or the Osco/American Drug Stores subsidiary. Unlike the combination stores in the midwest, where Jewel ran the food side of the combination stores and Osco ran the drug side, the Florida stores were run by a one overall manager, similar to the way a Skaggs Alpha Beta store was managed. Only six Jewel-Osco stores were opened in Florida and all were sold to Albertsons in 1992.
1990s
In the early 1990s, reducing the $3.4 billion in debt load became the prime challenge for the company; doing so was mainly accomplished through asset sales. By the end of fiscal 1992, long term debt was down from $3.4 billion to $2.1 billion.
Divestitures
In the early 1990s, American Stores divestitures included:
October 1990: 44 Buttrey Food & Drug stores located in Montana, Wyoming, Washington, Idaho, and North Dakota by a management-led $184 million leveraged buyout.
June 1991: 51 Osco Drug stores in Colorado, Utah, and Wyoming sold to Pay Less Drug Stores, at that time a division of Kmart, for $60 million.
June 1991: 152 unit Alpha Beta chain sold to the Yucaipa Companies for $251 million.
October 1991: 74 newly re-branded and remodeled Texas, Oklahoma, Florida, and Arkansas Jewel-Osco combination stores for $454 million to Albertsons. Earlier in 1991 and prior to the announcement of the sale, American Stores had remodeled and renamed these stores from Skaggs Alpha Beta to Jewel-Osco. The 11 Jewel-Osco New Mexico stores were retained by American Stores and operated as Jewel-Osco Southwest, Inc., a subsidiary separate from the Jewel Food Stores chain in the midwest.
The company also put its 275 unit ACME Markets chain on the block in early 1991, but shortly thereafter decided not to sell Acme Markets, apparently because the bids received were not deemed sufficient.
November 1994, the Star Market grocery division, fifth in market share in the Greater Boston area, consisting of 33 food stores in Massachusetts and Rhode Island was sold to Investcorp Bank, an international investment bank for $288 million in cash and the assumption of substantially all of its outstanding liabilities. American Stores deemed Star Market expendable because the company wanted to focus on markets where it held first or second place in market share.
January 1995, the company sold 45 Acme Markets located in New York and northern Pennsylvania to the Penn Traffic Company for $94 million.
Acquisitions
At the same time that the company was making major divestments in the early 1990s, American Stores also looked for opportunities to make strategic minor acquisitions, ones that would enhance its position in the main markets where it needed to strengthen market share.
The company's California drugstore operations were enhanced through the early 1992 $60 million purchase of 85 CVS Stores (63 CVS Pharmacy drugstores and the rights to operate 22 CVS health and beauty aid stores) from the Melville Corporation. These stores converted to the Sav-on Drugs and Sav-on Express banners. Later that year, 30 Thrifty and Rx Plus drugstores in Arizona and Nevada were acquired.
The following year the Midwest region received a boost when Reliable Drug (a 55 unit chain) in Indiana, Illinois, Iowa, Kansas, and Missouri was bought. These stores were soon re-bannered as Osco Drug stores.
February 1995, American Stores spent about $37 million for 17 Clark Drug stores in southern California, which were then converted to the Sav-on Drugs name.
Transformation into an Operating Company
American Stores had long been run as a decentralized holding company, but in order to compete in the fierce retail environment of the 1990s the company announced plans in 1992 to transform itself into an integrated operating company. As part of this transition, the company also began to centralize company-wide its procurement, warehousing, inventory control, distribution, marketing, payroll and human resources operations. Another aspect of the plan involved the consolidation of the central support organizations of the drugstore and grocery store operations. At the same time, American Stores sought to initiate faster growth, this time primarily through the opening of new stores and not through acquisitions. This ambitious plan to create better efficiencies won a lot of support from investors. The plan, called the Delta Project, was expected to turn American Stores into a more profitable national supermarket company with greater shareholder value by centralizing its buying operations, as well as putting together more food and drugstore combination stores.
From 1992 up through 1998, American Stores consolidated operations and moved major responsibilities of their subsidiaries to their headquarters in Salt Lake City, Utah. The company's employees based in Salt Lake City increased from fewer than 100 in 1992 to over 1,200 by 1998. During this period, American Stores itself did not operate any food or drugstores in Utah having sold-off the Osco Drug and Alpha Beta Utah stores in 1991.
Super Saver Food
In early 1994, American Stores launched a discount warehouse food store concept in California. New store formats were built in Anaheim, Indio, National City, Oceanside and several existing Lucky stores were converted to this warehouse format in Sacramento, Pittsburg, Vacaville, and Woodland. Initially, these stores were named Price Advantage, based on a Lucky Advantage prototype store in Escondido, California. Price Club sued American Stores over name infringement shortly before the grand opening of the stores. The stores were swiftly renamed Food Advantage the night before grand openings, with the word "Price" marked out with a thick ink marker on every label, tag and sign in the store. In the coming months these stores were branded as Food/Price Advantage and finally as Super Saver Food. Super Saver Food was a familiar brand which had been used in the 1970s and early 1980s by Acme for their discount grocery store format in Pennsylvania and was a trademark still owned by American Stores.
Kap's Kitchen and Pantry
In 1997, the company opened Kap's Kitchen and Pantry in Salt Lake City, Utah, a prototype for entry into the high end food retail market with selections of natural and organic products, produce, seafood, grocery, meat and poultry, bakery and prepared foods. The venture was quickly abandoned and the store was closed within a year.
Skaggs Family Exit
In 1994, at the company's annual shareholder meeting, the company board elected Sam Skaggs’ son Don L. Skaggs a director effective October 1, 1994, to fill the position rendered vacant by the resignation of Aline W. Skaggs, wife of Sam Skaggs. Don L. Skaggs was also the Executive Vice President and General Manager of Skaggs Telecommunications Service, Inc. a non-retail subsidiary of American Stores consisting of an audio media production company, a satellite teleport U.S. Satellite Corporation and an operation that sold equipment to law enforcement agencies. Seventy-two-year-old Sam Skaggs relinquished the chairmanship of American Stores to Victor L. Lund in 1995. Skaggs still held an 18.3 percent stake in the company and a seat on the company board, and when he announced in July 1996 that he was exploring options for his stake, speculation about a possible takeover ran wild. The company was not certain if Skaggs’ intention was to launch a proxy fight for control of American Stores or to alter its current management or direction. By February 1997, an agreement was reached between American Stores and Skaggs whereby the company would repurchase about 12.2 million of Skaggs's shares for $550 million (~$ in ), with the remaining shares subsequently to be sold to the public through a secondary offering. This purchase reduced Skaggs’ stake in the company to five percent, insufficient ownership for him and his family members to retain seats on the company's board.
Acquisition by Albertsons
At the company's June 17, 1998, annual meeting of shareholders in Salt Lake City, American Stores highlighted its accomplishments over the past year and its plans for the sustained long-term growth. In his keynote address, chairman and chief executive officer Victor L. Lund said, "During the past year, we have transformed many of our key plans for the future to reality. We are confident that our plan for growth is working and is squarely on track. We've set our sights very high because we know our visions of tomorrow will be achieved". A day earlier, American Stores had held a ceremony marking the opening of the American Stores Center, its 24 story corporate office building in downtown Salt Lake City, Utah. The building had a company-owned Italian restaurant, Il Sansovino, and a convenience store, The American Store, on the ground level floor.
Six weeks later, on August 3, 1998 it was announced that Albertsons would acquire American Stores for $11.7 billion (~$ in ). Soon after the announcement, the Federal Trade Commission charged that Albertsons' proposed acquisition of American Stores would substantially lessen supermarket competition in California, Nevada, and New Mexico. The proposed acquisition, the FTC charged, could result in higher prices or reduced quality and selection for consumers. As a condition of the sale, Albertsons' and American Stores agreed to sell 144 supermarkets (104 Albertson's supermarkets, 40 American Stores' Lucky supermarkets) in 57 markets in order to resolve. The divestiture agreement, at the time, was the largest retail divestiture ever required by the Federal Trade Commission. Due to the mandated sale of stores, the acquisition took nearly a year to complete. In June 1999, the acquisition was complete, ASC was de-listed on the New York Stock Exchange and American Stores ceased to exist.
During 1999, the drugstore operations division and general merchandise procurement functions were moved from Salt Lake City to Scottsdale, Arizona, operating as Albertsons Drug Region. The functions which supported the food divisions were consolidated and moved from Salt Lake City to Albertsons' headquarters in Boise. For a short time after the acquisition of American Stores, Albertsons leased several floors of the American Stores Center building to the International Olympic Committee - Utah had been awarded the 2002 Winter Olympics. The building is now owned by Wells Fargo.
For a very short time after the American Stores acquisition was completed, Albertsons was the largest food/drug chain in the United States operating nearly 2,500 stores in 40 states, until Kroger's acquisition of Fred Meyer completed the following month. Albertsons preserved the Acme Markets, Jewel-Osco, Osco Drug and Sav-on Drugs namesakes. Shortly after the sale, Albertsons rebranded the Lucky stores under the Albertsons name because both chains had stores and overlap in northern and southern California. (The Lucky brand would be revived in 2006 by SuperValu).
References
External links
U.S. Chain Store Timeline
Business Network published: April 3, 1989 Jewel Osco dazzles Tampa with sparkling new format
Edgar Online published: April 26, 1995: SEC Filing, filed by AMERICAN STORES CO
Edgar Online published: June 21, 1995 American Stores Notice of Annual Meeting of Shareholders
Business Network published: July 8, 1996 American Stores awaits founder Skaggs' next move
Chain Drug Review published March 17, 1997 Skaggs family to sell its stake in American Stores
Press Release Newswire: June 17, 1998 American Stores Company Highlights Accomplishments During the Past Year and Vision for the Future
FTC Release: June 22, 1999 Agreement with Albertson's and American Stores Requires Selling of 144 Stores in Order to Preserve Supermarket Competition in California, Nevada and New Mexico
Holding companies established in 1917
Defunct supermarkets of the United States
Skaggs family
Retail companies disestablished in 1999
Retail companies established in 1917
1917 establishments in Pennsylvania
1999 disestablishments in Utah
Holding companies disestablished in 1999 |
4370715 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahlathini%20and%20the%20Mahotella%20Queens | Mahlathini and the Mahotella Queens | Mahlathini and the Mahotella Queens (also known as Mahlathini Nezintombi Zomgqashiyo and Mahlathini and the Girls of Mgqashiyo) were a South African mbaqanga supergroup made up of the three musical acts linked together by talent scout and record producer Rupert Bopape at the Gallo Recording Company in Johannesburg, South Africa in 1964. The group composed of the following three distinct parts:
The late Simon "Mahlathini" Nkabinde (1937–1999), a "powerful singer" in the basso-profundo "groaning" style.
The girl group the Mahotella Queens (1964–present), the classic line up being the threesome, Hilda Tloubatla, Nobesuthu Mbadu and Mildred Mangxola. Still recording and performing internationally, the trio are noted for their distinct vocal harmony sound alternating between multi-part harmonies and unison vocals, guitar-led mbaqanga music, and fast stage dancing.
The instrumental band, the Makgona Tsohle Band (1964–1999), that is noted for creating the mbaqanga music style, led by electric lead guitarist Marks Mankwane and alto saxophonist West Nkosi.
Together they were an extremely productive commercial success and a major live attraction in and around South Africa 1964–72. The three parts of the group reformed in 1986–87; following the 70th-birthday tribute to Nelson Mandela at London's Wembley Arena in 1988, the supergroup rose to international renown during the years 1987–97, going on to feature in many international festivals.
History
1964 formation
The major record labels under South Africa's apartheid era were white-owned companies with very few black artists. Historically, laws such as the Land Act of 1913 to the Group Areas Act (1950) prevented musicians from different tribal communities integrating and many were not permitted to establish themselves in the city. Consequently, making it almost impossible for most black music artists to gain recognition beyond their own tribal boundaries. During the apartheid period, black South Africans could no longer play to white audiences and white broadcasting programmers did not approve of American-influenced music. Mavuthela was instituted in 1964 as a division of the country's largest independent record label Gallo Africa to focus solely on producing music for the black South African market. It was headed by talent scout/producer Rupert Bopape, a former producer for EMI South Africa before joining Gallo Record Company. Bopabe had already had successes recording popular artists such as Alexandra Black Mambazo, the King's Messengers Quartet and female group the Dark City Sisters. Black South African producers came up with the idea of returning to the styles of acoustic African popular music and harmony singing groups, but they electrified the instruments, mixed the sexes, and added a lively 8/8 township beat. Mbaqanga music became popular amongst urban black South Africans living in the townships.
The group that later became known worldwide as Mahlathini and the Mahotella Queens started as part of the team of musicians working at the Mavuthela Music Company. Rupert Bopape largely created the group from three distinct parts. He had brought with him from EMI Mahlathini (the 'Lion of Soweto'), a leading exponent of a style that was later christened groaning (a vocal style was performed by deep-voiced male singers in conjunction with five-piece female harmony groups and a backing band of instrumentalists). Another of Bopape's more successful acts was a team of female singers that would record songs under various group pseudonyms, including under the name, Mahotella Queens. The line-up of the group would consist of five singers taken from a larger pool of vocalists that included Hilda Tloubatla, Juliet Mazamisa, Ethel Mngomezulu and Francisca Mngomezulu, Mildred Mangxola, Nobesuthu Mbadu, Windy Sibeko, Mary Rabotapi (formerly of The Skylarks) and Nunu Maseko; they became the country's most popular girl group during the late 1960s – mid-1970s period. The Mahotella Queens and Mahlathini were backed by the newly formed Makgona Tsohle Band (which translates as the 'Band Who Can Do Everything'), the five musicians were all former domestic workers from Pretoria – West Nkosi (saxophone), Marks Mankwane (lead guitar), Joseph Makwela (bass guitar), Vivian Ngubane (rhythm guitar) and Lucky Monama (drums). The horn section included Lemmy 'Special' Mabaso, Shadrack Piliso, Mario da Conceicao and (briefly) Spokes Mashiyane. The team of horn-blowers was expanded in the late 1960s to include Roger Xezu, Sipho Bhengu, Thomas Motshoane, David Khanyile (aka "Fastos The Great") and Sello Mmutung (better known as "Bra Sello").
Early professional career
Black South African musicians received little money and it was difficult to get air time on local radio stations, so often they performed outside record stores to attract audiences. The band began by cutting 78 record copies of their first collection of songs and playing their music in the street, they went on to recording hundreds of hit singles. Throughout the late 1960s and early 1970s, Mahlathini and the Mahotella Queens dominated South African music, notching up many recordings from their debut Orlando Train to songs like Uyavutha Umlilo (Music Inferno), Sengikala Ngiyabeleka (Crying And Running Away), Thoko, Sithunyiwe, Pitsa Tse Kgolo, Ngikhala Ngiyabaleka and Izulu Liyaduduma. Some of their more successful singles were compiled onto albums such as Meet the Mahotella Queens (their first LP), Indoda Mahlathini, Marena, Marks Umthakathi and Umculo Kawupheli.
The ensemble became a major live attraction and commercial success, with Mahlathini's groaning vocals matched against the close harmonies of the Queens, and the driving mbaqanga-township jive work from the Makonga Tsohle Band. They toured extensively, both within South Africa and surrounding countries including Mozambique, Botswana and Zimbabwe. Known for their distinctive sounding records and energy packed presence at concerts, they were dubbed "The Beatles of South Africa".
The supergroup – Mahlathini, the Mahotella Queens and Makgona Tsohle – were an extremely productive and popular cohesive recording/performing team until 1972. In 1972 the line-up disintegrated after royalty disagreements with Bopape. The Mahotella Queens under the production of Makgona Tsohle Band guitarist Marks Mankwane, continued to record and perform to some degree of success throughout into the 1970s and 1980s, but by the late 1970s due to royalty disagreements and/or family commitments, none of the original members of the Queens remained. At the same time, Mahlathini who also recorded solo material backed solely by the Makgona Tsohle Band, cultivating a distinct public identity as Indoda Mahlathini, resigned from Mavuthela also due to royalty/payment disputes with Bopape. The Makgona Tsohle also recorded instrumental singles to massive public acclaim until Makgona Tsohle split up and its individual members, who had been mentored by Bopape, concentrated on producing the roster of Mavuthela artists.
Musical tastes were changing – disco was taking over in South Africa. In 1983, Mankwane reunited Mahlathini with five of the original Mahotella Queens for a spin-off group titled Mahlathini Nezintombi Zomgqashiyo. However, the decline of mbaqanga music meant that the project lasted only a year. Mankwane continued to produce the Mahotella Queens. Mahlathini joined the West Nkosi-produced Swazi-mbaqanga trio Amaswazi Emvelo, one of the few mbaqanga groups to still selling well at the time.
International success
In 1983, in the UK Malcolm McLaren produced his influential album Duck Rock, a project that mixed unrelated genres together, including the uncredited music of Mahlathini and the Mahotella Queens. Criticised over the years by some as exploitative, it was the first album that brought what is now known as world music to a bigger audience outside of South Africa and other countries. Western musicians slowly began to incorporate various world music styles into theirs.
In 1986–87, partly due to contributing to Harry Belafonte's Paradise in Gazankulu, and following the success of various international releases relating to South Africa's music (such as The Indestructible Beat of Soweto and Paul Simon's Graceland (album)), the decision was made for Mahlathini and the Mahotella Queens to reunite. West Nkosi convinced Mankwane to bring the Queens under his production, the then-membership of the Queens were replaced by three singers associated with the group during its original 1960s heyday – Hilda Tloubatla, Nobesuthu Mbadu and Mildred Mangxola. The Mahotella Queens, once again with Mahlathini and most of the original Makgona Tsohle Band, recorded their first album aimed at the international audience, Thokozile. It was successful enough to attract overseas promoters and the group – now billed as Mahlathini and the Mahotella Queens – subsequently began a long international touring career, with a successful debut performance in France at the Angouleme Festival. The same year they recorded the Paris - Soweto album in France.
Marks Mankwane returned to producing Mahlathini and the Mahotella Queens, as well as continuing to play lead guitar for the group. In June 1988, they appeared with a galaxy of stars – from Stevie Wonder to George Michael and Peter Gabriel – at the 70th birthday tribute to Nelson Mandela at London's Wembley Arena. The event was broadcast live to sixty countries around the world and provided a major boost for the campaign to free Mandela. It also provided Mahlathini and the Mahotella Queens with the biggest audience of their life. In England 1989 they performed at Glastonbury and collaborated with the Art of Noise, an avant-garde synthpop group, featuring on three tracks on the English band's Below The Waste album. In France, the group became known for their song Kazet. In 1991, producer West Nkosi left the group to continue producing music for the South African audience. The supergroup began touring for long stretches across the world, including in the United States, Europe, Asia and Australia, appearing in their own concerts and various international music events including in Central Park, New York (before a crowd of half a million), and at the Montreaux Jazz Festival, both in 1991 and various WOMAD festivals. Mahlathini and the Mahotella Queens continued to record successful albums including Mbaqanga, Rhythm and Art and Umuntu. They celebrated their 30th anniversary in 1994 with the album Stoki Stoki, issued internationally on Shanachie Records in 1996.
Due to health problems stemming from a long-standing diabetic condition, Mahlathini gave his last performance with the Mahotella Queens in 1997. In 1998, former band member West Nkosi was killed in a road accident, Marks Mankwane died in the same year, followed by the death of Mahlathini in July 1999; which resulted in the demise of the group. Despite his international success Simon "Mahlathini" Nkabinde, (the "lion of Soweto"), died a poor man. After a period of mourning, the Mahotella Queens decided to return to the music industry; they recruited brand-new instrumental players to a new group line-up and continue performing, touring and recording to this day. They recorded a new album in 2000 titled Sebai Bai, a successful release praised by the international audience and dedicated to Mahlathini, Mankwane and Nkosi. In 2000, they received the second annual WOMEX (Worldwide Music Expo) Award, presented for outstanding contribution to world music. Further successful albums were released, such as Bazobuya (2004) and Reign & Shine (2005). In 2005 the group toured the United Kingdom as the support act for Ladysmith Black Mambazo between May and June 2006. The Queens headlined WOMAD 2006 in July, toured Europe 2007 and South Africa during late 2007 and 2008. The Queens appeared as part of Pee Wee Ellis's show Still Black, Still Proud: An African Tribute to James Brown during 2010. South African jazz artist Hugh Masekela joined forces with the Mahotella Queens for a special UK tour for November 2010.
Artistry
The style of music the Makgona Tsohle Band and its members help develop and play was Mbaqanga, (pronounced mm-bah-KAHNG-guh, with the K formed by popping the tongue off the roof of the mouth). Mbaqanga, named after a Zulu word for an everyday cornmeal porridge or steamed cornbread (implying the home-made quality of the music's origin), had its roots in the 1950s. The style was a fusion of traditional Zulu, Sotho, Shangaan, and Xhosa music, fused with Marabi (also known as South African Jazz), and Kwela, and with modern (electric instruments), American R&B, soul, and gospel. The cyclic structure of marabi melded with traditional dance styles such as the Zulu indlamu, combined with a heavy dollop of American big band swing thrown on top. The indlamu input dance style developed into the "African stomp" style, giving a notably African rhythmic impulse to the music. The pairing of mbaqanga with vocals became known as "mgqashiyo", meaning "to bounce", after the "bouncy" rhythms of the style or simanje-manje music (in Zulu, meaning "now-now"). Marks Mankwane of the Makgona Tsohle Band said in an interview, "When we started this group. we decided also to start our own style of music, and that was Mbaqanga. So we decided to bring in Western style drums and more guitars and put the tempo up for dancing, and that's where the Western Influence comes in. On top of the band's rhythms was added the harmonies of the Mahotella Queens.... To set off the Queens came lead singer Mahlathini's extraordinary rasping, deep bass voice."
Chris Heim, writing for the Chicago Tribune said, "Mbaqanga (township jive) is one of the most spirited and joyous sounds in the whole world" and that the band had a "sweet, soulful sound marked by bright support vocals from the Queens and Mahlathini's deep, deep goat-voice leads." Over the years the combination of sound has shifted, in the 1960s Mahlanthini sang more equally and alongside the Mahotella Queens, in the 1980s under – West Nkosi and Marks Mankwane production, he does less sustained singing instead he interjects and overlaps the Mahotella Queens melodies with his "goat voice" and vocal effects, leaving most of the singing to the Queens. "The ensemble's front line is a study in contrasts." Mahlathini" delivers his "riveting vocals in a powerful basso profundo singing style that is termed "groaning" in South Africa (think Howlin' Wolf or Wolfman Jack)". The Mahotella Queens "velvety vocals contrast strikingly with Mahlathini's raw vocalizations. Their singing style, alternating between harmonies and unison vocals, is a hybrid of American jazz vocal groups such as the Andrews Sisters, the female doo-wop ensembles of the '60s, and traditional South African vocal music." Reviewing Thokozile, Robert Christgau said the band featured "nonpareil guitarist Marks Mankwane and ubiquitous saxophonist-producer West Nkosi", with "it's unexceptionably indestructible, bottomless baritone flexed inexorably against stout sopranos", labelling it "professional dance music at its finest and roughest."
The main lyric writers were Mahlathini, Hilda Tloubatla, Marks Mankwane, Rupert Bopape and Shadrack Piliso. Their lyrics, mostly in Zulu, were often about issues such as bringing up children or solving marital problems. They were not overtly political but sometimes alluded to the miseries of apartheid or praised Nelson Mandela.
"Visually also the band were dynamic" and played on tribal imagery, the "Lion of Soweto" Mahlathini "wore a chief's regalia on stage – a leopard skin over his chest, fur armlets and leggings, a skirt of animal tails and beads around his bald pate", while the Mahotella Queens wore "huge red circular Zulu hats, skirts of leather and beadwork, leotards and sneakers". As dancers, they are noted for their choreography, grandmothers by the 90's, the Queen's moved "non-stop while on-stage, employing distinctive synchronized choreography which blends elements of Motown moves, tribal dance steps and even cheerleader routines." Their "combination of jubilant harmonies and choreographed dances" were, as an American critic said in 1996, like what he imagined "a Zulu version of the Supremes would have been two decades after they stopped fitting into their silken gowns."
Selected discography of albums
Together and separately, The Mahlathini and the Mahotella Queens and the Makhona Tsohle Band were prolific recording artists, dating back to the hundreds of recordings produced at Gallo-Mavuthela during their heyday in the 1960s and 1970s. Despite this fact only some of their older material is available to purchase. Most of the available material comprise recordings made after the late 1980s for the international audience.
See also
Mahlathini
Mahotella Queens
Makgona Tsohle Band
Ladysmith Black Mambazo
Sweet Honey in the Rock
References
External links
AS Entertainment (Mahotella Queens management)
Gallo Music South Africa (Mahotella Queens former record label)
Mahlathini and the Mahotella Queens on All Music
Mahlathini and the Mahotella Queens on Discogs
Musical groups established in 1964
Musical groups disestablished in 1999
Mbaqanga
Verve Records artists
Shanachie Records artists
South African musical groups
Supergroups (music)
1964 establishments in South Africa
1999 disestablishments in South Africa |
4370870 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nancy%20Roman | Nancy Roman | Nancy Grace Roman (pronounced "Roman"; May 16, 1925 – December 25, 2018) was an American astronomer who made important contributions to stellar classification and motions. The first female executive at NASA, Roman served as NASA's first Chief of Astronomy throughout the 1960s and 1970s, establishing her as one of the "visionary founders of the US civilian space program".
She created NASA's space astronomy program and is known to many as the "Mother of Hubble" for her foundational role in planning the Hubble Space Telescope. Throughout her career, Roman was an active public speaker and educator, and an advocate for women in the sciences.
In May 2020, NASA Administrator Jim Bridenstine announced that the Wide Field Infrared Survey Telescope would be named the Nancy Grace Roman Space Telescope in recognition of her enduring contributions to astronomy.
Early life
Nancy Grace Roman was born in Nashville, Tennessee, to music teacher Georgia Frances Smith Roman and physicist/mathematician Irwin Roman. Shortly after, her father took a job as a geophysicist for an oil company and the family moved to Oklahoma three months after Roman's birth. Roman and her parents later moved to Houston, Texas, New Jersey, Michigan, and then Nevada in 1935, when her father joined the Civil Service in geophysical research.
When she was about 12 years old, the family moved to Baltimore, Maryland, when Irwin Roman was hired as Senior Geophysicist at the Baltimore office of the U.S. Geological Survey. Roman considered her parents to be major influences in her interest in science.
When Roman was 11 years old, she formed an astronomy club, gathering with classmates once a week and learning about constellations from books. Although discouraged by those around her, Roman knew by seventh grade that she would dedicate her life to astronomy. She attended Western High School in Baltimore where she participated in an accelerated program, graduating in three years.
Education
Swarthmore
Roman attended Swarthmore College, intending to study astronomy. The dean of women was not encouraging in this. Roman said “if you insisted on majoring in science or engineering, she wouldn't have anything more to do with you”. The dean referred her to the astronomy department, then chaired by Peter van de Kamp, who was initially discouraging, but did teach her astronomy. She worked on the two student telescopes available there, which had been defunct. Roman says that helped with “getting a feel for instruments and instrumentation and just having the fun of playing around with observing techniques.”
In her sophomore year, she began working at the Sproul Observatory processing astronomical photographic plates, inheriting Van de Kamp's ethos that since he had used “plates that were taken by his predecessors 50 years earlier," he felt obliged "to replace those with plates that his successors would use 50 years in the future”. Van de Kamp taught Roman in a solo lecture course on astrometry, encouraging her to learn about professional astronomy through use of the astronomy library. She graduated in February 1946, and van de Kamp suggested that she continue studies at the University of Chicago, which was rebuilding its astronomy department after World War II. Years later, Roman remained involved with her alma mater, serving on the Swarthmore Board of Managers from 1980 to 1988.
Chicago/Yerkes
She started graduate school at the University of Chicago in March 1946. Finding the classes easier than at Swarthmore, she approached three professors, Otto Struve, George van Biesbroeck, and William Wilson Morgan, asking each for an observational astronomy project to work on. The first gave her a theory project, the second a data analysis project, and Morgan provided an observational project using a 12-inch telescope, most likely the refractor from the Kenwood Astrophysical Observatory .Although Morgan was initially dismissive of Roman, at one point not speaking to her for six months, he continued to support her research. She received her Ph.D. in astronomy in 1949, having written a dissertation on the Ursa Major Moving Group.
After a two-month break at the Warner and Swasey Observatory, she was invited by Morgan to be his research associate at Yerkes Observatory. She worked at Yerkes for six years, often traveling to the McDonald Observatory in Texas, which at the time was managed by the University of Chicago, and once to the David Dunlap Observatory in Toronto, supported by the Office of Naval Research. The research position was not permanent, so Roman became an instructor and later, an assistant professor.
At Yerkes, her research focused on stellar spectroscopy, emphasizing F and G type stars and high-velocity stars. Her work produced some of the most highly cited papers of the time, including, in 1950, three top-100 papers in a year with over 3,000 publications. She was offered research positions at Wayne State University and the University of Southern California, but turned them down as she felt the institutions lacked sufficient astronomical instrumentation, an issue of great importance to her.
She traveled to Argonne National Laboratory to use their new astrometry device for measuring photographic plates, but was unable to convince Yerkes to acquire one. She advocated for the purchase of a then-novel digital computer for data analysis in 1954, but was turned down by department chair Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar, who declared computers as unuseful for this purpose. Roman eventually left her job at the university because of the paucity of tenured research positions available to women. They had never had a woman on the academic staff. Gerard Kuiper recommended to her a position at the Naval Research Laboratory in the new field of radio astronomy.
Professional work
Research career
Roman conducted a survey of all naked-eye stars similar to the Sun and realized that they could be divided into two categories by chemical content and motion through the galaxy. One of her discoveries was that stars made of hydrogen and helium move faster than stars composed of other heavier elements. Another discovery was finding that not all stars that were common were the same age. That was proven by comparing hydrogen lines of the low dispersion spectra in the stars.
Roman noticed that the stars with the stronger lines moved closer to the center of the Milky Way and the others moved in more elliptical patterns, off of the plane of the galaxy. These fundamental observations of the structure of the galaxy provided the first clue to its formation and laid the foundation for later work; her paper was selected as one of the 100 most important papers in 100 years by the Astrophysical Journal.
While working at Yerkes Observatory of the University of Chicago, Roman observed the star AG Draconis and discovered that its emission spectrum had completely changed since earlier observations. She later credited the publication of her discovery as a stroke of luck – the star is in that state only 2-3% of the time—that substantially raised her profile within the astronomical community, advancing to her career.
In 1955, the Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series published her catalog of high-velocity stars, which documented new “spectral types, photoelectric magnitudes and colors, and spectroscopic parallaxes for about 600 high-velocity stars.” Her “UV excess” method became widely used by astronomers to find stars with more heavier elements using only the colors of the stars rather than having to take spectra. In 1959, Roman wrote a paper on the detection of extraterrestrial planets. She also did research and published on the subjects of locating constellations from their 1875.0 positions.
Naval Research Laboratory
After leaving the University of Chicago, Roman went to the Naval Research Laboratory and entered the radio astronomy program in 1954. Radio astronomy was then a very young field in the United States, and the NRL had taken an early lead by building the largest accurate radio telescope in 1951, a 50-foot parabolic antenna located on top of one of its research buildings. Roman's work at the NRL included radio astronomy, geodesy, and even the propagation of sound underwater. She spent three years there, rising to become head of the microwave spectroscopy section of the radio astronomy program.
One of the few people at the NRL in radio astronomy with a classical astronomy background, she was consulted on a wide variety of topics. During Roman's time at the NRL, she provided astronomy consultation for the Project Vanguard satellite program, although she did not formally work on any of the rocket projects, introducing her to space astronomy. At the time, she was concerned that the science being done in the rocket projects was not of high quality, though she saw the potential of space astronomy.
Roman's radio astronomy work included mapping much of the Milky Way galaxy at a frequency of 440 MHz, determining the spectral break in the nonthermal radio emission. She pioneered the use of radio astronomy in geodetic work, including radar ranging to improve our calculation of the distance to the Moon at a wavelength of 10 cm (2.86 GHz). Roman presented this at a geodesy conference in 1959 as the best way to determine the mass of the Earth.
While at the NRL, Roman received an invitation to speak on her work with stars in Armenia, then in the Soviet Union, in 1956 for the dedication of the Byurakan Observatory. This cemented her international reputation, and as she was the first civilian to visit Armenia after the start of the Cold War. The visit raised her visibility in the United States, with invitations to speak about the trip leading to a series of astronomy lectures. Her reputation was well established, including with people at the newly formed National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA).
NASA
At a lecture by Harold Urey at NASA, Roman was approached by Jack Clark, who asked whether she knew someone interested in creating a program for space astronomy at NASA. She interpreted that as an invitation to apply and was the applicant who accepted the position. While the position nominally allowed for 20% of her time to be used for scientific research, she recognized that such a position would effectively mean she was giving up research, but, as she said in 2018, “the chance to start with a clean slate to map out a program that I thought would influence astronomy for fifty years was more than I could resist.”
Roman arrived at NASA in late February 1959 as Head of Observational Astronomy. She quickly inherited a broad program which included the Orbiting Solar Observatories and geodesy and relativity. In early 1960, Roman became the first astronomer in the position of Chief of Astronomy in NASA's Office of Space Science, setting up the initial program; she was also the first woman to hold an executive position at the space agency.
Part of her job was traveling throughout the country and giving lectures at astronomy departments, where she discussed the fact that the program was in development. Roman also was looking to find out what other astronomers wanted to study and to educate them on the advantages of observing from space. Her visits set the precedent that NASA scientific research would be driven by the needs of the broader astronomical community, or in her words, the visits were “to tell them what we were planning at NASA and what the NASA opportunities were, but it was equally to try to get from them a feeling of what they thought NASA ought to be doing.”
Her work was instrumental in converting what was then a ground-based astronomical community, hostile to the space science program, into supporters of astronomy from space. She established the policy that major astronomy projects would be managed by NASA for the good of the broader scientific community, rather than as individual experiments run by academic research scientists. As early as 1960, a year into her new position, Roman began publishing plans for NASA astronomy with policy statements, such as “A fundamental part of all of these plans is the participation of the entire astronomical community. NASA will act as a coordinating agency to enable astronomers to obtain the basic observations they need from outer space.”
During her employment at NASA, Roman developed and prepared the budgets for various programs and she organized their scientific participation. From 1959 through the 1970s, when the introduction of peer review brought in outside expertise, she was the sole individual accepting or rejecting proposals for NASA astronomy projects based on their merit and her own knowledge.
In 1959, Roman proposed, perhaps for the first time, that detecting planets around other stars might be possible using a space-based telescope, and even suggested a technique employing a rotated coronagraphic mask; a similar approach was ultimately used with the Hubble Space Telescope to image the possible exoplanet Fomalhaut B (ref K.) and will be used by the Nancy Grace Roman Space Telescope to image exoplanets similar to the giant planets in the Solar System. She also believed as early as 1980 that the future Hubble would be able to detect Jupiter exoplanets by astrometry; this was successful in 2002 when astronomers characterized a previously discovered planet around the star Gliese 876.
Roman's position became Chief of Astronomy and Solar Physics at NASA from 1961 to 1963. During this time, she oversaw the development of the Orbiting Solar Observatory (OSO) program, developing and launching OSO 1 in May 1962 and developing OSO 2, (February 1965) and OSO 3 (March 1967). She held various other positions in NASA, including Chief of Astronomy and Relativity.
She also led, from 1959, the orbiting astronomical observatories (OAO) program, working with engineer Dixon Ashworth, initially a series of optical and ultraviolet telescopes. The first, OAO-1, was slated to be launched in 1962, but technical difficulties resulted in a descoped version launched in 1966, but which failed three days after reaching orbit. Roman explained these problems by analogy in 2018:
She continued to develop Orbiting Astronomical Observatory 2, launched in December 1968, which became the first successful space telescope. OAO-3, named Copernicus, was a highly successful ultraviolet telescope which operated from 1972 to 1981.
Roman oversaw the development and launch of the three small astronomical satellites: the X-ray explorer Uhuru (satellite) in 1970 with Riccardo Giacconi, the gamma-ray telescope Small Astronomy Satellite 2 in 1972, and the multi-instrument X-ray telescope Small Astronomy Satellite 3 in 1975. Other projects she oversaw included four geodetic satellites. She planned for other smaller programs such as the Astronomy Rocket Program, the Scout Probe to measure the relativistic gravity redshift, programs for high energy astronomy observatories, and other experiments on Spacelab, Gemini, Apollo, and Skylab.
Roman was known to be blunt in her dealings, or as Robert Zimmerman put it, "her hard-nosed and realistic manner of approving or denying research projects had made her disliked by many in the astronomical community". This was very much in evidence in the early 1960s when she terminated the relativity program, which at the time consisted of three separate projects, when the Pound-Rebka experiment achieved better accuracy than was projected for the space-based projects.
Roman worked with Jack Holtz, on the small astronomy satellite and Don Burrowbridge on the space telescope. She set up NASA's scientific ballooning program, inheriting the Stratoscope balloon projects led by Martin Schwarzschild from the ONR and the National Science Foundation. Roman led the development of NASA's airborne astronomy program, beginning with a 12-inch telescope in a Learjet in 1968 and followed in 1974 by the Kuiper Airborne Observatory with a 36-inch telescope, opening up the obscured infrared region of the spectrum for astronomical observations to researchers such as Frank J. Low.
Other long wavelength missions started during her tenure were the Cosmic Background Explorer, which, although she was initially unconvinced would be able to pass review garnered the Nobel Prize in 2006 for two of its leading scientists, and the Infrared Astronomy Satellite, both of which were overseen by Nancy Boggess, who Roman had hired in 1968 to help manage the growing portfolio of astronomy missions. Roman was instrumental in NASA's acceptance of partnership in the International Ultraviolet Explorer, which she felt was her greatest success, saying, “IUE was an uphill fight. I don't mean I didn't have some support, but I think I carried it on almost single handedly.”
The last program in which Roman was highly involved was the Hubble Space Telescope, then referred to as the Large Space Telescope (LST). While a large telescope in space had been proposed by Lyman Spitzer in 1946, and astronomers became interested in a 3m-class space telescope in the early 1960s as the Saturn V rocket was being developed, Roman chose to focus on developing smaller-scale OAO telescopes first in order to demonstrate the necessary technologies. She felt that even the modest 12 inch (30.5 cm) telescopes of OAO-2, which did not launch until 1968, were a major leap forward, not least because the development of suitable pointing control systems was a major technological hurdle. Astronomers promoted the idea of a telescope on the Moon, which Roman felt had too many insurmountable issues such as dust, and engineers at NASA's Langley Research Center promoted the idea in 1965 of a space telescope with human operators, which Roman considered an absurd complication.
After the success of OAO-2, Roman began to entertain beginning the Large Space Telescope, and started giving public lectures touting the scientific value of such a facility. NASA asked the National Academy of Sciences in 1969 to study the science of a 3m-class telescope in space, resulting in an endorsement for NASA to proceed. In 1971 Roman set up the Science Steering Group for the Large Space Telescope, and appointed both NASA engineers and astronomers from all over the country to serve on it, for the express purpose of designing a free-floating space observatory that could meet the community's needs but would be feasible for NASA to implement.
Roman was very involved with the early planning and specifically, the setting up of the program structure. According to Robert Zimmerman, "Roman had been the driving force for an LST from its earliest days" and that she, along with astronomer Charles Robert O'Dell, hired in 1972 to be the Project Scientist under Roman as the Program Scientist, “were the primary advocates and overseers of the LST within NASA, and their efforts working with the astronomical community produced a detailed paradigm for NASA operation of a large scientific project that now serves as a standard for large astronomical facilities.”
This included creating and devolving responsibility for mission science operations to the Space Telescope Science Institute. With both the astronomical community and the NASA hierarchy convinced of the feasibility and value of the LST, Roman then spoke to politically connected men in a series of dinners hosted by NASA Administrator James Webb in order to build support for the LST project, and then wrote testimony for Congress throughout the 1970s to continue to justify the telescope. She invested in detector technology, resulting in the Hubble being the first major observatory to use Charge-Coupled Device detectors, although these had been flown in space in 1976 in the KH-11 Kennen reconnaissance satellites. Roman's final role in the development of Hubble was to serve on the selection board for its science operations.
Because of her contribution, she often is called the "Mother of Hubble". Later in life she stated being uncomfortable with that appellation given the many contributions made by others. NASA's then-Chief Astronomer, Edward J. Weiler, who worked with Roman at the agency, called her 'the mother of the Hubble Space Telescope'. He said, "which is often forgotten by our younger generation of astronomers who make their careers by using Hubble Space Telescope". Weiler added, "Regretfully, history has forgotten a lot in today's Internet age, but it was Nancy in the old days before the Internet and before Google and e-mail and all that stuff, who really helped to sell the Hubble Space Telescope, organize the astronomers, who eventually convinced Congress to fund it." Williams recalls Roman as someone "whose vision in a NASA leadership position shaped U.S. space astronomy for decades".
Post-NASA
After working for NASA for twenty-one years, she took an early retirement opportunity in 1979 in part to allow her to care for her elderly mother. She continued on as a consultant for another year in order to complete the selection of STScI. Roman was interested in learning computer programming, and so audited a course on FORTRAN at Montgomery College that garnered her a job as a consultant for ORI, Inc. from 1980 to 1988. In that role, she was able to support research in geodesy and the development of astronomical catalogs, two of her former research areas. This led to her becoming the head of the Astronomical Data Center at NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center in 1995.
She continued her work until 1997 for contractors who supported the Goddard Space Flight Center. Roman then spent three years teaching advanced junior high and high school students and K-12 science teachers, including those in underserved districts. She then spent ten years recording astronomical textbooks for Reading for the Blind and Dyslexic. In a 2017 interview, Roman said: “I like to talk to children about the advantages of going into science and particularly to tell the girls, by showing them my life, that they can be scientists and succeed.”
From 1955 on, she lived in the Washington, D.C. area, in the later years in Chevy Chase, Maryland with her mother, who died in 1992. Outside her work, Roman enjoyed going to lectures and concerts and was active in the American Association of University Women. She died on December 25, 2018, following a long illness.
Women in science
Like most women in the sciences in the mid-twentieth century, Roman was faced with problems related to male domination in science and technology and the roles perceived as appropriate for women in that time period. She was discouraged from going into astronomy by people around her. In an interview with Voice of America, Roman remembered asking her high school guidance counselor if she could take second year algebra instead of Latin. "She looked down her nose at me and sneered, 'What kind of lady would take mathematics instead of Latin?' That was the sort of reception I got most of the way", recalled Roman.
At one time, she was one of very few women in NASA, being the only woman with an executive position. She attended courses entitled, "Women in Management", in Michigan and at Penn State to learn about issues regarding being a woman in a management position. Roman stated in an interview in 1980 that the courses were dissatisfying and addressed women's interests rather than women's problems.
In 1963, when entry to the astronaut corps was restricted to men, Roman said in a speech that “I believe that there will be women astronauts some time, just as there are women airplane pilots”. In her position she did not affect change to this, something she admitted to regretting.
In recognition of her advancement of women in senior science management, Roman received recognitions from several women's organizations, including the Women's Education and Industrial Union, the Ladies' Home Journal magazine, Women in Aerospace, the Women's History Museum, and the American Association of University Women. She was also one of four women featured in 2017 in the “Women of NASA LEGO Set,” which of all her honors she described as “by far the most fun.”
Selected publications
Roman published 97 scientific papers during her lifetime.
Recognition
Federal Woman's Award – 1962
One of 100 Most Important Young People, Life magazine – 1962
Citation for Public Service, Colorado Women's College – 1966
Ninetieth Anniversary Award, Women's Education and Industrial Union (Boston) – 1967
Exceptional Scientific Achievement Medal NASA – 1969
NASA Outstanding Scientific Leadership Award – 1978
Fellow, American Astronautical Society – 1978
William Randolph Lovelace II Award, American Astronautical Association – 1979 & 2011
Fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science– 1988
Lifetime Achievement Award – Women in Aerospace – 2010
Woman of Distinction from American Association of University Women, Maryland – 2016
Honorary Doctorates from Russell Sage College (1966), Hood College (1969), Bates College (1971) and Swarthmore College (1976)
The asteroid 2516 Roman is named in her honor
NASA fellowship program, The Nancy Grace Roman Technology Fellowship in Astrophysics, is named for her
In 2017, a "Women of NASA" LEGO set went on sale featuring (among other things) mini-figurines of Roman, Margaret Hamilton, Mae Jemison, and Sally Ride
Episode 113 of the "Hubblecast" podcast "Nancy Roman – The Mother of Hubble" was created in her honor, a video presentation that documents her career and explores her contribution to science
In 2020, NASA named the Nancy Grace Roman Space Telescope, formerly the Wide Field Infrared Survey Telescope, in her honor.
References
Further reading
External links
Oral History interview transcript with Nancy G. Roman 19 August 1980, American Institute of Physics, Niels Bohr Library and Archives
Nancy Grace Roman resume
Interviews with Nancy Grace Roman, The Mother of Hubble, 2014-2017 - Media Resources from NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center
Nancy Grace Roman and the Dawn of Space Astronomy
Archival collections
Nancy Grace Roman papers, 1931-1993 (bulk 1950-1980), Niels Bohr Library & Archives
Nancy Grace Roman addition to papers, 1935-2010, Niels Bohr Library & Archives
Nancy Grace Roman addition to papers, 1934-2006, Niels Bohr Library & Archives
1925 births
2018 deaths
American astronomers
American women astronomers
NASA astrophysicists
Scientists from Nashville, Tennessee
Swarthmore College alumni
University of Chicago alumni
Hubble Space Telescope |
4370983 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman%20Frederick%20Starzl | Roman Frederick Starzl | Roman Frederick Starzl (1899–1976) was an American writer. He, and earlier, his father (John V. Starzl), owned the Le Mars Globe-Post newspaper of Le Mars, Iowa. Roman Frederick was also the father of physician Thomas E. Starzl.<ref name="LongSearch">"The Long Search for the Bohemian Ancestors of John V. Starzl, The Doctor Thomas E. Starzl Website, University Library System, University of Pittsburgh</ref> His writing is largely forgotten now, but he was called a "master" by the pioneer of space opera E. E. Smith. Starzl's Interplanetary Flying Patrol, in The Hornets of Space, may have influenced Smith's Galactic Patrol. There is an extensive interview with Thomas Starzl about his father in Eric Leif Davin's Pioneers of Wonder.
Biography
Born Roman Frederick Starzl, he was the son of John (born Johann) V. Starzl and Margaret Theisen. John V. Starzl was born April 9, 1865, in Bischofteinitz (later known as Věvrov) in the Austrian Empire, the son of Josef Starzl and Magdalena Ruba. Josef Starzl immigrated with his wife and 5 children (including John) in 1878 to the USA. John V. Starzl sold his pharmacy in Chicago around the time of his marriage and moved back to Le Mars, Iowa, near where his Bohemian immigrant parents had settled after immigration. There, he purchased the German-language newspaper, Der Herold, which later became Le Mars Globe Post, and raised Starzl and two other surviving children. Starzl started his career as a reporter for this newspaper. He reportedly started writing for pulp magazines as part of his efforts to raise enough money for a specific goal. Said goal was to acquire ownership of the newspaper and printing establishment associated with his family. Starzl eventually achieved this goal and retired from writing. Or so the story goes. His writing career indeed lasted only six years (1929–1934), during which he published about 24 stories. But it is possible that his writing career ended as his duties in the newspaper increased. A decision of necessity rather than choice. He became a partner in the Globe-Post in 1934, and sole owner and publisher in 1940. He continued in this role until 1968, when his printing plant fell victim to a fire. He was a member of both the German Rocket Society and the American Rocket Society. Later in life, he developed an interest in right-wing politics.
His literary output in science-fiction consists of about twenty stories, a few of them in collaborations with Everett E. Smith and Festus Pragnell. He also tried his hand in other genres. His stories are essentially "action fiction with science-fictional trappings". Though nine of them feature the Interplanetary Flying Police, they can hardly be seen as a series. There is little to no consistency between them, and they are often set in different time periods. He managed to somewhat stand out among the writers of this era, through a skill with words and a capacity for creative ideas. He did not, however, avoid the tendencies of his contemporaries in science fiction. Already in 1931, the readers of Wonder Stories complained that some of the stories published in the periodical seemed to be regular western fiction, crime fiction, adventure fiction with superficial science-fiction elements (such as placing the action in a future era or another planet). Stories like The Man who Changed the Future (1931) by Starzl are evidence that this was quite true.
His first story Out of the Sub-Universe (Summer, 1928), was featured in an issue of Amazing Stories Quarterly and inspired its cover. It depicted a young couple shrinking in size. The story built on an idea previously used in The Man from the Atom (1923) by Green Peyton Wertenbaker, but it also served as a parody of the Golden Atom tales by Ray Cummings. The Last Planet (1934), on the other hand, seems to be a precursor to the generation ship tales. Unfortunately, Starzl never fully dwelt on the subject. Leaving The Voyage That Lasted 600 Years (1940) by Don Wilcox to be the first fully realized example of this subgenre.
Partial list of works
Short stories
Out of the Sub-Universe (Summer, 1928), first published in Amazing Stories Quarterly. Professor Halley (the protagonist) has conducted experiments with cosmic rays, discovering a method of resizing (both shrinking and enlarging) items and living beings. He has also discovered the existence of sub-universes within the structure of the atom. He has managed to send items to an atomic world, and then successfully retrieve them. The story begins when Halley attempts to send two human volunteers to this atomic world, using the same method of shrinking them. The volunteers are his daughter Shirley and her prospective fiancé Hale. They are supposed to stay in sub-atomic size for a mere half-an-hour. When Halley attempts to retrieve them, he is surprised to see a population of about 200 individuals emerge from the sub-atomic world. He learns that time within the sub-universe passes at an accelerated pace. While only half-an-hour passed for him, untold millennia passed within the atom. Shirley and Hale are long dead, and the newcomers consider them founding figures of their culture. In other words, as subjects became smaller their subjective time became faster. Minutes of Halley's time translated to the passing of entire generations of descendants for Shirley and Hale. While this was far from the first story concerning shrinking, concerning differences in time was a new element. The story is considered a pioneer in the use of "differential time", time passing in different paces. But E. F. Bleiler points that it was not the first of its kind, as it had a precursor in The Man from the Atom (1923) by Green Peyton Wertenbaker.Bleiler (1998), p. 492 Gary Westfahl calls attention to another element of the story. Accidentally or not, humanity colonizes a subatomic world. Making this an early use of the frontier theme in science-fiction. The theme is represented by tales where humans seek new homes in space (notably used by Robert A. Heinlein and Ray Bradbury), underneath the sea (Arthur C. Clarke, Hal Clement), on the upper atmosphere (Hugo Gernsback, Edmond Hamilton), underground (Daniel F. Galouye, Harlan Ellison), in alternative realities (Clifford D. Simak, Philip K. Dick), through time-traveling to the distant past (Robert Silverberg, Clifford D. Simak), or entering cyberspace (William Gibson, Greg Egan). Westfahl considers this to be a major theme of the entire genre. Robert A. W. Lowndes praised the story's "surprise" ending as "not only logical but necessary".Madness of the Dust (May 1930), first published in Amazing Stories. Set in the early 21st century, "not too long" after the year 2025. The main action takes place on planet Mars, with a description of its surface deriving from the theories of Giovanni Schiaparelli. There is also mention of planet Venus as a vacation center. The native Martians are depicted as gentle humanoid giants. There is reference to a native aristocracy with superior cognitive skills, but the only representatives of the race actually depicted are simple-minded workers. The protagonist is an Earthman, John Farrington, who serves as a supervisor in the borium mines. The position pays well but comes at a high cost. All Earthmen who work in the mines eventually succumb to "dust madness", a chemical side-effect which drives them to "homicidal fury". Farrington took the risk willingly, because it was the only way he could afford to marry his beloved Alfreda. When he starts showing symptoms of madness, a spaceship arrives to collect him. Its pilot, Steve, is both an old friend and a rival suitor for the hand of Alfreda. In his madness, Farrington suspects that Steve is there to undermine him. When Steve experiences his own medical emergency, appendicitis, in mid-flight, there begins a period of inner struggle for Farrington. His mind constantly alternates between periods of murderous rage towards Steve, and more lucid moments of feeling responsible and trying to provide medical assistance.The Planet of Dread (August 1930), first published in Astounding Stories. Set in the 23rd century, on the fictional planet Inra. The main characters are adventurer Mark Forepaugh and his dim-witted servant Gunga. The latter is a one-eyed Martian. The planet has a tropical climate and is inhabited by a native primitive culture. Forepaugh is there hunting for local specimens of orchids which he plans to sell to the markets of Earth. His advanced weaponry is quite capable of keeping him safe, and its powered by hydrogen fuel cylinders. Unfortunately, he placed his trust on the wrong supply man. His energy reserves end much sooner than expected, leaving him and Gunga stranded in a hostile environment. The two travelers try to make their way towards the mountains of the planet, which enjoy a cooler climate, while facing local predators. Forepaugh has to rely on a less-advanced weapon, which he typically carries with him for sentimental reasons: a revolver dating to the American frontier. Bleiler felt that the story was "capable pulp work", but lacked in novel elements. The most memorable character, in his view, was a "highly intelligent" amoeboid with the ability to control the wills of others beings.The King of the Black Bowl (September 1930), first published in Wonder Stories. Set in the year 1935, at the city of Chicago. The subject matter seems derived from contemporary predictions and humor that organized crime would formally take control of this city. In the near-future setting of the story, leading gangster Felix Spumelli has become the de facto ruler of Chicago. But he still finds his power insufficient. He kidnaps local physicist Dawkelson and has him isolate the city from the rest of the world. Chicago becomes a domed city, surrounded by a zone of nothingness in the shape of a black bowl. With the exception of water nothing is able to enter or leave the city, including all forms of radiation. Spumelli becomes the self-proclaimed king of Chicago and imposes a harsh occupation rule over the city. His private security force patrols the city in armored vehicles. Meanwhile, two former students of Dawkelson (Darwin Ellis, and Buck Holt) strive to rescue their mentor.The Globoid Terror (November 1930), first published in Amazing Stories. One of the first two stories featuring the Interplanetary Flying Police. Set in the 22nd century, , on planet Venus. Venus is a tropical planet inhabited by strange life forms. The diamond mines of the planet produce "gray diamonds" that have proven more useful for industrial purposes than both the natural gemstones of Earth and the synthetic diamonds. Shortly after leaving the planet, a number of gray diamonds seem to disappear without a trace. The recurring incidents are deemed threatening to the industry and attract the attention of the Interplanetary Flying Police. Police corporal Heywood Crombie is tasked with investigating the problem at its source, Venus itself. Shortly following his arrival, Crombie faces an assassination attempt within his own bedroom. His descent into the mines is marked by a second attempt on his life, involving a sabotaged elevator. The focus of the story shifts from Crombie attempting to actually investigate the case to merely trying to survive. The title is in reference to a predatory amphibian lifeform of Venus, which is resistant to rayguns. The crime turns out to be a typical inside job, committed by people in trusted places. Between the mines and the storage facilities, a number of real diamonds were stolen and replaced by artificial gems. The latter were unstable in structure, eventually disintegrating and so "vanishing". Bleiler considered the story to have a strong opening for an action story, although he found its further scenes and conclusion rather weak.Hornets of Space (November 1930), first published in Wonder Stories. Also one of the first two stories featuring the Interplanetary Flying Police. Set in the 23rd century, in space around the asteroid Eros. The Hornets of the title are tiny one-man spaceships, operated by the police and armed with torpedoes. The spaceliner Medusa is attacked by the aging warship Redoubtable, currently operated by a space pirate. Aboard the spaceliner are a unit of the police who have to react to the situation. Their combat efforts are hampered by a space cloud which interferes with the effectiveness of their weapons. The story relies on the character dynamics between the men of the police. The key characters are Strickland and Henderson. Through Strickland, the reader glimpses the social interactions aboard the ship: the mutual hostility between himself and an older crew member; the budding romance between himself and a female radio operator; et cetera; while Henderson is a social pariah, due to being branded a coward for his actions in a previous conflict. For him this battle is his chance at winning redemption. Bleiler considered this story competently written but "lifeless".The Terrors of Aryl (March 1931), first published in Wonder Stories. The third story featuring the Interplanetary Flying Police. Set in the late 20th century or early 21st century, with the year 1998 mentioned as recent. The premise involves the existence of a small intra-Mercurial planet, (that is, a planet inside the orbit of Mercury), called Aryl. Aryl has a strange atmosphere which shields it from the solar rays, leaving it with a tropical climate rather than an extremely high surface temperature. The atmosphere is breathable to humans and able to sustain life. The atmosphere distorts light, rendering the planet practically invisible from Earth and causing mirages on its surface area. Police corporal Henley and private Elsinger are the sole crew members of a spaceship which pursues space pirate Captain Nirvo. Their pursuit ends with them crash-landing on Aryl. They realize that Nirvo probably has set a homebase on the planet. After Elsinger helps his superior recover from a fever, the two of them start searching for this homebase. At this point, taking over the pirate's ship is their only chance of ever leaving the planet. First, they have to consider the carnivorous lifeforms of Aryl. An ending plot twist reveals that Nirvo holds captive the love interest of Henley. Bleiler considered this a competent adventure story, but pointed to the damsel in distress scenario as a weakness.The Earthman's Burden (June 1931), first published in Astounding Stories. The fourth story featuring the Interplanetary Flying Police. Set in an undated future era, mostly on the planet Mercury which is featured as having a tropical climate. The native Mercurians are a primitive culture, with an appearance resembling humanoid frogs. The Mercurian Trading Concession (M.T.C) is a merchant company from Earth which has set up factories (trading posts) on the planet. They trade with the natives to acquire a local natural gum which is the only known cure for cancer. The successive factors (mercantile agents) of the Blue River Station keep disappearing. The Police tasks Olear with investigating the situation. He develops a poor working relationship with the current factor, but proves effective in stealthily investigating the surrounding area and resolving the mystery. The villain turns out to be one of the last surviving members of a dying species: a Plutonian. His species once thrived on the benefits of a super-science now nearly lost. The tale explains that the Plutonians had a history of alien visitations to Earth, and had gained a place in folk memory... as the Devil. As featured in this story, Plutonians have horns, hooves, and tails.The Man who changed the Future (June 1931), first published in Wonder Stories. A time travel story, set in the years 1930 and 2030. The city of Lakopolis where the action takes place is an obvious stand-in for Chicago. In the year 1930, crime-ridden Lakopolis has gangsters acting openly and exercising power. Park Helm, the protagonist, would like to do something about this situation. However, for the time being, he wonders of the long-term consequences of the current situation; one Professor Nicholson offers him a chance to find out about them. The scientist has developed a way to send the astral body of a person to any point in time, a method involving the magnetic fields of a giant electric generator disrupting the aether. Helm successfully arrives in the year 2030, as an unseen spectator. He finds Lakopolis worse than ever and gangsters running rampant. When he witnesses an individual gangster trying to force marriage on a young woman, Helm tries to intervene and somehow materializes a body for himself. Permanently settling in this era, Helm becomes the leader of a reform movement. His movement tries to reclaim this city for its honest citizens. Bleiler found this story unsuccessful, and self-contradictory. After a long explanation that only the astral body of the individual can travel in time, not his corporeal body, the story shifts in the opposite direction, with no real explanation.The Planet of Despair (July 1931), first published in Wonder Stories. The fifth story featuring the Interplanetary Flying Police. Set in the 40th century, in the year 3977, at the planets Earth and Pluto, the background of the story involves a war between the two planets, taking place in 3927. The Plutonians had an advantage in technology, which allowed them to win. First they managed to disintegrate the Terrestrial space fleet, and then displaced the Earth itself from its orbit, forcing the Earth to surrender with no further negotiations. The Plutonians returned the Earth to its original orbit and allowed the Interplanetary Flying Police to continue operating in the inner planets. The price for these favors was having the Earthmen pay them an annual tribute of 30 healthy men and women. The Plutonians are nearly passionless and emotionless, anger being the sole emotion they experience. For fifty years they conduct human subject research, in a vain attempt to understand the human capacity for emotions. Their human specimens never survive the process of the experimentation. The story proper begins when officer Hi Buckram of the Police returns to Earth on furlough. He learns that his beloved Cinda Mara is among the next group to be sent to Pluto for experimentation. Buckram is determined to join her in this journey, and manages to gain a spot through coercion and bribery. Fernon, chief scientist of the Plutonians, finds him psychologically interesting and starts having regular conversations with him. Buckram learns the motives behind the Plutonians' research, and seemingly agrees to help Fernon discover the long-sought secret of human emotion. On Pluto itself, Buckram is allowed to work in the energy facilities of the planet. He is actually seeking a way to make the entire planet explode. Bleiler found the conclusion of the story rather predictable and unconvincing.If the Sun died (August 1931), first published in Astounding Stories. The story is set in the distant future, c. the 650th century, below the surface of planet Earth. The background of the story involves a disaster in the 500th century, when solar radiation became insufficient to provide warmth and sustenance to humanity. Thinking that the Sun itself was dying out, humanity transferred itself to the caverns. The past 15 millennia have seen some poor developments for the population of Subterranea. A small, dynamic class of technies (scientists and technicians) emerged to maintain and expand the machinery providing food and breathable air to humanity. But the vast majority of the population has lost its drive, becoming indolent. By the point the proper story begins, there is no skilled labor force to assist the technies in their maintenance duties. Parts of the life-sustaining machinery have fallen into decay, and the technies realize that it is only a matter of time before the whole system breaks down. They believe that it is time to see whether surface conditions have improved, but the rest of the population is against any such proposal. The opposition points out that they can not be certain what is on the surface, citing that the last cavern settlement which tried to reach the surface ended in opening up a hole below the Atlantic Ocean and drowned. Eventually protagonist Mich'l Ares and a small group of technies escape to the surface, leaving Subterranea to its fate. To their surprise, surface conditions are downright pleasant. They soon realize what actually happened in the 500th century. The Sun was not dying. The Earth was just entering another glacial period, one that apparently ended in the intervening millennia.A 20th century Medusa (September 1931), first published in Wonder Stories. The story is set in the year 1940, mostly in Chicago and its vicinity. While gangsters are running the city, a mysterious female figure seems to be controlling the criminal underworld. Her enemies tend to be found either paralyzed, or fully petrified. Rumor has it that the mystery woman is Medusa, the Gorgon of antiquity, somehow still alive. A contradictory rumor speaks of a whole race of Medusas, originating in Atlantis. The protagonist, Hal Gibbs, is an agent of the United States Secret Service. His determination, to find out who Medusa is, leads him to her lair where he is forcibly recruited into the ranks of her organization. Medusa turns out to be a young woman who dresses in the fashion of classical antiquity. She uses paralyzing disks to immobilize her enemies. During an ambitious caper, Medusa herself foils the plan and undermines the organization from within. She is herself a victim in this affair, having been under hypnosis for her entire reign over Chicago. The true mastermind controlling her, and through her the underworld and the city, is revealed to be an influential member of local society. He was otherwise known as a leading figure of a reform movement. Bleiler found this "fanciful thriller" rather unconvincing, concluding that crime fiction was never the forte of Starzl.In the Orbit of Saturn (October 1931), first published in Astounding Stories. The sixth story featuring the Interplanetary Flying Police. Set in the 22nd century, in the year 2159, in the space surrounding the outer planets. The spaceship Celestia is captured by space pirates, who use a type of cloaking device to remain invisible to other ships. Quirl Finner, a member of the police, is among the captives. He spends part of the story trying hard to protect the safety of Lenore, "a remarkably rich young woman". Finner has ambiguous feelings about the pirates themselves. They are led by Captain Strom, who is both an honorable man and an idealist dreamer. Once a would-be social reformer, Strom was framed for treason and exiled. He managed to escape and turn to crime, but crime and piracy are a means to an end for him. He still dreams of social reform and wants to acquire the means to colonize a small planet, and create his ideal society. Finner can sympathize with this dream. But the more wicked side of the pirates is represented by mate Gore, a brutal thug-for-hire, who treats the prisoners harshly. The story concludes with a mutiny on board and with Finner sabotaging the cloaking device, leaving the pirate ship an easy target for the police. Bleiler considered this a well-written action story. In his view, the developing romance between the wealthy woman and her poor protector adds a fairy tale aspect to the story.The Martian Cabal (May 1932), first published in Astounding Stories. The seventh story featuring the Interplanetary Flying Police, and a novelette in length. The setting in time is left unspecified, though there is a reference to the 22nd century as either ongoing or fairly recent. The action is set on planet Mars. There is an upcoming election on the planet and all political forces involved (representing big business, the military, the democratic faction and the monarchists) seem equally corrupt and ruthless. Sime Hemingway, an undercover agent of the police, tries to uncover the multiple concurrent conspiracies of this world. Among other plots featured, corrupt "planetary president" Wilcox plans to extend his authority to the entire Solar System through military means, having achieved the necessary funding from interplanetary bankers. His co-conspirator Scar Balta aspires to become a subordinate king in the new regime. He tries to legitimize his would-be royal status by marrying Princess Sira, one of the heirs to an old monarchic regime. Prince Joro, a rival heir, has his own plans to bring the monarchists to power. Bleiler found this complex story "pretty silly".The Power Satellite (June 1932), first published in Wonder Stories. The eighth story featuring the Interplanetary Flying Police. Set in an unspecified future era, on Triton. Starzl adds the alternate name "Goddard" for this satellite, naming it after Robert H. Goddard. The premise of the story is that Triton/Goddard has gained in significance to the economy of the inner planets. The planets Venus, Earth, and Mars have set up mines on its surface, extracting a radioactive material called "". This material has proven invaluable to industry and space travel. An interplanetary treaty determines the amounts that each planet can claim from the yearly production of the mines. When large quantities of disappear, the police take an interest and task Anton Waite of Earth to investigate the situation. The chief deviation, from previous stories of Starzl, is that Venusians and Martians are featured not as aliens, but as descendants of human colonists which diverged into new variants of humanity. The development is used to explain a romantic subplot between Waite and a female Martian. Otherwise, the story is rather formulaic.The Venus Germ (November 1932), first published in Wonder Stories. Co-written by Festus Pragnell. The ninth (and last) story featuring the Interplanetary Flying Police. The story is set in the 40th century, in the year 3976, on planets Venus, and Earth. The background of the story involves the Earth colonizing Venus. The Venusian colonists have diverged into a variant of humanity, their most notable physical difference being "a mane of hair down their spine." The parent planet keeps the colony under political control and economic subjugation, despite the colonists' desire for independence. The financial elite of Earth simply wish to exploit the colony and its resources, and the politicians of Earth obey the wishes of their true masters. The story proper begins when a lab experiment involving bacteriophages backfires spectacularly. Instead of finding a cure for cancer, the research scientists accidentally unleash an epidemic which proceeds to claim millions of lives. The scientists of Earth fail to find a cure, but their Venusian counterparts soon develop an antitoxin. But they refuse to offer the treatment to the Earthmen, unless terms for the political independence of Venus can be reached. The politicians are willing to reach terms, but decolonization efforts are hindered by the business elite of Earth, who wish to maintain their investments on Venus at all costs. The heroes of the story are Glenn Haye and his friend Panco. The former is a righteous member of the police, the other a kind-hearted Venusian. They struggle to see that justice prevails and lives are saved. Curiously, the tale never really questions the integrity of a police force serving an otherwise thoroughly corrupt system. Bleiler sees this story as a tale of capitalist exploitation, and the exploited colonists fighting back; which gives the tale a Marxist undercurrent, probably reflecting Pragnell's ideas.The Metal Moon (Winter, 1932), first published in Wonder Stories Quarterly. Co-written by an Everett C. Smith. It is uncertain if this was the same person who wrote Industry Views the teaching of English (1956) two decades later. A tale set in the 10,002nd century, in the year 1,000,144, in the vicinity of planet Jupiter. The background of the story has it that long ago humanity managed to expand beyond the inner planets. But in the 800th century, a massive meteor swarm ended interplanetary travel and communications. The fate of several colonies remains unknown. The story proper chronicles the first attempt in thousands of years to travel beyond Mars.The Last Planet (April 1934), first published in Wonder Stories. The story is set in the distant future, c. the 10,000th century. The premise is that the Sun is dying out and the Solar System has become too cold to sustain life. The remnants of humanity survive on the warmest planet left, Mercury, though they aspire to migrate away from this doomed stellar system. They have located a suitable planet for colonization, standing a light-year away from their current position, and have worked for many years in developing a massive spaceship capable of interstellar flight. The problem is that the ship, called Ventura, can not complete its mission by transferring all of humanity in a single journey. Two or more journeys are necessary. When it comes time to decide who will go first and who will have to wait for the ship to return, class conflict begins in earnest. The technies (scientists and engineers) claim the right to man the maiden voyage, citing a previous decision in their favor. However, the members of the financial and legal elites, who funded the project, claim the privilege for themselves. The working class protests any plans to leave it behind, and even threatens to sabotage the spaceship. A fourth group causes problems, the self-proclaimed "Peace Makers." They are a group of rogues, outlaws, and experts of strong-arm tactics, who are supposed to serve as a security force for the technies. Actually they are trying to ensure passage for themselves and plot to take over the ship. At the heart of the story is a love triangle between a brilliant scientist, Jay (a leading technie), a dynamic bad boy, Curtes (a commander of the Peace Makers), and the lady Idar. The latter is romantically involved with Jay, but lusts after Curtes. In that aspect, Bleiler considers this a "routine" story.Dimension of the Conquered (October 1934), first published in Astounding Stories. A dimension-spanning tale, told in a first-person narrative. The narrator tries to explain his role in a plot which resulted in a brilliant scientist declared insane and institutionalized. The narrative begins when the scientist, Gerald P. Simeon, invites various acquaintances to demonstrate his breakthroughs in exploring other dimensions. He has managed to both communicate with a culture of the Fourth dimension, and to create a device translating their language to English and vice versa. An unseen extra-dimensional being explains that a "cosmic storm" had once affected the planet Earth, creating two divergent versions of it: one is their own Earth and the other a counterpart in the fourth dimension. Now the being asks for assistance. It belongs to the dominant race of its planet, a sentient and civilized race. But they have long used a race of savages as servants, and now the savages are attempting to overthrow them. Its race never developed weapons, and now would need the human's knowledge of the subject to survive in their hour of need. Once Simeon establishes visual contact with the other Earth, his associates are surprised in many ways. The city where the entity resides is remarkably similar to their own. But the entity and its race are sentient humanoid wasps, while the servant race of savages are sub-humans. Simeon is willing to serve the masters over the servants, which causes his associates to react violently. They sever all communications with the fourth dimension, destroy his equipment, and have him committed to an insane asylum. Bleiler found this to be an above-average story, with interesting implications. The master race is very similar to humans in mentality, but not in appearance. The servant race is physically identical to humans, but intellectually different; leaving open questions concerning their true natures and that of human nature.
Mentions by other writers
The comic book issue Justice League of America No. 18 (March 1963) featured the story "Journey into the Micro-World", featuring a travel to a sub-atomic world. The story used a familiar theme from Out of the Sub-Universe (Summer, 1928), while writer Gardner Fox and editor Julius Schwartz probably had a hand in naming its miniature civilization "Starzl", in tribute to the writer.
Book I of the science fiction trilogy The Nova Project 70 written by Gregory R. Miller and Fabion O. Reeves, mentions Starzyl in the acknowledgements. The book, written in what Miller refers to as the starzylian mode, is destined to become a science fiction classic.
References
Sources
External links
Starzl Family History
Locus Magazine Chronological List
Index to Science Fiction Anthologies and Collections
Post-gazette.com
Of Worlds Beyond: The Science of Science Fiction Writing, listed as a favorite in E. E. Smith's The Epic of Space''
Johann Starzl - birth
1899 births
1976 deaths
Novelists from Iowa
American people of German descent
American science fiction writers
American male novelists
American male short story writers
20th-century American novelists
20th-century American short story writers
20th-century American male writers |
4371178 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spanish%20wine | Spanish wine | Spanish wine () includes red, white, and sparkling wines produced throughout the country. Located on the Iberian Peninsula, Spain has over 1.2 million hectares (2.9 million acres) planted in wine grapes, making it the most widely planted wine-producing nation, but the second largest producer of wine in the world, behind Italy and ahead of France and the United States. This is due, in part, to the very low yields and wide spacing of the old vines planted on the dry soils found in some of the Spanish wine regions. The country is ninth in worldwide consumption with Spaniards drinking, on average, 21.6 litres (5.7 US gal) per person a year. The country has an abundance of native grape varieties, with over 400 varieties planted throughout Spain, though 88 percent of the country's wine production is from only 20 grapes — including the reds Tempranillo, Bobal, Garnacha, and Monastrell; the whites Albariño, Airén, Verdejo, Palomino, and Macabeo; and the three Cava grapes Parellada, Xarel·lo, and Macabeo.
Major Spanish wine regions include the Rioja and Ribera del Duero, which are known for their Tempranillo production; Jumilla, known for its Monastrell production; Jerez de la Frontera, the home of the fortified wine Sherry; Rías Baixas in the northwest region of Galicia that is known for its white wines made from Albariño and Catalonia which includes the Cava and still wine-producing regions of the Penedès as well the Priorat region.
History
The abundance of native grape varieties fostered an early start to viticulture with evidence of grape pips dating back to the Tertiary period. Archaeologists believe that these grapes were first cultivated sometime between 4000 and 3000 BC, long before the wine-growing culture of the Phoenicians founded the trading post of Cádiz around 1100 BC. Following the Phoenicians, the Carthaginians introduced new advances to the region-including the teachings of the early viticulturist Mago. Carthage would wage a series of wars with the emerging Roman Republic that would lead to the Roman conquest of the Spanish mainland, known as Hispania.
From Roman rule to the Reconquista
Under Roman rule, Spanish wine was widely exported and traded throughout the Roman empire. The two largest wine-producing regions at the time were Terraconensis (modern-day Tarragona) in the north and Baetica (modern-day Andalucia) in the south. During this period more Spanish wine was exported into Gaul than Italian wine, with amphorae being found in ruins of Roman settlements in Normandy, the Loire Valley, Brittany, Provence and Bordeaux. Spanish wine was also provided to Roman soldiers guarding border settlements in Britain and the Limes Germanicus in Germania. The quality of Spanish wine during Roman times was varied, with Pliny the Elder and Martial noting the high quality associated with some wines from Terraconensis while Ovid notes that one popular Spanish wine sold in Rome, known as Saguntum, was merely good for getting your mistress drunk. (Ars amatoria 3.645-6).
Following the decline of the Roman Empire, Spain was invaded by various barbaric tribes-including the Suebi and the Visigoths. Little is known about the progress of viticulture and winemaking during this period but there is evidence that some viable form of the wine industry was present when the Moors conquered the land during the early 8th century AD. While the Moors were Muslim and subjected to Islamic dietary laws that forbid the use of alcohol, the Moorish rulers held an ambiguous stance on wine and winemaking during their rule. Several caliphs and emirs owned vineyards and drank wine. While there were laws written that outlawed the sale of wine, it was included on lists of items that were subject to taxation in Moorish territories. The Spanish Reconquista reopened the possibility of exporting Spanish wine. Bilbao emerged as a large trading port; introducing Spanish wines to the English wine markets in Bristol, London and Southampton. The quality of some of these exported Spanish wines appears to have been high. In 1364, the court of Edward III established the maximum price of wine sold in England with the Spanish wines being priced at the same level as wines from Gascony and higher than those from La Rochelle. The full-bodied and high alcohol in most Spanish wines made them favoured blending partners for the "weaker" wines from the cooler climate regions of France and Germany though there were laws that explicitly outlawed this practice.
Colonization of the New World
Following the completion of the Spanish Reconquista in 1492, Christopher Columbus discovered the New World under the sponsorship of the Spanish crown. This opened up a new export market as well as a new opportunity for wine production. Spanish missionaries and conquistadors brought European grape vines with them as they colonized the new lands. During this period Spanish exports to England began to wane as Spanish-English relations steadily deteriorated following the divorce of Henry VIII of England from his Spanish wife Catherine of Aragon. English merchants from the Sherry producing regions of Jerez and Sanlúcar de Barrameda as well as Málaga fled the area due to the fear of persecution by the Spanish Inquisition.
The defeat of the Spanish Armada in the Anglo-Spanish War greatly reduced the strength of the Spanish navy and contributed to the country's debt incurred during the reign of Philip II. Spain became more dependent on the income from its Spanish colonies, including the exportation of Spanish wine to the Americas. The emergence of growing wine industries in Mexico, Peru, Chile and Argentina was a threat to this income, with Philip III and succeeding monarchs issuing decrees and declarations ordering the uprooting of New World vineyards and halting the production of wine by the colonies. In some countries, like Chile, these orders were largely ignored; but in others, like Argentina, they served to stunt growth and development until independence was gained from Spanish rule.
From phylloxera to modern day
The 17th and 18th centuries saw periods of popularity for various Spanish wines, namely Sherry (known in Britain as "sack"), Malaga and Rioja. However the Spanish wine industry was falling behind those of other European countries who were embracing the developments of the early Industrial Age. A major turning point occurred in the mid-19th century when the phylloxera epidemic ravaged European vineyards – most notably those of France. With the sudden shortage of French wine, many countries turned to Spain, with French winemakers crossing the Pyrenees to Rioja, Navarre and Catalonia, bringing with them their expertise and winemaking methods. One of these developments was the introduction of the 59 gallon (225 liter) oak barrica. Phylloxera eventually reached Spain, devastating regions like Malaga in 1878 and reaching Rioja in 1901. Its slow progress was due in part to the wide tracts of land, including the Meseta Central, that separated the major Spanish wine regions from each other. By the time the Spanish wine industry felt the full force of phylloxera, the remedy of grafting American rootstock to the European vines had already been discovered and widely utilized.
The end of the 19th century also saw the emergence of Spain's sparkling wine industry with the development of Cava in Catalonia. As the 20th century progressed, the production of Cava would rival the Champagne region in worldwide production. Civil and political upheaval would mark most of the 20th century, including a military dictatorship under General Miguel Primo de Rivera. One of the measures instituted by Primo de Rivera was the early groundwork of the Denominación de Origen (DO) appellation system first developed in Rioja in 1926. The Spanish Civil War saw vineyards neglected and wineries destroyed throughout Spain with regions like Catalonia and Valencia being particularly hard hit. The Second World War closed off European markets to Spanish exports and further damaged the Spanish economy.
It wasn't till the 1950s that domestic stability helped to usher in a period of revival for the Spanish wine industry. Several large co-operative wineries were founded during this period and an international market was created for generic bulk wines that were sold under names like Spanish sauternes and Spanish chablis. In the 1960s, Sherry was rediscovered by the international wine market and soon Rioja wine was in demand. The death of Francisco Franco in 1975 and the Spanish transition to democracy allowed more economic freedom for winemakers and created an emerging market with the growing middle class of Spain. The late 1970s and 1980s saw periods of modernization and a renewed emphasis on quality wine production. The 1986 acceptance of Spain into the European Union brought economic aid to the rural wine industries of Galicia and La Mancha. The 1990s saw the influence of flying winemakers from abroad and broader acceptance of the use of international grape varieties like Cabernet Sauvignon and Chardonnay. In 1996, the restrictions on irrigation were lifted which gave winemakers greater control over yields and what areas could be planted. Soon the quality and production volume of premium wines began to overtake the presence of generic Spanish bulk wines on the market and Spain's reputation entering the 21st century was that of a serious wine-producing country that could compete with other producers in the world wine market.
Geography and climate
One of the dominant geographical influences of Spanish viticulture is the vast plateau known as the Meseta Central that covers much of central Spain. Several of Spain's principal rivers that are at the heart of many Spanish wine regions flow to the sea from that central area. These include the eastward flowing Ebro river that runs through the Rioja and several Catalan wine regions; the Duero which flows westward through the Ribera del Duero region in Spain before crossing the border into Portugal's Douro Valley which is at the heart of Port wine production; the Tajo which runs through the La Mancha region; Guadalquivir which flows into the Atlantic at the Sherry producing village of Sanlúcar de Barrameda. In addition to the Meseta Central, several mountain ranges are known as cordilleras serve to isolate and influence the climate of several Spanish wine regions. These include the Cantabrian Mountains that spur westward from the Pyrenees and protect regions like the Rioja from the rain and the cool of westerlies coming from the Bay of Biscay. The Cantabrian Mountains act as a rain shadow with the coastal regions of the Basque Country receiving an average of while the winemaking region of Rioja, near Haro, around away receives only . In Galicia on the northwest coast, the region receives annual rainfall that ranges from on the coast to near the mountainous border of Castile and León.
The climate gets more extreme further inland towards the Meseta Central and is characterized by hot summers with temperatures that can reach with drought conditions. Many regions receive less than of rain annually with most of the rain falling during sudden downpours in the spring and autumn that can pose the risk of flash flooding. Winters in these regions are characterized by cold temperatures that can often fall below freezing around . Towards the southeast, around Valencia, the climate is more moderate with the strong Mediterranean influence. In the south, the Sherry and Malaga producing regions of Andalusia contain some of the hottest parts of Spain. North of the Sierra Nevada mountains in the Guadalquivir Valley, temperatures often reach in the summer. To adapt to these high temperatures, many Spanish vineyards will be planted on higher elevations, with many vineyards located over above sea level. These high altitudes create a large diurnal temperature variation with low night time temperatures that allow the grapes to maintain acidity levels and colouring. Regions with lower altitude vineyards, such as along the southern Mediterranean coast are suitable for producing grapes of high alcohol levels and low acidity.
Wine regions
Spain can be traditionally divided into 12 main wine regions. These wine regions somewhat follow the administrative borders of the 17 Autonomous Communities that make up the modern state of Spain. The central Autonomous Community of Castilla – La Mancha is the largest wine producing region, producing 13 million hectolitres, a third of Spanish wine output. Catalonia is the second largest producer, producing 5.5 million hectolitres (14% of total), and La Rioja is the third largest, producing almost 5 million hectolitres (13% of total). These larger wine regions are further divided into smaller wine regions that are classified under the Spanish wine law system, with 138 identifiable wine regions.
Classification
Spanish wine laws created the Denominación de Origen (DO) system in 1932 that were later revised in 1970, and recently updated in 2016 to be called DOP denominación de origen protegida ('protected denomination of origin'). The system shares many similarities with the hierarchical Appellation d'origine contrôlée (AOC) system of France, Portugal's Denominação de Origem Controlada (DOC) and Italy's Denominazione di origine controllata (DOC) system. As of 2019, there were 138 DOP and IGP areas across Spain. Within the DOP category, there is the Denominación de Origen Calificada (DOCa or DOQ in Catalan) status for DOPs that have a consistent track record for quality. There are currently two DOCa/DOQ regions: Rioja and Priorat.
Each DOP has a Consejo Regulador, which acts as a governing control body that enforces the DOP regulations and standards involving viticultural and winemaking practices. These regulations govern everything from the types of grapes that are permitted to be planted, the maximum yields that can be harvested, the minimum length of time that the wine must be aged and what type of information is required to appear on the wine label. Wineries that are seeking to have their wine sold under DOP status must submit their wines to the Consejo Regulador laboratory and tasting panel for testing and evaluation. Wines that have been granted DOP status will feature the regional stamp of the Consejo Regulador on the label.
Following Spain's acceptance into the European Union, Spanish wine laws were brought in line to be more consistent with other European systems. One development was a five-tier classification system that is administered by each autonomous region. Non-autonomous areas or wine regions whose boundaries overlap with other autonomous communities (such as Cava, Rioja and Jumilla) are administered by the Instituto Nacional de Denominaciones de Origen (INDO) based in Madrid. With updates in 2016, the five-tier became a six-tier classification and is as follows:
DOP – denominación de origen protegida ('protected denomination of origin'), is the mainstay of Spain's wine quality control system. Each region is governed by a consejo regulador, which decides on the boundaries of the region, permitted varietals, maximum yields, limits of alcoholic strength and other quality standards or production limitations pertaining to the zone. As of 2019 there are 96 DOPs that are subdivided into DOCa, DO, VP, and VC. The sub-categories can be called DOP, or they can use the traditional terms of DOCa, DO, VP, and VC.
DOCa/DOQ – denominación de origen calificada / denominació d'origen qualificada in Catalan ('qualified denomination of origin') - This designation, which is similar to Italy's Denominazione di Origine Controllata e Garantita (DOCG) designation, is for regions with a track record of consistent quality and is meant to be a step above DO level. Rioja was the first region afforded this designation in 1991 and was followed by Priorat in 2003. In 2008 Ribera del Duero was approved to receive DOCa classification, but acquiring the status was never pursued and Ribera del Duero remains a DO today.
DO – denominación de origen / denominació d'origen in Catalan ('denomination of origin') - This level is for the mainstream quality-wine regions which are regulated by the Consejo Regulador who is also responsible for marketing the wines of that DO.
VP – vino de pago ('estate wine'), a special term for high-quality, single-estate wines (pago is a Spanish term for a vineyard estate) which in some cases also have DO or VdlT appellations. This category was formed in 2003.
VC – vino de calidad con indicación geográfica ('quality wine with geographic indication'), a category formed in 2003 along with VP. The VC category is used for wines that do not fully meet the stringent standards of the DO category, but are above the standards of the IGP category.
IGP indicación geográfica protegida ('protected geographic indication') – This is below the DOP level, and is wine originating from a specific place, a region or a country, which has a certain quality, reputation or another characteristic - including production phases - that can be essentially attributed to its geographical origin, at least one of which takes place in the defined geographical area. These can use the traditional term Vino de la Tierra (VT).
VdM vino de mesa ('table wine') - These are wines that are the equivalent of most country's table wines and are made from unclassified vineyards or grapes that have been declassified through "illegal" blending. Similar to the Italian Super Tuscans from the late 20th century, some Spanish winemakers will intentionally declassify their wines so that they have greater flexibility in blending and winemaking methods.
Spanish labeling laws
Spanish wines are often labeled according to the amount of aging the wine has received. When the label says vino joven ("young wine") or Sin crianza, technically the wines have not been aged at all, but some will have undergone up to a few months oak wood aging. Depending on the producer, some of these wines will be meant to be consumed very young - often within a year of their release. Others will benefit from some time aging in the bottle. For the vintage year (vendimia or cosecha) to appear on the label, a minimum of 85% of the grapes must be from that year's harvest. The three most common aging designations on Spanish wine labels are Crianza, Reserva and Gran Reserva.
Crianza For Rioja red wines these are aged for 1 year, with at least 6 months in oak barrels. Crianza whites and rosés must be aged for at least 6 months in oak barrels.
Reserva red wines are aged for at least 3 years, with at least 1 year in oak barrels. Reserva whites and rosés must be aged for at least 2 years with at least 6 months in oak.
Gran Reserva wines typically appear in above average vintages with the red wines requiring at least 5 years aging, a minimum of 2 years in oak and a minimum of 3 years in the bottle. Gran Reserva whites and rosés must be aged for at least 4 years with at least 6 months in oak.
Viticulture
Viticulture in Spain has developed in adaptation to the varied and extreme climate of the region. The dry weather in many parts of Spain reduces the threat of common viticultural hazards like downy mildew and powdery mildew as well as the development of Botrytis cinerea. In these parts, the threat of drought and the poor fertility of the land has encouraged Spanish vineyard owners to plant their vines with widely spaced rows so that there is less competition between vines for resources. One widely adopted system is known as marco real and involves having of space between vines in all directions. These areas, mostly in the south and central regions, have some of the lowest vine density in the world—often ranging between 375-650 vines per acre (900-1600 vines per hectare). This is less than 1/8 of the vine density commonly found in other wine regions such as Bordeaux and Burgundy. Many Spanish vineyards are several decades old, with the old vines producing even lower yields of fruit. In the Jumilla region of Murcia, for example, yields are often less than 1.1 ton per acre (20 hl/ha).
In the 1990s, the use of irrigation became more popular after droughts in 1994, and 1995 severely reduced the harvest in those years. In 1996, the practice of using irrigation in all Spanish wine regions was legalized with many regions quickly adopting the practice. In the province of Toledo, Australian flying winemakers helped to popularize the use of underground drip irrigation to minimize the effects of evaporation. The widespread use of irrigation has encouraged higher density of vine plantings and has contributed to higher yields in some parts of Spain.
While traditionally Spanish vineyards would harvest their grapes by hand, the modernization of the Spanish wine industry has seen increased use of mechanical harvesting. In years past, most harvesting had to be done in the early morning with wineries often refusing grapes after mid-day due to their prolonged exposure to the blistering heat. In recent years, aided in part by the wider spread of the use of mechanical harvesting, more harvests are now being done at the lower temperatures at night.
Grape varieties
Some records estimate that over 600 grape varieties are planted throughout Spain, but 88% of the country's wine production is focused on only 20 grape varieties. The most widely planted grape is the white wine grape Airén, prized for its hardiness and resistance to drop. It is found throughout central Spain and for many years served as the base for Spanish brandy. Wines made from this grape can be very alcoholic and prone to oxidation. The red wine grape Tempranillo is the second most widely planted grape variety. It is known throughout Spain under a variety of synonyms that may appear on Spanish wine labels including Cencibel, Tinto Fino and Ull de Llebre. Both Tempranillo and Garnacha are used to make the full-bodied red wines associated with the Rioja, Ribera del Duero and Penedès with Garnacha being the main grape of the Priorat region. In the Levante region, Monastrell and Bobal have significant plantings, being used for both dark red wines and dry rosé.
In the northwest, the white wine varieties of Albariño and Verdejo are popular plantings in the Rías Baixas and Rueda respectively. In the Cava producing regions of Catalonia and elsewhere in Spain, the principal grapes of Macabeo, Parellada, and Xarel·lo are used for sparkling wine production as well as still white wines. In the southern Sherry and Malaga producing regions of Andalusia, the principal grapes are Palomino and Pedro Ximénez. As the Spanish wine industry becomes more modern, there has been a larger presence of international grape varieties appearing in both blends and varietal forms, most notably Cabernet Sauvignon, Chardonnay, Syrah, Merlot and Sauvignon blanc. Other Spanish grape varieties that have significant plantings include Cayetana Blanca and Mencía.
Winemaking
In Spain, winemakers often use the Spanish word elaborar (to elaborate) rather than fabricar (to produce/make) when describing the Spanish winemaking philosophy. This relates to the view that the winemaker acts as more of a nurturer of the grapes and wine rather than as a producer. For many years, Spanish winemaking was very rustic and steeped in tradition. This included the judicious use of oak with some wines, even whites, spending as much as two decades ageing in the barrel. This created distinctly identifiable flavors that were internationally associated with the wines from regions such as the Rioja. In the 19th century, wine writers held negative views about Spanish winemaking. Richard Ford noted in 1846 that the Spanish made wine in an "unscientific and careless manner" while Cyrus Redding noted in his work the History and Description of Modern wines that Spanish gave "rude treatment" to the grapes. Some of these criticisms were rooted in the traditional manners of winemaking that were employed in Spain. Crushing and fermentation would take place in earthenware jars known as tinajas. Afterward, the wine was stored in wooden barrels or pig skin bags lined with resin known as cueros. In the warmer climate and regions of lower elevation, the red wines tilted towards being too high in alcohol and too low in acidity. The standard technique to rectify those wines was the addition of white wine grapes which balanced the acidity but diluted some of the fruit flavors of the red grapes.
The advent of temperature control stainless steel fermentation tanks radically changed the wine industry in warm climate regions like Andalucia, La Mancha, and the Levante, allowing winemakers to make fresher and fruitier styles of wine-particularly whites. While many producers focused on these crisp, fresh styles in the early 1990s there was a resurgence in more active use of barrel fermenting whites as a throwback to the traditional, more oxidized styles of the 19th century. The use of oak has a long tradition in Spanish winemaking, dating back even centuries before the French introduced the small 59 gallon (225 liter) barrica style barrels. Gradually Spanish winemakers in the late 19th and early 20th century started to develop a preference for the cheaper, and more strongly flavored, American oak. Winemakers in regions like the Rioja found that the Tempranillo grape, in particular, responded well to new American oak. In the 1990s, more winemakers started to rediscover the use of French oak and some wineries will use a combination of both as a blend. Most DOs require some minimum period of barrel ageing which will be stipulated on the wine label by the designations-Crianza, Reserva and Gran Reserva depending on how long it spends in the barrel. The tradition of long barrel and bottle ageing has meant that most Spanish wines are ready to drink once they hit the market. A new generation of winemakers have started to produce more vino joven (young wines) that are released with very little ageing.
Sherry
Sherry is a heavily fortified wine produced in southern Spain around the towns of Jerez, Sanlúcar de Barrameda, and El Puerto de Santa María. In the 1990s, the European Union restricted the use of the name "Sherry" to the wine made from this region. It is mostly made from the Palomino grape, accounting for nearly 95% of the region's plantings, but Moscatel and Pedro Ximenez can also be used. While the wine is aging in the barrel, a naturally occurring yeast native to the region, known as flor, will develop and distinguish certain styles of Sherry. The flor needs fresh wine in order to survive and is added by the use of a solera system that also gradually blends the wines of different vintages together. Palomino wine, by itself, typically ferments to an alcohol level of around 12% with Sherry producers adding brandy to the wine in order to increase the alcohol level or kill the flor yeast which will not thrive in alcohol levels above 16%.
Sherry has a wide diversity of styles:
Fino - a very dry and delicate Sherry. These wines are characterized by flor yeast. It has to contain 15 to 17% of alcohol.
Manzanilla - comes from the town of Sanlúcar de Barrameda by the sea, where flor yeast develops more vigorously. This wine is produced using exactly the same process as Fino, but as weather conditions are very different in Sanlucar district it develops into a slightly different kind of wine, slightly lighter and more saline than Fino. It is entirely dry (less than 1 gram of sugar per litre) and has to contain 15 to 17% of alcohol.
Amontillado - starts as a Fino, but it loses its layer of flor as it grows older. It is therefore characterized by biological ageing (under flor) but also oxidative ageing (in contact with air). It is full, dry and nutty and by law it has to contain 16 to 22% of alcohol.
Oloroso - is deeper/darker in color due to oxidative ageing from the start. Like the previous styles it is entirely dry (less than 5 grams of sugar/l). It is full-bodied, complex and round and contains 17 to 22% of alcohol.
Palo Cortado - is a very rare style. It is made from the finest base wines but like Oloroso it is aged oxidatively. Palo Cortado is said to combine the nose of Amontillado with the depth and body of Oloroso. It contains 17 to 22% of alcohol.
Moscatel - is a naturally sweet dessert-style wine made from Moscatel grapes with partial fermentation and oxidative ageing. It contains 200-300 grams of sugar per litre and 15 to 22% of alcohol.
Pedro Ximénez - is very rich and naturally sweet dessert-style wine. It's made from raisins of Pedro Ximénez grapes dried in the sun. It contains 400-500 grams of sugar per litre and 15 to 22% of alcohol.
Blends of dry and sweet styles of sherry also exist - they were very popular in the 1970s and 1980s but their popularity is now in decline.
Pale Cream is a blend of Fino / Manzanilla with Moscatel or grape must, between 45 and 115 grams of sugar and less than 15.5% of alcohol.
Medium is a blend of Amontillado or Oloroso with Moscatel or Pedro Ximénez, less than 115 grams of sugar and between 15 and 22% of alcohol.
Cream Sherry is usually a blend of Oloroso with Pedro Ximénez, more than 115 grams of sugar and between 15.5% and 22% of alcohol.
Cava
Cava is a Spanish sparkling wine made in the traditional method of the French sparkling wine Champagne. The definition of Cava is (VECPRD). It originated in the Catalonia region at the Codorníu Winery in the late 19th century. The wine was originally known as Champan until Spanish producers officially adopted the term "Cava" (cellar) in 1970 in reference to the underground cellars in which the wines ferment and age in the bottle. The early Cava industry was nurtured by the phylloxera epidemic of the late 19th century, which caused the destruction and uprooting of vineyards planted with red grape varieties. Inspired by the success of Champagne, vineyard owners started to replant with white grape varieties like Macabeo, Parellada, and Xarel·lo to use for sparkling wine production. These grapes are still the primary grapes of Cava today though some producers are experimenting with the use of the typical Champagne grapes of Chardonnay and Pinot noir.
For most of its existence, the production of Cava was not relegated to a particular region of DOP but rather to the grapes and method of production. Upon Spain's acceptance into the European Union in 1986, efforts were undertaken to designate specific areas for Cava production. Today use of the term "Cava" is restricted to production around select municipalities in Catalonia, Aragon, Castile and León, Valencia, Extremadura, Navarre, Basque Country, and Rioja. Around 95% of Spain's total Cava production is from Catalonia, with the village of Sant Sadurní d'Anoia being home to many of Spain's largest production houses.
See also
Winemaking
Agriculture in Spain
References
External links
Spain - Wine regions and their wine Information about all Spanish DOCa and DOP wine regions
Wine regions of Spain
Spanish drinks
Agriculture in Spain
Wine by country |
4371353 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hans-Arnold%20Stahlschmidt | Hans-Arnold Stahlschmidt | Hans-Arnold Stahlschmidt (15 September 1920 – 7 September 1942) was a German fighter pilot during World War II. A flying ace, he was credited with 59 victories against the Western Allies in North Africa. Stahlschmidt was a close friend of the prominent ace Hans-Joachim Marseille.
Early life
Hans-Arnold Stahlschmidt was born on 15 September 1920 in Kreuztal, Westphalia. Following his compulsory Reich Labour Service, Stahlschmidt joined the military service of the Luftwaffe as a cadet on 16 October 1939.
World War II
World War II in Europe had begun on Friday, 1 September 1939, when German forces invaded Poland. In Salzwedel, Stahlschmidt completed his military basic training. On 15 November 1939, he was posted to the pilot training facilities in Breslau and the Kriegsschule (war-college) at Vienna-Schwechat. From here in January 1941, he was posted as an Oberfähnrich (Officer Candidate) to 2. Staffel (2nd squadron) of Jagdgeschwader 27 (JG 27—Fighter Wing 27) based at Berlin. Also posted to I./JG 27 (1st Group) at the same time was Hans-Joachim Marseille. On 1 March 1941, Stahlschmidt was promoted to Leutnant (second lieutenant) with a rank age date of 1 February 1941.
In March 1941, I./JG 27 was deployed to Sicily for operations over Malta. In early April the group was moved to Graz in Austria for the German invasion of Yugoslavia. On 14 April 1941 with campaign over, I./JG 27 was recalled to Munich being transferred to North Africa.
North Africa
They were initially based at Ain-el-Gazala, just west of Tobruk. Stahlschmidt sank two small ships. In one attack on a 200-ton sailing ship his cannon fire struck the Galley, hitting the petrol-powered cooker, causing a large fire. Eight English and six Greek sailors abandoned the ship before it sank. Another was sunk leading to the capture of 32 men. Stahlschmidt achieved his first victory during the Siege of Tobruk on 15 June 1941. The British Eighth Army began Operation Battleaxe that morning and 2./JG 27 was engaged in operations throughout the day. Stahlschmidt claimed a Hawker Hurricane, probably of No. 73 Squadron RAF. Stahlschmidt did not file another claim until 20 November 1941. The British Army initiated Operation Crusader to relieve Tobruk. Stahlschmidt claimed a trio of South African Air Force (SAAF) Martin Maryland bombers, west of Tobruk. The 21 Squadron SAAF reported the loss of four from a formation of nine and claimed one Bf 109 shot down in exchange during a mission to bomb positions at Al Edem. A week later, on 27 November, he claimed another Hurricane south of El Adem for his fifth victory which qualified him as a flying ace.
On 6 December he was appointed Gruppen Adjutant of I./JG 27, a position he held briefly until his return to 2./JG 27 in February 1942. On 14 December 1941 Stahlschmidt claimed his sixth victory in another day of heavy air fighting. South of Trimi he claimed a Curtiss P-40 Warhawk. Stahlschmidt's first victory of 1942 was claimed on 11 January south of Agedabia. P-40s from No. 3 Squadron RAAF (Royal Australian Air Force) were bounced by Stahlschmidt's staffel and he shot down Sergeant Cameron. On 22 January 1942 3 Squadron were again bounced by Stahlschmidt and his wingman. Stahlschmidt shot down Flying Officer James McIntosh, who was killed. On 21 February 1942, Stahlschmidt was shot down in his Bf 109 F-4 trop (Werknummer—factory number 8528). On this mission he was a part of a formation led by his Staffelkapitän (Squadron leader), Oberleutnant Gerhard Homuth. They observed 11 P-40s near Acroma. In a letter to his mother he described the subsequent events:
I saw the Curtiss planes approximately 300 meters below us and falling away below. These aircraft were no threat to us whatsoever! Now I just wanted to level out of my turning bank, since my colleagues were already at a substantially higher altitude. Keppler (his wingman), overshot me. Once again, I saw the Curtiss planes 300 meters directly below me and counted eleven aircraft.
Not suspecting anything untoward, I continued my level climb. All of a sudden there was a loud noise in my cockpit — I'd taken cannon [sic] fire. The crate immediately flipped uncontrollably onto its back. Fuel gushed into the cockpit; it began smoking and then I completely lost control of the Bf 109, spiraling down on my back through the Curtisses. Over the intercom I heard the angry voice of Homuth: "Which of you idiots just let himself get shot down?"
Trailing a long column from my radiator I fell earthward. The water temperature climbed to 140 degrees. At an altitude of 1,000 meters I again regained control of the crate. With a bit of flair and fortune I managed to fly the 100 km to our own lines, during which I would only switch the engine [on] for short periods, in order to gain altitude for the long glide home.
Crash landing in no man's land, Stahlschmidt escaped the burning wreck with just a pair of singed eyebrows. Once again, as he ran on foot toward German lines, Stahlschmidt was fired on by an Allied truck convoy which he had just overflown. However he was picked up by a German reconnaissance unit. Back at Staffel HQ Stahlschmidt learned from Marseille and Homuth that the lead Kittyhawk had pulled up sharply and fired accurately. Both were of the opinion that it was a wonderful shot. The Allied pilot was the leading Australian ace, Squadron Leader Clive Caldwell, CO of No. 112 Squadron RAF.
Six days later, on 26 February 1942, flying his Bf 109F-4 Stahlschmidt was again shot down. While strafing an Allied supply column when his engine suddenly seized. This time though, as he crash-landed he was taken prisoner by Free Polish soldiers, who beat him and stole his medals. Interrogated, then sent onto another camp he was able to escape on foot later that night. In a 16-hour trek, he walked through the desert and reached the German lines. Stahlschmidt purportedly suffered severe anxiety after his escape. His physical injuries amounted to a fractured eye socket and several cracked ribs. His psychological state manifested itself in constant shaking and insomnia. In modern parlance, these symptoms could be construed as post-traumatic stress disorder. Stahlschmidt was sent to a hospital in Munich for two weeks and a medical evaluation. Marseille was suffering from dysentery and was sent with him.
Stahlschmidt was awarded the German Cross in Gold on 9 April 1942. Stahlschmidt crash-landed and being shot down by ground-fire on 7 May in Werknummer 8480. The rocky terrain tore off the tail plane of the Bf 109.
On 22 May 1942 he achieved his 9th victory. Over the frontline Bf 109s of his staffel bounced 20 P-40s escorting 12 Martin Baltimore bombers. Stahlschmidt shot down a P-40 from No. 250 Squadron RAF. On 26 May 1942, Generaloberst Erwin Rommel launched Operation Theseus, also referred to as the Battle of Gazala and the Battle of Bir Hakeim. Stahlschmidt gained his 10th victory on 29 May 1942 as the Battle of Gazala and Bir Hakeim raged. His Staffel attacked P-40s of No. 450 Squadron RAAF and claimed three shot down. Stahlschmidt claimed a single victory—Sergeants Dean, Packer and Shaw were posted missing in action. It was now that Stahlschmidt's combat success really started. On 26 June the Geschwader crossed over onto Egyptian soil, at Sidi Barrani.
In command
Stahlschmidt slowly built a reputation as a combat leader over the summer, 1942. On 13 June he claimed a Hurricane of No. 213 Squadron RAF while comrade Friedrich Körner registered his first victories. The following day near Kambut he claimed a P-40 of 5 Squadron SAAF. The German Africa Corps pursued the British into Egypt and Rommel attempted to destroy the bulk of the British Army at Mersa Matruh. In the ensuing Battle of Mersa Matruh, Rommel depleted British forces but failed to destroy them. On this day of intensive air combat Stahlschmidt downed four Desert Air Force aircraft over the battlefield. The claims were his 14th–17th aerial victories. Stahlschmidt's close friend Marseille passed the 100-mark on 18 June 1942 and departed for two months leave.
On 1 July 1942, Stahlschmidt was himself promoted to Staffelkapitän of 2./JG 27. This same day the First Battle of El Alamein began. On the morning of 4 July 1942 Stahlschmidt claimed four victories in the El Alamein area—three on a morning mission and one in the late afternoon. In the morning battle Stahlschmidt, with Feldwebel Günter Steinhausen flying as his wingman, dived to attack and shot down Major Lemmie Le Mesurier and Lieutenant Powell of 1 Squadron SAAF. Mesurier was wounded in action. JG 27 lost the 36-victory ace Körner who was shot down and captured. The following day he claimed a Gloster Gladiator. The claim could not be confirmed through British records. Only the 1411 Meteorological Flight was equipped with the aircraft. It may have been an Italian Fiat CR.42 as Regia Aeronautica units were active on this date. The claim was his 27th victory. Further research has indicated that Egyptian officers procured military photographs of British positions and intended to hand them over to the Germans. The conspirators ordered Pilot Officer Ahmed Saudi Hussein to deliver them and he took-off in a Gladiator but was intercepted by Stahlschmidt. A second pilot, Warrant Officer Muhammed Ridwan Salim succeeded the following day. He was taken to Germany but captured and handed back the Egyptians in 1945. Salm's fate is unknown.
On 8 July he made another three claims in the space of eight minutes. Two of the claims can be identified from No. 33 Squadron RAF. Pilot Officer Wigle and Sergeant Morris were killed in action. His tally now stood at 26. On a patrol near El Alamein on 10 July, Stahlschmidt shot down two P-40s and a Hurricane in ten minutes to inflate his tally to 33. His adversaries in the battle were from 80, 92 and 127 Squadron RAF. Over the next twelve days he added three more claims. On 22 July Stahlschmidt claimed another three—two P-40s in the morning sorties and a Hurricane in the afternoon. Pilot Officer Barrow was one of his victims, killed in action.
The last claims were made for July on day 27. Stahlschmidt claimed three RAF fighters. In the morning sortie his Staffel trailed 33 Squadron as the British unit returned to base. As they did so, the Germans stumbled across 213 Squadron who were behind 33 Squadron. Consequently 213 received no warning of the German presence and radar plotters assumed the mass to be a single formation. Stahlschmidt claimed a Hurricane from 213 Squadron in the battle over El Hammam. In the after noon he claimed a Hurricane and a P-40 in battle with a formation compromising 1 Squadron SAAF, 3 Squadron RAAF and 450 Squadron RAAF. Two Hurricanes shot down on 1 August and another two on 16 August for his 44–47th victories. Stahlschmidt's opponents on 16 August near El Alamein were from 5 Squadron SAAF. Lieutenant Trenchard was his 46th or 47th victory and he became a prisoner of war. Marseille returned to action on 23 August and Stahlschmidt claimed a single victory.
On 1 September 1942 Marseille shot down 17 Allied aircraft. Stahlschmidt also made two claims and another on the 2 September. On 3 September 1942 he claimed five victories—three P-40s, a Hurricane and a Supermarine Spitfire. This qualified him as an "ace in a day" and brought his tally to 56. Relating the strain of the activity, in another letter home to his family, he described the action on the 3 September 1942:
Today I have experienced my hardest combat. But at the same time it has been my most wonderful experience of comradeship in the air. We were eight Messerschmitts in the midst of an incredible whirling mass of enemy fighters. I flew my 109 for my life. I worked with every gram of energy and by the time we finished I was foaming at the mouth and utterly exhausted. Again and again we had enemy aircraft fighters on our tails. I was forced to dive three or four times, but I pulled up again and rushed back into the turmoil. Once I seemed to have no escape; I had flown my 109 to its limits, but a Spitfire still sat behind me. At the last moment Marseille shot it down, 50 metres from my 109. I dived and pulled up. Seconds later I saw a Spitfire behind Marseille. I took aim at the enemy — I have never aimed so carefully — and he dived down burning. At the end of the combat only Marseille and I were left in the dogfight. Each of us had three kills. At home we climbed out of out planes and were thoroughly exhausted. Marseille had bullet holes in his 109 and I had 11 hits in mine. We embraced each other, but were unable to speak. It was an unforgettable event.
The comments made by Stahlschmidt illustrate how Allied combat tactics and aircraft had improved. Stahlschmidt added a further two on 5 September and another on 6 September. On the latter date, JG 27 suffered a blow when the 40-victory ace Günther Steinhausen was shot down and killed in the Alamein area. Steinhausen was likely shot down by James Francis Edwards. His 59th—and last claim—is recorded as a P-40 shot down near El Hammam at 17:25.
Death
Commander, Eduard Neumann usually sent up at least a rotte (pair) of Bf 109s on an early morning reconnaissance patrol because the Luftwaffe lacked radar and early-warning radar in Africa. On the morning of the 7 September 1942 Stahlschmidt, flying Bf 109 F-4 (Werknummer 8704) "Red 4", led a Schwarm (four-strong formation) that had taken off on a freie Jagd (fighter sweep) south east of El Alamein. They intercepted a tactical reconnaissance Hurricane covered by a strong escort of Hurricane MK IICs from No. 33 Squadron RAF and No. 213 Squadron RAF. However, Stahlschmidt's flight had failed to notice another flight, of Spitfire Mk Vc's of No. 601 Squadron RAF, which had been flying up in the sun. Trapped between both flights, two 109s were shot down, including Stahlschmidt and the 24-victory ace Leutnant von Lieres u Wilkau. von Lieres u Wilkau survived a torrid crash-landing but Stahlschmidt disappeared.
Commander, Eduard Neumann, dispatched the 1st and 2nd Staffeln to search for the missing ace. Marseille, who was the best of friends with Stahlschmidt, could not fly on the mission and requested that he form part of the search. Neumann refused but promised to update him. Stahlschmidt was nowhere to be found. He was posted as missing in action, and his exact fate remains unknown to this day. Recent research suggests that he may have been shot down by an American ace, Flight Lieutenant John H. Curry (RCAF; 7.5 claims), of 601 Sqn.
In over 400 combat missions in North Africa Stahlschmidt scored 59 victories, all but four being single-engine fighters. All were over Western Allied pilots all were scored in the African theatre. Behind Marseille (151) and Werner Schroer (61), Stahlschmidt was the third highest scoring Desert ace of the war. Sixteen months later on 3 January 1944 he posthumously became the 365th recipient of the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves and was promoted to Oberleutnant (first lieutenant), effective as of 1 September 1942.
In the space of three weeks I. Gruppe, Jagdgeschwader 27 was rocked by the deaths of its three top aces. Stahlschmidt's death only 24 hours after the death of 1./JG 27 ace Günter Steinhausen and was followed on 30 September 1942 by the death of Hans-Joachim Marseille. I./JG 27 claimed 588 aircraft shot down in April 1941–November 1942. Stahlschmidt, Steinhausen and Marseille between them accounted for 250 of these; 42% of the unit's total. Morale fell so low that the Gruppe was withdrawn to Sicily in October. It returned briefly to North Africa, but was withdrawn from the theatre for the final time on 6 December 1942.
Summary of career
Aerial victory claims
According to Spick, Stahlschmidt was credited with 59 aerial victories. Mathews and Foreman, authors of Luftwaffe Aces — Biographies and Victory Claims, researched the German Federal Archives and found records for 59 aerial victory claims, plus one further unconfirmed claim. All of his confirmed victories were claimed over the Western Allies.
Awards
Iron Cross (1939)
2nd Class (20 June 1941)
1st Class (21 November 1941)
Front Flying Clasp of the Luftwaffe in Gold
German Cross in Gold on 9 April 1942 as Leutnant in the I./Jagdgeschwader 27
Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves
Knight's Cross on 20 August 1942 as Leutnant and Staffelführer of the 2./Jagdgeschwader 27
365th Oak Leaves on 3 January 1944 (posthumously) as Leutnant and Staffelführer of the 2./Jagdgeschwader 27
Notes
References
Citations
Bibliography
Shores, Christopher. Aces High – Volume 2: A Further Tribute to the Most Notable Fighter Aces of the British and Commonwealth Air Forces in World War II. London: Grub Street, 1999. .
Smith, J.Richard & Pegg, Martin (2003). Jagdwaffe Vol 3, Sec3: War over the Desert June1940 - June1942 Hersham, Surrey: Ian Allan Publishing
1920 births
1942 deaths
People from Kreuztal
Luftwaffe pilots
German World War II flying aces
Luftwaffe personnel killed in World War II
Missing in action of World War II
Military personnel from the Province of Westphalia
Recipients of the Gold German Cross
Recipients of the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves
Reich Labour Service members
Military personnel from North Rhine-Westphalia |
4371398 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frank%20Filchock | Frank Filchock | Frank Joseph Filchock (October 8, 1916 – June 20, 1994) was an American gridiron football player and coach. As a consequence of a famous scandal regarding the 1946 NFL Championship Game, he was suspended by the National Football League (NFL) from 1947 to 1950 for associating with gamblers.
Early career
Born in 1916 in the small Pennsylvania mining town of Crucible, Filchock was a star player at Redstone Township High School and later at Indiana University. After graduating from university, he became the second pick of the Pittsburgh Pirates (now the Pittsburgh Steelers) in the second round of the 1938 NFL Draft. The Pirates' first first-round draft choice that year was Byron (Whizzer) White of Colorado, who later became a U.S. Supreme Court judge. Filchock appeared in six games for the Pirates in 1938, and then was sold to the Washington Redskins.
At Washington, he appeared in six more games in the 1938 season, as understudy to Sammy Baugh. He remained with the Redskins through the 1941 season, part of the time alternating quarters with Baugh. During this period of alternation, the two were known as Slingin' Sam and Flingin' Frank.
On October 15, 1939 Filchock threw the first 99-yard touchdown pass in NFL history, to Andy Farkas, in a game against his old team, the Pirates. This set a record for longest play from scrimmage, a record that can only be tied, not broken. In 1939 and 1944 he led the league in touchdown passes. In the latter year he also won the league passing championship, just edging out teammate Baugh.
In 1942 and 1943 Filchock was out of professional football and on active duty with the United States Navy. While in the service he played for Georgia Pre-Flight, where he was named to the U.P. All-Service team at tailback. In 1944 he returned to Washington, D.C., where the Redskins had just switched to the T-formation.
After the 1945 season coach Steve Owen of the New York Giants asked owner Tim Mara to get Filchock to serve as passer in Owen's A-Formation offense. Mara made the trade with the Redskins, but actually signing Filchock was more difficult. Not only did Mara end up exceeding his traditional salary ceiling, but he also agreed to the first multi-year contract in Giants' history. Filchock got a reported $35,000 for three seasons. Even such Giant greats as Benny Friedman, Mel Hein and coach Steve Owen had never received multi-year contracts (Owen, in fact, coached the Giants for 22 years without a contract).
In spite of a painful arm injury, Filchock had a good first year in New York, passing for 1,262 yards and 12 touchdowns. He ran for another 371 yards and was chosen an all-pro halfback and the most valuable player for the Giants. His passing threat was what the Giants needed to make Owen's offense work, and Filchock led the team from a 3-6-1 record in 1945 to 7-3-1 and first place in the Eastern Conference in 1946. This set up the 1946 NFL title game with the Chicago Bears, scheduled for Sunday, December 15.
The scandal
Hours before game time, a story broke on radio that gamblers had attempted to fix the game—and that Filchock and another Giant back, Merle Hapes, were involved. It later developed New York City mayor Bill O'Dwyer, NFL commissioner Bert Bell, police commissioner Arthur Wallander and Giants' owner Tim Mara had met in the mayor's office to assess the situation on the day before the game. O'Dwyer also wanted to meet with the players, and Filchock and Hapes were brought to the mayor's residence later that day. At this meeting, Hapes admitted being approached, while Filchock denied it.
At 2 a.m. Sunday, only twelve hours before game time, the district attorney's office announced that Filchock and Hapes had been offered $2,500 each plus the profits from a $1,000 bet that Chicago would win by more than ten points. The players also had been offered off-season jobs supposed to bring them another $15,000.
Bell announced that although the police had concluded no player had taken a bribe, the league would conduct its own investigation of the offers. The championship game would go ahead as scheduled. Filchock, who during the meeting with the mayor had denied being approached, would be allowed to play in the game. Hapes, who had admitted his failure to report the bribe attempt, would not be allowed to play.
Thus the Giants went into the game minus one of their backfield stars and with a cloud hanging over another. When Filchock was introduced, he was roundly booed. He reportedly played hard, suffering a broken nose, but the Giants lost to the Bears 24-14. This was the precise betting line of the gamblers; they neither won nor lost their bets.
Filchock played 50 minutes and was responsible for all of the Giants' scoring, throwing touchdown passes to Frank Liebel and Steve Filipowicz. He completed 9 of 26 passes for 128 yards and had 6 intercepted. The winning players each received $1,975.82, the losers $1,295.57. Both Filchock and Hapes received full shares.
The day after the game, the Associated Press reported
Alvin J. Paris, a self-styled 'big bettor' on athletic contests, was arraigned on a bribery charge, accused of having offered Merle Hapes and Frank Filchock, Giant backfield men, $2,500 each to agree not to play their best in the championship contest. Police exonerated both players but Hapes was kept out of the game at the order of Bert Bell, commissioner of the league. Filchock, the key man in the Giants' backfield, played virtually all the game.
The aftermath
Alvin Paris was convicted of bribery January 8, 1947. The same day Bell suspended both of the players, even though the judge in the Paris trial had found that "Frank Filchock was not an accomplice, and was in fact an unfortunate victim of circumstances."
After Paris's trial, three other gamblers were indicted on bribery and conspiracy charges. Paris had not taken the stand in his own defense, but he was the prosecution's star witness at the second trial. He testified that $500 was bet for each of the two players on the Giants to win their final regular-season game, against the Redskins. This was presumably without the players' knowledge. Paris paid them the proceeds after the game. According to him Hapes accepted the money without argument, but Filchock required some persuasion. Paris also claimed that Hapes was willing to throw the championship game and that Filchock considered the offer overnight before rejecting it.
Hapes and Filchock also testified. They strongly denied ever receiving any money from Paris or ever considering any bribery offers.
The three conspirators in the second trial were convicted and received sentences of five to ten years. Paris's sentencing had been deferred until after the second trial. His testimony for the prosecution was taken into account, and he received only a one-year sentence. He was paroled after nine months.
Within 24 hours of the second verdict, Commissioner Bell extended the suspensions of Filchock and Hapes indefinitely. He did this, he said, because he had found the players "guilty of actions detrimental to the welfare of the National Football League and of professional football." This suspension applied not only to the NFL, but to all minor leagues associated with it. It did not apply to the new All-America Football Conference, but they were not about to pick up a player banned by the senior league for gambling connections. In effect, Filchock was banned from playing professional football in the United States.
When Filchock was asked about his plans, he replied "I haven't made any future plans simply because I never thought of being out of football. I still want to play football. I guess I always will."
A second career in Canada
Although no team in the United States would hire Filchock, there was definite interest in Canada. Both the Hamilton Tigers and the Ottawa Rough Riders of the Interprovincial Rugby Football Union (or Big Four) made offers. Filchock accepted the Tigers' offer, and on August 13, 1947 he joined the team as a player-coach. Rumor put his salary at $7,000 for the season.
There was a problem, however. While Canadian football teams were still technically amateur, it was an open secret that all of the teams in Canada's two major leagues of the time—the Big Four and the Western Interprovincial Rugby Union (WIFU) paid their players. Lew Hayman, then in the process of building his new Montreal franchise, the Alouettes, but who had been involved in football in eastern Canada for many years, said in 1946:
In the days before the war, the players were paid off in the dark. Some of the Canadian players took money and others didn't, though nearly all of them accepted gifts. Imports from the United States were paid in cash — somewhere between $1,000 and $1,200 for a season. Today you have to pay them all, homebreds or imports, and you have to pay them about four times as much as you did before the war.
Everyone knew about this, but no one openly admitted it. For a high-profile, professional player like Frank Filchock to play in the Big Four, pretenses would have to be dropped. Not everyone was willing to do that. Immediately after Filchock's signing, the Canadian Rugby Union, an umbrella organization for all levels of football throughout the Dominion, rejected his application for a player's certificate without comment, and the IRFU voted three to one that he could not play for Hamilton. Filchock was now blacklisted by every football league in the United States and Canada. Nevertheless, the Tigers were adamant: Filchock would play.
Frank played two exhibition games and four league games, all forfeit in advance, before the Big Four voted unanimously to allow him to play. The Tigers finished the 1947 season at 2-9-1.
Filchock was back with the Tigers for 1948, but in the meantime the team had resigned from the IRFU. Filchock's appearance in Big Four games had increased every team's attendance, but due to the lack of a gate-sharing program, the Tigers were able to benefit only up to the 12,000-seat capacity of their own stadium. Since they were paying Filchock's salary — undoubtedly the highest in the league — the Tigers felt they should receive some of the benefits from increased attendance at other parks. The three other teams did not see it that way, and the Tigers withdrew from the league.
Hamilton Wildcats, who had been playing senior football in the Ontario Rugby Football Union since 1943, promptly applied to fill the vacancy. They were accepted and the Tigers, a team dating back to 1869 and a founding member of the Big Four in 1907, were forced to play in the ORFU. In 1950 the Tigers and Wildcats finally merged as the Big Four's Hamilton Tiger-Cats. In 1948 Filchock was the MVP of the ORFU.
Filchock left the Tigers and returned to the Big Four in 1949, with Lew Hayman's Montreal Alouettes, at a salary reported to be $20,000 for two years. His earning power was now close to what it had been with the New York Giants. The Alouettes went 8-4 in the regular Big Four season, and then beat the ORFU champion Hamilton Tigers 40-0 for the Eastern Canadian title. In the Grey Cup they met the Western champions, the Calgary Stampeders. The Stampeders had a 28-2-1 record over the last two seasons, including a 1948 Grey Cup victory over Ottawa. In the game, Filchock completed 11 of 19 pass attempts for 204 yards, one touchdown and one interception. He also intercepted three Calgary passes. The Alouettes won the game 28-15.
Reinstatement
Hoping to end his NFL suspension, in July 1950 Filchock appeared at a hearing before Commissioner Bert Bell. He was accompanied by Leo Dandurand, Alouettes' president, and the two presented testimonials from businessmen, clergymen and sportsmen lauding his conduct. New York Mayor Bill O'Dwyer and Assistant District Attorney George Monaghan also urged Bell to lift Filchock's suspension.
Bell agreed to reinstate Filchock. In his announcement he state that Filchock "has at all times conducted himself in a manner reflecting the highest standards of sportsmanship... [and] has made a real contribution to the promotion and development of clean sports in Canada."
Jack Mara of the Giants (Filchock's previous NFL team) announced that he was "glad to hear that Frank has been reinstated... [but] we do not plan to make him an offer because we are stressing youth." Filchock was 33 years old at the time.
Filchock returned to Montreal and played the entire 1950 season there. The Alouettes finished out of the playoffs and he then signed with the Baltimore Colts, whose NFL season had not yet ended. The Colts folded after that season, and Filchock never played another down of football in the NFL.
Final years in football
In 1951, Filchock played with the Edmonton Eskimos of the WIFU, and for the first time in Canada his statistics were officially compiled. Official record-keeping began in Western Canada only in 1951, and not until 1954 in the East. He was made player-coach of the Eskimos in 1952 and led them to the WIFU championship. He was named to the second-team Western all-stars the same year. The Eskimos fired him after they lost the 1952 Grey Cup, reportedly because he demanded more money.
Pro football coaching career
In 1953 Filchock moved to the Saskatchewan Roughriders, where he was both quarterback and head coach. He retired as a player after that season, he continued to coach at Regina through 1957, compiling a regular-season record of 41-35-4 with the team but never making it to the Grey Cup.
In 1958, he became head coach of the Sarnia Golden Bears of the ORFU. The team had an outstanding crop of imports, including quarterback and kicker Gino Cappelletti. It suffered only one defeat in ten games, and that by only a single point. Two playoff victories gave Filchock his second league championship as a coach. However, the ORFU was no longer considered a major league. Amateur teams had been locked out of Grey Cup play that season with the formation of the Canadian Football League, though the ORFU had pulled out of Grey Cup competition four years earlier.
In 1959 Filchock served as backfield coach for the Calgary Stampeders of the CFL. He was named the first head coach of the Denver Broncos of the new American Football League on January 1, 1960. In December, 1961, he was fired after two disappointing seasons. His final record with the Broncos was 7-20-1.
In 1964 Filchock was defensive coach with the Quebec Rifles of the United Football League. That was his final year in football. All told, he had played or coached professional football in twelve cities, six leagues (he just missed the AAFC by playing with Baltimore the year of the merger) and two countries. He had also starred in high school, collegiate and service football, and had played minor league baseball with three teams. His overall major-league record as head coach was 67-65-7.
References
Bibliography
Braunwart, Bob, Bob Carroll and Joe Horrigan, "The Peregrinations of Frankie Filchock", Professional Football Researchers Association Annual 1981. Reprinted in From Scrimmage to SnapBack, the Journal of the Canadian Football Historical Association, v. 2, no. 2, Summer 2004. Includes Filchock's official statistics as player and coach (US and Canada).
Carroll, Dink, "Dollars and Dropkicks", Saturday Night, October 11, 1949, pp. 10–11, 31-32.
Claassen, Harold, The History of Professional Football, Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1963.
Coenen, Craig R. (2005). From Sandlots to the Super Bowl: The National Football League, 1920–1967. Knoxville, Tennessee: The University of Tennessee Press.
Coleman, Jim, Columns on the Filchock affair, Toronto Globe and Mail, August 18, 1947, p. 16; October 1, 1947, p. 18.
Davis, Jeff (2005). Papa Bear, The Life and Legacy of George Halas. New York: McGraw-Hill
Farrar, Harry, "Pro Football's Mr. Gadabout", Denver Post, February 21, 1964.
"Frankie Filchock Chosen Most Valuable Player in League", Hamilton Spectator, November 3, 1948.
Gottehrer, Barry, The Giants of New York, New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons, 1963.
Lyons, Robert S. (2010). On Any Given Sunday, A Life of Bert Bell. Philadelphia: Temple University Press.
MacCambridge, Michael (2005). America's Game. New York: Anchor Books
McIlroy, Kimball, "Fall, Football, and Filchock", Saturday Night, September 13, 1947, pp. 26–27.
Pervin, Lawrence A. (2009). Football's New York Giants. Jefferson, North Carolina: McFarland and Company, Inc.
Peterson, Robert W. (1997). Pigskin: The Early Years of Pro Football. New York: Oxford University Press.
Walker, Hal, "Here's Filchock", Toronto Globe and Mail, August 20, 1947, p. 15.
External links
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4371403 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gift%20from%20Hijaz | Gift from Hijaz | Armaghan-i-Hijaz (; or The Gift of the Hijaz; originally published in Persian, 1938) was a philosophical poetry book of Allama Iqbal, the great poet-philosopher of Islam.
Introduction
This work, published a few months after the poet's death, is a fairly small volume containing verses in both Persian and Urdu. It is incomplete, although this is not readily apparent to the reader; for Iqbal left some gaps in the book which he intended to fill when he made the pilgrimage to Mecca. The title means "Gift from the Hijaz." He had long wished to undertake the journey to the Arabian Peninsula to perform the Hajj and to visit the tomb of Muhammad, but was prevented from doing so by continuous illness during the last years of his life. Iqbal began composing the Armaghan as a gift to take to the Hijaz, intending to publish it on his return to India as a "Gift from the Hijaz" to his countrymen.
In this, his last work, we find the poet more withdrawn and introspective than previously. The poems are shorter and more personal. The impression left is that the author is taking a last look at the world around him before leaving it behind. The themes are largely the familiar ones, but the treatment is as fresh, forceful and delicate as ever. Iqbal's outspokenness, even when addressing God, in criticizing human evils and in his hatred of injustice and oppression and his devotion to Muhammad and his companions, all remain undiminished. As a summing-up of the ideas and feelings of a great thinker, the Armaghan merits a special place among the literary classics of the twentieth century.
It is divided into two parts, the first containing Persian, the second Urdu poems. The Persian verses, all in ruba'i form, are divided into five groups and presents God the Truth, Muhammad, the Muslim nation, Mankind and the "Companions on the Path to God."
The second part comprises Urdu poems composed between 1935 and the time of his death and include a poem describing the ideological confusion of the poet's time and its impact on Muslims.
In this work, Iqbal touches on practically every question with which he had been preoccupied during his life of intellectual striving and literary achievement. The poems which comprise this final work give the impression that the writer has at last found the tranquility he had for so long sought:
The song that has gone may come again - or may not.
A fresh breeze may come from Hijaz - or may not.
The days of this poor humble man are ended;
Another knower of secrets may come - or may not.
Topics
Preface
HAZOOR-I-HAQ
I
They held the loveless is heart and went away
My being and non-being were topics on tips
My heart rakes often knots of 'how' and 'why'
What a noisy display of mud and clay
Who brought the wide world on the cosmos scene
II
My heart not prisoned is writhing with pain
O Amrine, thou hast turn'd the cup of wine
The self writhing hearts are captives of lures
I tread a path there which leads no where
Keep off my wine from shallow hearted meeks
Thou hast no quest in thy efforts and zeals
Bid me shake the world with a cry and hue
A gloom still lurking in broad day light
Thy slave I'm and seek thy pleasure alone
III
My heart knows not the bliss of His flame
How to tell tale of 'Deen' and father land
A Muslim tied up with a foreign land
I wish not this world nor cosmos whole
What ye hopes from an easy going bloke
IV
I seek for that nation a rising field
How long shall you gaze with a wrathful stare?
That bliss of the past may come or not
If so e'er comes that gifted mystic sage
My heart is wealth mine who knows pang's pine
V
To lose heart to some one he did not know
My heart so restive is fleeing from me
I donned big circles on a likewise night
Knows not the Gabriel this hue and cry
The sky seldom sees alike this age
VI
Get me Seenay's truth, and love of his name
VII
A Muslim gloats in hunger and patches
A nation again whom duty is dear
A nation again whose hearts would adorn
VIII
Thy world is ruled by misers few
A hungry seeker begged his Sheikh to plead
IX
Looking in a mess is Indian State
From bondage a Moslem is a self sold guy
X
So calculate once all the losses and gains
What is the lasting life is known to thee
XI
When the old world gets its apex of height
My body is tired but soul still flies
HAZOOR-I-RISALAT
I
O, tent chamberlain! leave the tent hark
I keep my eyes penchant on hearts essence
I know not who dazzled and killed this heart
Ask not of lustre drunk's caravan scene
I cherish for Yasrib though I am old
II
To love'an rapture sins gave a common sense
You ask the spots where I played my jazz there
III
That dawn I asked naqah not to run quick
She needs no reins O I teamster hence!
Yet tears moist vivid in jet black eyes
IV
How lucky are deserts caravan lines
Hail the desert whose eve is morning gay
V
Who's that Ajmi as head of caravan
A place in love and raptures was his aim
VI
A hidden grief untold is clear
In pits grow poppies from vernal tide
VII
A page of Iraqi sometimes I turn
Let the hiker's grief take a blissful turn
VIII
Come O! chum for a tie to weep and cry
To wise he gave less wealth and affluence
The world with four sides I have in arm-pit
In this valley lies a lasting life new
IX
A Muslim was a king and saint so high
The heart takes heat from thy love pangs' flame
No morn yet to slaves O Indian night
As such I say to a. soft-hearted soul
A friend's hidden life how can I reveal
The sky still going on a perverse course
In his pure blood shines not that vigour and heat
He made his heart captive of pomp and show
To him the heart's door is not open yet
X
His collar is torn, he cares no darn
Give him his dues, of a captive and meek
Refine his morals and life once more
The bride of life, in him is not his own
His eyes are void of a glamour and glee
Though born as Muslim yet knows not the death
XI
The kingship as whole is trick and skill
A Muslim's stuff has a lifelong stay
Ashamed is Muslim for losing his State
Ask me not of his present day lot
I have scanned the whole world through his eye
The Muslims have raised no armament wings
The assets of Sheikh were the fables old
He brought a total change in faithless world
From fane gets Harem its grandeur and glare
As long in mosque the poor kept a row
The Moslems are fighting with brothers own
To others than God we touch our brows
In the hands of drinkers the empty glass
The synagogues bottles are void of wine
The Muslims are foreigns on every land
With wings you gave I judge and fly
At night before Lord I often cry
I speak not now of the grandeur past
The guard of Harem is the mason of fane
From this poor man's flame, sitting on his way
Like gallants I fall and rise again
Let me sob and sigh in a lone retreat
I fly in the airy lovelier space
Of secret I'told, they paid no heed
To stick it to bosom this verse aims not
You bid me for a theme on bliss lifelong
My face looks saffron from arcane pain
The meek utter hence of yonder glance
Those who knew not I preached them ego
What I hold in heart is grief and remorse
A poor, ruthfull flutist who taught love's tone
I seek not my vigour from morning air
I'am in a sea which has no coast side
Drive not from door who are longing for thee
On idols white my heart is sweet
From Western taverns the wines I take
I seek from thy door, whatever I seek
With 'mullah' or 'Sufi' I do not sit
The 'mullah' never knows the pangs of grief
On pulpit his address a venom of bile
The heart of lucent hearts he took or I?
An alien I am within my own race
For any one's boon this heart owes not
My craze still feels the same burning phase
This dust still feels His living flame
My glance looks not the world's hollow game
I have been born in a flameless age
The 'rose and poppy' lack my 'scent and shade.
So alien I am in West and East
I broke the magic of the modern age
You have lit up my eyes with an insight
When I pressed myself in my own embrace
The world has charms like paradise true
Bid him O lord! a holy man's lead
Move around O bearer! the wine cup's course
For love the world came from thee the love's flame
To me this burning a boon of thy glow
This heart, I tied not with aught in this fane
Grow that poppy from the dust of mine
To my shining race I would love to groan
For the sake of truth of my free lance tone
I hold a heart in hand find not a beau
Like Rumi I raised His call in Harem whole
Raise a garden new from dust of mine
A Muslim is resting from coast to coast
Who told him I smell thee 'under the rose'
From thy own main give pearls to my rill
In a gathering see my flute's tones sweet
I kept beaming face in this or that case
I have shared the poppy's flame and pain
With thy light alone I lit up my glance
I need in thy land just a melting sigh
XII
I hold very dear that roaring roar
Look to these saucy Anglican maids
Give a helping hand to those who are weak
XIII
You too take the wine from friend's cup warm
A poor man I'm, you hold the 'Arab's reign
A look of pain I'm and see no cure quick
Let tis join hands to spread his love's flame
You hold a high place in the desert's land
Being Muslims we make no home and false ties
To Anglian idols pay not a heed
HAZOOR-I-MILLAT
I
AN ODE TO UMMAH
Be nearer to the aim like a moon new
My self's own sea gave a rise to me
Come O' bearer and move the cup of Wine
Come O' bearer and raise the veils aside
Raise from thy bosom a 'Call of God Great'
From self a Muslim is man perfect
As long the Muslim, in self can peep,
The veils of thy fortune lo! I ope
Now all the shut doors for Turks are ope
A nation whose spring falls to decay
God gave that nation a sway o'er lands
From Razi thus learn the Quran's insight
II
EGO
Who makes Ego firm by 'Lailah's tie
O ignorant man get a knowing heart
Thy heart keeps not that hidden scar
III
ANAL HAQ (I AM GOD)
A place of I am God is God's own place
I am the God suits to that nation lone
Among nations large she holds a place great
From her inner verve that race is a flame
Like a unique race thus She flies in space
In garden's lawn he is song bird sweet
Fill the old wine in the New Age bowl
IV
SUFI AND MULLAH
The Mullah and Sufi are cross in deed
When the English subdued the mosque and fane
To Mullah and Sufi thou art a slave
Through the mirror of Quran see thy deeds
I salute the Mullah and Sufi old
On hell kafir-maker MulIah spoke
A well read disciple asked his guide
Thus spoke to his son a guide in patched robe
V
RUMI
Pour in thy self that old wine again
Take from his cup those poppy like stems
From his verve and heat I got a good share
Being full of pathos and passion's heat
He solved many ties I had to face
To me his heart's door was always ope
His thought thus flies with stars and moon rays
Take secrets of content from Rumi's call
When self is deprived from godly tint
That bright wine scattered from my wineyard
VI
THE MESSAGE OF FAROOQ (HAZRAT UMAR)
O desert's breeze rise from 'Arab's sky
Tue Faqr and Caliphate with King's Crown shine
A young man who peeps in his ego deep
For sense and heart's sake leave each door ajar
How happy is the race who wins her goal
That Turkish seaman how sang a song gay
The world rule is destined to my own dust
To certitude truth who so ever knew
A Muslim who tested his own ego first
VII
TO THE ARAB POET
To Arab poets sweet on my part say
I caused in his soul a verve a heat
You leave making now the portraits on wall
My heart has a grief, and dust has a heart
Of virtues of God Muslim has a part
Give to his dust that flame and might
A Muslim you were named for grief's bargain
On whom were opened the secrets of soul
So guard the nature of thy mud and dust
The hill and desert night defies thy day
Read the clear writing on thy forehead's slate
VIII
O SON OF THE DESERT
When all the desert sides were bright from dawn
The Truth chose Arab for caravan's lead
Those nights had the uproar for future's dawn
IX
FROM THIS DUST A RIDER COMES
DO YOU KNOW?
Learn the ways to win His pleasure and grace
If a craze consumes the garden's face
The poppy of my dawn's first vernal tide
So scattered I'm like dust of the way
How lucky a nation whom wheel of fate
In self's own sea, I'm thus a restive' wave
His glance would fill up the empty bowl
The caravans reins he would take when
To that holy mother I greet with pride
My heart thus says that the hero will hail
X
THE CALIPHATE AND MONARCHY
The Arabs gained a lot from Prophet's light
Take the Caliphate's witness with a heed
A Moses grapples with kingdoms all
The Adam is slave in this world yet
The love, from his glance is stable and best
XI
TURKS OF OTTOMAN EMPIRE
In the Ottoman reign, the Turks are free
How daring were they who broke his charms
The fate thus gave to Turks a verve anew
XII
TO DAUGHTERS OF THE NATION
Learn O' daughterling this loveliness trend
A God given sword thy glance to thee
At last modern age shows her conscience lo!
The world is stable from the mother's grace
That nation is lucky in whose hard race
This craze she gave me for sharp wits sense
If you pay a heed once, to this poor guy
From my evening's dusk get a dawn new
XIII
THE MODERN AGE
What is the age? On whom the faith cries
His glance only paints the heathen's shade
To youths of this age he taught evil ways
The Muslim draws content and kingship close
The dance you now play in this or that way
XIV
BRAHMEN
For him, he opened hundred doors for plots
To Brahmen I say not a useless bloke
A pundit keeps eyes on his own task
The Brahmen said leave this white man's door
XV
EDUCATION
A shine which lasts with beauty and grace
A knowledge which cures but melts not to trance
No links with that Momin the God would keep
A blind eye is better from eyes crook
No use of a thought which measures sky
Respect is the dress of a sage or fool
Why you lose hopes of kids a bit
Teach the offspring wisdom and faith's ken
Who sapp'd sweet tone of the birds and buds
The days of that 'Dervesh' O God keep gay
Who e'er tied himself with Lailah's tie
A caravan was killed, if you e'er see
A well dressed fighter and handsome guy
To a camel addressed its youngest foal
XVI
SEARCH FOR FOOD AND LIVING
If the hawks too fly for roof to roof race
See thy own self with a seeing eye
XVII
A CROCODILE TO ITS YOUNG
Thus said to its child a 'croco' with boast
In sea you are not it lies but in thee
XVIII
THE FINIS
I talk not of bearer nor of bowl hence
Back to ego turn, and back to heart look
For heart and eyes course, the ‘Harem’ is the aim
A MESSAGE TO MANKIND
Introduction
I
O bearer come and serve the old wine
Leave thy solitude cell for a while please
II
With times came unrest which passed so quick
Those who had fears for the future days
III
Like nightingale you know not the groans and wails
Come forward and learn the self seeing art
Give up the habit to weep on fate
A gull said to shaver, nice witty thing
You had fallen then from a godly place
I hail that day when he turns to self's bold
Like me you are too wrapped in a veil
A camel once said a nice word to foal
IV
I know many savants and gems of west
Hark! O victim of wits of aliens few
V
This being would last or just a passing show
With battle axe smite the Bistoon Mountain
Keep the crave's lamp burning ever in heart
O heart's sea! no peace yet known to thee
To both the worlds win with efforts and zeal
You show us O Poppy! thy self's own trace
VI
A man weeps not from a grief or pains
If a tested man dies think not ever
If thy dust has no link with soul and heart
My each breath blows with griefs many more
A young who tied heart with ego's call
Such griefs this heart now likes to take
Blame not the God for this or that hurt
Turn out fire of envy from thy heart's core
In his nights behold many dawns bright
VII
To the morning breeze' weep'd the dew' in trance
VIII
HEART
The heart is a sea which likes no shore
My heart is a fire, a smoke my frame
His help the world seeks like his slave own
The Ego's power he did not try
You say the heart is the Khak and Khoon
The world of Sun and Moon, slave of his thread
We are God's harvest its yield is heart
To that rare beauty my heart seeks again
The heart's world is not world of pomp and show
The glance brought eyes and wisdom a tape band
What is the love? an impact of glance
IX
EGO
The Ego is lucent from God's light rays
When a nation gives up gossip's course
From God's own being, the 'self' got a 'being' so
The friendship of rose a heart likes when
His parting's prick in my tête-à-tête lies
The dusty look I hold owes to His door
X
COMPULSION AND OPTION
I am quite certain that on the doomsday
In city of Room a pontiff told me
XI
DEATH
The death once said to God in this way
To king of six nooks give a lasting soul
XII
SAY TO SATAN
From me please give to Satan a message
As long He made not this wide world anew
The separation gave to zeal great spur
He drove thee out from the Heavens first
My rights and the wrongs you already know
Let us play a chess like a royal game
XIII
EARTH'S SATAN AND HELL'S SATAN
From this world's clear violence the man is sick
Look the demons dash on ear and eyelash
What a devil who likes a backward gait
What a venomed wine he holds in his bowl
Yet the man lies fallen from the high place
To Satans of this age be not a prey
His blows counterpart is a man complete
To sense of the means it is far off though
TO FRIENDS OF COMMON CREED (SAME PATH)
I
The Qalandar is a bold hawk of sky
When the Allah Hoo's tick did hit my soul
In the heart of nature like tears I groan
In logic I feel a smell of raws
Come and take from me that old wine's bowl
The same old harp I hold in my hand
To tyrants of this age I would thus say
A poor I am whose asset is glance
My heart's door I shut not to any one
No pomp and show I have in this globe
Some points were discussed by hundred wise men
The science or art points I claim not to wield
I boast not to be a song bird of dawn
This world is a path to my eyes and sense
With nothingness learn to live with grace
For long I'm gaining from this dusty mart
You cant learn aught 'sans' a conscious soul
Get a self-knowing eye and see thy soul
The wisdom knows not the certitude eyes
What are the clothes, gold jewels and gems?
To self my wine gives full sense and poise
For robes and turbans why you feel a bent
As soon I espied my ego's essence
When I packed my self from this dusty fuss
II
If a wise man holds clean conscience and soul
III
You are bowing head to 'Dara' and 'Jam'
I heard a nice verse from a man old
The being's secret hids in two words of sage
The being's secret hids in two words of sage
Two worlds of old man I keep in mind still
A restive wave said once to a coast
If this pomp and show the Anglian boon
To Anglians thus the hearts do not own
IV
We are despaired of heart and faith's way
His path's true sign if a Muslim could know
O callous heart make not a link with clay
In Truth and certitude lies the love's place
For Muslim 'this is the gnosis and ken
You handed over thee to idols white
A self maker and melter each cant be
A Momin burns thus in his being's own heat
What is lovers s service, prayers of beaus?
He calls both worlds to Quran by prays
V
The English mind knows God's Food Law Rules
A long tale serves no service in a sense
A paradise lies for the pious alone
VI
This dervesh knows not a style in speech
See also
Index of Muhammad Iqbal–related articles
Madani–Iqbal debate
Notes
External links
Read online
Iqbal Academy Pakistan
1938 books
Books by Muhammad Iqbal
Persian poems
Islamic philosophical poetry books
Poetry by Muhammad Iqbal
Poetry collections |
4371484 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/37th%20Chess%20Olympiad | 37th Chess Olympiad | The 37th Chess Olympiad (), organized by FIDE and comprising an open and a women's tournament, as well as several other events designed to promote the game of chess, took place between May 20 and June 4, 2006, in Turin, Italy. There were 148 teams in the open event and 103 in the women's event. In total, 1307 players were registered.
Both tournament sections were officiated by international arbiter Geurt Gijssen (Netherlands). Teams were paired across the 13 rounds of competition according to the Swiss system. The open division was played over four boards per round, while the women's was played over three. In the event of a draw, the tie-break was decided by 1. The Buchholz system; 2. Match points; 3. The Sonneborn-Berger system; and 4. The Median Buchholz system.
The time control for each game permitted each player 90 minutes for all their moves, with an additional 30 seconds increment for each player after each move, beginning with the first.
Open event
The open division was contested by 148 teams representing 143 nations. Italy, as hosts, fielded three teams, while the International Braille Chess Association (IBCA), the International Physically Disabled Chess Association (IPCA), and the International Committee of Silent Chess (ICSC) each provided one squad. Somalia and Sierra Leone were signed up, but never arrived.
Led by first board Levon Aronian, the second highest-rated player at the Olympiad, and first reserve Gabriel Sargissian, who scored 10 points in 11 games, Armenia improved on their third-place performance at the 36th Olympiad, claiming their first ever gold medals by a full two points over the silver medallists China, whose fourth board Wang Yue went undefeated, winning eight games and drawing four. Armenia ended the tournament without having lost a match, winning 10 and drawing three, including in the final round against Hungary, when four draws were cursorily recorded. Aronian was the only Armenian player to lose a game during the tournament, falling in the fifth round to Vladimir Kramnik of Russia.
Reigning classical World Champion Kramnik, playing internationally for the first time in six months, scored 6½ points in his nine games, recording the best rating performance of any player. His Russian team, though, did not perform as expected; fielding six of the tournament's 17 strongest players on rating , Russia held second place, just behind Armenia, through the seventh round but lost matches to France (1½-2½), the United States (1½-2½), and, in the final round, Israel (1-3), and ultimately finished sixth; the worst Olympic result ever for a Soviet or Russian side.
Although they defeated the United States (2½-1½) in the penultimate round, Israel had to settle for a tie for third place; the Americans claimed the bronze medals on Buchholz tiebreaks. Hungary, seeded 16th, finished fifth, thanks to strong performances from third board Ferenc Berkes and fourth board Csaba Balogh, while India, who entered the tournament seeded second, finished in 30th place, with first board Viswanathan Anand (former and future World Champion) and fourth board Surya Shekhar Ganguly both scoring just 50%. Even without FIDE World Champion Veselin Topalov, Bulgaria still managed to clinch a top ten result, finishing in ninth place.
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Open event
! # !! Country !! Players !! Averagerating !! Points !! Buchholz
|-
| style="background:gold;"|1 || || Aronian, Akopian, Asrian, Lputian, Sargissian, Minasian || 2682 || 36 ||
|-
| style="background:silver;"|2 || || Bu Xiangzhi, Zhang Zhong, Zhang Pengxiang, Wang Yue, Ni Hua, Zhao Jun || 2628 || 34 ||
|-
| style="background:#cc9966;"|3 || || Kamsky, Onischuk, Nakamura, Ibragimov, Kaidanov, Akobian || 2656 || 33 || 392.5
|-
| 4 || || Gelfand, Smirin, Sutovsky, Avrukh, Huzman, Mikhalevski || 2663 || 33 || 380.5
|-
| 5 || || Almási, Gyimesi, Berkes, Balogh, Ruck, Horváth || 2610 || 32½ ||
|-
| 6 || || Kramnik, Svidler, Grischuk, Morozevich, Bareev, Rublevsky || 2730 || 32 || 410.5
|-
| 7 || || Bacrot, Lautier, Sokolov, Fressinet, Vachier-Lagrave, Bauer || 2665 || 32 || 396.0
|-
| 8 || || Ivanchuk, Volokitin, Karjakin, Eljanov, Moiseenko, Efimenko || 2680 || 32 || 390.5
|-
| 9 || || Georgiev, Cheparinov, Delchev, Spasov, Petkov, Iotov || 2633 || 32 || 385.0
|-
| 10 || || Shirov, Vallejo Pons, Illescas Córdoba,Arizmendi Martinez, San Segundo Carrillo, Narciso Dublan || 2628 || 32 || 377.5
|}
{| class="wikitable collapsible collapsed"
! # !! Country !! Averagerating !! Points !! Buchholz !! MP
|+ class="nowrap" |Final Ranking - Open
|-
| 11 || || 2596 || 31 || 399.0 ||
|-
| 12 || || 2646 || 31 || 396.0 ||
|-
| 13 || || 2554 || 31 || 389.5 ||
|-
| 14 || || 2610 || 31 || 388.0 ||
|-
| 15 || || 2621 || 31 || 381.0 ||
|-
| 16 || || 2598 || 30½ || 386.0 ||
|-
| 17 || || 2549 || 30½ || 381.0 ||
|-
| 18 || || 2578 || 30½ || 376.5 ||
|-
| 19 || || 2627 || 30½ || 366.0 ||
|-
| 20 || || 2577 || 30 || 396.0 ||
|-
| 21 || || 2593 || 30 || 381.0 ||
|-
| 22 || || 2582 || 30 || 379.0 ||
|-
| 23 || || 2547 || 30 || 378.5 ||
|-
| 24 || || 2643 || 30 || 377.5 ||
|-
| 25 || || 2559 || 30 || 373.5 ||
|-
| 26 || || 2610 || 30 || 372.0 ||
|-
| 27 || || 2555 || 30 || 367.5 ||
|-
| 28 || || 2516 || 30 || 357.5 ||
|-
| 29 || || 2479 || 30 || 351.0 ||
|-
| 30 || || 2688 || 29½ || 391.5 ||
|-
| 31 || || 2577 || 29½ || 376.0 ||
|-
| 32 || || 2573 || 29½ || 371.5 ||
|-
| 33 || || 2517 || 29½ || 366.0 ||
|-
| 34 || || 2482 || 29½ || 357.0 ||
|-
| 35 || || 2493 || 29½ || 354.5 ||
|-
| 36 || || 2598 || 29 || 381.0 ||
|-
| 37 || || 2542 || 29 || 376.0 ||
|-
| 38 || || 2540 || 29 || 372.5 ||
|-
| 39 || || 2533 || 29 || 372.0 ||
|-
| 40 || || 2489 || 29 || 369.5 ||
|-
| 41 || || 2521 || 29 || 367.5 ||
|-
| 42 || || 2530 || 29 || 360.5 ||
|-
| 43 || || 2536 || 28½ || 373.5 ||
|-
| 44 || || 2538 || 28½ || 369.5 ||
|-
| 45 || || 2560 || 28½ || 368.0 ||
|-
| 46 || || 2487 || 28½ || 355.0 ||
|-
| 47 || || 2449 || 28½ || 354.0 ||
|-
| 48 || "B" || 2375 || 28½ || 353.5 ||
|-
| 49 || || 2472 || 28 || 375.5 ||
|-
| 50 || || 2481 || 28 || 362.5 ||
|-
| 51 || || 2532 || 28 || 361.5 ||
|-
| 52 || || 2479 || 28 || 358.0 ||
|-
| 53 || || 2348 || 28 || 345.5 ||
|-
| 54 || || 2165 || 28 || 331.0 ||
|-
| 55 || || 2472 || 27½ || 354.0 ||
|-
| 56 || || 2455 || 27½ || 352.0 ||
|-
| 57 || || 2437 || 27 || 362.5 ||
|-
| 58 || || 2448 || 27 || 360.0 ||
|-
| 59 || || 2332 || 27 || 358.5 ||
|-
| 60 || || 2493 || 27 || 352.0 ||
|-
| 61 || || 2439 || 27 || 351.5 || 14
|-
| 62 || || 2466 || 27 || 351.5 || 12
|-
| 63 || || 2314 || 27 || 351.0 ||
|-
| 64 || || 2342 || 27 || 349.0 ||
|-
| 65 || || 2438 || 27 || 340.5 ||
|-
| 66 || || 2327 || 27 || 324.0 ||
|-
| 67 || || 2420 || 26½ || 354.5 ||
|-
| 68 || || 2348 || 26½ || 353.5 ||
|-
| 69 || || 2291 || 26½ || 347.0 ||
|-
| 70 || || 2438 || 26½ || 342.0 ||
|-
| 71 || || 2336 || 26½ || 327.5 ||
|-
| 72 || || 2362 || 26½ || 324.0 ||
|-
| 73 || || 2404 || 26 || 362.5 ||
|-
| 74 || || 2439 || 26 || 349.5 ||
|-
| 75 || || 2444 || 26 || 348.0 ||
|-
| 76 || ICSC || 2308 || 26 || 333.5 ||
|-
| 77 || || 2410 || 26 || 332.5 ||
|-
| 78 || || 2388 || 26 || 330.5 ||
|-
| 79 || || 2237 || 26 || 320.5 ||
|-
| 80 || || 2331 || 25½ || 364.5 ||
|-
| 81 || || 2424 || 25½ || 350.5 ||
|-
| 82 || || 2333 || 25½ || 345.0 ||
|-
| 83 || "C" || 2366 || 25½ || 337.5 ||
|-
| 84 || || 2321 || 25½ || 334.5 ||
|-
| 85 || || 2315 || 25½ || 329.0 ||
|-
| 86 || || 2310 || 25½ || 326.0 ||
|-
| 87 || || 2400 || 25½ || 316.5 ||
|-
| 88 || || 2139 || 25½ || 314.5 ||
|-
| 89 || || 2332 || 25 || 347.0 ||
|-
| 90 || || 2383 || 25 || 341.0 ||
|-
| 91 || || 2284 || 25 || 333.5 ||
|-
| 92 || || 2335 || 24½ || 342.5 ||
|-
| 93 || || 2275 || 24½ || 341.5 ||
|-
| 94 || || 2329 || 24½ || 338.5 ||
|-
| 95 || || 2279 || 24½ || 334.0 ||
|-
| 96 || || 2255 || 24½ || 325.0 ||
|-
| 97 || || 2248 || 24½ || 320.5 ||
|-
| 98 || || 2268 || 24½ || 319.0 ||
|-
| 99 || || 2074 || 24½ || 206.5 ||
|-
| 100 || || 2274 || 24 || 333.0 ||
|-
| 101 || || 2217 || 24 || 314.5 ||
|-
| 102 || || 2191 || 24 || 312.0 ||
|-
| 103 || || 2212 || 24 || 305.0 ||
|-
| 104 || || 2126 || 24 || 297.0 ||
|-
| 105 || || 2227 || 23½ || 329.0 ||
|-
| 106 || || 2257 || 23½ || 328.0 ||
|-
| 107 || IPCA || 2339 || 23½ || 322.0 ||
|-
| 108 || || 2187 || 23½ || 304.0 ||
|-
| 109 || || 1968 || 23½ || 299.5 ||
|-
| 110 || || 2052 || 23½ || 222.5 ||
|-
| 111 || IBCA || 2339 || 23 || 322.0 ||
|-
| 112 || || 2052 || 23 || 304.0 ||
|-
| 113 || || 2172 || 23 || 303.5 ||
|-
| 114 || || 2199 || 23 || 303.0 ||
|-
| 115 || || 2079 || 23 || 273.5 ||
|-
| 116 || || 2276 || 22½ || 325.0 ||
|-
| 117 || || 2245 || 22½ || 320.5 ||
|-
| 118 || || 2181 || 22½ || 303.5 ||
|-
| 119 || || 2244 || 22½ || 291.0 ||
|-
| 120 || || 2115 || 22 || 307.5 ||
|-
| 121 || || 2152 || 22 || 301.5 ||
|-
| 122 || || 2175 || 22 || 300.5 ||
|-
| 123 || || 2112 || 22 || 279.0 ||
|-
| 124 || || 2120 || 22 || 274.5 ||
|-
| 125 || || 2188 || 21½ || 297.0 ||
|-
| 126 || || 1400 || 21½ || 295.5 ||
|-
| 127 || || 2165 || 21½ || 291.5 ||
|-
| 128 || || 1587 || 21½ || 289.5 ||
|-
| 129 || || 2089 || 21½ || 288.5 ||
|-
| 130 || || 2187 || 21½ || 270.0 ||
|-
| 131 || || 1576 || 21 || 296.5 ||
|-
| 132 || || 2147 || 21 || 292.5 ||
|-
| 133 || || 2140 || 21 || 289.0 ||
|-
| 134 || || 1771 || 21 || 286.0 ||
|-
| 135 || || 2117 || 21 || 281.0 ||
|-
| 136 || || 1572 || 21 || 259.5 ||
|-
| 137 || || 1707 || 20½ || 297.0 ||
|-
| 138 || || 2194 || 20½ || 290.5 ||
|-
| 139 || || 2017 || 20 || 280.0 ||
|-
| 140 || || 1793 || 20 || 259.0 ||
|-
| 141 || || 1400 || 19½ || 277.5 ||
|-
| 142 || || 1766 || 19½ || 263.0 ||
|-
| 143 || || 1910 || 19 || 288.0 ||
|-
| 144 || || 1967 || 19 || 268.5 ||
|-
| 145 || || 2017 || 18 || ||
|-
| 146 || || 1986 || 15½ || ||
|-
| 147 || || 1470 || 12 || ||
|-
| 148 || || 1753 || 10½ || ||
|}
Group prizes
In addition to the overall medals, prizes were given out to the best teams in five different seeding groups—in other words, the teams who exceeded their seeding the most. Overall medal winners were not eligible for group prizes.
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Group Prizes
! Group !! Seedingrange !! Team !! Seed !! Overallfinish
|-
| A || 1–30 || || 6 || 4
|-
| B || 31–60 || || 31 || 17
|-
| C || 61–89 || "B" || 70 || 48
|-
| D || 90–120 || || 106 || 54
|-
| E || 121–147 || || 121 || 87
|}
Individual medals
Performance rating: Vladimir Kramnik 2847
Board 1: Tunveer Mohyuddin Gillani 7 / 8 = 87.5%
Board 2: Josep Oms Pallise 9 / 11 = 81.8%
Board 3: Gustavo Manuel Larrea Llorca 7 / 8 = 87.5%
Board 4: Wang Yue 10 / 12 = 83.3%
1st reserve: Basheer Al Qudaimi 7 / 7 = 100.0%
2nd reserve: Richmond Phiri 6½ / 7 = 92.9%
Women's event
The women's division was contested by 103 teams representing 99 nations. Italy, as hosts, fielded two teams, whilst the International Braille Chess Association (IBCA) and the International Physically Disabled Chess Association (IPCA) each provided one squad. Somalia and Sudan had registered but never showed up. Afghanistan, Uganda, and Rwanda all withdrew after forfeiting their first round matches.
Ukraine had finished in 18th place at the previous Olympiad but entered the tournament seeded second. They trailed top-seeds Russia half a point through the seventh round, despite having taken defeated the Russians in the fifth round (2-1), but took the lead in round eight, defeating Hungary while Russia managed only to draw their match with the United States. Ukraine never gave up their lead for the remainder of the tournament and all but secured the gold medals and the Vera Menchik Trophy with a twelfth round win over India (2½-½), eventually finishing 1½ points ahead of silver medallists Russia. The Ukrainian team was led by Natalia Zhukova, who scored 7½ points in her nine games, defeating the top- and second-rated players, Humpy Koneru of India and Alexandra Kosteniuk of Russia. Third board Inna Gaponenko won six games, drew two, and lost only one.
Defending champions China were missing newly crowned World Champion Xu Yuhua, but still claimed the bronze medals by three points over the United States with whom they drew in the penultimate round Their third-place finish was in no small part due to top board Zhao Xue, who entered the tournament seeded 22nd yet, having played in every round, went through the Olympiad undefeated, conceding only six draws in her 13 games.
The American team took fourth place on tiebreaks, just ahead of Hungary, Georgia, and the Netherlands - the Dutch team being seeded only 18th.
{| class="wikitable"
! # !! Country !! Players !! Averagerating !! Points !! Buchholz
|-
| style="background:gold;"|1 || || Zhukova, Lahno, Yanovska-Gaponenko, Ushenina || 2441 || 29½ ||
|-
| style="background:silver;"|2 || || Kosteniuk, T. Kosintseva, N. Kosintseva, Kovalevskaya || 2499 || 28 ||
|-
| style="background:#cc9966;"|3 || || Zhao Xue, Wang Yu, Shen Yang, Hou Yifan || 2408 || 27½ ||
|-
| 4 || || Zatonskih, Krush, Goletiani, Baginskaite || 2414 || 24½ || 307.0
|-
| 5 || || Hoang Thanh Trang, Mádl, Vajda, Gara || 2426 || 24½ || 306.0
|-
| 6 || || Khurtsidze, Dzagnidze, Javakhishvili, Lomineishvili || 2430 || 24½ || 305.5
|-
| 7 || || Peng Zhaoqin, Bosboom-Lanchava, Schuurman, Muhren || 2344 || 24½ || 276.5
|-
| 8 || || Mkrtchian, Danielian, Aginian, Andriasian || 2402 || 24 || 299.0
|-
| 9 || || A. Muzychuk, Srebrnič, Krivec, Novak|| 2348 || 24 || 286.0
|-
| 10 || || Jacková, Čedíková, Sikorová, Blažková || 2302 || 24 || 270.5
|}
{| class="wikitable collapsible collapsed"
! # !! Country !! Averagerating !! Points !! Buchholz !! MP !! S-B
|+ class="nowrap" |Final Ranking - Women
|-
| 11 || || 2399 || 23½ || || ||
|-
| 12 || || 2389 || 23 || 305.0 || ||
|-
| 13 || || 2378 || 23 || 302.0 || ||
|-
| 14 || || 2375 || 23 || 294.0 || ||
|-
| 15 || || 2302 || 23 || 283.5 || ||
|-
| 16 || || 2289 || 23 || 279.0 || ||
|-
| 17 || || 2292 || 23 || 263.0 || ||
|-
| 18 || || 2366 || 22½ || 299.5 || ||
|-
| 19 || || 2370 || 22½ || 297.0 || ||
|-
| 20 || || 2375 || 22½ || 293.0 || ||
|-
| 21 || || 2262 || 22½ || 293.0 || ||
|-
| 22 || || 2354 || 22½ || 292.0 || ||
|-
| 23 || || 2374 || 22 || 286.5 || ||
|-
| 24 || || 2189 || 22 || 273.0 || ||
|-
| 25 || || 2343 || 22 || 272.5 || ||
|-
| 26 || || 2083 || 22 || 271.5 || ||
|-
| 27 || || 2222 || 22 || 271.0 || ||
|-
| 28 || || 2296 || 21½ || 286.0 || ||
|-
| 29 || || 2329 || 21½ || 281.5 || ||
|-
| 30 || || 2227 || 21½ || 281.0 || ||
|-
| 31 || || 2191 || 21½ || 260.0 || ||
|-
| 32 || || 2200 || 21½ || 257.0 || ||
|-
| 33 || || 2246 || 21 || 285.5 || ||
|-
| 34 || || 2264 || 21 || 282.5 || ||
|-
| 35 || || 2265 || 21 || 273.5 || ||
|-
| 36 || || 2182 || 21 || 266.5 || ||
|-
| 37 || || 2304 || 21 || 266.0 || ||
|-
| 38 || || 2262 || 21 || 265.5 || ||
|-
| 39 || || 2262 || 21 || 262.5 || ||
|-
| 40 || || 1919 || 21 || 257.5 || ||
|-
| 41 || || 2132 || 21 || 252.5 || ||
|-
| 42 || || 2231 || 20½ || 271.5 || ||
|-
| 43 || || 1874 || 20½ || 264.5 || ||
|-
| 44 || || 2089 || 20½ || 259.5 || ||
|-
| 45 || || 2262 || 20 || 283.5 || ||
|-
| 46 || || 2269 || 20 || 280.0 || ||
|-
| 47 || || 2117 || 20 || 258.0 || ||
|-
| 48 || || 2137 || 20 || 256.0 || ||
|-
| 49 || || 2058 || 20 || 254.0 || ||
|-
| 50 || || 2111 || 20 || 249.0 || ||
|-
| 51 || || 2123 || 20 || 244.0 || ||
|-
| 52 || || 2081 || 20 || 238.0 || ||
|-
| 53 || || 2137 || 19½ || 250.0 || ||
|-
| 54 || || 2210 || 19½ || 256.0 || ||
|-
| 55 || || 2085 || 19½ || 254.5 || ||
|-
| 56 || || 2134 || 19½ || 247.5 || ||
|-
| 57 || || 2165 || 19 || 260.0 || ||
|-
| 58 || || 2092 || 19 || 259.0 || ||
|-
| 59 || || 2182 || 19 || 258.5 || ||
|-
| 60 || || 2136 || 19 || 255.0 || ||
|-
| 61 || || 2137 || 19 || 254.0 || ||
|-
| 62 || || 1812 || 19 || 241.5 || ||
|-
| 63 || || 1802 || 19 || 223.0 || ||
|-
| 64 || || 2137 || 18½ || 252.5 || ||
|-
| 65 || "B" || 1945 || 18½ || 242.0 || ||
|-
| 66 || || 1900 || 18½ || 236.5 || ||
|-
| 67 || IPCA || 2056 || 18½ || 229.5 || ||
|-
| 68 || || 2090 || 18 || 260.5 || ||
|-
| 69 || || 2054 || 18 || 248.5 || ||
|-
| 70 || || 2079 || 18 || 239.5 || ||
|-
| 71 || || 2030 || 18 || 236.0 || ||
|-
| 72 || IBCA || 2113 || 17½ || 248.0 || ||
|-
| 73 || || 1834 || 17½ || 240.0 || ||
|-
| 74 || || 1629 || 17½ || 236.0 || ||
|-
| 75 || || 1947 || 17½ || 234.5 || ||
|-
| 76 || || 1791 || 17½ || 232.0 || 10 || 82.75
|-
| 77 || || 1863 || 17½ || 232.0 || 10 || 80.50
|-
| 78 || || 1747 || 17½ || 231.5 || ||
|-
| 79 || || 1588 || 17½ || 227.5 || ||
|-
| 80 || || 1692 || 17½ || 226.0 || ||
|-
| 81 || || 1805 || 17 || 247.0 || ||
|-
| 82 || || 1590 || 17 || 233.0 || ||
|-
| 83 || || 1617 || 17 || 209.0 || ||
|-
| 84 || || 1584 || 16½ || 231.5 || ||
|-
| 85 || || 1581 || 16½ || 211.5 || ||
|-
| 86 || || 1400 || 16½ || 198.0 || ||
|-
| 87 || ICSC || 2008 || 16 || 234.0 || ||
|-
| 88 || || 1826 || 16 || 233.5 || ||
|-
| 89 || || 1853 || 16 || 211.0 || ||
|-
| 90 || || 1400 || 15½ || || ||
|-
| 91 || || 1400 || 15 || 193.5 || ||
|-
| 92 || || 1400 || 15 || 182.5 || ||
|-
| 93 || || 1400 || 14½ || 184.5 || ||
|-
| 94 || || 1469 || 14½ || 182.0 || ||
|-
| 95 || || 1400 || 14 || 205.5 || ||
|-
| 96 || || 1400 || 14 || 192.0 || ||
|-
| 97 || || 1400 || 14 || 179.5 || ||
|-
| 98 || || 1400 || 13½ || 176.0 || ||
|-
| 99 || || 1467 || 13½ || 174.5 || ||
|-
| 100 || || 1400 || 13 || || ||
|-
| 101 || || 1400 || 12½ || || ||
|-
| 102 || || 1400 || 12 || || ||
|-
| 103 || || 1400 || 9 || || ||
|}
Group prizes
In addition to the overall medals, prizes were given out to the best teams in five different seeding groups—in other words, the teams who exceeded their seeding the most. Overall medal winners were not eligible for group prizes.
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Group Prizes
! Group !! Seedingrange !! Team !! Seed !! Overallfinish
|-
| A || 1–20 || || 5 || 4
|-
| B || 21–42 || || 22 || 10
|-
| C || 43–64 || || 60 || 26
|-
| D || 65–86 || || 68 || 40
|-
| E || 87–103 || || 87 || 79
|}
Individual medals
Performance rating: Zhao Xue 2617
Board 1: Lubov Zsiltzova-Lisenko (IBCA) 9 / 10 = 90.0%
Board 2: Fiona Steil-Antoni 10 / 12 = 83.3%
Board 3: Nora Mohd Saleh 7 / 8 = 87.5%
Reserve: Tatiana Berlin 7 / 8 = 87.5%
Overall title
The Nona Gaprindashvili Trophy is awarded to the nation that has the highest toal number of game points in the open and women's divisions combined. Where two or more teams are tied, they are ordered by best single finish in either division and then by total number of points scored.
The trophy, named after the former women's World Champion (1961–78), was created by FIDE in 1997.
Participating teams
Squads representing 133 nations, three international organizations, three constituent countries, two autonomous entities, two crown dependencies, two special administrative regions, two insular areas, and one associated state were entered into the Olympiad, comprising a total of 1307 registered players (some of which did not play).
FIDE Congress
Concurrent with the chess competition, the 77th FIDE Congress was held in Turin, where delegates from all the national chess federations met to transact business. Incumbent FIDE president Kirsan Ilyumzhinov faced criticisms for alleged mismanagement and corruption, primarily from Western federations, including those of the United States, England, France, and Canada, but, with the support of most Asian and African delegates, notably those representing Russia and Singapore, he staved off a challenge from Dutch businessman Bessel Kok to retain his position through 2010, winning by 96 votes to Kok's 54.
The general assembly also awarded the 38th Chess Olympiad, to be held in 2010, to Khanty-Mansiysk, Russia, the site of the Chess World Cup 2005 and one of five candidates that had submitted bids. The city led after every round of the runoff voting, eventually beating Budva, Montenegro by 71–64.
Associated events
Held in conjunction with the Olympiad, though not officially sponsored by FIDE, were two computer chess events: the 14th World Computer Chess Championship, played at classical time controls, and the 14th World Computer Speed Chess Championship. The computer Junior won its fifth championship and third in five years in the slower event, while newcomer Ikarus defeated quadruple defending champion Shredder to win the blitz event.
Notes
External links
37th Chess Olympiad: Turin 2006 OlimpBase
Turin Olympiad 2006 official homepage
FIDE press release on Olympiad results
Detailed Olympiad results
This Week in Chess round-by-round Olympiad summaries
Chess Olympiads
Women's Chess Olympiads
Olympiad 2006
Chess Olympiad 2006
Olympiad 2006
Chess Olympiad 2006
May 2006 sports events in Europe
July 2006 sports events in Europe
2000s in Turin |
4371603 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madge%20Kendal | Madge Kendal | Dame Madge Kendal, (born Margaret Shafto Robertson; 15 March 1848 – 14 September 1935) was an English actress of the Victorian and Edwardian eras, best known for her roles in Shakespeare and English comedies. Together with her husband, W. H. Kendal (né William Hunter Grimston), she became an important theatre manager.
Madge Kendal came from a theatrical family. She was born in Grimsby in Lincolnshire, where her father ran a chain of theatres. She began to act as a small child and made her London debut at the age of four. As a teenager she appeared with Ellen and Kate Terry in Bath, and played Shakespeare's Ophelia and Desdemona in the West End. Under the management of J. B. Buckstone, she joined the company of the Haymarket Theatre in London in 1869, when she was 21. While in the company she met and married the actor W. H. Kendal. After their marriage, in August 1869, the two made it a rule to appear in the same productions, and became known to the public as "The Kendals". They appeared together in new plays by such dramatists as W. S. Gilbert and Arthur Pinero, and from time to time in classics by Shakespeare, Sheridan and others.
After a series of generally successful appearances in London and on tour in Britain, the Kendals joined the actor John Hare in running the St James's Theatre between 1879 and 1888, transforming the fortunes of their theatre, previously known for financial failure. In the late 1880s and early 1890s the Kendals spent much of their time in the US, touring more than 40 cities, and making a considerable amount of money. After returning to acting in Britain for more than a further decade, they retired in 1908 from their long careers on the stage.
Madge Kendal was generally considered a finer actor than her husband, and was particularly known for her performances in comic parts. Critical opinion was more divided about her performances in serious roles; some critics regarded her naturalistic acting as sensitive, while others found it cold. The Kendals were part of a movement to make British theatre more socially respectable, and she became known as "the matron of the English theatre". She was active in charitable causes but became estranged from her four surviving children later in life. Kendal outlived her husband and died in retirement at her home in Chorleywood, Hertfordshire, at the age of 87.
Life and career
Early years
Madge Robertson, later Kendal, was born in Grimsby in Lincolnshire, the youngest of the reportedly 22 children of William Shaftoe Robertson and his wife Margharetta Elisabetta, née Marinus. Her father was from a theatrical family. He performed at eight theatres his family owned in towns in and around Lincolnshire and later became manager of the same. Her mother was from a Dutch family: her father taught languages in London, and she spoke English with no trace of a foreign accent. At the age of 17, she joined the Robertsons' company, meeting William, whom she married in 1828. Her eldest brother was T. W. Robertson, a dramatist who led the movement toward naturalistic acting and design in theatre. Her elder sisters Fanny (1830–1903) and Georgina (1840–1913) became actresses. Another brother, Edward Shafto Robertson (1844–1871), became an actor. Kendal attended a music academy and later recorded in her memoirs that her father continually educated her in literature.
Lincolnshire theatres gradually became financially unviable, and the Robertsons moved to London in the early 1850s, where William became joint manager of the Marylebone Theatre. There, in 1854, aged five, Kendal played the role of young Marie in the drama The Struggle for Gold; or, The Orphan of the Frozen Sea by Edward Stirling, under her father's management. Other child roles quickly followed: Jeannie, a blind girl, in The Seven Poor Travellers (a stage adaptation of a story by Charles Dickens), and roles in the pantomime Tit-Tat-Toe and an old melodrama, The Stranger, by August von Kotzebue.
The family moved to Bristol in 1855, where Kendal played Eva in a dramatised Uncle Tom's Cabin, in which she had four songs. Her singing was much praised, and an operatic career seemed possible, but she contracted diphtheria, and her voice suffered after the removal of her tonsils. Nevertheless, she played a singing role in A Midsummer Night's Dream at the Bath Theatre in 1863, starring the sisters Ellen and Kate Terry as Titania and Oberon, respectively. Seventy years later Kendal recalled the production: "Even today I remember Ellen Terry's performance of Titania as a dream of charm. As girls we were 'Nellie' and 'Madge' to one another and 'Nellie' and 'Madge' we remained until her death".
Over this decade, the Robertsons played steadily in provincial theatres. After Bristol and Bath there was a false start in Kendal's career when she was engaged to play leading roles in the West End. In July 1865 she opened at the Haymarket Theatre, playing Ophelia to the Hamlet of Walter Montgomery. Her performance attracted favourable notice. The Era wrote:
Miss Madge Robertson … is youthful in figure, but thoroughly practised in her art, and has a bright, intelligent face, which seems capable of expressing every variety of emotion. The mad scene in the fourth act was rendered with much taste, pathos and discrimination, and the debutante obtained a conspicuous share of the honours of the evening.
In the same Haymarket season she played Blanche to Montgomery's King John, and Desdemona to the Othello of Ira Aldridge. But despite good business at the box office, Montgomery was not a top-rank star, and the season did not mark a breakthrough in the leading lady's career. Returning to provincial theatres, Kendal and her father followed Montgomery to the Theatre Royal, Nottingham, where Montgomery had been appointed director, and in the inauguration in September she spoke the prologue in Sheridan's School for Scandal. Later the same year she appeared there as Nerissa, with Mary Frances Scott-Siddons as Portia and Montgomery as Shylock, in The Merchant of Venice.
The next year Kendal rejoined her mother in Hull. There she played Lady Macbeth opposite Samuel Phelps. In her brother T. W. Robertson's play Society, Kendal played Maud Hetherington, while her mother was Lady Ptarmigant. After Hull, Kendal went with her father to Liverpool, where she starred in Shakespeare, Sheridan and modern plays.
West End star
In April 1867 the Robertsons returned to London, where Kendal appeared at Drury Lane, playing Edith Fairlam in The Great City, and then at the Haymarket in E. A. Sothern's company, appearing with him in Our American Cousin, Brother Sam, David Garrick and A Hero of Romance, and playing leading roles in two other productions there. At the opening of John Hollingshead's Gaiety Theatre in December 1868 she played Florence in On the Cards, a comedy adapted from the French; she also appeared there as Lady Clara Vere de Vere in Dreams in 1869, before rejoining the Haymarket company, at this point on tour under the management of J. B. Buckstone. She played Viola, Rosalind, Lady Teazle, Kate Hardcastle and Lydia Languish.
When the Haymarket company returned to London, Kendal remained with it; a fellow member was William Hunter Grimston, who acted under the stage name W. H. Kendal. The two were married on 7 August 1869. She adopted his stage surname, and after their marriage they almost always appeared in the same productions. They remained at the Haymarket until the end of 1874, during which period she played the four parts listed above and seventeen other leading roles. Among the new plays in which she starred were a series of "fairy comedies" by W. S. Gilbert: The Palace of Truth (1870, as Princess Zeolide), Pygmalion and Galatea (1871, as Galatea), and The Wicked World (1873, as Selene); in Gilbert's drama Charity (1874) she played Mrs Van Brugh.
The Haymarket company disbanded in late 1874, and the Kendals then set up their own tour beginning in Birmingham in November. For six consecutive nights they appeared there in Romeo and Juliet, The Lady of Lyons, The Hunchback, As You Like It, East Lynne, Uncle's Will and Weeds. Back in London in early 1875, they played Kate Hardcastle and Young Marlowe in She Stoops to Conquer at the Opera Comique, and went on to the Gaiety in As You Like It; the reviewer in The Athenaeum wrote, "One side of the character of Rosalind is shown by Mrs Kendal with admirable clearness and point. So suited to her style are the bantering speeches Shakespeare has put into the mouth of Rosalind, they might almost have been written for her", although the same critic missed "the underlying tenderness that more emotional artists are able to present."
The Kendals joined the actor John Hare at the Court Theatre in March 1875, opening in a new comedy, Lady Flora. Hare had a comic character role, and the Kendals played the romantic leads, Flora and Harry Armytage. She went on to play Mrs Fitzroy in Hamilton Aide's A Nine Days' Wonder, and then Lady Hilda in Gilbert's fairy comedy, Broken Hearts. She played Susan Hartley (a part she reprised in several later revivals) in Palgrave Simpson's adaptation of a French comedy, called A Scrap of Paper. In September 1876 the Kendals moved to the Prince of Wales's Theatre under the management of the Bancrofts. There Kendal played Lady Ormond in Peril, a carefully anglicised French comedy. She subsequently played Clara Douglas in Money, Lady Gay Spanker in London Assurance and Dora in Sardou's Diplomacy, the last of which played for twelve months, in London and on tour. The Kendals returned to the Court, where they revived A Scrap of Paper in January 1879. In February, in her brother T. W. Robertson's adaptation from the French, The Ladies' Battle, the Kendals played the Countess d'Autreval and her suitor, Gustave; in April she played Kate Greville in The Queen's Shilling, an adaptation of an old French comedy by Jean-François Bayard.
St James's Theatre: 1879–1888
Since its inception in 1835 the St James's, in an unfashionable part of the West End, had acquired a reputation as an unlucky theatre, and more money had been lost than made by successive managements. At the invitation of Lord Newry, the owner of the freehold of the theatre, the Kendals and John Hare jointly took over the management of the house in 1879. For the first time, the theatre's reputation was steadily defied. The new lessees aimed both to amuse and to improve public taste, and in the view of the theatre historian J. P. Wearing, they achieved their aim. Under their management the St James's staged twenty-one plays: seven were new British pieces, eight adaptations of French plays, and the rest were revivals. Their first production on 4 October 1879 was a revival of The Queen's Shilling. This was followed in December by Tennyson's The Falcon, based on the Decameron, in which the Kendals made considerable successes as Lady Giovanna and the Count.
Wearing regards The Money Spinner (1881) as of particular importance to this period of the theatre's history, being the first of several of A. W. Pinero's plays staged there by Hare and the Kendals. It was regarded as daringly unconventional and a risky venture, but it caught on with the public. Other plays by Pinero given by the Hare-Kendal management at the St James's were The Squire (1881), The Ironmaster (1884), Mayfair (1885) and The Hobby Horse (1886). B. C. Stephenson's comedy Impulse (1883) was a substantial success and was revived by public demand two months after the end of its first run. The reception of a rare excursion into Shakespeare, As You Like It (1885), was mixed. Hare's Touchstone was considered by some to be the worst ever seen, and W. H. Kendal's Orlando was mildly praised, whereas Kendal's Rosalind, which had always been one of her best-loved roles, was again well regarded. Among the company in these years the actresses included Fanny Brough, Helen Maud Holt and the young May Whitty; among their male colleagues were George Alexander, Allan Aynesworth, Albert Chevalier, Henry Kemble, William Terris, Brandon Thomas and Lewis Waller.
The Kendals, particularly W. H., became associated in the public mind with the transformation of the theatrical profession from disreputable to respectable. The actor-manager Herbert Tree said, "when I look at Kendal I know acting is the profession of a gentleman". The Kendals imposed a high moral code on the members of their company both on stage and behind the scenes. Another commentator wrote, "Mrs Kendal, one of the best artists of her sex on the London stage, is in private life the epitome of all domestic virtues and graces". She was dubbed the "matron of the English theatre". Also during the St James's years she learned of the case of Joseph Merrick, referred to as the Elephant Man. Although she probably never met him in person, she helped to raise funds and public sympathy for him. In February 1887 the Kendals gave a command performance of Gilbert's play Sweethearts for Queen Victoria at Osborne House, the first such entertainment at a royal residence since Prince Albert's death more than twenty years earlier.
American tours
After a farewell season of revivals of their greatest successes the St James's partnership with Hare came to an end in 1889. The Kendals went on a short provincial tour, and later in the year they set out on their first American appearance, making their debut at the Fifth Avenue Theatre in New York with A Scrap of Paper, in October 1889. The New York Dramatic Mirror reported:
Everybody attended the American debut of Mr and Mrs Kendal … that is to say everybody that could get seats or standing room. … The reports of Mrs Kendal's skill as a comedienne were not exaggerated. Her art is as fine as old point lace, and yet it is laid upon a temperament so genuinely sympathetic and so pliant and transitional that there is no sign of effort, no direct exhibition of method in anything she does.
At the same theatre the Kendals also presented The Ironmaster, to comparable popular and critical approval. After a brief return to London they set off on a second and more extensive American tour with a larger repertoire. In October 1891 to May 1892 they made what they billed as their third and last American tour, playing in a total of thirty-five cities. They reappeared on the London stage at the Avenue Theatre from January 1893 in a repertory of four plays, and then toured the English provinces, adding to their repertoire The Second Mrs Tanqueray, which had recently premiered in London starring Mrs Patrick Campbell. The critic William Archer compared the two actresses in the title role:
What of Mrs Kendal's reading of the part of Paula? It is the work of an accomplished comedienne who has at her command all the resources of her art. Comparisons are odious, and I do not propose to compare Mrs Kendal with Mrs Patrick Campbell except on one point. She certainly puts a greater depth of feeling into the later acts, and on the whole (I should say) she does rightly.
The Kendals then took the play to the US, where self-appointed guardians of morality condemned it, and audiences flocked to see it. During the Kendals' fifth and last tour of the US, from September 1894 to May 1895, they visited more than forty cities, presenting The Second Mrs Tanqueray, Lady Clancarty, Still Waters Run Deep, A Scrap of Paper, All for Her and The Ironmaster.
Later years
On the Kendals' return to the West End critics and audiences welcomed them back enthusiastically. In June 1896 Bernard Shaw wrote:
Mrs Kendal should really be more cautious than she was at the Garrick on Wednesday night. When you feed a starving castaway you do not give him a full meal at once: you accustom him gradually to food by giving him small doses of soup. Mrs Kendal, forgetting that London playgoers have been starved for years in the matter of acting, inconsiderately gave them more in the first ten minutes than they have had in the last five years, with the result that the poor wretches became hysterical, and vented their applause in sobs and shrieks.
Shaw judged that "her finish of execution, her individuality and charm of style, her appetisingly witty conception of her effects, her mastery of her art and of herself [make] her still supreme among English actresses in high comedy". The biographer Richard Foulkes writes that the supremacy of which Shaw wrote was put to the test when Tree invited Kendal and Ellen Terry to appear together in The Merry Wives of Windsor, as Mistress Ford and Mistress Page respectively, at His Majesty's Theatre in 1902. This was the first time Kendal appeared in a production without W. H. Kendal since their marriage, and Foulkes speculates that her "unwonted exuberance and apparent spontaneity" may have been attributable to that fact. The Kendals continued to appear in popular plays without interruption until 1908, when they both retired, though she briefly emerged from retirement to reprise her Mistress Ford at the coronation gala of 1911 at His Majesty's. In 1924 she made her first radio broadcast, opposite Viola Tree, in Granny's Juliet, and she later took the title part of her ancestor, Sarah Siddons, in a comedy, A Lesson from Mrs Siddons, together with other descendants of Mrs. Siddons, in a radio broadcast on 28 November 1931 to mark the centenary of Siddons' death on the day that Tree took over her role.
The Kendals had at least six children. Two died young, and the Kendals became estranged from four others. John Gielgud believed the blame lay with the parents, and reports Kendal as reproaching herself shortly before her death. W. H. Kendal died in 1917: his widow attributed his death to a broken heart caused by the scandal of their daughter Margaret's divorce. In retirement, Kendal became active with many theatre charities, becoming president of the actors' retirement home, Denville Hall. She was appointed Dame Commander of the Order of the British Empire (DBE) in 1926. In December, 1927 she presented the first award of the Kendal prize at the Royal Academy of Dramatic Arts to actress Joyce Bland. Kendal was awarded the freedom of her native town, Grimsby, in 1932, the first woman to receive that honour.
Kendal died at her home in Chorleywood, Hertfordshire, in 1935, aged 87, after a long illness. She was buried at St Marylebone cemetery in East Finchley.
In fiction
Kendal is a featured character in the 1979 play The Elephant Man and the unrelated 1980 film of the same name, both based on the life of Joseph Merrick. In the film, she was portrayed by Anne Bancroft, whom Gielgud thought beautiful but quite unsuited to the role: "Mrs Kendal would be turning somersaults in her grave".
Reputation
Gielgud wrote that many people, including James Agate, the leading critic of the time, "considered Madge Kendal the finest actress in England, a mistress of comedy and domestic drama even surpassing Ellen Terry". (Gielgud, who was born in 1904, was less sure of her excellence as a Shakespearean actress.) Agate rated her above Edith Evans and Marie Tempest and in the same league as Ellen Terry, Mrs Patrick Campbell and Sybil Thorndike. The Manchester Guardian's obituary was headed "Dame Madge Kendal: The Most Accomplished Actress of Her Generation", but an unflattering reference in The Times's obituary caused protests. The anonymous writer commented:
A very unhistrionic coldness of temperament and a superficiality of thought were the barriers between her acting and any form of greatness; and her rare adventures into the more exacting plays of the modern drama (The Second Mrs. Tanqueray was one of them) left the audience cold.
This drew immediate responses; a colleague, F. Forbes-Robertson, wrote:
Madge Kendal was undoubtedly our greatest comedian; she was the first to interpret her art in a modern spirit – the first to be untheatrical, unsentimental – attainments described by your critic as "coldness of temperament and superficiality of thought". Surely a flagrantly indiscriminate summary of the subtle, sensitive acting of this great comedian. That she failed in the second-rate neurotic drama The Second Mrs Tanqueray was due to her unsuitability for exaggerated histrionics.
St John Ervine wrote "Madge Kendal was an accomplished but not a great actress", but a "great comedienne". He praised her "verve … extraordinary vitality and her gaiety". Ervine considered that her husband's determination to be respectable hampered her artistic development. In a 1986 study of great stage actors, Sheridan Morley wrote "Madge Kendal was the greatest comedienne of her generation"; he quoted a contemporary of Kendal: "I defy any other actress, living or dead, to get a laugh out of some of the poor lines with which Mrs Kendal simply rocked the house."
Notes, references and sources
Notes
References
Sources
External links
1848 births
1935 deaths
English stage actresses
Actor-managers
Burials at East Finchley Cemetery
Dames Commander of the Order of the British Empire
Actresses awarded damehoods
People from Filey
People from Cleethorpes
People associated with Gilbert and Sullivan
English people of Danish descent
People from Chorleywood
19th-century theatre managers
20th-century theatre managers |
4371669 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnic%20minorities%20in%20the%20U.S.%20Armed%20Forces%20during%20World%20War%20II | Ethnic minorities in the U.S. Armed Forces during World War II | Ethnic minorities in the U.S. Armed Forces during World War II comprised about 13% of all military service members. All US citizens were equally subject to the draft, and all service members were subject to the same rate of pay. The 16 million men and women in the services included 1 million African Americans, along with 33,000+ Japanese-Americans, 20,000+ Chinese Americans, 24,674 American Indians, and some 16,000 Filipino-Americans. According to House concurrent resolution 253, 400,000 to 500,000 Hispanic Americans served. They were released from military service in 1945-46 on equal terms, and were eligible for the G.I. Bill and other veterans' benefits on a basis of equality. Many veterans, having learned organizational skills, and become more alert to the nationwide situation of their group, became active in civil rights activities after the war.
White minority participation
The majority of the American population at the outbreak of the war were of European descent, including Italy, Germany, and Ireland. A considerable number of groups legally defined as white could still be considered ethnic minorities at the time, particularly those from Southern or Eastern Europe. Detailed tabulations were not kept for these groups by the U.S. military, which simply listed them all as "white". Separate statistics were kept for African Americans and Asian Americans.
Latino-Americans
Hispanic Americans, also referred to as Latinos, served in all elements of the American armed forces in the war. They fought in every major American battle in the war. According to House concurrent resolution 253, 400,000 to 500,000 Hispanic Americans served in the U.S. Armed Forces during World War II, out of a total of 16,000,000. Most were of Mexican or Puerto Rican descent. By another estimate, over 500,000 Mexican-Americans served plus over 65,000 Puerto Ricans and smaller numbers of others. Hispanic-Americans constituted 3.1% to 3.2% of the total who served. A number of Hispanics served in senior leadership positions, the highest ranking being Marine Corps Lieutenant-General Pedro Del Valle.
The exact number of Hispanics serving in the US military is unknown as, at the time, Hispanics were not tabulated separately, but were generally included in the general white population census count. President Roosevelt had personally demanded all Mexican-Americans be classified as white as part of his "Good Neighbor" policy with US-friendly Latin American nations while most Puerto Ricans had always been considered legally white since the island was annexed on part of its population being of majority-European descent (the average Puerto Rican being 66% European, 18% Native American, and 16% West African). While the military did not document the numbers of Hispanic servicemen and servicewomen, the US Census did note that less than 2% of the general population was of Hispanic origin; if true this would mean Hispanic-Americans were overrepresented in the armed forces.
Jewish-Americans
Over 550,000 Jewish-Americans served in the armed forces during World War II, account for 3.5% of the roughly 16 million American soldiers in total, the highest number of Jewish soldiers of any participating country. There were 4,770,000 American Jews at the time, accounting for 3.6% of the US population, meaning they were proportionally represented. 22 Jewish-Americans obtained the ranks of general or admiral during the war, including Major General Maurice Rose, and 49,315 earned citations for valor in combat. The total number of Jewish-American war casualties was 38,338, with 11,000 killed.
Polish-Americans
Americans of Polish descent were common in all the military ranks and divisions, and were among the first to volunteer for the war effort. They were heavily motivated by the Nazi policy of extermination towards the people of occupied Poland, the first country attacked during the war. Polish Americans were enthusiastic enlistees. They composed 4% of the American population at the time, but ultimately composed 8% of the U.S. military during World War II, with over 1,000,000 joining the U.S. armed forces. Polish general Władysław Sikorski toured the United States in a failed attempt to raise large numbers of Polish-Americans for segregated battalions, saying that they were "turning their backs" on Poland by not joining the cause.
Italian-Americans
Over 1.5 million Italian-American soldiers served in World War II, accounting for 10% of the armed forces, of whom 14 won Medals of Honor. While Italian-Americans were in general enthusiastic participants in the Allied cause, several Italian-language newspapers were forced to close because of past support of the fascist government of Benito Mussolini.
Arab-Americans
Over 30,000 Arab-Americans are estimated to have served during the war, accounting for 0.2% of soldiers. Most were of Lebanese descent.
Armenian-Americans
During World War II, about 18,500 Armenians served in the armed forces of the United States. A number of them were decorated for their service, including Col. Ernest Dervishian, a native of Virginia, who was awarded the Medal of Honor. US Marine Harry Kizirian is considered the most decorated soldier of the state of Rhode Island. Another Marine Captain, Victor Maghakian is considered one of the most decorated American soldiers of the war. The highest-ranking Armenian-American during World War II was Brigadier General Haig Shekerjian (who had previously served in the Pancho Villa Expedition and as an American military attache in the Middle Eastern theater of World War I). He was appointed Commanding General of Camp Sibert, Alabama, which was used extensively as the main training camp for chemical warfare troops, and remained in that position until 1945. Shekerjian also gave numerous speeches during the war encouraging Americans of Armenian descent to enlist.
Possible reasons for ethnic minority participation
The participation of ethnic minorities in the US armed forces during World War II highlighted an inconsistency in American ideology at the time. The United States invaded German-occupied Europe to fight against Nazi Germany and their ideas of a master race, while at the same time perpetuating extreme levels of racism and discrimination at home to all minorities, most prominently African Americans. These soldiers and sailors were aware of this perceived double standard, and thus began the Double V campaign for a "Double Victory": a victory against National Socialism and Fascism abroad, and a victory against racism at home. The black soldiers fought for equal citizenship and better job opportunities. W.E.B. Du Bois declared that in order to win World War II, we must also win the “War for Racial Equality” at home.
As the enlistment statistics below demonstrate, some men were drafted, others enlisted voluntarily. Ethnic minorities gave many patriotic reasons for wanting to participate in the War effort. For many, it was an exciting role and essential to identify with one's pride and courage. For some, fighting in the war was a way to prove their patriotism and honor their love for their country. Those who fight for this reason considered themselves Americans, independently of race, and thus felt obligated or proud to fight for their country. Others took a strategic approach, serving in the U.S. armed forces with the belief that once they returned as veterans the U.S. would have to do away with racial discrimination and segregation. Others still recognized the opportunity to achieve financial security for their families; jobs in the armed forces could provide them with steady incomes when they were often excluded from jobs in the defense industries and trade unions at home. Women were not drafted, but they enlisted with the same motivations as the men. Japanese Americans who are US citizens volunteered in large numbers, especially in Hawaii. The Cuban-American community, based in Florida, saw military services and opportunity for adventure, patriotism and financial aid to their family.
Detailed instances of racial discrimination
Whatever their reasons for joining, they all faced further discrimination in the U.S. armed forces. At the start of the War, all branches of the U.S. military were segregated. President Harry S. Truman ordered the end of military segregation with his Executive Order 9981 in 1948, but racial discrimination and segregation continued in the U.S. armed forces through the Korean War. Some states did not desegregate their National Guard until the mid-sixties.
African American soldiers and sailors were banned from fighting on the front lines, and were assigned menial tasks in place of positions in combat. However, in some cases of emergency or shortage, African Americans were brought to the front lines, including during the Invasion of Normandy and the Battle of the Bulge. Mess-attendant Dorie Miller left his station to fire at the attacking planes during the Attack on Pearl Harbor. Some special African American units, such as the Tuskegee Airmen, also fought in combat.
Many African-Americans wrote or otherwise described the great disparities in treatment between themselves and white soldiers. Some of these disparities included receiving fewer provisions and poorer quality gear, and struggling with gross disorganization in command and instruction. In letters to his girlfriend back home, one African American soldier named Jim Dansby described, “the colored here in camp seem to be neglected to a certain extent. We are poorly organized,” and “I am pretty much disgusted. I don’t think they’re treating us right.” Additionally, there were often racial tensions between different ethnic minority groups within the armed forces. Beyond these, African Americans and other ethnic minority servicemen had to undergo their training in communities run by Jim Crow laws, enforced by local police. Dansby also described events of racial violence in the town where he trained at Camp Shelby, Mississippi, and the effect such events had upon his psyche: “Honey I am telling you I’ll be glad when I get away from this place. A soldier got killed in town last nite, also the nite before. The one that was killed the nite before was found by the railroad tracks with his head cut and arm almost cut off. These soldiers down here are really bad…so anything liable to happen.”
Statistical information
The following passage from pages 187-190 of Selective Service and Victory: The 4th Report of the Director of Selective Service (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1948) represents the best statistical information available to the United States Army Center of Military History to answer questions about the participation of various minority groups. Note which of these statistics only cover those minorities drafted into the armed forces and which include personnel who voluntarily enlisted. Statistics are difficult to compile since contemporary classifications and the Army's interest in data rarely match modern interests.
Minority groups
Another special problem of great importance in Selective Service operations was the mobilization of black ("Negro") registrants and other minority groups of this nature. The main difficulty here was securing the induction of men who were found (1) to be available by the System and (2) to be qualified by the armed forces physical examination. There were, of course, other problems as evidenced by the following treatment of the matter for the period extending from July 1, 1944 through December 31, 1945.
One million African-American inductions
Black people were an important source of manpower for the armed forces in World War II as is shown by the fact that a total of 1,056,841 African American registrants were inducted into the armed forces through Selective Service as of December 31, 1945. Of these,
885,945 went into the Army,
153,224 into the Navy,
16,005 into the Marine Corps, and
1,667 into the Coast Guard.
The African American inductees made up:
10.9 percent of all registrants inducted into the Army (8,108,531),
10.0 percent of all inductions into the Navy (1,526,250),
8.5 percent of all Marine Corps inductions (188,709) and
10.9 percent of all Coast Guard inductions (15,235).
Thus African Americans, who constituted approximately 11.0 percent of all registrants liable for service, furnished approximately this proportion of the inductees in all branches of the service except During the period July 1, 1944 – December 31, 1945, 141,294 African Americans were inducted, comprising 9.6 percent of all inductions (1,469,808) therein. Of this number:
103,360 went into the Army, which was 9.1 percent of all Army inductions (1,132,962).
The Navy received 36,616 Negroes, or 11.6 percent of its inductees (316,215).
The 1,309 Negroes going into the Marine Corps were 6.4 percent of Marine Corps inductions (20,563).
Only 9 African Americans were inducted into the Coast Guard, but this was 13.2 percent of the inductees for this branch of service (68).
The somewhat lower proportion of African American inductions during this period was principally due to the proportionately lower calls made upon Selective Service for African American registrants. The African American call for 18 months was only 135,600, or 8.3 percent of the total call (1,639,100).
Inductions of other minority groups
Inductions into the Army of Selective Service registrants from other racial and nationality groups up to December 31, 1945, included:
13,311 Chinese,
20,080 Japanese,
1,320 Hawaiians,
44,000 American Indians,
11,506 Filipinos,
51,438 Puerto Ricans.
The 13,311 Chinese Americans Who were drafted comprised about 22% of all adult Chinese men. An additional several thousand volunteered for service. One in four served in the Air Force.
Counting enlistments and those in the Enlisted Reserve Corps, a total of 24,085 Japanese Americans had either enlisted or been inducted into the Army by December 31, 1945. Similar statistics are not available for the naval services. Also by June 30, 1945, a total of 125,880 aliens of various nationalities had enlisted or been inducted into the Army and Navy. The increased proportion of inductions of Japanese-Americans during the two 6-months periods from July 1, 1944, to June 30, 1945 is indicated in the first table. Beginning January 14, 1944, registrants who were natural-born United States citizens of Japanese extraction or parentage were subject to induction in the Army after the War Department had determined in each case that the registrant was acceptable.
African American enlistments
From December 1942 until VJ-day there were relatively few enlistments into the armed forces as restrictions against the direct recruiting of men in the age group acceptable for service (18-37) were in effect. The reasons why relatively few African Americans enlisted during World War II were numerous. The principal one, however, was the severe restrictions placed against African American enlistments by the armed forces, which, in some periods, amounted to complete prohibition.
Notes
See also
Military history of the United States during World War II
References
Further reading
Armor, David J., and Curtis L. Gilroy. "Changing minority representation in the US military." Armed Forces & Society (2009). Online
Bernstein, Alison R. American Indians and World War II: Toward a New Era in Indian Affairs (1991)
Brooks, Jennifer E. Defining the Peace: World War II Veterans, Race, and the Remaking of Southern Political Tradition (Univ of North Carolina Press, 2004)
Bruscino Jr, Thomas A. "Minorities in the Military." in by James C. Bradford, ed. A Companion to American Military History (2010) vol 2 pp: 880-898.
Burk, James. "Citizenship status and military service: The quest for inclusion by minorities and conscientious objectors." Armed forces & society (1995) 21#4 pp: 503-529.
Evans, Rhonda. "A history of the service of ethnic minorities in the US Armed Forces." Center for the Study of Sexual Minorities in the Military (2003). online
Dalfiume, Richard M. Desegregation of the US armed forces: Fighting on two fronts, 1939-1953 (University of Missouri Press, 1969)
James, C. L. R. Fighting Racism in World War II: From the Pages of The Militant. Ed. Fred Stanton. New York: Pathfinder, 2011.
Krebs, Ronald R. "One nation under arms? Military participation policy and the politics of identity." Security studies 14.3 (2005): 529-564. Online
MacGregor, Jr., Morris J. Integration of the Armed Forces, 1940-1965 Defense Studies Series (Washington, 1981).
McGuire, Phillip. "Desegregation of the Armed Forces: Black Leadership, Protest and World War II." Journal of Negro History (1983): 147-158. in JSTOR
Moye, J. Todd. Freedom Flyers: The Tuskegee Airmen of World War II (Oxford University Press, 2010)
Nalty, Bernard C. Strength for the fight: A history of Black Americans in the military (Simon and Schuster, 1989)
Stauffer, Samuel. The American Soldier Vol. 4." (1949) on blacks in WW2
Takaki, Ronald T. Double Victory: A Multicultural History of America in World War II. N.p.: First Back Bay, 2001.
Treadwell, Mattie E. The Women's Army Corps (Office of the Chief of Military History, Department of the Army, 1954.)
Wong, Kevin Scott. Americans First: Chinese Americans and the Second World War (Harvard University Press, 2009)
American military personnel of World War II
Military history of the United States during World War II |
4371704 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinosaur%20Park%20Formation | Dinosaur Park Formation | The Dinosaur Park Formation is the uppermost member of the Belly River Group (also known as the Judith River Group), a major geologic unit in southern Alberta. It was deposited during the Campanian stage of the Late Cretaceous, between about 76.5 and 74.4 million years ago. It was deposited in alluvial and coastal plain environments, and it is bounded by the nonmarine Oldman Formation below it and the marine Bearpaw Formation above it.
The Dinosaur Park Formation contains dense concentrations of dinosaur skeletons, both articulated and disarticulated, which are often found with preserved remains of soft tissues. Remains of other animals such as fish, turtles, and crocodilians, as well as plant remains, are also abundant. The formation has been named after Dinosaur Provincial Park, a UNESCO World Heritage Site where the formation is well exposed in the badlands that flank the Red Deer River.
Geological setting
The Dinosaur Park Formation is composed of sediments that were derived from the erosion of the mountains to the west. It was deposited on an alluvial to coastal plain by river systems that flowed eastward and southeastward to the Bearpaw Sea, a large inland sea that was part of the Western Interior Seaway. That sea gradually inundated the adjacent coastal plain, depositing the marine shales of the Bearpaw Formation on top of the Dinosaur Park Formation.
The Dinosaur Park Formation is about thick at Dinosaur Park. The lower portion of the formation was laid down in fluvial channel environments and consists primarily of fine- to medium-grained, crossbedded sandstones. The upper portion, which was deposited in overbank and floodplain environments, consists primarily of massive to laminated, organic-rich mudstones with abundant root traces, and thin beds of bentonite. The Lethbridge Coal Zone, which consists of several seams of low-rank coal interbedded with mudstones and siltstones, marks the top of the formation.
The sediments of the Dinosaur Park Formation are similar to those of the underlying Oldman Formation and they were originally included in that formation. The two formations are separated by a regional disconformity, however, and are distinguished by petrographic and sedimentologic differences. In addition, articulated skeletal remains and bonebeds are rare in the Oldman Formation but abundant in the Dinosaur Park Formation.
Biostratigraphy
The Dinosaur Park Formation can be divided into at least two distinct faunas. The lower part of the formation is characterized by the abundance of Corythosaurus and Centrosaurus. This group of species is replaced higher in the formation by a different ornithischian fauna characterized by the presence of Lambeosaurus and Styracosaurus. The appearance of several new, rare species of ornithischian at the very top of the formation may indicate that a third distinct fauna had replaced the second during the transition into younger, non-Dinosaur Park sediments, at the same time an inland sea transgresses onto land, but there are fewer remains here. An unnamed pachyrhinosaur, Vagaceratops irvinensis, and Lambeosaurus magnicristatus may be more common in this third fauna.
The timeline below follows a synthesis presented by Fowler (2017) with additional information from Arbour et al. 2009, Evans et al. 2009, and Penkalski, 2013. Megaherbivore Assemblage Zones (MAZ) follow data presented by Mallon et al., 2012.
Amphibians
Remains of the following amphibians have been found in the formation:
Albanerpetontidae (extinct, salamander-like amphibians)
Albanerpeton gracilis
Caudata (salamanders)
Habrosaurus prodilatus
Lisserpeton
Opisthotriton kayi
Scapherpeton tectum
unnamed caudatan
Two indeterminate caudatans
Salienta (frogs)
Two unnamed salientans
Tyrrellbatrachus brinkmani
Hensonbatrachus kermiti
Dinosaurs
Remains of the following dinosaurs have been found in the formation:
Ornithischians
Remains of the following ornithischians have been found in the formation:
Ankylosaurs
Ceratopsians
An unnamed Pachyrhinosaurus-like taxon has been recovered from the formation.
Ornithopods
At least one indeterminate thescelosaurid specimen has been recovered from the formation.
In a 2001 review of hadrosaur eggshell and hatchling material from the Dinosaur Park Formation, Darren H. Tanke and M. K. Brett-Surman concluded that hadrosaurs nested in both the ancient upland and lowlands of the formation's depositional environment.
The upland nesting grounds may have been preferred by the less common hadrosaurs, like Brachylophosaurus or Parasaurolophus. However, the authors were unable to determine what specific factors shaped nesting ground choice in the formation's hadrosaurs. They suggested that behavior, diet, soil condition, and competition between dinosaur species all potentially influenced where hadrosaurs nested.
Sub-centimeter fragments of pebbly-textured hadrosaur eggshell have been reported from the Dinosaur Park Formation. This eggshell is similar to the hadrosaur eggshell of Devil's Coulee in southern Alberta as well as that of the Two Medicine and Judith River Formations in Montana, United States. While present, dinosaur eggshell is very rare in the Dinosaur Park Formation and is only found in two different microfossil sites. These sites are distinguished by large numbers of pisidiid clams and other less common shelled invertebrates like unionid clams and snails. This association is not a coincidence as the invertebrate shells would have slowly dissolved and released enough basic calcium carbonate to protect the eggshells from naturally occurring acids that otherwise would have dissolved them and prevented fossilization.
In contrast with eggshell fossils, the remains of very young hadrosaurs are actually somewhat common. Darren Tanke has observed that an experienced collector could actually discover multiple juvenile hadrosaur specimens in a single day. The most common remains of young hadrosaurs in the Dinosaur Park Formation are dentaries, bones from limbs and feet, as well as vertebral centra. The material showed little or none of the abrasion that would have resulted from transport, meaning the fossils were buried near their point of origin. Bonebeds 23, 28, 47, and 50 are productive sources of young hadrosaur remains in the formation, especially bonebed 50. The bones of juvenile hadrosaurs and fossil eggshell fragments are not known to have preserved in association with each other, despite both being present in the formation.
Pachycephalosaurs
Theropods
In the Dinosaur Park Formation, small theropods are rare due to the tendency of their thin-walled bones to be broken or poorly preserved. Small bones of small theropods that were preyed upon by larger ones may have been swallowed whole and digested. In this context, the discovery of a small theropod dinosaur with preserved tooth marks was especially valuable. Possible indeterminate avimimid remains are known from the formation.
Ornithomimids
Oviraptorosaurs
Paravians
A new taxon of troodontid based solely on teeth is known from the upper part of the formation.
Tyrannosaurs
Other reptiles
Choristoderes
Choristoderes, or champsosaurs, were aquatic reptiles. Small examples looked like lizards, while larger types were superficially similar to crocodilians. Remains of the following Choristoderes have been found in the formation:
Champsosaurus (at least 3 species)
Cteniogenys sp. cf. antiquus (possibly another genus)
Crocodylians
Remains of the following Crocodylians have been found in the formation:
Albertochampsa
Leidyosuchus
at least 1 unnamed taxon
Lizards
Remains of the following lizards have been found in the formation:
Helodermatids
Labrodioctes
Necrosaurids
Parasaniwa
Teiids
Glyptogenys
Socognathus
Varanids
Palaeosaniwa
Xenosaurids
?Exostinus
Plesiosaurs
Remains of the following Plesiosaurs have been found in the formation:
Fluvionectes
indeterminate polycotylids (shorter-necked)
Pterosaurs
Remains of the following pterosaurs have been found in the formation:
Cryodrakon (known from small and large specimens)
1 unnamed non-azhdarchid pterosaur
Turtles
Remains of the following turtles have been found in the formation:
Adocus
"Apalone"
Aspideretoides (3 species)
Basilemys
Boremys
Judithemys
Neurankylus
Plesiobaena
2 indeterminate taxa
Mammals
Remains of the following mammals have been found in the formation:
Multituberculata
Cimexomys sp.
Cimolodon spp.
Cimolomys clarki
Meniscoessus major
Mesodma primaeva
unnamed multituberculates
Metatherians
Alphadon halleyi
Eodelphis browni
E. cutleri
5 species of "Pediomys"
Turgidodon russelli
T. praesagus
Eutherians
Cimolestes sp. (uncertain taxonomy)
Gypsonictops lewisi
Paranyctoides sternbergi
Unknown therians: at least 1 species
Fish
Remains of the following fish have been found in the formation:
Chondrichthyans
Cretorectolobus olsoni (a carpet shark)
Eucrossorhinus microcuspidatus (a carpet shark)
Ischyrhiza mira (a sclerorhynchid)
Meristodonoides montanensis (a shark)
Myledaphus bipartitus (a ray)
Protoplatyrhina renae (a guitarfish)
indeterminate orectolobid
Acipenseriformes (sturgeons)
"Acipenser albertensis"
Anchiacipenser acanthaspis
unnamed sturgeon
unnamed paddlefish
Holostean fish
Lepisosteus occidentalis (the gar)
unnamed bowfin
at least 2 other holosteans
Teleost fish
Belonostomus longirostris
Cretophareodus (an osteoglossomorph)
Coriops amnicolus
Estesesox foxi
Oldmanesox
Paralbula (including Phyllodus)
Paratarpon apogerontus (an elopomorph, like the tarpon)
at least 8 other teleosts
Invertebrates
Remains of the following invertebrates have been found in the formation:
Freshwater bivalves
Fusconaia
Lampsilis
Sphaerium (2 species)
Freshwater gastropods
Campeloma (2 species)
Elimia
Goniobasis (3 species)
Hydrobia
Lioplacodes (2 species)
Flora
Plant body fossils
The following plant body fossils have been found in the formation:
various ferns
Equisetum (Equisetaceae)
Gymnosperms
Platyspiroxylon (Cupressaceae)
Podocarpoxylon (Podocarpaceae)
Elatocladus (Taxodiaceae)
Sequoia (Taxodiaceae)
Sequoiaxylon (Taxodiaceae)
Taxodioxylon (Taxodiaceae)
Ginkgos
Baiera
Ginkgoites
Angiosperms
Artocarpus (Moraceae)
Cercidiphyllum (Cercidiphyllaceae)
Dombeyopsis (Sterculiaceae)
Menispermites (Menispermaceae)
Pistia (Araceae)
Platanus (Platanaceae)
Vitis (Vitaceae)
Trapa (Trapaceae)
Palynomorphs
Palynomorphs are organic-walled microfossils, like spores, pollen, and algae. The following palynomorphs have been found in the formation:
Unknown producers
at least 8 species
Fungi
at least 35 taxa
Chlorophyta (green algae and blue-green algae)
at least 12 species
Pyrrhophyta (dinoflagellates, a type of marine algae)
unassigned cysts
Bryophytes (mosses, liverworts, and hornworts)
Anthocerotophyta (hornworts)
at least 5 species
Marchantiophyta (liverworts)
at least 14 species
Bryophyta (mosses)
at least 5 species
Lycopodiophyta
Lycopodiaceae (club mosses)
at least 11 species
Selaginellaceae (small club mosses)
at least 6 species
Isoetaceae (quillworts)
at least 1 species
Polypodiophyta
Osmundaceae (cinnamon ferns)
at least 6 species
Schizaeaceae (climbing ferns)
at least 20 species
Gleicheniaceae (Gleichenia and allies; coral ferns)
at least 5 species
Cyatheaceae (Cyathea and allies)
at least 4 species
Dicksoniaceae (Dicksonia and allies)
at least 3 species
Polypodiaceae (ferns)
at least 4 species
Matoniaceae
at least 1 species
Marsileaceae
at least 1 species
Pinophyta (gymnosperms)
Cycadaceae (cycads)
at least 3 species
Caytoniaceae
at least 1 species
Pinaceae (pines)
at least 4 species
Cupressaceae (cypresses)
at least 3 species
Podocarpaceae (Podocarpus and allies)
at least 4 species
Cheirolepidiaceae
at least 2 species
Ephedraceae (Mormon teas)
at least 6 species
Unknown gymnosperms: at least 3 species
Magnoliophyta (angiosperms)
Magnoliopsida (dicots)
Buxaceae (boxwood)
at least 1 species
Gunneraceae (gunneras)
at least 1 species
Salicaceae (willows, cottonwood, quaking aspen)
at least 1 species
Droseraceae (sundews)
at least 1 species
Olacaceae (tallowwood)
at least 2 species
Loranthaceae (showy mistletoes)
at least 1 species
Sapindaceae (soapberry)
at least 1 species
Aceraceae (maples)
at least 1 species
Proteaceae (proteas)
at least 9 species
Compositae (sunflowers)
at least 1 species
Fagaceae (beeches, oaks, chestnuts)
at least 2 species
Betulaceae (birches, alders)
at least 1 species
Ulmaceae (elms)
at least 1 species
Chenopodiaceae (goosefoots)
at least 1 species
Liliopsida (monocots)
Liliaceae (lilies)
at least 6 species
Cyperaceae (sedges)
at least 1 species
Sparganiaceae (bur-reeds)
possibly 1 species
Unknown angiosperms: at least 88 species
Timeline of new taxa
The following timeline displays valid taxa first discovered in the dinosaur park formation. Some species may have been referred to other genera subsequent to their initial description.
See also
List of dinosaur-bearing rock formations
Footnotes
References
Braman, D.R., and Koppelhus, E.B. 2005. Campanian palynomorphs. In: Currie, P.J., and Koppelhus, E.B. (eds), Dinosaur Provincial Park: A Spectacular Ancient Ecosystem Revealed. Indiana University Press: Bloomington and Indianapolis, 101–130.
Brinkman, D.B. 2005. Turtles: diversity, paleoecology, and distribution. In: Currie, P.J., and Koppelhus, E.B. (eds), Dinosaur Provincial Park: A Spectacular Ancient Ecosystem Revealed. Indiana University Press: Bloomington and Indianapolis, 202–220.
Caldwell, M.W. The squamates: origins, phylogeny, and paleoecology. In: Currie, P.J., and Koppelhus, E.B. (eds). 2005. Dinosaur Provincial Park: A Spectacular Ancient Ecosystem Revealed. Indiana University Press: Bloomington and Indianapolis, 235–248.
Currie, P.J. 2005. Theropods, including birds. In: Currie, P.J., and Koppelhus, E.B. (eds), Dinosaur Provincial Park: A Spectacular Ancient Ecosystem Revealed. Indiana University Press: Bloomington and Indianapolis, 367–397.
Currie, P.J., and Koppelhus, E.B. (eds). 2005. Dinosaur Provincial Park: A Spectacular Ancient Ecosystem Revealed. Indiana University Press: Bloomington and Indianapolis, 648 p.
Eberth, D.A. 2005. The geology. In: Currie, P.J., and Koppelhus, E.B. (eds), Dinosaur Provincial Park: A Spectacular Ancient Ecosystem Revealed. Indiana University Press: Bloomington and Indianapolis, 54–82.
Fox, R.C. 2005. Late Cretaceous mammals. In: Currie, P.J., and Koppelhus, E.B. (eds), Dinosaur Provincial Park: A Spectacular Ancient Ecosystem Revealed. Indiana University Press: Bloomington and Indianapolis, 417–435.
K. Gao and Brinkman, D.B. 2005. Choristoderes from the Park and its vicinity. In: Currie, P.J., and Koppelhus, E.B. (eds), Dinosaur Provincial Park: A Spectacular Ancient Ecosystem Revealed. Indiana University Press: Bloomington and Indianapolis, 221–234.
Gardner, J.D. 2005. Lissamphibians. In: Currie, P.J., and Koppelhus, E.B. (eds), Dinosaur Provincial Park: A Spectacular Ancient Ecosystem Revealed. Indiana University Press: Bloomington and Indianapolis, 186–201.
Godfrey, S.J., and Currie, P.J. 2005. Pterosaurs. In: Currie, P.J., and Koppelhus, E.B. (eds), Dinosaur Provincial Park: A Spectacular Ancient Ecosystem Revealed. Indiana University Press: Bloomington and Indianapolis, 292–311.
Johnston, P.A., and Hendy, A.J.W. 2005. Paleoecology of mollusks from the Upper Cretaceous Belly River Group. In: Currie, P.J., and Koppelhus, E.B. (eds), Dinosaur Provincial Park: A Spectacular Ancient Ecosystem Revealed. Indiana University Press: Bloomington and Indianapolis, 139–166.
Koppelhus, E.B. 2005. Paleobotany. In: Currie, P.J., and Koppelhus, E.B. (eds), Dinosaur Provincial Park: A Spectacular Ancient Ecosystem Revealed. Indiana University Press: Bloomington and Indianapolis, 131–138.
Neuman, A.G., and Brinkman, D.B. 2005. Fishes of the fluvial beds. In: Currie, P.J., and Koppelhus, E.B. (eds), Dinosaur Provincial Park: A Spectacular Ancient Ecosystem Revealed. Indiana University Press: Bloomington and Indianapolis, 167–185.
Ryan, M.J., and Evans, D.C. 2005. Ornithischian dinosaurs. In: Currie, P.J., and Koppelhus, E.B. (eds), Dinosaur Provincial Park: A Spectacular Ancient Ecosystem Revealed. Indiana University Press: Bloomington and Indianapolis, 312–348.
Sato, T., Eberth, D.A., Nicholls, E.L., and Manabe, M. 2005. Plesiosaurian remains from non-marine to paralic sediments. In: Currie, P.J., and Koppelhus, E.B. (eds), Dinosaur Provincial Park: A Spectacular Ancient Ecosystem Revealed. Indiana University Press: Bloomington and Indianapolis, 249–276.
Tanke, D.H. and Brett-Surman, M.K. 2001. Evidence of Hatchling and Nestling-Size Hadrosaurs (Reptilia:Ornithischia) from Dinosaur Provincial Park (Dinosaur Park Formation: Campanian), Alberta, Canada. pp. 206–218. In: Mesozoic Vertebrate Life—New Research Inspired by the Paleontology of Philip J. Currie. Edited by D.H. Tanke and K. Carpenter. Indiana University Press: Bloomington. xviii + 577 pp.
Xiao-Chun Wu. 2005. Crocodylians. In: Currie, P.J., and Koppelhus, E.B. (eds), Dinosaur Provincial Park: A Spectacular Ancient Ecosystem Revealed. Indiana University Press: Bloomington and Indianapolis, 277-291
Geologic formations of Alberta
Upper Cretaceous Series of North America
Cretaceous Alberta
Campanian Stage
Sandstone formations
Mudstone formations
Siltstone formations
Fluvial deposits
Ooliferous formations
Western Canadian Sedimentary Basin
Fossiliferous stratigraphic units of North America
Paleontology in Canada |
4371710 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Chibi%20Vampire%20characters | List of Chibi Vampire characters | The Chibi Vampire manga series and its light novel adaptation feature a cast of characters created by Yuna Kagesaki. The series takes place in a fictional Japan where vampires live amongst humans and are slowly dying out from lack of reproduction. Among them is Karin Maaka, an unusual vampire who does not drink blood but instead must inject it into others because her body produces too much. The youngest child in a family of vampires, Karin lives like a normal human teenager, attending school and walking in the daylight with no harm to herself. Her parents, Henry and Calera Maaka, along with her older brother Ren and younger sister Anju, worry about her unusual nature. At school Karin meets a new transfer student, the human Kenta Usui, with whom she becomes friends and later falls in love. After he learns her secret, he agrees to help Karin during the day when her vampire family is unable to watch over her. While the awkward couple deal with the issues of a relationship between a human and a vampire, they meet Yuriya Tachibana, a human-vampire hybrid sent by her uncle Glark to look for the "psyche" of vampires. The pair eventually kidnaps Karin, the "Spring of Psyche", and intending that all vampires drink her blood so that it may rejuvenate their species.
The anime television adaptation features character designs by Yumi Nakayama and a slightly modified story. Yuriya, Glark and Bridget do not appear; instead, the Maaka family finds itself targeted by the Sinclair family of vampire hunters. Victor Sinclair wishes to destroy the family, blaming them for his family's "shame" because his ancestor Alfred Sinclair fell in love with Elda Maaka, Karin's grandmother. Victor blames Elda for loving Alfred and filling his life with sadness. Victor's grandson Winner initially aids him in his quest, but develops feelings for Karin who gave him confidence when he questioned his ability to follow his dreams.
Protagonists
Karin Maaka
is descended from a long line of purebred vampires. However, instead of having to drink blood like normal vampires, Karin's body overproduces blood. Generally, once a month she reaches a point where she can no longer hold it in, and she must bite someone to inject them with her blood or else suffer from a massive nosebleed. In the anime, if Karin goes too long without biting someone and tries to hold her blood in, she enters a "berserker"-like state and aggressively attacks the first target she can find. Being near a person suffering misfortune causes Karin's blood to increase ahead of schedule. Due to her unusual situation, Karin lives like a normal human rather than a vampiress. She lives in the daylight, is not susceptible to common vampire weaknesses. and lacks the skills normal vampires have. These differences cause her to be somewhat separate from her parents and older brother, whom she only sees for a few hours in the time before she goes to sleep (she spends more time with her younger sister Anju, who has not yet awakened as a vampiress). In the first chapter Karin meets Kenta Usui and is dismayed that her blood increases around him. He has a lot of misfortune in his life. Karin resolves to do favors for him and thus reduce his misfortune and her blood problems around him. As the series progresses, Karin falls in love with Kenta. He returns her feelings, though Karin is initially troubled to learn that human-vampire children are born sterile.
Karin is rendered unconscious for several days after trying to hold in her blood and suffering a massive nosebleed, during which time her family grows increasingly concerned that her condition would kill her. Her mother journeys to her birthplace in search of answers and learns that Karin is a rare vampiress, called the "Spring of Psyche", that is born when the vampire species is struggling. The blood Karin produces can bestow fertility in other vampires. Karin is later kidnapped by vampires who want to feed from her to rejuvenate their own lives, though it will kill Karin in the process. They also plan to impregnate Karin against her will to continue the Psyche's existence. After Kenta and the Marker family save Karin from the Brownlicks, her nose-bleeding ceases, leaving her as though she were a normal human, who will likely grow old and die. Her family erases all of her memories of vampires, including themselves, promising Kenta that they will continue watching over her happiness although she will not know them. At the end of the series, Karin and Kenta have married and are shown to have a teenage daughter named Kanon.
In the anime adaptation, the blood-making issue and Karin's capture are not mentioned. Instead, Karin has the opportunity to become a full vampiress, which she initially declines, but then pursues after Kenta encourages her. The transformation is interrupted and Karin goes berserk. Kenta comes to her rescue by volunteering to be bitten, ending the berserker rage, confirming their romantic relationship. at the end of the anime she is still not a full vampiress and is still dealing with her blood-making issue, still has of all her memories and still lives with her family and spends much time with Kenta.
Kenta Usui
is the first human to have found out Karin's secret. At Anju's suggestion, the Marker family makes him an ally to aid in caring for Karin during the daylight hours. Kenta and his mother live in a one-room apartment and do not have much money. Consequently, Kenta cannot afford three meals a day, often leaving him hungry during the middle of the day. Karin, realizing this, begins making him a bento box lunch every day. Kenta works with Karin part-time at Julian Restaurant, seeking all the extra hours he can to support himself and his mother. He dreams of being a model citizen with a family and a good job. As a child, he was ignored by his maternal grandmother due to the circumstances of his birth. This leads to his being a person who tries to live a life free of prejudice and allows him to sympathize with Karin's unusual nature. He offers his neck to Karin to bite whenever she needs so she won't have any more nosebleeds. Karin ends up biting him twice, with the second bite following their first kiss. (It was thanks to Maki and Sophia's encouragement th a Kenta opened his heart to love.) When Karin is kidnapped, Usui aids the Markers in tracking her down, led by Sophia Pistis, the spirit of the first Psyche. While they are there in Kenta's hometown and at Karin's suggestion, Kenta goes to see his sick grandmother, not wanting to lose the last chance to reconcile with her. After Karin's memories are modified by her family, Kenta, whose memories weren't erased, promises to keep her heritage a secret and to make her happy. At the end of the series, they are married with a child, the reincarnated spirit of Sophia. He also appears to work very hard for his family and their daughter apparently has a crush on Ren. Something that Kenta's oblivious about and annoys Karin. While being around Usui some bluntly point out that the way his eyes are creepy, which makes Usui feel annoyed or down.
Antagonists
Yuriya Tachibana
is a half-vampire who first appears in the eighth volume of the series. She moves into Karin's town at the behest of her uncle Glark to seek out an unusual vampire. Because she is half-vampire, she can also walk in the sunshine and only has to feed once a month, however she is sterile and will never be able to have children. When Karin befriends her, Yuriya initially lies to her uncle and tries to protect her. She is nearly killed by Elda Marker after she is discovered. She later betrays Karin, reluctantly helping her uncle because her uncle means more to her than Karin does. They capture Karin so that she can be used as the Spring of Psyche. Yuriya, as a half-vampire, was mistrusted by full-fledged vampires because it was the half-vampires who had betrayed them in Europe and led the vampire hunting church against them two generations ago.
Later, Yuriya expresses remorse for her part in Karin's capture and helps her escape after seeing a vision of her mother, a by-product of coming into contact with Karin's blood months beforehand. After Karin is safe, Yuriya goes to find her uncle to ensure he finds safe shelter as the sun rises. Near the end of the series, Yuriya is living with her uncle again. She returns briefly to Karin's town, but only shows herself to Kenta out of concern that the hovering Markers would kill her if she tried to approach Karin directly. She asks Kenta to pass Karin a new cellphone to replace the one broken during Karin's kidnapping, before saying her goodbyes, noting that she will probably not see either of them again.
Bridget Brownlick
is a powerful and ambitious vampire, of a powerful and ambitious vampire clan. When Glark offers her the Spring of Psyche, a vampire that produces blood which, if consumed by vampires, will increase fertility, she leaps at the chance. Her family has controlled the Psyche for many generations until James Marker convinced Cecilia Armash, whose family produces the Psyche every thousand years, to allow her daughter Calera to marry into the Marker family. After Karin is rescued, Ren detains Bridget so that Kenta and Karin may get away. Months after Karin's rescue, Bridget calls to let Ren know she is pregnant with his child, the first vampire child conceived since Anju Maaka. It's revealed by Karin, that Bridget gave birth to a son named Rei. Bridget also believes that her intimate time with Ren and her pregnancy means something more, as she had left Gilbert. And stated she wants him to be married to her, so they can raise their child. However, whether not wanting the responsibility of fatherhood or the shock, Ren wants nothing to do with her. And years later, its shown he's never had contact with them. Only years later does he reveal himself to his son, though only to protect Karin's daughter. Bridget thinks he's come to reunite and become lovers again, though he clearly is horrified at the idea of being with her.
Glark
, when he first enters the story, is an Osaka-based criminal, seen punishing two under-criminals for botching an assignment. He believed that conditions are ripe in the vampire community for the rebirth of the psyche. He aimed to identify her and then profit from that knowledge. He sent his niece Yuriya to Shiihaba City to check out the Markers and report any unusual vampires she saw. Since he hadn't given Yuriya a complete briefing or gotten her full buy-in, it took a while for Karin's name to get back to him. He then contacted the highest vampire clan, the Brownlicks, and Bridget Brownlick came to take Karin. He knew that the vampires, in their greed, would drain Karin of her blood to restore their fertility, so he sought to get first in line, as well as taking the forethought to have her forcefully impregnated to ensure the creation of another Psyche. This is thwarted by the Marker family who rescued Karin and prevented anything happening to her. After a fierce battle with Henry Marker, (with assistance from Elda Marker) Glark is left behind to die in the sunlight but is luckily saved from being caught in the sun by Yuriya. Afterward, he contacts Henry to see if they can find a way to use Karin's blood without harming her, but is informed that she is no longer producing excess blood.
Victor Sinclair
, a character created for the anime adaptation, is Winner's grandfather. Disgusted by his ancestor's seduction, which he blames for his family's exile from society, he holds a strong grudge against all vampires, particularly the Markers. An expert hunter and skilled fighter, his goal is to rid the world of the Markers and erase his family's shame. Though he recognizes that Winner only achieves his goal of becoming a vampire hunter, he has not forgotten that he did so only after Karin bit him. At the end of the anime it is shown in a very decisive manner, however, that this 'goal' is born of delusion and general unhappiness with his life and possibly his harsh perceived destiny. Karin bites him, allowing her blood to free Victor from his delusions.
Supporting cast
Anju Maaka
, Karin's younger sister, is a normal vampiress who has yet to reach the onset of her adulthood, and is the only family member who can still travel outside in daytime, when it is cloudy, during dusk, or when she is carrying her parasol to block out the sun. Anju is proficient in the vampiric arts, having a large group of bat familiar spirits who aid in her watch over Karin. Anju, who collects strange dolls, is more frequently seen carrying , a doll housing the soul of a serial killer. As Karin is unable to erase human memory, Anju's aid is frequently required after Karin has bitten a human. However, Anju knows that when she matures, Karin will be alone when she is outside during the day, so she persuades her parents to allow Kenta to know about Karin without having his memories erased so that he can look after her during the day. In the anime her first victim when she turned into a vampiress is Karin's best friend. Karin, who was shopping for a gift for Anju, saw her when she bit her friend, Maki, and got mad at her but both later got over it. Anju also found out her blood preference is Jealousy. In the manga when she reaches maturity, her first victim is a classmate who has a crush on her. She is initially hurt when Karin tries to force herself to be cheerful about Anju's maturation, but eventually both sisters admit they will miss their times together during the day. In here her blood preference is loneliness. At the end of the series, she cries as Karin's memories are erased and asks Kenta to give Karin enough happiness for them all. She is later seen keeping the family's promise to watch over Karin and her child Kanon. Towards the end of the manga, both Anju and Karin are stunned by Bridget's pregnancy and that they'll both be aunts. After Karin's memories are erased, Anju is seen passing her niece, quietly reminding her that the family will still be there to watch over them.
Ren Maaka
, the oldest of the Marker children, has no qualms about sucking blood, and believes vampires to be superior to humans. However, he prefers female victims, seducing female victims and often spending days in their company before he's done with them, and refuses to suck on male blood. Ren often appears annoyed at Karin for her seeming lack of vampiric abilities and her friendliness towards humans. While he will listen to his father Henry, Anju is often the one who will calm him when he's annoyed or subtly prod him into acting in certain ways. He greatly fears Elda Marker, whose overly affectionate manner when he was a child causes him to flee at the mere sight or mention of her. Despite his seeming to always harass Karin, he does love her and wants her to be a normal vampiress along with the family. Months after Karin's abduction has been resolved he gets a telephone call from Bridget Brownlick, telling him that she is pregnant and that he is the father. This leaves him and his family with great shock, though he has no intentions of being with Bridget. Eventually, it's revealed she had a boy named Rei. Whether due to how Bridget had almost hurt Karin, the shock of being a father, or he doesn't want the responsibility, Ren is very indifferent to the news and wishes not to discuss it. He also erased Karin's memories of her family and being a vampiress so that she could live a normal life as a human after she no longer produced excess blood.
Henry Marker
Karin Maaka's father, is a vampire who is portrayed to have a surprisingly human personality; he seems to act in a way one might call "stern." Despite Karin's anomalies and flaws, he loves her dearly. This is exemplified when Karin first suffered a nosebleed at a human school; Henry braved the sunlight to rescue Karin from the hospital workers, who would have realized she was a vampire upon examination, and is severely burned in the process. Henry shows concern when the possibility of love between Karin and Kenta Usui arises. Even though he was from the first generation born in Japan, he and Calera kept the original spelling of their last names, while their children chose to use a Japanese spelling. In the last volume, Henry's father James reveals that the Edwardses/Markers have an oath to protect the psyche of life because of the death of James' brother Edward. It was also revealed that despite being one of the most mild-mannered vampires, Henry's inherent determination to protect his daughter, the current psyche, made him the most dangerous vampire in Japan. Henry, like his family, was shocked about Bridget's pregnancy and thought that his son would marry her, which Ren quickly told his father to shut up about. His blood preference is "pride".
Calera Marker
is the wife of Henry, having a strong determined personality. However, in important matters she and Henry are equals. When she was first engaged, she was reluctant to marry Henry since she thought she was marrying his father James. However, after James tells her all Henry needs is a strong-willed woman to help him become a better vampire, she takes control and becomes determined to make him into a decent husband. Because her family was the first to increase the vampires numbers in a generation, the other vampire wives envy her and see her as a fertility buddha. Calera loves Karin and worries about the effects of Karin's nature, eventually traveling to her home to see her parents to try to find out the cause and hopeful cure out of fear it will kill her. However, she returns to find her mother Cecilia dead and her father Daniel dying. Calera, out of all the family members, wasn't entirely flabbergasted to hear of Bridget's pregnancy. Her only comment about having a grandchild was "about time." Whenever she feels something stupid has been said or done she usually hits them with whatever she has in her hand, including the random green night slipper. Her blood preference is dishonesty. Calera despises her mother-in-law Elda, who sleeps in a coffin in the Marker family basement.
Elda Marker
, Henry's mother, sleeps in a coffin in the basement along with her husband, James, whom she greatly loves. When she first awakens in the manga, she runs rampant through Karin's school to extract blood for him so he can wake up, but is saddened to learn upon returning home that he had dried up and was dead. Later in the manga, it has been revealed that Elda had a habit of bullying other vampires which causes them to fear her and her family. All the vampires in Japan has heard of Elda to be the fiercest vampire you shall ever meet. Despite being vampires, Elda and Calera frequently display a struggle between mother and daughter-in-law but the two still do care for each other. Aside from the color and length of their hair and their bust size, Karin and Elda look nearly identical. Elda is fond of her grandchildren, Karin in particular, who she worries will end up hurt upon learning of Karin's feelings for Kenta. It revealed that Elda really despises half-breed vampires because they were the cause to remove them out of Europe. She despises them and would take it to the extreme of killing one. In the manga, her blood preference was never stated, though she did bite some people and said that she was not attracted to Usui's blood at all. Her husband, James Maaka's blood preference was "young" blood, which Elda collected for him since he harmed humans if he bit them directly. In the anime, her preference was "love."
Fumio Usui
, Kenta's mother, is generally depressed and has trouble keeping jobs, usually being fired after one of her male co-workers sexually harasses her. It was speculated by Anju that she has overactive pheromones, which is the reason why men are drawn to her. In the first volume, Karin bites Fumio, injecting her blood and leaving Fumio cheery, energetic, and with a great increase in self-confidence. It is later speculated that Karin's blood makes people who they want to be. The sudden change in his mother's behavior, coupled with the strange marks on her neck, make Kenta suspicious about what Karin did to her that night. Fumio is a young mother, having gotten pregnant at the age of sixteen by her high school boyfriend, Shusei Iizuka. Her mother was furious at this, ordering Fumio to get an abortion, but Fumio refuses. During her pregnancy, she is abused by her mother, verbally and physically, and after his birth, her mother ignores Kenta, only speaking to him long enough to yell about him being a disgrace. To protect him from getting hurt any further, Fumio took Kenta and fled to Shiihaba to start a new life. However, when her mother was sick, Fumio returned to take care of her. In the anime, she finally finds a job that works for her and becomes very happy.
Maki Tokitou
has been Karin's best friend and classmate since childhood. When they were young, Maki helped Karin, who was stuck in a drainage ditch, and it was Maki's mother who taught Karin how to cook so well. Karin and Maki remained best friends through high school. She watches Karin and Usui's relationship progress and encourages them when she can. In the anime adaptation, Maki falls in love with Winner Sinclair but is jealous because he pays more attention to Karin, and she later found out from Winner that Karin is a vampire. In the last chapter of vol. 14, 'Airmail', Maki tries to set up Yuuji Kikuchi, whom she has known since childhood, with Fumio Usui. That doesn't work, so he suggests going out with her. They have a fractious dating life, which continues into marriage. She also becomes a physical education instructor at Shiihaba Middle School, where Kanon goes. In the final short story, set in 2009, she comes over to Karin's house to celebrate Karin's birthday.
Shusei Iizuka
is Kenta Usui's father. He and Fumio conceived Kenta while still in high school, upsetting Fumio's mother. He was barred from contact with Kenta. He and Kenta look very much alike, with the exception of a scar above Shusei's left ear, shown in an omake to have been given to him by Fumio at a young age when she pushed him into a jungle gym. He locates Fumio and Kenta by following a detective charged to find Fumio by her mother, wanting to apologize for the past. He notes that he is dating a woman who is now pregnant, and he does not intend to repeat the mistakes he made with Fumio.
Winner Sinclair
Anime-exclusive character
is a character seen only in the anime adaptation. The descendant of Alfred Sinclair, he is a vampire hunter who gained the confidence to follow in his grandfather's steps after he was bitten by Karin when he was a child. Winner is first shown in the beginning of the first episode at the dock where he is seen bitten by Karin. He is generally happy and full of confidence, however he frequently makes a fool of himself and is considered inept by even the vampires he attempts to hunt. He means well and is not afraid to put himself at risk for others. He has dark blonde hair and blue eyes, and is afraid of blood. Believing the incident where Karin bit him as a first kiss, he is deeply in love with her, not knowing she is a vampire. He is first member of the Sinclair clan since Alfred to break free from the mutually destructive vendetta against the Marker clan. In the English dub, he is voiced by James Shubert.
Alfred Sinclair
Anime-exclusive character
is a character created for the anime adaptation. He is the ancestor of Winner and Victor Sinclair. The Sinclair's family history has written him down as the man who was in love with a vampire, Elda Marker. He was both a poet and a writer who wanted a world where humans and vampires could co-exist without fighting. Alfred's father both disapproved of and feared Alfred's vampire lover Elda, forbidding him to see her. After having locked away his son to stop the relationship and lied to Elda, saying Alfred had asked him to break up with her for him, Elda was driven to a mad feeding frenzy by her rage and feelings of abandonment. This led Alfred's father to take advantage of the situation and make a bid to rid the world of her presence. During the raid on her hiding place, however, Alfred managed to free himself and find her before the others got to her. In a stroke of misfortune, Elda's den was set alight, leaving the two inside to be burnt alive. To save his love, Alfred offered her his blood as she could gain strength to escape the fire, promising he would never forget he loved her. Things did not go as he thought it would and once Elda bit him, his love was gone so all that was left was hatred for her and all vampires. In a trance, he stabbed her in the chest, leaving a scar between her breasts. Briefly after Elda had fled, cursing all humans, he snapped out of this trance-like state and to his horror realized what he had done, it is unknown if he died while being burned alive or died from natural cause.
Other characters
Harumi
is a girl seen in early chapters of the manga. When Karin attempted to bite her, she was interrupted by Kenta and in return stole Karin's bag. She was discovered to be selling herself at the local Love Hotel by Fumio Usui in order to pay for living there after she ran away from her family. Eventually, Fumio forces the police to shut down the Love Hotel after posing as a student claiming to be forced into working at the hotel against her will and Harumi was persuaded by Fumio to return to her family.
Kanon Usui
Daughter of Karin and Kenta Usui, and the reincarnation of Sophia Pistis. She shares her love for Kenta in a comedic manner which makes Karin somewhat uncomfortable. She seem to have inherited her great-grandmother Elda's playful behavior.
Sophia Pistis
was a woman who was born inside a vampiress and was the psyche known as "the fountain of life". For thousands of years she was reborn within the body of a vampiress of the Armash bloodline and forced to have a child to continue that bloodline. Once the next member of her bloodline was born she would be drained of her blood to help the other vampires reproduce. Unfortunately as the vampiress she was reborn in could not drain the blood of another, they had a limited lifespan and would eventually die, becoming part of Sophia's life essence in the process and forcing her to be reborn in the body of another member of the bloodline. In the past, , a granduncle of James, died breaking a reincarnation of hers out of the vampires' prison, which marked the Edwardses a clan of traitors.
The kiss between Karin and Kenta, reconciling humans and vampires, broke the curse, or obligation, to be reborn. She was passed over to Kenta when Kenta and Karin kissed and was able to lead Kenta to where the Brownlicks had taken her to because of it. According to James Marker, the vampires had relied on her for the sake of their own survival for centuries, however, after centuries their efforts had become vain. After Karin's rescue, she declared because she was now inside of Kenta she was now free of her curse, but admitted after centuries had forgotten how to return to her grave. Despite this, she is content, as she is with Kenta, who she loves. Eventually she was reborn as Karin and Kenta's daughter, Kanon Usui, who shares her love for Kenta in a comedic manner which makes Karin somewhat uncomfortable.
The name "Pistis Sophia" would later appear as the original name of a character in another one of Kagesaki's manga, Hekikai no Aion. It was revealed on a special that she is the younger sister of the Akuma twins, with one of them (Shizuki) sharing the same name for reasons unknown. They refer to Karin's Sophia as Psyche when they briefly met inside Karin a few months before her rebirth as Kanon.
James Marker
was Elda Marker's husband and Karin's grandfather, he came to Japan under the name of "James Edwards" but had adopted Elda's family name upon marrying her to hide the Edwards family name. When Elda awakened in the storyline, she discovered he had died in his sleep, apparently due to his reluctance during his lifetime to drink the blood of humans. He came to Japan to escape the church's Vampire hunt and had ensured Elda Marker's well-being after her family was apparently lost. When he met Cecila he attempted to marry her but she was already in love with Daniel, in the end he settled for an agreement that Cecila's daughter would marry his son. In truth he wanted to safeguard the Armash bloodline. His motivations were discovered after Calera visited her dying father. His spirit/ghost lingered around the home, was spotted by Anju and put into a stuffed teddy bear. Anju knew that ghosts disturbed Karin. Somehow Anju discovered that this was James' ghost and she and Calera questioned him about all the issues raised by Karin's abduction. Anju later gave the stuffed teddy bear to Elda to keep her company at night.
Cecila Armash
was Calera's mother and Karin's grandmother. Because other vampires considered the Armash family disreputable Cecila and Calera had no contact after Calera's marriage to Henry Marker. She had already passed on by the time her daughter Calera returned to visit.
Having been sheltered most of her life, Cecelia was something of a well-meaning airhead.
Daniel Armash
is Calera's father and Cecila's husband who adopted her family name to preserve the curse. When his wife Cecila died he lost the will to live and decided to allow himself to wither away and die with her. By the time Calera found him he was already too far gone and she stayed with him to the end.
Sister Rosary
As well as the main series, chapter 58, the final chapter of Vol.14, reveals the fate of the church which had hunted the vampires in Europe causing them to flee to Japan. The chapter revolves around , the last remaining member of the church and two descendants of the remaining members of Elda Marker's family left behind in Europe, Frederick and his aunt.
Sister Rosary is the nun seen in the last chapter of the manga. She is the last member of the church that hunted the vampires. For three years before the events of the chapter, Frederick Marker had been visiting the church and both had shared a common fondness for Japanese manga. Rosary was the last remaining sister of the church having been adopted as a baby by the previous sole surviving sister of the church sister Alyssa. After Frederick's aunt Elga tries to end the legacy of the church, she comes to understand that despite what Alyssa had taught her, not only were vampires not as extinct as the church had thought, but there were both good and bad vampires as well. Despite the events between Frederick and his aunt, Frederick continues to visit Sister Rosary after his aunt gives him permission to do as he pleases.
Frederick Marker
was revealed in the last chapter of the manga as a descendant of one of the surviving vampires left behind when the other Vampires fled to Japan. He is a distant blood relative to Karin (second cousins) and her family (grandson of Elda's brother, hence her grandnephew). He originally greets Sister Rosary three years before the storyline posing as a university student and had attended confession to confess he was an otaku, to which Sister Rosary revealed she too was fond of Japanese manga. However, when Frederick's maternal aunt Elga tries to kill her, Frederick protects Sister Rosary due to his fondness of her and a feeling of responsibility and reveals it was he who was the one who had found her as a baby in the freezing snow and took her to the church in the first place. He bears a slight resemblance to Ren Maaka.
Elga Marker
, Frederick's aunt, is a surviving member of the Marker family in Europe revealed in the last chapter of the manga and is Elda's niece (daughter of the latter's brother). She sent her nephew Frederick to investigate Sister Rosary after she inherited the legacy of the vampire hunting church from Sister Alyssa. However, after Frederick refuses to kill the last member of the church, she attempts to take Sister Rosary's life herself only to find her nephew Frederick had decided to protect Sister Rosary. After he reveals he is responsible for Rosary entering the church in the first place, she leaves him to do as he pleases. She bears many physical similarities to Elda, Karin, and Kanon.
References
Chibi Vampire |
4371875 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Try%20Some%2C%20Buy%20Some | Try Some, Buy Some | "Try Some, Buy Some" is a song written by English rock musician George Harrison that was first released in April 1971 as a single by American singer Ronnie Spector, formerly the lead vocalist of the Ronettes. She recorded it in London along with other Harrison compositions for a planned comeback album on the Beatles' Apple record label. The project was co-produced by Phil Spector, Ronnie's husband at the time, but abandoned following recording sessions that were hampered by his erratic behaviour. The only official release from the sessions, the single achieved minimal commercial success, peaking at number 77 on the US Billboard Hot 100 and number 63 on Canada's RPM Top 100. Harrison later added his own vocal onto a new mix of the instrumental track and included the song on his 1973 album Living in the Material World.
"Try Some, Buy Some" was one of several Harrison compositions left over from the sessions for his 1970 triple album All Things Must Pass, which Spector also co-produced. The song's austere melody was influenced by Harrison composing on a keyboard instrument rather than guitar. The lyrics document his sudden perception of God amid the temptations of the material world, including recreational drugs, and serve as an account of a religious epiphany. Ronnie later admitted to being confused by the concept, and some writers have commented on the song's unsuitability as a vehicle for her comeback. Spector employed his Wall of Sound production aesthetic to full effect on "Try Some, Buy Some" and was stunned at the single's commercial failure. The recording features a choir and long, lavishly orchestrated instrumental passages arranged by John Barham. The single's B-side was "Tandoori Chicken", a Harrison–Spector collaboration in the rockabilly style.
Several reviewers have questioned Harrison's decision to reuse the 1971 instrumental track for his version. Among the varied opinions on the Living in the Material World track, some focus on Harrison's struggle to sing in a higher key than he preferred and view its dense production as being out of place on the album; others admire the lyrics and melody, and recognise a seductive quality in the song. Having long been unavailable following its 1971 release, Ronnie Spector's version was reissued in 2010 on the compilation Come and Get It: The Best of Apple Records. A longtime admirer of the song, David Bowie covered "Try Some, Buy Some" on his 2003 album Reality and performed it on his tours in support of the album.
Background and composition
George Harrison's song "Try Some, Buy Some" dates back to the recording sessions for his 1970 triple album All Things Must Pass, and was one of several tracks left over from that project. In his 1980 autobiography, I, Me, Mine, Harrison recalls writing the tune on an organ and, not being an accomplished keyboard player, having difficulties doing the correct fingering in both hands. It was only when his friend Klaus Voormann took over the left-hand part, to play the bass line, that he was able to hear the piece as he had imagined it.
Harrison biographer Simon Leng describes the tune as "the most extreme example" of its composer's "circular melodic" style, "seeming to snake through an unending series of harmonic steps". As reproduced in I, Me, Mine, Harrison's handwritten lyrics show the opening chord as E minor and the bass line descending through every semitone from E down to B, followed by a change to a B7 chord; the second part of the verse, beginning on an A minor chord, then follows a descending sequence that he writes as "A – A – G – F – E – A", before arriving at D major. Harrison says in his autobiography that the melody and "weird chords" came about through experimentation on a keyboard instrument, which allowed him more harmonic possibilities than are available on a guitar. The song's time signature is a waltz-like 3/4 time, similar to the verses of his composition "I Me Mine", the last track recorded by the Beatles, in January 1970.
Former Melody Maker editor Richard Williams describes the lyrics of "Try Some, Buy Some" as "a typically Harrisonian hymn to his Lord", in keeping with the religiosity of All Things Must Pass tracks such as "My Sweet Lord", "Awaiting on You All" and "Hear Me Lord". Harrison biographer Elliot Huntley writes of "Try Some, Buy Some" delivering Harrison's Hindu-aligned devotional message "in television evangelist terms".
The song begins with the lines "Way back in time / Someone said try some, I tried some / Now buy some, I bought some ..." before Harrison states that he opened his eyes "and I saw you". According to Christian theologian Dale Allison, the lyrics are a "reflection on some sort of conversion experience", in which Harrison provides "before and after" comparisons. Before his spiritual awakening, Harrison sings of possessing, seeing, feeling and knowing nothing until, Allison writes, "he called upon God's love, which then came into him."
As in his later compositions "Simply Shady" and "Tired of Midnight Blue", Harrison refers to the drug culture prevalent in the music industry, in the verse-two lines "I've seen grey sky, met big fry / Seen them die to get high ..." Author Joshua Greene writes of Harrison's concern during the 1970s for friends who "wasted their time chasing sex and drugs and money", while Allison suggests John Lennon and Eric Clapton as being among the people on whom Harrison "personally witnessed the toll [that] drugs and drink took".
In addition to the song echoing the "lost and then found" message of many Christian conversions, Allison writes, "Try Some, Buy Some" demonstrates Harrison's incarnation among the "twice-born" in Bhagavad Gita terminology. The same theme of salvation through reconciliation with his deity is present in Harrison's 1968 song "Long, Long, Long" and would continue to feature throughout his solo career, in compositions such as "That Which I Have Lost" and "Heading for the Light".
Planned Ronnie Spector solo album
Background
Following their successful partnership on All Things Must Pass in 1970, Harrison and co-producer Phil Spector turned their attention to resurrecting the career of Spector's wife Ronnie, formerly Veronica Bennett and lead singer of the Ronettes. Since the break-up of the Ronettes in 1967, her only musical release had been "You Came, You Saw, You Conquered", a 1969 single on A&M Records. Ronnie's signing to the Beatles' Apple record label was a condition of Spector's deal with the company, one that Harrison and Lennon, as avowed fans of the Ronettes, were happy to honour. According to former Beatles sound engineer Ken Scott, Spector first tried to record a song intended for her at Trident Studios in central London. This session took place in her absence, and before Harrison had begun the overdubbing phase of All Things Must Pass at Trident.
The plan was to produce a comeback album, with Harrison providing many of the songs, and issue it on Apple Records. In his book Phil Spector: Out of His Head, Williams quotes music publisher Paul Case as having said during this period: "Phil wants a hit record with Ronnie again more than anything in the world. I think he'd give up all his worldly possessions for that."
Speaking to Phil Symes of Disc and Music Echo in May 1971, Ronnie said she had hated being away from the music industry. The situation had been forced on her by Spector's semi-retirement in 1966, following the failure in America of Ike & Tina Turner's single "River Deep – Mountain High", a production he considered his masterpiece. Ronnie told Symes: "For four years Phil and I completely detached ourselves from everyone in the business and settled down in California. I was so bored and missed the stage so much I nearly had a nervous breakdown. If I hadn't had a kid I don't know what I would have done."
Main recording
Sessions for the proposed album took place in London in February 1971. Beatles historian Keith Badman gives dates of 2 and 3 February, while authors Chip Madinger and Mark Easter write that "according to reports", the sessions took place between 8 and 21 February. In addition to playing guitar, Harrison enlisted some of the musicians who had contributed to All Things Must Pass: Gary Wright, on keyboards; Derek and the Dominos drummer Jim Gordon; Voormann and Carl Radle (the latter another member of the Dominos), alternating on bass; and Badfinger's Pete Ham on second guitar and percussion. Another participant was Leon Russell, who had worked with Spector as a regular member of the Wrecking Crew during the mid 1960s. Badman writes that Lennon participated in the second session at EMI Studios (now Abbey Road Studios), on 3 February, allegedly playing piano. Ronnie was also at these sessions, having arrived in London the previous day with instructions to come to EMI and rehearse with Harrison, Russell and Ham.
Aside from "Try Some, Buy Some", the first songs selected were ones that Harrison had routined for All Things Must Pass but not used: "You" and "When Every Song Is Sung". The latter was originally titled "Whenever" and was intended for Shirley Bassey, and Harrison had written "You" as what he called "a Ronettes sort of song". The other tracks recorded were "Lovely La-De-Day" (or "Loverly Laddy Day"), written by Toni Wine, an associate of Spector; a Harrison–Spector collaboration titled "Tandoori Chicken"; and, according to Madinger and Easter, "I Love Him Like I Love My Very Life". In a 1987 interview with Musician magazine, Harrison spoke of Spector supplying songs for the project, one of which was "very good, in his pop vein".
"Tandoori Chicken" came about after Spector sent Beatles aide Mal Evans to get food during the session. Just over two minutes in length, the song is in the rockabilly style of Carl Perkins, with Spector playing blues piano and Harrison on overdubbed dobro. Harrison said the performance was recorded in a single take, with "a lot of improvised scat singing in the middle". Lennon was rumoured to have made an unspecified contribution on "Tandoori Chicken".
The planned comeback album ended due to the same erratic behaviour from Spector that had hindered work on All Things Must Pass; in both instances, Madinger and Easter describe it as a "health"-related issue. According to Harrison in I, Me, Mine: "we only did four or five tracks before Phil fell over ..." Of those songs, Spector chose "Try Some, Buy Some" to complete for release as a single by Ronnie, rather than the more obviously commercial "You".
Vocal and orchestral overdubs
In Ronnie's recollection, when they were recording at EMI, Spector dismissed her concerns that the song's key was not right for her and that she did not understand its meaning. In response to her comments, Harrison removed some of the lyrics where the melody was too high. According to Scott, speaking at a 2013 Red Bull Music Academy event, Ronnie overdubbed her lead vocal at Trident. Scott recalled that Spector repeatedly kept her waiting in the small vocal booth between takes while he regaled Harrison and Scott with personal anecdotes lasting up to 20 minutes before commenting on her performance. In Scott's description, Ronnie waited in silence at the microphone each time, too frightened to speak.
Williams highlights Spector's role in taking "a pleasant but essentially ordinary tune" and turning it into a "wholly magnificent" example of his Wall of Sound production style, on which "the essence is in the sound of the voice against the orchestra". The heavy orchestration – including string, brass and woodwind sections, mandolins and cymbals – together with the choral parts, were arranged by John Barham, Harrison's regular musical arranger during this period.
Single release
Apple Records issued "Try Some, Buy Some" backed by "Tandoori Chicken" on 16 April 1971 in Britain (as Apple 33). The US release took place on 19 April (as Apple 1832). Ronnie gave several interviews to the UK music press to promote the single. She told Symes that it took a long time to learn and understand the song, adding: "I love the record. It's completely different for me; it's more of a music thing than vocal."
Billboard magazine's reviewer described "Try Some, Buy Some" as a "powerful production ballad" that had "all the ingredients to break through big", while stating that Ringo Starr and Eric Clapton had contributed to the record. Cash Box said the "mere snatch of a song" was transformed into a "mighty four-minute track by virtue of an astounding production from Phil Spector and George Harrison", and that their achievement was then "sentimentally upstaged" by Ronnie reprising the wordless vocalisations of the Ronettes' "Be My Baby". Record World said that it is "lavishly produced" and described it as "hit stuff." In his contemporary review for The Times, Richard Williams deemed it "a monster piece of orchestral pop, the equal of almost anything Spector produced in his great period", but concluded: "sadly it will probably prove to be too 'weird' for today's market. Sometimes I'd swear that we're going backwards." Symes endorsed it in Disc and Music Echo as a "terrific first solo single".
"Try Some, Buy Some" failed to place on the UK Top 50. In the US, the song debuted on the Billboard Hot 100 on 8 May and reached number 77, remaining on the chart for four weeks. In Canada, it peaked at number 63 on the RPM Top 100. Williams writes of the reaction to "Try Some, Buy Some": "although people were awed by it, the radio would hardly touch it ..." In the UK, radio stations opted instead for "Tandoori Chicken", which author Bruce Spizer describes as having an "infectious party-style" quality.
As with "River Deep – Mountain High", the single's lack of success was one of the "crushing disappointments" of Spector's career, author Nicholas Schaffner wrote in 1977, the producer having "[outdone] himself to transform it into a masterpiece of his patented 'wall of sound' production". Spector had been sure that the song would become "a giant smash", according to Williams, who describes the outcome as a challenge to "Phil's eternal trust in his own judgment of excellence".
Among other Spector biographers, Mark Ribowsky writes: "[The song] was completely wrong for her – another of George's mystic chants, it forced Ronnie to try to appeal to the spirit instead of the flesh ..." In his book Tearing Down the Wall of Sound, Mick Brown also comments on the unsuitability of Harrison's "hymn about rejecting materialism and embracing Krishna" and describes Ronnie's comeback as being "over before it had begun". By contrast, Dave Thompson, citing Ronnie's later recollections, says that she was "stunned" by the single's failure since Spector's "golden touch" had returned and "Try Some, Buy Some" was "as exquisite as anything he had cut with John and George".
Aftermath and reissue
"Try Some, Buy Some" remained out of print for almost 40 years, until its reissue on the 2010 Apple compilation Come and Get It: The Best of Apple Records. In the ensuing years, Ronnie filed for divorce in 1973 and resumed her career that year by playing live dates with a new line-up of the Ronettes and recording for Buddah Records.
In 1990, Ronnie wrote an autobiography, titled Be My Baby: How I Survived Mascara, Miniskirts, and Madness, in which she offers a damning description of her only Apple single. She says that "Try Some, Buy Some" "stunk" and its meaning was lost on her: "Religion? Drugs? Sex? I was mystified. And the more George sang, the more mystified I got." In 1999, however, she named the song among her five favourite recordings from her career, along with "Say Goodbye to Hollywood", "Take Me Home Tonight", the title track of her 1999 EP She Talks to Rainbows, and "Be My Baby". She added: "the record was done to make me happy, and it did. It might not have been made for the right reasons, but it's a good record."
Reviewing the Come and Get It compilation for BBC Music, Mike Diver comments on the overindulgence behind many of the Beatles' Apple projects but views "Try Some, Buy Some" as being "worthy of praise". Hal Horowitz of American Songwriter calls it a "corker 45" that helps make up for the "clunkers" on the album.
Of the other tracks recorded in 1971, "Tandoori Chicken" remains a rarity, while Ronnie's versions of "When Every Song Is Sung" and "You" have never received a release. A bootleg compilation known as The Harri-Spector Show includes "Lovely La-De-Day", as well as two instrumental versions of "You". The bootleg also includes a drunken jam session in which Harrison and Spector play snippets of cover versions on acoustic guitars, with occasional vocals by Ronnie. One of the recordings of "You" was the basic track that Harrison used when he completed the song for his 1975 album Extra Texture.
George Harrison's version
Following the abandoned Ronnie Spector sessions in 1971, Harrison's relief effort for the refugees of the Bangladesh Liberation War kept his musical activities to a minimum for over a year. In an early 1972 interview, Harrison told music journalist Mike Hennessey that "Try Some, Buy Some" was one of his compositions he rated "really high" and that he might record it for his next album. He added that he could envisage including a soprano saxophone trill in the arrangement. After starting work on Living in the Material World in October that year, Harrison revisited Ronnie's recording of the song, rather than creating a new version, and replaced her vocal with his own. He later admitted that the key was higher than he would have preferred, as with "You".
Whereas the mix on the 1971 single had favoured instrumentation such as the mandolins, which Williams views as "the record's trademark", Harrison's treated the balance of backing instruments differently; Madinger and Easter describe the original version as having a "clearer" sound. Lennon later said that the descending melody played by the string section was an inspiration behind his 1974 song "#9 Dream". Before then, he had based the musical backing of his 1971 single "Happy Xmas (War Is Over)" (also co-produced by Spector) on that of "Try Some Buy Some", in particular, asking that his acoustic guitarists replicate the mandolin parts. Neither Russell nor Ham appeared in the musician credits for Harrison's version of "Try Some, Buy Some".
Release and reception
Apple released Living in the Material World in May 1973, with "Try Some, Buy Some" sequenced on side two of the original LP format. Reflecting the album content, Tom Wilkes's design for the record's face labels contrasted a devout spiritual existence with life in the material world, by featuring a painting of Krishna and his warrior prince Arjuna on side one and a picture of a Mercedes stretch limousine on the reverse.
The inclusion of "Try Some, Buy Some" on Harrison's otherwise self-produced 1973 album surprised some critics. Writing in 1981, NME critic Bob Woffinden commented: "This was considered an underhand trick in some quarters. However, since the single had clearly not received the attention it merited, it could be argued that George was simply husbanding his resources carefully." In an otherwise highly favourable review for Material World, Stephen Holden of Rolling Stone called the song "an overblown attempt to restate the [album's] spiritual message in material terms: 'Won't you try some / Baby won't you buy some.'" In Melody Maker, Michael Watts wrote that the song fitted the album-wide description of Harrison's personal journey to "musical iconographer" status from his Beatle past. Watts considered the arrangement the "most imaginative" on Material World and described the recording as "a fairground sound, using harpsichord and couched in waltz-time".
Retrospective assessments
In his Harrison obituary for Rock's Backpages, in 2001, Mat Snow cited the track as an example of the "most compelling" aspect of Harrison's music – namely, when his songs "[dwell] in those strange shadows of elusive regret and longing, even fear". Five years after this, in an album review for Mojo magazine, Snow described "Try Some, Buy Some" as "an anti-heroin song so seductively melodic it might induce the opposite effect". Elliot Huntley praises Harrison's "yearning" vocal as "one of the many highlights" of Living in the Material World. Huntley considers the "hymn-like song cycle" represented by this "superb" track and the album's final two songs, "The Day the World Gets 'Round" and "That Is All", the equal of anything on All Things Must Pass.
Simon Leng dismisses the Ronnie Spector album project as "self-indulgence" on the part of the two producers and says that the inclusion of "Try Some, Buy Some" on Material World "achieved nothing, except to prove that Spector's Wall of Sound was an anachronism" by 1973. Leng bemoans Harrison's "straining" vocal on the track and "banks of trilling 'Long and Winding Road' mandolins" that are at odds with the more subtle mood found elsewhere on the album. Ian Inglis similarly finds the song "out of place" and says that the combination of Spector's "unconvincing" production style and Harrison's singing make it "one of his least impressive performances". Inglis also writes: "It may be a love song or a hymn of salvation but, unlike songs where this duality strengthens their impact (such as 'Isn't It a Pity'), here it sits uneasily between the two."
Music critic Chris Ingham pairs "Try Some, Buy Some" with "Sue Me, Sue You Blues" as two "wry, reasonable digs at symptoms of what Harrison sees as symptoms of a diseased world". Reviewing the 2014 Apple Years Harrison reissues, for the Lexington Herald-Leader, Walter Tunis includes "Try Some, Buy Some" among the "stunners" on Material World and describes the song as an "achingly beautiful awakening anthem".
David Bowie version
According to Huntley, "Try Some, Buy Some" was "an all-time favourite" of David Bowie. In Bowie's opinion, the song was "totally neglected". He originally intended to record it for a planned follow-up to Pin Ups, his 1973 collection of cover versions. Instead, he covered it on his 2003 album Reality, co-produced by his longtime collaborator Tony Visconti. Promoting the release in an interview with Paul Du Noyer of The Word, Bowie said that whereas Harrison had "a belief in some kind of system", his own experience continued to be a "daunting spiritual search". Bowie added:
Now my connection to the song is about leaving a way of life behind me and finding something new. It’s overstated about most rock artists leaving drugs ... But when I first heard the song in '74 I was yet to go through my heavy drug period. And now it’s about the consolation of having kicked all that and turning your life around.
Bowie occasionally performed "Try Some, Buy Some" live on his 2003–04 Reality Tour. In a review for the 2007 limited-edition box set David Bowie Box, critic Thom Jurek described Reality as a "schizophrenic recording", on which the covers of "Try Some, Buy Some" and the Modern Lovers song "Pablo Picasso" "[distinguish] this set more than anything else". Dave Thompson includes Bowie's version in his selection of the twenty "great Spector covers'.
Personnel
Ronnie Spector – vocals (1971 single)
George Harrison – acoustic guitar; vocals (1973 release)
Leon Russell – piano
Gary Wright – electric piano
Pete Ham – acoustic guitar
Klaus Voormann – bass
Jim Gordon – drums, tambourine
John Barham – orchestral and choral arrangements
Phil Spector – Producer
Notes
References
Sources
Dale C. Allison Jr, The Love There That's Sleeping: The Art and Spirituality of George Harrison, Continuum (New York, NY, 2006; ).
Keith Badman, The Beatles Diary Volume 2: After the Break-Up 1970–2001, Omnibus Press (London, 2001; ).
Mick Brown, Tearing Down the Wall of Sound: The Rise and Fall of Phil Spector, Vintage (New York, NY, 2008; ).
Harry Castleman & Walter J. Podrazik, All Together Now: The First Complete Beatles Discography 1961–1975, Ballantine Books (New York, NY, 1976; ).
Alan Clayson, George Harrison, Sanctuary (London, 2003; ).
Peter Doggett, You Never Give Me Your Money: The Beatles After the Breakup, It Books (New York, NY, 2011; ).
Joshua M. Greene, Here Comes the Sun: The Spiritual and Musical Journey of George Harrison, John Wiley & Sons (Hoboken, NJ, 2006; ).
George Harrison, I Me Mine, Chronicle Books (San Francisco, CA, 2002; ).
Elliot J. Huntley, Mystical One: George Harrison – After the Break-up of the Beatles, Guernica Editions (Toronto, ON, 2006; ).
Chris Ingham, The Rough Guide to the Beatles, Rough Guides/Penguin (London, 2006; 2nd edn; ).
Ian Inglis, The Words and Music of George Harrison, Praeger (Santa Barbara, CA, 2010; ).
Simon Leng, While My Guitar Gently Weeps: The Music of George Harrison, Hal Leonard (Milwaukee, WI, 2006; ).
Ian MacDonald, Revolution in the Head: The Beatles' Records and the Sixties, Pimlico (London, 1998; ).
Chip Madinger & Mark Easter, Eight Arms to Hold You: The Solo Beatles Compendium, 44.1 Productions (Chesterfield, MO, 2000; ).
Dan Matovina, Without You: The Tragic Story of Badfinger, Frances Glover Books (2000; ).
Andy Peebles, The Lennon Tapes: John Lennon and Yoko Ono in Conversation with Andy Peebles, 6 December 1980, BBC Publications (London, 1981; ).
Mark Ribowsky, He's a Rebel: Phil Spector – Rock and Roll's Legendary Producer, Da Capo Press (Cambridge, MA, 2006; ).
Robert Rodriguez, Fab Four FAQ 2.0: The Beatles' Solo Years, 1970–1980, Backbeat Books (Milwaukee, WI, 2010; ).
Patricia Romanowski & Holly George-Warren (eds), The New Rolling Stone Encyclopedia of Rock & Roll, Fireside/Rolling Stone Press (New York, NY, 1995; ).
Nicholas Schaffner, The Beatles Forever, McGraw-Hill (New York, NY, 1978; ).
Ronnie Spector with Vince Waldron, Be My Baby: How I Survived Mascara, Miniskirts, and Madness – Or, My Life as a Fabulous Ronette, HarperPerennial (New York, NY, 1990; ).
Mark Spitz, Bowie: A Biography, Three Rivers Press (New York, NY, 2009; ).
Bruce Spizer, The Beatles Solo on Apple Records, 498 Productions (New Orleans, LA, 2005; ).
Dave Thompson, Wall of Pain: The Biography of Phil Spector, Sanctuary (London, 2004; ).
Gary Tillery, Working Class Mystic: A Spiritual Biography of George Harrison, Quest Books (Wheaton, IL, 2011; ).
Richard Williams, Phil Spector: Out of His Head, Omnibus Press (London, 2003; ).
Bob Woffinden, The Beatles Apart, Proteus (London, 1981; ).
External links
"From Beatle to Bowie, Bad Boy to Bad Girl – Won't You Try Some, Buy Some?" – 2019 Magnet magazine article on the Spector, Harrison and Bowie recordings
1971 songs
1971 singles
George Harrison songs
Songs written by George Harrison
Song recordings produced by George Harrison
Song recordings produced by Phil Spector
Music published by Harrisongs
Song recordings with Wall of Sound arrangements
David Bowie songs
Apple Records singles |
4371894 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A-Trak | A-Trak | Alain Macklovitch (born March 30, 1982), known by his stage name A-Trak, is a Canadian DJ, record producer, and record executive. He came to prominence in the late 2000s as an international club DJ and remix artist, known for incorporating highly technical turntable skills and scratching into his genre-spanning work. He is also president of the record label Fool's Gold, which was founded in 2007, and is credited for developing the careers of artists such as Kid Cudi, Danny Brown, and Flosstradamus. Among other collaborative projects, he is part of the DJ duo Duck Sauce with Armand Van Helden and was nominated for a Grammy in 2012 for their song "Barbra Streisand".
A-Trak's professional career has spanned over two decades and is built off his early success as a World Champion turntablist as well as Kanye West's original tour DJ. He was named one of the 50 Most Important People in EDM by Rolling Stone and has been called the Global Ambassador of DJ Culture, appearing on the covers of Billboard and Complex magazines.
Early life
Alain Macklovitch was born on March 30, 1982, to Lison, a professional translator, and Elliot Macklovitch, a professor of linguistics and machine language researcher, in Montreal, Quebec. He grew up in the Montreal borough of Outremont. His older brother, David "Dave 1" Macklovitch, is one-half of the electro-funk duo Chromeo.
Ethnically, he is Moroccan Jewish on his mother's side and Ashkenazi Jewish on his father's. While his family was 'casually Jewish,' Macklovitch had a bar mitzvah. When he was 18 years old, his mother took him and his brother back to Morocco to connect with their roots. In the early 2000s, he studied physics part-time at McGill University in Montreal.
A-Trak began his interest in music around the age of ten, listening to Beastie Boys, Cypress Hill, and other early 1990s hip hop artists on cassettes his brother would bring home. Wanting to find his own instrument to create music on, he experimented with scratching records on his parents' turntable and quickly became fixated on becoming a good turntablist, finding mentors in local Montreal DJs Kid Koala and DJ Devious.
Career
1997–2002: Champion scratch DJ
A-Trak rapidly rose to prominence when he won the DMC World DJ Championship in 1997 at the age of 15, making him the youngest and first Canadian winner of the competition. A-Trak, who had been involved in the Montreal turntable and hip hop scene for a year or so at this point, was hailed by the international community as a highly technical and accomplished turntablist during the height of the scratch DJing in the 1990s. Between 1997 and 2000, he competed as a DJ internationally. A-Trak was the first DJ to win all three major DJ competition titles (DMC, ITF and Vestax), as well as the first DJ to win five World Championships. While he retired from competition in 2000, he continued to showcase his turntable skills in important DJ forums. A-Trak played the first Coachella Music Festival in 1999.
Also in 1997, A-Trak and his brother Dave, along with creative director Willo Perron, founded the Montreal-based record label Audio Research. Audio Research released a series of turntable and hip hop records and compilations, mostly as 12" records. The label was officially dissolved in 2011. In the late 1990s A-Trak developed a notation system for scratching. He gave a lecture about it at the Skratchcon 2000 conference and published an article in Tablist Magazine.
Obscure Disorder and DJ crews
In 1995, A-Trak, with brother Dave 1 and hip hop artists Troy Dunnit, Eclipse, and Logik, formed the hip hop crew Obscure Disorder as an after-school project. The group was part of the Montreal underground hip hop scene in that late 1990s and began releasing their music through Audio Research Records in 1997. The group released a series of singles until they split up in 2002.
A-Trak was an honorary member of the pioneering, and now defunct, DJ crew Invisibl Skratch Piklz. He was also a member of the DJ crew The Allies alongside frequent collaborator DJ Craze, as well as DVLP, Infamous, Spictakular, and J-Smoke; they released an album D-Day in 2000. The crew performed as a competitive turntable team from around 1998 until 2000.
2002–2007: Touring DJ
After leaving the competitive DJ scene, A-Trak was interested in DJing for touring artists. A-Trak deejayed at clubs and festivals and released DJ mixes. In Spring 2006, A-Trak embarked on his first headline tour, titled the Sunglasses Is A Must Tour. It was also around this time that A-Trak began more seriously producing music.
Work with Kanye West
In 2004, Kanye West recruited A-Trak as his tour DJ. They first met earlier that year when A-Trak was playing a show at a tiny record shop in London where Kanye West came to support John Legend who was also playing in the same show. For the following three years, A-Trak worked closely with West, including at performances alongside the rapper at MTV specials, the Grammy Awards, multiple MTV Video Music Awards, and worldwide stadium shows; this included West's first two headlining tours which ran almost continuously from March 2004 until April 2006. A-Trak also recorded scratches on West's second and third studio albums Late Registration (2005) and Graduation (2007) and was an influence on the overall sound of the latter. A-Trak's most notable Kanye West credit is for the scratches on the 2005 single "Gold Digger." Near the end of 2007, A-Trak split with Kanye West to pursue the founding of his record label.
2007–2014: Rise to the mainstream
After leaving behind his more backstage role as a touring turntablist, A-Trak would become one of the poster boys of the electronic dance music boom of the late 2000s/early 2010s, both due to his original music and highly popular remixes, as well as his keen curation sense and prowess as a music executive of his successful label. Since 2010, he has been a fixture on the international EDM music festival circuit and has noted that he is one of the few popular DJs who uses turntables and scratching in his live sets.
In 2012, A-Trak was featured on the cover of Billboard Magazine alongside Diplo and Skrillex; during this period he also appeared on the covers of other magazines including URB (twice), BPM, and Status.
Original music and remixes
In 2007, A-Trak released popular remixes of Architecture In Helsinki's "Heart It Races," Scanners's "Bombs," and Digitalism's "Idealistic," among others. He sometimes releases his bootlegs and remixes under his alias Trizzy. He also released the original singles "Say Whoa" on the French label Kitsuné. In 2008, A-Trak collaborated with Nike to create the 'soundtrack' Running Man: Nike+ Original Run; as part of his collaboration with Nike he also released the singles "Mastered (Me & My Sneakers)" featuring Lupe Fiasco and "Running Man." That year, he also collaborated with Laidback Luke for the first time, releasing the single "Shake It Down" and co-produced the track" Like The Dancefloor" featuring Natalie Storm with DJ Zinc. One of A-Trak's prominent remixes, a mix of Boys Noize's "Oh!," was also released in 2008.
In 2009, A-Trak released his full-length album DJ mix Infinity + 1. The follow-up record as a solo artists was 2012's Tuna Melt EP, released by Fool's Gold. The video for "Tuna Melt" was nominated in the Best Cinematography category at the MTV Video Music Awards.
Notable releases by A-Trak between these two records include "Ray Ban Vision" featuring CyHi Da Prince (2010), "Warrior" with Mark Foster and Kimbra for Converse's 3 Artists, 1 Song project (2012), "Money Makin'" with Dillon Francis (2012), and remixes of Daft Punk's "Robot Rock" (2009), Sébastien Tellier's "Kilometer" (2009), Justice's "D.A.N.C.E." (2010), The Rapture's "How Deep Is Your Love" (2011), and Surkin's "Never Let Go" (2012). On June 8, 2010, A-Trak released his wildly successful remix of the Yeah Yeah Yeahs' track "Heads Will Roll", which was also featured on the Project X (2012 film) soundtrack.
In 2013, collaborated with GTA, Laidback Luke, and Oliver, and released popular remixes of Phoenix's "Trying to Be Cool" and Odd Look by Kavinsky. In February 2013, A-Trak released the video for his "Piss Test" remix off of the Fool's Gold album. The video features appearances by Jim Jones, Juicy J, A$AP Ferg, El-P, Flatbush Zombies, and Flosstradamus and was directed by Shomi Patwary.
In 2008, A-Trak played a series of high-profile music festivals including Coachella and Glastonbury. He had sets at Primavera Sound, Lollapalooza, and Parklife in Australia the following year. He also headlined his 10,000LB Hamburger Tour and a series of Bacardi B-Live sets. In February 2010, it was announced that A-Trak would perform live shows with Travis Barker, who had previously worked with their mutual friend, the late DJ AM. That year, he also played many EDM music festivals including Ultra, Electric Daisy Carnival, and Electric Zoo. The following decade, A-Trak continually at prominent music festivals and clubs. In 2011, he embarked on another headline tour, The Magic 8 Ball Tour and played again at Coachella. In 2012, he deejayed at Ultra and Electric Zoo and at similar festivals the following two year.
Fool's Gold founding
After moving to Williamsburg, he founded the label Fool's Gold Records with Nick Catchdubs and artist Dust La Rock in 2007. A-Trak and Catchdubs, both DJs, curated a multi-genre roster and have been integral in supporting the rise of many prominent hip hop and electronic artists. A-Trak has said he does not make a salary from the label and instead says its most important function for him is as a creative conduit. Since 2010, A-Trak has been performing at Fool's Gold's Day Off events, which occur about four times a year.
In 2011, A-Trak launched Fool's Gold Radio on the SiriusXM station Electric Area. The show continued for a few years. Also, in 2011, A-Trak opened a shop named Fool's Gold in Williamsburg. The shop closed in early 2017 and reopened on May 20 of the same year at a larger location nearby.
Duck Sauce
In 2009, A-Trak collaborated with Armand Van Helden to form a disco house production duo under the name Duck Sauce. They released the song "Anyway" in October on Ministry of Sound. Duck Sauce has achieved success worldwide including reaching the top chart position in twelve countries and attaining the #1 spot on the US Dance Billboard charts for their song "Barbra Streisand". "Big Bad Wolf" was released by Duck Sauce in 2011 on BBC Radio and samples wolves howling.
Following the announcement of a debut album, Duck Sauce released the singles "It's You" and "Radio Stereo". They released their first album, 'Quack', in 2014. Duck Sauce has been on the cover of DJ Mag twice, most recently in March 2020. In 2020, they also returned with two new singles, the first since 2014, "Smiley Face" and "Captain Duck".
2014–present: New collaborations and ventures
Since the EDM explosion brought A-Trak to the forefront of electronic music in the 2010s, he has continued to evolve and innovate as both a producer and music executive, securing his position "of elder statesman of the culture." From the early 2010s to presently, A-Trak has been a fixture on the international electronic music festival scene. In August 2019, A-Trak joined the board of managers at Beatsource as an advisor. The company is the largest record promotion pool in the U.S. and serves the open-format DJ community with curated music from worldwide labels. He is also an investor and minority partner in Montreal-based imprint SAINTWOODS, which operates venues, a marketing agency and a clothing line.
New collaborations
Coming off a series of releases with Duck Sauce, A-Trak continued to collaborate with other artists, especially artists on Fool's Gold. In January 2014, A-Trak teamed up with Cadillac in a campaign to introduce their new logo and the 2015 ATS Coup. On November 25, 2014, A-Trak released his Push EP, featuring his single "Push", (featuring Andrew Wyatt). The song was included in FIFA 15 and received a companion remix album featuring remixes from The Chainsmokers, Cazzette, René LaVice, DallasK, among others, in 2015.
A-Trak received much publicity and released a string of singles in 2015. These included his remix of Alesso's song "Cool" and his single "We All Fall Down" (featuring Jamie Lidell), as well as remixes by Volt & State, CID and Jarreau Vandal. A-Trak was featured on Zhu (musician)'s 2015 EP Genesis Series for his track "As Crazy as It Is" and was also featured on Disclosure's Magnets [The Remixes] EP, for his remix of "Magnets" (featuring Lorde). At the end of the year, A-Trak's "Place on Earth" single with ZooFunktion was released on Spinnin' Records.
A-Trak was featured on the 2016 Fool's Gold Records compilation album Fool's Gold Presents: Night Shift, for his song "Only One" with Ookay. On May 3, 2016, A-Trak premiered his single "Parallel Lines" (featuring Phantogram (band)) on Zane Lowe's Beats 1 Radio show. A-Trak embarked on an Australian Tour with fellow producer What So Not on June 30, 2016. With Kanye West and Lex Luger, he also co-produced the song "Champions."
In 2017, A-Trak released "Believe" featuring Quavo and Lil Yachty, collaborated with Baauer for two singles, "Fern Gully" and "Dumbo Drop," and produced the song "Kitana" for Princess Nokia. He was also featured on tracks by Calvin Harris and The Cool Kids. In 2018, the single "Ride for Me" was released as a collaboration by A-Trak, Falcons, Young Thug and 24hrs via A-Trak's record label Fool's Gold.
In 2019, A-Trak released two singles, the disco-house track "Work It Out" in April and the Loods collaboration "What Can I Do" later that year, as well as a handful of VIP reworks on his recent A-Trak Bootleg Series, an informal collection of free releases he's made for his DJ sets. It was rumored that the producer was to release larger collection of music later in 2019 or in 2020.
In 2020, he began formally collaborating with his brother Dave 1 under the moniker The Brother Macklovitch. They released two original singles that year, "Give Love to Get Some" and "I Can Call You."
Expansion of Fool's Gold
A-Trak's label began growing and his duties for it with it. Additionally, he began his own weekly two-hour radio show on Beats 1, listened to via Apple Music Connect, named Day Off Radio on July 4, 2015.
Goldie Awards
A-Trak helped to found a new DJ award in 2017 called the Goldie Awards. His hope is to create a new forum for DJ battles and contemporary scratch DJing. The annual awards competition takes place in New York every year and A-Trak is an integral part of the affair.
Sound and equipment
Over the years, A-Trak has endorsed several brands including Serato Scratch Live and Rane DJ equipment. He was the first artist to ever endorse Serato and influenced many other DJs to use the software.
He is known for merging the sounds of rap and electronic music through his remix work, his 2007 CD Dirty South Dance, his production for Kid Sister and Lupe Fiasco, and his remixes for electronic artists including MSTRKRFT and Boys Noize. However, some of his production displays a separation of his electronic and hip hop identities, with releases such as "Piss Test" featuring Juicy J and collaborations with Tommy Trash on "Tuna Melt". Another hip hop production, "Ray Ban Vision", was used in the 2012 movie Project X.
Personal life
After residing in Brooklyn for many years, Macklovitch moved to Los Angeles in late 2014.
Awards
A-Trak was the 1999 YTV Achievement Awards Special Performance winner. In 2011, he was nominated for a Grammy Award alongside co-producer Armand Van Helden for their production and mixing of the track "Barbra Streisand". In 2012, Duck Sauce's "Big Bad Wolf" was nominated for a VMA for Best Electronic Dance video. In 2013, A-Trak's video for "Tuna Melt" was nominated in the Best Cinematography category at the MTV Video Music Awards. In 2017, A-Trak was nominated for DJ of the Year at the Electronic Music Awards. In 2018, he won Regional Open Format Club DJ of The Year (Northeast) at the Global Spin Awards.
The Grammy Awards
DJ Magazine Top 100 DJs
DJ Competitions
1997 : Technics / DMC World Champion (15 years old – youngest ever)
1998 : Technics / DMC World 2nd Runner Up
1999 : ITF World Champion (Advancement category)
1999 : ITF Western Hemisphere Scratching Champion
1999 : Vestax World DJ Extravaganza Champion
2000 : ITF World Champion (Advancement category)
2000 : DMC Team Champion (with DJ Craze)
Discography
See also
Disco Mix Club
List of Quebec musicians
Duck Sauce
Fool's Gold Records
References
External links
1982 births
Living people
Businesspeople from Montreal
Canadian DJs
Canadian electronic musicians
Canadian hip hop record producers
Canadian house musicians
Canadian music industry executives
Canadian people of Moroccan-Jewish descent
Canadian people of Russian-Jewish descent
Electro house musicians
Canadian hip hop DJs
Jewish Canadian musicians
Musicians from Montreal
Electronic dance music DJs |
4372084 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patrimony%20of%20Saint%20Peter | Patrimony of Saint Peter | The Patrimony of Saint Peter () originally designated the landed possessions and revenues of various kinds that belonged to the apostolic Holy See (the Pope) i.e. the "Church of Saint Peter" in Rome, by virtue of the apostolic see status as founded by Saint Peter, according to Catholic tradition. Until the middle of the 8th century this consisted wholly of private property, later, its meaning corresponded to the territories under Papal sovereignty, more particularly to the Duchy of Rome, but from the early 13th century the term was applied to one of the four provinces of the States of the Church.
Patrimonial possessions of the Church of Rome
The Roman Emperor Constantine the Great in AD 321 declared the Christian Church qualified to hold and transmit property. This was the first legal basis for the possessions of the Church of Rome. Subsequently, they were augmented by donations. Constantine himself probably gave the Church the Lateran Palace in Rome. Constantine's gifts formed the historical nucleus for the network of myth that gave rise to the forged document known as the "Donation of Constantine".
Wealthy families of the Roman nobility followed Constantine's example. Their memory frequently survived, after the families themselves became extinct, in the names of the properties they once presented to the Roman See. During his reign, Pope Sylvester became the owner of properties in Italy, Sicily, Antiochia, Asia Minor, in the area of Hippo in North Africa, Armenia, and Mesopotamia. The donation of large estates ceased about 600 AD. The Byzantine emperors preferred the patriarchate of Constantinople, and were less liberal in their gifts. The wars with the Lombards likewise had an unfavourable effect, and few families were still in a position to bequeath large estates.
Apart from a number of scattered possessions in Dalmatia, and southern Gaul, the patrimonies were naturally for the most part situated in Italy and on the adjacent islands. Lands in Dalmatia and Illyricum were lost during the Avar and Slavic invasions. The most valuable and extensive possessions were those in Sicily, about Syracuse and Palermo. The revenues from these properties in Sicily and Lower Italy were estimated at three and one-half talents of gold in the eighth century, when Byzantine Emperor Leo the Isaurian confiscated them.
But the patrimonies in the vicinity of Rome (the successors to the classical latifundia in the Ager Romanus), which had begun to form in the 7th century, were the most numerous. Most of the remote patrimonies were lost in the eighth century, so the patrimonia around Rome began to be managed with especial care, headed up by deacons directly subordinate to the pope. Other Italian patrimonies included the Neapolitan with the Island of Capri, that of Gaeta, the Tuscan, the Patrimonium Tiburtinum in the vicinity of Tivoli, estates about Otranto, Osimo, Ancona, Umana, estates near Ravenna and Genoa and lastly properties in Istria, Sardinia and Corsica.
Revenues from the patrimonies were used for administration, to maintain and build churches, to equip convents, run the papal household and support the clergy, but also to a great extent to relieve public and private want. In administering the Patrimony of St. Peter, Pope Gregory (540-604) showed a considerable grasp of detail and administrative capacity. In anticipation of a threatened corn shortage, Gregory filled the granaries of Rome with the harvests of Egypt and Sicily. Numerous poorhouses, hospitals, orphanages and hospices for pilgrims were maintained out of the revenues of the patrimonies. Gregory also spent large sums ransoming captives from the Lombards, and commended one of the bishops for breaking up and selling church plate for that purpose.
Political role of the Papacy
The political aspect of the papacy became in time very prominent, as Rome, after the removal of the imperial residence to the East, was no longer the seat of any of the higher political officials. Since the partition of the empire, the Western emperors had preferred to make the better-protected Ravenna their residence. Here was the centre of Odoacer's power and of the Ostrogothic rule; here also, after the fall of the Ostrogoths, the 'viceroy' of the Byzantine emperor in Italy, the exarch, resided.
In Rome, the pope appeared with increasing frequency in political negotiations; Pope Leo I negotiated with Attila the Hun king and Geiserich the Vandal king, and Pope Gelasius I with Theodoric the Ostrogothic king. Cassiodorus, as praefectus praetorio under the Ostrogothic supremacy, entrusted the care of temporal affairs to Pope John II.
When Emperor Justinian issued the Pragmatic Sanction of 554, the pope and the Senate were entrusted with the control of weights and measures. Thenceforth for two centuries the popes were most loyal supporters of the Byzantine government against the encroachments of the Lombards, and were all the more indispensable, because after 603 the Senate disappeared. The popes were now the only court of judicature, a task more often entrusted to bishops as "Defensor populi".
When Emperor Justinian II in 692 attempted to have Pope Sergius I forcibly conveyed to Constantinople, (as had been Pope Martin I), to extract from him his assent to the canons of the Trullan Council, convoked by the emperor, the militia of Ravenna and of the Duchy of the Pentapolis lying immediately to the south assembled, marched into Rome, and compelled the departure of the emperor's plenipotentiary. In AD 715 the papal chair, which had last been occupied by seven eastern popes, was filled by a westerner, Pope Gregory II, who was destined to oppose Leo III the Isaurian in the Iconoclastic conflict.
Collapse of Byzantine power in central Italy
The strange shape which the States of the Church assumed from the beginning is explained by the fact that these were the districts in which the population of central Italy had defended itself to the very last against the Lombards.
In 751 Aistulf conquered Ravenna, and thereby decided the long delayed fate of the exarchate and the Pentapolis. And when Aistulf, who held Spoleto also under his immediate sway, directed all his might against the Duchy of Rome, it seemed that this too could no longer be held. Byzantium could send no troops, and Emperor Constantine V, in answer to the repeated requests for help of the new pope, Stephen II, could only offer him the advice to act in accordance with the ancient policy of Byzantium, to pit some other Germanic tribe against the Lombards. The Franks alone were powerful enough to compel the Lombards to maintain peace, and they alone stood in close relationship with the pope. Charles Martel had on a former occasion failed to respond to the entreaties of Gregory III, but meanwhile the relations between the Frankish rulers and the popes had become more intimate. Pope Zachary had only recently (751), at Pepin's accession to the Merovingian throne, spoken the word that removed all doubts in favour of the Carolingian mayor of the palace. It was not unreasonable, therefore, to expect an active show of gratitude in return, when Rome was most grievously pressed by Aistulf.
Accordingly, Stephen II secretly sent a letter to king Pepin by pilgrims, soliciting his aid against Aistulf and asking for a conference. Pepin in turn sent Abbot Droctegang of Jumièges to confer with the pope, and a little later dispatched Duke Autchar and Bishop Chrodegang of Metz to conduct the pope to the Frankish realm.
Never before had a pope crossed the Alps. While Pope Stephen was preparing for the journey, a messenger arrived from Constantinople, bringing to the pope the imperial mandate to treat once more with Aistulf for the purpose of persuading him to surrender his conquests. Stephen took with him the imperial messenger and several dignitaries of the Roman Church, as well, as members of the aristocracy belonging to the Roman militia, and proceeded first of all to Aistulf. In 753 the pope left Rome. Aistulf, when the pope met him at Pavia, refused to enter into negotiations or to hear of a restoration of his conquests. Only with difficulty did Stephen finally prevail upon the Lombard king not to hinder him in his journey to the Frankish kingdom.
Intervention of the Franks and Formation of the States of the Church
The pope thereupon crossed the Great St. Bernard Pass into the Frankish kingdom. Pepin received his guest at Ponthion, and promised to do all in his power to recover the Exarchate of Ravenna and the other districts seized by Aistulf. The pope then went to St-Denis, near Paris. He concluded a firm alliance of friendship with Pepin and made him the first Carolingian king, probably in January 754. He bound the Franks under the threat of excommunication, never thereafter to choose their kings from any other family than the Carolingian. At the same time he bestowed on Pepin and his sons the title of "Patrician of the Romans", the title the Exarchs, the highest Byzantine officials in Italy, had borne. In their stead now the King of the Franks was to be the protector of the Romans and their Bishop. However, to fulfill the wishes of the pope, Pepin had eventually to obtain the consent of his nobles to a campaign into Italy. This became imperative, when several embassies attempted by peaceful means to induce the Lombard king to give up his conquests but returned without accomplishing their mission.
At Quiercy on the Oise, the Frankish nobles finally gave their consent. Pepin promised in writing to give the Church certain territories, the first documentary record for the States of the Church. This document has not been preserved, but a number of citations during the decades immediately following indicate its contents, and it is likely that it was the source of the much interpolated Fragmentum Fantuzzianum, which probably dates from 778 to 80. In the original document of Quiercy Pepin promised to restore to the pope the lands of central Italy conquered by Aistulf, especially in the exarchate and the Roman Duchy, and of a number of patrimonies in the Lombard Kingdom and the Duchies of Spoleto and Benevento. These lands had yet to be conquered by Pepin, so his promise was on condition that he did.
In the summer of 754 Pepin and the pope began their march into Italy, and forced King Aistulf, who had shut himself up in his capital, to sue for peace. The Lombard promised to give up the cities of the exarchate and of the Pentapolis, which had been last conquered, to make no further attacks upon or to evacuate the Duchy of Rome and the northwest Italian districts of Venetia and Istria, and also acknowledged the sovereignty of the Franks. For the cities in the exarchate and in the Pentapolis, which Aistulf promised to return, Pepin executed a separate deed for the pope. This is the first "Donation of 754".
But Pepin had hardly recrossed the Alps on his way home, when Aistulf again advanced against Rome, and lay siege. The pope summoned Pepin to fulfill anew his pledge of loyalty. In 756 Pepin set out with an army against Aistulf and again hemmed him in at Pavia. Aistulf was again compelled to promise to the pope the cities granted him after the first war and, in addition, Commachio at the mouth of the Po. But this time a promise was not sufficient. Pepin's messengers visited the various cities of the exarchate and of the Pentapolis, demanded and received the keys to them, and brought the highest magistrates and most distinguished magnates of these cities to Rome. Pepin executed a new deed of gift for the cities thus surrendered to the pope, and laid it with the keys of the cities on the grave of St. Peter in the Second Donation of 756.
The Byzantine Government naturally did not approve of this result of Frankish intervention. It had hoped to regain possession of the districts that had been wrested from it by the Lombards. But Pepin took up arms, not for the Byzantine emperor, but for the sake of the pope. Kings at that time founded monasteries and endowed them with landed properties, so that prayers might be offered for them there; Pepin wished to provide the pope with temporal territories, so he might be certain of the prayers of the pope. Therefore, when the Byzantine ambassadors came to him before the second expedition of 756 and asked him to return to the emperor the cities taken from the Lombards, he said that to Rome alone would he restore the cities. Thus did Pepin found the States of the Church.
The States of the Church were in a certain sense the only remnant of the Roman Empire in the West which escaped foreign conquerors. Gratefully the Roman population acknowledged that they had escaped subjection to the Lombards. Also, temporal sovereignty guaranteed to the pope some level of independence. Under Pepin's son, Charlemagne, relations with the Lombards became strained again. Adrian I complained that the Lombard king Desiderius had invaded the territories of the States of the Church, and reminded Charlemagne of the promise made at Quiercy. As Desiderius also championed the claims of Charlemagne's nephews, he endangered the unity of the Frankish kingdom, and Charlemagne's own interests therefore bade him to oppose Desiderius. In the autumn of 773 Charlemagne entered Italy and besieged Desiderius at Pavia. While the siege was in progress, Charlemagne went to Rome at Easter, 774, and at the request of the pope renewed the promises made at Quiercy.
Soon after this Desiderius was forced to capitulate, and Charlemagne had himself proclaimed King of the Lombards in his place. Charlemagne's attitude toward the States of the Church now underwent a change. With the title of King of the Lombards he also assumed the title as "Patricius Romanorum", which his father had never used, and read into this title rights which under Pepin had never been associated with it. Moreover, differences of opinion arose between Adrian and Charlemagne concerning the obligations which had been assumed by Pepin and Charlemagne in the document of Quiercy. Adrian construed it to mean that Charlemagne should take an elastic concept of the "res publica Romana" to the extent of giving up not only the conquests of Aistulf in the exarchate and in the Pentapolis, but also earlier conquests of the Lombards in Central Italy, Spoleto and Benevento.
But Charles would not listen to any such interpretation of the document. As both parties were anxious to come to an understanding, an agreement was reached in 781. Charlemagne acknowledged the sovereignty of Adrian in the Duchy of Rome and in the States of the Church founded by Pepin's donations of 754–756. He now executed a new document in which were enumerated all the districts in which the pope was recognized as ruler. The Duchy of Rome (which had not been mentioned in the earlier documents) heads the list, followed by the exarchate and the Pentapolis, augmented by the cities which Desiderius had agreed to surrender at the beginning of his reign (Imola, Bologna, Faenza, Ferrara, Ancona, Osimo and Umana); next the patrimonies were specified in various groups: in the Sabine, in the Spoletan and Beneventan districts, in Calabria, in Tuscany and in Corsica. Charlemagne, however, in his quality of "Patricius", wanted to be considered as the highest court of appeal in criminal cases in the States of the Church. He promised on the other hand to protect freedom of choice in the election of the pope, and renewed the alliance of friendship that had been previously made between Pepin and Stephen II.
The agreement between Charlemagne and Adrian remained undisturbed. In 787 Charlemagne further enlarged the States of the Church by new donations: Capua and a few other frontier cities of the Duchy of Benevento, besides several cities in Lombardy, Tuscany, Populonia, Roselle, Sovana, Toscanella, Viterbo, Bagnorea, Orvieto, Ferento, Orchia, Marta and lastly Città di Castello appear to have been added at that time. This is based upon deductions, since no document survives either from the time of Charlemagne or from that of Pepin. Adrian proved himself no mean politician, and is ranked with Stephen II as the second founder of the States of the Church. His agreement with Charlemagne remained authoritative for the relations of the later popes with the Carolingians and the German emperors. These relations were given a brilliant outward expression by Charlemagne's coronation as emperor in 800.
In the later 9th century, such as during the papacy of Pope John VIII, the papal patrimony was severely threatened.
Pontifical province
From the early 13th century, the Patrimony of Saint Peter was one of the four provinces established by Pope Innocent III as a division of the Ecclesiastical States. It included the part of ancient Tuscia subject to the Apostolic See, i.e. the current province of Viterbo and the district of Civitavecchia.
It was governed by a papal appointed official, the Rector. Subsequently, the presence of a Rector General, coordinator of the activities of the provincial rectors and direct referent of the pontiff is also documented.
The province of Patrimonio was confirmed in the Constitutiones Aegidianae of 1357, issued by Cardinal Egidio Albornoz.
The seat cities of the rectors were Montefiascone and Viterbo.
List of papal patrimonia
Each patrimonium was not necessarily a single unit, but could consist of other lands not joined to the central nucleus ().
Patrimonium Tusciae (bounded by the Via Aurelia and the Via Flaminia, in the northern quadrant of the Agro Romano);
Patrimonium Tuscie Suburbanum (around Basilica di San Pietro in Vaticano);
Patrimonium Sabinense or Carseolanum (on the Via Salaria, ending at Farfa Abbey);
Patrimonium Tiburtinum (bounded by the Via Nomentana and the Via Tiburtina);
Patrimonium Labicanum (on the Via Labicana, ending at the valley of Aniene);
Patrimonium Appiae (on the Via Appia, ending at Albano);
Patrimonium Appiae Suburbanum (around the Basilica di San Giovanni in Laterano);
Patrimonium Caietanum (around Gaeta);
Patrimonium Traiectum (on the River Garigliano).
Notes
Sources
AA.VV., Atlante storico-politico del Lazio, Regione Lazio, Editori Laterza, Bari 1996
Economic history of the Holy See
Catholicism in the Middle Ages
History of Lazio
Papal States
Medieval economics |
4372285 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daisy%20Johnson | Daisy Johnson | Daisy Johnson, also known as Quake, is a fictional superhero appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics. Created by writer Brian Michael Bendis and artist Gabriele Dell'Otto, the character first appeared in Secret War #2 (July 2004). The daughter of the supervillain Mister Hyde, she is a secret agent of the intelligence organization S.H.I.E.L.D. with the power to manipulate vibrations.
Daisy Johnson has been described as one of Marvel's most notable and powerful female heroes.
Daisy Johnson appeared as a main character in Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D., the first television series in the Marvel Cinematic Universe. She was played by actress Chloe Bennet. She was reimagined as an Inhuman originally known as Skye. Aspects of this interpretation were later integrated into the comics.
Publication history
Daisy Johnson was created by writer Brian Michael Bendis and artist Gabriele Dell'Otto, and first appeared in Secret War #2 (July 2004), as a member of the international espionage agency S.H.I.E.L.D. During the 2008 "Secret Invasion" storyline, she joins Nick Fury's Secret Warriors under the codename Quake.
Her look was modeled after actress Angelina Jolie in the film Hackers.
Daisy Johnson appeared as a supporting character in the Avengers (vol. 4) series, from issue #19 (January 2012) through its final issue #34 (January 2013).
Marvel Comics announced at San Diego Comic-Con 2014 a new S.H.I.E.L.D. comic integrating the characters and elements of Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. written by Mark Waid. Daisy Johnson joins them in issue #7, which mentions that she is Inhuman for the first time. The comic was relaunched January 13, 2016 as Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D., written by Marc Guggenheim. The revamped series includes the main characters of the television show and used the cast's likenesses.
In 2017, she led a new team of Inhumans in a new volume of Secret Warriors. The team consists of Daisy, Kamala Khan, Luna Lafayette, Devil Dinosaur, Inferno, and Karnak. It was written by Matthew Rosenberg and was drawn by Javier Garron. It was cancelled after twelve issues.
Fictional character biography
Daisy Johnson is a superhuman with seismic (earthquake-producing) powers and is the illegitimate daughter of Calvin Zabo, the supervillain known as Mister Hyde. Taken in by S.H.I.E.L.D., she is under the careful eye of its longtime executive director, Nick Fury, even after the latter's defection from the agency during the events of the Secret War series. Daisy herself is a participant in this incident, where Fury uses trickery, lies and outright brainwashing in order to secure a superhero team to overthrow the legitimate government of Latveria. This later results in a terror attack on American soil; Daisy destroys the cyborg leader. She possesses a "Level 10" security clearance, the only known agent aside from Fury and Black Widow (Natasha Romanoff) to do so.
In her most visible action, Johnson helps to defeat the powerful mutant leader Magneto by inducing a vibration in his brain that makes him lose consciousness. This is during a three-way confrontation with the X-Men, Avengers and the "Collective"—a powered being carrying thousands of mutant energy signatures. Daisy states in this appearance that if she were to join the superhero team the Avengers, she would adopt the moniker "Quake".
The Avengers splinter due to the events of the 2006–2007 "Civil War" storyline and she is later seen reunited with Nick Fury, in disguise, who gives her new orders to recruit the descendants of various villains and heroes in order to assist him with the threat against the Skrulls in their Secret Invasion. Taking on the name Quake, she and her teammates attack the Skrulls during their invasion of Manhattan. The team becomes a part of Fury's Secret Warriors, with Daisy acting as field leader of the Caterpillars.
While investigating Norman Osborn's escape from the Raft, Johnson is drafted by Captain America into the Avengers under her superhero name Quake. She is tasked with tracking down how Osborn appeared via hologram in the middle of a supposedly secure press conference. After finding out that the Avengers had been captured by Hydra, she proceeds to rescue them single-handedly. Daisy takes over as director of S.H.I.E.L.D. when Nick Fury fully retires and his son joins as an agent. Maria Hill is the acting director of S.H.I.E.L.D., while Johnson is still considered Director of S.H.I.E.L.D. Johnson is indefinitely suspended after launching an unsanctioned operation to assassinate Andrew Forson, the Scientist Supreme, leader of the supposedly legitimate A.I.M. Island. Hill is promoted to Director in her place.
In the S.H.I.E.L.D. series, Daisy later reveals to her father that she has uncovered the origin of her abilities: she is an Inhuman whose genetic abilities were activated by her father's unstable DNA, rather than through Terrigenesis. The nickname "Skye", Daisy's original name from the show, is also introduced to comics as Coulson's affectionate name for her, and she is redesigned with the likeness of Chloe Bennet.
During the "Iron Man 2020" event, Quake appears as a member of Force Works. Their mission takes them to the island of Lingares where they deal with some Deathloks and Ultimo.
Powers and abilities
Due to her Inhuman metabolism, Daisy Johnson possesses physical skills greater than the maximum potential attainable by humans, including superhuman strength, speed, stamina, durability, agility, and reflexes.
Daisy Johnson generates powerful vibrations that can produce effects resembling those of earthquakes. She is immune to any harmful effects of the vibrations. She also has or has been given a form of psychic shielding.
She is also a superb hand-to-hand combatant, a skilled all-around athlete, and an excellent marksman. She was a leading espionage agent, adept at undercover assignments.
Her training under Fury enables her to target her seismic waves with pinpoint accuracy, causing targeted objects to vibrate themselves apart, from the inside out. This is shown in her being able to prevent the detonation of an antimatter bomb implanted in the body of Lucia von Bardas by destroying its power supply, and exploding the heart of Wolverine while in his chest, to halt an enraged attack on S.H.I.E.L.D. Director Nick Fury.
Reception
Critical reception
Jonathan H. Kantor of CBR.com referred to Quake as one of the "best S.H.I.E.L.D. agents of all time", writing, "Daisy Johnson, aka Quake, is a relatively new member of the agency, but that doesn't mean she hasn't made an impact in her short time. She first appeared in 2004's Secret War #2 as an agent working under Nick Fury. She started out as an excellent marksman, talented fighter, and she was remarkably good at espionage before becoming an Inhuman. Her powers were activated thanks to her father's unstable DNA instead of the typical Terrigen Mist. She gained the ability to control vibrations, which could come in the form of small shakeups to massive earthquake-like tremors. Add those powers to her already impressive array of skills and her value to the organization is clear." Mark Ginocchio of ComicBook.com stated, "Daisy Johnson might be the most important S.H.I.E.L.D. agent to be introduced by Marvel over the past decade. Also known as Quake, the character first appeared in 2004's Secret War series and has quickly ascended the ranks in terms of her role within the Marvel Universe. She was one of the main characters in the Secret Warriors series, acting as the leader of the Caterpillar team. She is later named director of S.H.I.E.L.D. when Nick Fury retires. Daisy is also one of only three characters in the Marvel U to possess the vaunted "Level 10" security clearance within S.H.I.E.L.D. In addition to her lofty S.H.I.E.L.D. status, Johnson possess some incredible powers, including the ability to generate vibrations that mimic that of an earthquake. She's also an excellent marksman and fighter. Given how critical the character has been to a number of Marvel events in recent years, it's a bit surprising she hasn't factored into its cinematic or television universe somehow."
Accolades
In 2013, Tor.com included Quake in their "Ten Characters We'd Like To See on Marvel's Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D." list.
In 2014, ComicBook.com ranked Quake 2nd in their "10 More Characters We'd Like to See in Marvel's Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. Season Two" list.
In 2015, Gizmodo ranked Quake 48th in their "Every Member Of The Avengers" list.
In 2016, Screen Rant ranked Quake 6th in their "10 Most Powerful Inhumans In The Marvel Universe" list.
In 2016, ComicBook.com included Quake in their "10 Marvel Women Who Should Come to Disney Infinity 3.0" list.
In 2017, BuzzFeed ranked Quake 20th in their "27 Kick-Ass Female Superheroes You'll Love If Wonder Woman Is Your Favorite" list.
In 2017, The Daily Dot ranked Quake 23rd in their "The top 33 female superheroes of all time" list.
In 2017, Screen Rant ranked Quake 6th in their "Marvel: 17 Most Powerful Agents Of SHIELD" list.
In 2018, CBR.com ranked Quake 3rd in their "The 20 Most Powerful Inhumans" list and "20 Daughters Of Supervillains Who Are Deadlier Than Their Parents" list.
In 2019, CBR.com ranked Daisy 9th in their "The 10 Best S.H.I.E.L.D. Agents Of All Time" list.
In 2020, Scary Mommy included Quake in their "These 195+ Marvel Female Characters Are Truly Heroic" list.
In 2020, CBR.com ranked Quake 10th in their "A-Force: 10 Heroines That Should Join The Marvel Team" list.
In 2020, TheWrap included Quake in their "24 Badass Female Superheroes" list.
In 2021, Screen Rant ranked Quake 5th in their "10 Most Powerful Members Of Marvel's Inhumans" list.
In 2021, CBR.com ranked Quake 2nd in their "Marvel: 10 Best Agents Of S.H.I.E.L.D" list.
In 2022, The A.V. Club ranked Quake 51st in their "The 100 best Marvel characters" list.
Literary reception
Volumes
Quake: S.H.I.E.L.D. 50th Anniversary
According to Diamond Comic Distributors, Quake: S.H.I.E.L.D. 50th Anniversary #1 was the 83rd best selling comic book in September 2015.
Doug Zawisza of CBR.com called Quake: S.H.I.E.L.D. 50th Anniversary #1 "lively," asserting, "Daniel Warren Johnson's art has a gritty, indie comic vibe to it. The sketchier lines and drawn-in sounds effects like "THROW" and "POINT" boost the signal, infusing the panels with extra energy and helping underscore the storytelling in an undeniable manner. Nowhere does it all come together more than in the center spread as the Avengers wade into a sprawling slobberknocker of a battle against an A.I.M. cell. Jason Keith's unhindered colors fill the pages with reds and greens, yellows and blues and toner-draining blends of various other colors. A brilliant cerulean blue pervades the story, giving the sense of urgency through its vibrance, but providing serenity in the cool temperature it packs. The visuals are rounded out with letters from Cory Petit, who adds the occasional sound effect but truly masters the tone and timing within the word balloons, packing enough character into the dialogue to give the cross-section of readers and viewers a sense this story was written for or inspired by Bennet's portrayal. Quake: S.H.I.E.L.D. 50th Anniversary #1 could have been an inventory story or a tryout tale; instead, it's a fun character study that digs into the rationale of adding Daisy "Quake" Johnson to the Avengers. This isn't the most definitive or memorable Quake story ever, but Rosenberg, Kindlon, Johnson, Keith and Petit make it a fun adventure with just enough heart." Tony Guerrero of ComicVine gave Quake: S.H.I.E.L.D. 50th Anniversary #1 a grade of 4 out of 5 stars, writing, "As Daisy isn't quite sure why she was put on this mission and hasn't been given full intel, we get to see what her take and reaction is with the almost legendary characters. This doesn't feel like a typical Avengers story and you can feel the tension between some characters such as how Tony Stark deals with having her on the mission. Adding to the feeling is Daniel Warren Johnson's art. There's a great mix in perspective that almost makes it feel like you're in the middle of the action in the story. Jason Keith's colors also complements the art with making the moody scenes even moodier. The action scenes have a great variety to them and, again, doesn't feel like a regular Avengers story. This may be a story set in the recent past but there's a fresh take to it. The S.H.I.E.L.D. 50th Anniversary one-shots have been a welcomed treat. With the focus on different characters, it'd be great if this was a sign of things to come. With renewed interest in the Daisy Johnson character due to Marvel's Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D., it'd be a great time to see more solo action stories with the character. Matthew Rosenberg and Patrick Kindlon do a very nice job handling the dialogue for a character that doesn't normally associate with the Avengers. We've been seeing some minor tweaks and changes happening with characters associated with S.H.I.E.L.D. due to the television show but aside from that, we get a really good self-contained story."
Other versions
Age of Ultron
During the 2013 "Age of Ultron" storyline (which takes place in an alternate reality where Ultron nearly annihilated the human race), Daisy Johnson is among the superheroes in the resistance against Ultron.
Ultimate Marvel
Quake appears alongside Tigra, Wonder Man, and the Vision in the Ultimate line of comics. In this iteration, Daisy Johnson is a S.H.I.E.L.D. cadet who is discharged from the organization after fighting back against an attempted sexual assault from a superior. She is then approached by Nick Fury, who offers her superpowers in exchange for joining his West Coast version of the Ultimates. The project is shut down and later reactivated by a corrupt California governor who sends them after the Ultimates. Quake decides to surrender for the greater good and tells President Steve Rogers the whole plan. He manages to put an end to it along with the rest of the Ultimates.
In other media
Television
Daisy Johnson appears in The Avengers: Earth's Mightiest Heroes, voiced by Lacey Chabert. This version is a member of Nick Fury's Secret Warriors tasked with gathering intel on an impending Skrull invasion.
Daisy Johnson appears in the Marvel Cinematic Universe (MCU) series Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D., portrayed by Chloe Bennet. Introduced in the first season, this version is a computer hacker initially named Skye, who is recruited into S.H.I.E.L.D. by Phil Coulson. Having been shuffled around orphanages and foster homes since infancy, she works to discover her true identity. She later discovers her birth name is Daisy Johnson in the second season, in which she also gains her seismic powers and learns that she is an Inhuman. By the end of the third season, she adopts the "Quake" moniker. On making Daisy an Inhuman, executive producer Jed Whedon said, "We've created a different origin for her... We merged those two ideas together also because there are such rabid fans out there that if we stick to original story points from the comics, they will smell story points from miles away. Those two factors led us to coming up with a different notion of how she got her powers."
Film
Daisy Johnson / Quake appears in Marvel Rising: Secret Warriors, voiced by Chloe Bennet. This version is a S.H.I.E.L.D. agent, founding member of the titular Secret Warriors, and an Inhuman who claims her powers come from her gauntlets.
Video games
Daisy Johnson / Quake appears as a team-up character in Marvel Heroes, with the MCU incarnation also appearing as an alternate costume.
Daisy Johnson / Quake appears as a playable character in Marvel: Avengers Alliance.
Daisy Johnson / Quake appears as a playable character in Marvel: Future Fight, with the MCU incarnation also appearing as an alternate costume.
Daisy Johnson / Quake appears as a playable character in Marvel Puzzle Quest.
Daisy Johnson / Quake appears as a playable DLC character in Lego Marvel's Avengers.
Daisy Johnson / Quake appears as a playable character in Marvel Contest of Champions.
Daisy Johnson / Quake appears in Lego Marvel Super Heroes 2.
Daisy Johnson / Quake appears as a playable character in Marvel Strike Force.
Web series
Daisy Johnson / Quake appears in Marvel Rising: Initiation, voiced again by Chloe Bennet.
Daisy Johnson / Quake appears in Marvel Rising: Ultimate Comics, voiced again by Chloe Bennet.
See also
List of S.H.I.E.L.D. members
References
External links
Daisy Johnson at Marvel.com
Avengers (comics) characters
Characters created by Brian Michael Bendis
Comics characters introduced in 2004
Female soldier and warrior characters in comics
Fictional American secret agents
Fictional characters from Louisiana
Fictional characters who can manipulate sound
Fictional characters with earth or stone abilities
Fictional female martial artists
Fictional female secret agents and spies
Fictional hackers
Fictional special forces personnel
Fictional spymasters
Inhumans
Marvel Comics martial artists
Marvel Comics mutates
Marvel Comics American superheroes
Marvel Comics television characters
S.H.I.E.L.D. agents
Marvel Comics female superheroes |
4372722 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20the%20People%27s%20Republic%20of%20China | History of the People's Republic of China | The history of the People's Republic of China details the history of mainland China since 1 October 1949, when CCP chairman Mao Zedong proclaimed the People's Republic of China (PRC) from atop Tiananmen, after a near complete victory (1949) by the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) in the Chinese Civil War. The PRC is the most recent political entity to govern mainland China, preceded by the Republic of China (ROC; 1912–1949) and thousands of years of monarchical dynasties. The paramount leaders have been Mao Zedong (1949-1976); Hua Guofeng (1976-1978); Deng Xiaoping (1978-1989); Jiang Zemin (1989-2002); Hu Jintao (2002-2012); and Xi Jinping (2012 to present).
The origins of the People's Republic can be traced to the Chinese Soviet Republic that was proclaimed in 1931 in Ruijin (Jui-chin), Jiangxi (Kiangsi), with the backing of the All-Union Communist Party in the Soviet Union in the midst of the Chinese Civil War against the Nationalist government only to dissolve in 1937.
Under Mao's rule, China went through a socialist transformation from a traditional peasant society, leaning towards heavy industries under planned economy, while campaigns such as the Great Leap Forward and the Cultural Revolution wreaked havoc on the entire country. Since late 1978, the economic reforms led by Deng Xiaoping had made China the world's second-largest and one of the fastest growing economies, with a specialty in high productivity factories and leadership in some areas of high technology. Globally, after receiving support from the USSR in the 1950s, China became bitter enemy of USSR on a worldwide basis until Mikhail Gorbachev's visit to China in May 1989. In the 21st century, the new wealth and technology led to a contest for primacy in Asian affairs versus India, Japan and the United States, and since 2017 a growing trade war with the United States.
Mao era (1949–1976)
Socialist transformation
Following the Chinese Civil War and victory of Mao Zedong's Communist forces over the Kuomintang forces of Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek, who fled to Taiwan, Mao Zedong proclaimed the founding of the People's Republic of China (PRC) on 1 October 1949. Mao laid heavy theoretical emphasis on command economy and class struggle.
After the Korean War ended in 1953, Mao Zedong launched campaigns to persecute former landlords and merchants, starting the industrialisation program at the same time. Mao's first goal was a total overhaul of the land ownership system, and extensive land reforms, including the execution of more powerful landlords. China's old system of gentry landlord ownership of farmland and tenant peasants was replaced with a distribution system in favor of poor/landless peasants which significantly reduced economic inequality. Over a million landlords were executed in the Chinese land reform. In Zhangzhuangcun, in the more thoroughly reformed north of the country, most "landlords" and "rich peasants" had lost all their land and often their lives or had fled. The campaign resulted in hundreds of millions of peasants receiving a plot of land for the first time. As a result, "middling peasants", who now accounted for 90% of the village population, owned 91% of the land. Drug trafficking and opium use were largely wiped out. Foreign investments were seized and outsiders were expelled.
At the same time, political movements and class struggles were launched nationwide. The Anti-Rightist Campaign of 1957–1958 significantly damaged the democracy in China, during which at least 550,000 people were persecuted, most of whom were intellectuals and political dissidents. After the campaign, China entered the de facto one-party state of the Chinese Communist Party. Other major political movements in 1950s included the Suppression of Counter-revolutionaries, the Three-anti and Five-anti Campaigns and the Sufan Movement, each of which resulted in a large number of deaths nationwide.
Great Leap Forward and aftermath
Mao Zedong believed that socialism would eventually triumph over all other ideologies, and following the First Five-Year Plan based on a Soviet-style centrally controlled economy, Mao took on the ambitious project of the Great Leap Forward in 1958, beginning an unprecedented process of collectivisation in rural areas (the People's commune). Mao urged the use of communally organised iron smelters to increase steel production, pulling workers off of agricultural labor to the point that large amounts of crops rotted unharvested. Mao decided to continue to advocate these smelters despite a visit to a factory steel mill which proved to him that high quality steel could only be produced in a factory. He thought that ending the program would dampen peasant enthusiasm for his political mobilisation, the Great Leap Forward.
The implementation of Maoism thought in China may have been responsible for the deadliest famine in human history, in which 15-55 million people died due to starvation and epidemics. By the end of 1961, the birth rate was nearly cut in half because of malnutrition. In 1958, the Xunhua uprising broke out and in 1959, a major uprising erupted in Tibet, resulting in the deaths of tens of thousands of Tibetans, and the Dalai Lama went into exile afterwards. Mao's failure with the Leap reduced his power in government, whose administrative duties fell to President Liu Shaoqi and Deng Xiaoping, especially after the Seven Thousand Cadres Conference in early 1962. The power struggle between Mao Zedong and Liu Shaoqi together with Deng Xiaoping began after 1962. The Socialist Education Movement was launched by Mao from 1963 to 1965, as a result.
Much more successful was the "Two Bombs, One Satellite" program, launched in 1958, with the help at first of Moscow. It used leading scientists who returned to mainland China from abroad, including Qian Xuesen, Deng Jiaxian and Qian Sanqiang. China's first atomic bomb, nuclear missile, hydrogen bomb and artificial satellite were all successfully developed by 1970. However, the program had been seriously affected by the Great Leap Forward and the Cultural Revolution.
Third Front
After the failure of the Great Leap Forward, China's leadership slowed the pace of industrialization. It invested more on in China's coastal regions and focused on the production of consumer goods. After an April 1964 General Staff report concluded that the concentration of China's industry in its major coastal cities made it vulnerable to attack by foreign powers, Mao argued for the development of basic industry and national defense industry in protected locations in China's interior. This resulted in the building of the Third Front, which involved massive projects including railroad infrastructure, aerospace industry including satellite launch facilities, and steel production industry including Panzhihua Iron and Steel.
Development of the Third Front slowed in 1966 during the Cultural Revolution, but accelerated again after the Sino-Soviet border conflict at Zhenbao Island, which increased the perceived risk of Soviet Invasion. Third Front construction again decreased after United States President Richard Nixon's 1972 visit to China and the resulting rapprochement between the United States and China. When Reform and Opening up began after Mao's death, China began to gradually wind down Third Front projects. The Third Front distributed physical and human capital around the country, ultimately decreased regional disparities and created favorable conditions for later market development.
Cultural Revolution
In 1963, Mao Zedong launched the Socialist Education Movement, which is regarded as the precursor of the Cultural Revolution. To impose socialist orthodoxy and rid China of "old elements", and at the same time serving certain political goals, Mao began the Cultural Revolution in May 1966, attempting to return to the center of political power in China. The campaign was far reaching into all aspects of Chinese life. Estimated death toll ranges from hundreds of thousands to 20,000,000. Massacres took place across the country while massive cannibalism also occurred; Red Guards terrorized the streets as many ordinary citizens were deemed counter-revolutionaries; education and public transportation came to a nearly complete halt; daily life involved shouting slogans and reciting Mao quotations; many prominent political leaders, including Liu Shaoqi and Deng Xiaoping, were purged and deemed "capitalist roaders". The campaign would not come to a complete end until the death of Mao Zedong and arrest of the Gang of Four in 1976. The second constitution of China, known as the "1975 Constitution", was passed in 1975 during the Cultural Revolution.
On the other hand, by the time of Mao's death, China's unity and sovereignty were assured for the first time in a century, and there was development of infrastructure, industry, healthcare, education (only 20% of the population could read in 1949, compared to 65.5% thirty years later), which raised standard of living for the average Chinese. There is also an argument that campaigns such as the Great Leap Forward – an example of the concept New Democracy – and the Cultural Revolution were essential in jumpstarting China's development and "purifying" its culture: even though the consequences of both these campaigns were economically and humanly disastrous, they left behind a "clean slate" on which later economic progress could be built.
Foreign relations
The primary foreign policy was to obtain diplomatic recognition in the face of strong American opposition.
The Bandung Conference in 1955, at which Premier Zhou Enlai led the Chinese delegation, was an important milestone for China's foreign relations. China developed its foreign relations with many newly-independent and soon-to-be independent countries. China's Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence were incorporated into the Ten Principles of Bandung.
In 1964, tensions between Washington and Paris allowed France to open relations.
India
In 1950, India became one of the first countries to recognize People's Republic of China and establish formal diplomatic relation. However, India had close ties to the USSR and in 1962, a one-month Sino-Indian war and also a one-month Second Sino-Indian war in 1967 broke out along their remote border. Border tensions flared from time to time ever since.
Soviet Union
Beijing was very pleased that the success of the Soviet Union in the space race – the original Sputniks – demonstrated that the international communist movement had caught up in high technology with the Americans. Mao assumed that the Soviets now had a military advantage and should step up the Cold War; Khrushchev knew that the Americans were well ahead in military uses of space. The strains multiplied, quickly making a dead letter of the 1950 alliance, destroying the socialist camp unity, and affected the world balance of power. The split started with Nikita Khrushchev De-Stalinization program. It angered Mao, who admired Stalin. Moscow and Beijing became worldwide rivals, forcing communist parties around the world to take sides; many of them split, so that the pro-Soviet communists were battling the pro-Chinese communists for local control of the left-wing forces in much of the world.
Internally, the Sino-Soviet split encouraged Mao to plunge China into the Cultural Revolution, to expunge traces of Soviet ways of thinking. Mao argued that as far as all-out nuclear war was concerned, the human race would not be destroyed, and instead a brave new communist world would arise from the ashes of imperialism. This attitude troubled Moscow, which had a more realistic view of the utter disasters that would accompany a nuclear war. Three major issues suddenly became critical in dividing the two nations: Taiwan, India, and China's Great Leap Forward. Although Moscow supported Beijing's position that Taiwan entirely belong to China, it demanded that it be forewarned of any invasion or serious threat that would bring American intervention. Beijing refused, and the Chinese bombardment of the island of Quemoy in August 1958 escalated the tensions. Moscow was cultivating India, both as a major purchaser of Russian munitions, and a strategically critical ally. However China was escalating its threats to the northern fringes of India, especially from Tibet. It was building a militarily significant road system that would reach disputed areas along the border. The Russians clearly favored India, and Beijing reacted as a betrayal. By far the major ideological issue was the Great Leap Forward, which represented a Chinese rejection of the Soviet form of economic development. Moscow was deeply resentful, especially since it had spent heavily to supply China with high-technologyincluding some nuclear skills. Moscow withdrew its vitally needed technicians and economic and military aid. Khrushchev was increasingly crude and intemperate ridiculing China and Mao Zedong to both communist and international audiences. Beijing responded through its official propaganda network of rejecting Moscow's claim to Lenin's heritage. Beijing insisted it was the true inheritor of the great Leninist tradition. At one major meeting of communist parties, Khrushchev personally attacked Mao as an ultra leftist – a left revisionist – and compared him to Stalin for dangerous egotism. The conflict was now out of control, and was increasingly fought out in 81 communist parties around the world. The final split came in July 1963, after 50,000 refugees escaped from Xinjiang in western China to Soviet territory to escape persecution. China ridiculed the Russian incompetence in the Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962 as adventurism to start with and capitulationism to wind up on the losing side. Moscow now was increasingly giving priority to friendly relationships and test ban treaties with the United States and United Kingdom.
Increasingly, Beijing began to consider the Soviet Union, which it viewed as Social imperialism, as the greatest threat it faced, more so than even the leading capitalist power, the United States. In turn, overtures were made between the PRC and the United States, such as in the Ping Pong Diplomacy, Panda Diplomacy and the 1972 Nixon visit to China.
Diplomatic relations established
China established formal relationships with several major western countries and Japan. Typically the other party broke relations it had with the government on Taiwan.
In January 1964, PRC established formal diplomatic relations with France.
In October 1970, PRC established formal diplomatic relations with Canada.
In November 1970, PRC established formal diplomatic relations with Italy.
In 1971, Albania's motion in the United Nations to recognize the People's Republic of China as the sole legal China (replacing the Republic of China) was passed as General Assembly Resolution 2758.
In March 1972, China established formal diplomatic relations with the United Kingdom. The UK was the first major Western country to recognize the PRC in 1950.
In September 1972, PRC established formal diplomatic relations with Japan.
In October 1972, PRC established formal diplomatic relations with West Germany.
In December 1972, PRC established formal diplomatic relations with Australia.
In March 1973, PRC established formal diplomatic relations with Spain.
Disasters
Only major disasters are presented below (click to show).
Controversies
During the Mao era, tens of millions of people died during various political movements as well as during the Great Chinese Famine, while tens of millions of other people were persecuted and permanently crippled. China turned into a de facto one-party state after the Anti-Rightist Campaign starting in 1957, during which democracy and the rule of law were damaged while at least 550,000 intellectuals and political dissidents were persecuted. Moreover, the Cultural Revolution severely damaged the rule of law as well as traditional Chinese culture and moral values; massacres were committed across the country and acts of cannibalism were also committed on a massive scale (e.g., Guangxi Massacre). Higher education was halted during the Cultural Revolution and scientific research was also seriously affected because many scientists were persecuted, killed or committed suicide. Some doubt statistics or accounts given for death tolls or other damages incurred by Mao's campaigns, attributing the high death toll to natural disasters, famine, or other consequences of political chaos during the rule of Chiang Kai-shek.
Mao Zedong and the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) also exported the ideology of socialism and socialist revolution to other parts of the world, especially to Southeast Asia. Influenced and supported by Mao and the CCP, Pol Pot and the Khmer Rouge conducted the Cambodian genocide during which 1.5-2 million people were killed in just three years.
Transition and the Deng era (1976–1989)
The transition period
Mao Zedong's death was followed by a power struggle between the Gang of Four, Hua Guofeng, and eventually Deng Xiaoping. The third constitution of China, known as the "1978 Constitution", was passed in 1978 under Hua's "Two Whatevers".
In December 1978, with the support of Ye Jianying and other high-ranking officials, Deng eventually replaced Hua and became the paramount leader of China during the 3rd Plenary Session of the 11th Central Committee of CCP. Deng's allies such as Hu Yaobang and Zhao Ziyang also received promotions.
Invalidating the Cultural Revolution
In September 1977, Deng first proposed the idea of "Boluan Fanzheng", attempting to dismantle the far-left Maoist policies associated with the Cultural Revolution. In the same year, he resumed the National College Entrance Examination which was cancelled for ten years due to the Cultural Revolution. Moreover, within several years, victims of more than 3 million "unjust, false, wrongful cases" were rehabilitated by Deng and his allies such as Hu Yaobang, then General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party. However, on the subject of Mao's legacy, Deng coined the famous phrase "7 parts good, 3 parts bad" and avoided denouncing Mao altogether. A major document presented at the September 1979 Fourth Plenum, gave a "preliminary assessment" of the entire 30-year period of Communist rule. At the plenum, party Vice Chairman Ye Jianying declared the Cultural Revolution "an appalling catastrophe" and "the most severe setback to [the] socialist cause since [1949]".
In June 1981, the Chinese government's condemnation of the Cultural Revolution culminated in the Resolution on Certain Questions in the History of Our Party Since the Founding of the People's Republic of China, adopted by the Sixth Plenary Session of the Eleventh Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party. This resolution invalidated the Cultural Revolution as a "domestic havoc", but it stated that "Comrade Mao Zedong was a great Marxist and a great proletarian revolutionary, strategist and theorist. It is true that he made gross mistakes during the "Cultural Revolution", but, if we judge his activities as a whole, his contributions to the Chinese revolution far outweigh his mistakes. His merits are primary and his errors secondary". Today, the public perception of Mao has improved at least superficially; images of Mao and Mao related objects have become fashionable, commonly used on novelty items and even as talismans.
As an aftermath of the Cultural Revolution, nationwide public safety worsened in the late 1970s and early 1980s, and as a result Deng launched the "Strike Hard" Anti-crime Campaign in 1983 which lasted until early 1987. More than 1.7 million people were arrested and received legal punishment during the campaign.
Reforms and Opening-up
At the Third Plenum of the Eleventh National Party Congress Central Committee, Deng embarked China on the road to Reform and Opening-up (改革开放 Gaige Kaifang), policies that began with the de-collectivisation of the countryside, followed with industrial reforms aimed at decentralizing government controls in the industrial sector. In 1979, Deng emphasized the goal of "Four Modernizations" and further proposed the idea of "xiaokang", or "moderately prosperous society". Deng laid emphasis on light industry as a stepping stone to the development of heavy industries. The achievements of Lee Kuan Yew to create an economic superpower in Singapore had a profound effect on the Communist leadership in China. Leaders in China made a major effort, especially under Deng Xiaoping, to emulate his policies of economic growth, entrepreneurship, and subtle suppression of dissent. Over the years, more than 22,000 Chinese officials were sent to Singapore to study its methods.
Deng championed the idea of Special Economic Zones (SEZ), including Shenzhen, Zhuhai and Xiamen, areas where foreign investment would be allowed to pour in without strict government restraint and regulations, running on a basically capitalist system. On 31 January 1979, the Shekou Industrial Zone of Shenzhen was founded, becoming the first experimental area in China to "open up". Under the leadership of Yuan Geng, the "Shekou model" of development was gradually formed, embodied in its famous slogan "Time is Money, Efficiency is Life", which then widely spread to other parts of China. In January 1984, Deng Xiaoping made his first inspection tour to Shenzhen and Zhuhai, recognizing the "Shenzhen Speed" of development as well as the success of the special economics zones. With the help of Yuan Geng, the first joint-stock commercial bank in China – the China Merchants Bank – and the first joint-stock insurance company in China – the Ping An Insurance – were both established in Shekou. In May 1984, fourteen coastal cities in China including Shanghai, Guangzhou and Tianjin were named "Open Coastal Cities (沿海开放城市)".
Deng recognized the importance of science and technology in the "Four Modernizations", pointing out that "science and technology are the primary productive force". In December 1981, he approved the construction of "Beijing Electron–Positron Collider", the first high-energy particle collider in China, and had several meetings with Nobel laureate Tsung-Dao Lee who supported the project. In 1985, the Great Wall Station, the first Chinese research station in Antarctica, was established. In 1986, Deng approved the proposal from four leading Chinese scientists and launched the "863 Program"; in the same year, the nine-year compulsory education system was established under law (Law on Nine-Year Compulsory Education). In the 1980s, Qinshan Nuclear Power Plant in Zhejiang and Daya Bay Nuclear Power Plant in Shenzhen were built, becoming the first two nuclear power plants in China. Deng also approved the appointments of foreign nationals to work in China, including the renowned Chinese-American mathematician Shiing-Shen Chern.
Supporters of the economic reforms point to the rapid development of the consumer and export sectors of the economy, the creation of an urban middle class that now constitutes 15% of the population, higher living standards (which is shown via dramatic increases in GDP per capita, consumer spending, life expectancy, literacy rate, and total grain output) and a much wider range of personal rights and freedoms for average Chinese as evidence of the success of the reforms. Critics of the economic reforms, both in China and abroad, claim that the reforms have caused wealth disparity, environmental pollution, rampant corruption, widespread unemployment associated with layoffs at inefficient state-owned enterprises, and has introduced often unwelcome cultural influences. Consequently, they believe that China's culture has been corrupted, the poor have been reduced to a hopeless abject underclass, and that the social stability is threatened. They are also of the opinion that various political reforms, such as moves towards popular elections, have been unfairly nipped in the bud.
After all, the path of modernisation and market-oriented economic reforms that China started since the early 1980s appears to be fundamentally unchallenged. Even critics of China's market reforms do not wish to see a backtrack of these two decades of reforms, but rather propose corrective measures to offset some of the social issues caused by existing reforms. On the other hand, in 1979, the Chinese government instituted a one child policy to try to control its rapidly increasing population. The controversial policy resulted in a dramatic decrease in child poverty. The law was eliminated in 2015.
Political reforms
On 18 August 1980, Deng Xiaoping gave a speech titled "On the Reform of the Party and State Leadership System (党和国家领导制度改革)" at an enlarged meeting of the Political Bureau of the CCP Central Committee in Beijing, launching the political reforms in China. He called for the end of bureaucracy, centralisation of power as well as patriarchy, proposing term limits to the leading positions in China and advocating the "democratic centralism" as well as the "collective leadership". In addition, Deng proposed to the National People's Congress a systematic revision of China's constitution (the 1978 Constitution), and emphasized that the Constitution must be able to protect the civil rights of Chinese citizens and must reflect the principle of separation of powers; he also described the idea of "collective leadership" and championed the principle of "one man, one vote" among leaders to avoid the dictatorship of the General Secretary of CCP. In December 1982, the fourth Constitution of the People's Republic, known as the "1982 Constitution", was passed by the 5th National People's Congress, embodying Chinese-style constitutionalism with most of its content still being effective as of today.
In the first half of 1986, Deng repeatedly called for the revival of political reforms, as further economic reforms were hindered by the original political system while the country had seen an increasing trend of corruption and economic inequality, aggravated by the many social privileges enjoyed by governmental officials and their relatives. A five-man research unit for China's political reforms was established in September 1986, and the members included Zhao Ziyang, Hu Qili, Tian Jiyun, Bo Yibo and Peng Chong. Deng's intention of political reforms was to boost the administrative efficiency, further separate the responsibilities between the Communist Party and the Government, and to eliminate bureaucracy. Although he also mentioned "rule of law" and "democracy", Deng delimited the reforms within the one-party system and opposed the implementation of Western-style constitutionalism. In October 1987, at the 13th National Congress of CCP chaired by Deng, Zhao Ziyang delivered an important talk drafted by Bao Tong on the political reforms. In his speech titled "Advance Along the Road of Socialism with Chinese characteristics (沿着有中国特色的社会主义道路前进)", Zhao argued that the socialism in China was still in its primary stage and by taking Deng's speech in 1980 as guidelines, Zhao outlined a variety of steps to be taken for the political reforms, including promoting the rule of law and the separation of powers, imposing de-centralisation, and improving the election system. At this Congress, Zhao was elected as the new General Secretary of CCP.
However, after the 1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre, many leading reformists including Zhao and Bao were removed from their posts, and the majority of the planned political reforms (after 1986) ended drastically. Left-wing conservatives led by Chen Yun, President Li Xiannian and Premier Li Peng took control until Deng Xiaoping's southern tour in early 1992. On the other hand, many policies due to the political reforms launched by Deng in the early 1980s remain effective after 1989 (such as the new Constitution, term limits, and the democratic centralism), even though some of them have been reversed by CCP general secretary Xi Jinping after 2012.
Political turmoil
In 1983, left-wing conservatives initiated the "Anti-Spiritual Pollution Campaign".
In 1986, the student demonstrations led to the resignation of Hu Yaobang, then General Secretary of CCP and a leading reformist, and the left-wing conservatives continued to launch the "Anti-Bourgeois Liberalisation Campaign". The campaign ended in mid-1987 because Zhao Ziyang convinced Deng Xiaoping that the conservatives were taking advantage of the campaign to oppose the Reforms and Opening-up program.
Although standards of living improved significantly in the 1980s, Deng's reforms were not without criticism. Hard-liners asserted that Deng opened China once again to various social evils, and an overall increase in materialistic thinking, while liberals attacked Deng's unrelenting stance on wider political reforms. Liberal forces began gathering in different forms to protest against the Party's authoritarian leadership. In 1989, the death of Hu Yaobang, a liberal figure, triggered weeks of spontaneous protests in the Tiananmen Square. The government imposed martial law and sent in tanks and soldiers to suppress the demonstrations. Western countries and multilateral organisations briefly suspended their formal ties with China's government under Premier Li Peng's leadership, which was directly responsible for the military curfew and bloody crackdown.
Military modernisation
In early 1979, China started a one-month war with Vietnam. Furthermore, China continued to support Khmer Rouge during Deng Xiaoping's time together with the United States, Thailand and several other countries to counter the regional influence of the Soviet Union.
In March 1981, Deng Xiaoping determined that a military exercise was necessary for the People's Liberation Army (PLA), and in September 1981, the North China Military Exercise took place, becoming the largest exercise conducted by the PLA since the founding of the People's Republic.
In 1985, in order to modernise the PLA and to save money, Deng cut 1 million troops from the military (百万大裁军) and ordered further modernisation.
Foreign relations
On 1 January 1979, the People's Republic of China formally established its diplomatic relations with the United States. In January 1979, Deng Xiaoping visited the United States, which was first official visit by a paramount leader of China to the United States. In the same year, the Chinese Olympic Committee for PRC was recognized by the International Olympic Committee. Under the advice of Lee Kuan Yew, Deng Xiaoping agreed to further open up the country and stop exporting communist ideologies and revolutions to other countries like Mao did, and the decisions significantly improved the relations between China and many countries, especially those in south-east Asia.
In 1984, Xu Haifeng, a pistol shooter, won the first Olympic gold medal for China during the 1984 Summer Olympics in Los Angeles. In the same year, the Sino-British Joint Declaration was signed by China and the United Kingdom, stipulating that the sovereignty and the administrative management of Hong Kong would be handed over back to China on 1 July 1997 under the "one country, two systems" framework. In 1987, the Joint Declaration on the Question of Macau was signed by China and Portugal, stipulating that the sovereignty and the administrative management of Macau would be handed over back to China 20 December 1999, again under the "one country, two systems" framework.
In 1989, the relation between China and the Soviet Union returned to normal for the first time since the Sino-Soviet split in the 1950s. Mikhail Gorbachev, then General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, visited Beijing and met with Deng Xiaoping during the Sino-Soviet Summit, which took place amid the Tiananmen Square protests.
After the 1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre, China faced strong backlash from the western countries. Deng, as a response, devised a new set of diplomatic strategies for China, which were summarised to be "hide your strength, bide your time, never take the lead". In the 1980s and early 1990s, People's Republic of China continued to establish formal diplomatic relations with a number of countries such as United Arab Emirates (1984), Qatar (1988), Saudi Arabia (1990), Singapore (1990), Israel (1992) and South Korea (1992).
Disasters
Only major disasters are presented below (click to show).
Controversies
After the Cultural Revolution, Deng started the Boluan Fanzheng program to correct the Maoist mistakes, but some of his policies and views were controversial. Deng insisted on praising that Mao had done "7 good and 3 bad" for the Chinese people, while attributing numerous disasters in the Cultural Revolution to Lin Biao and the Gang of Four. In addition, he stated and imposed the "Four Cardinal Principles" as the fundamental principles of the Constitution of China (1982), in order to maintain the one-party state in China for the Communist Party.
Moreover, the role that Deng played in the 1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre was rather controversial. In fact, he also cracked down the Democracy Wall movement as well as the Beijing Spring in early 1980s.
To cope with the population crisis after Mao's era, Deng Xiaoping, together with other senior officials including Chen Yun and Li Xiannian, supported the implementation of the "one-child policy". Some of the extreme measures in practice created many controversies such as human rights violations.
Jiang Zemin and the third generation (1989–2002)
Transition of power and Deng's Southern Tour
After the 1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre, Deng Xiaoping stepped away from public view and fully retired. Power passed to the third generation of leadership led by Jiang Zemin, who was hailed as its "core". However, owing to the Tiananmen massacre, the Reforms and Opening-up program went into stagnation in early 1990s, and Jiang, supported by left-wing conservatives, was not doing enough to continue the reforms.
In the spring of 1992, Deng made his famous tour to southern China, which is widely regarded as a critical point in the history of modern China as it saved China's economic reform as well as the capital market (Shanghai Stock Exchange and Shenzhen Stock Exchange), and preserved the stability of the society. Jiang eventually sided with Deng and publicly supported the Reforms and Opening-up program. Conservative Li Peng was the Premier of China until 1998, when reformist Zhu Rongji succeeded as the new Premier.
Domestic affairs
Economic growth achieved a sustained high rate by the mid-1990s. Jiang Zemin's macroeconomic reforms furthered Deng's vision for "Socialism with Chinese characteristics". Jiang laid heavy emphasis on scientific and technological advancement in areas such as space exploration. At the same time, Jiang's period saw a continued rise in social corruption in all areas of life. Unemployment skyrocketed as unprofitable State-owned enterprise (SOE) were closed to make way for more competitive ventures internally and abroad. The ill-equipped social welfare system was put on a serious test. In 2000, Jiang proposed his ideology of "Three Represents", which was ratified by the Chinese Communist Party at the Sixteenth Party Congress in 2002.
At the same time, Premier Zhu Rongji's economic policies held China's economy strong during the Asian Financial Crisis. Economic growth averaged at 8% annually, pushed back by the 1998 Yangtze River Floods. Standards of living improved significantly, although a wide urban-rural wealth gap was created as China saw the reappearance of the middle class. Wealth disparity between the Eastern coastal regions and the Western hinterlands continued to widen by the day, prompting government programs to "develop the West", taking on ambitious projects such as the Qinghai–Tibet railway. However, rampant corruption continued despite Premier Zhu's anti-corruption campaign that executed many officials. Corruption alone is estimated to amount to the equivalent of anywhere from 10 to 20 per cent of China's GDP.
To sustain the increased electricity consumption, the Three Gorges Dam was built, attracting supporters and widespread criticism. Environmental pollution became a very serious problem as Beijing was frequently hit by sandstorms as a result of desertification.
In 1990s, Project 211 and Project 985 were launched for higher education in China.
Foreign relations
In November 1991, China joined the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation. The 1990s saw the peaceful Handover of Hong Kong and Macau by the United Kingdom and Portugal respectively to China. Hong Kong and Macau mostly continued their own governance, retaining independence in their economic, social, and judicial systems until 2019, when Beijing tried to expand national powers in the face of large-scale protests in Hong Kong.
Jiang Zemin and Bill Clinton exchanged state visits, but Sino-American relations took very sour turns at the end of the decade, especially after the third Taiwan Strait Crisis. On 7 May 1999, during the Kosovo War, U.S. aircraft bombed the Chinese embassy in Belgrade. The U.S. government claimed the strike was due to bad intelligence and false target identification. Inside the United States, the Cox Report stated that China had been stealing various top United States military secrets. In 2001, a United States surveillance plane collided with a Chinese fighter jet over international waters near Hainan, inciting further outrage with the Chinese public, already dissatisfied with the United States.
After a decade of talks, China was finally admitted into the World Trade Organization in 2001. The same year saw the establishment of the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation. In August 2002, due to the efforts of the renowned mathematician Shiing-Shen Chern, the quadrennial International Congress of Mathematicians was held in Beijing – the first time in a developing country, with Chern being the honorary president of the Congress and Wu Wenjun being the president.
Disasters
Only major disasters are presented below (click to show).
Controversies
On the political agenda, China was once again put on the spotlight for the banning of public Falun Gong activity in 1999. Silent protesters from the spiritual movement sat outside of Zhongnanhai, asking for dialogue with China's leaders. Jiang saw it as a threat to the political situation and outlawed the group altogether, while using mass media propaganda to denounce it as an "evil cult".
Jiang Zemin, after formally retiring as the paramount leader of China in 2004, was believed to have moved behind the scenes and was still in control of the country even after his late step-down from the Chairman of the Central Military Commission in 2005. The Jiang faction, including Zhou Yongkang, Guo Boxiong and Xu Caihou, continued to impact China significantly after Hu Jintao succeeded as the paramount leader of China.
Hu Jintao and the fourth generation (2002–2012)
Transition of power
Hu Jintao succeeded as the General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party in November 2002. In March 2003, Hu Jintao became the 6th President of the People's Republic of China, with Wen Jiabao being the Premier of China. In September 2004, Hu Jintao became the Chairman of the Central Military Commission.
Domestic affairs
The economy continued to grow in double-digit numbers as the development of rural areas became the major focus of government policy. In 2010, China overtook Japan as the world's second-largest economy. The assertion of the Scientific Perspective to create a Socialist Harmonious Society was the focus of the Hu Jintao - Wen Jiabao administration, as some Jiang Zemin-era excesses were slowly reversed. In late 2002, the South–North Water Transfer Project began construction.
In gradual steps to consolidate his power, Hu Jintao removed Shanghai Party secretary Chen Liangyu and other potential political opponents amidst the fight against corruption, and the ongoing struggle against once powerful Shanghai clique. In particular, in 2012, the Wang Lijun incident and the scandal of Bo Xilai received widespread attention and media coverage.
The continued economic growth of the country as well as its sporting power status gained China the right to host the 2008 Summer Olympics. However, this also put Hu Jintao's administration under intense spotlight. While the 2008 Olympics was commonly understood to be a come-out party for People's Republic of China, in light of the March 2008 Tibet protests, the government received heavy scrutiny. The Olympic torch was met with protest en route. Within the country, these reactions were met with a fervent wave of nationalism with accusations of Western bias against China.
Continued economic growth during the worldwide financial crisis which started in the United States and hobbled the world economy increased China's confidence in its model of development and convinced elites that the global balance of power was shifting. In the Chinese view, the cause of the crisis was Western countries' "inappropriate macroeconomic policies" and "unsustainable modes of development." When Western countries were nearing financial disaster, China created credit for spending on infrastructure. This both helped stabilize the global economy and it also provided an opportunity for China to retool its own infrastructure. China increased its standing as a responsible global actor during the crisis.
Meanwhile, a number of scientific progresses and breakthroughs took place between 2002 and 2012, many of which originated from the 863 Program. In 2003, China successfully sent an astronaut, Yang Liwei, to the space via Shenzhou 5, becoming the third country in the world to do so independently after the United States and the Soviet Union. In 2010, Jiaolong, the Chinese manned deep-sea research submersible, was deployed. In 2011–2012, BeiDou-2, the Chinese satellite navigation system, became operational. In 2011, Tiangong-1, the first prototype space station of China, was successfully launched. In March 2012, results from the Daya Bay Reactor Neutrino Experiment in Shenzhen received international attention. In October 2012, Mo Yan became the first Chinese citizen (mainland) to win the Nobel Prize in Literature.
Foreign relations
China's position in the war on terror drew the country closer diplomatically to the United States. In 2010, the Asian Games was held in Guangzhou, and in 2011, the Summer Universiade was held in Shenzhen. In 2010, another international event took place in China— Shanghai held the World Expo for the first time.
The political status and future of Taiwan remain uncertain, but steps have been taken to improving relations between the Communist Party and several of Taiwan's parties that hold a less antagonistic view towards China, notably former rival Kuomintang.
Hu's critics say that his government was overly aggressive in asserting its new power, overestimated its reach, and raised the ire and apprehension of various neighbours, including Southeast Asian countries, India, and Japan. Such policies are also said to be provocative towards the United States.
Disasters
Only major disasters are presented below (click to show).
Controversies
In the years after Hu Jintao's rise to power, respect of basic human rights in China continued to be a source of concern. Liu Xiaobo, Nobel Peace Prize winner and human rights activist, was arrested and sentenced to jail for 11 years in 2010. Liu Xiaobo, together with others, authored the Charter 08 and received the Nobel Peace Prize in 2010. Liu Xiaobo passed away in 2017.
In Hu Jintao's time, the Chinese Communist Party and the Chinese government created the "50 Cent Party", attempting to "guide" public opinions online in favor of the Communist Party and the Chinese government.
Xi Jinping and the fifth generation (2012–present)
Transition of power
Xi Jinping became the General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party and the Chairman of the Central Military Commission, the two most powerful positions on 15 November 2012. And on March 14, 2013, he became the 7th President of China. Li Keqiang became the Premier of China in March 2013.
In October 2022, Xi Jinping was re-elected as General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party for a precedent-breaking third term of paramount leader after Mao Zedong's death.
Domestic affairs
A massive, long-term anti-corruption campaign has been carried out under Xi Jinping since 2012, mostly targeting Xi Jinping's political rivals such as members of the Jiang faction including Party senior leaders Zhou Yongkang, Guo Boxiong and Xu Caihou.
In March 2018, the Party-controlled National People's Congress passed a set of constitutional amendments including the removal of term limits for the president and vice president, the creation of a National Supervisory Commission, as well as enhancing the central role of the Communist Party. On 17 March 2018, the Chinese legislature re-appointed Xi Jinping as president, now without term limits. According to the Financial Times, Xi Jinping expressed his views of constitutional amendment at meetings with Chinese officials and foreign dignitaries. Xi Jinping explained the decision in terms of needing to align two more powerful posts – General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party and Chairman of the Central Military Commission (CMC) – which have no term limits. However, Xi Jinping did not say whether he intended to serve as party general secretary, CMC chairman and state president, for three or more terms.
On the other hand, a series of scientific advances took place. In 2013, the Yutu rover was successfully deployed on the Moon after the Chang'e 3 lander landed on the Moon. In 2015, Tu Youyou became the first Chinese citizen (mainland) to win the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine. In December 2015, the Dark Matter Particle Explorer, China's first space observatory, was successfully launched. The Tiangong-2 space laboratory was successfully launched in 2016, and in the same year the Five-hundred-meter Aperture Spherical Telescope (FAST) was built in Guizhou. In 2018, the Hong Kong–Zhuhai–Macau Bridge, world's longest sea-crossing bridge, was open to public.
Foreign relations
As Xi Jinping continued to consolidate power domestically, he gradually abandoned the diplomatic principles ("hide your strength, bide your time, never take the lead") set by Deng Xiaoping and appeared more as a "strongman" in the global stage. He launched the "One Belt One Road initiative" to make infrastructure investment in dozens of countries, which received widespread attention (both receptions and criticism) from around the world.
Since Xi Jinping succeeded as the leader of China, he tried to change "China's passivity" into an assertive strategy to defend China's claims over border and territory disputes such as in the South China Sea and in Taiwan. In 2018, China–United States trade war started and significantly affected the global economy. In May 2020, China–India skirmishes along the border broke out and resulted in casualties.
On the other hand, after Xi Jinping came to power, a number of international summits were held in China. In 2014, the 22nd annual gathering of Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) leaders was held in Beijing; in 2016, the G20 summit was held in Hangzhou; and in 2017, the 9th BRICS summit was held in Xiamen. Additionally, in 2015, the Ma–Xi meeting in Singapore was the first meeting between the political leaders of the two sides of the Taiwan Strait since the end of the Chinese Civil War in 1950.
China refused to condemn the Russian invasion of Ukraine, repeated Russian narratives about the war, opposed economic sanctions against Russia, and abstained or sided with Russia in UN votes on the war in Ukraine.
Disasters
Only major disasters are presented below (click to show).
Controversies
Since 2012, Xi Jinping together with his allies has rolled back several policies from the Boluan Fanzheng period of Deng Xiaoping and promoted his cult of personality as Mao Zedong did. For example, in 2018, Xi Jinping eliminated the term limit in China's Constitution for Chinese President, which challenged some of the political legacies of Deng Xiaoping and triggered concerns about a return to a one-man rule similar to Mao.
Domestic human rights violation has deteriorated. In July 2015, hundreds of Chinese lawyers and human rights activists nationwide were detained or arrested during the 709 crackdown. Moreover, the Xinjiang re-education camps since 2017, in which over a million Uyghurs and other ethnic minorities are being detained, and the massive protests in Hong Kong since 2019 have received widespread attention and extensive media coverage from around the world. The Hong Kong national security law published on 30 June 2020 also received widespread attention and raised considerable concern worldwide over the breach of the "One Country, Two Systems" principle.
After Xi Jinping came to power in 2012, the Communist Party along with the Chinese government have significantly strengthened their internet censorship and tightened their control over the Chinese internet environment, blocking Chinese citizens' access to many foreign websites and mobile apps using the "Great Firewall". At the same time, a large number of "50 Cent Party" members have been recruited to "guide" online narratives around the globe in favor of the Party and the Government. During the massive Hong Kong protests, for instance, Twitter and Facebook claimed to have removed or suspended over 200,000 accounts and pages linked with the Chinese government. As of 2022, the mass surveillance system keeps the whole population under close watch.
Globally, the aggressive "wolf warrior diplomacy" under Xi Jinping Administration has created numerous controversies and backlashes. Controversies also surround the "One Belt One Road initiative" and the China–United States trade war. In 2019–2020, under Xi Jinping, China's handling of the outbreak of a novel coronavirus (COVID-19) as well as its relationship with the World Health Organization (WHO) was rather controversial. There have been a large number of conspiracy theories and misinformation related to COVID-19, including the origin of the virus. China has also launched its own disinformation campaign globally over the issues of the pandemic, of Hong Kong and Uyghurs, and more, promoting China as a global leader while attacking the United States for instance. Furthermore, manipulation of economic data by the Chinese government, such as publishing inflated GDP figures over the years, is also a major concern.
See also
History of China
History of the Republic of China
History of Hong Kong
History of Macau
Dynasties in Chinese History
Economic History of China
Foreign relations of China
History of foreign relations of China
Historiography of China
History of Chinese Art
History of education in China
History of science and technology in China
Legal History of China
Linguistic History of China
Military history of China
Naval history of China
Timeline of Chinese history
References
Further reading
Benson, Linda. China since 1949 (3rd ed. Routledge, 2016). excerpt; also online review
Coase, Ronald, and Ning Wang. How China became capitalist. (Springer, 2016).
Economy, Elizabeth C. "China's New Revolution: The Reign of Xi Jinping." Foreign Affairs 97 (2018): 60+. online
Economy, Elizabeth C. The Third Revolution: Xi Jinping and the New Chinese State (Oxford UP, 2018), 343 pp.
Evans, Richard. Deng Xiaoping and the making of modern China (1997)
Falkenheim, Victor C. ed. Chinese Politics from Mao to Deng (1989) 11 essays by scholars
Fenby, Jonathan. The Penguin History of Modern China: The Fall and Rise of a Great Power 1850 to the Present (3rd ed. 2019)
Fravel, M. Taylor. Active Defense: China's Military Strategy since 1949 (Princeton University Press, 2019) online reviews
Garver, John W. China's Quest: The History of the Foreign Relations of the People's Republic (2nd ed. 2018) comprehensive scholarly history. excerpt
Lampton, David M. Following the Leader: Ruling China, from Deng Xiaoping to Xi Jinping (2014) online
Lynch, Michael. Access to History: Mao's China 1936–97 (3rd ed. Hachette UK, 2015)
MacFarquhar, Roderick, ed. The politics of China: The eras of Mao and Deng (Cambridge UP, 1997).
Meisner, Maurice. Mao's China and after: A history of the People's Republic (3rd ed. 1999).
Mühlhahn, Klaus. Making China Modern: From the Great Qing to Xi Jinping (Harvard UP, 2019) excerpt
Shambaugh, David, ed. China and the World (Oxford UP, 2020). essays by scholars. excerpt
Sullivan, Lawrence R. Historical Dictionary of the People's Republic of China (2007)
Vogel, Ezra F., Deng Xiaoping and the Transformation of China. . 2013.
Wasserstrom, Jeffrey. Vigil: Hong Kong on the Brink (2020) Political protest 2003–2019.
Westad, Odd Arne. Restless empire: China and the world since 1750 (2012) Online free to borrow
Historiography and memory
Eben V. Racknitz, Ines. "Repositioning History for the Future – Recent Academic Debates in China" History Compass (2014) 12#6 pp. 465–472.
Finnane, Antonia. "Reinventing Modern China: Imagination and Authenticity in Chinese Historical Writing." Asian Studies Review 39#1 (2015): 163–164.
Fromm, Martin T. Borderland Memories: Searching for Historical Identity in Post-Mao China (Cambridge UP, 2019).
Longxi, Zhang. "Re-conceptualizing China in our Time: From a Chinese Perspective." European Review 23#2 (2015): 193–209.
Smith, Stephen A. "Recent historiography of the People's Republic of China, 1949-76." Twentieth Century Communism 3.3 (2011): 196–216.
Unger, Jonathan. Using the Past to Serve the Present: Historiography and Politics in Contemporary China (Routledge, 2015)
Wu, Guo. "Recalling bitterness: Historiography, memory, and myth in Maoist China." Twentieth-Century China 39.3 (2014): 245–268. online |
4372977 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terra%20Nova%20Expedition | Terra Nova Expedition | The Terra Nova Expedition, officially the British Antarctic Expedition, was an expedition to Antarctica which took place between 1910 and 1913. Led by Captain Robert Falcon Scott, the expedition had various scientific and geographical objectives. Scott wished to continue the scientific work that he had begun when leading the Discovery Expedition from 1901 to 1904, and wanted to be the first to reach the geographic South Pole.
He and four companions attained the pole on 17 January 1912, where they found that a Norwegian team led by Roald Amundsen had preceded them by 34 days. Scott's party of five died on the return journey from the pole; some of their bodies, journals, and photographs were found by a search party eight months later.
The expedition, named after its supply ship, was a private venture financed by public contributions and a government grant. It had further backing from the Admiralty, which released experienced seamen to the expedition, and from the Royal Geographical Society. The expedition's team of scientists carried out a comprehensive scientific programme, while other parties explored Victoria Land and the Western Mountains. An attempted landing and exploration of King Edward VII Land was unsuccessful. A journey to Cape Crozier in June and July 1911 was the first extended sledging journey in the depths of the Antarctic winter.
For many years after his death, Scott's status as tragic hero was unchallenged and few questions were asked about the causes of the disaster which overcame his polar party. In the final quarter of the 20th century the expedition came under closer scrutiny, and more critical views were expressed about its organization and management. The degree of Scott's personal culpability and, more recently, the culpability of certain expedition members, remains controversial.
Preparations
Background
After RRS Discovery's return from the Antarctic in 1904, Captain Robert Falcon Scott eventually resumed his naval career but continued to nurse ambitions of returning south, with the conquest of the South Pole as his specific target. The Discovery Expedition had made a significant contribution to Antarctic scientific and geographical knowledge, but in terms of penetration southward had reached only 82° 17' and had not traversed the Great Ice Barrier.
In 1909, Scott received news that Ernest Shackleton's Nimrod expedition had narrowly failed to reach the Pole. Starting from a base close to Scott's Discovery anchorage in McMurdo Sound, Shackleton had crossed the Great Ice Barrier, discovered the Beardmore Glacier route to the Polar Plateau, and had struck out for the Pole. He had been forced to turn for home at 88° 23' S, less than 100 geographical miles () from his objective. Scott had claimed the McMurdo Sound area as his own "field of work", and Shackleton's use of the area as a base was in breach of an undertaking he gave Scott. This soured relations between the two explorers, and increased Scott's determination to surpass Shackleton's achievements.
As he made his preparations for a further expedition, Scott was aware of other impending polar ventures. A Japanese expedition was being planned; the Australasian Antarctic Expedition under Douglas Mawson was to leave in 1911, but would be working in a different sector of the continent; and Roald Amundsen, a potential rival from Norway, had also announced plans for an Arctic voyage.
Personnel
65 men (including replacements) formed the shore and ship's parties of the Terra Nova Expedition. They were chosen from 8,000 applicants, and included seven Discovery veterans together with five who had been with Shackleton on his 1907–1909 expedition. Lieutenant Edward Evans, who had been the navigating officer on Morning, the Discovery Expedition's relief ship in 1904, was appointed Scott's second-in-command. Evans had abandoned plans to mount his own expedition and transferred his financial backing to Scott.
Among the other serving Royal Navy personnel released by the Admiralty were Lieutenant Harry Pennell, who would serve as navigator and take command of Terra Nova once the shore parties had landed; and two Surgeon-Lieutenants, George Murray Levick and Edward L. Atkinson. Ex-Royal Navy officer Victor Campbell, known as "The Wicked Mate", was one of the few who had skills in skiing, and was chosen to lead the party that would explore King Edward VII Land. Two non-Royal Navy officers were appointed: Henry Robertson Bowers ("Birdie"), who was a lieutenant in the Royal Indian Marine, and Lawrence Oates ("Titus"), an Army captain from the 6th (Inniskilling) Dragoons. Oates, independently wealthy, volunteered and his services to the expedition.
The Admiralty also provided a largely naval lower deck, including the Antarctic veterans Edgar Evans (no relation to Edward Evans), Tom Crean and William Lashly. Other seamen in the shore party included Patrick Keohane, Robert Forde, Thomas Clissold (cook) and Frederick Hooper (domestic steward). (dog driver), a Russian, and (groom), a Ukrainian, also landed.
To head his scientific programme, Scott appointed Edward Wilson as chief scientist. Wilson was Scott's closest confidant among the party; on the Discovery Expedition he had accompanied Scott on the Farthest South march to 80°S. As well as being a qualified medical doctor and a distinguished research zoologist, he was also a talented illustrator. Wilson's scientific team—which Scott's biographer David Crane considered "as impressive a group of scientists as had ever been on a polar expedition"—included some who would enjoy later careers of distinction: meteorologist George Simpson; Canadian physicist Charles Wright; and geologists Frank Debenham and Raymond Priestley. Senior geologist T. Griffith Taylor, biologists Edward W. Nelson and Denis G. Lillie, and assistant zoologist Apsley Cherry-Garrard completed the team.
Cherry-Garrard had no scientific training, but was a protégé of Wilson's. He had, like Oates, contributed £1,000 to funds. After first being turned down by Scott, he allowed his contribution to stand, which impressed Scott sufficiently for him to reverse his decision. Crane describes Cherry-Garrard as "the future interpreter, historian and conscience of the expedition." Herbert Ponting was the expedition's photographer, whose pictures would leave a vivid visual record. On the advice of explorer Fridtjof Nansen, Scott recruited a young Norwegian ski expert, Tryggve Gran.
Transport
Scott had decided on a mixed transport strategy, relying on contributions from dogs, motor sledges and ponies. He appointed Cecil Meares to take charge of the dog teams and recruited Shackleton's former motor specialist, Bernard Day, to run the motor sledges. Oates would be in charge of the ponies, but as he could not join the expedition until May 1910, Scott instructed Meares, who knew nothing of horses, to buy them—with unfortunate consequences for their quality and performance.
A "polarised" motor car had been unsuccessfully tried in the Antarctic by Shackleton, on his 1907–1909 expedition, while his pioneering use of ponies had transported him as far as the foot of the Beardmore Glacier. Scott believed that ponies had served Shackleton well, and he thought he could resolve the motor traction problem by developing a tracked snow "motor" (the forerunner of the Snowcat and of the tank). Scott always intended to rely on man-hauling for the Polar Plateau, believing it impossible to ascend the Beardmore Glacier with motors or with animals. The motors and animals would be used to haul loads only across the Barrier, enabling the men to preserve their strength for the later Glacier and Plateau stages. In practice, the motor sledges proved only briefly useful, and the ponies' performance was affected by their age and poor condition. As to dogs, while Scott's experiences on Discovery had made him dubious of their reliability, his writings show that he recognised their effectiveness in the right hands. As the expedition developed, he became increasingly impressed with their capabilities.
Finance
Unlike the Discovery Expedition, where fundraising was handled jointly by the Royal Society and the Royal Geographical Society (RGS), the Terra Nova Expedition was organised as a private venture without significant institutional support. Scott estimated the total cost at £40,000, half of which was eventually met by a government grant. The balance was raised by public subscription and loans. The expedition was further assisted by the free supply of a range of provisions and equipment from sympathetic commercial firms. The fund-raising task was largely carried out by Scott, and was a considerable drain on his time and energy, continuing in South Africa, Australia, and New Zealand after Terra Nova had sailed from British waters.
By far the largest single cost was the purchase of the ship Terra Nova, for £12,500. Terra Nova had been in Antarctica before, as part of the second Discovery relief operation. Scott wanted to sail her as a naval vessel under the White Ensign; to enable this, he obtained membership of the Royal Yacht Squadron for £100. He was thus able to impose naval discipline on the expedition, and as a registered yacht of the Squadron, Terra Nova became exempt from Board of Trade regulations which might otherwise have deemed her unfit to sail.
Objectives
Scott defined the objects of the expedition in his initial public appeal: "The main objective of this expedition is to reach the South Pole, and to secure for the British Empire the honour of this achievement." There were other objectives, both scientific and geographical; the scientific work was considered by Wilson as the main work of the expedition: "No one can say that it will have only been a Pole-hunt ... We want the scientific work to make the bagging of the Pole merely an item in the results." He hoped to continue investigations, begun during the Discovery Expedition, of the emperor penguin colony at Cape Crozier and to fulfil a programme of geological, magnetic and meteorology studies on an "unprecedented" scale. There were further plans to explore King Edward VII Land, a venture described by Campbell, who was to lead it, as "the thing of the whole expedition", and Victoria Land.
First season, 1910–1911
Voyage out
Terra Nova sailed from Cardiff on 15 June 1910. Scott, detained by expedition business, sailed later on a faster passenger liner and joined the ship in South Africa. In Melbourne he left Terra Nova to continue fund-raising while the ship proceeded to New Zealand. Waiting for Scott in Melbourne was a telegram from Amundsen, informing Scott that the Norwegian was "proceeding south"; the telegram was the first indication to Scott that he was in a race. When asked by the press for a reaction, Scott replied that his plans would not change and that he would not sacrifice the expedition's scientific goals to win the race to the Pole. In his diary he wrote that Amundsen had a fair chance of success, and perhaps deserved his luck if he got through.
Scott rejoined Terra Nova in New Zealand, where additional supplies were taken aboard, including 34 dogs, 19 Siberian ponies and three motorised sledges. The ship, heavily overloaded, finally left Port Chalmers on 29 November. During the first days of December the ship was struck by a heavy storm; at one point, with the ship taking heavy seas and the pumps having failed, the crew had to bail her out with buckets. The storm resulted in the loss of two ponies, a dog, of coal and of petrol. On 10 December, Terra Nova met the southern pack ice and was halted, remaining for twenty days before breaking clear and continuing southward. The delay, which Scott attributed to "sheer bad luck", had consumed of coal.
Cape Evans base
Arriving off Ross Island on 4 January 1911, Terra Nova scouted for possible landing sites around Cape Crozier at the eastern point of the island, before proceeding to McMurdo Sound to its west, where both Discovery and Nimrod had previously landed.
After Scott had considered various possible wintering spots, he chose a cape remembered from the Discovery days as the "Skuary", about north of Scott's 1902 base at Hut Point. Scott hoped that this location, which he renamed Cape Evans after his second-in-command, would be free of ice in the short Antarctic summer, enabling the ship to come and go. As the seas to the south froze over, the expedition would have ready access over the ice to Hut Point and the Barrier.
At Cape Evans the shore parties disembarked, with the ponies, dogs, the three motorised sledges (one of which was lost during unloading), and the bulk of the party's stores. Scott was "astonished at the strength of the ponies" as they transferred stores and materials from ship to shore. A prefabricated accommodation hut measuring was erected and made habitable by 18 January.
Amundsen's camp
Scott's programme included a plan to explore and carry out scientific work in King Edward VII Land, to the east of the Barrier. A party under Campbell was organised for this purpose, with the option of exploring Victoria Land to the north-west if King Edward VII Land proved inaccessible. On 26 January, Campbell's party left in the ship and headed east. After several failed attempts to land his party on the King Edward VII Land shore, Campbell exercised his option to sail to Victoria Land. On its return westward along the Barrier edge, Terra Nova encountered Amundsen's expedition camped in the Bay of Whales, an inlet in the Barrier.
Amundsen was courteous and hospitable, willing for Campbell to camp nearby and offering him help with his dogs. Campbell politely declined, and returned with his party to Cape Evans to report this development. Scott received the news on 22 February, during the first depot-laying expedition. According to Cherry-Garrard, the first reaction of Scott and his party was an urge to rush over to the Bay of Whales and "have it out" with Amundsen. Scott recorded the event calmly in his journal. "One thing only fixes itself in my mind. The proper, as well as the wiser, course is for us to proceed exactly as though this had not happened. To go forward and do our best for the honour of our country without fear or panic."
Depot laying
The aim of the first season's depot-laying was to place a series of depots on the Barrier from its edge—Safety Camp—down to 80°S, for use on the polar journey which would begin the following spring. The final depot would be the largest, and would be known as One Ton Depot. The work was to be carried out by 12 men, the eight fittest ponies, and two dog teams; ice conditions prevented the use of the motor sledges.
The journey started on 27 January "in a state of hurry bordering on panic", according to Cherry-Garrard. Progress was slower than expected, and the ponies' performance was adversely affected because Oates was opposed to using Norwegian snowshoes and had left them behind at Cape Evans. On 4 February, the party established Corner Camp, from Hut Point, when a blizzard held them up for three days.
A few days later, after the march had resumed, Scott sent the three weakest ponies home (two died en route). As the depot-laying party approached 80°, he became concerned that the remaining ponies would not make it back to base unless the party turned north immediately. Against the advice of Oates, who wanted to go forward, killing the ponies for meat as they collapsed, Scott decided to lay One Ton Depot at 79°29′S, more than short of its intended location.
Scott returned to Safety Camp with the dogs, after risking his own life to rescue a dog-team that had fallen into a crevasse. When the slower pony party arrived, one of the animals was in very poor condition and died shortly afterwards. Later, as the surviving ponies were crossing the sea ice near Hut Point, the ice broke up. Despite a determined rescue attempt, three more ponies died. Of the eight ponies that had begun the depot-laying journey, only two returned home.
Winter quarters
On 23 April, the sun set for the duration of the winter months, and the party settled into the Cape Evans hut. Under Scott's naval regime the hut was divided by a wall made of packing cases, so that officers and men lived largely separate existences, scientists being deemed "officers" for this purpose. Everybody was kept busy; scientific work continued, observations and measurements were taken, equipment was overhauled and adapted for future journeys. The surviving ponies needed daily exercise, and the dogs required regular attention. Scott spent much time calculating sledging rations and weights for the forthcoming polar march. The routine included regular lectures on a wide range of subjects: Ponting on Japan, Wilson on sketching, Oates on horse management and geologist Debenham on volcanoes.
To ensure that physical fitness was maintained there were frequent games of football in the half-light outside the hut; Scott recorded that, "Atkinson is by far the best player, but Hooper, P.O. Evans and Crean are also quite good." The South Polar Times, which had been produced by Shackleton during the Discovery Expedition, was resurrected under Cherry-Garrard's editorship. On 6 June, a feast was arranged to mark Scott's 43rd birthday; a second celebration on 21 June marked Midwinter Day, the day that marks the midpoint of the long polar night.
Main expedition journeys, 1911–1912
Northern Party
After reporting Amundsen's arrival to Scott at Cape Evans, Campbell's Eastern party (Campbell, Priestley, Levick, George P. Abbott, Harry Dickason) and Frank V. Browning became the "Northern Party". On 1911 they sailed northwards, arriving at Robertson Bay, near Cape Adare on , where they built a hut close to Norwegian explorer Carstens Borchgrevink's old quarters.
The Northern Party spent the 1911 winter in their hut. Their exploration plans for the summer of 1911–1912 could not be fully carried out, partly because of the condition of the sea ice and also because they were unable to discover a route into the interior. Terra Nova returned from New Zealand on 1912, and transferred the party to the vicinity of Evans Cove, a location approximately south of Cape Adare and northwest of Cape Evans. They were to be picked up on after the completion of further geological work, but due to heavy pack ice, the ship was unable to reach them. The group, with meagre rations which they had to supplement by fish and seal meat, were forced to spend the winter months of 1912 in a snow cave which they excavated on Inexpressible Island. Here they suffered severe privations—frostbite, dysentery and hunger, with extreme winds and low temperatures, and the discomfort of a blubber stove in confined quarters.
On 17 April 1912 a party under Atkinson, in command at Cape Evans during the absence of the polar party, went to relieve Campbell's party but were beaten back by the weather. The Northern Party survived the winter in their icy chamber, and set out for the base camp on 1912. Despite their physical weakness, the whole party managed to reach Cape Evans on , after a perilous journey which included a crossing of the difficult Drygalski Ice Tongue. Geological and other specimens collected by the Northern Party were retrieved from Cape Adare and Evans Cove by Terra Nova in January 1913.
Western geological parties
First geological expedition, January–March 1911
The objective of this journey was geological exploration of the coastal area west of McMurdo Sound, in a region between the McMurdo Dry Valleys and the Koettlitz Glacier. This work was undertaken by a party consisting of Taylor, Debenham, Wright and Edgar Evans. They landed from Terra Nova on 26 January at Butter Point, opposite Cape Evans on the Victoria Land shore. On 30 January, the party established its main depot in the Ferrar Glacier region, and then conducted explorations and survey work in the Dry Valley and Taylor Glacier areas before moving southwards to the Koettlitz Glacier. After further work there, they started homewards on 2 March, taking a southerly route to Hut Point, where they arrived on 14 March.
Second geological expedition, November 1911 – February 1912
This was a continuation of the work carried out in the earlier journey, this time concentrating on Granite Harbour region approximately north of Butter Point. Taylor's companions this time were Debenham, Gran and Forde. The main journey began on 14 November and involved difficult travel over sea ice to Granite Harbour, which was reached on 26 November. Headquarters were established at a site christened Geology Point, and a stone hut was built. During the following weeks, exploration and surveying work took place on the Mackay Glacier, and a range of features to the north of the glacier were identified and named.
The party was due to be picked up by Terra Nova on 15 January 1912, but the ship could not reach them. The party waited until 5 February before trekking southward, and were rescued from the ice when they were finally spotted from the ship on 18 February. Geological specimens from both Western Mountains expeditions were retrieved by Terra Nova in January 1913.
Winter journey to Cape Crozier
This journey was conceived by Wilson. He had suggested the need for it in the Zoology section of the Discovery Expedition's Scientific Reports, and was anxious to follow up this earlier research. The journey's scientific purpose was to secure emperor penguin eggs from the rookery near Cape Crozier at an early embryo stage, so that "particular points in the development of the bird could be worked out". This required a trip in the depths of winter to obtain eggs in an appropriately early stage of incubation. A secondary purpose was to experiment with food rations and equipment in advance of the coming summer's polar journey. Scott approved, and a party consisting of Wilson, Bowers and Cherry-Garrard set out on 27 June 1911.
Travelling during the Antarctic winter had not been previously tried; Scott wrote that it was "a bold venture, but the right men have gone to attempt it." Cherry-Garrard later described the horrors of the 19 days it took to travel the to Cape Crozier. Gear, clothes, and sleeping bags were constantly iced up; on 5 July, the temperature fell below —"109 degrees of frost—as cold as anyone would want to endure in darkness and iced up clothes", wrote Cherry-Garrard. Often the daily distance travelled was little more than a single mile.
After reaching Cape Crozier on 15 July, the party built an igloo from snow blocks, stone, and a sheet of wood they had brought for the roof. They were then able to visit the penguin colony and collect several emperor penguin eggs. Subsequently, their igloo shelter was almost destroyed in a blizzard with winds of force 11 on the Beaufort scale. The storm also carried away the tent upon which their survival would depend during their return journey, but fortunately this was recovered half a mile away. The group set out on the return journey to Cape Evans, arriving there on 1 August. The three eggs that survived the journey went first to the Natural History Museum in South Kensington, and thereafter were the subject of a report from Cossar Stewart at the University of Edinburgh. The eggs failed to support Wilson's theories.
Cherry-Garrard afterwards described this as the "worst journey in the world", and used this as the title of the book that he wrote about the expedition. Scott called the Winter Journey "a very wonderful performance", and was highly satisfied with the experiments in rations and equipment: "We are as near perfection as experience can direct."
South polar journey
The Barrier: southward
On 13 September 1911, Scott revealed his plans for the South Pole march. Sixteen men would set out, using the two remaining motor sledges, ponies and dogs for the Barrier stage of the journey, which would bring them to the Beardmore Glacier. At this point the dogs would return to base and the ponies would be shot for food. Thereafter, 12 men in three groups would ascend the glacier and begin the crossing of the polar plateau, using man-hauling. Only one of these groups would carry on to the pole; the supporting groups would be sent back at specified latitudes. The composition of the final polar group would be decided by Scott during the journey. For the return journey, Scott ordered that the dog teams set off again from the base camp to replenish depots and meet the polar party between latitude 82 and 82.30 on 1 March to assist the party home.
The motor party, consisting of Lieutenant Evans, Day, Lashly, and Hooper, started from Cape Evans on 24 October, with two motor sledges, their objective being to haul loads to latitude 80° 30' S and wait there for the others. By 1 November, both motor sledges had failed after little more than of travel, so the party man-hauled of supplies for the remaining reaching their assigned latitude two weeks later. Scott's main party, which had left Cape Evans on 1 November with the dogs and ponies, caught up with them on 21 November.
Scott's initial plan was that the dogs would return to base at this stage. Because of slower than expected progress, he decided to take the dogs on further. Day and Hooper were dispatched to Cape Evans with a message to this effect for Simpson, who had been left in charge there. On 4 December, the expedition had reached the Gateway, the name given by Shackleton to the route from the Barrier on to the Beardmore Glacier. At this point a blizzard struck, forcing the men to camp until 9 December, and to break into rations intended for the Glacier journey. When the blizzard lifted, the remaining ponies were shot as planned, and their meat deposited as food for the return parties. On 11 December, Meares and Dimitri turned back with the dogs, carrying a message back to base that "things were not as rosy as they might be, but we keep our spirits up and say the luck must turn."
Beardmore ascent
The party began the ascent of the Beardmore, and on 20 December, reached the beginning of the polar plateau where they laid the Upper Glacier Depot. There was still no hint from Scott as to who would be in the final polar party. On 22 December, at latitude 85° 20' S, Scott sent back Atkinson, Cherry-Garrard, Wright and Keohane. Scott reminded Atkinson "to take the two dog-teams south in the event of Meares having to return home, as seemed likely" to assist the polar party on its return journey the following March.
The remaining eight men continued south, in better conditions which enabled them to make up some of the time lost on the Barrier. By 30 December, they had "caught up" with Shackleton's 1908–1909 timetable. On 3 January 1912, at latitude 87° 32' S, Scott made his decision on the composition of the polar party: five men (Scott, Wilson, Oates, Bowers and Edgar Evans) would go forward while Lieutenant Evans, Lashly and Crean would return to Cape Evans. The decision to take five men forward involved recalculations of weights and rations, since everything had been based on four-men teams.
South Pole
The polar group continued towards the Pole, passing Shackleton's Farthest South (88° 23' S) on 9 January. Seven days later, about from their goal, Amundsen's black flag was spotted and the party knew that they had been forestalled. They reached the Pole the next day, 17 January: "The Pole. Yes, but under very different circumstances from those expected ... Great God! This is an awful place and terrible enough for us to have laboured to it without the reward of priority. Well, it is something to have got here."
Scott still hoped to race Amundsen to the telegraph cablehead in Australia: "Now for a desperate struggle to get the news through first. I wonder if we can do it." On 18 January they discovered Amundsen's tent, some supplies, a letter to King Haakon VII of Norway (which Amundsen politely asked Scott to deliver), and a note stating that Amundsen had arrived there with four companions on 14 December 1911.
The last march
After confirming their position and planting their flag, Scott's party turned homewards. During the next three weeks they made good progress, Scott's diary recording several "excellent marches". Nevertheless, Scott began to worry about the physical condition of his party, particularly of Edgar Evans, who was suffering from severe frostbite and was, Scott records, "a good deal run down." The condition of Oates's feet became an increasing anxiety as the group approached the summit of the Beardmore Glacier and prepared for the descent to the Barrier. On 7 February, they began their descent and had serious difficulty locating a depot. In a brief spell of good weather, Scott ordered a half-day's rest, allowing Wilson to "geologise"; of fossil-bearing samples were added to the sledges. These plant fossils were later used to support the theory of continental drift. Evans's health was deteriorating; a hand injury was failing to heal, he was badly frostbitten, and he is thought to have injured his head after several falls on the ice. "He is absolutely changed from his normal self-reliant self", wrote Scott. Near the bottom of the glacier Evans collapsed, and died on 17 February.
On the Barrier stage of the homeward march, Scott reached the 82° 30' S meeting point for the dog teams, three days ahead of schedule, noting in his diary for 27 February 1912: "We are naturally always discussing possibility of meeting dogs, where and when, etc. It is a critical position. We may find ourselves in safety at the next depot, but there is a horrid element of doubt." The party then met with three, ultimately critical, difficulties: the non-appearance of the dog teams, an unexpected large drop in temperature and a shortage of fuel in the depots. The low temperatures caused poor surfaces which Scott likened to "pulling over desert sand"; he described the surface as "coated with a thin layer of woolly crystals, formed by radiation no doubt. These are too firmly fixed to be removed by the wind and cause impossible friction on the [sledge] runners." The low temperatures were accompanied by an absence of wind, something Scott had expected to assist them on their northern journey.
The party were further slowed down by the frostbite in Oates' left foot. Daily marches were now down to less than , which was insufficient given the lack of oil. By March 10, it became evident the dog teams were not coming: "The dogs which would have been our salvation have evidently failed. Meares [the dog-driver] had a bad trip home I suppose." In a farewell letter to Sir Edgar Speyer, dated March 16, Scott wondered whether he had overshot the meeting point and fought the growing suspicion that he had in fact been abandoned by the dog teams: "We very nearly came through, and it's a pity to have missed it, but lately I have felt that we have overshot our mark. No-one is to blame and I hope no attempt will be made to suggest that we had lacked support." On the same day, Oates, who "now with hands as well as feet pretty well useless", voluntarily left the tent and walked to his death. Scott wrote that Oates' last words were, "I am just going outside and may be some time".
Eleven miles
Oates' sacrifice increased the team's speed but it was too late to save them, especially since Scott's right toes were now becoming frostbitten. Scott, Wilson and Bowers struggled on to a point south of One Ton Depot, but were halted on 20 March, by a fierce blizzard. Although each day they attempted to advance, they were unable to do so. Scott's last diary entry, dated 29 March 1912, the presumed date of their deaths, ends with these words:
Attempts to relieve the polar party, 1912
Orders concerning dogs
Before setting out on the South Pole journey, Scott had made arrangements intended to help the polar party home with the use of dogs. Meares, who was expected to have returned to Cape Evans by 19 December, had been instructed that in late December or early January he should transport to One Ton Depot "Five XS rations [XS = "Extra Summit Ration", food for four men for one week], 3 cases of biscuit, 5 gallons of oil and as much dog food as you can conveniently carry". If this mission could not be carried out by dogs, then "at all hazard" a man-hauling team was to carry the XS rations to the depot. Meares had been further instructed that in about the first week in February, depending on news received from returning units, he should set out, with dogs, with a view to meeting the returning polar party between latitudes 82° or 82°30' on about 1 March. The objective of these orders was to hasten the party back to Cape Evans before Terra Nova left so that news of the polar conquest could be carried immediately to New Zealand. Scott placed greater emphasis on the former journey than on the latter: "Whilst the object of your third journey is important, that of the second is vital". The substance of these orders was reiterated to Atkinson when he left Scott at the top of the Beardmore Glacier on 22 December 1911.
Several events occurred to obscure and ultimately frustrate this order. The fact that Meares had turned back from the polar march much later than originally planned meant that he did not return to Cape Evans until 5 January. Huntford suggests he resigned at this point because he was "disgusted" with Scott's expedition. Fiennes in contrast quotes from a letter by Cherry-Garrard in 1938 that Meares had been ready at Cape Evans to resupply One Ton Depot as ordered, when he had seen the ship arrive in the bay and so stayed at base—the "ship" turned out to be a mirage, and the real ship did not arrive until mid-February. According to Fiennes, Meares was preoccupied with his late father's estate and was anxious to leave on the ship as soon as he could. Three of the XS rations required for One Ton Depot had been man-hauled there by a party which left Cape Evans on 26 December, but neither Meares nor anyone else transported the missing rations or the dog food to One Ton Depot.
Atkinson's aborted journey to meet Scott
When Atkinson arrived back at Cape Evans from the Beardmore Glacier at the end of January, he was the senior officer present and thus in command of the base camp, a role to which he was not accustomed. Terra Nova arrived from her winter mooring in New Zealand on 9 February, and instead of setting off for Scott, Atkinson used the shore party for the arduous task of unloading the ship—a mistake, Cherry-Garrard thought, since these men might be required to sledge again. Belatedly, on 13 February, Atkinson set out with Dimitri Gerov and the dog teams for the scheduled meeting with Scott on the Barrier, reaching Hut Point south before being delayed by bad weather.
During the final returning party's journey, Lieutenant Evans had become seriously ill with scurvy. After One Ton Depot he was unable to march, and was carried on the sledge by Crean and Lashly to a point south of Hut Point. At that point he appeared likely to die. On 18 February, Crean walked on alone to reach Hut Point (covering of difficult terrain in only 18 hours), where he found Atkinson and Dimitri with their dogs, pausing in their journey to meet Scott. Atkinson diverted his attention to the rescue of Evans, whom he brought to Hut Point, barely alive, on . From that point, Atkinson's priority was to bring Evans to the safety of the ship.
Cherry-Garrard's journey to One Ton Depot
With Atkinson thus occupied, an alternative arrangement to pick up Scott was necessary. Disregarding Meares, who was "not available for work", the most qualified person available to meet Scott's party was the physicist Wright, an experienced traveller and navigator, but the chief scientist Simpson insisted Wright's scientific work be given priority. Atkinson therefore chose Cherry-Garrard. Lieutenant Evans wrote later that he thought Scott would have approved the decision to keep Wright at the base camp. Cherry-Garrard would be accompanied by Dimitri.
In his 1922 book The Worst Journey, Cherry-Garrard recalled the controversial verbal orders given by Atkinson. He was to travel to One Ton Depot as fast as possible, where he was to leave food for the returning polar party. If Scott had not arrived before him, Cherry-Garrard should decide "what to do". Atkinson also emphasised that this was not a rescue party, and added that Scott had given instructions that the dogs were "not to be risked in view of the sledging plans for next season". In the standard edition of his book, Cherry-Garrard omitted any mention of Scott's request to be picked up at 82° or 82°30' on 1 March. But after Atkinson's and Lady Scott's deaths in 1929 and 1947 respectively, in a postscript to his privately published 1948 edition, Cherry-Garrard acknowledged the existence of Scott's order and provided reasons why Atkinson, and later he himself, failed to comply: Atkinson was too exhausted at the beginning of February to set off to meet Scott, and the lack of dog food at One Ton Depot made a timely start impractical. Karen May of the Scott Polar Research Institute goes further by suggesting that the instruction about saving the dogs for the following season was Atkinson's own invention.
Cherry-Garrard left Hut Point with Dimitri and two dog teams on , arriving at One Ton Depot on and depositing the extra rations. Scott was not there. With supplies for themselves and the dogs for twenty-four days, they had about eight days' time before having to return to Hut Point. The alternative to waiting was moving southwards for another four days. Any travel beyond that, in the absence of the dog food depot, would mean killing dogs for dog food as they went along, thus breaching Atkinson's "not to be risked" order. Cherry-Garrard argued that the weather was too poor for further travel, with daytime temperatures as low as , and that he might miss Scott if leaving the depot, and thus decided to wait for Scott. On , in worsening weather and with his own supplies dwindling, Cherry-Garrard turned for home. Meanwhile, Scott's team were fighting for their lives less than away. Atkinson would later write, "I am satisfied that no other officer of the expedition could have done better". Cherry-Garrard was troubled for the rest of his life by thoughts that he might have taken other actions that could have saved the polar party.
Atkinson's final relief effort
When Cherry-Garrard returned from One Ton Depot without Scott's party, anxieties rose. Atkinson, now in charge at Cape Evans as the senior naval officer present, decided to make another attempt to reach the polar party when the weather permitted, and on set out with Keohane, man-hauling a sledge containing 18 days' provisions. In very low temperatures () they had reached Corner Camp by , when, in Atkinson's view, the weather, the cold and the time of year made further progress south impossible. Atkinson recorded, "In my own mind I was morally certain that the [polar] party had perished".
Search party, October 1912
The remaining expedition members still at Cape Evans waited through the winter, continuing their scientific work. In the spring Atkinson had to consider whether efforts should first be directed to the rescue of Campbell's Northern Party, or to establishing if possible the fate of the polar party. A meeting of the whole group decided that they should first search for signs of Scott. The party set out on , accompanied by a team of mules that had been landed from Terra Nova during its resupply visit the previous summer. On the party found the tent containing the frozen bodies of Scott, Wilson and Bowers, south of One Ton Depot. Atkinson read the relevant portions of Scott's diaries, and the nature of the disaster was revealed. After diaries, personal effects and records had been collected, the tent was collapsed over the bodies and a cairn of snow erected, topped by a cross fashioned from Gran's skis. The party searched further south for Oates's body, but found only his sleeping bag. On , they raised a cairn near to where they believed he had died.
On returning to Hut Point on 25 November, the search party found that the Northern Party had rescued itself and had returned safely to base. Early in the morning of 10 February 1913, Atkinson and Pennell rowed into the New Zealand port of Oamaru, from where they sent a coded message back to the expedition's New Zealand agent, Joseph Kinsey, informing him of the fate of Scott and his party. Atkinson and Pennell then boarded a train to meet Terra Nova in Lyttelton near Christchurch.
Aftermath
As Campbell was now the senior naval officer of the expedition, he assumed command for its final weeks until the arrival of Terra Nova on 1913. Before the final departure a large wooden cross was erected on the slopes of Observation Hill, overlooking Hut Point, inscribed with the five names of the dead and a quotation from Tennyson's Ulysses: "To strive, to seek, to find, and not to yield".
The loss of Scott and his party overshadowed all else in the British public's mind, including Amundsen's feat in being first at the Pole. For many years the image of Scott as a tragic hero, beyond reproach, remained almost unchallenged, for although there were rifts among some who were close to the expedition, including relatives of those who died, this disharmony was not public. There was no real change in public perceptions until the 1970s, by which time nearly all those directly concerned with the expedition were dead.
Controversy was ignited with the publication of Roland Huntford's book Scott and Amundsen (1979, re-published and televised in 1985 as The Last Place on Earth). Huntford was critical of Scott's supposedly authoritarian leadership style and of his poor judgment of men, and blamed him for a series of organisational failures that led to the death of everyone in the polar party. Scott's personal standing suffered from these attacks; efforts to restore his reputation have included the account by Ranulph Fiennes (a direct rebuttal of Huntford's version), Susan Solomon's scientific analysis of the weather conditions that ultimately defeated Scott, David Cranes's 2005 biography of Scott, and Karen May's new analysis of Scott's disobeyed orders specifying that the dog teams transport his returning party swiftly back to the base camp.
In comparing the achievements of Scott and Amundsen, most polar historians generally accept that Amundsen's skills with ski and dogs, his general familiarity with ice conditions, and his clear focus on a non-scientific expedition gave him considerable advantages in the race for the Pole. Scott's verdict on the disaster that overtook his party, written when he was close to death, lists the initial loss of pony transport, weather conditions, "a shortage of fuel in our depots for which I cannot account", and the sickening of Evans and Oates, but ultimately Scott concludes that "our wreck is certainly due to this sudden advent of severe weather [...] on the Barrier [...] in the day, at night". Presumably with regard to the failed rendezvous with the dog teams requested for 1 March 1912, Scott furthermore wrote, "No-one is to blame and I hope no attempt will be made to suggest that we have lacked support". Cherry-Garrard, whom Atkinson placed in charge of the dog teams which started late, failed to meet Scott and turned for home, observes that "the whole business simply bristles with 'ifs'"; an accumulation of decisions and circumstances that might have fallen differently ultimately led to catastrophe. But "we were as wise as anyone can be before the event."
After suffering irreversible damage while carrying supplies to base stations in Greenland, Terra Nova was set on fire and later sunk by gunfire off the southern coast of Greenland on 13 September 1943, at . Its submerged remains were found in 2012.
Scientific legacy
The scientific contributions of the expedition were long overshadowed by the deaths of Scott and his party. The 12 scientists who participated—the largest Antarctic scientific team of its time—made important discoveries in zoology, botany, geology, glaciology, and meteorology. The Terra Nova returned to England with over 2,100 plants, animals, and fossils, over 400 of which were new to science. Discoveries of the fossil plant Glossopteris—also found in Australia, New Zealand, Africa, and India—supported the ideas that the climate of Antarctica was formerly warm enough to support trees, and that Antarctica was once united to the other landmasses. Before the expedition, glaciers had been studied only in Europe. The meteorological data collected was the longest unbroken weather record in the early twentieth century, providing baselines for current assessments of climate change. In 1920, former Terra Nova geographer Frank Debenham and geologist Raymond Priestley founded the Scott Polar Research Institute at the University of Cambridge, which houses the greatest library of polar research.
See also
Comparison of the Amundsen and Scott Expeditions
Heroic Age of Antarctic Exploration
List of Antarctic expeditions
References
Notes
Footnotes
Sources
External links
1910 in Antarctica
1911 in Antarctica
1912 in Antarctica
1913 in Antarctica
Expeditions from the United Kingdom
Heroic Age of Antarctic Exploration
Robert Falcon Scott
United Kingdom and the Antarctic
South Pole
History of the Ross Dependency |
4373127 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20rugby%20league%20in%20South%20Africa | History of rugby league in South Africa | The History of rugby league in South Africa goes back as far as the 1950s. The 1990s brought about the establishment of the South African Rugby Football League to promote amateur rugby league.
Failed promotion - 1950s
In 1953, a committee was formed, headed by Mr. Ludwig Japhet, for the sole purpose of promotion of rugby league. No doubt, the decision to form such a committee was the lure of potential sponsorship and gate takings that playing rugby league in new areas or against other nations would undoubtedly bring to the game. Mr. Ludwig Japhet held a meeting with Mr. Bill Fallowfield in December of that year to discuss the possibilities of rugby league promotion in which South Africa was discussed.
The labours of the promotional committee bore its fruit in South Africa in 1957 with the British and French teams staging a series of exhibition matches for the promotion of the game. Unfortunately neither the British nor the French took the games seriously, which resulted in light and effortless tackling; the lack of the biff and barge, which the South Africans where so accustom to, left them unsatisfied with what they had seen. After playing the two matches in Benoni and Durban a third was scheduled for East London, although this never did take place.
Another attempt - 1960s
The idea of rugby league in South Africa faded with the death of Mr. Ludwig Japhet after the experimental tour, only to be brought back to life with the formation of two almost indistinguishable but totally separate rugby league organisations: The National Rugby League (NRL), formed by one Mr. Norman Lacey and Rugby League South Africa (RLSA) instigated by a Mr Maurice Smith with the formation of a caretaker committee of which Messrs John B. Weill and Irwin Benson where involved and subsequently handed the responsibility of the fledgling organisation.
Both leagues saw themselves as the governing body of rugby league in South Africa and thus both had plans to commence competitions in the summer of 1962. Eventually both organisations came to be actively reporting to the British RFL, as well as receiving promotional material which fostered an intense rivalry between the two factions. Unfortunately for rugby league in South Africa, the two organisations could not settle their differences and each went a head with their respectful competitions; so was born rugby league in South Africa, under confusing and hostile circumstances.
In that year, both organisations sought touring teams from the UK. The National rugby league organised to have Wakefield Trinity compete against a combined XIII, however as the score lines told, this was perhaps too stiff for the South Africans to handle, losing 59–3. Rugby League South Africa attempted to counteract any of the difficulties its identical twin had in the face of stiff English competition and hired former Wigan, Easts and Australian coach, Dave Brown, for three months. The Lions defeated the South Africans rugby league representative side convincingly. Fortunately, not all was lost as the British later admitting that the South Africans where skilled, only lacking in tactics, specifically defensive, which had lost them the game.
1962
Imagination
Each organisation went on to make separate applications for affiliation with the International Board. The RLIF must have known that the decision to grant one league affiliation with the board would inevitably lead to the collapse of the other and thus such a move would result in loss of clubs and fans.
In an effort to protect the game in South Africa, the international board put forth a proposal to both parties that would effectively see the two league's merged. In reality, the RLIF gave the NRL its death notice, who had little choice but to turn over its clubs to the South African Rugby League as it seemed the RLIF now favoured the SARL over itself. To make the deal more appealing to the NRL, the international board also proposed that the NRL clubs founders be reimbursed for any initial investments through future NRL club profits in the SARL.
1963
The Beginning of the end
South African rugby league as it seemed, had a future. Part of this future, it was hoped, was that the nine teams located in the Johannesburg area would launch the 1963 season.
At the time when the International Board had made its proposal for the combined governing body for rugby league in South Africa it also stated the significance an invitation from Australia to the South Africans to tour. The Australian board of control also took on the International Boards proposal and in an obvious expression of their interest in seeing rugby league exceed in South Africa, offered the invitational side 65 percent of gross gates and a guaranteed $45,000.
As was a tradition already set down in South African rugby league history, only more could go wrong, and it did. The visitors where totally out-played by the Australian's, even taking into account the early injuries sustained by the South Africans. It was obvious the skill and their knowledge of tactics (particularly of the forwards) had not improved and so it set a deep decline for South African rugby league.
New beginnings – 1990s
In December 1988 when Widnes and Wigan were both at the top of the Rugby League tree in England, a chance meeting took place in the South African Irish pub called Fibber Maghees next to Kyalami Motor Racing circuit. Dave Southern from Widnes and Tony Barker from Wigan were the individuals the conversation went something like this DS to TB - I contacted Harry Edgar from Open Rugby about a World Development Officer who could help establish League in SA, he wrote back to say that no such position existed and even if it did SA would not be welcome due to the current political regime in power - Apartheid - basically I felt that I was being penalised for being in the country and trying to promote my game.
TB to DS so what did you do? Well I wrote a masterpiece to the RFL Chairman at Chappeltown Rd Mr David Oxley asking him if the time was not right now for the development of League in SA given the IRB sanction of a world 15 to play against the Springboks at Ellis Park - Mr Oxley replied "...sport and politics are inextricably mixed, and to ignore one without the other is simply to bury ones head in the sand..." So what are you going to do now Dave? Well not quite sure at the moment. TB-Why don't we do it ourselves? What? Start League in SA? DS-Yeah I'm up for that how should we start? TB-I'm actually going to the UK for a month when I'm back why don't we get together and talk?
(This sounded like a cooling off period for me DS to forget about the idea as far as I could tell) Tony gave me his tel number and I duly phoned him in Jan 89 as arranged. Tony needed to be prompted as to who I was and what we had agreed but we set a meeting up to discuss. I was playing RU for Old Edwardians (Old Eds) at the time in a suburb of Jhb called Houghton. My connections were good with the coaching staff and as luck would have it one of the coaches Gary Lewis had a brother in law called Ray Mordt the ex Wigan winger from the 80's.
We decided to place an advertisement in the Saturday Star looking for people interested in playing, officiating supporting or watching RL to call our two listed respective telephone numbers. The phone at my place of residence was running hot on the Sunday morning we collected in excess of 40 names of interested parties. A reporter called Rodney Hartman from the Star followed up on the advert and wrote a good article in the paper talking about our plans and desires for RL. He assisted us in advertising our meeting of interested persons at what was to become the inaugural meeting at Old Eds.
The meeting saw Dave Southern address the audience of some 60-100 people in a Martin Luther King sort of a way with his I have a dream vision for RL. Ray Mordt attended but was reluctant to nail his colours to the mast since he was unsure of what lay ahead of him perhaps (he went on to become coach of Gauteng Lions). The meeting was met with a positive response with Trevor Lake (Born in Rhodesia was set to play for the Junior Springboks, ex Wigan player) being on hand from the press appeal to add a mature and steady hand to the proceedings he didn't talk formally at the launch other than to say that he would be prepared to support us where he could."
After a series of training sessions and friendly games played amongst loose combinations of players at Old Eds and Jeppe Old Boys Rugby Club, The big breakthrough came when Trevor Lake introduced the group to Peter Cook the cricket enthusiast who was involved in the introduction of Kerry Packer style Day Night cricket to SA. With Peter on board we soon had an Inaugural Luncheon arranged as a launching platform for the game and a fund-raiser at the same time. Around the same time Ray Mordt introduce the original Committee which included Trevor Lake, Dave Southern, John Callaghan, Peter Cook and Trevor Lake to the Ex N.Transvaal and Pretoria Harlequins player Jacey Strauss. Numerous meeting took place with Strauss and before too long he was brought onto the Board.
Club formation in the first year or two was left to Dave Southern who, as well as forming the original team Johannesburg Nomads (later to be known as the Warriors), also conducted coaching clinics at schools such as Witkoppen, Paradise Bend and Leukop Prison School all in the Northern suburbs of Johannesburg. John Callaghan used his business contacts to get us into SAMCOR a motor car production company in Pretoria, from this base we would bring in children from the nearby Mamelodi township. Progress was rapid and very encouraging with hundreds of children turning up on Saturday morning coaching clinics.
1992
The first championship
Until this point, the SARL board had only organised the odd friendlies and township clinics. That all changed when SARL organised an inner city championship, the first of its kind under the administrations control.
Jacey Strauss began to effectively run the league in 1992 and set about fundraising; at times utilising his offices (at ABI Coca-Cola bottlers in Midrand) efforts to get things done, which earned the board a new sponsor (Magnis Nissan a local Pretoria motor dealer) for the championship to be held in September.
Meanwhile, SARL had also made contact with a Melbourne-based entrepreneur Glenn Johnson who in turn, saw potential of Russia coming to South Africa for a test. Importantly, he brought to South Africa his cousin, Paul Matete, the ex-Kiwi international who soon become South African Rhino's coach. Paul Matete used the championship as a launch pad for his first ever-national team to play Russia that November.
Importantly the championship had attracted Mike Bardsley, an enthusiast who had access to videos, editing equipment and contacts at S.A.B.C, the state broadcaster. Bardsley videoed the championship and some township based coaching clinics and put together a good promotional package. S.A.B.C showed it and the response was good.
The championship was staged in Pretoria over two days and included teams from Pretoria, Cape Town, Durban, Johannesburg and Port Elizabeth. Durban beat Pretoria 8–6 in a very hard final. Two notable guests from England were in attendance, Jim Mills and Sam Evans from Widnes, they were on a fact finding mission and very kindly brought over a gift of a set of Widnes shirts to help with the development plans.
Barry Haslam refereed seven open age games in 24 hours. It was this that led to further development of the league and South African rugby leagues first referee development program.
The first test series
Dave Southern's good work in the townships had given SARL useful political allies (NSC etc.) to get approval for the tour. Jacey Strauss found both SA and Russian based sponsors to pay for food, accommodation and matches. The Russian Bears arrived in November.
South Africa lost both their games, leaving it to a local Cape Town side to win back some South African pride. The aggregate crowd for the tour was in excess of 6000, which unfortunately was not enough to have the competition at least break even. Despite the debt, the good crowd figures and pleasing displays from both sides meant that the series had given SARL a small launch pad for the code in South Africa.
Meanwhile, the RFL was struggling to manage troubles that had arisen in Russian rugby league which led to the RFL to appoint the Australian Rugby League and Bob Abbott as minder of the SARL.
1993
The board splits
Turmoil hit South African rugby league again as two factions formed within the board when members became disgruntled over poor financial management, extravagance and naivete. Strauss and his entrepreneurs felt the organisation could recover and that the investments over the last year where needed to lift the profile of the game. The alternative faction, behind Lake, where concerned with ill-disciplined planning and aimed at more sustainable growth and thus felt resources should be invested in grassroots and particularly the townships.
In January 1993, nine board members, led by Barry Haslam called for Lake's resignation 'out of the blue'. It duly came and with him three other board members followed (Dave Southern, Tony Ellison and John Callaghan). Dave Southern's position was made impossible when he was given an ultimatum to concentrate his, up to now township work in white suburban areas in order to secure a stipend of a payment as a salary. When he asked what the alternative was to the offer to work in white schools he was told that the alternative was that he wouldn't get paid - on being pushed for an answer and obvious acceptance of the terms presented, the Board were surprised when Southern said "I dont think Im going to get paid?". This was the start of Mini League South Africa. The exchange of letters, threats, abuse and acrimony was unpleasant on both sides.
The high point
The period from 1993 to 1994 is supposed to have been an era of unprecedented growth and success of the game in South Africa attributed mostly to the South African televising of the ARL despite the claim that the weekly half-hour highlights package was used more as a filler than as a program designed to attract significant viewers. The televising ran uninterrupted for 18 months and attracted an average viewership of 1.2 million, no doubt an important advertisement for rugby league in South Africa.
In August, the league finances stabilised and Coca-Cola became major sponsor of a youth sevens tournament. The tournament ran with over 1,000 children, still a rugby league record for one festival. Meanwhile, Ian Parnaby and Haslam coached over 90 referees/teachers and ran clinics in the Cape townships for 500 children.
South Africa performed well enough at the World Sevens earlier in the year that the ARL saw fit to give their blessing for a tour to South Africa by Australian outfit North Sydney Bears; negotiated by Struass and Haslam.
Following the Russian tests, the 1993/94 season included an all-time high of 26 clubs from Johannesburg, Cape Town, Natal and Mooi-Nooi. The league also consisted of four regional committees which began to prepare for the arrival of Barla. The number of clubs and regional committees represented a strength to the board, never before seen in South African rugby league.
1994
The SARL was riding a wave of success and profit from the 1993 season. The BARLA tour was well run, well attended and had good sponsorship. The Rhinos sharpened their own preparation with another good Sydney Sevens. The league was in the black, expanding and taking the game to new areas, such as Randfontein with the Transvaal and BARLA game, which it is reported attracted a crowd of 300.
Political change
The multi-racial elections of April 1994 precipitated changes to the country that caused League to rapidly lose ground over the next 18 months and since never regain its previous public support.
Global sport exploded; South Africa had legitimate international competition. Rugby Union, soccer, cricket, tennis, golf and athletics made large in-roads into South African psyche as sports people signed up deal after deal and world sport filled South African television screens; leaving little room for rugby league. Former sponsors of township development now diverted all their spare cash to government projects. The league was eventually forced off television as other sports with overseas sponsorship came in, such as swimming, basketball and baseball.
1995
Ockie Oosthuizen
Ocki Oosthuizen was a self-made and well known entrepreneur who had been hovering on the fringes of the league well before his arrival in mid-1994 when he was to professionally event manage the October series against Queensland, another tour attributable to Bob Abbott. The Rihnos where coached by Paul Matete and assisted by no less than Artie Beetson. The event ran in the red and the Rhinos where beaten 28–0. Suffering a substantial financial loss, Ockie promptly withdrew his financial support for the December tour by Perth's Western Reds, which went ahead anyway, although it was modestly run, staged and attended.
The South African Rugby League club season shrank on the back of SARLs looming financial crisis and a lack of league being broadcast on South African television screens. However, Ockie had not been discouraged by the years misfortunes and arranged to have the ailing SARL office moved to his insurance firm where a consultants developed a business plan for the launching of a professional league in South Africa. However, Ockie lost patience with the board, who were largely amateur club men, as opposed to Ockie who had come from an entrepreneurial life.
Ockie's attitude hardened the moment Super League exploded onto the scene. He was above board about his views, which largely excluded grassroots development, and frantically pursued Super League in with his plans in Leeds and Sydney. But the clubs fought back, undermining Oosthuizen's ambitions and fuelling suspicions and global politics that held back the previous international board.
World Cup
By July 1995, three months before the Centenary World Cup, Ockie Oosthuizen had serious reservations about the likelihood of a deal with Super League.
Tony Fisher arrived to prepare the Rhinos for the World Cup and he and Ootsthuizen - both abrasive- quickly fell out. The Rhinos, a collection of largely club players, trained daily for 15 weeks and confidently beat BARLA in two tests. Oosthuizen was footing the bill and a last-ditch visit by Roy Waudby did not engender Ockie or the British Rugby League to either.
The Halifax World Cup saw the Rhinos easily beaten in their three games.
The court case against the Australian Super League and Ockie's fallout with the British Rugby League (Maurice Lindsay) ended his involvement with SARL.
1996
SARL steadily became more unstable as Ockie disassociated himself with the board and their membership of the RLIF was suspended. As the Super League and ARL civil war continued in Australia, consuming large sums of money that otherwise would have been used for international development, South Africa was left abandoned like many start up leagues of the time.
The South African Rugby League came close to total collapse; the board however regrouped and contact resumed with the RFL. Following the regrouping, the board held a fully democratic annual general meeting. Contact resumed with the RFL, through Maurice Lindsay who supported SARLs ambitions to enter the 1996 student world cup, which SARL had planned to use as a vehicle for reestablishing the ailing SARL and its clubs to its former more stable self. SARL went on to win the bowl-final as opposed to the cup final of the student world cup; a semi-good result.
Through some intense lobbying by SARL and constant support from the RFL's Maurice Lindsay, South Africa was further awarded the Student World Cup for 1998.
Further to SARL's rebuilding effort, Barry Haslam accepted an invitation to the international board meeting in Auckland of that year. Haslam gave his presentation and proposal for SARL to be invited back as a member of the RLIF. Maurice Lindsay subsequently announced that by a unanimous vote, SARL had been welcomed back to the RLIF.
1997
SARL put together a nines side, coached by ex Springbok Tiaan Strauss and supplemented by South African players that had been strengthened through scholarships to Australian Super League clubs. The SARL nines beat France, Japan, the Cook Islands, drew to Tonga and lost to GB and Fiji. The Australian Press labelled the SARL nines side as 'the surprise package' of the tournament and dramatically improved.
Bill Baguley, Chairman of Germiston and board member, pioneered the "Athlone" model. SARL's efforts in the black townships over the years have largely failed due to little infrastructure and support. Schools, however have been encouraging since parents and teachers are great resources and your still establishing the game at a grass roots level. Athlone had developed into an established league playing school, of whom most of its students were black. Athlone went on to regularly play and beat white teams without; one of the few sustained achievements of the 1990s SARL board.
The team that left South African shores to tour Australia were studded with ex-Springbok, union players. Some of the Union stars of the 60's, played Rugby League but did not adapt fast enough to challenge any rugby team on their tour to Australia. There they suffered two defeats but very little was said about this team which learned by their mistakes. to score a narrow win of 7–4 in the land of the White Cloud! The team was known as the "Springbok Rugby League side", the first and very last to wear a Springbok on their blazers. Back biome, the South Africans faced the unforeseen! Virtually all the municipalities were instructed not to make plying fields available to Rugby League in South Africa. Players were scorned as "Traitors" and were out cast for selling their first birth right, namely union or amateur rugby. The game that was loved by dedicated rugby stars was a dying one. But the fighting spirit of
a young rugby player (Jan Prinsloo, also called "Jan Das", from Pretoria Rugby League Club, took up the gloves with the South African Rugby Board and in particular with the President of the Union, Dr. Danie Craven. Dr. Danie who had sympathy with League said that although he had tried to have the league players reinstated, there was nothing he could do as it was in the hands of the International Rugby Board. Those letters and correspondence is available and in the position of Prinsloo who said that rugby league will one day become a giant amongst rugby codes in the world and until then he will not rest to see this happened. The battle went on for some time and many others tried to revive the sport. The sand was running out and many of the players became disillusioned. The years went by. In the background stood the very same young man. Prinsloo, who has now become an old man, always wearing his Springbok Rugby League blazer. After 60 years of dedicated service to League, he was heralded as a Legend in South Africa's League Hall of fame and was bestowed for a second time the honor as a Legend when he received Rugby League's Highest accolade the Rhino Blaser, the only Rugby League player to be awarded double Legend status. What happened is history and a chapter that needs not to be forgotten or ignored or scraped. The history of the game forms the backbone of Rugby League in South Africa.
References
South Africa RL History
More SA RL History
Rugby league in South Africa
South Africa |
4373207 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hans%20Gude | Hans Gude | Hans Fredrik Gude (March 13, 1825August 17, 1903) was a Norwegian romanticist painter and is considered along with Johan Christian Dahl to be one of Norway's foremost landscape painters. He has been called a mainstay of Norwegian National Romanticism. He is associated with the Düsseldorf school of painting.
Gude's artistic career was not one marked with drastic change and revolution, but was instead a steady progression that slowly reacted to general trends in the artistic world. Gude's early works are of idyllic, sun-drenched Norwegian landscapes which present a romantic, yet still realistic view of his country. Around 1860 Gude began painting seascapes and other coastal subjects. Gude had difficulty with figure drawing initially and so collaborated with Adolph Tidemand in some of his painting, drawing the landscape himself and allowing Tidemand to paint the figures. Later Gude would work specifically on his figures while at Karlsruhe, and so began populating his paintings with them. Gude initially painted primarily with oils in a studio, basing his works on studies he had done earlier in the field. However, as Gude matured as a painter he began to paint en plein air and espoused the merits of doing so to his students. Gude would paint with watercolors later in life as well as gouache in an effort to keep his art constantly fresh and evolving, and although these were never as well received by the public as his oil paintings, his fellow artists greatly admired them.
Gude spent forty-five years as an art professor and so he played an important role in the development of Norwegian art by acting as a mentor to three generations of Norwegian artists. Young Norwegian artists flocked to wherever Gude was teaching, first at the Academy of Art in Düsseldorf and later at the School of Art in Karlsruhe. Gude also served as a professor at the Berlin Academy of Art from 1880 to 1901, although he attracted few Norwegians to the Berlin Academy because by this time Berlin had been surpassed in prestige in the eyes of young Norwegian artists by Paris.
Over the course of his lifetime Gude won numerous medals, was inducted as an honorary member into many art academies, and was awarded the Grand Cross of the Order of St. Olav. He was the father of painter Nils Gude and watercolorist and illustrator Agnes Charlotte Guide. His daughter Sigrid married German sculptor Otto Lessing.
Early life
Gude was born in Christiania in 1825 the son of Ove Gude, a judge, and Marie Elisabeth Brandt.
Gude began his artistic career with private lessons from Johannes Flintoe, and by 1838 he was attending Flintoe's evening classes at the Royal School of Drawing in Christiania. In the autumn of 1841 Johan Sebastian Welhaven suggested that the young Gude should be sent to Düsseldorf to further his education in the arts.
Academy of Art in Düsseldorf
At the Academy of Art in Düsseldorf Gude encountered Johann Wilhelm Schirmer – a professor in landscape painting – who advised him to give up his ambitions of being a painter and to return to his regular studies before it was too late. Gude was rejected by the academy, but attracted the attention of Andreas Achenbach who provided him with private lessons.
As a student
Gude was finally accepted into the academy in the autumn of 1842 and joined Schirmer's landscape painting class where he made quick progress. The landscape painting class at the academy was new at the time, having been founded in 1839 as a counterpart to the more long standing figure painting class. At the time figure painting was considered a more prestigious genre than landscape painting as it was thought only through painting the human body could true beauty be expressed.
Gude, along with most of the class of twelve, received a grade of "good" his first semester and was described as "talented". On his report card for the 1843–44 school year he was the only student to be described as "very talented", and the report for his fourth year said that he "paints Norwegian scenery in a truthful and distinctive manner".
While Gude was a student, two different trends in landscaping were developing at the academy: a romantic trend and a classical trend. The romanticists depicted wild, untamed wildernesses with dark forests, soaring peaks, and rushing water to capture the terrifying and overpowering aspects of nature. They used rich, saturated colors with strong contrast of light and shadow. The classicists were more interested in recreating landscapes from the heroic or mythical past and often set them in the midst of religious or historical events. The classicists focused on lines and clarity in their compositions. It was through Achenbach – Gude's first teacher upon arriving in Düsseldorf – that he was exposed to the romanticist tradition, while it was through his classes with and later time teaching for Schirmer that he was exposed to the classicist traditions.
In 1827 Schirmer and Carl Friedrich Lessing founded a Society for Landscape Composition that would meet a few times each year at Schirmer's home where Schirmer would offer advice on the composition of landscape paintings. Fifteen years later Gude began attending the meetings of the society with other students from his class, but as he progressed to greater levels of realism Gude began to make it clear that he did not agree with the ideas of composition Schirmer put forward during the meetings, saying specifically:
In Düsseldorf Gude met Carl Friedrich Lessing who, while initially aloof, became Gude's friend and colleague. Their relationship was such a close one that Gude's eldest daughter eventually married one of Lessing's sons. The two artists differed in style though, with Lessing painting dramatic, historical works while Gude never once introduced historical events into his own paintings.
Gude served as a student teacher at the academy until 1844, before leaving to live in Christiania. On July 25, 1850, Gude married Betsy Charlotte Juliane Anker (1830–1912), the daughter of General Erik Anker, in Christiania (today called Oslo).
Professorship
In 1854 Gude was appointed the professor of landscape painting at the academy replacing his former teacher Schirmer. Gude was twenty-nine when appointed, making him the youngest professor at the academy. His appointment was partially political, in a conflict between Rhineland and Prussian interests Gude was seen as a neutral candidate because of his Norwegian roots. Gude was recommended for the position by the current Director of the academy Wilhelm von Schadow, but only after Andreas Achenbach, Oswald Achenbach, and Lessing had refused the post due to lack of suitable pay. In regards to his position and compensation, Gude wrote:
Throughout his tenure, Gude had private pupils in addition to his normal classes. As a professor Gude taught six hours of class, held two hours of office hours, took turns with other professors supervising the nude drawing class and attended staff meetings. In 1857 Gude handed in his resignation, officially citing family considerations and failing health as his reasons for resigning, although in his memoirs he blamed opposition and backbiting from two of his pupils. The landscape painting professorship was the bottom of the pay scale at the academy, and Gude was one of the few professors to be refused a raise when others received them in 1855. Others have suggested that Gude wished to leave the academy for fear for becoming stuck in a rut artistically. Gude received better treatment from the academy after he turned in his resignation, and it would take him a full five years to finally leave Düsseldorf. Although professors at the academy complained that their teaching prevented them from undertaking more lucrative endeavors, Gude was able to sell enough works to afford a modest house in Düsseldorf which stood in what is now Hofgarten.
Norwegian or German art
By the mid-19th century the academy in Düsseldorf had become a center for training Norwegian artists, but within Norway there arose a debate as to whether the art was truly Norwegian as it did not originate in Norway, and was in fact produced by artists who had been trained in Germany. The debate was sparked by proposals to build an art school in Norway, and it was therefore essential for supporters of a Norwegian academy to argue that Norwegian values could not be instilled in the artists if they had to go abroad.
In a letter to Jørgen Moe Gude writes that he see possibility for his own development in Düsseldorf, and that even if it would cause him to be known as a German artist instead of a Norwegian, he would not be ashamed of the fact. In defense of Norwegian artists at the academy, Gude writes that they were not simply imitating German artists:
Gude was convinced that for Norwegian artists at the academy it was impossible to escape their heritage and that Norway influenced their art whether they wanted it to or not. On this subject he wrote:
Von Schadow however argued the Gude's art was in fact German in an attempt to defend his nomination of Gude to succeed Schirmer. He wrote of Gude that "His education is totally German, his style unwontedly elevated."
Wales
Many of Gude's peers moved on from the academy in Düsseldorf to other art institutes, but Gude decided to seek more direct contact with nature. Gude had gained a foothold in the British art market in the 1850s after his works were accepted into the galleries of Francis Egerton, 1st Earl of Ellesmere and the Marquess of Lansdowne, and so when an English art dealer and former student of Gude – Mr. Stiff – suggested Gude might find success in England, he was quick to respond. In the autumn of 1862 Gude set off for the Lledr Valley near Conwy. Wales, a place renowned for its picturesque scenery, was already home to a colony of British plein-air artists. While small groups of artists living in the countryside in order to inspire each other, be closer to their subject and escape the city were common, Gude was one of the first Norwegian artists to live in such a manner. Gude rented a house overlooking River Lledr where he painted one of the ancient Roman bridges which was popular with artists of the time.
Gude reports that the British and Welsh landscape painters were disdainful of artists from the continent, and that they used a very different style of painting from the continental artists. Whereas Gude and fellow continental artists would go out in nature and make sketches to act as studies for studio works, the British and Welsh painters set up their easels in the field and worked on their paintings with their subjects in front of them. Gude attempted to improve his reputation among the local painters with exhibitions at the Royal Academy's spring shows in London in 1863 and 1864, but both were flops that Gude described as "useful but bitter medicine". Despite these setbacks – furthered by the strain the trip had put on Gude's finances due to lack of paintings being sold – Gude felt the trip was of great benefit to himself as an artist, writing to his brother-in-law Theodor Kjerulf:
While in Wales Gude was visited by Adolph Tidemand together with Frederik Collett, and the three traveled to Caernarvon and Holyhead from which Gude observed his first real Atlantic storm.
Baden School of Art
In December 1863 Gude was offered and accepted a professorship at the Baden School of Art in Karlsruhe where he would once again succeed Schirmer, and so he left Wales. Gude was hesitant to take the position as he felt that it was working for the enemy but was unable to support himself in Norway due to the lack of an art school. He wrote about his thoughts on the position to Kjerulf, stating:
It is suspected that Gude was offered the professorship due to a recommendation from Lessing. When Gude accepted the position at Karlsruhe the flow of Norwegian painters to the Düsseldorf Academy redirected to Karlsruhe, which would produce many of the Norwegian painters of the 1860s and 1870s, among them Frederik Collett, Johan Martin Nielssen, Kitty L. Kielland, Nicolai Ulfsten, Eilif Peterssen, Marcus Grønvold, Otto Sinding, Christian Krohg and Frits Thaulow.
In Karlsruhe Gude continued to faithfully reproduce the landscapes he saw, a style that he passed on to his students by taking them to Chiemsee to paint the lake en plein air. While on these trips Gude and his pupils often encountered Eduard Schleich the Elder with his own students from Munich who were, as Gude described, only out to capture the mood of the scene and were skeptical of the advantages of painting in the sunshine. Gude also took special interest in how light reflected in water while in Karlsruhe, as well as expanding his study of the human figure. Although Gude rarely portrayed humans for their own sake, he began populating his paintings with convincing, if sometimes anatomically incorrect, individuals.
Gude's painted Fra Chiemsee while at Karlsruhe. The painting which was shown in Vienna was so enthusiastically received that it was purchased by the Kunsthistorisches Hofmuseum for display, won Gude a number of medals, and earned him membership in the Academy of Fine Arts Vienna.
The school in Karlsruhe was founded by the Grand Duke of Baden whom Gude had good relations with. Because of this fact Gude received better pay than at the Düsseldorf Academy, had spacious and rent-free accommodations and was given generous periods of leave which allowed him to travel in the summer to perform studies for future paintings. Gude served as the director of Karlsruhe from 1866 to 1868 and again from 1869 to 1870, where he introduced several of his own educational principles designed to develop pupil's individual talent. But Gude's reign as director at Karlsruhe was not without resistance to his methods, and it is this opposition that he cites as his reason for visiting the Berlin Academy of Art that as early as 1874 in search of better conditions. Because of Gude's visits to Berlin, his relation with the Grand Duke became strained as the Grand Duke felt that the concessions he had made to Gude were so great that Gude should be grateful and not look for a professorships elsewhere. Gude remained at Karlsruhe for six more years after his first visits to the Berlin Academy of Art, but in 1880 he decided to retire from the Karlsruhe school to take up a position in Berlin.
Berlin Academy of Art
In 1880 Gude accepted a position to lead the master studio in landscape painting at the Academy of Art in Berlin, a position which gave him a spot on the academy's Senate. The Senate was responsible for upholding "all the artistic interests of the state" and membership was a mark of the highest official recognition of Gude's work.
In 1895 the Christiania Art Society held a comprehensive retrospective of Gude's works including his paintings, oil studies, watercolors, sketches and etchings. When asked what should be shown at the exhibition Gude replied that "[...]perhaps room could be found for studies and drawings; I rather think that these will meet with interest. They are also (unfortunately) of greater artistic value." By the time of the exhibition Gude had abandoned his previous style of painting large-scale compositions based on studies, and was working in mediums other than oil. In Berlin Gude began working more heavily in gouache and watercolor in an effort to preserve the 'freshness' of his art. Although Gude did not heavily exhibit his watercolors they still gained admiration from follow painters, including Harriet Backer who said:
Gude would spend a few weeks each summer near the Baltic coast where he drew material for numerous paintings of Ahlbeck and Rügen. Although Gude filled these paintings with more figures than his earlier works, his focus was still on accurately capturing the scene and especially the landscape.
As the century drew to a close the established art academies faced 'secession' movements from groups of artists looking to branch of into different style. Gude rallied around his friend Anton von Werner in defending the academies, going so far as to mock "the so-called Symbolism" movement. As Gude approached the end of his life he felt more and more unable to keep up with the changes in the art world. After a disappointing exhibition in Kristiania in 1902 Gude wrote to Johan Martin Nielssen:
In 1880 Gude had between five and eight students, but this number had shrunk to two or three by 1890. In part this reduction of pupils was due to a lack of interest in the Berlin academy, as explained to Gude by Prince Eugén, Duke of Närke who wrote that he, as well as numerous other young artists, had more of a taste for French art than German.
Gude retired from the Berlin Academy in 1901. He died two years later in Berlin in 1903.
Works
Awards and honors
1852 – Gold medal at Berlin Exhibition
1855 – Medal, 2nd class, Paris Exhibition
1860 – Gold medal at Berlin Exhibition
1861 – Medal, 2nd class, Paris Exhibition
1867 – Medal, 2nd class, Paris Exhibition
1873 – Gold medal at Vienna Exhibition for Nødhavn Ved Norskekysten
1876 – Medal for A Fresh Breeze, Norwegian Coast and Calm, Christianiaford in Philadelphia at United States Centennial Commission International Exhibition
1880 – Member of Berlin Academy of Art's Senate
1894 – Grand Cross of the Order of St. Olav
Gude was also a member of the Order of the Zähringer Lion, Order of the Red Eagle, and the Order of Franz Joseph.
Academy memberships
Gude earned membership in the following art academies:
Amsterdam
Berlin
Copenhagen
Rotterdam
Stockholm
Vienna
Notes
References
External links
The family tree of Hans Gude on Geni.com
Biography on Norsk biografisk leksikon
1825 births
1903 deaths
Norwegian landscape painters
Norwegian romantic painters
Norwegian realist painters
Painters from Oslo
19th-century Norwegian people
Norwegian expatriates in Germany
Academic staff of the Prussian Academy of Arts
19th-century Norwegian painters
Norwegian male painters
19th-century Norwegian male artists
Düsseldorf school of painting |
4373458 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David%20Goodwillie | David Goodwillie | David John Hugh Goodwillie (born 28 March 1989) is a Scottish professional footballer who currently plays for Glasgow United.
Born in Stirling, Goodwillie came through the Dundee United youth system and he won the SPFA and SFWA Young Player of the Year awards for the 2010–11 season. His performances with United earned him selection for the Scotland national team and a £2 million move to Blackburn Rovers, who were then in the English Premier League. He was loaned to Crystal Palace, Dundee United and Blackpool, and released by Blackburn in 2014, after which he signed with Aberdeen. After a loan spell with Ross County, Goodwillie moved to Plymouth Argyle in 2016. He left Plymouth in January 2017 after being judged as a rapist in a Civil case.
Goodwillie has been convicted of assaults three times, committed in 2008, 2009 and 2010. In 2011 he was accused of raping a woman with his team-mate David Robertson. In a civil case in 2016, he was found to have raped her and ordered to pay £100,000 in compensation. Goodwillie resumed his career in the Scottish leagues with Clyde. After over four years there, he signed for Raith Rovers in January 2022. A negative reaction to his signing led to the club declaring he would not play for them, and he was released from his contract in September 2022. He has since played once for both Livingston United and Radcliffe.
Club career
Early career
Goodwillie was playing as a youth for Carse Thistle in his native Stirling before joining Dundee United as a 14-year-old in 2003, being spotted playing in a Scottish Youth FA trial in Dundee. In signing from Carse Thistle, Goodwillie followed in the footsteps of Duncan Ferguson who also played for the Stirling-based boys club. In July 2005, Goodwillie played for the first team in the pre-season City of Discovery Cup, appearing as a 77th-minute substitute in the tournament win.
Dundee United (first spell)
He signed professional forms with United in March 2005. On 31 December 2005, Goodwillie made his competitive debut for United, appearing as a late substitute in the defeat to Rangers at Ibrox. On 4 March 2006, in his fifth appearance for United, Goodwillie came off the bench to score a late goal for United against Hibernian at Easter Road. Goodwillie made ten substitute appearances for the United first team during the 2005–06 season, with the majority coming in the final few minutes of each match.
In October 2006, Goodwilie signed a new contract until May 2010 and started his first match for the club, against Falkirk. Goodwillie started twice more under new manager Craig Levein in the following two months, due to the injuries of other strikers. Following signings made in the January transfer window, he found himself largely an unused substitute for the remainder of the 2006–07 season, featuring just six times after New Year.
Goodwillie made two substitute appearances at the start of 2007–08 season, then joined Scottish Second Division side Raith Rovers on a two-month loan in November 2007, which was subsequently extended until the end of the season. Goodwillie scored nine goals in 21 league appearances for the Kirkcaldy side.
He featured for Dundee United in the early rounds of the 2008–09 League Cup, scoring three times against lower league sides. He added to his solitary SPL goal in the latter stages of the 2008–09 season, scoring a last-minute equaliser against Hibernian at Tannadice, then netting again against Hibernian later that season and also against Aberdeen. In September 2009 Goodwillie was arrested after a nightclub doorman was knocked unconscious. Two months later, Goodwillie received a £200 fine for his part in the incident. Dundee United manager Peter Houston placed Goodwillie under a "house arrest" scheme to avoid further trouble.
In the 2009–10 season, Goodwillie began as a regular starter for United, scoring three goals in the first five matches of the season. Notching twelve goals by mid-April, Goodwillie's performances were recognised with the Scottish Premier League Young Player of the Year award. In May 2010, Goodwillie scored the opening goal as United won the 2010 Scottish Cup Final by 3–0 against Ross County.
Goodwillie scored in six consecutive league games early in the 2010–11 season, prompting United chairman Stephen Thompson to say any other club would have to pay £3 million to sign him. Goodwillie signed a one-year extension to his contract with United in March 2011. Two days after signing an extension to his contract, Goodwillie scored the winning goal for United against Rangers at Ibrox. His performances were rewarded with the SPFA Young Player of the Year award for 2010–11.
Championship side Cardiff City, opened talks with Dundee United about transferring Goodwillie on 23 June 2011. The following day, United received bids from Rangers and Blackburn Rovers, both of which were rejected. On 31 July 2011, Blackburn Rovers and Dundee United agreed a fee for Goodwillie with an upfront fee of £2 million plus £800,000 in clauses, giving the striker permission to discuss terms with the Lancashire club.
Blackburn Rovers
Goodwillie signed for Blackburn Rovers on a four-year contract on 3 August 2011. On his arrival at the club manager Steve Kean likened the striker to "a young Wayne Rooney".
Six months after Goodwillie had moved to Blackburn, Dundee United received the payment for the player. Dundee United contacted the Scottish Premier League for assistance after Blackburn missed the deadline for the payment. The money, due for 13 February did not appear until 11 days after the scheduled date, with a later payment of £250,000 rescheduled for 1 March.
On 6 August 2011, Goodwillie scored a debut goal on a 76th minutes for Rovers in a friendly against Kilmarnock which Blackburn won 4–1. He made his competitive debut for the club on 13 August, on the opening day of the 2011–12 season, against Wolverhampton Wanderers at Ewood Park, replacing Morten Gamst Pedersen in the 72nd minute in a 2–1 defeat, and scored his first competitive goal in the 3–1 win over Sheffield Wednesday in the second round of the League Cup. In January 2012, Goodwillie scored his first Premier League goal at home to Stoke City. This was followed up five days later with his first FA Cup goal away to Newcastle United. Again in January, Goodwillie scored his second goal in the Premier League at away to Everton in a 1–1 draw.
On 31 August 2012 Goodwillie signed on loan at Championship side Crystal Palace until January 2013. However, he cut his loan spell short in mid-October after featuring in very few games, with the Eagles' Assistant Manager Lennie Lawrence stating that Goodwillie had "struggled to settle in London".
Dundee United (second spell)
Goodwillie returned to Dundee United on 2 July 2013 on a six-month loan deal until 13 January 2014. He scored a hat-trick in a 4–1 win against Partick Thistle in the 2013–14 Scottish League Cup on 25 September. Goodwillie scored the fourth goal in a 4–1 win against Kilmarnock in December 2013, which extended a run of United scoring four or more goals in a game. On 12 January 2014, Dundee United chairman Stephen Thompson confirmed the club would not be extending his loan deal, stating that the decision was not budget related but "much to do with what he's done since he came back, it's been a bit of a disappointment." Goodwillie scored six goals in 22 appearances in his return to Dundee United.
Blackpool (loan)
Goodwillie joined Blackpool, under the caretaker managership of Barry Ferguson, on 24 January 2014 on loan until the end of the season. Returning to Blackburn, he left the club by mutual consent on 20 June, with one year remaining on his contract.
Aberdeen
Goodwillie signed a one-year contract with Aberdeen in July 2014. On 17 July, he made his debut, coming on as a substitute against FC Groningen in the Europa League second qualifying round first leg. On 13 September, he scored his first goal for the Dons in a 2–1 defeat away to Celtic in the Scottish Premiership. On 21 January 2015, having scored five goals and established himself in the first team, Goodwillie signed another one-year contract keeping him at Pittodrie until the summer of 2016.
On 1 February 2016, Goodwillie moved to fellow Scottish Premiership club Ross County on loan until the end of the 2015–16 season. He made nine appearances as the Highland club came 6th, scoring a late equaliser in a 1–1 draw at Heart of Midlothian on 7 May.
Plymouth Argyle
On 29 June 2016, Goodwillie signed for EFL League Two club Plymouth Argyle. Goodwillie left Plymouth by mutual consent in January 2017, after a civil case concluded that he had raped a woman. A club statement said that Goodwillie had requested to leave as he was considering an appeal. In 22 appearances for Plymouth, he scored once, in his final appearance, concluding a 4–2 home win over Stevenage on 17 January.
Clyde
Returning to Scotland, Goodwillie briefly played for Caledonian Amateur League team Doune Castle. In March 2017, he joined Scottish League Two side Clyde on a short-term contract until the end of the 2016–17 season. Clyde's decision to sign Goodwillie attracted criticism, as politician John Mason said he would no longer attend their games for the rest of the season. Goodwillie made his debut for Clyde against Cowdenbeath on 1 April, coming on as a 66th-minute substitute for Peter MacDonald. On 15 April, Goodwillie scored a hat-trick for Clyde in a 3–2 win against Elgin City.
He received a hat-trick of personal accolades at the club's Player of the Year awards for 2017–18, winning another award the season after. The team then won promotion to League One in 2018–19. At the PFA Scotland awards, he was shortlisted for Player of the Year and named in the Team of the Year for League Two for 2018–19.
Named club captain ahead of season 2019–20, Goodwillie became the first Clyde player to score five goals in a single match in 68 years and the first to score a hat-trick of penalties in one match. Both feats came in a 6–1 win over Stranraer. In April 2020, Goodwillie (with his 78th goal) moved in to the top ten of the club's all-time leading goalscorers.
With two goals in a 3–2 loss at Peterhead on 11 September 2021, Goodwillie achieved 100 goals for Clyde.
Raith Rovers
Goodwillie rejoined Scottish Championship club Raith Rovers in January 2022. The move caused controversy due to Goodwillie's civil responsibility for rape. Two club directors, several staff members, the women's team captain and most club volunteers resigned and shirt sponsor Val McDermid withdrew her support of the club due to the signing, which was also criticised by First Minister Nicola Sturgeon and former Prime Minister Gordon Brown. The women's team cut ties with Raith Rovers. A few days after signing Goodwillie, Raith Rovers said he would not be selected to play for the club and that discussions would be held over his contract.
On 1 March 2022, Goodwillie was loaned back to former club Clyde for the remainder of the 2021–22 season. After the club's women's team resigned en masse and North Lanarkshire Council announced that their lease on Broadwood Stadium would be terminated early if Goodwillie was allowed entry, Clyde cancelled the loan deal and returned him to Raith. Goodwillie was released from his Raith Rovers contract on 30 September 2022.
Later career
Goodwillie played one game for Livingston United in November 2022 as a trialist, scoring twice in a 3–1 victory over Fauldhouse United. Following media and public disapproval, Livingston United announced that Goodwillie would not train or play with the club again.
On 7 February 2023, Goodwillie played for Northern Premier League club Radcliffe, who had not announced his signing before his appearance. He scored a hat-trick in a 4–2 win against Belper Town. A day later, Radcliffe announced that Goodwillie had left the club and admitted they had made a "significant misstep" in signing him.
On 28 June 2023, NPL Western Australia club Sorrento FC announced that they had signed three players, including Goodwillie. However, hours later, his contract was rescinded, with the Football West governing body saying that after discussions with the club Goodwillie's signing would not go ahead. In a statement, Sorrento apologised to "anyone in our football and broader community that may have been caused offence by his signing".
In July 2023, Goodwillie made an appearance for Glasgow United in a friendly against Pollok. Following the game, Glasgow City Council leader Susan Aitken warned Glasgow United could lose the right to play at the Greenfield Football Centre if they signed Goodwillie, but the club said they would stand by the player, suggesting he had been the subject of a "witch hunt". He continues to play for Glasgow United.
International career
Goodwillie made his debut for the Scotland national under-21 football team in November 2008. He received his first call-up for the senior side in November 2010 for a friendly against the Faroe Islands. He made his debut in that match, coming on as a 76th-minute substitute for Kris Commons.
His international career stalled after that, however, because the SFA were reluctant to select Goodwillie while he underwent a legal process. Goodwillie was charged with sexual assault, but the case did not come to trial at that time due to there being insufficient evidence to proceed in a criminal court. After it was announced that Goodwillie would not be prosecuted, Scotland manager Craig Levein recalled Goodwillie to the national squad.
He scored his first goal for Scotland on 11 October 2011, from a penalty kick in a 3–1 defeat against World Cup holders Spain. Goodwillie scored with his first touch of the ball after coming on as a substitute. Later in the same game, Goodwillie missed a glaring opportunity, as he shot wide of the goal instead of setting up the unmarked Craig Mackail-Smith.
Criminal convictions and rape judgment
In June 2008, Goodwillie was convicted of assaulting a man in a Stirling nightclub, and was fined £250.
In September 2009, Goodwillie was arrested after a nightclub doorman was knocked unconscious. Two months later, Goodwillie was convicted of assault and received a £200 fine.
In 2012, Goodwillie was convicted of assault for repeatedly punching and kicking John Friel after Friel attacked Goodwillie's teammate Danny Swanson from behind at a takeaway in Glasgow in 2010. He was sentenced to a 12-month probation order and to carry out 80 hours of unpaid work. Friel was ordered to carry out 240 hours of unpaid work for his part in the incident.
Rape
In January 2011, Goodwillie and his teammate David Robertson were accused of raping a woman. Goodwillie was charged with rape, but the Crown Office did not pursue a criminal prosecution due to insufficient evidence in law. However, the Criminal Injuries Compensation Authority determined that the woman had been raped and awarded her £11,000.
In 2016, the woman took civil action against Goodwillie and Robertson, in the first case of its kind in Scotland. The judge ruled that they had indeed each raped her, and ordered them to pay £100,000 in compensation. The civil case was judged on the balance of probabilities and did not need corroboration of evidence, unlike in a Scottish criminal case. Soon after the case concluded Goodwillie left his club, Plymouth Argyle, while Robertson retired from football. Goodwillie had asked to leave Plymouth as he was considering an appeal.
In November 2017, three appeal judges at the Court of Session upheld the ruling against Goodwillie and Robertson.
Sequestration
In April 2019, David Goodwillie declared bankrupt at Alloa Sheriff Court having failed to settle an outstanding tax debt of more than £41,224.20. It was reported in the media that was also an attempt to evade paying the compensation to the rape victim, however, in a 2023 interview with podcaster James English, Goodwillie claimed this was untrue and that £100,000 was seized by the court for this purpose after the court case.
Career statistics
Club
International
Scores and results list Scotland's goal tally first, score column indicates score after each Goodwillie goal.
Honours
Dundee United
Scottish Cup: 2009–10
Clyde
Scottish League One Play-Offs: 2018–19
Individual
Scottish PFA Young Player of the Year: 2011
Scottish FWA Young Player of the Year: 2011
SPL Player of the Month: March 2011
References
External links
1989 births
Living people
Footballers from Stirling
Scottish people convicted of assault
Scotland men's youth international footballers
Scotland men's under-21 international footballers
Scottish Premier League players
Scottish Football League players
Premier League players
English Football League players
Dundee United F.C. players
Raith Rovers F.C. players
Blackburn Rovers F.C. players
Crystal Palace F.C. players
Blackpool F.C. players
Plymouth Argyle F.C. players
Aberdeen F.C. players
Ross County F.C. players
Clyde F.C. players
Livingston United F.C. players
Men's association football forwards
Scotland men's international footballers
Scottish men's footballers
Scottish Professional Football League players
Rape in Scotland
Northern Premier League players
Radcliffe F.C. players |
4373530 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David%20M.%20Shoup | David M. Shoup | David Monroe Shoup ( December 30, 1904 – January, 13 1983) was a general of the United States Marine Corps who was awarded the Medal of Honor in World War II, served as the 22nd Commandant of the Marine Corps, and, after retiring, became one of the most prominent critics of the Vietnam War.
Born in Indiana to an impoverished family, Shoup joined the military for financial reasons. Rising through the ranks in the interwar era, he was twice deployed to China during the Chinese Civil War. He served in Iceland at the beginning of U.S. involvement in World War II, and as a staff officer during the Pacific War. He was unexpectedly given command of the 2nd Marines, and led the initial invasion of Tarawa, for which he was awarded the Medal of Honor and the British Distinguished Service Order. He served in the Marianas campaign, and later became a high-level military logistics officer.
Solidifying his reputation as a hard-driving and assertive leader, Shoup rose through the senior leadership of the Marine Corps, overhauling fiscal affairs, logistics, and recruit training. He was selected as commandant by President Dwight D. Eisenhower, and later served in the administration of John F. Kennedy. He reformed the Corps, emphasizing combat readiness and fiscal efficiency, against what was perceived as politicking among its officers.
Shoup opposed the military escalation in response to events such as the Cuban Missile Crisis and the Bay of Pigs invasion, but his strongest opposition was to U.S. involvement in South Vietnam. His opposition grew in strength after he retired from the military in 1963; he was strongly opposed to both the strategy of the conflict and the excessive influence of corporations and military officials upon foreign policy. His high-profile criticism later spread to include the military industrial complex and what he saw as a pervasive militarism in American culture. Historians consider Shoup's statements opposing the war to be among the most pointed and high-profile leveled by a veteran against the Vietnam War.
Early years
David Monroe Shoup was born on December, 30 1904 in Battle Ground, Indiana. His family lived on a farm in Ash Grove, but moved to Covington to live on a new farm in 1916. At age 12 he was enrolled in Covington High School, a competitive high school with an advanced curriculum. Shoup was an excellent student, maintaining high marks in French, English, physics, and history. Additionally, he was involved in several extracurricular activities, including basketball, and was class president in his senior year. He graduated in 1921. He later affectionately referred to his impoverished upbringing as that of an "Indiana plowboy." Regarded by friends as very sociable, he met Zola De Haven in his first year and later said he had been instantly attracted to her. They were both very competitive in academics and athletics, and the two dated throughout high school; they were married in 1931.
After high school, Shoup attended DePauw University, where he was one of 100 awarded the Edward Rector Scholarship, giving him full tuition. Majoring in mathematics, he joined the Delta Upsilon fraternity and maintained high marks, narrowly failing the selection criteria for Phi Beta Kappa Society. He was on the track and field and rifle teams, and also competed in the wrestling and football teams. He won the Indiana and Kentucky Amateur Athletic Union marathon in 1925. He waited tables, washed dishes and worked in a cement factory to help pay his expenses. Lack of funds compelled him to take a year off after his junior year to teach school, and his expenses were further strained when he contracted a severe case of pneumonia and incurred hospital bills. He opted to enroll in the Reserve Officers Training Corps (ROTC) to offset his living expenses, and later recalled that this was the only reason he joined the military. He graduated from DePauw in 1926.
From an early age, Shoup was molded by the progressive ideas of Indiana politicians, sympathizing with rural progressives fighting against the interests of big businesses. He developed an anti-imperialist attitude, and his skepticism about American foreign policy, influenced by his small-town background, made him an outspoken opponent of the unnecessary use of military force. He felt the use of troops for economic or imperialist consideration was wrong, a viewpoint he would carry for his entire career.
Junior officer
While at a Scabbard and Blade honors society conference in New Orleans, Louisiana, Shoup heard a speech by Major General John A. Lejeune, the Commandant of the Marine Corps, offering commissions in the U.S. Marine Corps to interested officer candidates. Shortly after being commissioned as a second lieutenant in the U.S. Army Reserve in May 1926, Shoup applied, and was offered a commission in the Marine Corps. In August 1926, he resigned his commission in the army and traveled from Camp Knox, Kentucky, to Chicago, Illinois, for physical exams. On August, 25 1926, he arrived at the Marine Corps barracks at the Philadelphia Navy Yard, where he was commissioned as a second lieutenant, and commenced Marine Officers Basic School. Shoup maintained that he had never previously considered a military career and had only chosen to become a military officer for the pay. Throughout his service, he excelled in athletics and marksmanship, and during his early career he would coach recreational athletic teams in addition to his regular assignments. He quickly established himself as an assertive and demanding leader, impressing both his commanders and his subordinates. Despite his no-nonsense demeanor, those he commanded later recalled his ability to keep morale with his sense of humor. He often sported a clenched cigar, which became something of a trademark during his front-line service.
On April, 1 1927, Shoup and nine other officers were pulled from training to accompany a detachment of Marines sent to China to protect American interests during the instability of the Chinese Civil War. Embarking from San Diego with the 2nd Battalion, 10th Marines, Shoup's contingent was to play a primarily defensive role, and not engage in military action. Still, he was personally opposed to the mission, feeling that Americans in China were exploiting its people. The contingent landed in Shanghai on 10 June aboard USS Chaumont. Initially, they conducted shore patrol around American sections of the city. On July, 5 the battalion was moved to Tianjin to protect American interests there should Chinese Nationalist troops threaten them. Shoup became seriously ill there, and remained hospitalized until it was announced U.S. troops would leave. He briefly returned to Shanghai to oversee foreign troop departures with the 4th Marines, before he departed from China on December, 7 1928.
Following this assignment, Shoup returned to the United States and completed his training. He then spent short stints at Marine bases in Quantico, Virginia, Pensacola, Florida, and San Francisco, California. From June 1929 to September 1931 he served with the Marine Detachment aboard , where he coached the boxing and wrestling squads. Following this duty he was assigned to the Marine Corps Recruit Depot San Diego. In May 1932 he was ordered to Puget Sound Navy Yard in Bremerton, Washington, where he was promoted to first lieutenant one month later. He served on temporary duty with the Civilian Conservation Corps in Idaho and New Jersey from June 1933 to May 1934, after which he returned to Bremerton.
Shoup went back to China in November 1934, again serving briefly with the 4th Marines in Shanghai. He was soon reassigned as a legation guard in Beiping, where he taught the post's pistol and rifle teams to shoot competitively. They won at least one major competition. He also had time to observe the troops of the Empire of Japan, gaining great respect for their discipline. In 1936, he came down with a serious case of pneumonia and had to be evacuated from China. His next duty was at Puget Sound Navy Yard. In October 1936, he was promoted to captain. In July 1937 he entered Junior Course, Marine Corps Schools in Quantico, which he completed in May 1938. He then served as an instructor and Plans & Training officer with Reserve Officers Class at Quantico for two years. In June 1940 he joined the 6th Marines in San Diego, and was promoted to major in April 1941.
World War II
Staff officer
Shoup was assigned to the 1st Provisional Marine Brigade, which was moved to Iceland in May 1941, supporting an occupation there to prevent Nazi forces from threatening it. Replacing the outgoing British 49th (West Riding) Infantry Division, the brigade continued to garrison the country for several months, and he was there with the Headquarters Company at the time of the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor in December 1941. For his service in Iceland, he was awarded the Letter of Commendation with Commendation Ribbon. In February 1942 he was given command of the 2nd Battalion, 6th Marines. With the United States at war, 1st Provisional Marine Brigade moved to New York City, New York, in March, and was disbanded. Shoup moved with his battalion to Camp Elliott in San Diego.
In July 1942, Shoup was named as operations and training officer (then known as D-3) of the 2nd Marine Division, and he was promoted to lieutenant colonel in August 1942. The following month he accompanied the division to Wellington, New Zealand, aboard and oversaw much of its training there. He was also briefly attached to the 1st Marine Division in October 1942 as an observer during the Guadalcanal campaign, then to the 43rd Infantry Division on Rendova Island during the New Georgia Campaign in June 1943. During the latter assignment, Shoup was wounded in action and evacuated. Still, from these experiences he observed amphibious warfare techniques which would be useful later in the war.
Tarawa
In mid-1943, Shoup was transferred to the staff of Major General Julian C. Smith, commander of the 2nd Marine Division, and tasked to help plan the invasion of Betio on Tarawa Atoll. Shoup's aggressive leadership style would complement the offensive strategy his superiors were seeking in taking the atoll. He was tasked with drawing up initial plans, designating the landing beaches on Betio for the 2nd Marine Division, and overseeing some rehearsals at Efate. However, after Colonel William W. Marshall, commander of the 2nd Marines, suffered a nervous breakdown before the invasion, Smith promoted Shoup to colonel and gave him command of the regiment in spite of Shoup's lack of combat experience.
The invasion commenced on November, 20 1943, with Shoup disembarking from the transport USS Zeilin. His force met heavy resistance on the beaches. His LVT was disabled by shore fire, and he had to proceed without transportation. As he was wading ashore at around 11:00, he was struck by shrapnel in the legs and received a grazing wound from a bullet in the neck. In spite of these wounds, he rallied Marines around him and led them ashore to join the initial assault waves, who had been in action for over two hours by then. He was able to coordinate the troops on the beaches and organize them as they began to push inland against an anticipated Japanese counterattack. He continuously organized aggressive attacks on the defenders, and was noted for his bravery and vigour during the conflict. On the second day of the attack, he ordered an advance inland by the remnants of the 1st and 2nd Battalions of the 2nd Marines. By the afternoon, Shoup was confident the Marines were winning the battle, and reinforcements began to arrive in force. At 16:00 on November, 21, he composed a lengthy situation report to division headquarters on USS Maryland culminating in the phrase, "Combat efficiency: We are winning." That night, Shoup was relieved by Colonel Merritt A. Edson, the division's chief of staff, who commanded the landed troops of the 2nd Marine Division pending the arrival ashore of Julian Smith on November, 22. Six years later, Shoup made a cameo appearance in the movie Sands of Iwo Jima reprising his actions that first night on Tarawa, although he had originally been brought onto the movie as a technical advisor.
For his leadership during the assault and the push inland Shoup was awarded the Medal of Honor and the British Distinguished Service Order. For his role in planning the invasion he was awarded the Legion of Merit with "V" device. He also was awarded the Purple Heart for the combat wounds he suffered during the course of the campaign. Ten years after the assault, Shoup remarked of the operation, "there was never a doubt in the minds of those ashore what the final outcome of the battle for Tarawa would be. There was for some seventy-six hours, however, considerable haggling with the enemy over the exact price we would have to pay." In 1968, he returned to Tarawa to dedicate a memorial to the battle and to the American and Japanese troops who had died there.
Subsequent wartime service
In December 1943, Shoup became chief of staff of the 2nd Marine Division, which was then refitting and training in Hawaii for the upcoming invasion of the Marianas in June. Shoup performed well as a staff officer, assisting in the planning for the battles for Saipan and Tinian. Though a divisional staff officer, he still managed to find occasion to be forward in the fighting. In one instance on Saipan he became trapped in a forward observer post with fellow officer Wallace M. Greene. Greene later recalled in the midst of the Japanese attack Shoup remained impressively calm. Shoup was awarded a second Legion of Merit with "V" device for his work in this campaign. At the end of operations on the Mariana Islands, Shoup returned to the United States in October 1944. He served as a logistics officer in the Division of Plans and Policies at Marine Headquarters in Washington, D.C. He remained at this post for the rest of the war.
Cold War era
In August 1947, Shoup became commanding officer, Service Command, Fleet Marine Force, Pacific. In June 1949, he was assigned to the 1st Marine Division at Camp Pendleton as its chief of staff. In July 1950, he was transferred to Quantico where he served as commanding officer of the Basic School.
In April 1952, Shoup became Assistant Fiscal Director in the Office of the Fiscal Director, Headquarters Marine Corps. In this capacity, Shoup served under Major General William P. T. Hill, the Quartermaster General. Shoup was ordered by the Marine Corps Commandant General Lemuel C. Shepherd to establish a new fiscal office independent of Hill's authority. Shoup and Hill clashed frequently, but Shoup was nonetheless able to establish a new, independent Fiscal Division. He was promoted to brigadier general in April 1953, and in July he became Fiscal Director of the Marine Corps. He was involved in fiscal strategy hearings before the U.S. Congress, and established a programming system where officers researched and thought out programs before bringing them to Congress. This idea met with resistance from Marine leaders who favored going to the Hill to figure out the details of programs. While serving in this capacity, he was promoted to major general in September 1955.
Shoup began a brief assignment as inspector general for recruit training in May 1956 after being ordered to do so by Commandant Randolph M. Pate following the Ribbon Creek incident, which involved the accidental drowning of six recruits during a training march. As Marine leaders were investigating, they favored Shoup's recommendation of not covering up the incident. He supported an overhaul of recruit training for the Marine Corps in response.
Following this, he served as Inspector General of the Marine Corps from September 1956 until May 1957. He returned to Camp Pendleton in June to become commanding general of the 1st Marine Division. He became commanding general of the 3rd Marine Division on Okinawa in March 1958. Following his return to the United States in May 1959, he served as commanding general of the Marine Corps Recruit Depot, Parris Island, until October 1959. During this time, he also served as president of the 2nd Marine Division Association.
Commandant of the Marine Corps
While still a major general, Shoup was unexpectedly nominated to become Commandant of the Marine Corps by President Dwight D. Eisenhower at the behest of Secretary of Defense Thomas S. Gates, Jr. To prepare for this duty he was promoted to lieutenant general on November 2, 1959, and briefly assigned duties as chief of staff, Headquarters Marine Corps. He was elevated to general on January, 1 1960, upon assuming the post as the 22nd Commandant of the Marine Corps. He would later serve under the administration of John F. Kennedy from 1961 to 1963, and the administration of Lyndon B. Johnson in 1963.
Leadership overhaul
By 1959, Gates and other officials viewed the Corps as fraught with internal squabbling and alienated from the other services. Because of this condition, combined with the reputation gained from the Ribbon Creek incident, it was decided that Pate needed to be replaced. Gates believed Shoup was a strong leader who could steer the Corps in the right direction. Shoup was selected over five lieutenant generals and four major generals senior to him in rank. Lieutenant General Merrill B. Twining was considered the likely appointee to the position; Lieutenant Generals Edward Pollock and Vernon E. Megee also aspired to the position of commandant. Twining openly vied for the position and retired immediately after Shoup was selected, reportedly in protest, as did several other officers. Shoup emphasized military readiness, training, and inter-service cooperation, which differed from the political climate of the time. He rapidly gained a reputation as being extremely demanding and critical of poor performance, especially by Marine generals and leaders. He was sometimes blunt in his criticism of what he saw as poorly performing officers, to the extent that some considered him a bully.
Eisenhower favored Shoup because he feared other officers spent too much time in political affairs, and felt Shoup would reduce the influence of the military industrial complex. Immediately after his appointment, Shoup sought to place new officers in key positions, in an attempt to overhaul the leadership of the Marine Corps. He and Pate disagreed over some of the new appointments, as Shoup transferred many senior officers and encouraged others to retire. Shoup later wrote he felt the Joint Chiefs of Staff had an undue weight in the direction of military strategy. He also sought to curtail politicking by lower-level Marine officers seeking career advancement.
Budget strategy
During the first year of Shoup's service as commandant, he served under the Eisenhower administration, in which military budget policy was dominated by the "New Look" policy, under which a strong nuclear deterrent was favored over conventional warfare forces. Eisenhower focused on containment without entangling the United States in proxy wars such as the Korean War. The result of this was spending cuts and force reductions within the Marine Corps. The 1960 election of Kennedy ushered in a major change in military strategy with the adoption of the "Flexible Response" strategy, which saw a return to conventional military forces as a deterrent to nuclear war. Under the Kennedy administration there was increased civilian participation in defense policy-building, and the new secretary of defense, Robert McNamara, sought more inter-service cooperation.
Shoup favored a more frugal approach to the military budget, feeling the military was too susceptible to influence from large corporations arguing for expensive and unnecessary programs. As the Kennedy administration brought more emphasis on conventional warfare, Shoup sought to use increased funds to improve military logistics. He is credited with formulating an entirely new system of financial management, supply, and inventory management. He also created a new Data Processing Division to centralize the data processing functions of several combat service support branches.
Cold War conflicts
Shoup's outlook on Cold War conflicts was greatly influenced by his upbringing, and he was frequently an opponent of military action against the Soviet Union. He refused to fall into what he referred to as the "hate the Communists movement," indicating he would fight them if required by circumstances, but avoided undue prejudice. When U.S. Senator Strom Thurmond criticized the military for not training its troops about communism, Shoup regarded the criticism as interference. He appealed to Secretary of the Navy Fred Korth, and the matter was dropped. At the behest of the Kennedy administration, Shoup integrated counterinsurgency warfare into combat doctrine. Though he was not in favor of the idea, he appointed Major General Victor H. Krulak as an adviser on counterinsurgency.
Shoup opposed military action against Cuba, warning against any attempt to intervene militarily against Fidel Castro. He was initially not involved or aware of the plans for the Bay of Pigs invasion. He was asked by the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) to furnish an officer, but became furious when he learned the CIA was requisitioning Marine supplies without his permission. He finally learned the intent of the CIA when the officer, Colonel Jack Hawkins, contacted him on the night of the invasion, pleading with him to appeal to Kennedy for air support. Following the failure of the operation, the Joint Chiefs of Staff were blamed, which Shoup thought was unfair, as they had not been aware of the early planning.
Shoup later warned against an armed response during the Cuban Missile Crisis, noting how difficult it would be to invade the country. Still, he prepared a team of Marines to invade Cuba should it be necessary. He and the other Joint Chiefs unanimously recommended a quick airstrike to knock out the missiles once they were discovered there. Kennedy subsequently sought Shoup's advice in evaluating the implications of the Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty. While his position in the Joint Chiefs of Staff was intended to be limited, he had gained Kennedy's confidence and was often called on for private consultations. Shoup supported the test ban, seeing it as a deterrent to nuclear war.
Shoup was strongly opposed to military intervention in Indochina from the beginning. In 1961, when the Pathet Lao threatened the American-backed government of Laos, he rejected calls for armed intervention. He deployed Task Unit Shufly to South Vietnam in 1962 only because he was ordered to, and cautioned against further involvement in South Vietnam, which he toured in October 1962. He opposed the Strategic Hamlet program, as well as efforts to train the Army of the Republic of Vietnam. He opposed any plans for combat in Vietnam, and later said "every responsible military man to my knowledge" was against the war as well. Shoup's staunch opposition to involvement there had a great impact on Kennedy, who, before his assassination on November, 22 1963, indicated that he wanted to end U.S. involvement in South Vietnam, seeing it as an internal struggle.
While Eisenhower appreciated Shoup's fiscal experience and apolitical outlook, Shoup was called upon most often by Kennedy. With Kennedy's relations with the Joint Chiefs of Staff strained, particularly following the Cuban Missile Crisis, he called upon Shoup privately for many consultations. Shoup's biographer Howard Jablon wrote that Shoup was Kennedy's favorite general. In turn, Shoup was the most supportive of Kennedy of all of the Joint Chiefs of Staff. Kennedy had asked Shoup to remain as commandant for a second term in 1963, but Shoup declined in order to allow the advancement of other Marine generals.
Later life and opposition to the Vietnam War
Retiring from the military in December 1963, Shoup took a job at a life insurance company, but remained influential in the administration. Johnson considered taking Shoup as an adviser on a February 1964 trip to South Vietnam, but did not, either because he never made the invitation or because Shoup declined. Johnson appointed Shoup to the National Advisory Commission on Selective Service in early 1966. It disbanded on January, 1 1967 after submitting a report.
Shoup was unable to directly influence the Johnson administration, which expanded U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War. He became increasingly wary of what he felt was undue influence by the CIA and big businesses on foreign policy. In 1964 during the debate over the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution, Senator Wayne Morse wanted to call Shoup to testify against the measure, but was blocked by Senator J. William Fulbright. On May, 14 1966, Shoup began publicly attacking the policy in a speech delivered to community college students at Los Angeles Pierce College in Woodland Hills, California, for their World Affairs Day.
The forum was relatively small and initially received little publicity, but in February 1967 Shoup submitted the text of the speech to Senator Rupert Vance Hartke, who entered it into the Congressional Record. The speech grew in popularity, and Shoup did an interview for ABC News where he elaborated that, while he was not a pacifist, he felt the war was "not worth the life or limb of a single American." He remained firmly opposed to the involvement in Vietnam for the rest of his life.
Although other retired high-ranking officers, including Lieutenant General James Gavin and General Matthew Ridgway, joined Shoup in this, it was Shoup's pointed criticisms that regularly made the front pages of newspapers, because they went beyond the war to American government, business and military leadership. He feared the conflict had endangered the nation's historical identity, and argued increasing the troop levels in Vietnam would only aggravate the strategic problems there. Historian Robert Buzzanco noted that Shoup may have been the most vocal former military member to oppose the war.
Shoup argued that among the Vietnamese forces involved in the civil war there were nationalists opposed to foreign military intervention. He opposed many of the strategies associated with troop escalation, notably the air campaign over North Vietnam, which he saw as an aggressive measure causing civilian casualties that could draw the People's Republic of China or the Soviet Union into the conflict. He also feared that other American interests, including the economy, were suffering due to U.S. involvement in the war and that the U.S. was losing prestige internationally.
Shoup's opposition to the war only increased over time; he initially pushed for a negotiated settlement, but later supported a unilateral pullout from the country. As the Vietnamization strategy took effect and the U.S. increased its air operations, he remained opposed to any strategy that risked a nuclear war with China or the Soviet Union. His criticism attracted more press as the war became a stalemate. It also became highly publicized through discourse among the anti-war movement.
In 1968, in testimony before Congress, Shoup made many of the same points as he had in his 1966 speech, saying he felt opposition to the war had likely increased since then. In April 1969, along with retired Colonel James Donovan, he broadened his criticism to national security policy. In an article published in Atlantic Monthly, he accused America of becoming militaristic and aggressive, a country that was ready to "execute military contingency plans and to seek military solutions to problems of political disorder and potential Communist threats in areas of our interest." He said that anticommunism had given way to a new, aggressive defense establishment in the United States.
In a book titled Militarism U.S.A. (1970), Shoup and Donovan elaborated their criticisms. Shoup said the country was seeking military solutions to issues that could be resolved politically. He accused military leaders of propagating the war for their own career advancement, and accused the veterans group Veterans of Foreign Wars of propagandizing for the armed forces establishment. Shoup blamed the American education system for what he saw as discouraging independent thought and stressing obedience.
Shoup joined the Business Executives Move for Vietnam Peace. By 1971, Shoup publicly endorsed the anti-war veteran group Vietnam Veterans Against the War. As Vietnamization had reduced the visibility of the anti-war movement, and Shoup's criticism was not as prominent in the public arena. Fulbright and other senators urged the White House to listen to his criticisms, but Shoup's broader critique of American society and militarism was seen as more extreme than other officers who had simply criticized the strategy of the war.
Shoup's opposition to the war garnered resentment from many of the other officers in the Marine Corps, and was met with criticism that he was becoming mentally unfit or was treasonous in his actions. He was sharply criticized by journalist and former Marine Robert Heinl in several articles of the Detroit News where Heinl said Shoup was "going sour." General Rathvon M. Tompkins, one of Shoup's close friends, stopped speaking to him for several years. By December 1967, he had lost favor with the Johnson administration, his activities were monitored by the Federal Bureau of Investigation, and his patriotism was called into question in the media.
After 1971, Shoup's speaking and writing diminished, and he faded from the public eye after the U.S. military withdrawal from Vietnam in 1973. After the war, he stayed out of the public spotlight. He suffered from illness late in life, and he died on 13 January 1983 in Alexandria, Virginia. He was buried in section 7-A of Arlington National Cemetery. One of Shoup's service dress uniforms is on display at the armory of the Artillery Company of Newport in Newport, Rhode Island.
Honors and decorations
The Arleigh Burke-class destroyer was named for Shoup in 1999. Additionally, he received the following decorations:
Medal of Honor citation
See also
List of Medal of Honor recipients for World War II
Notes
Citations
References
Rogers, Daniel E. "Combat Leadership amid Chaos." Naval History 32, 6 (December 2018), 12–17 (concerning Shoup at Tarawa).
External links
1904 births
1983 deaths
United States Marine Corps personnel of World War II
Battle of Tarawa
Burials at Arlington National Cemetery
United States Marine Corps Medal of Honor recipients
Recipients of the Navy Distinguished Service Medal
Recipients of the Legion of Merit
Companions of the Distinguished Service Order
United States Marine Corps Commandants
American anti–Vietnam War activists
People from Tippecanoe County, Indiana
DePauw University alumni
United States Army officers
United States Marine Corps generals
World War II recipients of the Medal of Honor
People from Covington, Indiana |
4373640 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman%20Reigns | Roman Reigns | Leati Joseph Anoaʻi ( ; born May 25, 1985) is an American professional wrestler and former American football player. He is currently signed to WWE, where he performs on the SmackDown brand under the ring name Roman Reigns. He is the current and longest-reigning WWE Universal Champion in his second reign and the current WWE Champion in his fourth reign—with both championships, he is referred to as the Undisputed WWE Universal Champion. He is also the leader of The Bloodline stable and a member of wrestling's renowned Anoa'i family. Reigns is generally regarded as one of the best professional wrestlers active in the world today.
After playing college football for Georgia Tech, Anoaʻi started his professional football career with brief off-season stints with the Minnesota Vikings and Jacksonville Jaguars of the National Football League (NFL) in 2007. He then played a full season for the Canadian Football League's (CFL) Edmonton Eskimos in 2008 before his release and retirement from football. He then pursued a career in professional wrestling and was signed by WWE in 2010, reporting to their developmental territory Florida Championship Wrestling (FCW). Under the ring name Roman Reigns, he made his main roster debut in 2012 as a member of The Shield alongside Dean Ambrose and Seth Rollins. They teamed together until disbanding in 2014, after which Reigns entered singles competition, though the trio would occasionally reunite until Ambrose left WWE in 2019.
Reigns is a six-time world champion in WWE, having held the WWE Championship four times and the WWE Universal Championship twice. In 2022, he became the longest reigning Universal Champion—his ongoing reign of + days is recognized as the fifth-longest world championship reign in the promotion's history and the longest reign of any WWE championship since 1988. He is also a one-time WWE United States Champion, a one-time WWE Intercontinental Champion, a one-time WWE Tag Team Champion (with Rollins), the 2015 Royal Rumble winner, and the 2014 Superstar of the Year. He tied the WWE record for most eliminations in a Survivor Series match with four in the 2013 event and also previously held the record for most eliminations in a Royal Rumble match with 12 in the 2014 event. Upon winning the Intercontinental Championship, he became the 28th Triple Crown Champion and the 17th Grand Slam Champion. Reigns has headlined numerous pay-per-view events, including WWE's flagship event WrestleMania seven times (31, 32, 33, 34, 37, 38, and 39). Additionally, he was ranked at No. 1 in Pro Wrestling Illustrateds annual PWI 500 list of the top 500 singles wrestlers in 2016 and 2022.
From 2014 onwards, WWE positioned Reigns as a heroic character and attempted to establish him as their next "face of the company", which was met with intense disapproval by audiences and critics. Following his return from a hiatus in August 2020, he was repackaged as a villainous character nicknamed "The Tribal Chief" and "Head of the Table", which was generally met with acclaim.
Early life
Leati Joseph Anoaʻi was born in Pensacola, Florida, on May 25, 1985. His father is of Samoan descent and his mother has Italian ancestry. Both his father Sika Anoa’i and his brother Rosey were professional wrestlers. As a member of the Anoaʻi wrestling family, his cousins include The Tonga Kid, Rikishi, Umaga, and Yokozuna, while his first cousins once removed include The Usos and Solo Sikoa. Anoaʻi attended Pensacola Catholic High School and Escambia High School, before going on to major in management at the Georgia Institute of Technology. He later said that he considers Bret Hart his wrestling idol.
Football career
Anoaʻi played football for three years at Pensacola Catholic High School and one year at Escambia High School; in his senior year, he was named Defensive Player of the Year by the Pensacola News Journal. While at the Georgia Institute of Technology, he was a member of the Georgia Tech Yellow Jackets football team along with Calvin Johnson, who later became a wide receiver in the National Football League (NFL). Anoaʻi was a three-year starter beginning in his sophomore year and was also one of the team captains as a senior. He was named to the first-team All-Atlantic Coast Conference (ACC) in 2006 and earned All-ACC first-team honors with 40 tackles, two recovered fumbles and 4.5 sacks.
After going undrafted in the 2007 NFL draft, Anoaʻi was signed by the Minnesota Vikings in May 2007. He was diagnosed with leukemia after his team physical and was released later that month. The Jacksonville Jaguars signed him in August 2007, only to release Anoaʻi less than a week later before the start of the 2007 NFL season. In 2008, he was signed by the Edmonton Eskimos of the Canadian Football League (CFL). Wearing the number 99, Anoaʻi played for one season with the Eskimos, featuring in five games, of which he started three. Anoaʻi's most notable game came against the Hamilton Tiger-Cats in September, where he tied for the team lead with five tackles and had a forced fumble. Anoaʻi was released by the Eskimos on November 10, and proceeded to retire from professional football.
Professional wrestling career
World Wrestling Entertainment/WWE
Developmental territories (2010–2012)
Anoaʻi signed a contract with WWE in 2010 and was later assigned to their developmental territory Florida Championship Wrestling (FCW). He made his televised debut on August 19, 2010, using the ring name Roman Leakee, in a 15-man battle royal, which was won by Alex Riley. On the January 16, 2011 episode of FCW, Leakee was a competitor in a 30-man Grand Royal, but was eliminated. Later in 2011, Leakee formed a tag team with Donny Marlow and the pair unsuccessfully challenged Calvin Raines and Big E Langston for the FCW Florida Tag Team Championship on July 8.
In January 2012, Leakee pinned FCW Florida Heavyweight Champion Leo Kruger in a non-title match. On the February 5 episode of FCW, he defeated Dean Ambrose and Seth Rollins in a triple threat match to become the number one contender to the FCW Florida Heavyweight Championship. He failed to win the championship when he lost to Kruger the following week. Leakee later won the FCW Florida Tag Team Championship with Mike Dalton and would drop the titles to CJ Parker and Jason Jordan shortly after.
After WWE rebranded FCW to NXT in August 2012, Anoaʻi, with the new ring name Roman Reigns and a villainous character, made his debut on the October 31 episode of NXT by defeating CJ Parker.
The Shield (2012–2014)
Roman Reigns made his main roster television debut as on November 18, 2012, at the Survivor Series pay-per-view event alongside Dean Ambrose and Seth Rollins, assaulting Ryback during the triple threat main event for the WWE Championship, allowing CM Punk to retain the title, thus establishing themselves as villains. The trio declared themselves The Shield and vowed to rally against "injustice", while also denying working for Punk, even though they would routinely emerge from the crowd to attack Punk's adversaries, including Ryback and WWE Tag Team Champions Team Hell No (Daniel Bryan and Kane). This led to a six-man tag team Tables, Ladders, and Chairs match at TLC: Tables, Ladders & Chairs on December 16, in which Reigns, Ambrose and Rollins defeated Team Hell No and Ryback in their debut match. The Shield continued to aid Punk in January 2013, attacking both Ryback and The Rock. On the January 28 episode of Raw, it was revealed that Punk and his manager Paul Heyman had been paying The Shield and Brad Maddox to work for them.
The Shield then indistinctly ended their association with Punk while beginning a feud with John Cena, Ryback and Sheamus that directed to a six-man tag match on February 17 at Elimination Chamber, which The Shield won. The Shield then made their WrestleMania debut, where they defeated Sheamus, Randy Orton and Big Show at WrestleMania 29 in April. The following night on Raw, The Shield attempted to attack The Undertaker, but they were stopped by Team Hell No. This set up a six-man tag team match on the April 22 episode of Raw, which The Shield won. On the May 13 episode of Raw, The Shield's undefeated streak in televised six-man tag team matches ended in a disqualification loss in an elimination tag team match against Cena, Kane and Bryan.
On May 19 at Extreme Rules, Reigns and Rollins defeated Team Hell No in a tornado tag team match to win the WWE Tag Team Championship. On the June 14 episode of SmackDown, The Shield were given their first decisive loss in televised six-man tag team matches at the hands of Team Hell No and Randy Orton, when Bryan submitted Rollins. Reigns and Rollins defeated Bryan and Orton at Payback on June 16 to retain the WWE Tag Team Championship. Further successful title defenses followed against The Usos (Jimmy Uso and Jey Uso) at Money in the Bank on July 14 and The Prime Time Players (Darren Young and Titus O'Neil) at Night of Champions on September 15.
In August, The Shield began working for chief operating officer Triple H and The Authority. Their association with The Authority led them to begin a rivalry with Cody Rhodes and Goldust. At Battleground on October 6, Reigns and Rollins lost to Rhodes and Goldust in a non-title match. Reigns and Rollins lost the tag team titles to Rhodes and Goldust in a no disqualification match on the October 14 episode of Raw, following interference from Big Show. At Hell in a Cell on October 27, Reigns and Rollins failed to regain the championship in a triple threat tag team match. At Survivor Series on November 24, The Shield teamed with Antonio Cesaro and Jack Swagger to take on Rey Mysterio, The Usos, Cody Rhodes and Goldust in a traditional Survivor Series match; Reigns would win the match for his team. At TLC: Tables, Ladders & Chairs on December 15, The Shield were defeated by CM Punk in a 3-on-1 handicap match, after Reigns accidentally speared Ambrose. At the Royal Rumble on January 26, 2014, Reigns entered the Royal Rumble match at number 15 and went on to eliminate 12 competitors in the match, a record that was later broken by Braun Strowman in 2018. Reigns would be the runner-up in the match after being lastly eliminated by Batista. The next night on Raw, The Shield competed in a six-man tag team match against Daniel Bryan, Sheamus and John Cena, with all three members of the winning team qualifying for the Elimination Chamber match for the WWE World Heavyweight Championship, which The Shield lost via disqualification after The Wyatt Family interfered and attacked Cena, Bryan and Sheamus. A six-man tag team match pitting The Shield against The Wyatt Family on February 24 at the Elimination Chamber pay-per-view was arranged, in which The Shield lost after Ambrose abandoned the match mid-way through.
In March, The Shield came out to seemingly attack Jerry Lawler, only to attack Kane instead, turning all three men face in the process. This led to a match between The Shield and Kane and The New Age Outlaws (Billy Gunn and Road Dogg) at WrestleMania XXX on April 6, which The Shield won. The feud with Kane also prompted The Shield to sever ties with Triple H, who reformed Evolution to counteract them. The Shield then defeated Evolution at both Extreme Rules on May 4 and Payback on June 1. On the Raw following Payback, Rollins turned on The Shield and aligned himself with Triple H and The Authority.
Controversial rise to main event status (2014–2015)
Following Rollins's betrayal, Reigns would briefly continue teaming with Ambrose, before embarking on a singles run and being quickly placed into world title contention. After winning a battle royal Reigns was inserted into a ladder match for the vacant WWE World Heavyweight Championship at Money in the Bank on June 29; however the match was won by John Cena. His second consecutive pay-per-view main event was at Battleground on July 20, where Reigns again challenged for the title, this time in a fatal four-way match involving Cena, Kane, and Randy Orton, which Cena again won. Following the event, Reigns began a feud with Orton, culminating in a match at SummerSlam on August 17, which Reigns won.
The next month, a singles match was set up between Reigns and Rollins for Night of Champions on September 21, but Reigns developed a legitimate incarcerated hernia which required surgery prior to the event. As a result of Reigns being unable to compete, Rollins was declared the winner via forfeit. Reigns returned on the December 8 episode of Raw, accepting a Slammy Award for "Superstar of the Year". At TLC: Tables, Ladders & Chairs on December 14, Reigns interfered during Rollins's match with John Cena, attacking Rollins and Big Show. This started a feud between Reigns and Big Show, in which Reigns defeated him multiple times by countout and disqualification.
Reigns then entered the 2015 Royal Rumble match on January 25, which he won after lastly eliminating Rusev, therefore granting him a WWE World Heavyweight Championship match at WrestleMania 31. After his victory, Reigns was jeered heavily by the crowd, despite portraying a heroic character. On the February 2 episode of Raw, Reigns suffered his first pinfall loss in singles competition on the main roster when Big Show defeated him after interference from Rollins. Reigns then successfully defended his WrestleMania title shot against Daniel Bryan at Fastlane on February 22. At WrestleMania 31 on March 29, Seth Rollins cashed in his Money in the Bank contract while Reigns's main event match with Brock Lesnar was in progress, turning it into a triple threat match, which Reigns lost when he was pinned by Rollins.
In April, Reigns resumed his feud with Big Show, which culminated on April 26 in a Last Man Standing match at Extreme Rules, which Reigns won. On May 17 at Payback, Reigns failed to win the world title from Rollins in a fatal four-way match that also involved Orton and Ambrose. On June 14 at Money in the Bank, Reigns competed in his first Money in the Bank ladder match, which he failed to win after Bray Wyatt interfered and attacked him. On July 17 at Battleground, Wyatt defeated Reigns after Luke Harper interfered and attacked Reigns. He would enlist the help of Ambrose in order to take on the reformed Wyatt Family, with the duo defeating Wyatt and Harper at SummerSlam on August 23. The following night on Raw, Reigns and Ambrose were attacked by Wyatt's new ally, the debuting Braun Strowman. On September 20 at Night of Champions, Reigns and Ambrose teamed with Chris Jericho, but were defeated by Wyatt, Harper and Strowman. The feud between Reigns and Wyatt ended at the Hell in a Cell pay-per-view event on October 25, where Reigns defeated Wyatt in a Hell in a Cell match.
WWE World Heavyweight Champion (2015–2016)
On the October 26 episode of Raw, Reigns defeated Alberto Del Rio, Dolph Ziggler, and Kevin Owens in a fatal four way to become the number one contender for the WWE World Heavyweight Championship. However, champion Seth Rollins legitimately injured his knee on November 4 and vacated the title the following day, which led to a tournament to crown a new champion. Reigns defeated Big Show in the first round, Cesaro in the quarterfinals, Alberto Del Rio in the semifinals, and Dean Ambrose in the finals at Survivor Series on November 22 to win the WWE World Heavyweight Championship for the first time. Immediately afterward, Sheamus cashed in his Money in the Bank contract and defeated Reigns, thus ending Reigns' reign after only five minutes. On December 13, Reigns failed to regain the title from Sheamus in a Tables, Ladders and Chairs match at TLC: Tables, Ladders & Chairs following interference by The League of Nations (Alberto Del Rio and Rusev), attacking Triple H in anger after the match. The next night on Raw, Vince McMahon granted Reigns a title rematch against Sheamus, under the stipulation that if Reigns lost, he would be forced to retire. Reigns managed to win after overcoming interferences from McMahon, Del Rio and Rusev, regaining the WWE World Heavyweight Championship in the process.
Reigns was forced by McMahon to defend his championship in the 2016 Royal Rumble match on January 24, 2016. In the match, Reigns was eliminated by eventual winner Triple H, thus losing the championship. At Fastlane on February 22, Reigns defeated Brock Lesnar and Dean Ambrose in a triple threat match to receive a WWE World Heavyweight Championship match against Triple H at WrestleMania 32 on April 3, where he defeated Triple H in the main event to become the WWE World Heavyweight Champion for a third time. After WrestleMania, Reigns began a feud with AJ Styles and successfully defended the championship against him at Payback on May 1 and then again at Extreme Rules in an Extreme Rules match on May 22. After the latter match, Reigns was attacked by a returning Seth Rollins.
At Money in the Bank on June 19, Reigns lost to Rollins, marking his first clean loss on the main roster and ending his reign at 77 days. On June 21, Anoaʻi was legitimately suspended by WWE for 30 days due to violating the WWE Wellness Program, WWE's internal drug testing program. Pro Wrestling Torch and TheWrap reported that WWE knew of Anoaʻi's violation before the event, leading to Reigns being scripted to lose his world title at the event.
On July 19 at the 2016 WWE draft, Reigns was drafted to the Raw brand. Despite Reigns's suspension, WWE continued to advertise Reigns as part of the Battleground main event, and went on to acknowledge Reigns's suspension on television. At Battleground on July 24, Reigns made his televised return, facing Rollins and Dean Ambrose for the now-renamed WWE Championship, which Ambrose won. The following night on Raw, Reigns also failed to contend for the newly announced WWE Universal Championship against Rollins at SummerSlam on August 21, as he lost to the debuting Finn Bálor in a qualifying match.
WWE Universal Champion and The Shield reunion (2016–2018)
In August, Reigns began a feud with United States Champion Rusev, provoking a title match between the two at SummerSlam. At the event on August 21, Reigns and Rusev brawled before the match began, leading to the match being declared a no contest. In a rematch at Clash of Champions on September 25, Reigns would defeat Rusev to win the United States Championship, and retained the title against Rusev in a Hell in a Cell match at the titular event on October 30 to end their feud. At Survivor Series on November 20, Reigns made up part of Team Raw alongside Braun Strowman, Chris Jericho, Kevin Owens and Seth Rollins, in a losing effort to Team SmackDown. At Roadblock: End of the Line on December 18, Reigns faced Owens for the Universal Championship, but lost via disqualification when Chris Jericho attacked Owens to prevent Reigns from winning the match and the title. On the January 9, 2017, episode of Raw, Reigns lost the United States Championship to Jericho in a handicap match also involving Owens ending his reign at 106 days.
This led to a no disqualification rematch with Owens at the Royal Rumble on January 29 that saw Jericho being suspended above the ring in a shark cage, where Reigns lost after Braun Strowman interfered. Later in the event, Reigns entered at number 30 in the Royal Rumble match, eliminating Bray Wyatt, Chris Jericho, and The Undertaker before being last eliminated by Randy Orton. At Fastlane on March 5, Reigns defeated Strowman, giving Strowman his first pinfall loss on the main roster. The following night on Raw, Reigns was chokeslammed by The Undertaker after they both joined forces to attack Strowman. This led to a No Holds Barred match between Reigns and Undertaker at WrestleMania 33 on April 2, which Reigns won in his third consecutive WrestleMania main event. The next night on Raw, Reigns opened the show to ten minutes of severe boos and chants from the crowd, attempting to stop him from speaking, before simply stating "This is my yard now" and leaving the ring. Reigns then resumed his feud with Strowman, after Strowman kayfabe injured Reigns's shoulder. A match was set up between the two at Payback on April 30, which Reigns lost. The feud between the two was put on hold after Strowman legitimately injured his elbow.
Reigns competed in a fatal five-way match at Extreme Rules on June 4 against Bray Wyatt, Finn Bálor, Samoa Joe and Seth Rollins, with the winner becoming the number one contender for the Universal Championship. Joe would win the match after forcing Bálor to pass out to a submission hold. On the June 19 episode of Raw, Reigns was attacked by a returning Strowman, who challenged Reigns to an ambulance match at Great Balls of Fire on July 9, which Reigns lost. At SummerSlam on August 20, Reigns was pinned by Brock Lesnar in a Universal Championship match also involving Strowman and Joe. Following this, Reigns began a rivalry with John Cena, leading to a match at No Mercy on September 24, which Reigns won. The next night on Raw, Reigns described his victory over Cena as the biggest win in his career. In October, due to mutual issues with The Miz, The Miztourage (Bo Dallas and Curtis Axel) and Cesaro and Sheamus, Reigns, Ambrose and Rollins decided to reform The Shield in order to combat the aforementioned alliance. Reigns was due to team with Rollins and Ambrose at TLC: Tables, Ladders & Chairs on October 22, but he was removed from the match due to an illness concern. He was replaced by Kurt Angle and The Shield went on to win the match.
Reigns returned on the November 13 episode of Raw and challenged The New Day (Big E, Kofi Kingston and Xavier Woods) to a six-man tag team match at Survivor Series. At the event on November 19, The Shield emerged victorious over The New Day. The following night on Raw, Reigns defeated The Miz for the Intercontinental Championship, thus becoming the twenty-eighth Triple Crown and seventeenth Grand Slam champion, the second member of The Shield after Ambrose to achieve the Grand Slam. Following his title win, Reigns would successfully defend the title against Elias, Jason Jordan, Cesaro, and Samoa Joe before losing it back to The Miz on the 25th Anniversary of Raw on January 22, 2018, ending his reign at 63 days.
Reigns competed in the 2018 Royal Rumble match on January 28, but was the last participant eliminated by eventual winner Shinsuke Nakamura. After defeating Bray Wyatt on the February 5 episode of Raw, Reigns qualified for the Elimination Chamber match, which he won, earning the right to face Brock Lesnar for the Universal Championship at WrestleMania 34. At WrestleMania on April 8, Reigns failed to win the championship from Lesnar. They had a rematch for the championship at the Greatest Royal Rumble on April 27, this time in a Steel Cage match, which Reigns narrowly lost after spearing Lesnar through the cage wall.
After defeating Samoa Joe at Backlash on May 6 and Jinder Mahal at Money in the Bank on June 17, Reigns then entered a feud with Bobby Lashley, where both men believed that they were the rightful challenger to Lesnar's championship. This set up a match at Extreme Rules on July 15, where Lashley was victorious. The following night on Raw, two triple threat matches were set to determine Lesnar's challenger for SummerSlam. Reigns and Lashley won their respective matches, setting up a number one contender's match between the two the following week, which Reigns won. At SummerSlam on August 19, Reigns defeated Lesnar and won the Universal Championship for the first time in his career. Reigns went on to reignite his feud with Braun Strowman, who was the Money in the Bank holder. Strowman would also ally himself with Dolph Ziggler and Drew McIntyre in order to challenge The Shield. Reigns then faced Strowman at Hell in a Cell on September 16 in a Hell in a Cell match, which ended in a no contest after Brock Lesnar returned and attacked both men. On October 6 at Super Show-Down, The Shield defeated Strowman, Ziggler and McIntyre in a six-man tag team match before losing to them in a rematch on Raw two nights later.
A triple threat match between Reigns, Strowman and Lesnar for the Universal Championship was scheduled for the Crown Jewel event, however, on October 22, Reigns relinquished the title and announced his hiatus on Raw, revealing that his leukemia had returned after 11 years of privately battling it and being in remission. Following this announcement, Reigns would go on an indefinite hiatus to receive treatment. Reigns was first diagnosed in May 2007 when he was signed to the Minnesota Vikings, and went into remission around two years after the initial diagnosis.
Return from leukemia (2019–2020)
On February 25, 2019, Reigns made his return to Raw, revealing that his leukemia was once again in remission to a huge ovation from the crowd. Later in the night, Reigns and Rollins would appear to assist Ambrose from an attack by Drew McIntyre, Bobby Lashley, Elias, and Baron Corbin. The following week on Raw, Ambrose assisted Reigns and Rollins from another attack by the four, before the trio performed their signature pose, officially reuniting the group for the third time. The Shield defeated the team of McIntyre, Lashley, and Corbin at Fastlane on March 10. On the March 25 episode of Raw, Reigns accepted a challenge from McIntyre for a match at WrestleMania 35. At the event on April 7, Reigns was successful in defeating McIntyre.
During the 2019 WWE Superstar Shake-up, Reigns was drafted to the SmackDown brand on the April 16 episode of SmackDown, with WWE's announcers describing Reigns as "SmackDown's greatest ever acquisition", as well as the future of SmackDown and WWE. During the episode, Reigns attacked Elias and Vince McMahon. The following week, Elias challenged Reigns to a match at Money in the Bank on May 19 which Reigns accepted and also won. On the May 20 episode of Raw, Reigns, who appeared via the wild card rule, was interrupted by Shane McMahon, who was still bothered by Reigns' earlier attack on his father. Reigns then challenged Shane to a match at Super ShowDown, which the latter accepted. At Super ShowDown on June 7, Reigns lost to McMahon after interference from McIntyre. Reigns defeated McIntyre at Stomping Grounds on June 23, despite interference from McMahon. The following night on Raw, Reigns was saved by The Undertaker from an assault from McMahon and McIntyre. Reigns and Undertaker teamed up to defeat McMahon and McIntyre in a No Holds Barred tag team match at Extreme Rules on July 14.
On the July 30 episode of SmackDown, an unidentified person pushed lighting equipment on Reigns. The following week, Reigns was again targeted by the attacker as he was a victim of a hit and run. After ruling out Samoa Joe and Buddy Murphy as suspects, Reigns next investigated Daniel Bryan and Erick Rowan due to testimony from Murphy and seemingly incriminating video footage. However, Bryan revealed the attacker as a man who merely resembled Rowan. Nonetheless, Reigns found additional footage that showed Rowan pushing over the equipment. Rowan then admitted that it was him and admitted that he was responsible for the hit and run as well. This caused Bryan and Rowan to split due to Rowan lying, and a no disqualification match between Reigns and Rowan was scheduled for Clash of Champions on September 15, which Rowan won after interference from a returning Luke Harper. Reigns would later defeat Rowan in a lumberjack match on the 20th Anniversary of SmackDown and subsequently team with Bryan to defeat Rowan and Harper at Hell in a Cell on October 6 in a tornado tag team match to end the feud. At Crown Jewel on October 31, Reigns was part of Team Hogan (alongside Rusev, Ricochet, Shorty G, and Ali), defeating Team Flair (Randy Orton, King Corbin, Bobby Lashley, Shinsuke Nakamura, and Drew McIntyre).
In November, Reigns began a feud with King Corbin and his allies Dolph Ziggler and Robert Roode. Reigns was named team captain for SmackDown at Survivor Series on November 24, where he and his four teammates defeated Team Raw and Team NXT in a five-on-five-on-five tag team elimination match. During the match, Corbin caused Mustafa Ali to be eliminated. Reigns responded by spearing Corbin and allowing him to be eliminated. This led to a tables, ladders, and chairs match being arranged for the TLC: Tables, Ladders & Chairs pay-per-view on December 15, which Reigns lost after interference from Ziggler and The Revival (Dash Wilder and Scott Dawson). At the Royal Rumble on January 26, 2020, Reigns defeated Corbin in a falls count anywhere match, after receiving assistance from The Usos. Later that night, he entered the Royal Rumble match, but was the last competitor eliminated by the eventual winner Drew McIntyre. At Super ShowDown on February 27, Reigns defeated Corbin in a steel cage match to end their feud.
The following night on SmackDown, Reigns challenged Goldberg for the Universal Championship, leading to a match between the two being set up for WrestleMania 36. However, on April 3, it was announced that Braun Strowman would replace Reigns at the event, after Reigns pulled out of the event amid concerns surrounding the COVID-19 pandemic and his being immunocompromised from his leukemia. Following WrestleMania, Reigns continued to remain absent from WWE programming in the midst of the pandemic, telling Hindustan Times: "For me, I just had to make a choice for my family. The company (WWE) has done everything that they can to make it the safest work environment possible. It is not the workplace that I was necessarily concerned about. The decision was taken mainly because each performer travels so much, and we are all such a diverse group and from all over the place. I'm not convinced, and I can't trust the fact that everybody is taking it as seriously and locking themselves down at home like I am. I trust my life with my co-workers every time I step foot in the ring, but I just can't put the same trust when it has my children, my wife, and my family involved."
The Tribal Chief (2020–present)
Reigns returned at SummerSlam on August 23, attacking the new Universal Champion "The Fiend" Bray Wyatt, and Braun Strowman after their match for the title. On the following SmackDown, Reigns aligned himself with his new manager, Paul Heyman, turning heel for the first time since 2014. At Payback on August 30, Reigns defeated defending champion The Fiend and Strowman in a No Holds Barred Triple Threat match to win the Universal Championship for the second time.
Reigns then began a rivalry with his cousin Jey Uso. In his first championship defense at Clash of Champions on September 27, Reigns retained the title against Jey Uso by technical knockout, after Reigns viciously beat down Jey, and Jimmy Uso threw in the towel. After this, Reigns granted Jey a rematch at the Hell in a Cell event, and the match was later confirmed as a Hell in a Cell match, with the added stipulation of being an "I Quit" match. In the middle of the rivalry with Jey, Reigns successfully defended his title against Strowman on the October 16 episode of SmackDown. At Hell in a Cell on October 25, Reigns made Jey quit after attacking the injured Jimmy, thus retaining his title. Due to the loss, Jey was ordered to follow Reigns' commands and address him as "The Tribal Chief", thus turning him into a villainous character.
At Survivor Series on November 22, Reigns defeated Raw's WWE Champion Drew McIntyre in a Champion vs. Champion match, before beginning a feud with Kevin Owens, after Reigns believed Owens to be disrespecting his family. Reigns successfully defended the title against Owens in a TLC match at TLC: Tables, Ladders & Chairs on December 20, in a Steel Cage match on the December 25 episode of SmackDown, and in a Last Man Standing match at the Royal Rumble on January 31, 2021, respectively. Reigns then retained his title against Daniel Bryan at both Elimination Chamber on February 21 and Fastlane on March 21. At this time, Reigns would also feud with Edge, who had won the Royal Rumble match. In the main event of the second night of WrestleMania 37 on April 11, Reigns defeated Bryan and Edge in a triple threat match to retain the Universal Championship after assistance from Jey. On the April 30 episode of SmackDown, Reigns defeated Bryan in a championship vs. career match, which resulted in Bryan being forced to leave SmackDown.
Reigns' next challenger for the championship was Cesaro, whom Reigns defeated at WrestleMania Backlash on May 16. Afterwards, Reigns initiated a rivalry with Rey Mysterio, after Reigns brutalized Mysterio's son Dominik. The two faced off for the championship in a Hell in a Cell match on the June 18 episode of SmackDown, with Reigns emerging as the victor. On the June 25 episode of SmackDown, while addressing his victory over Mysterio, Reigns was attacked by the returning Edge, leading to a title match between the two at Money in the Bank on July 18, where Reigns retained with the assistance of Seth Rollins. After the match, Reigns was confronted by a returning John Cena. Over the following weeks, Cena challenged Reigns for a title match at SummerSlam, and after initially rejecting Cena's challenge, a match was made official for the two at the event. At the event on August 21, Reigns defeated Cena to retain the title. Immediately after the match, Reigns would be confronted by a returning Brock Lesnar. After that, Reigns begins a rivalry with Finn Bálor, successfully defending his title against him on the September 3 episode of SmackDown, and in an Extreme Rules match at Extreme Rules on September 26 with Bálor in his Demon persona. On October 21, at Crown Jewel, Reigns successfully defended his title against Brock Lesnar, again with the help of The Usos. On November 8, it was announced that Reigns would face WWE Champion Big E at Survivor Series in a Champion vs. Champion match, with Reigns emerging victorious at the event on November 21.
On the December 3 episode of SmackDown, Reigns successfully defended his title against Sami Zayn after Lesnar attacked Zayn. On the December 17 episode of SmackDown, Reigns fired Heyman as his manager due to Heyman's past association with Lesnar. Reigns was scheduled to defend his title against Lesnar at the Day 1 event on January 1, 2022, but the match was canceled as a result of Reigns testing positive for COVID-19. On January 16, Reigns surpassed Lesnar's 503-day reign to become the longest reigning Universal Champion, in turn having the sixth longest world championship reign in the company's history. On January 29 at the Royal Rumble event, Reigns defended the championship against Seth "Freakin" Rollins, losing the match by disqualification; however championships cannot change hands by disqualification, thus Reigns retained the title. Later that same night, he interfered in the WWE Championship match between Lesnar and Bobby Lashley, re-uniting with Heyman to cause the upset victory for Lashley to regain the championship. During the same night, Lesnar would win the Royal Rumble and eventually challenge Reigns to a match in the main event of WrestleMania 38, marking the third time Reigns would face Lesnar in the main event of WrestleMania.
On the February 4 episode of SmackDown, Goldberg would make his return to challenge Reigns to a match at Elimination Chamber for the title a match two years in the making after their match at WrestleMania 36 was called off due to Reigns taking a hiatus. At the event on February 19, Reigns defeated Goldberg via technical submission to retain the title. On the second night of WrestleMania 38 on April 3, he defeated Brock Lesnar to win the WWE Championship for a fourth time and also became the first superstar to hold both the WWE Championship and WWE Universal Championship simultaneously and be recognized as the Undisputed WWE Universal Champion. It was reported that the WrestleMania main event was cut short due to Reigns sustaining an arm injury. At WrestleMania Backlash on May 8, Reigns and The Usos defeated RK-Bro (Randy Orton and Riddle) and McIntyre in a six-man tag team match.
On the June 17 episode of SmackDown, Reigns successfully defended the Undisputed WWE Universal Championship against Riddle, but after the match, he was attacked by a returning Brock Lesnar to renew their rivalry and set up a Last Man Standing match at SummerSlam on July 30, in which Reigns won, ending their 7-year feud. At Clash at the Castle on September 3, Reigns successfully retained the titles against Drew McIntyre following interference from the debuting Solo Sikoa. At Crown Jewel on November 5, Reigns successfully retained the titles against Logan Paul. Three weeks later at Survivor Series WarGames on November 26, Reigns, along with The Bloodline, defeated Drew McIntyre, Kevin Owens and The Brawling Brutes (Sheamus, Ridge Holland and Butch) in a WarGames match.
On January 18, 2023, his Universal Championship reign reached 871 days breaking Gunther's NXT UK Championship reign of 870 days, giving him the longest reign of any WWE championship since 1988. At the Royal Rumble on January 28, Reigns successfully defended the titles against Kevin Owens for the fourth time. Following the match, Sami Zayn would turn on The Bloodline, smashing Reigns with a chair. Cody Rhodes, who won the 2023 Royal Rumble, earned a match against Reigns in the main event of WrestleMania 39. At Elimination Chamber on February 18, Reigns successfully retained the titles against Sami Zayn. At Night 2 of WrestleMania 39, Reigns entered his seventh WrestleMania main event to a symphony of pianos. During the match, The Usos attempted to intervene, however, Rhodes was rescued by Zayn and Owens. Ultimately, Reigns successfully retained the titles against Rhodes after interference from Sikoa. This marked the first time any champion defended the same championship three WrestleManias in a row. At Night of Champions on May 27, Reigns and Sikoa unsuccessfully challenged Kevin Owens and Sami Zayn for the Undisputed WWE Tag Team Championship. During the match, The Usos interfered and accidentally attacked Sikoa while aiming for Zayn. The subsequent sequence of events culminated in Jimmy Uso attacking Reigns, and The Usos walking away from The Bloodline. It was on this day as well, that Reigns hit 1,000 days as Universal Champion, the first to do so in over thirty-five years, and only the fifth wrestler ever to accomplish the feat with a world championship in the history of WWE. On June 24, Reigns reached 1,028 days as Universal Champion, passing Pedro Morales' reign of 1,027 days with the WWE Championship (at the time known as the WWWF Heavyweight Championship), giving Reigns the fifth longest world championship reign in company history. At Money in the Bank on July 1, Reigns and Sikoa faced The Usos in a "Bloodline Civil War" tag team match, where Reigns was pinned by Jey, marking his first pinfall loss since December 2019. At SummerSlam, a returning Jimmy, who was injured by Reigns weeks back, betrayed Jey to allow Reigns to pick up the win to stay as champion and the Tribal Chief.
Persona, reception, and legacy
Personal life
In early 2005, while studying at Georgia Institute of Technology, Anoaʻi met and began dating Galina Becker. They were married in December 2014, and reside in Tampa, Florida. Their first child, a daughter, was born in December 2007 and appeared with Anoaʻi in a PSA in June 2014. They had twin sons in November 2016, followed by another set of twin sons in March 2020.
At a house show on December 30, 2015, Anoaʻi had his nose legitimately broken during his match against Sheamus, and later underwent nasal reconstructive surgery which altered the appearance of his nose.
Other media
Anoaʻi made his first appearance as a playable character in the 2004 video game NCAA Football 2005. He has since appeared as Roman Reigns in WWE 2K14, WWE 2K15, WWE 2K16, WWE 2K17, WWE 2K18, WWE 2K19, WWE 2K20 (of which he was the cover star), WWE 2K Battlegrounds, WWE 2K22, and WWE 2K23.
Reigns also makes regular appearances on fellow wrestler Xavier Woods' comedic YouTube channel UpUpDownDown under the nickname "The Merchandise".
On December 31, 2019, Reigns appeared on Fox's New Year's Eve with Steve Harvey, where he defeated Dolph Ziggler in a pre-taped match.
Film
Television
Championships and accomplishments
National Collegiate Athletic Association
NCAA
First-team All-ACC (2006)
Professional wrestling
CBS Sports
Feud of the Year (2020)
ESPN
Best storyline of the year (2022) –
Male wrestler of the year (2022)
ESPY Awards
Best WWE Moment (2019) –
Florida Championship Wrestling
FCW Florida Tag Team Championship (1 time) – with Mike Dalton
New York Post
Storyline of the Year (2022) –
Pro Wrestling Illustrated
Comeback of the Year (2019)
Inspirational Wrestler of the Year (2018, 2019)
Most Hated Wrestler of the Year (2016)
Most Improved Wrestler of the Year (2015)
Tag Team of the Year (2013) –
Ranked No. 1 of the top 500 singles wrestlers in the PWI 500 in 2016 and 2022
Sports Illustrated
Wrestler of the Year (2021)
Wrestling Observer Newsletter
Best Box Office Draw (2022)
Best Gimmick (2021)
Most Improved (2013)
Tag Team of the Year (2013) –
Most Overrated (2016)
Worst Feud of the Year (2013) –
WWE
WWE Championship (4 times, current)
WWE Universal Championship (2 times, current)
WWE Intercontinental Championship (1 time)
WWE United States Championship (1 time)
WWE Tag Team Championship (1 time) – with Seth Rollins
28th Triple Crown Champion
Ninth Grand Slam Champion (under current format; 17th overall)
Royal Rumble (2015)
WWE World Heavyweight Championship Tournament (2015)
WWE Undisputed Universal Championship (current)
Elimination Chamber (2018)
Slammy Award (7 times)
Breakout Star of the Year (2013)
Extreme Moment of the Year (2015) –
Faction of the Year (2013, 2014)
Superstar of the Year (2014)
Trending Now (Hashtag) of the Year (2013) – #BelieveInTheShield
"What a Maneuver" of the Year (2013) – Spear
WWE Year-End Awards (2 times)
Best Reunion (2018)
Hottest Rivalry (2018)
Bumpy Award (1 time)
Superstar of the Half-Year (2021)
Luchas de Apuestas record
Notes
References
External links
Georgia Tech profile
1985 births
21st-century professional wrestlers
Actors of Samoan descent
American Roman Catholics
American football defensive linemen
American male professional wrestlers
American players of Canadian football
American people of Samoan descent
American professional wrestlers of Italian descent
American professional wrestlers of Samoan descent
Anoa'i family
Canadian football defensive linemen
Catholics from Florida
Edmonton Elks players
Georgia Tech Yellow Jackets football players
Jacksonville Jaguars players
Living people
Minnesota Vikings players
NWA/WCW/WWE United States Heavyweight Champions
Players of American football from Pensacola, Florida
Professional wrestlers from Florida
Players of Canadian football from Pensacola, Florida
Sportspeople from Pensacola, Florida
The Authority (professional wrestling) members
WWE Champions
WWE Universal Champions
WWF/WWE Intercontinental Champions
WWE Grand Slam champions
FCW Florida Tag Team Champions
Royal Rumble winners
WWE Raw Tag Team Champions |
4373654 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Video%20game%20culture | Video game culture | Video game culture or gaming culture is a worldwide new media subculture formed by video game hobbyists. As video games have exponentially increased in sophistication, accessibility and popularity over time, they have had a significant influence on popular culture, particularly among middle-class adolescents and young adults. Video game culture has also evolved with Internet culture and the increasing popularity of mobile games.
People who regularly play video games often identify as gamers, a term that can mean anything from players who only enjoy casual gaming, to passionate enthusiasts and professional gaming competitors. As video games become more social with multiplayer and online capability, gamers find themselves in growing social networks. Playing video games can both be entertainment as well as competition, as the trend known as electronic sports or esports has become more widely accepted. Video game-focused gaming conventions have become popular social-gathering events among computer enthusiasts since early 21st century, and gaming system reviews and gameplay streamings have become significant part of the geek culture.
Definition
Video game culture is broadly considered a description of the subculture of those who play video games. This not only includes gamers, players that frequently dedicate time and effort to playing video games, but also those players that participate less frequently and often through more casual games. Because of the interactive nature of video games, the video game culture differs from other subculture as there is interest not only in who plays video games (the demographics), but the types of video games they play, and how they play them.
The concept that video games had its own subculture was first suggested in 1996, but became more predominate as an area of academic study since the 2010s.
Demographics
, the average age for a video game player is 31, a number slowly increasing as people who were children playing the first arcade, console and home computer games continue playing and adopting newer systems. The gender distribution of gamers is reaching equilibrium, according to a 2016 study showing that 59% of gamers are male and 41% female; but research has also shown that women are less likely to self-identify as gamers out of fear of stigmatization. ESA reported that 71% of people age six to forty-nine in the United States played video games, with 55% of gamers playing on their smartphones or mobile devices. The average age of players across the globe is mid- to late 20s, and is increasing as older players grow in numbers.
One possible reason for the increase in players could be attributed to the growing number of video game genres that require less of a specific audience. For example, the Wii console has widened its audience with games such as Wii Sports and Wii Fit, both requiring more physical activity from the user and provide more reasons to play including family competition or exercise. It could also be because people who played video games when they were young are now growing older but still retain that interest in games. Currently, the largest entertainment industry for children is gaming. According to a 2008 telephone survey with a sample size of 1,102 respondents, 97% of children living in the United States and between the ages of 12 and 17 play video games.
LAN gaming
Video games are played in a variety of social ways, which often involve domestic gatherings or even in public places. A popular method of accomplishing this is a LAN (Local Area Network) party, which is hosted at a home and involves family and friends, creating a social event for people-friendly with each other. LAN parties are often held in large-scale events conducted in public spaces and have a great number of participants who might not usually socialize.
The Everquest Fan Faires for instance, provide weekends of socializing and playing, at a large gathering (an event of several thousand) of dedicated game fans. Terry Flew in his book Games: Technology, Industry, Culture also emphasizes the Online Gaming Communities – "where players aren't physically located in the same space, but still socializing together". This raises the notion of McLuhan's "Global Village", as people can transcend their physical limitations and communicate with people, possessing a similar interest, from all around the world. Shapiro also stresses the possibility of "Using technology to enhance one's social life", as friendships no longer have to be structured by physical proximity (e.g. neighbors, colleagues). Shapiro states that "the net (Online Gaming Communities) allows individuals to extend their social network in a novel way, to communicate and share life experiences with people regardless of where they live and form online relationships". Thus, such online communities satisfy a genuine need for affiliation with like-minded others.
Online gaming
Online gaming has drastically increased the scope and size of video game culture. Online gaming grew out of games on bulletin board systems and on college mainframes from the 1970s and 1980s. MUDs offered multiplayer competition and cooperation, but on a scope more geographically limited than on the Internet. The Internet allowed gamers from all over the world – not just within one country or state – to play games together with ease. With the advent of Cloud Gaming high-performance games can now be played from low-end client systems and even TVs.
One of the most groundbreaking titles in the history of online video games is Quake, which offered the ability to play with sixteen and eventually up to thirty-two players simultaneously in a 3D world. Gamers quickly began to establish their organized groups, called clans. Clans established their own identities, their marketing, their form of internal organization, and even their looks. Some clans had friendly or hostile rivalries, and there were often clans who were allied with other clans. Clan interaction took place on both professionally set competition events, and during normal casual playing where several members of one clan would play on a public server. Clans would often do their recruiting this way; by noticing the best players on a particular server, they would send invitations for that player to either try out or accept membership in the clan.
Gamers of all ages play online games, with an average age off 33.
'Clan'- or 'guild'-based play has since become an accepted (and expected) aspect of multiplayer video games, with several games offering cash-prize tournament-style competition to their players. Many clans and guilds also have active fan-bases, which, when combined with the 'tournament' aspect, contribute to turning clan-based gaming into a semi-professional sport.
Clans also allow players to assist each other in simulated combat and quests in-game advancement, as well as providing an online family for friendly socializing.
From Quake, online video games grew beyond first-person shooters and have impacted every genre. Real-time strategy, racing games, card games, sports games can all be played online. Online gaming has spread from its initial computer roots to console video games as well. Today, every major video game console available offers degrees of online gaming, some limited by particular titles, some even offer up entire virtual communities.
Competition
Slang and terminology
Like other cultures, the community has developed a gamut of slang words or phrases that can be used for communication in or outside of games. Due to their growing online nature, modern video game slang overlaps heavily with Internet slang, as well as Leetspeak, with many words such "pwn", as well as "noob", being direct carry-overs from Leetspeak. There are terms to describe video game events, game genres, gamer demographics, strategies, specific events, situations, and more. It is especially common among online games to encourage the use of neologisms for convenience in communication.
Most video games contain certain language or communication familiar to game and its player base. Overall the gaming community has common phrases that are used universally. The two most common phrases are "noob", which relates to a player who is low in skill and that they are relatively new to the game. The other phrase is "lol", which means "laughing out loud", this phrase is also used outside of gaming. There are also phrases that players use before and at the end of their matches. The abbreviation of "GL HF" is seen at the start meaning, "good luck, have fun". Then at the end, whether people win or lose, players use "GG", meaning "good game" to their opponents. A popular abbreviation the gaming culture created and uses is "AFK". This means "away from keyboard", and is used when a player is not using their keyboard or controller and are not paying attention.
Gaming networks
The shift from console-based or "shrink-wrap" video games to online games has allowed online games and massively-multiplayer online gaming today to develop highly advanced and comprehensive communication networks. With the freedom of the Internet's architecture, users can become producers of the technology and shapers of the growing networks. Compared to past eras where consumers had little means of communication with game developers and other communities beyond their geographical location, the Internet has created many methods of communication such as through the online bulletin board website, Reddit. Gamers can often develop sub-communities in-game clans and may use third party VOIP programs to communicate while playing games such as Skype, Ventrillo, Teamspeak or Discord. These video game communities may have nothing in common, or instead be designed for dedicated, skilled players, or even clans made for those with shared commonalities such as personality, ethnicity, heritage, language or gender.
Another key component of many video game networks is the connection between the player base and the game developers. Many game developers have outlets either through official website forums or social media where gamers can communicate with and provide feedback to the game developers. Likewise, these same places become key locations for game developers to communicate with their fans, were often dedicated employees act as liaisons as a bridge between the company and the community.
Some of the most advanced networks take place with massively-multiplayer online gaming where servers of tens of thousands can be present simultaneously in the same instance or environment. In major titles such as World of Warcraft and League of Legends, the player base is in the millions. With so many people, many of these communities may develop virtual economies that may use a barter system or currency system. In some games, the interest in the virtual economies may be so great players will spend real money through auction sites like eBay for virtual property and items, commonly known as RMT (Real Market Trading). Some game developers may ban RMT in their games, especially when it interferes with the equity of the game. That being said, other game developers embrace it with one game, Second Life, with its entire focus on the usage of real-life currency for everything in the game world.
Since smartphones became commonplace around 2007, mobile video games have seen rapid increases in popularity. The widespread appeal of simple, "time-killing" games, reminiscent of "social games" such as those found on Facebook, has set the stage for mobile video games to account for almost 35% of video games' total market share by 2017. Because games such as Clash of Clans offer in-game bonuses for referring new players to the game, mobile gamers have turned to social media sites to recruit their friends and family. Some games even offer integrated social media support to provide players with in-game chat or "friends" features for communicating and competing with other players. A large number of mobile game players has led to the creation of devoted forums, blogs, and tip sites similar to those committed to console video games. Popular video game publications, like Ars Technica and TouchArcade are even beginning to give significant coverage to mobile games.
Debate over social culture versus antisocial culture
There has been much debate among media theorists as to whether video games are an inherently social or anti-social activity. Terry Flew argues that digital games are "increasingly social, a trend that works against the mainstream media's portrayal of players as isolated, usually adolescent boys hidden away in darkened bedrooms, failing to engage with the social world." He asserts that games are played in very social and public settings; for example computers and consoles are often played in living areas of domestic homes, where people play with family or friends.
David Marshall argues against the rich source of "effects" based research, finding that games are "deliberating and anti-social forms of behavior". Rather suggesting that "the reality of most games is that they are dynamically social – the elaborate social conversations that emerge from playing games online in massive multi-player formats" (MMOG). Exemplifying 'The Sims Online', he states "has built up entire political and social structures in given communities' that provide an elaborate game life for participants". Gamers in these online worlds participate in many-to-many forms of communication and one-to-one correspondence. The games are not only massive; they are also "intimate and social".
Gosney argues that alternate reality gaming is also inherently social, drawing upon Pierre Levy's (Levy 1998) notion of collective intelligence. He states that the game relied upon an "unprecedented level of corroboration and collective intelligence to solve the game". The issue of collective and corroborative team play is essential to ARG, thus are anything but a solitary activity.
Hans Geser further rejects the mainstream media view that video games as an anti-social activity, asserting "there is considerable empirical evidence that Second Life serves mainly to widen the life experience of individuals who have already a rich 'First Life', not as a compensating device for marginal loners." Thus highlighting the "fantastic social possibilities of Second Life", as the intangible reward of social belongingness is of paramount importance. Bray and Konsynski also argue the ability of the technology "to enrich their lives", as most Millennials report: "No difference between friendships developed in the real world vs. friendships developed online, and most use the Internet to maintain their social networks and plan their social activities".
Social implications of video games
The advent of video games gave an innovative media technology, that allowed consumers to archive, annotate, appropriate and recirculate media content. Consumers can use this media source as an alternative tool to gain access to information of their interest. The community aspect of video gaming has also had implications for the social interactions and collective behaviors of consumers involved in the activity.
Rise of subcultures
Contemporary investigations have found that there is a prevailing social framework in place during gatherings of video game enthusiasts or 'gamers'. Mäyrä (2008, p. 25) suggests that gamers who gather together to play possess a shared language, engage in collective rituals and are often interested in cultural artifacts such as video game paraphernalia. Cronin and McCarthy (2011) have also explored a liminal, hedonic food culture to be present among these socially connected actors. The commensal consumption of energy-dense low nutrient foods is considered to be appropriated during long stretches of gameplay to contribute to the community and hedonistic aspects of social gaming.
In response to the central importance that food plays in the collective enjoyment of social gaming, various websites have been created which allow gamers to rate their favorite foods to accompany play.
The presence of rituals, shared discourse, collective action, and even a liminal food culture among video game communities gives credence to the concept of these cohorts existing as self-defining sub-units within mainstream culture. However, due to the ephemeral and transient nature of their rituals, and also the possibility of virtual interaction through online participation, these cohorts should be considered 'postmodern subcultures'. Video game communities have social elements beyond physical interaction and have come to a stage where online and offline spaces can be seen as 'merged' rather than separate.
MMORPG and identity tourism
Terry Flew (2005)(p. 264) suggests that the appeal of the "Massively Multiplayer Online Role-Playing Game" lie in the idea of escapism, and the ability to assume the role of someone or something that is a fantasy in real life. He notes that '...for some women, [they] enjoy adopting what they feel to be an image of femininity more acceptable or desirable than their real-world body...'
This is what he calls "identity tourism", a form of hopping from one person to another, for which there usually is a stereotypical discourse associated with the protagonist. This is seen in the case of males who assume the personas of the female gender, and the character's representation of her gender being overly sexualized and/or passive, '...this tends to perpetuate and accentuate existing stereotypes ofv... women...' (Nakamura).
Ownership
Ownership of video game entities is a major issue in video game culture. On one side, players, especially those who played with avatars for several years, have treated the avatars as their property. On the other hand, publishers claim ownership of all in-game items and characters through the EULA (End User License Agreements). Terry Flew recognized this problem: "Intellectual property is much better suited to conventional 'texts' that are fixed or finished, rather than ongoing collaborative creations like games". He also highlights that these issues will only worsen; as more interactive games emerging, issues of regulation, ownership, and service will only get more problematic.
Violence narrative
A source of criticism that the public often aims at in video games is the violence that they contain. Terry Flew relates this back to the idea of 'moral panic'. He writes that through research the 'computer games cause violence' discussion is mainly focused on psychology. The idea is influenced after horrible shooting events that took place, with the shooting at Columbine High School in Colorado in 1999 being an example. Flew says that assuming this idea, of cause and effect behavior of video games, is one that is flawed. Several studies have shown a correlation between violent content in media and aggressive behavior. At the same time other studies have shown evidence the connection between violent games and violent behavior is thin and unlikely.
Fox News reported that Montreal shooting case in Canada was carried out by the criminal Kimveer Gill, who is a player of Super Columbine Massacre, whose narrative attaches with strong violence sense. On the other hand, some people who hold social determinism theory assert technology is neutral, but it is the way that humans manipulate technology which brings about its social impact.
Issues of gender and sexuality
In conjunction with the changing demographics of video game creators and players, issues related to women and video games, including sexism in video gaming and gender representation in video games, have received increased attention by academia, the media, the games industry and by gamers themselves. The issue was brought to wider attention as a result of the 2014 Gamergate harassment campaign, in which some gamers, under the pretense of calling out ethical issues in game journalism, harassed and threatened several female developers and those that supported the developers. Gamergate was described by Bob Stuart in The Daily Telegraph as "an unwieldy movement with no apparent leaders, mission statement, or aims beyond calling out..those who want to see more diversity in gaming"
Benjamin Paaßen has argued that because video game culture has long been a space dominated by heterosexual men, the video game industry tends to cater to this particularly lucrative audience, producing video games that reflect the desires of the heterosexual male gaze. He further argues that this lack of representation of alternate identities in video games has caused gamers who divert from the dominant demographic to be often relegated to the margins of the culture. This process is thus seen to perpetuate the stereotypical image of the geeky, heterosexual male gamer as the ruler of the video game world. Contrary to popular belief, there are a multitude of communities within video game culture that do not fulfill the typical gamer stereotype. The problem is that they lack visibility. One reason for this is that many people do not want to reveal their association with video game culture out of fear of stigmatization. Past research has shown this to be the case for the female gamer. Because women in video game culture are often ostracized by their male gamer counterparts, female gamers are frequently forced to conceal their gender, only participating in video game culture when they can remain anonymous. When concealing their identities, females gamers try to change their voice when talking online, they will play as a male character instead of a female character followed by some kind of masculine name.
When it comes to working into the video game development industry, there is a small minority of women within these industries. With 3% of programmers, 11% game designers, 13% of artists and animators, 13% of QA testers, and 16% of producers, these are low numbers for women in the video game development industry. The reason for this may be partly caused by the lack of encouragement due to the negativity or harassing of females in video game culture. Due to being the minority, women in the video game development industry receive stereotypical threats because of being in a male dominant career. There was a hashtag that was created on Twitter that was #1ReasonWhy in which it was reasons why there was a lack of women in the video game industry. Video game designer Kim Swift stated that "Because I get mistaken for the receptionist or day-hire marketing at trade shows."
Additionally, dominant perceptions of gamers as asocial, straight, white men are also challenged by the presence of gamers who do not identify as heterosexual. For instance, it has been shown by past research that the LGBTQ+ community maintains a notable presence within video game culture. For LGBTQ+ gamers, video games provide an alternate reality in which there is the opportunity for sexual expression, identity formation, and community building. Such communities indicate the development of diverse subcultures within the culture of video games as a whole.
Gaming and popular culture
Games are also advertised on different TV channels, depending on the age demographic they are targeting. Games targeted toward kids and young teenagers are advertised on Disney Channel, Cartoon Network and Nickelodeon, while games targeted toward older teenagers and adults are advertised on MTV, G4, Comedy Central and in NFL Network.
Gaming as portrayed by the media
From the 1970s through even the 1990s, video game playing was mostly seen as sub-culture hobby activity and as a substitute for physical sports. However, in its early history video gaming had occasionally caught the attention of the mainstream news outlets. In 1972, Pong became the first video game pop-culture phenomenon. This was followed by Pac-Man in 1980. Other video games labeled as pop-culture phenomena include Final Fantasy, Halo, Metal Gear, The Legend of Zelda, Tomb Raider, Grand Theft Auto, Call of Duty, World of Warcraft, Fortnite, Street Fighter, Mortal Kombat, Pokémon, Guitar Hero, Sonic the Hedgehog, and the Mario games.
As games became more realistic, issues of questionable content arose. The most notable early example is NARC, which through its use of digitized graphics and sound and its adult-oriented theme quickly became a target of the press. These same issues arose again when Mortal Kombat debuted, particularly with its home video game console released on the Genesis and Super NES platforms; due to Nintendo's strict content-control guidelines, that system's version of Mortal Kombat was substantially re-worked to remove any 'extreme' violence. In response to these issues (and in parallel to similar demands made upon the music and movie industries), the ESRB was established to help guide parents in their purchasing decisions. 1993's Doom caused quite a stir, with its detailed 3D graphics and copious amounts of blood and gore. The 1996 game, Duke Nukem 3D, was accused of promoting pornography and violence; as a result of the criticism, censored versions of the game were released in certain countries. In the 1999 Columbine shootings, violent video games were for a time directly blamed by some for the incident, and labeled as "murder simulators".
In 2001, Grand Theft Auto III was released, which started the controversy over again.
Streaming
Television channels
The first video game TV show was GamePro TV.
The first television channel dedicated to video games and culture, G4, was launched in 2002. However, over the years, the channel has moved away from video game shows, and more towards male-oriented programs. X-Play, one of the channel's most popular shows and the highest-rated video game review show, is still produced at G4 until it was bought by Esquire Magazine, who decided to cease X-Play and focus less on the video game oriented audience of G4 and go with their traditional, more general male audience of their magazine.
Ginx TV is an international multi-language video game television channel, managed by the former MTV Networks Europe Managing Director Michiel Bakker.
There are also video game shows that appear on other channels, such as Spike TV, Fuel TV, and MTV.
In Korea, there are two cable TV channels fully dedicated to video games, Ongamenet and MBCGame, broadcasting professional game leagues that are held in Korea.
In Germany most shows and channels dedicated to video games were canceled, although the content was highly appreciated by the video game audience. There was one digital cable and satellite channel with a focus on video games, which was closed in 2009: GIGA Television. Some of the hosts also did their show Game One dedicated to games on the German MTV channel until canceled 2014. The show is quite famous for their sketches on games and video game culture in Germany. The unofficial successor is the YouTube show Game Two, financed by public-service broadcasting program funk and produced by the 24/7 online channel Rocket Beans TV, which is dedicated to video game, nerd and pop culture. A similar show was "Reload"; produced for the public-service channel EinsPlus until the channel was announced to close in 2014. The Franco-German TV network arte has a show dedicated to video game culture: Art of Gaming
In Australia one TV show is based on video games and games: Good Game on the ABC (Australian Broadcasting Corporation) which broadcasts on channel ABC2. The show is also available as a podcast on iTunes.
In Russia there is one satellite, the "Perviy Igrovoy" (Gaming First) and one cable, "Gameplay TV", video game TV channels. Channels have Internet streams.
Web series
Angry Video Game Nerd is a show about a fictional character created by James Rolfe. The character is portrayed as a foul-mouthed, short-tempered retro gamer who reviews old video games usually sarcastically and negatively with frequent use of profanity for comical effect.
Pure Pwnage, was a fictional series chronicling the life and adventures of Jeremy, a self-proclaimed "pro gamer".
Red vs. Blue (made by Rooster Teeth), is a machinima (machine-cinema) filmed with the Halo series of games. The series consist of hundreds of short episodes taking place in their own 'Halo based universe.Consolevania, a game review/sketch show produced in Glasgow, Scotland, was developed into a broadcast series, videoGaiden on BBC Scotland.The Guild is a web series, created by Felicia Day, in which the cast are members of a guild that plays an MMORPG similar to World of Warcraft.Game Grumps, a show on YouTube in which the cast plays games sent in by viewers. It has a related show called Steam Train where the cast plays games either on Steam or sent in by independent developers.
Influences on music
Video game music has been utilized by [opular musicians in many ways. The earliest example was the electronic music band Yellow Magic Orchestra's self-titled album, released in 1978, which utilized Space Invaders samples as instrumentation. In turn, the band would have a major influence on much of the video game music produced during the 8-bit and 16-bit eras. During the golden age of arcade video games in the early 1980s, it became common for arcade game sounds and bleeps to be used, particularly in early hip hop music, synthpop, and electro music. Buckner & Garcia's Pac-Man Fever, released in 1982, featured songs that were both about famous arcade games like Pac-Man, Donkey Kong and Berzerk, and also used the sound samples from the games themselves as instrumentation. In 1984, former Yellow Magic Orchestra member Harry Hosono produced an album entirely from Namco arcade game samples, entitled Video Game Music.
Aphex Twin, an experimental electronic artist, under the name "PowerPill" released the Pacman EP in 1992 that featured a heavy use of Pac-Man sound effects. An entire music genre called chiptunes, or sometimes gamewave, have artists dedicated to using the synthesizer sets that came with past video game consoles and computers, particularly the Commodore 64 and the Nintendo Entertainment System. These bands include Mr. Pacman, 8 Bit Weapon, Goto 80, 50 Hertz and Puss. The influence of retro video games on contemporary music can also be seen in the work of less purist "Bitpop" artists, such as Solemn Camel Crew and Anamanaguchi. Moreover, many gamers collect and listen to video game music, ripped from the games themselves. This music is known by its file extension and includes such formats as: SID (Commodore 64), NSF (NES) and SPC (SNES). Cover bands like Minibosses perform their own instrumentations, and groups like The Protomen have written rock operas inspired by the Mega Man video games, while communities like OverClocked ReMix have released thousands of game music arrangements in a variety of genres and have influenced the careers of several game composers.
A comedy subgenre has developed increasing the popularity of several musicians including Jonathan Coulton, famous for the song Still Alive featured in the credits of Valve's Portal, and Jonathan Lewis, songwriter and composer credited with the Half-Life-themed parody album Combine Road.
Full orchestras, such as the Symphonic Game Music Concert tour North America, the United States, and Asia performing symphonic versions of video game songs, particularly the Final Fantasy series, the Metal Gear series, and Nintendo themed music, such as the Mario & Zelda Big Band Live Concert. In Japan, Dragon Quest symphonic concerts are performed yearly, ever since their debut in 1987.
Video game and film crossovers
Films based on video games
Examples of films based on video games include Street Fighter, Mortal Kombat, BloodRayne, Doom, House of the Dead, Alone in the Dark, Resident Evil, Silent Hill, Tomb Raider, Assassin's Creed, and Warcraft.
Until 2019, films based on video games generally had carried a negative connotation for lackluster quality, typically attributed to the difficulties of translating an interactive work to a passive form of entertainment. The commercial and critical success of the films Detective Pikachu and Sonic the Hedgehog in 2019 led to a turnaround for video game adaptions.
Movies about video games
Hollywood has also created films that are about video games themselves. The golden age of arcade video games in the early 1980s led to several films based around arcade games, including Tron (1982), WarGames (1983), and The Last Starfighter (1984). The Wizard (1989) was notable for featuring the first look at the upcoming game Super Mario Bros. 3 for the Nintendo Entertainment System.
Most films related to video games in the 1990s and 2000s were subsequently adaptions of games, rather than dealing with the medium itself, though the concept of video games remained as a central theme in works like Grandma's Boy (2006), Stay Alive (2006), and Gamer (2009). The 2010s introduced a new way of film which expanded on using video games as virtual world within the film. These include Tron: Legacy (2010, a sequel to the original Tron), Scott Pilgrim vs. the World (2010), Wreck-It Ralph (2012) and its sequel Ralph Breaks the Internet (2018), Pixels (2015), Jumanji: Welcome to the Jungle (2017) and its sequel Jumanji: The Next Level (2019), Ready Player One (2018), Free Guy (2021), and Space Jam: A New Legacy (2021).
Interactive movies
Interactive movies as a computer and video game genre were the result of the multimedia expansion of computers and video game consoles in the mid-1990s, primarily because of the increased capacity offered by the laserdisc format. Interactive movies started on arcade machines in 1983, but quickly expanded to computers and video game consoles such as the Sega CD, the Phillips CD-i and the 3DO Interactive Multiplayer. The games are characterized by more emphasis on cinematic sequences, using full-motion video and voice acting. Interactive movie games have been made in several genres, including adventure games, rail shooters, and role-playing games.
The first interactive movie game was Dragon's Lair, originally released in the arcades in 1983, making it the first game to use a laserdisc and animation by Don Bluth, a man who worked for Disney on features like Robin Hood, The Rescuers, and Pete's Dragon, but later worked for other film companies like United Artists (All Dogs Go to Heaven) and Universal Studios (The Land Before Time). In Dragon's Lair'', you control the actions of a daring knight named Dirk, to save a princess from an evil dragon, hence the name of the game. Since the dawn of this exact game, more and more companies have influenced the technology used and decided to make their interactive movie games for arcades and consoles. A more recent Interactive movie title is called 'Bandersnatch'. This movie sets you on a plot of a young 80's programmer named Stefan Butler. The movie lets the viewer choose different plot trajectories for the main character questioning reality throughout the way.
The birth of the 'interactive movie' genre was studded with unimpressive flops, though the genre later came into its own; at the time, video-capture technology was still in its infancy, with short (and often grainy and low-quality) video segments being the norm for games of any length.
Video game and traditional media forms
With the rapid convergence of all media types into a digital form, video games are also beginning to affect, and be affected by traditional media forms.
In history, the Television engineer Ralph Baer, who conceived the idea of an interactive television while building a television set from scratch created the first video game. Video games are now also being exploited by pay-TV companies which allow you to simply attach your computer or console to the television cable system and you can simply download the latest game.
Games act on television, with the player choosing to enter the artificial world. The constructed meanings in video games are more influential than those of traditional media forms. The reason is that 'games interact with the audience in a dialogue of emotion, action, and reaction'. The interactivity means this occurs to a depth that is not possible in the traditional media forms.
Computer games have developed in parallel to both the video game and the arcade video game. The personal computer and console machines such as the Dreamcast, GameCube, PlayStation 2, and Xbox offered a new dimension to game playing. The consoles have now largely been replaced by the Xbox 360, Wii and, the PlayStation 4, and the personal computer is still a leading gaming machine.
Games are the first new computer-based media form to socialize a generation of youth in a way that traditional media forms have in the past. Therefore, the 'MTV generation' has been overtaken by the 'Nintendo generation'; however, some refer to the current generation as the 'iPod Generation'.
Because they straddle the technologies of television and computers, electronic games are a channel through which we can investigate the various impacts of new media and the technologies of convergence.
See also
References
Sources
Nerd culture |
4374054 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Negombo | Negombo | Negombo (, ) is a major city in Sri Lanka, situated on the west coast and at the mouth of the Negombo Lagoon, in the Western Province, from Colombo via the Colombo–Katunayake Expressway.
Negombo is one of the major commercial hubs in the country and the administrative centre of Negombo Division. Negombo has a population of about 142,136 within its divisional secretariat division. Negombo municipal boundary is fully extended throughout its Divisional Secretariat area.
Negombo is known for its long sandy beaches and centuries old fishing industry. Negombo has a large bilingual (Sinhala/Tamil) population with a clear Roman Catholic majority.
Etymology
The name "Negombo" is the Portuguese corruption of its Tamil name Neerkolombu.
The Sinhala name means from Old-Tamil Naval terminology Meegaman Pattinam. Meegaman denotes Naval Captain, where the local Karava population's long association of Naval and Fishing connections. Later, "Village of the honeycomb", gaining its name from a legend mentioned in Rajaveliya. The army of King Kavantissa found bee honey in a canoe near the seashore, for Viharamahadevi who was pregnant with the prince Dutugamunu. Because of this, the place was named "Mee-Gomuwa".
History
The shallow waters of the Negombo Lagoon provided safe shelter for seafaring vessels and became one of the key ports along with Kalpitiya, Puttalam, Colombo, Kalutara and Galle, from which the Sri Lankan kingdoms conducted external trade.
Pre-colonialism
The regional Jaffna kings, who controlled small parts of the northwest coast of Sri Lanka, built fortifications at Negombo, Colombo and Chilaw. The language used in and around Negombo was Tamil when the Portuguese colonisers arrived in the 16th century.
Negombo also served as a shelter for Arabic vessels, whose descendants are the Sri Lankan Moors. Negombo was a major port known for its trading activity and was well known for its cinnamon cultivation. The cinnamon trade was controlled by the Sri Lankan kings and later by the Sri Lankan Moors.
Portuguese Ceylon
Landing in the early 1500s, the Portuguese overthrew the Jaffna Kingdom, constructed a fort in Negombo and took over the trade of cinnamon to the west. During the Portuguese occupation, the Karava (the dominant seafaring clan of Negombo), who were previously Buddhist and Hindu were converted into Catholicism. Due to the sheer amount of conversions to Catholicism, present-day Negombo is sometimes known as 'Little Rome' due to nearly two thirds of its population being Catholic.
The Portuguese restructured the traditional production and management of cinnamon and maintained their control over the trade for more than a century. The decline of their power began in the 1630s when warfare between the Portuguese and the Kingdom of Kandy reached a stalemate. The King of Kandy turned to the Dutch for help.
Dutch Ceylon
The Dutch captured Negombo from the Portuguese in 1646 and negotiated an armistice with Portugal for ten years. During this period, the King of Kandy sought to provoke conflict between the nations by passing through the territories of the one to attack the other. On one occasion, he captured the fort of Negombo and sent the head of the Dutch commander, Adrian Vander Stell, to his countrymen in Galle. Although the Dutch managed to regain control of Negombo from the King by diplomatic means, hostilities continued. In particular, the disruption of the cinnamon trade was a favourite method of the King to harass the Dutch.
Throughout the eighteenth century, the demand for cinnamon from Ceylon outstripped the supply, and its quality appeared to have suffered. Other factors, including the continued hostility from the Kandyan Kingdom and a rival cinnamon exporter in the form of China, led to a 40% decline in the volume of cinnamon exported between 1785 and 1791, despite attempts to clear land around Negombo and create cinnamon plantations.
The legacy of the Dutch colonial era can be seen in the Negombo fort, constructed in 1672, and other Dutch buildings, including churches and the extensive canal system that runs from Colombo in the south, through Negombo to Puttalam in the north.
British Ceylon
By the time the British commander Colonel Stuart took over the cinnamon trade in 1796, it was clear that the industry was in decline. Poor policies put in place by Frederick North the first Governor of British Ceylon exacerbated the problem. By the 1830s, commercial interest had moved elsewhere.
Following the British takeover of the Kingdom of Kandy in 1815, Negombo lost its strategic value as an outpost of Colombo. However, it continued to develop in commercial influence. The Negombo fishery was at the heart of the seafood trade in Ceylon, and many migrant fisherman arrived annually with the profits of their ventures going into the small, prosperous town. In 1907 Negombo was connected to the massive railway project that was linking the island together under British control and encouraging the growth of plantations in coconuts, tea and coffee.
Geography
Negombo is about above sea level, and Negombo's geography is a mix of land and water. The Hamilton Canal flows in the heart of the city. The Negombo Lagoon is one of the most scenic landmarks of Negombo. There are over 190 species of wildlife and plenty of birds in its mangroves. The northern border of the city is formed by the Maha Oya river which meets the Indian Ocean.
Climate
Negombo features a tropical rainforest climate under the Köppen climate classification. The city receives rainfall mainly from the Southwestern monsoons from May to August and October to January. During the remaining months there is a little precipitation due to Convective rains. The average annual precipitation is about . The average temperature varies to , and there are high humidity levels from February to April.
Zones and neighbourhoods
Zones
Athgala
Basiyawatte
Bolawalana
Dalupotha
Daluwakotuwa
Dungalpitiya
Duwa
Duwane
Ethukala
Kadolkale
Kamachchodai
Kandawala
Kapumgoda
Kattuwa
Katunayake
Katuwapitiya
Kimbulapitiya
Kochchikade
Kurana
Kudapadu
Mahahunupitiya, also known as Maha Hunupitiya, a predominantly Catholic neighborhood
Munnakkarai
Muruthena
Nugawala
Palangathura
Pallansena
Periyamulla
Pitipana
Poruthota
Raheemanabad
Sarakkuwa
Sellakanda
Thillanduwa
Thaladuwa
Thalahena
Udyar Thoppu
Wella veediya
Welihena
Kadirana
Akkarapanaha
Thimbirigaskatuwa
Katana
Neighbourhoods
Depot Junction
Dheen Junction
Galkanda Junction
Koppara Junction
Light Mill Junction
Pankada Junction
Periyamulla Junction
Taladuwa Junction
Telwatta Junction
Temple Junction
Transport
The E03 - Airport Expressway opened in 2013 links the capital Colombo through the Katunayake Interchange with Negombo minimising travelling time to approximately 20 to 30 minutes. The Katunayake Interchange from Negombo takes about 5 to 10 minutes (approximately ).
There are highway bus services running between from Negombo to Pettah, Maharagama via Airport Expressway. Negombo to Galle, Kataragama and Matara (the southern tip of the country) using the Southern Expressway . And also bus services provided Negombo to Kadawatha, Kottawa, Panadura and Moratuwa using the Outer Circular Expressway
The A3 Colombo–Negombo highway road from Colombo, goes through Negombo, extends to Jaffna, and Trincomalee via Anuradhapura. Negombo is connected with some of the B grade roads from Ja-Ela, Kurunegala, Mirigama, Nittambuwa and Giriulla, and there is a good road network in and around Negombo.
The Bus Terminal complex of Negombo has multiple facilities for passengers and public. It is served by many bus routes, connecting with some major destinations in the country, provided Negombo to Colombo, Kandy, Kegalle, Kataragama, Hatton, Kalpitiya, Chilaw, Kurunegala, Puttalam, Avissawella, and Kaluthara.
Due to Negombo being situated along A3 Highway Road, it is served by many bus routes from Colombo to Northern and North western points of Sri Lanka including Jaffna, Anuradhapura, Vavuniya, Kilinochchi, Mullaitivu, Mannar, Point Pedro, Nikaweratiya, Panduwasnuwara, Anamaduwa, Kankasanthurai, Pulmudei, Silawathurai, Velvetithurai and Padaviya .
Four railway stations serve Negombo, they are: Kurana, Negombo Downtown, Kattuwa and Kochchikade. Negombo Downtown Station is the main railway station on the Puttalam railway line. It serves Galle, via Colombo from south and to Puttalam, via Chilaw from north. The Sri Lanka Railway Department has introduced an intercity express train between Chilaw and Colombo with stops at Negombo Downtown and Kochchikade Stations.
The Negombo Downtown Station is close to the central Bus Terminal Complex. Negombo is the closest major city to the Bandaranaike International Airport and Katunayake Interchange of the E03 - Airport Expressway.
Negombo Lagoon
The Negombo lagoon is large semi-enclosed coastal water body with plenty of natural resources. The lagoon is fed by number of small rivers and the Dutch canal. It is linked to the Indian Ocean by a narrow channel to the north, near Negombo. The lagoon and the marsh land area also support local agriculture and forestry. It has extensive mangrove swamps and attracts a wide variety of water birds. The lagoon supports so many distinct species of flora, fauna and as well as another species of birds and variety of animals. Negombo Lagoon is a major local and tourist attraction primarily for sightseeing and boating tours.
The fishermen who are based at the Negombo lagoon live in shanty thatch palm villages along the water's edge. They rely mainly on their traditional knowledge of the seasons for their livelihood, using outrigger canoes carved out of tree trunks and nylon nets to bring in modest catches from September through April. Their boats are made in two forms – oruvas (a type of sailing canoe) and paruvas (a large, man-powered catamaran fitted with kurlon dividers). In recent years, the villagers have supplemented the income earned from fishing by collecting 'toddy', or palm sap, which is used to brew arrack.
Demographics
According by the statistics of 2011, 6.3% of the population of Gampaha district live in Negombo city limits and 11.6% of the population of the district live in Negombo Metropolis. It is a multi-ethnic and multi-cultural city. Most of Negombo's residents belong to the Sinhalese majority. There are Tamil and Muslim people also living in the city. Though almost all of the residents living in Negambo are Sri Lankans there are small foreign communities that are present in the city, most notably the Chinese community.
Religion
Negombo is a multi-religious city. Since the beginning of European colonization, the township of Negombo has had a majority of Roman Catholics along with Buddhists, Hindus and Muslims.
Catholic and Christian Churches
Negombo has been given the name Little Rome due to the highly ornate Portuguese-era Roman Catholic churches such as St. Mary's Church, Negombo found in the township and because the majority are the Roman Catholics. St. Sebastian's Church, Katuwapitiya, Saint Stephen's Church, Negombo, Grand Street St. Mary's Church, Negombo, St. Anne's Churces at Kurana and Palangatura, St. Anthony's Church Dalupotha and Our Lady of Sorrows Church, Kandawala are the biggest parishes in Negombo. There are over 25 Roman Catholic Churches in the city.
There is a branch of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints in Negombo. The church building is just west of the intersection of Ave Maria Street and Old Chilaw Street. There are also Methodist churches, Baptist churches, and the other Anglican churches in Negombo.
Buddhist Pansal (Buddhist temples)
Agurukaramulla Raja Maha Viharaya (Bodhirajaramaya) is a famous Buddhist temple bringing Buddhists from all over Sri Lanka to Negombo every year. Abhayasekararamaya Temple (Podipansala), Sri Sudarshanaramaya, Dutugamunu viharaya and Sri Buddhagaya maha viharaya are famous Buddhist temples in the city.
Hindu Kovil (Hindu temples)
There are many Hindu temples (Kovil) in Negombo: Kali Amman temple, Ganapathi (Pillaiar) Temple, Kamachchi Amman Temple, Muththumari Amman Temple, Murugan (Kandaswami) Temple, Karumari Amman Temple etc.
Muslim Masjid (Mosques)
There are nine Jummah Mosques in Negombo. The Kamachchoda Jummah Masjid in Kamachchode, Negombo is one of the oldest in Sri Lanka. Another old Masjid in Negombo is the Udayar Thoppuwa Mosque, Mirigama Road, Dheen Junction, Negombo which was built in 1846 by Maththicham Saleem Lebbe Muhammed Thamby Vidane and the old building which was built in 1846 is still in use.
Local government
Negombo City Local Board began in 1878. After 44 years, it became the Urban District Council on 1 January 1922. Negombo celebrated its silver jubilee of its Urban council status in grand style in February 1948. Their Royal Highnesses the Duke and Duchess of Gloucester were the main patrons on the opening day of the celebrations. The Negombo Urban Council was offered Municipal status on 1 January 1950 under the municipal ordinance of 1865.
The Negombo Municipal Council has governed the city with a mayor from the government, since 1950. Negombo's mayor and the council members are elected through the local government election held every five years. There are 29 wards in the Negombo municipal boundary. Each is represented by an elected member, but there were only 26 members before the Local Government election held in 2018. The number of municipal councillors was increased to 48 according to new local government election system introduced in 2018. where 29 members are elected form wards and the rest form a preferential list.
In the Local Government Election held in 2018, United National Party Won the Negombo Municipal council led by former Western Provincial councillor Royce Fernando by securing 19 seats and Sri Lanka Podujana Peramuna led By Dayan Lanza, brother of Nimal Lanza (MP) secured 16 Seats. The rest of seats were distributed among other political Parties and independent groups including Sri Lanka Freedom Party. Dayan Lanza became the Mayor of Negombo with the support of minor political parties and Sri Lanka Freedom Party. Royce Fernando Became the Opposition Leader in Negombo Municipal council.
Economy
Negombo is considered one of the largest economic centres of the country. Negombo is about from the Bandaranaike International Airport, and the free trade zone. Negombo has a moderate port (used during the periods of Portuguese and Dutch colonisation)
The economy of Negombo is mainly based on tourism and its centuries-old fishing industry, though it also produces cinnamon, ceramics, and brass ware.
The Colombo Stock Exchange-Negombo branch and many major financial corporations have their key branches in Negombo. There are department stores, large supermarkets, and boutiques in the bustling streets of Downtown Negombo and international food outlets are being opened.
Education
Negombo is home to some of the oldest secondary educational institutes in Sri Lanka. The leading schools are listed below.
Ave Maria Convent
Maris Stella College
St. Mary's College, Negombo
Newstead Girls College
Harischandra National College
Loyola College
Wijayaratnam Hindu Central College
St Joseph's College (Negombo Branch School of St Joseph's College, Colombo 10)
St. Peter's College (Negombo Branch School of St Peter's College, Colombo)
Maris Stella Branch College
Ave Maria Dominican Convent
Al-Hilal Muslim Central College
St. Peter's Maha Vidyalaya
Vidyalankara Maha Vidyalaya
St Sebastian's Maha vidyalaya, Sea Street
St Anne's Maha Vidyalaya- Daluwakotuwa
St. Anne's Maha Vidyalaya-Kurana
Nimala Maria Maha Vidyalaya-Bolawalana
Al-Falah Muslim School
Vidyaloka Vidyalaya
Our Lady of Miracle School
St Joseph's Vidyalaya
St Mary's Pitipana Maha Vidyalaya
Kochchikade Maha Vidyalaya
Gateway College
St. Thomas Catholic International College
Leeds International College
St. Nicholas International College
NICE International College
Adventist International School
OKI International School
St. Michell's College
Negombo International College
Sussex College
JMC International School
Negombo South International School
Wisdom International School
Sailan International School
There are also many higher educational institutes and private tuition institutes in Negombo: Ocean University of Sri Lanka Negombo faculty conducts Nautical Engineering, Marine Science, Fisheries and other degree programmes. BCI Campus, Regent Language School, American College of Higher Education, IPM Institute of Sri Lanka, ESOFT Metro Campus, AIMS College, ACBS, ACCHE, SLIMM, Australian Higher Educational Centre, Electro Technical Institute and Don Bosco Technical College are some of them.
Notable people
During British Ceylon
Mudaliyar John de Silva Wijegooneratne Rajapakshe JP (1841-1909)
Muhammed Thamby Samsudheen Vidane Arachchi a.k.a Dheen Arachchi (1860–1915), the Vidane Arachchi of Negombo from 1896 to 1915, the highest position held by a Muslim in Negombo in the Native Headmen System. After completing the Cambridge Senior Examination he got involved in managing the family estates before being appointed as the Vidane Arachchi. Dheen Junction in Negombo is named after him. Udayar Thoppuwa Mosque at Dheen Junction in Negombo was built by his father Maththicham Saleem Lebbe Muhammed Thamby Vidane (1819–1879) in 1846. The Masjid is maintained by his descendants, who continue to preserve the original building.
Gate Mudaliyar A. E. Rajapakse OBE (13 March 1866 – 20 September 1937), was the first chairman of the Negombo Urban Council (1922–1923, 1925–1934). Rajapakse Park and Rajapakse Broadway in Negombo are named after him.He is the eldest son of Mudliyar John de Silva Wijegooneratne Rajapakshe (1841-1909).
Samsudheen M. Abdul Raheeman JPUM (1896–1965), was the first Muslim chairman of the Negombo Urban Council (20 November 1941 – 31 December 1943). He was the second Muslim (first was his elder brother S. I. Dheen) to qualify as a lawyer in Negombo and was the 8th (1st Muslim) President (1948–1958) of the Negombo Law Society. Raheemanabad in Periyamulla Negombo is named after him. He is the fourth child of Muhammed Thamby Samsudheen Vithane Arachchi a.k.a Dheen Arachchi (1860-1915).
William Mohotti Munasinghe (1902-1962), Aide-de-camp to the British Governor and Mudaliyar of Negombo
Mudaliyar Thenahandi David Mendis (1904–1977), founder and owner of Wijaya Bus Company, which was nationalised on 1 January 1958. Mudaliyar Mendis Mawatha in Negombo is named after him.
During Dominion Ceylon
Thomas Cooray (28 December 1901–29 October 1988), first indigenous Archbishop of Colombo (1947–1976) and first Sri Lankan Cardinal (1965–1988).
Alexander Nicholas de Abrew Abeysinge (1 May 1894-15 September 1963) was elected as the first Mayor of the Negombo Municipal Council in January 1950
Thenahandi Wijayapala Hector Mendis (16 December 1928–1 September 2012), was elected the Mayor of Negombo in 1954 and entered Parliament in 1960 from the Katana electorate as a UNP candidate. He was appointed Minister of Textile Industries in 1977, in 1989 he became the Minister of Transport and Highways, In 1993 he was appointed Leader of the House and in 1994 he became the Chief Opposition Whip in Parliament which he served till 1998. He was the third child of Mudliyar T. David Mendis of Negombo.Wijayapala Mendis Road in Negombo is named after him.
During Republic of Sri Lanka
Frank Marcus Fernando (19 October 1931–24 August 2009), served as Bishop of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Chilaw (1972–2006).
Nicholas Fernando (6 December 1932–10 April 2020), served as Archbishop of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Colombo (1977–2002).
Ranjan Ramanayake (11 March 1963), was an actor, director and screenwriter before entering Parliament in 2010 as the member for Ratnapura. In 2015 he was elected as a member for Gampaha. He served as the State Minister of Highways and Road Development (2018–2019).
See also
Negombo Lagoon
Bandaranaike International Airport
Colombo-Katunayake Expressway
Kandawala
Negombo Tamils
Bharatakula
RAF Negombo
Place names in Sri Lanka
References
Notes
External links
Negombo Municipal Council
Populated places in Gampaha District
Populated places in Western Province, Sri Lanka |
4374512 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethel%20Barrymore%20Theatre | Ethel Barrymore Theatre | The Ethel Barrymore Theatre is a Broadway theater at 241 West 47th Street in the Theater District of Midtown Manhattan in New York City. Opened in 1928, it was designed by Herbert J. Krapp in the Elizabethan, Mediterranean, and Adam styles for the Shubert family. The theater, named in honor of actress Ethel Barrymore, has 1,058 seats and is operated by the Shubert Organization. Both the facade and the auditorium interior are New York City landmarks.
The ground-floor facade is made of rusticated blocks of terracotta. The theater's main entrance consists of two archways and a doorway shielded by a marquee. The upper stories contain an arched screen made of terracotta, inspired by Roman baths, which is surrounded by white brick. The auditorium contains ornamental plasterwork, a sloped orchestra level, a large balcony, and a coved ceiling with a dome. The balcony level contains box seats topped by decorative arches. The theater was also designed with a basement lounge and a now-demolished stage house.
The Shubert brothers developed the Barrymore Theatre after Ethel Barrymore agreed to have the brothers manage her theatrical career. It opened on December 20, 1928, with The Kingdom of God, and was the last pre-Depression house developed by the Shuberts. Ethel Barrymore only worked with the Shuberts until 1932 and last performed in the theater in 1940. The Barrymore has consistently remained in use as a legitimate theater since its opening, hosting plays and musicals; it is one of the few Broadway theaters to have never been sold or renamed. The theater was refurbished in the 1980s and the 2000s.
Site
The Ethel Barrymore Theatre is on 243 West 47th Street, on the north sidewalk between Eighth Avenue and Broadway, near Times Square in the Theater District of Midtown Manhattan in New York City. The square land lot covers , with a frontage of on 47th Street and a depth of 100 feet. The Barrymore shares the block with the Samuel J. Friedman Theatre to the west, the Longacre Theatre to the north, and the Morgan Stanley Building to the east. Other nearby buildings include the Eugene O'Neill Theatre and Walter Kerr Theatre to the north; Crowne Plaza Times Square Manhattan to the northeast; 20 Times Square to the east; the Hotel Edison and Lunt-Fontanne Theatre to the south; and the Lena Horne Theatre and Paramount Hotel to the southwest.
Design
The Ethel Barrymore Theatre was designed by Herbert J. Krapp in several styles and was constructed in 1928 for the Shubert brothers. The theater is named after actress Ethel Barrymore (1879–1959), a prominent member of the Barrymore family of actors, and is operated by the Shubert Organization. The Barrymore has been used continuously as a legitimate house and, unlike most Broadway theaters, has never been sold or renamed since its opening. The Barrymore was the last theater to be built by the Shubert Organization until 2003.
Facade
The facade is symmetrically arranged. The ground floor is clad in rusticated blocks of terracotta, painted in a limestone color, above a granite water table. At ground level, the auditorium entrance includes two arched openings, each with four aluminum and glass doors. The voussoirs of the arches are made of rusticated blocks, while the keystones at the centers of each arch are shaped like brackets. Within each arch, the spaces above the doors are infilled with black glazed tiles; originally, these spaces were filled with metal tracery. Between the arched doors is a smaller doorway, which is topped by a large keystone. Above all of these openings is a marquee with the name "Barrymore", which is supported by ornate bronze brackets. The presence of the large marquee obscures the contrast between the ground floor and upper stories. The brackets originally supported a smaller bronze-and-glass canopy, which curved upward in front of either arch.
On either side of the doors are terracotta niches with bronze-framed sign boards. Above the signboards are terracotta wreaths, which surround circular panels with the gilded letters "The Barrymore Theater". Each wreath is topped by a curved pediment. The western and eastern portions of the facade are recessed slightly and contain recessed openings. The opening to the east is marked as the stage door. A frieze, decorated with leaf and wave moldings, runs above the first floor. To the east, there was originally a stage house with fire escapes on its facade, but this has since been replaced with the Morgan Stanley Building.
The upper stories are faced in bonded glazed-white brick. The central part of the facade includes a terracotta screen with an Ancient Roman-inspired pattern, surrounded by a cord molding. The screen includes a grid of squares, each of which contain central medallions with bars radiating in eight directions. To the left of the screen, the wall contains a sign with the name "Barrymore" and a metal fire escape. A metal sign hangs from the facade to the right. The top of the screen curves upward in a manner resembling a proscenium arch, and a brick parapet rises above the screen. A Greek key frieze and a cornice with talon moldings runs above the entire facade. Contemporary media from the theater's opening cited the top of the facade as being above the sidewalk, while the screen was wide.
Auditorium
The auditorium has an orchestra level, one balcony, boxes and a stage behind the proscenium arch. The space is designed with plaster decorations in low relief. The auditorium is shaped almost as a square. According to the Shubert Organization, the auditorium has 1,058 seats; meanwhile, Playbill cites 1,039 seats and The Broadway League cites 1,096 seats. The physical seats are divided into 582 seats in the orchestra, 196 at the front of the balcony, 256 at the rear of the balcony, and 24 in the boxes. There were originally 1,100 seats, divided into 570 in the orchestra, 494 in the balcony, and 36 in the boxes.
The seats were designed to be "unusually comfortable", with steel backs and bottoms. A source from the theater's opening cited the auditorium as having an old-gold and brown color scheme. The interior uses a combination of Elizabethan, Mediterranean, and Adam-style design motifs.
Seating areas
The rear of the orchestra contains a promenade. The rear wall of the promenade contains three doorways, above which is a frieze. The promenade ceiling is curved and contains Elizabethan strapwork patterns. There is a wrought iron balustrade between the orchestra promenade and the last row of orchestra seating. Two staircases lead from either end of the promenade to the balcony level; they contain wrought-iron railings with shield and strapwork motifs. The orchestra is raked, sloping down toward the stage. The side walls of the orchestra contain a wainscoting that is divided into panels. The walls were originally painted cinnamon and gold. There are lighting sconces on the walls.
The balcony level is cantilevered above the orchestra and is divided into front and rear sections by an aisle halfway across its depth. The crossover aisle connects to segmentally arched exit doors on both of the side walls. There are console brackets above the arched exit doors, which support terraces that project slightly from an opening on either wall. The rest of the balcony's side walls are made of simple plaster and contain wall sconces. The front rail of the balcony contains high-relief strapwork patterns, which have been covered over with light boxes. The underside of the balcony has plasterwork panels with crystal light fixtures suspended from medallions. The original lighting fixtures, consisting of inverted bowls of cut glass, have since been replaced. Air-conditioning vents are placed along some of the panels under the balcony, as well as at the balcony's rear. There is a technical booth behind the balcony's rear wall.
On either side of the proscenium are three boxes, raised about from the orchestra floor, which curve toward the side walls. At orchestra level is a wainscoted wall interrupted by three segmental-arched openings, one beneath each box. The undersides of the boxes contain moldings and crystal light fixtures similar to those on the balcony. The box fronts are decorated with three Elizabethan-style plasterwork bands. From bottom to top, the bands depict shields with putti's faces; rosettes; and strapwork around shields. Immediately behind the boxes are six gold-colored, fluted pilasters with Ionic capitals. There are half-columns in front of the pilasters that flank the center box. Above the pilasters is an architrave with plaster strapwork reliefs, as well as a balustrade containing vase-shaped balusters. There is a lunette above the balustrade; it includes a square shield motif, which is connected by latticework bands to sphinxes on either side. The lunette is surrounded by strapwork bands and several concentric semicircular arches. The semicircular arches have design motifs such as shells, shields, anthemia, and half-columns. The arches, combined with the lunette, constitute a sunburst pattern. The boxes and semicircular arches are surrounded by a plaster frame.
Other design features
Next to the boxes is a three-centered proscenium arch. The archway is surrounded by a wide band with strapwork motifs, with narrow bands of leaves on either side. The spandrels, above the corners of the proscenium arch, contain decorative motifs. The proscenium measures high and wide. The depth of the auditorium to the proscenium is , while the depth to the front of the stage is . According to sources from the theater's completion, the proscenium opening was wide, while the arch itself was high. As arranged, the stage itself measured deep by wide. The stage gridiron was placed above the stage. There are traps throughout the entire stage, as well as a counterweight fly system.
The ceiling rises from the floor of the orchestra. The coved ceiling contains a dome at its center, measuring wide. At the center of the dome is a grilled centerpiece, which is surrounded by several Elizabethan-style circles, as well as four medallions placed at 90-degree angles. A glass chandelier hangs from the center of the dome. The rest of the dome is divided into wedge-shaped sections, which are arranged in a circular pattern around the centerpiece. Outside of the dome, the coved ceiling contains latticework panels, surrounded by a strapwork pattern. Where the coved ceiling curves onto the side walls, there is a band with water-leaf motifs. Originally, this band was colored in green, gold, and gray.
Other interior spaces
The theater was built with a general lounge in the basement, which measured . Separate spaces in the lounge were provided for women and men, and there was also a telephone booth. According to contemporary news articles, the basement lounge was decorated with an ivory-colored strapwork ceiling, modeled after English designs. The lounge had antique Elizabethan furniture, a mulberry-and-taupe carpet, and walls with an "old English texture in antique color". When the theater opened, Gilbert Miller lent a bronze bust of Ethel Barrymore, which was designed by A. C. Laddy. The basement also had a large dressing room for choruses.
On the first floor, Ethel Barrymore had her own modern-style reception and dressing room. The second floor had a chorus room and a smaller dressing room. The theater was built with three additional floors, each with four dressing rooms.
History
Times Square became the epicenter for large-scale theater productions between 1900 and the Great Depression. During the 1900s and 1910s, many theaters in Midtown Manhattan were developed by the Shubert brothers, one of the major theatrical syndicates of the time. The Shuberts originated from Syracuse, New York, and expanded downstate into New York City in the first decade of the 20th century. The brothers controlled a quarter of all plays and three-quarters of theatrical ticket sales in the U.S. by 1925. The Shuberts continued to build Broadway theaters in the 1920s, with the construction of four theaters on 48th and 49th Streets, as well as the Imperial Theatre on 45th Street.
Development and early years
In 1927, playwright Zoe Akins told Ethel Barrymore about an offer from the Shubert brothers, who proposed developing a Broadway theater and naming it in her honor if she agreed to be represented by the Shuberts. Barrymore agreed, and the Shuberts hired Krapp to design the theater, construction of which started in late April or early May 1928. At the time, Barrymore was 48 years old and a prominent theatrical personality; she had been represented by the Frohman brothers for almost her entire career. In September 1928, Lee Shubert announced that the theater would open the next month, with Barrymore starring in G. Martinez Sierra's play The Kingdom of God. The theater's completion was delayed, prompting The Kingdom of God to go on a several-week tour.
The Barrymore Theatre ultimately opened on December 20, 1928. During the opening, which was attended by many New York City socialites, Ethel Barrymore received seven curtain calls before she was able to give a speech thanking the Shuberts. The Barrymore Theatre received so many items of Barrymore memorabilia that, within a month of the theater's opening, the Shuberts considered creating a library to house these gifts. Ethel Barrymore appeared at her eponymous theater again in 1929, when she co-starred with Louis Calhern in The Love Duel, which ran for 88 performances. The Barrymore's next several plays did not feature Ethel Barrymore. These included a transfer of John Drinkwater's comedy Bird in Hand in September 1929, as well as Death Takes a Holiday that December, the latter of which had a comparatively long run of 181 performances.
1930s and 1940s
In 1930, the theater staged the comedy Topaze and the romance His Majesty's Car. Ethel Barrymore's next appearance at the Barrymore was in the short-lived blackface comedy Scarlet Sister Mary in November 1930, which saw the Broadway debut of the actress's daughter, Ethel Barrymore Colt. More successful was The Truth Game with Ivor Novello and Billie Burke, which opened that December and had 105 performances. In 1931, the Barrymore hosted Mélo with Edna Best and Basil Rathbone, followed that November by Ethel Barrymore in The School for Scandal, whose son John Drew Colt made his first Broadway appearance in that show. The Barrymore's productions in 1932 included a 144-performance run of Whistling in the Dark, as well as the short-lived comedy Here Today and a transfer of There's Always Juliet. The same year, Ethel Barrymore stopped performing under the Shuberts' management, prompting the brothers to remove her first name from the marquee. At the end of 1932, Fred Astaire and Claire Luce starred in the musical Gay Divorce, where Astaire performed without his sister Adele for the first time.
The theater's plays in 1933 included Design for Living with Alfred Lunt, Lynn Fontanne, and Noël Coward, as well as the mystery Ten Minute Alibi and the drama Jezebel. The Barrymore went into receivership the same year, and the receiver deeded the theater to the Barrymore Theater Corporation. The Barrymore had seven flops in 1934. Coward, Lunt, and Fontanne returned in January 1935 for the play Point Valaine, which lasted for only 56 performances. The Barrymore hosted a transfer of the play Distaff Side that March, and Philip Merivale and Gladys Cooper staged revivals of Shakespeare's Macbeth and Othello that October. The play Parnell opened in November 1935 and ran for 98 performances; it was followed by a double bill of Irwin Shaw's Bury the Dead and Prelude in April 1936, then Emlyn Williams's Night Must Fall that September. Clare Boothe Luce's The Women opened with an all-female cast in December 1936 and was a hit, running for 657 performances.
The Playwrights' Company next presented the musical Knickerbocker Holiday with Walter Huston in 1938. The next year, the Barrymore hosted No Time for Comedy with Katharine Cornell, Laurence Olivier, and Margalo Gillmore for 185 performances, and Key Largo with Paul Muni, Uta Hagen, and José Ferrer for 105 performances. In 1940, Ethel Barrymore appeared in the short-lived play An International Incident, her last appearance at her namesake theater. The musical Pal Joey, featuring Gene Kelly and Vivienne Segal with a score by Rodgers and Hart, opened later that year and ran for 270 performances before transferring to another theater. The next hit was Best Foot Forward with Rosemary Lane in 1941, which had 326 performances. Walter Kerr and Leo Brady's Count Me In had a short run in 1942, but Anton Chekhov's The Three Sisters with Katharine Cornell was more successful, with 123 performances. Another success was the war drama Tomorrow the World in 1943, which had 499 performances.
Revivals predominated at the theater in the mid-1940s. These included The Barretts of Wimpole Street and Pygmalion in 1945, as well as The Duchess of Malfi and Cyrano de Bergerac in 1946. In 1947, Gian Carlo Menotti presented a double bill of the musical plays The Telephone and The Medium at the theater, which ran for 212 performances. Later that year, the Barrymore presented Tennessee Williams's A Streetcar Named Desire, originally featuring Marlon Brando, Kim Hunter, Karl Malden, and Jessica Tandy. The play, one of several that Irene Mayer Selznick produced at the theater, ran for 855 performances over the next two years.
1950s to 1970s
Menotti hosted another show at the Barrymore in 1950: the opera The Consul with Patricia Neway and Marie Powers. Later that year, the Barrymore hosted Bell, Book and Candle with husband-and-wife team Rex Harrison and Lilli Palmer, which ran for 233 performances. Another married couple starred in another hit in 1951: The Fourposter with Jessica Tandy and Hume Cronyn, who stayed for 632 performances. This was followed in 1953 by a transfer of Misalliance. The same year, the Barrymore staged Tea and Sympathy with Deborah Kerr, Leif Erickson, and John Kerr, which had 712 total performances. Shows in 1955 included The Desperate Hours; a personal appearance by Marcel Marceau; and the drama The Chalk Garden. Leonard Sillman's revue New Faces of 1956 ran for 220 performances, featuring Maggie Smith in her Broadway debut, as well as female impersonator T. C. Jones. Ketti Frings's adaptation of Look Homeward, Angel premiered in 1957 and ran 530 performances.
A Raisin in the Sun opened in March 1959, staying for seven months and running 530 total performances. When Ethel Barrymore died in June of that year, the theater's lights were dimmed in its namesake's honor. Another comedy, A Majority of One with Gertrude Berg and Cedric Hardwicke, moved to the Barrymore later that year and ran through June 1960. The Barrymore's productions of the early 1960s included Critic's Choice with Henry Fonda and Mildred Natwick in 1960; The Complaisant Lover with Michael Redgrave, Richard Johnson, and Googie Withers in 1961; and A Gift of Time with Fonda and Olivia de Havilland in 1962. Later in the decade, the theater hosted The Amen Corner in 1965, followed the next year by Wait Until Dark and a limited engagement by Les Ballets Africains. This was followed in 1967 by Peter Shaffer's twin production of Black Comedy and White Lies. The Barrymore's last hit of the 1960s was a revival of The Front Page in 1969.
The Barrymore hosted several hits in the 1970s, several of which won Tony Awards and other accolades. In 1970, Conduct Unbecoming opened at the Barrymore, featuring Michael Barrington and Jeremy Clyde. The next year, Alec McCowen appeared in The Philanthropist, as well as Melvin Van Peebles's musical Ain't Supposed to Die a Natural Death. The New Phoenix Repertory Company premiered at the Barrymore in late 1973, with three works: The Visit, Chemin de Fer, and Holiday. This was followed in 1974 by Noël Coward in Two Keys with Tandy, Cronyn, and Anne Baxter, a double bill of Coward's plays A Song at Twilight and Come Into the Garden, Maud. The Barrymore hosted the play Travesties with John Wood in 1975, as well as American Buffalo with Robert Duvall and I Love My Wife in 1977. The Barrymore's last hit of the decade was the 1979 play Romantic Comedy, featuring Mia Farrow and Anthony Perkins. During the run of Romantic Comedy, the Barrymore Theatre became one of the first theaters to distribute electronic headsets to help hard-of-hearing visitors. The theater also hosted a party in December 1979 to celebrate what would have been Ethel Barrymore's birthday.
1980s and 1990s
The Barrymore continued to host hits in the early 1980s. These included Lunch Hour, which opened in 1980 with Gilda Radner and Sam Waterston, followed in 1981 by The West Side Waltz with Katharine Hepburn and Dorothy Loudon. Hume Cronyn returned to the Barrymore in 1982, making his playwriting debut with Foxfire, in which he costarred with Jessica Tandy and Keith Carradine. This was followed at the end of 1983 by Baby, which ran for 241 performances. The next year, David Rabe's Hurlyburly transferred from off-Broadway and ran for 343 performances. The Barrymore's productions in 1986 included the solo show Lillian with Zoe Caldwell, as well as Social Security, the latter of which ran for 385 performances through 1987. The August Wilson musical Joe Turner's Come and Gone opened at the Barrymore in 1988. The following year, the Barrymore hosted Metamorphosis with Mikhail Baryshnikov, as well as a 12-performance run of David Hare's The Secret Rapture. During the late 1980s, the Shuberts renovated the Barrymore as part of a restoration program for their Broadway theaters, and the Shuberts also sold the Barrymore's air rights for development.
The New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission (LPC) had started to consider protecting the Barrymore as a landmark in 1982, with discussions continuing over the next several years. The LPC designated the Barrymore's facade as a landmark on November 4, 1987, followed by the interior on November 10. This was part of the commission's wide-ranging effort in 1987 to grant landmark status to Broadway theaters. The New York City Board of Estimate ratified the designations in March 1988. The Shuberts, the Nederlanders, and Jujamcyn collectively sued the LPC in June 1988 to overturn the landmark designations of 22 theaters, including the Barrymore, on the merit that the designations severely limited the extent to which the theaters could be modified. The lawsuit was escalated to the New York Supreme Court and the Supreme Court of the United States, but these designations were ultimately upheld in 1992.
In 1990, the play Lettice and Lovage opened at the Barrymore, featuring Margaret Tyzack and Maggie Smith from the West End version of the play. The next year, the Lincoln Center Theater brought Mule Bone, a never-performed play written in 1930 by Langston Hughes and Zora Neale Hurston; it ran at the Barrymore for 67 performances. A limited revival of A Streetcar Named Desire, featuring Alec Baldwin and Jessica Lange, opened in 1992. Afterward, the off-Broadway hit The Sisters Rosensweig moved to the Barrymore in 1993, with 556 Broadway performances. The play Indiscretions opened in 1995 and had 220 performances; it was followed the next year by a 306-performance revival of Oscar Wilde's An Ideal Husband. Cy Coleman's off-off-Broadway musical The Life transferred to the Barrymore in 1997 and saw 465 performances. The Barrymore next hosted a revival of the Greek tragedy Electra in 1998, then the West End hit Amy's View and the musical Putting It Together in 1999.
2000s to present
The Donmar Warehouse's production of The Real Thing and the Manhattan Theatre Club's version of The Tale of the Allergist's Wife were both performed at the Barrymore in 2000. The 777-performance run of The Tale of the Allergist's Wife was followed by shorter runs of Imaginary Friends in 2002, Salome in 2003, and Sly Fox in 2004. As part of a settlement with the United States Department of Justice in 2003, the Shuberts agreed to improve disabled access at their 16 landmarked Broadway theaters, including the Barrymore. The Barrymore Theatre was then renovated for $9 million in 2004. Next came a revival of Tennessee Williams's The Glass Menagerie in 2005 and the short-lived musical Ring of Fire in 2006. Later in 2006, a revival of Stephen Sondheim's Company opened at the Barrymore, running for 247 performances. The band Duran Duran, performing its album Red Carpet Massacre in November 2007, was forced to relocate due to the 2007 Broadway stagehand strike. The Barrymore's exterior was renovated as part of a two-year project that was completed in 2008.
The Barrymore hosted three David Mamet plays in the late 2000s: November and Speed-the-Plow in 2008, as well as Race in 2009. Eugène Ionesco's Exit the King was also performed at the Barrymore in 2009. The 2010 play Elling had nine performances before it flopped. This was followed in 2011 by the play Arcadia, as well as a special appearance, An Evening with Patti LuPone and Mandy Patinkin. The Barrymore hosted Death of a Salesman and Chaplin in 2012; Macbeth and Betrayal in 2013; and A Raisin in the Sun in 2014. With the exception of the musical Chaplin, these productions were all revivals of plays. Next, the play The Curious Incident of the Dog in the Night-Time opened in late 2014 and ran for nearly two years. When The Curious Incident closed, the food show presenter Alton Brown had a limited appearance at the Barrymore in November 2016.
In 2017, the Barrymore hosted the plays The Present and Six Degrees of Separation. At the end of the same year, the Barrymore staged the musical The Band's Visit, which ran through early 2019. The play The Inheritance opened in November 2019 and was a few days short of its scheduled closing when the Barrymore shuttered on March 12, 2020, due to the COVID-19 pandemic. The theater reopened on September 4, 2021, with a limited revival of Waitress, which closed at the end of the year. The musical Paradise Square ran for three months from April to July 2022, followed by the first Broadway revival of the play The Piano Lesson, which opened at the theater in October 2022 and ran for three months. A transfer of the West End play Peter Pan Goes Wrong opened at the Barrymore in April 2023, running for three months. This is scheduled to be followed in August 2023 by a limited run of Antonio Díaz's magic show El Mago Pop, then in October 2023 by Barry Manilow and Bruce Sussman's musical Harmony.
Notable productions
Productions are listed by the year of their first performance.
1920s to 1990s
1929: Death Takes a Holiday
1930: Topaze
1930: The Truth Game
1930: Scarlet Sister Mary
1931: Mélo
1931: The School for Scandal
1932: There's Always Juliet
1932: Gay Divorce
1933: Design for Living
1934: Both Your Houses
1934: Ruth Draper
1935: Point Valaine
1935: Othello
1935: Macbeth
1936: Bury the Dead
1936: Night Must Fall
1936: The Women
1938: Knickerbocker Holiday
1939: No Time for Comedy
1939: Key Largo
1940: Pal Joey
1941: Best Foot Forward
1942: R.U.R.
1943: Three Sisters
1945: Rebecca
1945: The Barretts of Wimpole Street
1945: Marinka
1945: Pygmalion
1946: The Duchess of Malfi
1946: Cyrano de Bergerac
1947: The Telephone/The Medium
1947: A Streetcar Named Desire
1949: The Rat Race
1950: The Consul
1950: Bell, Book and Candle
1951: The Fourposter
1952: I've Got Sixpence
1953: Misalliance
1953: Tea and Sympathy
1955: The Desperate Hours
1955: Marcel Marceau
1955: The Chalk Garden
1957: Small War on Murray Hill
1957: Waiting for Godot
1957: Look Homeward, Angel
1959: A Raisin in the Sun
1959: A Majority of One
1960: The Hostage
1960: Critic's Choice
1961: The Complaisant Lover
1962: Moby-Dick
1964: The Passion of Josef D.
1965: The Amen Corner
1966: Wait Until Dark
1966: We Have Always Lived in the Castle
1966: Les Ballets Africains
1967: Black Comedy/White Lies
1967: The Little Foxes
1968: Don't Drink the Water
1968: The Seven Descents of Myrtle
1968: Happiness Is Just a Little Thing Called a Rolls Royce
1968: The Goodbye People
1969: The Front Page
1970: Conduct Unbecoming
1971: The Philanthropist
1971: Ain't Supposed to Die a Natural Death
1972: Captain Brassbound's Conversion
1972: Don't Play Us Cheap
1973: The Visit
1973: Holiday
1974: A Song at Twilight/Come Into the Garden, Maud
1975: The Night That Made America Famous
1975: Travesties
1976: Legend
1976: Poor Murderer
1977: American Buffalo
1977: I Love My Wife
1979: Romantic Comedy
1981: The West Side Waltz
1982: Is There Life After High School?
1982: Foxfire
1983: Baby
1984: Hurlyburly
1986: Social Security
1988: Joe Turner's Come and Gone
1988: The Secret Rapture
1989: Rumors
1990: Lettice and Lovage
1991: Mule Bone
1992: A Streetcar Named Desire
1993: The Sisters Rosensweig
1995: Indiscretions
1996: An Ideal Husband
1997: The Life
1998: Electra
1999: Amy's View
1999: Putting It Together
2000s to present
2000: The Real Thing
2000: The Tale of the Allergist's Wife
2002: Imaginary Friends
2003: Salome
2004: Sly Fox
2005: The Glass Menagerie
2006: Ring of Fire
2006: Company
2007: Red Carpet Massacre
2008: November
2008: Speed-the-Plow
2009: Exit the King
2009: Race
2010: Elling
2011: Arcadia
2011: An Evening with Patti LuPone and Mandy Patinkin
2012: Death of a Salesman
2012: Chaplin
2013: Macbeth
2013: Betrayal
2014: A Raisin in the Sun
2014: The Curious Incident of the Dog in the Night-Time
2016: Alton Brown Live: Eat Your Science
2016: The Present
2017: Six Degrees of Separation
2017: The Band's Visit
2019: The Inheritance
2021: Waitress
2022: Paradise Square
2022: The Piano Lesson
2023: Peter Pan Goes Wrong
2023: El Mago Pop
2023: Harmony: A New Musical
Box office record
Waitress achieved the box office record for the Ethel Barrymore Theatre. It grossed $197,878 in ticket sales on September 3, 2021, breaking the previous single-performance house record at the Ethel Barrymore Theatre set by the production of Betrayal ($184,476). This record was broken in August 2023 by El Mago Pop which grossed $2.717 million in one week of ticket sales.
See also
List of New York City Designated Landmarks in Manhattan from 14th to 59th Streets
List of Broadway theaters
References
Notes
Citations
Sources
External links
1928 establishments in New York City
Broadway theatres
Theatres completed in 1928
New York City Designated Landmarks in Manhattan
New York City interior landmarks
Shubert Organization
Theater District, Manhattan |
4374584 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giuseppe%20Guarneri | Giuseppe Guarneri | Bartolomeo Giuseppe "del Gesù" Guarneri (, , ; 21 August 1698 – 17 October 1744) was an Italian luthier from the Guarneri family of Cremona. He rivals Antonio Stradivari (1644–1737) with regard to the respect and reverence accorded his instruments, and for many prominent players and collectors his instruments are the most coveted of all. Instruments made by Guarneri are often referred to as Del Gesùs.
Guarneri is known as del Gesù (literally "of Jesus") because his labels after 1731 incorporated the nomen sacrum, IHS (iota-eta-sigma) and a cross fleury. His instruments diverged significantly from family tradition, becoming uniquely his own style. They are considered equal in quality to those of Stradivari, and claimed by some to be superior. Guarneri's violins often have a darker, more robust, more sonorous tone than Stradivari's. Fewer than 200 of Guarneri's instruments survive. They are all violins, although one cello bearing his father's label, dated 1731, seems to have been completed by del Gesù. The quality and scarcity of his instruments have resulted in sale prices in excess of $10 million USD.
An asteroid has been named 19185 Guarneri in his honour.
Violin maker
The most illustrious member of the house of Guarneri, Bartolomeo was the son of Giuseppe Giovanni Battista, thus the grandson of Andrea Guarneri, both noted violin makers themselves. Andrea learned his trade as an apprentice of Nicolò Amati, to whom Stradivari was also apprenticed. Undoubtedly, Giuseppe learned the craft of violinmaking in his father's shop.
Giuseppe Guarneri's style has been widely copied by luthiers since the 19th century. Guarneri's career is a great contrast to that of Stradivari, who was stylistically consistent, very careful about craftsmanship and finish, and evolved the design of his instruments in a deliberate way over seven decades. Guarneri's career was short, from the late 1720s until his death in 1744. Initially he was thought to be a man of restless creativity, judging by his constant experimentation with f-holes, arching, thicknesses of the top and back and other design details. However, what has become clear is that, like other members of his family, he was so commercially overshadowed by his illustrious and business-savvy neighbor, Antonio Stradivari, that he was unable to command prices commensurate with his rival, hence needed to make more instruments and work hastily. Indeed, two of the five violin makers of the Guarneri family, the two Pietros—of different generations—left Cremona, the first for Mantua, the second for Venice, apparently because business prospects in Cremona were so stunted by the presence of Stradivari. From the 1720s until about 1737, Guarneri's work is quick and accurate, although he was not overly concerned with quality of finish. However, from the late 1730s until his death, his work shows increasing haste and lack of patience with the time needed to achieve a high quality finish. Some of his late violins from circa 1742 to 1744 have scrolls that can be crudely carved, the purfling hastily inserted, the f-holes unsymmetrical and jagged.
Nonetheless, many of these late violins, in spite of the seeming haste and carelessness of their construction, possess a glorious tone and have been much coveted by soloists. His output falls off rather dramatically in the late 1730s, and the eccentricity of the works following that period gave rise to the romantic notion that he had been imprisoned for killing a rival violin maker (actually it was one of the Lavazza brothers in Milan to whom this occurred), and even the unlikely fiction that he made violins in prison. Such stories were invented during the nineteenth century and were repeated by the biographers of the Guarneri family, the Hills, in their 1931 work; while the Hills did not take them at face-value, it did feed into their idea that Giuseppe Guarneri del Gesù must have been temperamental and mercurial, rather than simply overworked and commercially unsuccessful. More recent data shows that business was so bad during the later period of his life that he had to relegate violin-making to the sideline and earn his living as an innkeeper (refuting the "prison" myth).
It has also become known that some of the violins emanating from his shop and bearing his label were actually the work of his German wife, Katarina Rota, who apparently returned to Germany after her husband's death in 1744. While every other member of his family, the Stradivari family, Nicolò Amati, and a peculiarly large number of makers, lived long lives—Stradivari living and working to age 93—Guarneri died at only 46. There is thus the possibility that the odd qualities of finish in his later instruments—ironically, those most highly prized and expensive—were due not only to stress and haste but also to encroaching illness. It is also worth noting that the tone of both Stradivari and Guarneri did not come into their own until late in the 18th century, that the high-built instruments of Amati and Stainer were the only ones prized during the 18th century. While it is true that players, then as now, preferred old instruments, Stradivari made one of the handsomest livings of all violin makers during his lifetime. It is also customary to conflate Stradivari and Guarneri in this regard, but even the Hills hinted that such was not the case in their styles, the Guarneri always bearing traces of Amati, and even Stainer, the latter Stradivari "would have none of." Moreover, Guarneri's instruments were recognized by a world-class soloist three decades before Stradivari's were likewise championed; by the 1750s, Gaetano Pugnani is known to have acquired and preferred a Giuseppe Guarneri del Gesù violin, but it is not until the 1780s that his pupil, Giovanni Battista Viotti, became an advocate of Stradivari instruments. Of course, Pugnani's advocacy is usually forgotten when Niccolò Paganini became the most noted Giuseppe Guarneri player three generations later.
Accomplished violinists such as
Salvatore Accardo,
Sarah Chang, Nikki Chooi,
Timothy Chooi,
Kyung-wha Chung,
Eugene Fodor,
Augustin Hadelich,
Jascha Heifetz,
Yi-Jia Susanne Hou,
Joseph Joachim,
Leila Josefowicz,
Nigel Kennedy,
Leonid Kogan,
Henning Kraggerud,
Fritz Kreisler,
Gidon Kremer,
Yang Liu,
Kerson Leong,
Robert McDuffie,
Anne Akiko Meyers,
Midori,
Elmar Oliveira,
Ruth Palmer,
Itzhak Perlman,
Rachel Barton Pine,
Maud Powell,
Michael Rabin,
Aaron Rosand,
Charlie Siem,
Marie Soldat,
Isaac Stern,
Henryk Szeryng,
Arve Tellefsen,
Richard Tognetti,
Uto Ughi,
Henri Vieuxtemps,
Tianwa Yang,
Eugène Ysaÿe,
Zvi Zeitlin,
and Pinchas Zukerman, have used Guarneri del Gesù violins at one point in their career or even exclusively.
Virtuoso Niccolò Paganini's favorite violin, Il Cannone Guarnerius of 1743, and the Lord Wilton of 1742, once owned by Yehudi Menuhin, are del Gesù instruments. In addition, the Vieuxtemps Guarneri—once owned by Henri Vieuxtemps—was sold in 2013 close to its asking price of $18 million USD, making it the most expensive instrument in the world. Jascha Heifetz owned a c. 1740 Guarneri del Gesù from the 1920s until his death in 1987. It was his favorite instrument, even though he owned several Stradivarius. One of Norwegian virtuoso Ole Bull's favorite instrument was the del Gesù violin of 1744 named after Bull, which is also believed to be the last work of Guarneri del Gesù.
Instrument list
(From the Cozio Archive)
Billotet-Guilet, c. 1715–22, Cozio 40680
Titan, Möller, Moskowsky, c. 1715–22, Cozio 61284
Folinari, c. 1715–22, Cozio 32443
Rappoldi, Campbell, c. 1715–22, Cozio 49179
Marteau Habisreuthinger, c.1715–22, Cozio 45112
Frank, Sin, Tonhalle, c. 1715–22, Cozio 44918
Chang, 1717, purchased by Sarah Chang from Isaac Stern. This violin does not appear in the Cozio Archive list for for Bartolomeo Giuseppe Guarneri "del Gesù" at Tarisio.com.
Milstein, Herrmann, Moennig, c. 1722–26, Cozio 49611
NY Philharmonic, c. 1722–26, Cozio 45560
Möller, Samsung, c. 1722–26, Cozio 41155
Count de Vière-Cheremetieff, Balokovic, c. 1725–29, Cozio 43700
Zimmermann, Aerson, c. 1725–29, Cozio 44520
Prnjat 1726, now in the RTCG
Colin, Kogan, 1726, Cozio 40682
Dancla, Serato, c. 1726–29, Cozio 40409
Milstein, Nathan, 1727, Cozio (previously listed)
Robberechts (Robrecht), 1728, Cozio 44054
Corti, Tolstopiatow, Lvoff, c. 1728, Cozio 42441
Kubelik, von Vecsey, c. 1728, Cozio 71858, used by Alexandra Conunova
'Lady Stretton', 1728–29, Cozio 40126 used by Albert Stern and Elmar Oliveira
Cobbett, Downs, c. 1729, Cozio 60188
Baron Heath, 1729, Cozio 42986
Briggs, 1730, Cozio 61283
Baron Vitta, c. 1730, Cozio 40391
David, Payne, c. 1730, Cozio 40388
Pluvié, Champonay, Kahn, c. 1730, Cozio 40392
Lord Shaftsbury, c. 1730–31, Cozio 47533
Castelbarco-Tarisio, c. 1732, Cozio 43676, now in collection at the Chimei Museum. Yu-Chien Tseng (at age 20) won the silver prize (gold not awarded) at the 2015 XV International Tchaikovsky Competition with this violin.
'The Cathedral', George Enescu, 1731. In 2008, after a competition organized by the Romanian Ministry of Culture and Religious Affairs and the Romanian National Museum "George Enescu", the violin has been entrusted to violinist Gabriel Croitoru and is again played in concerts.
Messeas (Cello), 1731, Cozio 40385
Baltic, 1731, Cozio 40410
Sorkin, Mischakoff, 1731, Cozio 42178
Marteau, Habisreuthinger, 1731, Cozio 45112, owned by Henri Marteau, then Gérard Poulet and used by Maxim Vengerov.
Huberman, 1731, used by Midori Goto, on lifetime loan from the Hayashibara Foundation
Stanley Goodman, c. 1731, Cozio 41968
Geneva, Turettini, c. 1731, Cozio 47740
Lo Stauffer, Zukerman, c. 1731, Cozio 40803
Gibson, Huberman, 1731, Cozio 40406
Armingaud/Fernández Blanco, 1732, on display at Mueso de Arte Hispanoamericano "Isaac Fernández Blanco", Buenos Aires, Argentina
Ferni, 1732, Cozio 47698
Adolphe Sax, 1732, now in the Paris Conservatory of Music
Posselt, Phillip, 1732, owned by Ruth Posselt, now in a private collection
Mayseder, 1732, Cozio 42355
Kreisler, Nachez, 1732, Cozio 40549
Balokovic, Haupt, 1732, Cozio 40397
Pixis, 1732, Cozio 43699
Smith, Briggs, c. 1732, Cozio 40381
Rode, von Heyder, c. 1732, Cozio 40389
Jean Becker, 1732, Cozio 43270
Gillot, Lord Dunmore, c. 1732, Cozio 40395
Dittrich, c. 1732, Cozio 40218
Plotenyi, Remenyi, 1732, Cozio 40394
Parlow, Henryk Kaston, 1732, Cozio 41966
Fritz Kreisler, 1733, Cozio 40400, given to Library of Congress in 1952
Lafont-Siskovsky, 1733, Cozio 40399
Consolo, 1733, Cozio 44397
1733, Cozio 47475
Soil, 1733, Cozio 42723
Hämmerle, 1733, Cozio 43920
Prince Doria, 1733–34, Cozio 46922, acquired by the Doria Family from Jacquot of Paris in 1860
Haddock, 1734, Cozio 40411
Spagnoletti, 1734, Cozio 46715
Rode, 1734, Cozio 40404
Heberlein, le Guillet, 1734, Cozio 49613
Pugnani, 1734, Cozio 40402
Ferni, duc de Camposelice, 1734, Cozio 43826
1734, Cozio 61313
Hart, Kreisler, c. 1734, Cozio 40551
Lo Stauffer, 1734, displayed by the City of Cremona
Plowden, 1735, Cozio 40418
Sennhauser, 1735, Cozio 40089
David, 1735, Cozio 40618
Parlow, Viotti, 1735, Cozio 40420
Ladenburg, Odnoposoff, 1735, Cozio 40121
Antoncich, Ward, 1735, Cozio 40450
Chardon (Small Violin), 1735, Cozio 40421
'The King', 1735, Cozio 40407, now in the Croatian Academy of Sciences and Arts
Kubelik, Ferni, 1735, Cozio 40419, used by Kyung-Wha Chung
Ladenburg, 1735, played by Robert McDuffie
Mary Portman, 1735, Cozio 40088, on loan to Ben Beilman (from Clement and Karen Arrison through the Stradivari Society of Chicago)
d'Egville, Prince Wilhelm of Prussia, Menuhin, 1735, Cozio 40417. Now in collection of David L. Fulton.
Wieniawski, 1736, Cozio 43840
Muntz, Bustabo, 1736, Cozio 49615
Count Cessol, 1736, Cozio 40422
Pollitzer, Koessler, 1736, Cozio 43519
Lafont, c. 1736, Cozio 41035
Paulsen, 1737, Cozio 47249
Joachim, 1737, Cozio 40412
Zimbalist, 1737, Cozio 48357
'King Joseph', 1737, Cozio 40213, reportedly the first Guarnerius del Gesù to go to America in 1868, now in collection of David L. Fulton
Lipinski, 1737, owned by Daniel Hope
Isaac Stern, Panette, Balatre, 1737, Cozio 40214. Once in the collection of David L. Fulton, now owned by a banking institution in Lugano, and used by Renaud Capuçon
Fountaine, 1738, Cozio 47065
Kemp, Emperor, 1738, Cozio 40426. Now in collection of David L. Fulton.
Haas, Soriano, 1738, Cozio 45258
Adam, Wurlitzer, 1738, Cozio 40425, played by Vesko Eschkenazy
Maggio, Huberman, 1738, Cozio 66000
Baron Gutmann, Baron Knoop, c. 1738, Cozio 42440
Kortschak, Wurlitzer, Hammig, Spanish Joseph, 1739, Cozio 40428
Museum, 1739, Cozio 43701
Ebersholt, Menuhin, 1739, Cozio 40595, in collection of Kunsthistorisches Museum
Beare, Steinhardt, 1739, Cozio 49617
Bower, Druian, 1739, Cozio 44345
1739, Cozio 61377. Now in private collection of an anonymous German and lent to Lisa Batiashvili.
Lutti, Senn, 1740, Cozio 40430
Fountaine (Small Violin), 1740, Cozio 4327
Ysaÿe, 1740, Cozio 40064, used by Isaac Stern, now belonging to Nippon Music Foundation
David, 1740, used by Jascha Heifetz, now in the San Francisco Legion of Honor Museum
Casadesus, c. 1740, Cozio 48178
Pestel, Menuhin, c. 1740, Cozio 49624
Rebner, Bonjour, c. 1740, Cozio 40432
Heifetz, David, c. 1740, Cozio 40097
Baron d'Erlanger, c. 1740–41, Cozio 45387
Kochánski, 1741, Cozio 42807, used by Aaron Rosand, sold for about $10 million in 2009
Carrodus, 1741, Cozio 40255
Henry Holst, 1741, Cozio 44998
Playfair, 1741, Cozio 50382
1741, Cozio 49618
Doubleday, Duvette, 1741 (in Ingles & Hayday catalogue)
Vieuxtemps, 1741, called the "Mona Lisa" of violins, Cozio 40433. Owned by a private collector who bequeathed lifetime use of the instrument for performances to violinist Anne Akiko Meyers.
Vieuxtemps, Wilmotte, c. 1741, Cozio 50024
Duc de Camposelice, c. 1741, Cozio 40548
c. 1741 "Titan," on loan to Canadian-American violinist Timothy Chooi
Lipinski, c. 1742, Cozio 40424
Moser, 1742, Hamma & Co. Cozio 48180
Wieniawski, 1742, Cozio 40090, on loan to Taiwanese-American violinist Paul Huang (2015 Avery Fisher Career Grant recipient) through the Stradivari Society.
Donaldson, McAllister, Sorobin, c. 1742, Cozio 40429
Segelman, 1742, Cozio 40623
Tellefsen, 1742, Cozio 40403
Dragonetti, Walton, 1742, Cozio 43830
Benno Rabinof, 1742, Cozio 55051
Alard, 1742, Cozio 40444, now in Cité de la Musique, Paris
Lord Wilton, 1742, Cozio 40256, used by Yehudi Menuhin, now in collection of David L. Fulton
Dushkin, 1742, Cozio 40446, used by Pinchas Zukerman
Soldat, 1742, Cozio 40445, used by Rachel Barton Pine
Brusilow, 1743, Cozio 49626
Spalding, 1743, Cozio 45063
Sauret, 1743, Cozio 40253
Burmester, Kanarievogel, Hammerle, 1743, Cozio 42987
Baron Heath, 1743, Cozio 43582
Il Cannone, 1743, Cozio 40130, used by Niccolò Paganini, now in the City Hall of Genoa
Carrodus, Hottinger, 1743, Cozio 40447, used by Richard Tognetti.
Leduc, c. 1744, Cozio 40448, used by Henryk Szeryng, since 2019 played by Augustin Hadelich
Sainton, Betti, c. 1744, Cozio 40434
Doyen, 1744, Cozio 40436, currently held by Henry Ford Foundation
Edith Lorand, Columbus, Terminator, 1744, Cozio 49625
Prince of Orange, Wald, Hoffmann, 1744, Cozio 42581, displayed by the Prague National Museum
Lord Coke, 1744, Cozio 40415
de Bériot, 1744, Cozio 43991
Cariplo, Hennel, Rosé, 1744, used by Arthur Grumiaux Cozio 41962
Ole Bull, 1744, Cozio 40453, now in collection at the Chimei Museum, acquired in 1992. In catalogue of Ingles & Hayday and Artes-Violins, Milano, 2010. One of Ole Bull's favorite violins, it is also believed to be the last work of Guarneri del Gesù.
References
Notes
Sources
Walter Hamma, Meister Italienischer Geigenbaukunst, Wilhelmshaven 1993,
List of Guarneri instruments, cozio.com
List of Guarneri instruments, guarneri.net
"The Henry Hottinger Collection", The Strad, October, 1965.
Capolavori di Antonio Stradivari, Charles Beare, Arnoldo Mondadori S.p.A., Milan, 1987.
A Thousand Mornings of Music, Arnold Gingrich, Crown Publishers, New York, 1970.
Antonius Stradivarius, Dirk J. Balfoort, The Continental Book Company, Stockholm, 1945.
Berühmte Geigen und ihre Schicksale, P. J. Tonger, Köln, 1919.
Die Geigen und Lautenmacher vom Mitteralter bis zur Gegenwart, Willibald Leo von Lütgendorff, Frankfurter Verlags-Anstalt, Frankfurt am Main, 1922.
Italian Violin Makers, Karel Jalovec, Paul Hamlyn, London, 1964.
Italian Violin-Makers, Karel Jalovec, Orbis, Prague, 1952.
Italienische Geigenbauer (1957), Karel Jalovec, Artia, Prague, 1957.
Loan Exhibition of Stringed Instruments and Bows Commemorating the 70th Birthday of Simone Fernando Sacconi, Schuler Verlagsgesellschaft, Stuttgart, 1966.
Meisterwerke Italienischer Geigenbaukunst, Fridolin Hamma, Hamma & Co., 1932.
The Violin: Its physical and acoustic principles, Paolo Peterlongo, Paul Elek, London, 1979.
"Eighteenth-Century Connections Through Musical Instruments", Gary Sturm, Journal of The Violin Society of America, Vol. IX, No. 2, 1988.
"Exhibition of Violins and Bows in the Smithsonian Collection", Gary Sturm, Journal of The Violin Society of America, Vol. V, No. 2, Spring, 1979.
"Guided Tour of the Library of Congress Collection of Stringed Instruments", Robert Bein, Journal of The Violin Society of America, Volume XVII, No. 2, November 4–7, 1999.
"Ne Plus Ultra", John Dilworth, The Strad, December 1987.
36 Famous Italian Violins, Alex Wasinski, Herman Gordon, New York, 1975.
Evelyn & Herbert Axelrod Stringed Instrument Collection, Herbert Axelrod, 2002.
Italian Violin-Makers, Karel Jalovec, Orbis, Prague, 1952.
Beautiful Italian Violins, Karel Jalovec, Paul Hamlyn, London, 1963.
The Miracle Makers, Bein & Fushi, Chicago, 1998.
1698 births
1744 deaths
Luthiers from Cremona |
4374802 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zygosaccharomyces%20bailii | Zygosaccharomyces bailii | Zygosaccharomyces bailii is a species in the genus Zygosaccharomyces. It was initially described as Saccharomyces bailii by Lindner in 1895, but in 1983 it was reclassified as Zygosaccharomyces bailii in the work by Barnett et al.
Spoilage resulting from growth of the yeast Zygosaccharomyces is widespread, which has caused significant economic losses to the food industry. Within this genus, Z. bailii is one of the most troublesome species due to its exceptional tolerance to various stressful conditions. A wide range of acidic and/or high-sugar products such as fruit concentrates, wine, soft drinks, syrups, ketchup, mayonnaise, pickles, salad dressing, etc., are normally considered to be shelf-stable, i.e. they readily inactivate a broad range of food-borne microorganisms. However, these products are still susceptible to spoilage by Z. bailii.
Morphology and modes of reproduction
Zygosaccharomyces bailii vegetative cells are usually ellipsoid, non-motile and reproduced asexually by multilateral budding, i.e. the buds can arise from various sites on the cells. During the budding process, a parent cell produces a bud on its outer surface. As the bud elongates, the parent cell's nucleus divides and one nucleus migrates into the bud. Cell wall material is filled in the gap between the bud and the parent cell; eventually the bud is separated to form a daughter cell of unequal size. Z. bailii cell size varies within a range of (3.5 - 6.5) x (4.5 - 11.5) μm and the cells exist singly or in pair, rarely in short chain. It has been observed that the doubling time of this yeast is approximately 3 hours at 23 °C in yeast nitrogen base broth containing 20% (w/v) fructose (pH 4.0). In more stressful conditions, this generation time is significantly extended.
Besides the asexual reproduction mode, under certain conditions (e.g. nutritional stress) Z. bailii produces sexual spores (ascospores) in a sac called ascus (plural: asci). Normally, each ascus contains one to four ascospores, which are generally smooth, thin-walled, spherical or ellipsoidal. It should be mentioned that the ascospores are rarely observed as it is difficult and may take a long time to induce their formation; besides many yeast strains lose the ability to produce ascospores on repeated sub-cultures in the laboratory. On various nutrient agars, Z. bailii colonies are smooth, round, convex and white to cream coloured, with a diameter of 2 – 3 mm at 3 – 7 days. As the morphology properties of Zygosaccharomyces are identical to other yeast genera such as Saccharomyces, Candida and Pichia, it is impossible to differentiate Zygosaccharomyces from other yeasts or individual species within the genus based on macroscopic and microscopic morphology observations. Therefore, the yeast identification to species level is more dependent on physiological and genetic characteristics than on morphological criteria.
Culture conditions
In general, any glucose-containing medium is suitable for the culture and counting of yeasts, e.g. Sabouraud medium, malt extract agar (MEA), tryptone glucose yeast extract agar (TGY), yeast glucose chloramphenicol agar (YGC). For the detection of acid-resistant yeasts like Z. bailii, acidified media are recommended, such as MEA or TGY with 0.5% (v/v) acetic acid added.
Plating with agar media is often used for counting of yeasts, with surface spreading technique is preferable to pour plate method because the former technique gives a better recovery of cells with lower dilution errors. The common incubation conditions are aerobic atmosphere, temperature 25 °C for a period of 5 days. Nevertheless, a higher incubation temperature (30 °C) and shorter incubation time (3 days) can be applied for Z. bailii, as the yeast grows faster at this elevated temperature.
Physiological properties
Among the Zygosaccharomyces spoilage species, Z. bailii possesses the most pronounced and diversified resistance characteristics, enabling it to survive and proliferate in very stressful conditions. It appears that Z. bailii prefers ecological environments characterized by high osmotic conditions. The most frequently described natural habitats are dried or fermented fruits, tree exudates (in vineyards and orchards), and at various stages of sugar refining and syrup production. Besides, it is seldom to encounter Z. bailii as a major spoilage agent in unprocessed foods; usually the yeast only attains importance in processed products when the competition with bacteria and moulds is reduced by intrinsic factors such as pH, water activity (aw), preservatives, etc.
Resistance characteristics
An outstanding feature of Z. bailii is its exceptional resistance to weak acid preservatives commonly used in foods and beverages, such as acetic, lactic, propionic, benzoic, sorbic acids and sulfur dioxide. In addition, it is reported that the yeast is able to tolerate high ethanol concentrations (≥ 15% (v/v)). The ranges of pH and aw for growth are wide, 2.0 - 7.0 and 0.80 - 0.99, respectively. Besides being preservative resistant, other features that contribute to the spoilage capacity of Z. bailii are: (i) its ability to vigorously ferment hexose sugars (e.g. glucose and fructose), (ii) ability to cause spoilage from an extremely low inoculum (e.g. one viable cell per package of any size), (iii) moderate osmotolerance (in comparison to Zygosaccharomyces rouxii). Therefore, foods at particular risk to spoilage by this yeast usually have low pH (2.5 to 5.0), low aw and contain sufficient amounts of fermentable sugars.
The extreme acid resistance of Z. bailii has been reported by many authors. On several occasions, growth of the yeast has been observed in fruit-based alcohols (pH 2.8 - 3.0, 40 - 45% (w/v) sucrose) preserved with 0.08% (w/v) benzoic acid, and in beverages (pH 3.2) containing either 0.06% (w/v) sorbic acid, 0.07% (w/v) benzoic acid, or 2% (w/v) acetic acid. Notably, individual cells in any Z. bailii population differ considerably in their resistance to sorbic acid, with a small fraction able to grow in preservative levels double that of the average population. In some types of food, the yeast is even able to grow in the presence of benzoic and sorbic acids at concentrations higher than those legally permitted and at pH values below the pKa of the acids. For example, according to the European Union (EU) legislation, sorbic acid is limited to 0.03% (w/v) in soft drinks (pH 2.5 - 3.2); however Z. bailii can grow in soft drinks containing 0.05% (w/v) of this acid (pKa 4.8). Particularly, there is strong evidence that the resistance of Z. bailii is stimulated by the presence of multiple preservatives. Hence, the yeast can survive and defeat synergistic preservative combinations that normally provide microbiological stability to processed foods. It has been observed that the cellular acetic acid uptake was inhibited when sorbic or benzoic acid was incorporated into the culture medium. Similarly, ethanol levels up to 10% (v/v) did not adversely influence sorbic and benzoic acid resistance of the yeast at pH 4.0 - 5.0. Moreover, Sousa et al. (1996) have proved that in Z. bailii, ethanol plays a protective role against the negative effect of acetic acid by inhibiting the transport and accumulation of this acid intracellularly.
Like other microorganisms, Z. bailii has the ability to adapt to sub-inhibitory levels of a preservative, which enables the yeast to survive and grow in much higher concentrations of the preservative than before adaptation. In addition, it seems that Z. bailii resistance to acetic, benzoic and propionic acid is strongly correlated, as the cells which were adapted to benzoic acid also showed enhanced tolerances to other the preservatives.
Some studies have revealed the negligible effects of different sugars on preservative resistance of Z. bailii, e.g. comparable sorbic and benzoic acid resistance was observed regardless whether the cells were grown in culture medium containing glucose or fructose as fermentable substrates. However, the preservative resistance of the yeast is influenced by glucose level, with maximum resistance obtained at 10 - 20% (w/v) sugar concentrations. As Z. bailii is moderately osmotolerant, the salt and sugar levels in foods are usually insufficient to control its growth. The highest tolerance to salt has been observed at low pH values, e.g. the maximum NaCl allowing growth was 12.5% (w/v) at pH 3.0 whereas this was only 5.0% (w/v) at pH 5.0. Moreover, the presence of either salt or sugar has a positive effect on the ability of Z. bailii to initiate growth at extreme pH levels, e.g. the yeast showed no growth at pH 2.0 in the absence of NaCl and sucrose, but grew at this pH in 2.5% (w/v) NaCl or 50% (w/v) sucrose.
Most facultatively fermentative yeast species cannot grow in the complete absence of oxygen. That means limitation of oxygen availability might be useful in controlling food spoilage caused by fermentative yeasts. However, it has been observed that Z. bailii is able to grow rapidly and ferment sugar vigorously in a complex medium under strictly anaerobic condition, indicating that the nutritional requirement for anaerobic growth was met by the complex-medium components. Therefore, restriction of oxygen entry into foods and beverages, which are rich in nutrients, is not a promising strategy to prevent the risk of spoilage by this yeast. Besides, Leyva et al. (1999) have reported that Z. bailii cells can retain their spoilage capability by producing a significant amount of gas even in non-growing conditions (i.e. presence of sugars but absence of nitrogen source).
Preservative resistance mechanisms
Different strategies have been suggested in accounting for Z. bailii resistance to weak acid preservatives, which include: (i) degradation of the acids, (ii) prevention of entry or removal of acids from the cells, (iii) alteration of the inhibitor target, or amelioration of the caused damage. Particularly, the intrinsic resistance mechanisms of Z. bailii are extremely adaptable and robust. Their functionality and effectiveness are unaffected or marginally suppressed by environmental conditions such as low pH, low aw and limited nutrients.
For a long time, it has been known that Z. bailii can maintain an acid gradient across the cell membrane, which indicates the induction of a system whereby the cells can reduce the intracellular acid accumulation. According to Warth (1977), Z. bailii uses an inducible, active transport pump to expel acid anions from the cells for counteracting the toxic effects of the acids. As the pump requires energy to function optimally, high sugar levels enhance Z. bailii preservative resistance. Nevertheless, this view was disputed from an observation that the concentration of acid was exactly as predicted from the intracellular, extracellular pH's and pKa of the acid. Besides, it is unlikely that an active acid extrusion alone would be sufficient to achieve an unequal acid distribution across the cell membrane. Instead, Z. bailii might have developed much more efficient ways of altering its cell membrane to limit the diffusional entry of acids into the cells. This, in turn, will dramatically reduce any need for active extrusion of protons and acid anions, thus saving a lot of energy. Indeed, Warth (1989) has reported that the uptake rate of propionic acid by diffusion in Z. bailii is much lower than in other acid-sensitive yeasts (e.g. Saccharomyces cerevisiae). Hence, it is conceivable that Z. bailii puts more effort on limiting the influx of acids in order to enhance its acid resistance.
Another mechanism of Z. bailii to deal with acid challenge is that the yeast uses a plasma membrane H+-adenosine triphosphatase (H+-ATPase) to expel proton from cells, thereby preventing intracellular acidification. In addition, Cole and Keenan (1987) have suggested that Z. bailii resistance includes an ability to tolerate chronic intracellular pH drops. Besides, the fact that the yeast is able to metabolize preservatives may also contribute to its acid tolerance.
Regarding the resistance of Z. bailii to SO2, it has been proposed that the cells reduce the concentration of SO2 by producing extracellular sulphite-binding compounds such as acetaldehyde.
Metabolism
The fructophilic behaviour is well known in Z. bailii. Unlike most of other yeasts, Z. bailii metabolizes fructose more rapidly than glucose and grows much faster in foods containing ≥ 1% (w/w) of fructose. In addition, it has been observed that the alcoholic fermentation under aerobic conditions (the Crabtree effect) in Z. bailii is influenced by the carbon source, i.e. ethanol is produced at a higher rate and with a higher yield on fructose than on glucose. This is because in Z. bailii, fructose is transported by a specific high-capacity system, while glucose is transported by a lower-capacity system, which is partially inactivated by fructose and also accepts fructose as a substrate.
The slow fermentation of sucrose is directly related to fructose metabolism. According to Pitt and Hocking (1997), Z. bailii cannot grow in foods with sucrose as the sole carbon source. As it requires time to hydrolyze sucrose into glucose and fructose (in low pH conditions), there is a long delay between manufacture and spoilage of products contaminated with this yeast when sucrose is used as the primary carbohydrate ingredient. This is usually preceded by a lag of 2 – 4 weeks and apparent deterioration of product quality is only shown 2 – 3 months after manufacturing Therefore, the use of sucrose as a sweetener (instead of glucose or fructose) is highly recommended in synthetic products such as soft drinks.
Fermentation of sugars (e.g. glucose, fructose and sucrose) is a key metabolic reaction of most yeasts (including Z. bailii) when cultured under facultative anaerobic conditions. As sugars are common components of foods and beverages, fermentation is a typical feature of the spoilage process. Principally, these sugars are converted to ethanol and CO2, causing the products to lose sweetness and acquire a distinctive alcoholic aroma along with gassiness. Besides, many secondary products are formed in small amounts, such as organic acids, esters, aldehydes, etc. Z. bailii is noted for its strong production of secondary metabolites, e.g. acetic acid, ethyl acetate and acetaldehyde. In high enough concentrations, these substances can have a dominant effect on the sensorial quality of the products.
The higher resistance of Z. bailii to weak acids than S. cerevisiae can partly be explained by its ability to metabolize preservatives. It has been demonstrated that Z. bailii is able to consume acetic acid in the presence of fermentable sugars, whereas the acetate uptake and utilization systems of S. cerevisiae are all glucose-repressed. In addition, Z. bailii can also oxidatively degrade sorbate and benzoate (and use these compounds as a sole carbon source), while S. cerevisiae does not have this capability.
Spoilage activities
According to Thomas and Davenport (1985), early reports of spoilage in mayonnaise and salad dressing due to Z. bailii date back to the beginning of the 20th century. More detailed investigations in the 1940s and 1950s confirmed that Z. bailii was the main spoiler in cucumber pickles, sundry pickled vegetable mixes, acidified sauces, etc. Around the same time, fermentation spoilage incidents occasionally appeared in fruit syrups and beverages preserved with moderate benzoic acid levels (0.04 - 0.05% (w/w)). Again, Z. bailii was identified as the spoilage source. Nowadays, despite great improvements in formulation control, food processing equipment and sanitation technologies (e.g. automated clean-in-place), the yeast remains highly problematic in sauces, acidified foods, pickled or brined vegetables, fruit concentrates and various non-carbonated fruit drinks. Z. bailii is also well recognized as one of the main spoilers in wines due to its high resistance to combinations of ethanol and organic acids at low pH. Furthermore, the spoilage by this yeast has been expanding into new food categories such as prepared mustards, fruit-flavoured carbonated soft drinks containing citrus, apple and grape juice concentrates. The ability of Z. bailii in spoiling a wide range of foods is a reflection of its high resistance to many stress factors. Therefore, it has been included in the list of most dangerous spoilage yeasts by several authors.
Spoilage by Z. bailii often occurs in acidic shelf-stable foods, which rely upon the combined effects of acidity (e.g. vinegar), salt and sugar to suppress microbial growth. The spoiled foods usually display sensorial changes that can be easily recognized by consumers, thus resulting in significant economic losses due to consumers' complaints or product recalls Observable signs of spoilage include product leakage from containers, colour change, emission of unpleasant yeasty odours, emulsion separation (in mayonnaises, dressings), turbidity, flocculation or sediment formation (in wines, beverages) and visible colonies or brown film development on product surfaces. The specific off-flavour that has been attributed to Z. bailii is related to H2S. In addition, the taste of spoiled foods can be modified by the production of acetic acid and fruity esters. It has been reported that growth of Z. bailii also results in significant gas and ethanol formation, causing a typical alcoholic taste. The excessive gas production is a direct consequence of high fermentable ability of this yeast and in more solid food, gas bubbles can appear within the product. Under extreme circumstances, the produced gas pressure inside glass jars or bottles can reach such a level that explosions may take place, creating an additional hazard of injuries from broken glass. It should be mentioned that in general, detectable spoilage by yeasts requires the presence of a high number of cells, approximately 5 - 6 log CFU/ml.
Apart from spoiling foods, as a direct consequent of growth, Z. bailii can modify the product texture and composition such that it may be more readily colonized by other spoilage microorganisms. For example, by utilizing acetic acid, the yeast can raise the pH of pickles sufficiently to allow the growth of less acid-tolerant bacteria. Besides, as with other yeasts, the concentration of fermentable sugar in a product affects the rate of spoilage by Z. bailii, e.g. the yeast grows faster in the presence of 10% (w/w) than 1% (w/w) glucose. Particularly, Z. bailii can grow and cause spoilage from extremely low inocula, as few as one viable cell in ≥ 10 liters of beverages. That means detection of low numbers of yeast cells in a product does not guarantee its stability. No sanitation or microbiological quality control program can cope with this degree of risk. Hence, the only alternatives would be reformulation of food to increase the stability and/or application of high-lethality thermal-processing parameters.
Apart from unwanted spoilage, this yeast is also present in the fermentation of traditional Italian balsamic vinegar (Zygosaccharomyces rouxii together with Zygosaccharomyces bailii, Z. pseudorouxii, Z. mellis, Z. bisporus, Z. lentus, Hanseniaspora valbyensis, Hanseniaspora osmophila, Candida lactis-condensi, Candida stellata, Saccharomycodes ludwigii, Saccharomyces cerevisiae)
See also
Yeast in winemaking
Zygosaccharomyces
References
External links
Review: Spoilage yeasts in the wine industry
Osmophiles
Saccharomycetaceae
Yeasts
Fungal plant pathogens and diseases
Fungi described in 1895 |
4375088 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stegosauria | Stegosauria | Stegosauria is a group of herbivorous ornithischian dinosaurs that lived during the Jurassic and early Cretaceous periods. Stegosaurian fossils have been found mostly in the Northern Hemisphere, predominantly in what is now North America, Europe, Africa, South America and Asia. Their geographical origins are unclear; the earliest unequivocal stegosaurian, Huayangosaurus taibaii, lived in China.
Stegosaurians were armored dinosaurs (thyreophorans). Originally, they did not differ much from more primitive members of that group, being small, low-slung, running animals protected by armored scutes. An early evolutionary innovation was the development of spikes as defensive weapons. Later species, belonging to a subgroup called the Stegosauridae, became larger, and developed long hindlimbs that no longer allowed them to run. This increased the importance of active defence by the thagomizer, which could ward off even large predators because the tail was in a higher position, pointing horizontally to the rear from the broad pelvis. Stegosaurids had complex arrays of spikes and plates running along their backs, hips and tails.
The first stegosaurian finds in the early 19th century were fragmentary. Better fossil material, of the genus Dacentrurus, was discovered in 1874 in England. Soon after, in 1877, the first nearly-complete skeleton was discovered in the United States. Professor Othniel Charles Marsh that year classified such specimens in the new genus Stegosaurus, from which the group acquired its name, and which is still by far the most famous stegosaurian. During the latter half of the twentieth century, many important Chinese finds were made, representing about half of the presently known diversity of stegosaurians.
Description
Skull
Stegosaurians had characteristic small, long, flat, narrow heads and a horn-covered beak or rhamphotheca, which covered the front of the snout (two premaxillaries) and lower jaw (a single predentary) bones. Similar structures are seen in turtles and birds. Apart from Huayangosaurus, stegosaurians subsequently lost all premaxillary teeth within the upper beak. Huayangosaurus still had seven per side. The upper and lower jaws are equipped with rows of small teeth. Later species have a vertical bone plate covering the outer side of the lower jaw teeth. The structure of the upper jaw, with a low ridge above, and running parallel to, the tooth row, indicates the presence of a fleshy cheek. In stegosaurians, the typical archosaurian skull opening, the antorbital fenestra in front of the eye socket, is small, sometimes reduced to a narrow horizontal slit.
Postcranial skeleton
All stegosaurians are quadrupedal, with hoof-like toes on all four limbs. All stegosaurians after Huayangosaurus have forelimbs much shorter than their hindlimbs. Their hindlimbs are long and straight, designed to carry the weight of the animal while stepping. The condyles of the lower thighbone are short from the front to the rear. This would have limited the supported rotation of the knee joint, making running impossible. Huayangosaurus had a thighbone like a running animal. The upper leg was always longer than the lower leg.
Huayangosaurus had relatively long and slender arms. The forelimbs of later forms are very robust, with a massive humerus and ulna. The wrist bones were reinforced by a fusion into two blocks, an ulnar and a radial. The front feet of stegosaurians are commonly depicted in art and in museum displays with fingers splayed out and slanted downward. However, in this position, most bones in the hand would be disarticulated. In reality, the hand bones of stegosaurians were arranged into vertical columns, with the main fingers, orientated outwards, forming a tube-like structure. This is similar to the hands of sauropod dinosaurs, and is also supported by evidence from stegosaurian footprints and fossils found in a lifelike pose.
The long hindlimbs elevated the tail base, such that the tail pointed out behind the animal almost horizontally from that high position. While walking, the tail would not have sloped downwards as this would have impeded the function of the tail base retractor muscles, to pull the thighbones backwards. However, it has been suggested by Robert Thomas Bakker that stegosaurians could rear on their hind legs to reach higher layers of plants, the tail then being used as a "third leg". The mobility of the tail was increased by a reduction or absence of ossified tendons, that with many Ornithischia stiffen the hip region. Huayangosaurus still possessed them. In species that had short forelimbs, the relatively short torso towards the front curved strongly downwards. The dorsal vertebrae typically were very high, with very tall neural arches and transverse processes pointing obliquely upwards to almost the level of the neural spine top. Stegosaurian back vertebrae can easily be identified by this unique configuration. The tall neural arches often house deep neural canals; enlarged canals in the sacral vertebrae have given rise to the incorrect notion of a "second brain". Despite the downwards curvature of the rump, the neck base was not very low and the head was held a considerable distance off the ground. The neck was flexible and moderately long. Huayangosaurus still had the probably original number of nine cervical vertebrae; Miragaia has an elongated neck with seventeen.
The stegosaurian shoulder girdle was very robust. In Huayangosaurus, the acromion, a process on the lower front edge of the shoulderblade, was moderately developed; the coracoid was about as wide as the lower end of the scapula, with which it formed the shoulder joint. Later forms tend to have a strongly expanded acromion, while the coracoid, largely attached to the acromion, no longer extends to the rear lower corner of the scapula. Ossified sternal plates have never been found with Stegosauria and perhaps the sternum was completely absent.
The stegosaurian pelvis was originally moderately large, as shown by Huayangosaurus. Later species, however, convergent to the Ankylosauria developed very broad pelves, in which the iliac bones formed wide horizontal plates with flaring front blades to allow for an enormous belly-gut. The ilia were attached to the sacral vertebrae via a sacral yoke formed by fused sacral ribs. Huayangosaurus still had rather long and obliquely oriented ischia and pubic bones. In more derived species, these became more horizontal and shorter to the rear, while the front prepubic process lengthened.
Osteoderms
Like all Thyreophora, stegosaurians were protected by bony scutes that were not part of the skeleton proper but skin ossifications instead: the so-called osteoderms. Huayangosaurus had several types. On its neck, back, and tail were two rows of paired small vertical plates and spikes. The very tail end bore a small club. Each flank had a row of smaller osteoderms, culminating in a long shoulder spine in front, curving to the rear. Later forms show very variable configurations, combining plates of various shape and size on the neck and front torso with spikes more to the rear of the animal. They seem to have lost the tail club and the flank rows are apparently absent also, with the exception of the shoulder spine, still shown by Kentrosaurus and extremely developed, as its name indicates, in Gigantspinosaurus. As far as is known, all forms possessed some sort of thagomizer, though these are rarely preserved articulated allowing to establish the exact arrangement. A fossil of Chungkingosaurus sp. has been reported with three pairs of spikes pointing outwards and a fourth pair pointing to the rear. The most derived species, like Stegosaurus, Hesperosaurus and Wuerhosaurus, have very large and flat back plates. To discern them from the smaller plates, which are intermediate to spines in having a thickened central section, these latter are sometimes called 'splates'. Stegosaurus plates are so large that it has been suggested that they were not arranged in paired but alternated rows or even formed a single overlapping midline row. With Stegosaurus fossils also ossicles have been found in the throat region, bony skin discs that protected the lower neck. Apart from protection, suggested functions of the osteoderms include display, species recognition and thermoregulation.
Discovery
The first known discovery of a possible stegosaurian was probably made in the early nineteenth century in England. It consisted of a lower jaw fragment and was in 1848 named Regnosaurus. In 1845, in the area of the present state of South Africa, remains were discovered that much later would be named Paranthodon. In 1874, other remains from England were named Craterosaurus. All three taxa were based on fragmentary material and were not recognised as possible stegosaurians until the twentieth century. They gave no reason to suspect the existence of a new distinctive group of dinosaurs.
In 1874, extensive remains of what was clearly a large herbivore equipped with spikes were uncovered in England; the first partial stegosaurian skeleton known. They were named Omosaurus by Richard Owen in 1875. Later, this name was shown to be preoccupied by the phytosaur Omosaurus and the stegosaurian was renamed Dacentrurus. Other English nineteenth century and early twentieth century finds would be assigned to Omosaurus; later they would, together with French fossils, be partly renamed Lexovisaurus and Loricatosaurus.
In 1877, Arthur Lakes, a fossil hunter working for Professor Othniel Charles Marsh, in Wyoming excavated a fossil that Marsh the same year named Stegosaurus. At first, Marsh still entertained some incorrect notions about its morphology. He assumed that the plates formed a flat skin cover — hence the name, meaning "roof saurian" — and that the animal was bipedal with the spikes sticking out sideways from the rear of the skull. A succession of additional discoveries from the Como Bluff sites allowed a quick update of the presumed build. In 1882, Marsh was able to publish the first skeletal reconstruction of a stegosaur. Hereby, stegosaurians became much better known to the general public. The American finds at the time represented the bulk of known stegosaurian fossils, with about twenty skeletons collected.
The next important discovery was made when a German expedition to the Tendaguru, then part of German East Africa, from 1909 to 1912 excavated over a thousand bones of Kentrosaurus. The finds increased the known variability of the group, Kentrosaurus being rather small and having long rows of spikes on the hip and tail.
From the 1950s onwards, the geology of China was systematically surveyed in detail and infrastructural works led to a vast increase of digging activities in that country. This resulted in a new wave of Chinese stegosaurian discoveries, starting with Chialingosaurus in 1957. Chinese finds of the 1970s and 1980s included Wuerhosaurus, Tuojiangosaurus, Chungkingosaurus, Huayangosaurus, Yingshanosaurus and Gigantspinosaurus. This increased the age range of good fossil stegosaurian material, as they represented the first relatively complete skeletons from the Middle Jurassic and the Early Cretaceous. Especially important was Huayangosaurus, which provided unique information about the early evolution of the group.
Towards the end of the twentieth century, the so-called Dinosaur Renaissance took place in which a vast increase in scientific attention was given to the Dinosauria. In 2007, Jiangjunosaurus was reported, the first Chinese dinosaur named since 1994. Nevertheless, European and North-American sites have become productive again during the 1990s, Miragaia having been found in the Lourinhã Formation in Portugal and a number of relatively complete Hesperosaurus skeletons having been excavated in Wyoming. Apart from the fossils per se, important new insights have been gained by applying the method of cladistics, allowing for the first time to exactly calculate stegosaurian evolutionary relationships.
Classification
The Stegosauria was originally named as an order within Reptilia by O.C. Marsh in 1877.
The vast majority of stegosaurian dinosaurs thus far recovered belong to the Stegosauridae, which lived in the later part of the Jurassic and early Cretaceous, and which were defined by Paul Sereno as all stegosaurians more closely related to Stegosaurus than to Huayangosaurus. They include per definition the well-known Stegosaurus. This group is widespread, with members across the Northern Hemisphere, Africa and possibly South America.
The first exact clade definition of Stegosauria was given by Peter Malcolm Galton in 1997: all thyreophoran Ornithischia more closely related to Stegosaurus than to Ankylosaurus. Thus defined, the Stegosauria are by definition the sister group of the Ankylosauria within the Eurypoda.
Phylogeny
Kenneth Carpenter of the Denver Museum of Nature and Science published a preliminary phyletic tree of stegosaurians, in the 2001 description of Hesperosaurus. An updated phylogeny was published by Mateus et al. (2009), which is shown below.
Alternately, in 2017, Raven and Maidment published a new phylogenetic analysis, including almost every known stegosaurian genus:
Undescribed species
To date, several genera from China bearing names have been proposed but not formally described, including "Changdusaurus". Until formal descriptions are published, these genera are regarded as nomina nuda. Yingshanosaurus, for a long time considered a nomen nudum, was described in 1994.
Evolutionary history
Like the spikes and shields of ankylosaurs, the bony plates and spines of stegosaurians evolved from the low-keeled osteoderms characteristic of basal thyreophorans. One such described genus, Scelidosaurus, is proposed to be morphologically close to the last common ancestor of the clade uniting stegosaurians and ankylosaurians, the Eurypoda. Galton (2019) interpreted plates of an armored dinosaur from the Lower Jurassic (Sinemurian-Pliensbachian) Lower Kota Formation of India as fossils of a member of Ankylosauria; the author argued that this finding indicates a probable early Early Jurassic origin for both Ankylosauria and its sister group Stegosauria. Footprints attributed to the ichnotaxon Deltapodus brodricki from the Middle Jurassic (Aalenian) of England represent the oldest probable record of stegosaurians reported so far. Outside that, there are assigned fossils to stegosauria from the Toarcian: the specimen "IVPP V.219", a chimaera with bones of the sauropod Sanpasaurus is known from the Maanshan Member of the Ziliujing Formation. The perhaps most basal known stegosaurian, the four-metre-long Huayangosaurus, is still close to Scelidosaurus in build, with a higher and shorter skull, a short neck, a low torso, long slender forelimbs, short hindlimbs, large condyles on the thighbone, a narrow pelvis, long ischial and pubic shafts, and a relatively long tail. Its small tail club might be a eurypodan synapomorphy. Huayangosaurus lived during the Bathonian stage of the Middle Jurassic, about 166 million years ago.
A few million years later, during the Callovian-Oxfordian, from China much larger species are known, with long, "graviportal" (adapted for moving only in a slow manner on land due to a high body weight) hindlimbs: Chungkingosaurus, Chialingosaurus, Tuojiangosaurus and Gigantspinosaurus. Most of these are considered members of the derived Stegosauridae. Lexovisaurus and Loricatosaurus, stegosaurid finds from England and France of approximately equivalent age to the Chinese specimens, are likely the same taxon. During the Late Jurassic, stegosaurids seem to have experienced their greatest radiation. In Europe, Dacentrurus and the closely related Miragaia were present. While older finds had been limited to the northern continents, in this phase Gondwana was colonised also as shown by Kentrosaurus living in Africa. No unequivocal stegosaurian fossils have been reported from South-America, India, Madagascar, Australia, or Antarctica, though. A Late Jurassic Chinese stegosaurian is Jiangjunosaurus. The most derived Jurassic stegosaurians are known from North-America: Stegosaurus (perhaps several species thereof) and the somewhat older Hesperosaurus. Stegosaurus was quite large (some specimens indicate a length of at least seven metres), had high plates, no shoulder spine, and a short, deep rump.
From the Early Cretaceous, far fewer finds are known and it seems that the group had declined in diversity. Some fragmentary fossils have been described, such as Craterosaurus from England and Paranthodon from South Africa. The only more substantial discoveries are those of Wuerhosaurus from Northern China, the exact age of which is highly uncertain Indeterminate stegosaurs are known from the Early Cretaceous of Siberia, including the Ilek Formation and Batylykh Formation. The youngest known definitive remains of stegosaurs are those of Mongolostegus from Mongolia which dates the Aptian-Albian.
It has often been suggested that the decline in stegosaur diversity was part of a Jurassic-Cretaceous transition, where angiosperms become the dominant plants, causing a faunal turnover where new groups of herbivores evolved. Although in general the case for such a causal relation is poorly supported by the data, stegosaurians are an exception in that their decline coincides with that of the Cycadophyta.
Though Late Cretaceous stegosaurian fossils have been reported, these have mostly turned out to be misidentified. A well-known example is Dravidosaurus, known from Coniacian fossils found in India. Though originally thought to be stegosaurian, in 1991 these badly-eroded fossils were suggested to instead have been based on plesiosaurian pelvis and hindlimb material, and none of the fossils are demonstrably stegosaurian. The reinterpretation of Dravidosaurus as a plesiosaur wasn't accepted by Galton and Upchurch (2004), who stated that the skull and plates of Dravidosaurus are certainly not plesiosaurian, and noted the need to redescribe the fossil material of Dravidosaurus. A purported stegosaurian dermal plate was reported from the latest Cretaceous (Maastrichtian) Kallamedu Formation (southern India); however, Galton & Ayyasami (2017) interpreted the specimen as a bone of a sauropod dinosaur. Nevertheless, the authors considered the survival of stegosaurians into the Maastrichtian to be possible, noting the presence of the stegosaurian ichnotaxon Deltapodus in the Maastrichtian Lameta Formation (western India).
Paleobiology
Trace fossils
Stegosaurian tracks were first recognized in 1996 from a hindprint-only trackway discovered at the Cleveland-Lloyd quarry, which is located near Price, Utah. Two years later, a new ichnogenus called Stegopodus was erected for another set of stegosaurian tracks which were found near Arches National Park, also in Utah. Unlike the first, this trackway preserved traces of the forefeet. Fossil remains indicate that stegosaurians have five digits on the forefeet and three weight-bearing digits on the hind feet. From this, scientists were able to predict the appearance of stegosaurian tracks in 1990, six years in advance of the first actual discovery of Morrison stegosaurian tracks. More trackways have been found since the erection of Stegopodus. None, however, have preserved traces of the front feet and stegosaurian traces remain rare.
Deltapodus is an ichnogenus attributed as stegosaurian prints, and are known across Europe, North Africa, and China. One Deltapodus footprint measures less than 6 cm in length and represents the smallest known stegosaurian track. Some tracks preserve exquisite scaly skin pattern.
Australia's 'Dinosaur Coast' in Broome, Western Australia includes tracks of several different thyreophoran track-makers. Of these, the ichnogenus Garbina (a Nyulnyulan word for 'shield') and Luluichnus (honours the late Paddy Roe, OAM who went by the name 'Lulu') have been considered registered by stegosaurs. Garbina includes the largest stegosaur tracks measuring 80 cm in length. Trackway data show Garbina track-makers were capable of bipedal and quadrupedal progression.
While has no body fossil evidence currently known for stegosaurs, handprints from underground coal mines near Oakey, Queensland, resembling Garbina tracks suggests their occurrence in this country from at least the Middle to Upper Jurassic (Callovian–Tithonian). A single plaster cast of one of these handprints is in the collections of the Queensland Museum.
Tail spikes
There has been debate about whether the spikes were used simply for display, as posited by Gilmore in 1914, or used as a weapon. Robert Bakker noted that it is likely that the stegosaur tail was much more flexible than those of other ornithischian dinosaurs because it lacked ossified tendons, thus lending credence to the idea of the tail as a weapon. He also observed that Stegosaurus could have maneuvered its rear easily by keeping its large hindlimbs stationary and pushing off with its very powerfully muscled but short forelimbs, allowing it to swivel deftly to deal with attack. In 2010, analysis of a digitized model of Kentrosaurus aethiopicus showed that the tail could bring the thagomizer around to the sides of the dinosaur, possibly striking an attacker beside it.
In 2001, a study of tail spikes by McWhinney et al., showed a high incidence of trauma-related damage. This too supports the theory that the spikes were used in combat. There is also evidence for Stegosaurus defending itself, in the form of an Allosaurus tail vertebra with a partially healed puncture wound that fits a Stegosaurus tail spike. Stegosaurus stenops had four dermal spikes, each about long. Discoveries of articulated stegosaur armor show that, at least in some species, these spikes protruded horizontally from the tail, not vertically as is often depicted. Initially, Marsh described S. armatus as having eight spikes in its tail, unlike S. stenops. However, recent research re-examined this and concluded this species also had four.
References
External links
Stegosauria on Palaeos.com
https://web.archive.org/web/20080727011652/http://www.kheper.net/evolution/dinosauria/Stegosauria.htm
Bajocian first appearances
Early Cretaceous extinctions
Fossil taxa described in 1877
Taxa named by Othniel Charles Marsh |
4375289 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/60th%20Infantry%20Regiment%20%28United%20States%29 | 60th Infantry Regiment (United States) | The U.S. 60th Infantry Regiment is a regimental unit in the United States Army. Its 2nd and 3rd Battalion conduct Basic Combat Training.
Participating in three wars on three continents, the 60th has played a conspicuous role in the achievements of 5th Division in World War I and 9th Infantry Division in World War II and Vietnam. The regimental crest reflects this. The cannon in the embattled canton refers to the 7th Infantry Regiment that provided the cadre who activated the regiment; it is a principal charge in the 7th's arms. The silver vertical wavy line makes reference to the Regiment's crossing of the Meuse River in World War I; and the red diamond is the unit patch for the US Fifth Infantry Division, to which the 60th was assigned in the First World War.
World War I
The 60th Infantry was organized in June 1917, two months after the American entry into World War I, from cadre furnished by the 7th Infantry Regiment. In November it was assigned to the 5th Division and underwent its baptism of fire on the Western Front the following year. The regiment participated in the campaigns of St. Mihiel, Alsace and Lorraine and finally in the Meuse–Argonne offensive. During this battle, First Lieutenant Samuel Woodfill, later called by General John "Blackjack" Pershing, Commander-in-Chief (C-in-C) of the American Expeditionary Forces (AEF) on the Western Front, "the outstanding doughboy of the war", was awarded the Medal of Honor for leading his men in the destruction of enemy positions in the Bois de la Pultiere near Cunel, Meuse, France. Lt. Woodfill personally killed a German officer and two members of a machine gun crew using his pistol, his trench knife, and a pickaxe. He and his men also captured a number of enemy soldiers and their weapons.
World War II
After the First World War the 60th Infantry was inactivated at Camp Jackson, South Carolina, on 2 September 1921. A generation later during World War II, in August 1940, war in Europe resulted in a rapid expansion of the U.S. Army. The 60th Infantry was reactivated and assigned to the 9th Infantry Division on 10 August 1940.
The 60th Infantry spearheaded the November 1942, Allied invasion of French Morocco at Port Lyautey during Operation Torch, crediting each member of the unit that made the amphibious assault landing the arrowhead device. The landing under fire laid the basis for its nickname 'Scouts Out'. At the time of the invasion, there was great confusion among the Navy coxswains about the landing sites. They either placed the infantry units in the wrong sector, or put them on the beaches very late. The 60th Infantry, for example, landed at 05:30, 40 minutes late, giving the defending Vichy French time to organize. The 60th Infantry's 1st Battalion landed 2,800 yards north of their assigned beach, and were engaged by French light tanks once ashore. Its 2nd and 3rd Battalions were strafed by French planes. Company E, 2nd Battalion, was stopped completely at a strongpoint, the Port Lyautey lighthouse. The 2nd Battalion's eventual objective was to take an ancient fortress called the Kasba. Once the landing points were completely secured, engagements were fought between small units and opposing batteries. The 60th Infantry culminated its successful North African campaigns with a defense on 18 April 1943 (Easter Sunday) against a massive German attack.
The 2nd Battalion, 60th Infantry earned the regiment's and the 9th Division's, first Presidential Unit Citation for its actions on 23 and 24 April during the Battle of Sedjenane. The Germans hit the 2nd Battalion from all four sides with two infantry battalions supported by artillery. After a four-hour attack that failed, the Germans left 116 dead, 48 wounded, and many prisoners in American hands. During the 60th Infantry's drive along the Tunisia-Algeria border, the regiment captured a German general's diary which gave the regiment its nickname, the "Go Devils". In his account of American actions against the Germans, the general wrote, "Look at those devils go!" The 60th Infantry thereafter became known as the "Go Devils". During the battle Sergeant William L. Nelson was posthumously awarded the Medal of Honor.
During the Allied invasion of Sicily, the 60th Infantry continued its victorious ways, culminating in the famous Silent March ("Ghost March"), where the regiment infiltrated enemy lines and broke open the last of the German resistance. On 5 August 1943, the 60th Infantry landed at Palermo, Sicily. Their first combat action there was the first of the infiltrations they would make in Sicily. The 60th Infantry flanked the city of Troina, which forced the German artillery protecting their infantrymen in the city to withdraw, allowing other U.S. divisions to easily swallow up the Germans in the city. Next, the 60th Infantry chased the retreating Germans east towards Randazzo. The pursuit was hindered by a number booby traps, demolitions, anti-tank and personnel mines, craters and blown bridges. Regardless, the 60th Infantry completed its flanking movement around Randazzo, which allowed the 39th Infantry Regiment, 9th Infantry Division, to take Randazzo and open the road to Messina which was taken on 17 August. Rest and further training followed for some two months. On 11 November 1943, the 60th Infantry embarked for Winchester, Hampshire, England.
On 11 June 1944, the 60th Infantry debarked at Utah Beach on the Cotentin Peninsula, Normandy, France. On 12 June, driving hard toward the St. Colombe in France, the 2nd Battalion, 60th Infantry completely outdistanced the rest of the 9th Division. For a time, the 60th Regiment was believed to be lost. Actually, its 2nd Battalion had overrun the German defenses in the face of murderous fire and had cut the main highway to the northwest. Instead of withdrawing, the battalion set up a bridgehead on the Douve River and held the position for seven hours until the rest of the 9th Division caught up to them, thus facilitating the cutting of the peninsula. Due to this demonstration of rapid penetration and maneuver, the "Scouts Out" motto originated for the 2nd Battalion. "Scouts Out" is the official greeting of the 2nd Battalion, 60th Infantry.
In France during June 1944, the 60th Infantry once again led the way for the 9th Division as it spearheaded the American advance out of the beachhead that cut the Contentin Peninsula. While the 39th and 47th Infantry Regiments of the 9th Division secured the vital Port of Cherburg, the 60th Infantry cleared Cape La Hague, northwest of Cherbourg, where Medal of Honor recipient Second Lieutenant John E. Butts was killed. At the pivotal crossing of the Douve River, Lieutenant Butts earned the Medal of Honor and the 2nd Battalion earned its second Presidential Unit Citation. Following the breakout at St. Lo, the 60th Infantry rushed south during Operation Cobra and helped relieve the battered 30th Infantry Division, that had been surrounded by the Germans in their own counterattack (Operation Luttich). Next, the 60th Infantry turned east and helped in the closure and clearing of the Falaise pocket. Continuing east, the 60th Infantry crossed the Marne, Aisne, and the Seine Rivers in a matter of days. Next the 60th Infantry entered Belgium and made its second combat crossing of the Meuse River. In this action, Medal of Honor recipient, Lieutenant Colonel Matt Urban was wounded for the seventh time after having gone AWOL from a hospital to rejoin the 2nd Battalion and lead them in combat.
After the bitter and bloody struggle in the Huertegen Forest, the 60th Infantry fell back to the Monschau area where its efforts won it a third Presidential Unit Citation in the snow and bitter cold of the Battle of the Bulge. The 60th Infantry then was the first to capture the Schwammanuel Dam on the Roer River. Continuing south, the regiment was one of the first to cross the Rhine at Remagen. After expanding the bridgehead, the regiment shot northeast, where they helped seal and destroy the Ruhr Pocket. Continuing northeast, the 60th Infantry advanced toward the Harz Mountains, where for the first time the regiment had attached to them a platoon of black volunteers. While destroying a German roadblock, one of the volunteers, Private First Class Jack Thomas, won the Distinguished Service Cross for extraordinary heroism. After relieving the 3rd Armored Division, the 60th Infantry held that line until VE day, and met up with Russian soldiers soon after. For their actions in Central Europe, the regiment was awarded a fourth Presidential Unit Citation. The 60th Infantry was inactivated in November 1946 while on occupation duty in Germany.
Vietnam War
After service as the 2nd Battle Group, 60th Infantry from 1958 to 1962, three battalions (2/60, 3/60, and 5/60 Mechanized) were activated at Fort Riley, Kansas, and assigned to the 9th Infantry Division for its deployment to the Republic of Vietnam in December 1966. The 9th Division was the only major U.S. combat unit to conduct operations in the Mekong Delta. On 13 September 1968, the 5th/60th Mech was "swapped" with the 1st/16th of the 1st Infantry Division. From then until August 1970, the 5th/60th operated as a "straight leg" infantry unit. The battalions of the 60th Infantry participated in both Riverine operations and "jitterbug tactics" which featured split-second timing of airmobile insertions in close proximity to enemy units. These operations enabled the battalions to be awarded unit citations and campaign streamers, including one Presidential Unit Citation. Beginning with the 3rd Brigade in July 1969, the 9th Infantry Division was the first US Division to be withdrawn from Vietnam. [Although 'Old Reliables' were returning to the United States, from the Summer of 1969 on into the Fall of 1970, units of the 3rd Brigade remained in the Mekong Delta; operating under the command of the 25th Infantry Division in Cu Chi] The Division returned to Ft. Lewis, Washington, in 1970 where its battalions were inactivated.
During the 1960s and 1970s the 1st Battalion, 60th Infantry was active as an element of the 172d Infantry Brigade in Alaska and did not deploy to Vietnam. The unit existed into the early 1980s when it was reflagged as a battalion of the 327th Infantry, as were the other two battalions of the brigade, forming the 4th, 5th and 6th Battalions, 327th Infantry. These were aligned with the 1st, 2d and 3d Battalions, 327th, then under the 1st Brigade, 101st Airborne Division (Air Assault) at Fort Campbell, KY.
Cold War
The 1st Battalion, 60th Infantry was assigned to the 172d Infantry Brigade at Fort Richardson, Alaska.
The 2d Battalion, 60th Infantry was reactivated on 21 October 1972 at Fort Lewis where it became the first motorized unit in the Army. It was used as an advanced training unit in highly maneuverable tactics using newly outfitted Humvees with TOW missile systems, Mk-19s and M2s.
The 3d Battalion, 60th Infantry was located at Fort Lewis from 1972 to 1988 and was primarily a "straight leg" (regular) infantry unit trained in airmobile operations until the unit with equipped TOW missile systems mounted on Humvees in the latter part of 1986. From November 1985 to June 1986 the 3-60th was deployed to the Sinai in Egypt, replacing the 101st Airborne Division (Air Assault) as the first regular infantry unit deployed for Multinational Force and Observers (MFO) service (attached to the 82d Airborne Division).
Desert Shield/Storm
The unit was mobilized to NTC at Fort Irwin, CA, in preparation for deployment to the Middle East during Desert Shield and was used to train National Guard units at the start of Desert Storm. It was then inactivated at Fort Lewis and relieved from assignment to the 9th Infantry Division in February 1991. During the drawdown of the 9th Infantry Division at Fort Lewis in 1991–1992, a residual brigade, based around the division's 3d Brigade, was briefly active as the 199th Infantry Brigade (Separate)(Motorized). The brigade's 2-60th Infantry was reorganized and reflagged as 1-33d Armor; later the entire brigade was reorganized and reflagged as the 2d Armored Cavalry Regiment.
Currently
The 60th Infantry Regiment was assigned to the Training and Doctrine Command on 27 August 1996, with the 2d Battalion activated at Fort Jackson, South Carolina.
The 2d Battalion "Scouts Out" and 3d Battalion, 60th Infantry Regiment "River Raiders" are currently assigned to the 193d Infantry Brigade at Fort Jackson, South Carolina, along with the 1st, 2d, and 3d Battalions, 13th Infantry Regiment. The battalions are organized for basic combat training with Companies A through F in each battalion.
Lineage
Constituted 15 May 1917 in the Regular Army as the 60th Infantry
Organized 10 June 1917 at Gettysburg National Park, Pennsylvania
Assigned 17 November 1917 to the 5th Division
Inactivated 2 September 1921 at Fort Jackson, South Carolina
Relieved 15 August 1927 from assignment to the 5th Division and assigned to the 8th Division.
Relieved 1 October 1933 from assignment to the 8th Division and assigned to the 5th Division
Relieved 16 October 1939 from assignment to the 5th Division
Assigned 1 August 1940 to the 9th Division (later redesignated as the 9th Infantry Division)
Activated 10 August 1940 at Fort Bragg, North Carolina
Moved to Chester, South Carolina, for maneuvers, and returned to Fort Bragg.
Transferred to Norfolk, Virginia, on 18 September 1942 for Amphibious Training.
Departed Hampton Roads Port of Embarkation on 27 October 1942 for North Africa.
Assaulted North Africa on 8 November 1942.
Landed in Sicily on 31 July 1943.
Arrived in England on 25 November 1943.
Landed in France on 11 June 1944.
Crossed into Belgium on 2 September 1944.
Entered Germany on 15 September 1944.
Attached to 104th Infantry Division from 18 December 1944 to 21 December 1944.
Attached to 2nd Armored Division from 22 December 1944 to 23 December 1944.
Attached to 9th Armored Division from 4 March 1945 to 5 March 1945.
Attached to 7th Armored Division from 8 March 1945 to 9 March 1945.
Attached to 3rd Armored Division from 22 April 1944 to 24 April 1945.
On Occupation Duty at Geisenfeld, Germany on VJ Day
Inactivated 30 November – 28 December 1946 in Germany
Activated 15 July 1947 at Fort Dix, New Jersey
Relieved 1 December 1957 from assignment to the 9th Infantry Division and reorganized as a parent regiment under the Combat Arms Regimental System
Activated December 1966 and assigned to the 9th Infantry Division for deployment to Vietnam
Withdrawn 1970 from Vietnam and inactivated
Activated 1976 9th Infantry Division, 2nd Brigade (Triple Threat), Fort Lewis, Washington
Withdrawn 16 June 1986 from the Combat Arms Regimental System and reorganized under the United States Army Regimental System
Transferred 15 April 1996 to the United States Army Training and Doctrine Command
Present Day: Assigned to 193rd Infantry Brigade, Ft Jackson, South Carolina
Medal of Honor recipients
Nine soldiers of the 60th Infantry were awarded the Medal of Honor:
World War I
Captain Edward Allworth
First Lieutenant Samuel Woodfill
World War II
Second Lieutenant John E. Butts, Company E, 2nd Battalion
Sergeant William L. Nelson, 2nd Battalion
Captain Matt Urban, 2nd Battalion
Vietnam War
Sergeant Leonard B. Keller, Company A, 3rd Battalion
Private First Class Thomas James Kinsman, Company B, 3rd Battalion
Private First Class Clarence Sasser, Headquarters Company, 3rd Battalion
Specialist Four Raymond R. Wright, Company A, 3rd Battalion
Campaign participation credit
World War I (4)
St. Mihiel
Meuse-Argonne
Alsace 1918
Lorraine 1918
World War II (8)
Algeria-French Morocco (Arrowhead device)
Tunisia
Sicily
Normandy
Northern France
Rhineland
Ardennes-Alsace
Central Europe
Vietnam (11)
Counteroffensive, Phase II
Counteroffensive, Phase III
Tet Counteroffensive
Counteroffensive, Phase IV
Counteroffensive, Phase V
Counteroffensive, Phase VI
Tet 69/Counteroffensive
Summer-Fall 1969
Winter-Spring 1970
Sanctuary Counteroffensive
Counteroffensive, Phase VII
Unit awards
US unit decorations
Presidential Unit Citation (Army), 2nd Battalion, 23–24 April 1943, for SEDJENANE VALLEY
Presidential Unit Citation (Army), 2nd Battalion, June 1943, for STE. COLOMBE
Presidential Unit Citation (Army), 3rd Battalion, 1944, for SCHWAMMANAUEL DAMS
Presidential Unit Citation (Army) for MEKONG DELTA
Presidential Unit Citation (Army) for DINH TUONG PROVINCE
Valorous Unit Award for SAIGON
Valorous Unit Award for FISH HOOK
Foreign unit decorations
French Croix de Guerre with Palm for COTENTIN PENINSULA, WW II
Belgian Fourragere 1940, 2nd Battalion, for being cited twice, WW II
Belgian Croix de guere with Palm; cited in the Order of the Day of the Belgian Army for action at the Meuse River
Cited in the Order of the Day of the Belgian Army for action in the Ardennes
References
External links
2–60th Infantry Regiment Home Page
3/60th Infantry Regiment Home Page
60th Infantry Regiment Historic Preservation
60th Infantry Regiment in World War II
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United States Army regiments of World War I |
4375834 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amos%20Gitai | Amos Gitai | Amos Gitai (; born 11 October 1950) is an Israeli filmmaker, who was trained as an architect.
Gitai's work was presented in several major retrospectives in Pompidou Center in Paris, the Museum of Modern Art (MoMA) and Lincoln Center in New York, and the British Film Institute in London. To date, Amos Gitai has created over 90 works of art, including a wide variety of formats such as feature and short films, fiction and documentaries, experimental work, television productions, installations and theater works.
Between 1999 and 2017 ten of his films participated in the Cannes Film Festival for the Palme d'Or as well as The Venice International Film Festival for the Golden Lion award.
He has worked with Juliette Binoche, Jeanne Moreau, Natalie Portman, Yael Abecassis, Samuel Fuller, Hanna Schygulla, Annie Lennox, Barbara Hendricks, Léa Seydoux, Valeria Bruni Tedeschi, Henri Alekan, Renato Berta, Nurith Aviv, Éric Gautier and more. Since 2000 he has been collaborating with the French screenwriter Marie-José Sanselme.
He received several prestigious prizes, in particular the Leopard of Honor at the Locarno International Film Festival (2008), the Roberto Rossellini prize (2005), the Robert Bresson prize (2013), the Paradjanov prize (2014) and Légion d'Honneur (2017). In 2018, Amos Gitai has been elected professor at the chair of artistic creation at the Collège de France, with a series of 12 lessons on cinema. In 2019 he received the Grande Ufficiale dell'Ordine della Stella Italia.
Early life
Gitai was born to Munio Weinraub, an architect formed at the pre-war German Bauhaus art school, and to Efratia Margalit, an intellectual, a storyteller and a teacher. He graduated from the Hebrew Reali School in Haifa in 1968. He holds a degree in architecture from the Technion in Haifa and a PhD in architecture from the University of California, Berkeley.
In 1973, during the Yom Kippur War, Gitai had to interrupt his architecture studies as he was called up to the reserve service as part of a helicopter rescue crew. Gitai was wounded when the helicopter he was in was hit by a Syrian missile. During his missions, he used a Super 8 camera to document the war. After the war, he embarked on a career as a filmmaker and made his first documentary in 1980, House.
Film career
Gitai began his career directing mostly documentaries. In 1980 he directed his first full-length film House, that follows a house in West Jerusalem, abandoned during the 1948 war by its Palestinian owner. In the film, Gitai follows the different house tenants over the years, making the house the focus of the Israeli socio-political conflict. It opens a democratic cinematic space around the same house where a split of perspectives on the situation and its history takes place.
The film was rejected and censored by the Israeli television, an event which marks the filmmaker's conflictual relationship with the authorities of his country. It is to make this film exist in spite of the censorship and to continue along the path he had just begun, that he says at that time: "I decided to become a filmmaker". This relationship was soon to be fueled by the controversy surrounding of his film Field Diary, made before and during the invasion of Lebanon in 1982, and resulting in a long exile in France (1983-1993).
House was the first part of a trilogy including the films A House in Jerusalem (1998), News from Home / News from House (2005). It was a first trilogy of many others; a concept Gitai consistently worked with during his career, offering a complex and layered view on the geopolitical Israeli reality.
To his biographical elements (his family origins, the generation to which he belongs, his architectural studies, the making of House and its effects) must be added the experience of the Yom Kippur War, in which he almost died at the age of 23, an experience that would influence all his future work. The traumatic event itself is the focus of a series of experimental short films and documentaries, before directing the film Yom Kippur in 2000, which definitively consecrated its stature after its positive reception at the Cannes Film Festival. The evocation of this intimate and common experience served by an impressive plastic sense is exemplary of Amos Gitai's art. The film also marks the beginning of the director's collaboration with screenwriter Marie-José Sanselme that dates until today.
He continues with the making of the three Wadi (Wadi 1981, Wadi Ten Years After 1991, Wadi Grand Canyon 2001) which similar to House is dealing with a specific location and examines the complex relationships between the residents of the former stone quarry - Eastern European immigrants, survivors of the camps and Arabs who have also been expelled from their homes due to the wars in Israel. Gitai turns the valley into a symbol of a possible coexistence.
His third trilogy deals with the Israeli political-military practices (Field Diary, 1982; Giving Peace a Chance, 1994; The Arena of Murder, 1996). Yann Lardeau wrote about Field Diary:
He continues with the making of the trilogy on the procedures of world capitalism (Pineapple, 1984; Bangkok-Bahrain/Labour for Sale, 1984; Orange, 1998) and the trilogy on the resurgence of the European extreme right (In the Wupper Valley, 1993; In the Name of the Duce/Naples-Rome, 1994; Queen Mary '87, 1995). But also trilogies of fiction, trilogies of exile (Esther, 1985; Berlin-Jerusalem, 1989; Golem, the spirit of exile, 1991), trilogies of cities (Devarim, 1995; Yom Yom, 1998 ; Kadosh, 1999), trilogy of historical events decisive for Israel (Yom Kippur, 2000; Eden, 2001; Kedma, 2002 and trilogy of borders (Promised Land, 2004; Free Zone, 2005; Disengagement, 2007).
He then devotes a diptych to his parents, with the first film Carmel (2009), which is an intimate reflection on the correspondence of his mother Efratia (Gallimard, 2010). The second film Lullaby to my Father (2012) traces the journey of his father Munio Gitai Weinraub from
his childhood in Silesia, his Bauhaus studies with Mies van der Rohe and Hannes Meyer at the time of the rise to power and the conquest of power by the Nazis.
Gitai conducts a tireless research on aesthetic means, which is anchored in the experimental uses of the camera from adolescence, and goes through the assertive stylisation of early fiction under the claimed influence of Bertolt Brecht and expressionism, as well as through the search for filming devices adapted to particular projects. One of the stylistic figures most willingly employed by Amos Gitai is the sequence shot, the long duration of the recording being used for multiple purposes never limited to visual seduction, but always in search of meaningful effects. A committed artist, Gitai is also the inventor of unexpected dramatic structures, such as the asymmetrical doubling of Berlin-Jerusalem, the spatial blocks of Alila or the temporal blocks of One day you'll understand (2008), the destabilizing fluidity of the Promised Land, the critical superimpositions of The Arena of Murder and Free Zone, to the abruptly broken-in-two narrative of Disengagement (2007) or the single 81-minute sequence shot of Ana Arabia (2013), which depicts a moment in the life of a small community of Jewish and Arab outsiders on the outskirts of Jaffa.
In 2015, his film The Last Day of Yitzhak Rabin was presented in competition at the Venice Mostra and then at the Toronto International Film Festival. Twenty years after the assassination of the Israeli Prime Minister by a religious right-wing student on November 4, 1995, in Tel Aviv, Gitai looks
back on this traumatic event. Placing the assassination in its political and social context, Yitzhak Rabin's Last Day mixes fictional reconstructions and archival footage in this political thriller that is also about the growing crisis in contemporary Israeli society.
In 2016, Gitai continues the work he began with his film The Last Day of Yitzhak Rabin in an installation presented first at the Maxxi Museum, Rome, under the title 'Chronicle of an Assassination Foretold', then at the BOZAR Museum in Brussels and at the Fondation Lambert in Avignon (spring/summer 2016). Ceramics, photographs, video installations and archival documents take up space to offer a new reading of the events leading up to Yitzhak Rabin's assassination.
This latest exhibition echoes a theatrical performance given in the Cour d'Honneur of the Palais des Papes on 10 July 2016 for the Avignon Festival. Based on the memories of Leah Rabin, Yitzhak Rabin's wife, Amos Gitai imagines an "able with four female protagonists, two actresses, Hiam Abbass and Sarah Adler, and two musicians, Edna Stern (piano) and Sonia Wieder-Atherton (cello), four voices associated in a recitative mode, between lament and lullaby, which go back in time.
Also in 2016, a 540-page book dedicated to Amos Gitai is published by the Enrico Navarra Gallery and the Sébastien Moreu publishing house. The book includes more than 250 reproductions from films, location scouting and filming, as well as family archives, Amos Gitai's creations and interviews with Hans-Ulrich Obrist, Arthur Miller, Hou Hanru, Guy Amsellem, Annette Michelson, Richard Ingersoll, Élisabeth Lebovici and Stephan Levine.
35 years after Field Diary (1982), Gitai returns to the West Bank with West of the Jordan River (2017), which describes the relationship between Israelis and Palestinians today. A tribute to those, "civilian or military, known or anonymous, who, in Israel, have not renounced reconciliation with the Palestinians", the film is presented in the Directors' Fortnight13 at the Cannes Film Festival.
2018 is a year of intense activity for the director, invited by the Venice Mostra to present two films in the competition of the Venice Film Festival. A Tramway in Jerusalem (2019) is a themed comedy that humorously observes moments of daily life on the Jerusalem tramway. The film stars 36 Israeli actors Yaël Abecassis, Hanna Laszlo, singer Noa Achinoam Nini, Palestinians and Europeans Mathieu Amalric and Pippo Delbono. On this tramway line that connects several neighborhoods in Jerusalem, from east to west, recording their variety and differences, this comedy humorously looks at moments in the daily lives of a few passengers, brief encounters that reveal a whole mosaic of human beings. It is these fragments of stories and memories that make up the contemporary reality of Israel.
The film is preceded by Amos Gitai's A Letter to a Friend in Gaza (2018, 34 mins, in Hebrew & Arabic), which responds to the current crisis between Israel and Gaza. Tao Palestinians and two Israelis read texts inspired by Mahmoud Darwish, Yizhar Smilansky, Emile Habibi and Amira Hass, as an homage to a famous letter written by Albert Camus in 1943, which gives its title to the film.
The work of the filmmaker Amos Gitai has nearly 90 titles, made over approximately 40 years. To these must be added video installations, theatre productions and books. His work is indeed varied, but this diversity is extremely coherent. Over the years, travels, struggles, exile, encounters, Amos Gitaï articulates and re-articulates works which, in their shimmering, never cease to respond to and echo each other. He is now one of the most respected filmmakers on the international scene, and continues to explore new narrative and stylistic avenues, always in relation to contemporary reality, even when the narrative takes a detour into the historical or mythological past.
Novel adaptations
Gitai created several novel adaptations. Devarim is an adaptation of Yaakov Shabtai's Past Continuous. One day you'll understand ("Plus tard tu comprendras", 2008) is based on an autobiographical book by Jérôme Clément, president of the Arte television channel and one of the leading figures of French culture, and tells the story of a French writer tracing the story of his Jewish mother (Jeanne Moreau) and her family during World War II. Roses à crédit (2010) is an adaptation of the novel by Elsa Triolet and takes a look at the materialist, post-war world of the French lower middle-class. The film was shot entirely in France.
In 2014 he directs the film Tsili , inspired by the novel by Aharon Appelfeld, and tells the story of the wandering of its heroine submerged in the nightmare of the Second World War. Tsili, a young Jewish woman, gathers all the forces of intuition and vitality to survive in this desperate universe.
starring Sarah Adler, Meshi Olinski, and Lea Koenig.
adapted from a novel by Aharon Appelfeld, he returns to the Second World War and the Holocaust:
Exhibitions and publications
Cinema installations, exhibitions and book publications are integral to Gitai's work. He has exhibited and published in leading institutions in Israel and around the world such as the Israel Museum in Jerusalem, the Tel Aviv Museum, the Pompidou Center in Paris, MoMa in New York, the Reina Sofia Museum in Madrid and more. Many of his exhibitions were dedicated to his parents Munio and Efratia, such as the 1996 retrospective initiated at the Pompidou Center, which deals with the work of his father (the only retrospective devoted to an Israeli architect in the Paris Museum) or the publication of his mother's letters - Efratia Gitai's letters in 1994.
In 2011, he presents the exhibition Traces at the Palais de Tokyo in Paris, the Bauhaus Museum in Dessau, Germany and the Art Museum at Kibbutz Ein Harod in Israel. In Traces, Gitai creates an audio-visual stroll with great intimacy through images taken from fourteen of his films. Images and sounds, side by side, of destroyed walls in World War II, in them stolen property of the Jews living there, or of a crowd chanting "Mussolini" during Mussolini's granddaughter's election campaign in a video taken in Auschwitz. From the violent reality of the Middle East to the soft waltz of a veteran couple on the evening of their arrest. The journey Gitai offered is challenging and shaky, evoking the violence of its history and echoes, and creating a personal reflection on the xenophobia that can change fates. In doing so, Gitai builds the sensitive conditions for sharing the memory of places and of events.
In the same year, Gitai inaugurated the Museum of Architecture Munio Gitai Weinrov in his father's old offices in Haifa.
After directing his film Rabin, The Last Day in 2015, Gitai continues investigating Rabin's murder in presenting the exhibition Yitzhak Rabin : Chronicle of an Assassination, presented at the MAXXI Museum in Rome, Italy, at the BOZAR Museum in Brussels, Belgium and at the Fondation Lambert in Avignon, France. Through working with ceramics, photographs and video installations, Gitai enables a new reading of the events leading up to the murder.
He also presents the exhibition Before and After, featuring two experimental films he filmed on his Super 8 camera during the 1973 Yom Kippur War. The film Before and After and Black and White are exhibited along with still photographs. In Before and after, Gitai returns to his traumatic injury during a helicopter crash from which he managed to escape. The Super 8 camera shows the military jacket he wore at the time of the accident. It becomes the film's central figure. Along with the series of photographs presented, Gitai continues his post-mortem decoding work of the moment the experience becomes a personal memory. It is a process in which the subject disappears; What appears in its place is extreme compression of thick, grainy material, which translates to the stigma of the time and makes a picturesque feeling appear. What artistic situations can give a proper description of that event, to that trauma? What traces remain in memory - a few weeks after, or forty years after? The artist's journey is mutually and simultaneously fed by both film and still photography.
In July 2016, a 540-page book on Amos Gitai was published by Galerie Enrico Navarra and Sébastien Moreu. The book includes more than 250 reproductions from movies and research, but also family archives and creations by Amos Gitai and 7 conversations between Gitai and : Hans-Ulrich Obrist, Guy Amsellem, Arthur Miller, Hou Hanru, Annette Michelson, Richard Ingersoll, Elisabeth Lebovici & Stephan Levine), two poems (Mount Carmel and Lullaby to My Father) and a poetic essay on the Golem.
Theatrical performances
In Gitai's body of work can also be found stage works. Like his cinematic interest, also in his theatrical pieces, Gitai focuses on the tension between the personal and the historical, between the local and the universal. Many of his works have been presented at leading institutions around the world, such as the Avignon Festival in France, the Paris Philharmonic and the Lincoln Center in New York. Among his works, Metamorphosis of a Melody that opened the Venice Biennale in 1993 and The War of the Sons of Light Against the Sons of Darkness with Jeanne Moreau that was presented in Festival d'Avignon in 2009 and in Odeon Theater in Paris in 2010.
At the same year he created the piece Efratia Gitai: Letters, which premiered at the Odeon Theater in Paris in 2010. Similar to The War of the Sons of Light Against the Sons of Darkness, Gitai worked with Jeanne Moreau who was reading his mother's letters.
Another piece is Yitzhak Rabin : Chronicle of an Assassination, created following the movie Rabin, The Last Day (2015) and premiered at the 2016 Avignon Festival. In this work, Gitai draws on the memories of Leah Rabin, the prime minister's wife, and produces like a parable liberated from all formalism. Four female heroines, four voices reciting the text that becomes a text between lament and lullaby, recreate the unprecedented course of history and violence in which the nationalist forces opposed the peace project led by Yitzhak Rabin, by defection and incitement. Four voices taken, as if "in an echo chamber," between documentary imagery and extracts from classical literature - the same vivid memory that always accompanied the filmmaker and director in his understanding of Israeli state and society.
In 2019, the stage version of A Letter to a Friend in Gaza premiered at the Spoleto Festival in the United States. The piece is of a captivating, demanding, challenging and lyrical multimedia. At a time when art and entertainment are often synonymous, the play restores confidence in the theater's ability to ask difficult political and cultural questions. The audience cannot remain passive, and takes on the difficult task of understanding the theatrical experience in the face of his thoughts, perceptions and opinions regarding the Israeli-Palestinian conflict. Instead of proposing theory or solution, the play serves as a powerful trigger for much-needed political imagination. A Letter to a Friend in Gaza was originally a 34-minute film screened in 2018 at the Venice Festival. It was Nigel Redon, the director of the Spoleto Festival, who suggested Gitai to work on a stage version for the festival. His film and stage work share texts and actors, yet, paradoxically, the structure and feel of the film seem more theatrical, while the open horizon and stratified composition of the half-hour theatrical version give the impression of cinema.
Teachings and conferences
Amos Gitai often teaches and attends conferences around the world. In 2017, he was a guest professor at University of California, Berkeley, where he studied in his youth. His lectures focused on his documentary and fictional work. Through the screening of several films, the audience was able to dive into Israel's political and social issues. As a skilled architect, Gitai has a unique way of understanding and representing a human experience through time and space, and through the films House, City and Border, Gitai managed to present a complex narrative and image of Israel in the context of a larger global discourse.
In 2018, after being elected as chair in Artistic Creation at the Collége de France in Paris, Gitai was invited to give a series of 12 lessons and lectures on his cinematic work through an ethical, political and artistic lens, called 'Crossing the Borders'. His lessons were: The documentary as metaphor; "I don't politicise my films, they have politicised me"; Depicting War; Space and Structure, Cinema and Architecture; Cinema and History; Is Cinema More Authoritarian Than Literature?; Collective Mythologies and Memories; Chronicle of an Assassination.
In 2019, he was a guest professor at Columbia University in New York.
Favourite films
In 2022, Gitai participated in the Sight & Sound film polls of that year. It is held every ten years to select the greatest films of all time, by asking contemporary directors to select ten films of their choice.
Gitai selections were:
Germania anno zero (1948)
Touch of Evil (1958)
Stalker (1979)
Ivan the Terrible (1944)
La Caduta degli Dei (1969)
The Naked Kiss (1964)
Le Mépris (1963)
Berlin Alexanderplatz (1931)
Some Came Running (1958)
L'Argent (1983)
Filmography
Fiction
Laila in Haifa (2020)
A Tramway in Jerusalem (2018)
Rabin, the Last Day (2015)
Tsili (2014)
Ana Arabia (2013)
Lullaby to My Father (2011)
(2010)
(2010)
(2009)
One Day You Will Understand (Plus tard tu compremderas (2008)
Disengagement (2007)
Free Zone (2005)
Promised Land (2004)
Alila (2003)
Kedma (2002)
(2001)
Kippur (2000)
Kadosh (1999)
(1998)
(1995)
Golem The Petrified Garden (1993)
Golem, the Spirit of Exile (1991)
Birth of a Golem (1990)
Berlin-Jerusalem (1989)
Esther (1985)
Documentaries
Letter to A Friend in Gaza (2019)
West of the Jordan River (2017)
Reflections on Architecture (2016)
Architecture in Israel: Conversations with Amos Gitai (2013)
The War of the Sons of Light Against the Sons of Darkness (2009)
New from Home / News from House (2005)
Wadi Grand Canyon 2001 (2001)
Zion, Auto-Emancipation (1998)
(1998)
Orange (Tapuz) (1998)
Kippur, War Memories (1997)
War and Peace in Vesoul (1997)
The Arena of murder (1996)
Munio Weinraub Gitai Architect (1909-1970) (1996)
Milim (1996)
Metamorphosis of a Melody (1996)
Queen Mary '87 (1994)
Give Peace a Chance (1994)
Part 1: In the Land of Oranges
Part 2: Political Route
Part 3: Writers Speak
Part 4: Theater For Life
In the Name of the Duce (1994)
In the Valley of the Wupper (1993)
Wadi, Ten Years After (1991)
Brand New Day (1987)
Reagan: Image for Sale (1984)
Bangkok-Bahrein/Labour for sale (1984)
Pineapple (Ananas) (1983)
Field Diary (Yoman sade) (1982)
Wadi (1981)
American Mythologies (1981)
In Search of Identity (1980)
House (Bayit) (1980)
Wadi Salib Riots (1979)
Short films
Words With Gods (2014)
The Book of Amos (2012)
The Dybbuk of Haifa (2007)
September 11 - 11'09'01' (2002)
Surgeon General's Warning (2001)
Reagan: Image for Sale (1984)
American Mythologies (1981)
In Search of Identity (1980)
Cultural Celebrities (1979)
Jimmy Carter's visit in Israel (1979)
Wadi Rushmia (1978)
Architectura (1978)
Under the Water (1977)
Singing in Afula (1977)
Public House (1977)
Political Myths (1977)
Hagvul (The Border) (1977)
Dimitri (1977)
Charisma (1975)
My Mother at the Seashore (1975)
Lucy (1974)
Blowing Glass (1974)
The International Orthodontist Congress (1974)
Pictures in the Exhibition (1974)
Memphis U.S.A (part 2) (1974)
Memphis U.S.A. (Faces) (1974)
Water (1974)
Ahare (Images After War) (1974)
Images of War 1, 2, 3 (1974)
Arlington U.S.A (1974)
Shosh (1973)
Talking About Ecology (1973)
Fire Eats Paper, Paper Eats Fire (1973)
Memories of a comrade of the 2nd Aliya (1972)
Windows in David Pinsky no.5 (1972)
Souk Women's dialogues (1972)
Waves (Galim) (1972)
Geography according to Modern man and His Control on the Environnement (1972)
Textures (1972)
Black Is White (1972)
Details of Architecture (1972)
Arts and Crafts and Technology (1972)
Exhibitions/Installations
Promised Lands, Palazzo Vecchio, Sala d'Arme, Florence, Italy, 2022
Champs de mémoire, Théâtre de la Ville, Paris, France, 2019
The Law of the Pursuer, SAVVY Contemporary, Berlin, Allemagne, 2017
Yitzhak Rabin: Chronicle of an Assassination, MAXXI, Rome, Italie, 2016; Bozar-Centre for Fine Arts, Bruxelles, Belgique, 2016; Collection Lambert, Avignon, France, 2016; Galerie 75 Faubourg, Paris, France, 2017
Amos Gitai Before and After, Galerie Thaddaeus Ropac, Salzbourg, Villa Kast, Autriche, 2015
Amos Gitai Architecte de la mémoire, Cinémathèque française, Paris, France, 2014; Musée de l’Élysée, Lausanne, Suisse, 2015; Cinéma Galeries, Bruxelles, Belgique, 2015
Amos Gitai Strade | Ways Talking to Gabriele – Carpet – Lullaby to my Father, Palazzo Reale, Salle des Cariatides, Milan, Italie, 2014–15
Amos Gitai Army Days Horizontal. Army Days Vertical, Galerie Thaddeus Ropac, Espace de Pantin, France, 2014
Las biografías de Amos Gitai, Museo Nacional Centro de Arte Reina Sofía, Madrid, Spain, 2014
Before and After, Galerie Thaddeus Ropac, Espace de Pantin, France, 2014; Villa Kast, Salzbourg, Austria 2015
Disaster – The End of Days, Galerie Thaddeus Ropac, Espace de Pantin, France, 2014
Amos Gitai Architecture de la mémoire, Église des Frères-Prêcheurs, Rencontres photographiques de Arles, France, 2012
Amos Gitai Architetture della memoria, Mole Antonelliana, Museo Nazionale del Cinema, Turin, Italie, 2011- 2012
Traces. Lullaby to My Father, Museum of Art, Ein Harod, Israel, 2011; Meisterhaus Vassily Kandinsky/Paul Klee – Dining room, Bauhaus, Dessau, Germany, 2011
Traces. Efratia's Correspondence, Museum of Art, Ein Harod, Israel, 2011
Traces - Munio Gitai Weinraub, Museum of Art, Ein Harod, Israel, 2011
Amos Gitai Traces, Palais de Tokyo, Paris, France, 2011
Lullaby for my father, a video presentation in Kibbutz Kfar Masaryk, Israel, 2010
Amos Gitai Citations, Biennale Evento, Base sous-marine, Bordeaux, France, 2009
Munio Weinraub, Amos Gitai Architektur und Film in Israel, Pinakothek der Moderne-Architektur Museum, Munich, Germany, 2009; Tel Aviv Museum of Art, Israel, 2009
Amos Gitai: Non-Fiction, MoMA, New York, 2008
Amos Gitai News From House News From Home, Kunst-Werke, Berlin, Germany, 2006; Centre chorégraphique national, Montpellier, France, 2006
In memory of Munio Gitai Weinraub, Centre Pompidou, Paris, France, 2006
Amos Gitai Parcours, Centre Pompidou, Paris, France, 2003
Public Housing, Museum of Art, Ein Harod, Israel; Herzliya museum of contemporary art, Herzliya, Israel; Saitama Museum of Modern Art, Saitama, Japan, 2000; Jerusalem Museum, Israel, 1994
Opening Chen Zhen, Helena Rubinstein Pavillon, Tel Aviv, Israel, 1998
Recycling Exhibition, Israel Museum, Jerusalem, Israel, 1975
Performances
Yitzhak Rabin: Chronicle of an Assassination, Theatre de la Ville, Paris, France, 2021; Coronet Theater of London, UK, 2021; Philharmonie de Paris, France, 2018; John Anson Ford Theater, Los Angeles, USA, 2017; Lincoln Center Festival, New York, USA, 2017; Festival d'Avignon, France, 2016
Interior Exiles, Theatre de la Ville, Paris, France, 2020
Otello, Teatro di San Carlo, Naples, Italy, 2016
A Reading of Efratia Gitai Correspondence, Odéon-Théâtre de l’Europe, Paris, France, 2010;Coronet Theater of London, UK, 2019; MoMa, New York, USA, 2020
Letter to a Friend in Gaza, Coronet Theater of London, UK, 2019; Theatre de la Ville, Paris, France, 2019; Emmet Robinson Theater, Spoleto Festival, Charleston, USA, 2019
The War of the Sons of Light Against the Sons of Darkness, Odéon-Théâtre de l’Europe, Paris, France 2010; Festival d'Avignon, France, 2009; Fortress Rumeli Hisari, Istanbul, Turkey, 2009; Venice Biennale, Italy, 1993
Metamorphosis of a Melody, Venice Biennale, 1993; Gibellina, Sicily, Italy, 1992
Books
Amos Gitai / Yitzhak Rabin Chroniques d'un assassinat, Antoine de Baeque, Patrick Boucheron, Ouzi Elyada, Amos Gitai, Marie-José Sanselme, Éditions Gallimard / Bibliothèque nationale de France, Paris, 2021
Efratia Gitai Correspondence, Rivka Markovizky (ed.), CPL Editions (Memoirs & Biographies) Centro Primo Levi, New York, 2018 – ; (In Hebrew) Yediot Aharonot, Tel-Aviv, 2011
Efratia Gitai, (1929–1994), Rivka Markovizky (dir.), Éditions Gallimard, Paris, 2010
Genèses, Jean-Michel Frodon, Amos Gitai, Marie-José Sanselme, Éditions Gallimard, Paris, 2009
Munio Weinraub / Amos Gitai – Architektur und Film in Israel, Architektur Museum - Pinakothek der Moderne, Munich, 2008
News from Home, Amos Gitai, Walther König, Köln, 2006
Monte Carmelo, Amos Gitai, Bompiani, Milano, 2004
Mont Carmel, Amos Gitai, Éditions Gallimard, 2003
Parcours, Amos Gitai, Centre Pompidou, Paris, 2003
Kippour (scénario), Amos Gitai, Marie-José Sanselme, Arte Editions / 00h00.com, Paris, 2003
The War of the Sons of Light Against the Sons of Darkness, Amos Gitai, Mazzotta, Milano, 1993
Books on Amos Gitai's work
Amos Gitai, Galerie Enrico Navarra, éditions Sébastien Moreu, Paris, 2016
Amos Gitai architecte de la mémoire, Serge Toubiana, Paul Willemen, Jean-Michel Frodon, Hans Ulrich Obrist, Annette Michelson, Marie-José Sanselme, Mathieu Orléan, Éditions Gallimard/Cinémathèque française, Paris, 2014
Genèses, Jean-Michel Frodon, Amos Gitai, Marie-José Sanselme, Éditions Gallimard, Paris, 2009.
Cinema di Amos Gitai: Frontiere e territori (Il), Serge Toubiana, Bruno Mondadori, Torino, 2006
Amos Gitai: News from Home, Walther König, Köln, 2006
The Cinema of Amos Gitai,Serge Toubiana, Baptiste Piégay, Lincoln Center / Cahiers du cinéma, Paris, 2005
Amos Gitai, Serge Toubiana, Mostra internacional de cinema / Cosac Naify, São Paulo, 2004
Exilios y territories, el cine de Amos Gitai, Serge Toubiana, Baptiste Piégay, Semana Internacional de Cine, Valladolid, 2004
Exils et territoires: le cinéma d'Amos Gitai, Serge Toubiana, Baptiste Piégay, Arte Editions / Cahiers du cinéma, Paris, 2003
Amos Gitai, Cinema, Politics, Aesthetics, Irma Klein, KM, Tel Aviv, 2003
Amos Gitai, Cinema forza di pace, Edited by Daniela Turco, Le Mani, Genova, 2002
Munio Gitai Weinraub, Bauhaus architect in Israel, Richard Ingersoll, Electa, Milano, 1994
The Films of Amos Gitai, a Montage, Edited by Paul Willemen, BFI Publishing, London, 1993
Amos Gitai, Edited by Alberto Farassino, Mostra Internazionale Riminicinema, Rimini, 1989
References
Amos Gitai: Exile and Atonement, Ray Privett, Cinema Purgatorio, 2008.
External links
Official website
Amos Gitai, Hollywood.com
1950 births
Living people
Mass media people from Haifa
Israeli filmmakers
French film directors
Israeli male screenwriters
Israeli architects
Israeli Jews
Israeli film directors
Roberto Rossellini Prize recipients
Israeli people of the Yom Kippur War
Hebrew Reali School alumni
UC Berkeley College of Environmental Design alumni |
4375912 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curtiss%20P-40%20Warhawk%20variants | Curtiss P-40 Warhawk variants | The Curtiss P-40 Warhawk was a WWII fighter aircraft that was developed from the P-36 Hawk, via the P-37. Many variants were built, some in large numbers, under names including the Hawk, Tomahawk and Kittyhawk.
Allison-engined Model 75
XP-37
In early 1937, after realizing the Hawk 75 was inferior to more modern European designs, the USAAC ordered one P-36 to be modified with an Allison V-1710 inline engine. The prototype Hawk was fitted with a turbo-supercharged 1,150 hp (860 kW) Allison V-1710-11 engine as the XP-37 (company designation Model 75I). The cockpit was moved back towards the tail to make room for the massive supercharger, and the engine was cooled by two radiators on either side of the nose. Armament was one .30 M1919 Browning MG and one .50 M2 Browning MG mounted in the nose. The XP-37 was plagued with supercharger and visibility problems.
YP-37
A further 13 Model 75Is were ordered in 1938 under the designation YP-37. These differed from the XP-37 in having a V-1710-21 with a more reliable supercharger and an extended nose. The project was cancelled after continued supercharger and visibility problems.
XP-40
In 1937, the 10th P-36A was fitted with a 1,150 hp (860 kW) V-1710-19. Unlike the Model 75I, the resulting XP-40 (Model 75P) did not have a turbo-supercharger, thus the cockpit was not moved back, and the radiator was moved to the ventral position. Later the landing gear was redesigned and the radiator was moved under the nose. Armament was two .50 M2 Brownings mounted in the nose.
The new engine conferred a 50 mph speed advantage over the already popular Hawk, and export orders from England and France came in quickly. In April 1939, the United States Army Air Corps also put in a domestic order for 524 Model 75Ps, which was the largest single order for a US fighter aircraft at the time.
In August 1943, the XP-40 was fitted with rubber-tracked main landing gear. Testing began in 1944, revealing problems with snow and ice being packed between the wheels and track belt, stretching the latter.
Model 81
P-40
The production P-40 (Model 81A) were nearly identical to the XP-40, but was built with a 1,040 hp (780 kW) V-1710-33s and one .30 M1919 Browning in each wing. The company designation was changed to Model 81 due to the extensive changes from the standard Model 75. France, who was a large operator of the P-36, was interested in this fighter and ordered 140 aircraft as Hawk 81A-1s. However, following the 1940 French Armistice the Royal Air Force acquired these aircraft as Tomahawk Mk.Is. This variant was not considered combat-ready, as they lacked heavy armament and armor, but as there was a shortage of decent fighter aircraft after the Battle of Britain, the RAF pressed these into service for use in North Africa anyway.
Sub-variants and modifications
P-40, 524 aircraft ordered, only 200 produced.
P-40A, one P-40 that was fitted with cameras for photo reconnaissance missions.
P-40G, 44 P-40s that were fitted with four-gun P-40B/C wings, the first of which being unofficially designated XP-40G.
Hawk 81A-1, export version, 140 aircraft ordered by the Armée de L'air, but were delivered to the Royal Air Force as Tomahawk Mk.Is. A number of minor changes were made, including replacing the .30 Browning MGs in the wings with .303 Browning MGs, which was done on most Tomahawk marks.
P-40B
Of the remaining 324 aircraft of the initial order, 131 were built as P-40Bs.
Though strongly built, the first P-40 variant was poorly protected and lacked armor and self sealing tanks. This was partly rectified with the P-40B, which had additional armor behind the cockpit, but fuel system and control line vulnerability remained a problem to some extent with all Tomahawk types. The P-40B also had an additional .30 MG in each wing.
Sub-variants
P-40B, 131 aircraft built.
Hawk 81A-2, export version, 110 aircraft produced for the RAF as Tomahawk Mk.IIs and Mk.IIAs, the latter equipped with .303 Brownings.
P-40C
The last 193 aircraft of the original P-40 order were completed as P-40Cs.
In an attempt to further rectify the problem of poor protection, the P-40C was given self-sealing fuel tanks. The obsolete SCR-283 radio of the earlier P-40s was replaced with an SCR-274N and provisions were made for a 52 gal drop tank. The latter change increased the combat radius dramatically, and was a standard feature in all subsequent P-40s.
Sub-variants and modifications
P-40C, 193 aircraft built.
Hawk 81A-3, export version, 930 aircraft built for the RAF as Tomahawk Mk.IIBs, many of which were diverted to other allies.
Hawk 81A-2/3, export version, 100 Hawk 81A-3 aircraft were diverted from an RAF order and delivered to the Nationalist Chinese Air Force for use by the American Volunteer Group. Although they were officially Hawk 81A-3s, they lacked the provisions for a drop tank.
Model 87
P-40D
Soon after P-40 production started, Curtiss began development of its intended successor, the XP-46. This aircraft was based on the P-40, but was an almost entirely different aircraft. While retaining the rear fuselage of the P-40, the XP-46 had a new wing with wider track landing gear. The nose was redesigned too, as it housed a new 1,150 hp (860 kW) V-1710-39 engine. This "F-series" engine differed from the "C-series" engine of the Model 81 in having a more compact external spur gear-type reduction gear box. The production version of the P-46 was to have four .30 MGs in each wing and two .50 MGs in the nose for a total of ten guns. This would have been the heaviest armament for a US fighter at the time. Both the USAAF and RAF placed orders for this aircraft, with the latter naming it "Kittyhawk".
Due to delays in the P-46 program, the USAAF asked Curtiss to prioritize development of an improved P-40. Curtiss did so, and reworked the P-40 to accommodate the V-1710-39 of the XP-46. The resulting P-40D (Model 87A) had a shorter nose with a larger radiator, four .50 Brownings in place of the .30 units, a revised windscreen, and provisions for two 20 mm cannons (one in each wing, never used). The nose guns were deleted as there wasn't room for them in the final design. Upon testing both the P-40D and XP-46 prototypes, the USAAF found that the XP-46 offered no significant improvement over the P-40C, and was inferior to the P-40D. Both the USAAF and RAF cancelled their orders for the P-46 and the name "Kittyhawk" was given to the P-40D.
Sub-variants
P-40D, 2 aircraft built for testing purposes, both were later modified into the prototypes of subsequent variants.
P-40D-1, 21 aircraft built for service with the USAAF.
Hawk 87A-1, export version, 560 were built for the RAF as Kittyhawk Mk.Is. The first 20 of these aircraft were built with the standard four guns, but the rest had six, making them almost identical to the later Mk.IA. Some were diverted to other allies.
P-40E
Starting with the 24th Model 87, an additional .50 MG was added to each wing and the carburetor intake was moved forward 6 in. Although these changes were relatively minor, this new variant was given the designation P-40E.
When the P-40D and E went into service, several problems were discovered. When maneuvering in high G turns the guns would often jam due to the way the ammunition was stored. Another problem was that engine and trim management were both somewhat complex and taxing with earlier P-40's required strong rudder pressure to offset engine torque and frequent trim adjustments were needed during rapid speed changes. Both these problems were remedied sometime late in production by enlarging the vertical stabilizer and changing how the ammunition was stored.
P-40's were more a powerful, faster-flying aircraft than the primary and advanced trainers most pre-war and early-war Allied pilots were familiar with, and transition training was often inadequate or neglected altogether in the early years of the war. The landing gear was also more narrow and not as strong as in fixed gear aircraft (like the Gladiator) or on some other retractable gear fighters such as the Hurricane. As a result, novice pilots had a hard time adjusting to the new fighter and there were many accidents on landing and takeoff in the early years of the war, with both Tomahawk and Kittyhawk types. Therefore, two P-40Es were fitted with a second seat to be used as trainer aircraft under the designation P-40ES. With these aircraft and improved training techniques these problems subsided.
Sub-variants and modifications
Prototype P-40E, the second P-40D fitted with a six-gun wing.
P-40E, 820 aircraft built. Somewhere along the production line flared "fishtail" exhaust stacks appeared, and an unknown number of late production aircraft had larger vertical stabilizers.
P-40ES, two aircraft modified into two-seat trainer aircraft.
P-40EF, a number of P-40Es and Ks modified by the Soviet Air Force as two seat photo reconnaissance aircraft. The "EF" designation was unofficially given to the aircraft by the Soviets, with the F standing for "Foto", the Russian word for photo.
Hawk 87A-2, export version, the RAF received 1,500 Kittyhawk Mk.IAs under Lend-Lease. These were given the USAAF designation P-40E-1. Some were diverted to other allies.
P-40J
The main problem with the P-40 was its effective altitude ceiling of about 12,000 feet. Above that altitude the single-stage Allison V-1710 engine started to perform poorly. As a result, unless combat was taking place at low altitude, P-40 pilots often faced attack from above in the opening stages of an interception, a chronic problem which cost many lives. In response, Curtiss proposed the P-40J, which was basically a P-40E with a turbo-supercharged V-1710. Although a good idea on paper, there were many problems with fitting a turbo-supercharged V-1710 into the P-40. One of the main problems was the size of the turbocharger, which would not fit in the standard P-40 airframe. On top of that the intended engines were reserved for P-38 production. In May 1942 the project was cancelled without anything being built.
P-40F
Another solution to the high altitude performance problem was to fit the P-40 with a supercharged Rolls-Royce Merlin engine. This idea came from the British, as they noticed that their Allison powered Kittyhawks and Mustangs had poor performance at high altitudes, while their own Merlin powered Hurricanes and Spitfires did not have the same problems. Curtiss fitted the second P-40D with a 1,300 hp (969 kW) Merlin 28. Production aircraft had the American-made 1,390 hp (1,040 kW) Packard V-1650-1 Merlin. The resulting P-40F (Model 87B) was the first variant to carry the "Warhawk" name.
Along with the added power of the Merlin engine came a decrease in directional stability. Curtiss attempted to fix this by fitting a dorsal fillet to the tail of a single P-40F; however, this was not adopted into production. Starting with the P-40F-5, the tail was lengthened by about 20 in.
Although the P-40F was superior to the Allison powered P-40s, there was a shortage of Merlin engines due to the vast number of aircraft that used them. Parts for these engines were becoming scarce, and maintenance became an issue. As a result, at least 70 P-40Fs were re-engined with V-1710-81s of 1,360 hp. These aircraft became known as P-40R-1s.
Sub-variants and modifications
XP-40F, the second P-40D fitted with a 1,300 hp Rolls-Royce Merlin 28.
P-40F, (also P-40F-1) the first production batch of 699 aircraft with American-made Packard V-1650-1 engines.
P-40F-5, 123 aircraft with an extended fuselage to counteract extra torque from the Merlin.
P-40F-10, 177 aircraft with manually-operated cowl flaps replacing the electronic units of the earlier variants.
P-40F-15, 200 aircraft with winterized equipment.
P-40F-20, 112 aircraft with a revised cockpit oxygen flow system.
YP-40F, the third production P-40F used for streamlining tests.
P-40R-1, at least 70 P-40Fs that were fitted with V-1710-81 engines due to the shortage of Merlins.
Hawk 87B-2, export version, 150 built for the RAF under Lend-Lease as Kittyhawk Mk.IIs.
P-40K
The P-40K was intended to be the last P-40 production variant before replacement by the P-60, and only 600 were ordered by the USAAF to supply to China. However, with the cancellation of the P-60 the attack on Pearl Harbor led to this order being increased to 1,300 aircraft. A continuation of the Allison-powered Warhawk, the K was similar to the P-40E, but was powered by a 1,325 hp V-1710-73. It also featured improved machine gun ammunition storage reducing gun stoppages. These were the heaviest P-40 variants, but the extra horsepower on the P-40K gave it good performance particularly at low altitude (noticeably better than the P-40E).
As with the P-40F, the increase in power led to decreased directional stability, but Curtiss predicted this and incorporated an enlarged vertical stabilizer to early P-40Ks. On the K-10 sub-variant onward, this was replaced with the lengthened tail of the P-40F-5. This feature was standard on all subsequent Warhawks.
Sub-variants and modifications
P-40K-1, the first 600 aircraft ordered for Lend-Lease to China but were taken over by the USAAF and RAF after Pearl Harbor.
P-40K-5, 200 aircraft with rotary valve cooling.
P-40K-10, 335 aircraft with the long tail of the P-40F-5.
P-40K-15, 165 aircraft with winterized equipment.
TP-40K, one P-40K modified as a two-seat trainer.
XP-40K, one P-40K-10 with a V-1710-43 used to test wing root radiators.
Kittyhawk Mk.III, 351 P-40Ks built for the RAF under Lend-Lease as Kittyhawk Mk.IIIs, about half which were diverted to other allies.
P-40L
A continued development of the Merlin powered Warhawk, the P-40L was a lightened version of the P-40F. Many weight saving changes were made to the aircraft, including removal of armor plating and reduction of rounds per gun. On the P-40L-5, weight was further reduced by removing two of the guns and reducing the internal fuel capacity from 157 gal. to 120 gal.
As with the P-40F, at least 53 P-40Ls were re-engined with V-1710-81s.
Sub-variants and modifications
P-40L-1, 50 aircraft built similar to the P-40F-5 but with some equipment removed.
P-40L-5, 220 aircraft with two wing guns removed and reduced fuel capacity.
P-40L-10, 148 aircraft with electric aileron trim tabs and revised engine controls.
P-40L-15, 112 aircraft with revised carburetor filters and signal lights.
P-40L-20, 170 aircraft with radio and electrical system changes and provisions for an incendiary grenade.
P-40L-25, 567 aircraft ordered, cancelled and never built.
P-40L-30, 60 aircraft ordered, cancelled and never built.
P-40R-2, at least 53 aircraft re-engined with V-1710-81s.
Hawk 87B-3, export version, 100 built for the RAF as Kittyhawk Mk.IIs, and a further 160 as Kittyhawk Mk.IIIs. Most of these had the three gun wings of the P-40F.
P-40M
Due to the shortage of Merlins, development of the Allison powered Warhawk was again continued. The P-40K airframe was given a 1,360 hp V-1710-81 with a cooling grill forward of the exhaust stubs.
The P-40M was supposed to be a purely export variant of the K, although many ended up in USAAF units. In RAF service the aircraft was named Kittyhawk Mk.III, the same as the P-40K, which can cause some confusion.
Sub-variants and modifications
P-40M-1, the first 60 aircraft.
P-40M-5, 260 aircraft with carburetor air filter and aileron improvements.
P-40M-10, 280 aircraft with changes to the fuel system and undercarriage warning system.
TP-40M, a small number of aircraft converted to two-seat trainers.
Kittyhawk Mk.III, 466 aircraft built for the RAF, RAAF, and RNZAF. Many were diverted to other allies.
P-40N
The P-40N was the most produced variant of the Warhawk, with 5220 aircraft built.
In an attempt to increase performance, Curtiss lightened the P-40M by introducing a lightweight structure, lighter, smaller-diameter undercarriage wheels, removing two of the guns, and installing aluminum radiators and oil coolers. Head armor was also re-introduced. With these changes, the P-40N-1 (Model 87V) was the fastest production Warhawk, reaching a speed of 378 mph below 12,000 feet.
Starting with the P-40N-5 (Model 87W), the canopy was redesigned to give the pilot a better field of vision. This variant also reverted to the six gun wing and one rack was added to each wing, these could carry either bombs or drop tanks. A more powerful V-1710-99 engine was introduced on the N-20, and a further improved V-1710-115 was introduced on the N-40. Curtiss attempted to further improve visibility and fitted one P-40N with a bubble canopy; this feature never made it to production.
Sub-variants and modifications
P-40N-1, the first 400 aircraft with a lighter structure, 4 wing-mounted MGs, smaller diameter undercarriage tires, aluminum radiators and oil coolers, and head armor.
P-40N-5, 1,100 aircraft with a revised cockpit canopy, 6 wing-mounted MGs, and wing racks for bombs or drop tanks.
P-40N-6, P-40N-5s modified in the field with fuselage mounted cameras for reconnaissance.
P-40N-10, 100 winterized aircraft with 4 wing-mounted MGs.
P-40N-15, 377 aircraft with 6 wing mounted MGs, a relocated battery, and larger wing fuel tanks.
P-40N-16, P-40N-15s modified for reconnaissance.
P-40N-20, 1,523 aircraft with a V-1710-99.
P-40N-25, 500 aircraft with a revised instrument panel and non-metal fuel tanks.
P-40N-26, P-40N-25s modified for reconnaissance.
P-40N-30, 500 aircraft with valve and electrical system changes.
P-40N-35, 500 aircraft with system changes and a new radio
P-40N-40, 220 aircraft with a 1,360 hp V-1710-115 engine, metal covered ailerons, improved fuel tanks, new radio and oxygen system, and flame-dampening exhaust stacks. An order for 780 aircraft was cancelled.
TP-40N, 30 various P-40Ns modified or factory built with a second seat for training purposes. Other known designations included RP-40N-26 (TP-40N-25) and P-40N-31 (TP-40N-30).
XP-40N (P-40XN), one P-40N aircraft modified with a bubble canopy. Designation was not official. One source states that this aircraft was converted from a P-40N-25 and later converted into the third XP-40Q. However, another source states that the XP-40N was converted from a P-40K-1 and later converted into the second XP-40Q, but this is unlikely as photographic evidence shows that the XP-40N had the long tail that first appeared on the P-40K-10.
Hawk 87V and 87W, export versions, 586 built for the RAF as Kittyhawk Mk.IVs. Some were diverted to other allies.
P-40P
The P-40P was a planned variant of the P-40N with a Merlin engine. The project was cancelled due to a shortage of Merlins and the aircraft were delivered as P-40Ns.
P-40Q
In 1944, Curtiss attempted to bring the Warhawk to the standards of more modern fighters such as the North American P-51 Mustang. To do so, Curtiss installed a 1,425 hp water injected V-1710-121 into the Hawk 87 airframe. The resulting aircraft became the fastest P-40 model at 422 mph. Even with these modifications, the P-40Q (Model 87X) was still inferior to modern fighters and the project was cancelled.
Sub-variants
XP-40Q-1, originally a P-40K-10, this prototype bore a resemblance to the XP-40K, having similar wing root radiators. Apart from this, the aircraft had a lengthened nose and four-bladed propeller. Armament consisted of four .50 Brownings, these were carried on all XP-40Q prototypes.
XP-40Q-2, initial prototype after extensive modifications. The radiator intake was relocated to its original position under the nose, but was more streamlined. A bubble canopy similar to the one on the XP-40N was installed. The aircraft was originally flown with round wingtips, but these were later clipped by one foot, giving them a square appearance.
XP-40Q-2A, the first P-40K-1 was converted into the second XP-40Q. This aircraft was similar to the XP-40Q-2, but with minor changes. One source states that this aircraft was converted from the XP-40N.
XP-40Q-3, P-40N-25 was modified into the third prototype. This aircraft was almost identical to the XP-40Q-2 with the exception of a more streamlined canopy. One source states that this aircraft was converted from the XP-40N.
P-40Q, proposed production version with either six .50 guns or four 20 mm cannons. Never built.
Twin P-40
A single photo exists of a P-40 with two Merlin engines mounted on top of the wings over the landing gear. The apparent serial number, 41-13456, belongs to a P-40C, however, the canopy is from an early Hawk 87.
References
Notes
Bibliography
P-40 variants
World War II Chinese fighter aircraft
World War II Soviet fighter aircraft |
4376005 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fasting%20and%20abstinence%20in%20the%20Catholic%20Church | Fasting and abstinence in the Catholic Church | The Catholic Church historically observes the disciplines of fasting and abstinence at various times each year. For Catholics, fasting is the reduction of one's intake of food, while abstinence refers to refraining from something that is good, and not inherently sinful, such as meat. The Catholic Church teaches that all people are obliged by God to perform some penance for their sins, and that these acts of penance are both personal and corporeal. Bodily fasting is meaningless unless it is joined with a spiritual avoidance of sin. Basil of Caesarea gives the following exhortation regarding fasting:
Canon law in force
Latin Church
Contemporary canonical legislation for Catholics of the Latin Church sui juris (who comprise most Catholics) is rooted in the 1966 Apostolic Constitution of Pope Paul VI, Paenitemini, and codified in the 1983 Code of Canon Law (in Canons 1249–1253). According to Paenitemini, the 1983 Code of Canon Law and the Constitution Sacrosanctum Concilium, on Ash Wednesday, Good Friday and where possible, throughout Holy Saturday, both abstinence and fasting are required of Catholics who are not exempted for various reasons. The law of fasting binds those who have attained their majority until the beginning of the sixtieth. At that age, a person is automatically excused from the requirement to fast on Ash Wednesday and Good Friday, but, if health permits, may participate in the fast should he choose to do so. According to canon 1252 of the Code of Canon Law, all Latin Church Catholics are required to observe the laws of abstinence starting at the age of 14, and according to that, "even those who by reason of their age are not bound by the law of fasting and abstinence, are taught the true meaning of penance".
Furthermore, all Fridays of the year, except when a Solemnity falls upon the Friday, are bound by the law of abstinence.
Both Paenitemini and the 1983 Code of Canon Law permitted the Episcopal Conferences to propose adjustments of the laws on fasting and abstinence for their home territories. In some countries, the Bishops' Conferences have obtained from Rome the substitution of pious or charitable acts for abstinence from meat on Fridays except Good Friday. Others abstain from eating meat on Lenten Fridays.
The Personal Ordinariates for former Anglicans reconciled to the Catholic Church follow the discipline of the Latin Church (of which they are a part) including the norms established by the Council of Catholic Bishops in whose territories they are erected and of which their Ordinaries are members. Thus, for example, in England, the norm is abstinence on all Fridays of the year. The bishop in the United States has emphasized the statements in the USCCB norms "Friday itself remains a special day of penitential observance throughout the year", and "we give first place to abstinence from flesh meat." The Ember Days have been re-established in the Calendar of the Ordinariates, and as long as a Solemnity does not take precedence, the Ember Fridays in September and Advent are days of obligatory abstinence. Obligatory abstinence on Ember Friday in Lent is included in the universal Lenten discipline, and abstinence on Ember Friday on Whitsuntide is not required, as all days of the Octave of Pentecost are Solemnities.
Eastern Catholic Churches
Members of the autonomous Eastern Catholic Churches are obliged to follow the discipline of their own particular church. While some Eastern Catholics try to follow the stricter rules of their Orthodox counterparts, the actual canonical obligations of Eastern Catholics to fast and abstain are usually much more lenient than those of the Orthodox.
Eastern Christians view fasting as one part of repentance and supporting a spiritual change of heart. Eastern Christians observe two major times of fasting, the "Great Fast" before Easter, and "Phillip's Fast" before the Nativity. The fast period before Christmas is called Philip's Fast because it begins after the feast day of St. Philip. Specific practices vary, but on some days during the week meat, dairy products and (in some countries) oil are avoided, while on other days there is no restriction. During approximately the last week before the Nativity, typically meat, dairy, eggs and oil are avoided on all days, meals are moderate in quantity, and no food is taken between meals.
Western practice
History
Rules relating to fasting pertain to the quantity of food allowed on days of fasting, while those regulating abstinence refer to the quality or type of food. The Christian tradition of fasts and abstinence developed from Old Testament practices, and were an integral part of the early church community. Louis Duchesne observed that Monday and Thursday were days of fasting among pious Jews. Early Christians practiced regular weekly fasts on Wednesdays (in remembrance of the betrayal of Christ) and on Fridays (in memory of the crucifixion of Jesus). The early Christian form is known as the Black Fast: "eating only once a day, toward evening; nothing else except a little water was taken all day". This was the normative way of Christian fasting prior to the 8th century A.D. and is still kept by some of the faithful to this day, especially during Lent.
There has always been a close connection between fasting and almsgiving; the money saved on food should be given to the poor.
Lent
The habit of fasting before Easter developed gradually, and with considerable diversity of practice regarding duration. As late as the latter part of the second century there were differing opinions not only regarding the manner of the paschal fast, but also the proper time for keeping Easter. In 331, St. Athanasius enjoined upon his flock a period of forty days of fasting preliminary to, but not inclusive of, the stricter fast of Holy Week, and in 339, after having traveled to Rome and over the greater part of Europe, wrote in the strongest terms to urge this observance upon the people of Alexandria as one that was universally practiced, "to the end that while all the world is fasting, we who are in Egypt should not become a laughing-stock as the only people who do not fast but take our pleasure in those days".
In the time of Gregory the Great (590–604), there were apparently at Rome six weeks of six days each, making thirty-six fast days in all, which St. Gregory, who is followed therein by many medieval writers, describes as the spiritual tithing of the year, thirty-six days being approximately the tenth part of three hundred and sixty-five. At a later date the wish to realize the exact number of forty days led to the practice of beginning Lent on Ash Wednesday.
Early fasting practices were varied, but by the time of Gregory the Great, the ordinary rule on all fasting days was to take only one meal a day and that only in the evening (after sunset); and to abstain from meat of all sorts, white meats (that is, milk, butter, and cheese, called lacticinia in Latin sources), eggs, and, in the early centuries, wine and oil. Consumption of fish and shellfish was usually, but not universally, allowed. Such a strict fast is sometimes called a Black Fast.
While early sources place the meal after sunset, by the 10th century or earlier, the custom prevailed of taking the only meal of the day at the ninth hour (Latin nona hora, about 3 p.m.). By the 14th century, the one meal of the day had become a midday meal; and the liturgical observance of the nona hora had become tied to the daily Mass and other morning services, always said before noon. In tandem with those developments, the practice of having an evening collation (a small snack) became common. A morning collation was introduced in the early 19th century. Throughout these same centuries, there was wide disagreement over the appropriateness of white meats on fasting days, often resulting in various indulgences allowing the consumption of milk, butter, and cheese and, less commonly, eggs.
In the early 20th century, Church law prescribed fasting throughout Lent, with abstinence only on Friday and Saturday. Some countries received dispensations: Rome in 1918 allowed the bishops of Ireland to transfer the Saturday obligation to Wednesday; in the United States, abstinence was not required on Saturday. The other weekdays were simply days of "fasting without abstinence." A similar practice (common in the United States) was called "partial abstinence", which allowed meat only once during the day at the main meal. (There is nothing in current Catholic Canon Law which corresponds to "partial abstinence".) The countries of the former Spanish empire also had their own extensive dispensations from the rules of fasting and abstinence, based on the "Crusader privileges" of the Spanish dominions as codified in the Bull of the Crusade. In some European colonies, the obligation to fast and abstain differed by race, with indigenous persons often having more lenient rules than European colonists and their descendents or mestizos.
While the rules of abstinence generally only allow seafood, there are a few exceptions. In parts of South America, especially in Venezuela, capybara meat is popular during Lent and Holy Week; in response to a question posed by French settlers in Quebec in the 17th century, beaver was classified as an exception; and the Archbishop of New Orleans said that "alligator is considered in the fish family" in 2010. The legal basis for the classification of beaver as fish probably rests with the Summa Theologica of Thomas Aquinas, which bases animal classification as much on habit as anatomy.
Besides Lent, there are other penitential times customarily accompanied by fasting or abstinence. These include Advent, the Ember Days, the Rogation Days, Fridays throughout the year, and vigils of some of the important feast days.
Advent is considered a time of special self-examination, humility, and spiritual preparation in anticipation of the birth of Christ. Fridays and Saturdays in Advent were days of abstinence, and until early in the 20th century, the Fridays of Advent were also days of fasting.
The vigils observed included the Saturday before Pentecost, October 31 (the vigil of All Saints), December 24 (Christmas Eve), December 7 (the vigil of the Immaculate Conception) and August 14 (the vigil of the Assumption). These vigils all required fasting; some also required abstinence. If any of these fell on a Sunday, the vigil, but not the obligation of fasting, was moved to the Saturday before. (Some other liturgical days were also known as vigils but neither fasting nor abstinence was required, particularly the vigils of feasts of the Apostles and the Vigil of the Epiphany.) By 1959 in the United States, the fast for the vigil of Christmas was moved to December 23.
Ember days occurred four times a year. The Wednesday, Friday and Saturday of the ember week were days of fast and abstinence, though the Wednesday and Saturday were often only days of partial abstinence. In addition, Catholics were required to abstain from meat (but not fast) on all other Fridays, unless the Friday coincided with a holy day of obligation.
The former regulations on abstinence obliged Catholics starting as young as age seven, but there were many exceptions. Large classes of people were considered exempt from fasting and abstinence, not only the sick and those with physically demanding jobs, but also people traveling and students. The regulations were adapted to each nation, and so in most dioceses in America abstinence from meat was not required on the Friday after Thanksgiving, to accommodate any meat left over from that US national holiday.
On the eve of Vatican II, fasting and abstinence requirements in numerous Catholic countries were already greatly relaxed compared to the beginning of the 20th century, with fasting often reduced to just four days of the year (Ash Wednesday, Good Friday, the vigil of Christmas or the day before, and the vigil either of the Immaculate Conception or of the Assumption).
Contemporary application
Contemporary legislation is rooted in the 1966 Apostolic Constitution of Pope Paul VI, Paenitemini. He recommended that fasting be appropriate to the local economic situation and that all Catholics voluntarily fast and abstain. He also allowed that fasting and abstinence might be substituted with prayer and works of charity, although the norms for doing so were to be set down by the Episcopal Conferences.
The current practice of fast and abstinence is regulated by Canons 1250–1253 of the 1983 code. They specify that all Fridays throughout the year, and the time of Lent are penitential times throughout the entire Church. The law of fasting binds those who have attained their majority, until the beginning of their sixtieth year. All persons who have completed their fourteenth year are bound by the law of abstinence on all Fridays unless they are solemnities, and again on Ash Wednesday; The number of days that require fasting has been greatly reduced by the Episcopal Conferences because under Canon 1253, it is these Conferences that have the authority determine the local norms for fasting and abstinence and their substitution by other forms of penance, works of charity and exercises of piety in their territories. The precept to both fast and abstinence on Ash Wednesday and Good Friday remains untouched.
Absent any specification of the nature of "fasting" in the current Canon Law, the traditional definition is obviously applicable here which is that on the days of mandatory fasting, Catholics may eat only one full meal during the day. Additionally, they may have two smaller meals, known as "collations". Church requirements on fasting only relate to solid food, not to drink, so Church law does not restrict the amount of water or other beverages – even alcoholic drinks – which may be consumed.
In some Western countries, Catholics have been encouraged to adopt non-dietary forms of abstinence during Lent. For example, in 2009 Monsignor Benito Cocchi, Archbishop of Modena, urged young Catholics to give up text messaging for Lent.
Eucharistic fast
In addition to the fasts mentioned above, Catholics must also observe the Eucharistic Fast, which in the Latin Church involves taking nothing but water or medicine into the body for one hour before receiving the Eucharist. The earliest recorded regular practice was to eat at home before the Lord's Supper if one was hungry (I Corinthians 11:34). The next known ancient practice was to fast from midnight until Mass that day. Pope Pius XII reduced this in 1957 to fasting (from solid food and alcohol) for three hours before the time of reception of Communion, which paved the way for the celebration of evening Masses. A further reduction came in 1964, when Pope Paul VI reduced the Eucharistic Fast to one hour, and less still for priests celebrating more than one Mass on the same day.
Particular law
Australia
The Australian Catholic Bishops' Conference decreed on 4 October 1985 that Fridays throughout the year, including in Lent (other than Good Friday), are not obligatory days of abstinence from meat provided that an alternative form of penance is practised. Although this remains the case to this day, support for the return of obligatory Friday abstinence has been gradually increasing since England and Wales returned to Friday abstinence in 2011, with some Australian bishops expressing interest.
Canada
The Canadian Conference of Catholic Bishops decrees that the days of fast and abstinence in Canada are Ash Wednesday and Good Friday, and specifies that Fridays are days of abstinence. This includes all Fridays year round, not just Fridays of Lent. Catholics, however, can substitute special acts of charity or piety on these days.
England and Wales
Catholics in England and Wales are expected to abstain from eating meat, described as the flesh of warm-blooded animals, on Fridays if they are able to do so, a practice that has been observed for a number of centuries, and is regarded as a penance to remind people of past wrongs and to identify with those who are suffering. Although no food is suggested as a substitute, fish became a traditional alternative for Catholics. The practice was discontinued in 1984, and for a number of years Catholics were instead given the option to replace it with another form of penance. Current norms for England and Wales, issued by the Bishops' Conference in May 2011, re-introduced the expectation that all Catholics able to do so should abstain from meat on all Fridays of the year, effective Friday, September 16, 2011. The practice was reinstated to coincide with the first anniversary of Pope Benedict XVI's state visit to the UK, which had occurred in September 2010.
Ireland
On 25 November 2010 the Irish Bishops' Conference published the resource leaflet Friday Penance. It followed from the March 2010 Pastoral Letter to the Catholics of Ireland from Pope Benedict XVI suggesting initiatives to support renewal in the Church in Ireland. He asked that Irish Catholics offer their Friday Penances "for an outpouring of God's mercy and the Holy Spirit's gifts of holiness and strength", and that fasting, prayer, reading of Scripture and works of mercy be offered in order to obtain healing and renewal for the Church in Ireland.
The leaflet states that Penance "arises from the Lord's call to conversion and repentance" and describes that it is an "essential part of all genuine Christian living":
in memory of the passion and death of the Lord
as a sharing in Christ's suffering
as an expression of inner conversion
as a form of reparation for sin
Friday Penance also explains why penance is important: "Declaring some days throughout the year as days of fast and abstinence (Ash Wednesday and Good Friday) is meant to intensify penances of the Christian. Lent is the traditional season for renewal and penance but Catholics also observe each Friday of the year as days of penance. The link between Friday and penance is ancient and is reflected in the Irish language word for Friday: An Aoine (The Fast)."
The leaflet suggests ways of fulfilling Friday penance such as abstaining from meat or alcohol, visiting the Blessed Sacrament or helping the poor, sick and lonely as well as other suggestions such as refraining from the use of technology in the context of 21st century activities.
United States
The U.S. Conference of Catholic Bishops (USCCB) produced a statement in 1966 called Pastoral Statement on Penance and Abstinence, which was modified slightly in 1983.
The current, commonly accepted U.S. rules, in effect as such for a decade or more, taken directly from the current U.S. Conference of Catholic Bishops (USCCB) Fast and Abstinence page are:
Ash Wednesday and Good Friday are obligatory days of fasting and abstinence for Catholics. In addition, Fridays during Lent are obligatory days of abstinence.
For members of the Latin Catholic Church, the norms on fasting are obligatory from age 18 until age 59. When fasting, a person is permitted to eat one full meal, as well as two smaller meals that together are not equal to a full meal. The norms concerning abstinence from meat are binding upon members of the Latin Catholic Church from age 14 onwards.
A summary of current practice:
On Ash Wednesday, Good Friday, and all Fridays of Lent: Everyone of age 14 and up must abstain from consuming meat.
On Ash Wednesday and Good Friday: Everyone of age 18 to 59 must fast, unless exempt due to usually a medical reason.
The USCCB also states that:
Those that are excused from fast and abstinence outside the age limits include the physically or mentally ill including individuals suffering from chronic illnesses such as diabetes. Also excluded are pregnant or nursing women. In all cases, common sense should prevail, and ill persons should not further jeopardize their health by fasting.
Although some years past the USCCB declared that "the age of fasting is from the completion of the twenty-second year to the beginning of the sixtieth", the USCCB page quoted above also references a "Complementary Norm" explaining the lower minimum age of 18.
In accordance with canon 1253 of the 1983 Code of Canon Law, the USCCB has also allowed that some other form of penance for the traditional abstinence on all of the Fridays of the year, except for those Fridays in Lent, fulfills the obligation of penance.
Also, according to the USCCB:
Abstinence laws consider that meat comes only from animals such as chickens, cows, sheep or pigs – all of which live on land. Birds are also considered meat. Abstinence does not include meat juices and liquid foods made from meat. Thus, such foods as chicken broth, consomme, soups cooked or flavored with meat, meat gravies or sauces, as well as seasonings or condiments made from animal fat are technically not forbidden. However, moral theologians have traditionally taught that we should abstain from all animal-derived products (except foods such as gelatin, butter, cheese and eggs, which do not have any meat taste). Fish are a different category of animal. Salt and freshwater species of fish, amphibians, reptiles, (cold-blooded animals) and shellfish are permitted.
Because of this, many Catholic parishes in the United States sponsor a fish fry during Lent. In predominantly Catholic areas, restaurants may adjust their menus during Lent by adding seafood items to the menu in an attempt to appeal to Catholics. However, the same USCCB website says that:While fish, lobster and other shellfish are not considered meat and can be consumed on days of abstinence, indulging in the lavish buffet at your favorite seafood place sort of misses the point. Abstaining from meat and other indulgences during Lent is a penitential practice.
Commentary on fasting
St. Thomas Aquinas comments on fasting in his homily on the verse "When He had fasted forty days and forty nights, He was afterward an hungered" (Matt. iv. 2.):
S. Augustine says that it is the highest religion to imitate what we worship, so that, when Our Lord fasted, we ought to imitate Him in fasting. There are four reasons which ought to move us to fasting—firstly, the command of God; secondly, the example of Christ; thirdly, the manifold harm which befals those who do not fast; fourthly, the manifold benefits which come to them from fasting. I. On the first head it is to be noted, that the Lord commanded us to fast in a fourfold manner—(1) By Himself, to Adam and Eve in Paradise, when He commanded that they should fast—i.e., abstain from the tree of knowledge of good and evil, and eat it not. (2) He commanded it by the Law of Moses: Lev. xvi. 31, "It shall be a Sabbath of rest unto you, and ye shall afflict your souls by a statute for ever". (3) God commanded it by the Prophets: Joel ii. 15, "Sanctify a fast". (4) God commanded it by the Apostles: 2 Cor. xi. 27, "In hunger and thirst, in fastings often" – whence he is a manifest transgressor of the precepts of grace who is unwilling to fast.
St. Robert Bellarmine, on the advantage of fasting, writes:
The fruit and advantages of fasting can easily be proved. And first; fasting is most useful in preparing the soul for prayer, and the contemplation of divine things, as the angel Raphael saith: "Prayer is good with fasting". Thus Moses for forty days prepared his soul by fasting, before he presumed to speak with God: so Elias fasted forty days, that thus he might be able, as far as human nature would permit, to hold converse with God: so Daniel, by a fast of three weeks, was prepared for receiving the revelations of God: so the Church has appointed "fasts" on the vigil of great festivals.
See also
Friday fast
References
Notes
Further reading
External links
Women for Faith & Family – includes texts of Canon law
Duffy, Eamon. "To Fast Again", The Tablet, January 31, 2004
Catholic spirituality
Catholic liturgy
Catholic penitential practices
Christian fasting
Sacred places and times in Catholic canon law
it:Digiuno ecclesiastico |
4376042 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tarzanesque | Tarzanesque | Tarzanesque (in French: Tarzanide) is a term created by Frenchman Francis Lacassin used to describe characters in comic books inspired by Tarzan. A tarzanesque character resembles Tarzan in his physical resourcefulness, within a line of action that includes an adventurous life in the jungle, the gift of understanding and being understood by animals, contact with lost civilizations and courage combined with the ability to deal with nature. The creation of such characters may have been propitiated by the success that Tarzan had achieved since his appearance in literature in 1912, culminating with the release of daily comic strips in 1929, which paved the way for a genre that combined the allure of the unknown environment, the need for the archetypal characteristics of the hero and the popularity of access.
The Tarzanesque follows the same line of action as Tarzan, but including diversified heroes, female or male, adapted to adventures set in a set of elements that make up the jungle stereotype in the popular imagination, which includes, besides the African jungles, the Amazon jungle and even strange jungles in polar regions.
Etymology and characteristics
The term "Tarzanide" was created by French literary critic Francis Lacassin, author of three books on the Man-Ape: "Tarzan: mythe triomphant, mythe humilié" (1963), "Tarzan" ou "le Chevalier crispé" (1971) and "La Legendé de Tarzan" (2000). Like Tarzan, a Tarzanide is generally considered "the king of the forest" or "the king of the jungle." He can talk to animals and even lead them and is respected by most of the neighboring tribes and often finds lost civilizations. The spelling "Tarzanidi" is also applicable, as is the Portuguese variant "Tarzânico".
While the terms "Tarzanide" and "Tarzanidi" are adopted for characters originating in Franco-Belgian and Italian comic book publications, for North American publications the term Tarzanesque is widely used. According to Wictionary, the word Tarzanesque suggests a savage jungle life.
History
First manifestations
The success of the Tarzan comic strips that appeared in 1928 boosted the creation of multiple "kings" and "jungle girls" (also called "jungle women"). Some of these manifestations were independent - in 1931, writer Jerry Siegel, who would eventually become one of the creators of Superman but at the time was still in high school, created a Tarzan parody for Glenville High School's student newspaper The Torch - while others were crafted for professional purposes. In 1933, Filipinos Francisco Reyes (cartoonist) and Pedrito Reyes (comic book writer), created one of the first Tarzan copies, Kulafu. In 1934, Alex Raymond created the comic strips Flash Gordon and Jungle Jim to compete, respectively, with Buck Rogers and Tarzan. Jim, however, was not a "King of the Jungle", but a hunter who had adventures in Asian jungles. At the beginning of the series, there was the character Zobi, the jungle boy.
In 1936, Timely Comics (now Marvel Comics) published the first issue of the pulp magazine "Ka-Zar", starring the title character, a young man named David Rand who had been raised in the Belgian Congo alongside the lion Zar. In addition, William L. Chester released the character Kioga from the book series, who lives his adventures in the Bering Strait, and in 1938, Kioga was given the series Hawk of the Wilderness, played by Herman Brix, who had also played Tarzan in the film serial The New Adventures of Tarzan released in 1935. In the fifth issue of New Comics (June 1936), Homer Fleming's character Sandor was introduced, who had adventures in Northeast India.
In 1937, Will Eisner and Jerry Iger created Sheena, Queen of the Jungle, one of the best known "jungle girls". Although well known, the character was not the first to fit this archetype: in 1904 "Rima the Jungle Girl" had appeared as a character from the book Green Mansions: A Romance of the Tropical Forest, written by W. H. Hudson - eight years before Tarzan.
Sheena was the first "jungle girl" to wear a leopard-skin bikini, which would soon become a cliché, and was also the first heroine to get her own comic book, published by Fiction House between 1942 and 1953. Rima would only have her first comic book version in 1952, in issue #90 of Classics Illustrated, drawn by Alex Blum, and a regular series in 1974, by DC Comics, and even appeared in three episodes of the cartoon Super Friends.
In 1939, Ka-Zar makes his comic book debut in Marvel Comics #1, the publisher's first publication of its kind and the first written by Ben Thompson. It was adapted from Bob Byrd's short story "King of Fang and Claw", initially published in the hero's pulp magazine. Besides the Belgian Congo, Ka-Zar would live adventures in Somaliland (a region of Somalia), Ethiopia, Kenya, England and the United States and face the most varied villains: hunters, smugglers, fascists, Nazis, among others. In 1941, the hero participated in a story by the android Human Torch. Ka-Zar was published by the company until 1942.
In 1940, Fiction House started publishing the stories of "Kaanga, Jungle King" and Sheena, Queen of the Jungle Besides Kaanga and Sheena, Fiction House had already published, in the pulp magazine Jungle Stories, the character "Ki-Gor". Also published by Fiction House were "Camilla, Queen of the Lost Empire", created by C. A. Winter and "Tabu, the Jungle Wizard", created by Fletcher Hanks.
In 1941, Republic Pictures released the film serial Jungle Girl, about young Nyoka Meredith (Frances Gifford), raised in Africa by her father. The studio used a title from a novel by Edgar Rice Burroughs, however, the story and character were created by the studio. The following year it released a new sitcom, Perils of Nyoka, this time, Nyoka had her last name changed to Gordon and was played Kay Aldridge. In the same year, she got comic books published by Fawcett Comics and in 1944, Linda Stirling stars in another studio serial, The Tiger Woman, this time set in South America.
The Haitian Andre LeBlanc creates the Brazilian jungle girl Morena Flor, published in daily comic strips and in the comic book of Capitão Atlas, a kind of Brazilian hunter similar to Jungle Jim created for a radio show. LeBlanc was Sy Barry's assistant on another jungle hero: The Phantom, created by Lee Falk.
In 1949, actor Steve Reeves starred in the pilot episode of the TV series Kimbar of the Jungle, however, the project was not approved.
In the 1950s, two artists who drew Tarzanesque heroes from Fiction House would work on Tarzan comic strips: John Celardo (who illustrated stories starring Kaanga) and Bob Lubbers (who illustrated stories featuring Camilla).
Black Tarzanesques
In 1947, disturbed by the way black people were portrayed in comic books (especially in hero stories set in Africa), the African-American journalist Orrin C. Evans created the comic book All-Negro Comics, produced and directed to the black audience (something like the so-called race films between the 1910s and 1950s and the Blaxploitation movies in the 1970s). In this comic book Orrin's brother, George J. Evans Jr., created the hero Lion Man, an African-American scientist in the service of the UN, which when sent to the Gold Coast in Africa, comes across a uranium mine and, fearing that the mine fell into the wrong hands, he decides to protect it and becomes a kind of black Tarzanesque. Despite the efforts, the comic book lasted only one issue. This was not the first attempt at a black Tarzanesque; the also African-American Matt Baker created Voodah in 1945, for the third issue of Golfing/McCombs Publisher's Crown Comics. On the cover of the fifth issue, Voodah appears as a Caucasian (although he was still black on the inside pages), and in the next issue, Voodah became white on the inside pages as well.
Indian Tarzanesques
Fiction House released a few characters of Indian origin like Wambi the Jungle Boy, released in Jungle Comics #1 in January 1940). Co-created by Henry Kiefer, Wambi lived in a jungle that mixed elements of African and Indian jungles, and in addition to Jungle Comics, Wambi was published in his own comic book . As female examples, there is Taj of the Elephants, an anonymously created character released in Jungle Comics #57 (1944) and Jan of the Jungle, co-created by Enrico Bagnoli and released in Rangers Comics #42 (August 1948). In Buster Brown Comics #11 (1948), the character Ghanga was released, later spelled Gunga. In addition, the Indian-American actor Sabu Dastagir played two characters created by Rudyard Kipling: Toomai in Elephant Boy (1937) and Mowgli in Jungle Book (1942), as well as becoming a comic book character inspired by these roles: Sabu, Elephant Boy, published in Red Circle Comics #4 (April 1945) and a two-issue comic book of his own with stories illustrated by Wally Wood and published by Fox Feature Syndicate. In 1946, in the pages of the French comic book Fillette, the heroine Durga Râni appeared, written by René Thévenin and illustrated by René Pellos.
In the 1950s
In 1950, Akim appeared in the Italian wallet-sized format comic book Albo Gioello created by the comic book writer Roberto Renzi and the cartoonist Augusto Pedrazza. The character, who was published until 1991, didn't live adventures only in the jungles, but also fought common criminals in the so-called "civilized world", and for this he even wore common clothes used in big metropolises.
In 1952, Frank Frazetta created Thun'da, King of Congo for Magazine Enterprises, which even had a series in the same year called King of the Congo starring Buster Crabbe (actor who had already played Tarzan in the 1933 series Tarzan the Fearless). Thun'da (whose real name is Robert Drum) is an American Air Force aviator who gets lost in the Congo and who, in the comics, faced dinosaurs and prehistoric beings, but due to budget cuts, these elements were not present in the series. In the 1960s, Frazetta illustrated covers of paperback versions of Tarzan's stories published by Ace Books.
In 1953, Joe Kubert released Tor, which differed from Tarzan by setting its stories in prehistoric times (more precisely in the year 1 million BC, corresponding to the Quaternary Period, which is considered by paleontologists to be the time when the first humans appeared; despite this, the author used poetic license and included dinosaurs in Tor's stories). Years later Kubert would also draw the Tarzan comics. In the same year Atlas Comics (the name used by Marvel during the 1950s) launched Lorna the Jungle Queen, a comic book starring a blonde jungle girl. Between 1954 and 1955, it published two comic book s that had the jungles as a setting: Jungle Action and Jungle Tales. Jungle Action published two characters typically inspired by Tarzan: Lo-Zar (the character had his name changed to Tharn and had his hair color changed from blond to red in republished in the 1970s so as not to be confused with Ka-Zar) and Jungle Boy. The jungle girl, Jann of the Jungle also appeared in Jungle Action #1, and from issue 8 on, the comic book was renamed Jann of the Jungle, lasting for 9 more issues. In another comic book, Jungle Tales #1, was published the story Waku, Prince of the Bantu, a new attempt of a black hero set in the African jungles, created by unknown authors. The story featured an African prince whose character anticipated some of the concepts that would be present in Black Panther (another Marvel character, created by Stan Lee and Jack Kirby in Fantastic Four #52, July 1966). In 1972, already as Marvel Comics, the publishing house launched a new comic book called Jungle Action, whose first four issues featured reruns of Tharn, Jann and Lorna's stories published in the original comic book . The fifth issue, published in 1973, featured stories by the Black Panther. Also in 1955, Republic Pictures released the TV series Panther Girl of the Kongo, which resembled Jungle Girl, and even used scenes from Jungle Girl's archives. In Japan the film Brooba is released, clearly inspired by the films starring Johnny Weissmuller.
In the 1960s
In 1962, Brazilian actor Wilson Vianna starred in two films of the Mexican tarzanesque Barú: Barú, el hombre de la selva and El mundo salvaje de Barú. On Brazilian TV, Vianna played Capitão Atlas.
In the mid 60's, taking advantage of the success of the genre, other Brazilian publishers created their own tarzanesques. One of them was Targo (later renamed Taika) from Editora Outubro created by Heli Otávio de Moura Lacerda. Targo was an orphan who survived a plane crash in the Amazon rainforest (more precisely in the border of the state of Amazonas with Peru, although he also had stories set in the Brazilian Plateau) and was raised by indigenous peoples. The character had stories produced by artists such as Helena Fonseca, Jayme Cortez, Gedeone Malagola, Nico Rosso, Rodolfo Zalla, Moacir Rodrigues Soares, and like Tarzan and Thun'da, Targo also lived with prehistoric creatures considered extinct. The idea of an Amazon inhabited by prehistoric beings had already been portrayed in the book The Lost World by Arthur Conan Doyle, published in 1912. Like Tarzan, Targo also had his own family, consisting of his wife Arimá, her brother Aurici, and a jaguar. Under Jayme Cortez's guidance, the character was a joint creation of editors and cartoonists from Editora Outubro , and it was up to Gedeone Malagola to name the hero. According to him, the name came from a policeman friend who had the surname "Targa" and he used to joke with the name of his friend comparing it to the Tarzan. Coincidentally, Targa was also the name used in a French tarzanesque published in the 1940s. Gedeone himself had also created another Tarzan-inspired character, "Tambu" and made Tor stories by Joe Kubert for Gráfica Novo Mundo. Another example was Tarun by Paulo Fukue, released in EDREL's Magia Verde comic book . Like Thun'da, Tarun was a man trying to return to civilization, not fitting in the wild child/good savage archetypes, and like Targo, Tarun lived adventures in a lost region of the Amazon, the "Fantastic Region". For the Mexican origin publisher Editormex, the comics artist Edmundo Rodrigues drew a story of Antar (an anagram of Tarzan), which was a magazine of photo comics of Tarzan movies, Jungle Jim, among others.
In 1963, created by Marcel Navarro to compete with Akim, the French character Zembla appeared in the comic book Spécial Kiwi, which even had stories drawn by Akim's co-creator Augusto Pedraza. However, Zembla's stories were closer to parodies, since he was raised by lions and wore a leopard skin strip, and had as allies a lion, a wildcat, a kangaroo, a pygmy, and a magician (clearly inspired by Lee Falk's Mandrake). The character was published until 1994 in France, and both Akim and Zembla were published in digest size. Another French creation was Yataca, born in the Amazon Jungle, living his adventures in the Americas for twenty issues, and after that, inexplicably, his stories moved to Africa.
Between 1967 and 1968, DC Comics published Bomba, the Jungle Boy whose main character had appeared in a series of books beginning in 1926 and ending in 1938. Like Tarzan, Bomba was also adapted for the movies between 1949 and 1955, with his stories set in the jungles of South America. The character was played by Johnny Sheffield who had played Boy, Tarzan and Jane's adopted son in the 1939 film Tarzan Finds a Son!. In the series of Bomba films, Boy replaced Korak, Tarzan's legitimate son in the book series, and South America was swapped for Africa, with scenes reused from the 1930 documentary Africa Speaks! His stories would be republished by the publisher in the 1970s in comic book s starring Tarzan and produced by Joe Kubert. To avoid copyright infringement, Bomba was renamed Simba.
Ka-Zar and Shanna
A new version of Ka-Zar was made in 1965 by Stan Lee and Jack Kirby, inspired by Tarzan and Tor by Joe Kubert. The new Ka-Zar appears as a secondary character in the Uncanny X-Men comic book , where the Belgian Congo was swapped for the fictional Savage Land (a tropical zone curiously located in the Antarctic Circle, also inhabited by apparently extinct prehistoric beings, very similar to Pellucidar, the hollow earth created by Burroughs), the lion Zar for the saber-toothed cat Zabu, and David Rand for Kevin Plunder. Ka-Zar was the most successful tarzanesque; he had several comic book s of his own, mini-series and graphic novels. In 1973, Marvel Comics released another jungle girl, Shanna, with her own comic book that only lasted five issues, but continued to have stories published in Ka-Zar's (whom she eventually married), Daredevil's and Hulk's comic books.
Tarzanesques today
In 2000, TV Globo launched the telenovela Uga-Uga by Carlos Lombardi, where the actor Claudio Heinrich played a young man raised by indigenous peoples who looked like Tarzan.
Several of the Tarzanesques created for the North American market are in the public domain in this country. This is due to the fact that with the implementation of the Comics Code Authority in the mid 1950s, several publishers were closed down and did not renew the rights to their characters, as did the heirs of Edgar Rice Burroughs and companies such as The Walt Disney Company.
Tarzan also entered the public domain in 2001, but before that some authors were already using him in stories. From the mid-1990s to the early 2000s, the character participated in official crossovers published with Batman, Superman, and Predator. In 1999, comic book writer Warren Ellis and cartoonist John Cassaday created several pulp-inspired characters for the Planetary series. Kevin Sack, the Lord Blackstock (an allusion to the title Lord Greystone, which Tarzan inherited from his father) is clearly inspired by Tarzan, and in 2000, Alan Moore used a version of Tarzan in his The League of Extraordinary Gentlemen, without, however, having his name revealed in the series.
In 2005, Shanna had a miniseries produced by comic book artist Frank Cho, who also created his own jungle girl named Jana released in the Jungle Girl miniseries published by Dynamite Entertainment (known for publishing numerous projects with characters in the public domain). In 2006, Marvel Comics recognized the original Ka-Zar as an integral part of the Marvel Universe in the sixth issue of All-New Official Handbook of the Marvel Universe A to Z, the publisher's official guide. However, the character did not appear in any new stories (as did the original Human Torch, for example).
In 2007, Sheena, Queen of the Jungle had a five-issue miniseries published by Devil's Due Digital, scripted by Steven E. de Souza (a screnwriter best known for the screenplay of the Bruce Willis film Die Hard), drawings by Matt Merhoff, and covers designed by Joe Jusko, Nicola Scott, Khary Randolph, and Tim Seeley. In early 2010, Devil's Due Digital began distributing digitized Sheena material.
In 2008, comic book writer Alex Mir and illustrator Alex Genaro released the Valkíria, that shows the title character in a post-apocalyptic Brazil where prehistoric creatures have returned to live on Earth.
In 2011, Dynamite Entertainment launched Lord of the Jungle comic book , and although it is in the public domain, the name Tarzan cannot be used in the titles without permission. Later, the publisher announced that it would publish a new series of Thun'da, and in the first issue, the publisher chose to republish the origin of the character drawn by the creator Frank Frazetta along with the new stories produced by Robert Place Napton (scripts), with Cliff Richards (drawings) and cover by Jae Lee (cover). In 2015, Dynamite announced a Tarzan and Sheena crossover, released in 2016 under the title Lords of the Jungle. The company also announced a new Sheena series for 2017 by comic book writers Marguerite Bennett and Christina Trujillo and comic artist Moritat, set on Amazon instead of Africa.
In July 2023, Antarctic Press announced the publication of Valkíria in their version of Jungle Comics.
See also
Noble savage
Feral child
Prehistoric fiction
George of the Jungle
Caveman
The Jungle Book
Lost world
The Phantom
Pulp magazine
Notes
References
Bibliography
External links
Tarzan influenced comics
Tarzan
Jungle superheroes
Jungle men
Stock characters
Adventure fiction |
4376380 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/God%20of%20War%20II | God of War II | God of War II is an action-adventure hack and slash video game developed by Santa Monica Studio and published by Sony Computer Entertainment (SCE). First released for the PlayStation 2 (PS2) console on March 13, 2007, it is the second installment in the God of War series, the sixth chronologically, and the sequel to 2005's God of War. The game is based on Greek mythology and set in ancient Greece, with vengeance as its central motif. The player character is protagonist Kratos, the new God of War who killed the former, Ares. Kratos is betrayed by Zeus, the King of the Olympian gods, who strips him of his godhood and kills him. Slowly dragged to the Underworld, he is saved by the Titan Gaia, who instructs him to find the Sisters of Fate, as they can allow him to travel back in time, avert his betrayal, and take revenge on Zeus.
The gameplay is similar to the previous installment. It focuses on combo-based combat which is achieved through the player's main weapon—Athena's Blades—and secondary weapons acquired throughout the game. It features quick time events (QTEs) that require players to quickly complete various game controller actions to defeat stronger enemies and bosses. The player can use up to four magical attacks and a power-enhancing ability as alternative combat options. The game also features puzzles and platforming elements. Compared to its predecessor, God of War II features improved puzzles and four times as many bosses.
God of War II has been acclaimed as one of the best video games of all time and was 2007's "PlayStation Game of the Year" at the Golden Joystick Awards. In 2009, IGN listed it as the second-best PlayStation 2 game of all time, and both IGN and GameSpot consider it the "swan song" of the PlayStation 2 era. In 2012, Complex magazine named God of War II the best PlayStation 2 game of all time. It was the best-selling game in the UK during the week of its release and went on to sell 4.24 million copies worldwide, making it the sixteenth-best-selling PlayStation 2 game of all time. God of War II, along with God of War, was remastered and released on November 17, 2009, as part of the God of War Collection for the PlayStation 3 (PS3). The remastered version was re-released on August 28, 2012, as part of the God of War Saga, also for the PlayStation 3. A novelization of the game was published in February 2013. A sequel, God of War III, was released on March 16, 2010.
Gameplay
God of War II is an action-adventure game with hack and slash elements. It's a third-person single-player video game viewed from a fixed camera perspective. The player controls the character Kratos in combo-based combat, platforming, and puzzle game elements, and battles foes who primarily stem from Greek mythology, including harpies, minotaurs, Gorgons, griffins, cyclopes, cerberuses, Sirens, satyrs, and nymphs. Other monsters were created specifically for the game, including undead legionnaires, ravens, undead barbarians, beast lords, rabid hounds, wild boars, and the army of the Fates, including sentries, guardians, juggernauts, and high priests. Many of the combination attacks used in God of War reappear, and the game features more than double the amount of boss fights and more difficult puzzles than the original. Platforming elements require the player to climb walls and ladders, jump across chasms, swing on ropes, and balance across beams to proceed through sections of the game. Some puzzles are simple, such as moving a box so that the player can use it as a jumping-off point to access a pathway unreachable with normal jumping, while others are more complex, such as finding several items across different areas of the game to unlock one door.
In addition to the regular health, magic, and experience chests that are found throughout the game world, there are three Uber Chests to be found. Two of these chests provide an additional increment to the Health and Magic Meters, respectively, and the third chest contains an abundance of red and gold orbs. Several urns are also hidden in the game (e.g., the Urn of Gaia) which, upon completion of the game, unlocks special abilities (e.g., unlimited magic) for use during bonus play.
Combat
Kratos' main weapon is a pair of blades attached to chains that are wrapped around the character's wrists and forearms. Called Athena's Blades (also known as the Blades of Athena) in this game, they can be swung offensively in various maneuvers. As the game progresses, Kratos acquires new weapons—the Barbarian Hammer, the Spear of Destiny, and periodically, the Blade of Olympus—offering alternative combat options. Although Kratos begins the game with Athena's Blades and the magic ability Poseidon's Rage (both at maximum power), the blades' power is reduced and the magic is relinquished after an encounter with Zeus (Poseidon's Rage can be regained by obtaining a certain urn). As with previous games, Kratos learns to use up to four magical abilities, such as Typhon's Bane that acts as a bow and arrow for distant targets, giving him a variety of ways to attack and kill enemies. Other new magical abilities include Cronos' Rage, Head of Euryale, and Atlas Quake. The special ability Rage of the Gods featured in the previous game is replaced by Rage of the Titans; unlike the previous game, the Rage meter—which allows usage of the ability—does not have to be full in order to use the ability, and can be switched on and off at will.
Kratos retains the relic Poseidon's Trident from the original installment, and gains new relics; the Amulet of the Fates, the Golden Fleece, and Icarus' Wings, each being required to advance through certain stages of the game. For example, the Amulet of the Fates slows time, but this does not affect Kratos and allows puzzle-solving that can not be achieved in normal game time. The Amulet of the Fates has limited usage before needing to be recharged (which occurs automatically and is represented by the Amulet of the Fates Meter). The Golden Fleece deflects enemy projectiles back at the enemies (used to solve certain puzzles). Icarus' Wings allows Kratos to glide across large chasms that cannot be crossed with normal jumping.
This game's challenge mode is called the Challenge of the Titans (seven trials), and requires players to complete a series of specific tasks (e.g., kill all enemies without being attacked). The player may unlock bonus costumes for Kratos, behind-the-scenes videos, and concept art of the characters and environments, as rewards, as well as usage of the abilities found in the urns during the first playthrough. Completion of each difficulty level unlocks additional rewards, as does collecting twenty eyes from defeated cyclopes. A new mode, called Arena of the Fates, allows players to set difficulty levels and choose their own opponents to improve their skills.
Synopsis
Setting
As with its predecessor, God of War II is set in an alternate version of ancient Greece, populated by the Olympian gods, Titans, heroes, and other beings of Greek mythology. With the exception of flashbacks, the events are set between those of the games Betrayal (2007) and God of War III (2010). Several locations are explored, including a real-world setting in the ancient city of Rhodes, and several fictional locations, including a brief scene in the Underworld, the Lair of Typhon, the Island of Creation and its locales, Tartarus, and a brief scene on Mount Olympus.
Rhodes, its skyline dominated by the massive statue, the Colossus of Rhodes, is a war-torn city under assault by Kratos, the God of War, and his Spartan army. The Lair of Typhon, hidden in an unknown location, is a snow-topped mountain and prison of the Titans Typhon and Prometheus. The Island of Creation is a vast island located at the edge of the world and home to the Sisters of Fate. The island is host to deadly traps, puzzles, and monsters. On the outskirts of the island are the Steeds of Time, and on the island itself are the Temples of Lakhesis and Atropos, and the Bog of the Forgotten, which hides the Gorgon Euryale and is the site of Jason of the Argonauts' last battle. Beyond the Bog are the Lowlands and the Great Chasm: a huge divide that blocks the way to the Palace of the Fates. At the base of the Chasm is the realm of Tartarus—prison of the Titan Atlas, condemned to hold the world on his shoulders. The Temple of the Fates is also filled with traps and monsters, while the final battle occurs on Mount Olympus, home to the gods.
Characters
The protagonist of the game is Kratos (voiced by Terrence C. Carson), a Spartan warrior who became the God of War after killing the former, Ares. Other characters include Athena (Carole Ruggier), the Goddess of Wisdom; Zeus (Corey Burton), the King of the Gods and the main antagonist; several Titans—including Gaia (Linda Hunt), Atlas (Michael Clarke Duncan), Prometheus (Alan Oppenheimer), Typhon (Fred Tatasciore), and Cronos (Lloyd Sherr)—heroes Theseus (Paul Eiding) and Perseus (Harry Hamlin); the insane Icarus (Bob Joles); the Gorgon Euryale (Jennifer Martin); an undead version of the Barbarian King (Bob Joles); and the Sisters of Fate—Lakhesis (Leigh-Allyn Baker), Atropos (Debi Mae West), and Clotho (Susan Silo). Minor characters include the boat captain (Keith Ferguson) and a loyal Spartan soldier (Josh Keaton; credited as the Last Spartan). Kratos' wife Lysandra, their daughter Calliope, and the Titan Rhea appear in flashbacks. The gods Hades and Poseidon appear in flashbacks of the Great War, and in the final cutscene alongside Zeus, Helios, and Hermes on Olympus.
Plot
Kratos, the new God of War following Ares' death, is still haunted by nightmares of his past and is shunned by the other gods for his destructive ways. Ignoring Athena's warnings, Kratos joins the Spartan army in an attack on Rhodes, during which a giant eagle, which Kratos assumes to be Athena, suddenly drains a huge portion of his powers and uses it to animate the Colossus of Rhodes. While battling the statue, Zeus offers Kratos the Blade of Olympus, a mighty sword that Zeus had forged and wielded to end the Great War, requiring Kratos to infuse the blade with the remainder of his godly power. Although mortal once again, Kratos defeats the Colossus but is mortally wounded. The eagle reveals itself to have been Zeus all along, who states he was forced to intervene as Athena refused to do so. Zeus then grants Kratos a final opportunity to be loyal to the gods, but Kratos refuses. Enraged by his defiance, Zeus kills him with the blade and destroys the Spartan army.
Kratos is slowly dragged to the Underworld, but is saved by the Titan Gaia. Gaia tells Kratos that she once raised the young Zeus, who eventually betrayed the Titans as vengeance for the cruelty inflicted on his siblings by Zeus' father, Cronos. She instructs Kratos to find the Sisters of Fate, who can alter time, prevent his death, and allow him his revenge on Zeus. With the aid of Pegasus, Kratos finds the lair of Gaia's brother Typhon. Imprisoned under a mountain, Typhon is angered at the intrusion and traps Pegasus, forcing Kratos to explore on foot. Kratos encounters the Titan Prometheus, who is chained in mortal form and tortured at Zeus' directive for giving fire to mankind. Prometheus begs to be released from his torment, so Kratos confronts Typhon to steal his magical bow. He blinds the massive Titan with it to escape and then uses it to free Prometheus, who falls into the Flames of Olympus and dies, finally free of eternal torture. The immolation releases the power of the Titans which Kratos absorbs, using it to free Pegasus and then fly to the Island of Creation.
Just before reaching the island, Kratos fights and kills Theseus to awaken the gigantic stone Steeds of Time—a gift to the Sisters of Fate from Cronos in an attempt to change his own fate—which grants Kratos access to the island. There, Kratos encounters and defeats several foes, some of whom are also seeking the Sisters of Fate, including an undead version of his old foe the Barbarian King, the Gorgon Euryale, Perseus, and a deranged Icarus, who throws himself with Kratos into Tartarus. After defeating Icarus and ripping his wings off to take for himself, Kratos eventually encounters the imprisoned Titan Atlas, who initially resents Kratos for his current predicament. After Kratos explains his intent, Atlas reveals that Gaia and the other Titans also seek revenge on Zeus for their defeat in the Great War. Atlas also reveals that the Blade of Olympus is the key to defeating Zeus and helps Kratos to reach the Palace of the Fates.
After evading traps and defeating more enemies, Kratos encounters an unseen foe, revealed to be a loyal Spartan soldier also in search of the Sisters. Before he dies, the soldier informs Kratos that Zeus has destroyed Sparta in Kratos' absence. Outraged, Kratos defeats the Kraken and frees a phoenix, riding the creature to the Sisters' stronghold where he confronts two, Lakhesis and Atropos. After they refuse his request to alter time, Kratos battles them. During this, the Sisters try to change the outcome of Kratos' battle with Ares, but Kratos kills them both, then confronts the remaining Sister, Clotho. He kills her using her own traps, and acquires the Loom of Fate in order to return to the point at which Zeus betrayed him.
Kratos surprises Zeus, seizes the Blade of Olympus, and finally incapacitates him. Athena intervenes and implores Kratos to stop, as by killing Zeus, he will destroy Olympus. Kratos ignores her and tries to kill Zeus, but Athena sacrifices herself by impaling herself upon the blade, granting Zeus' escape. Before she dies, Athena reveals that Kratos is actually Zeus' son. Zeus was afraid Kratos would usurp him, just as Zeus had usurped his own father, Cronos. Kratos declares that the rule of the gods is at an end, then travels back in time and rescues the Titans just before their defeat in the Great War. He returns with the Titans to the present, and the gods watch as their former foes climb Mount Olympus. Kratos, standing on the back of Gaia, declares that he has brought the destruction of Olympus.
Development
A sequel to God of War was first teased at the end of its credits, which stated, "Kratos Will Return". God of War II was officially announced at the 2006 Game Developers Conference (GDC). God of War Game Director David Jaffe stepped down and became the Creative Director of its sequel. God of Wars lead animator Cory Barlog assumed the role of Game Director. In an interview with Computer and Video Games (CVG) in June 2006, Barlog said that while working on the first few drafts of script, he studied the mythology extensively. He said that the mythology is so large that "the real difficulty is picking things that really fit within the story of Kratos as well as being easy to swallow for audiences." Although he loves the idea of teaching things through storytelling (in this case Greek mythology), Barlog said, "you can't let your story get bogged down by that." He said that in the game, players would see "a larger view of Kratos' role within the mythological world." He also said that he liked the idea of a trilogy, but there were no plans "as of right now."
Like God of War, the game uses Santa Monica's Kinetica engine. Senior combat designer Derek Daniels said that for God of War II, they were basing the magical attacks on elements (e.g., air and earth). He said the combat system was updated so that it flowed smoothly between attacks and switching between weapons and magic. He said that they were working for a similar balance of puzzle solving, exploration, and combat seen in the first game, and they used elements that worked in that game as a base for the overall balance. Unlike God of War where magic had a small role, Daniels said that for God of War II, their goal was to make magic an integral part of the combat system and to make it more refined. Barlog said the game would feature new creatures and heroes from the mythology, and he wanted to put more boss battles in it. Commenting on multiplayer options, Barlog said that "there are possibilities for that but it is not something we are doing right now." He said that he felt that God of War is a single-player experience, and although multiplayer "would be cool," it did not appeal to him to work on. As for a PlayStation Portable (PSP) installment, he said that he thought it "would be freaking awesome," but not something he had time to work on and it was Sony's decision whether or not to make a PSP installment.
In an interview with IGN in February 2007, Barlog said that his goals for God of War II were to continue the previous game's story, expand on several elements, and to feature more epic moments as opposed to cinematics during gameplay. He said there were many additions to the game, but they did not differ greatly from the style of the previous game. Set-pieces and large scale epic moments were reworked "so that each battle you have really feels epic and unique." Barlog also hinted that another sequel would be made; he said, "The story has not yet been completed. The end has only just begun."
In another interview with IGN, both Jaffe and Barlog said that they did not view God of War II as a sequel, but rather a continuation of the previous game. Jaffe said that they did not want to include the Roman numeral number two (II) in the title for this reason, but they did not want the title to convey the impression it was an expansion pack. Both Jaffe and Barlog said that the reason God of War II appeared on the PlayStation 2 instead of the PlayStation 3—which was released four months prior to God of War II—was because "there's a 100 million people out there that will be able to play God of War II as soon as it launches." Barlog assured that the game would be playable on the newer platform, which at the time, had PlayStation 2 backwards-compatibility.
Four of the voice actors from the previous installment returned to reprise their roles, including Terrence C. Carson and Keith Ferguson, who voiced Kratos and the boat captain, respectively. Linda Hunt returned as the narrator, who was revealed to be the Titan Gaia, and Carole Ruggier returned as Athena; this was her final time voicing the character until a brief cameo in 2018's God of War. Both Paul Eiding, who had voiced Zeus and the gravedigger, and Fred Tatasciore, who had voiced Poseidon, returned but did not reprise those roles, and instead voiced the characters Theseus and Typhon, respectively. Corey Burton assumed the role of Zeus, having previously voiced the character in the 1998 Disney animated film Hercules: Zero to Hero and the subsequent animated series Hercules. Famed actors Michael Clarke Duncan and Leigh-Allyn Baker lent their voices for the characters Atlas and Lakhesis, respectively. Actor Harry Hamlin was chosen to voice the character Perseus because of his previous portrayal of the same character in the 1981 feature film Clash of the Titans. Although removed early in the game's development, Cam Clarke is credited for the voice of Hercules. Keythe Farley was the voice director alongside Kris Zimmerman and Gordon Hunt.
Release
God of War II was released in North America on March 13, 2007, in Europe on April 27, and May 3 in Australia. It was released in Japan on October 25 by Capcom, under the title . The North American version was packaged in a two-disc set. The first disc was the PlayStation 2 game disc and the second disc was a DVD documentary of the game's development. The European/Australian PAL version was released as two different editions: a single-disc standard edition and a two-disc "Special Edition" with different box art and a bonus DVD. On April 6, 2008, it became available in the PlayStation 2 line up of Greatest Hits. Upon release, the game was banned in the United Arab Emirates due to "one topless scene".
Upon release, God of War II was commercially successful in multiple markets. In North America, it sold 833,209 copies by the end of March 2007, twice as many copies as the next-best selling game. It was the best-selling game in the UK in the first week of release. It sold over one million copies in the first three months after release, and in June 2012, Sony reported it sold more than 4.24 million copies worldwide.
Marketing
As a pre-order incentive, the demo disc of God of War II was made available to all customers who pre-ordered the game. On March 1, 2007, Sony held a media event that featured scantily clad women and a dead goat in Athens as part of the game's marketing campaign. The following month, the Daily Mail learned of the event from the UK Official PlayStation Magazine, called it a "depraved promotion stunt", and reported that Member of Parliament and anti-video game violence campaigner Keith Vaz said he would understand if the incident resulted in a boycott of Sony products. In response, Sony said the event had been sensationalized with hyperbole and that the article contained several inaccuracies, but apologized for the event.
Remastered port
The game and its predecessor, God of War, were released in North America on November 17, 2009, as part of the God of War Collection, featuring remastered ports of both games for the PlayStation 3 platform, with upscaled graphics and support for PlayStation 3 Trophies. It became available in Japan on March 18, 2010, Australia on April 29, and the UK on April 30. The "God of War II Bonus Materials"—content included on the second disc of the original North American PlayStation 2 version—was included with the retail version of the collection. God of War Collection was released as a digital download on the PlayStation Store on November 2, 2010, and was the first product containing PlayStation 2 software available via download. PlayStation Plus subscribers could download a one-hour trial of each game. The bonus materials, however, are not included in the digital download version. A PlayStation Vita version of God of War Collection was released on May 6, 2014. By June 2012, God of War Collection had sold more than 2.4 million copies worldwide. On August 28, 2012, God of War Collection, God of War III, and God of War: Origins Collection were included in the God of War Saga under Sony's line of PlayStation Collections for the PlayStation 3 in North America.
Other media
Soundtrack
God of War II: Original Soundtrack from the Video Game, composed by Gerard K. Marino, Ron Fish, Mike Reagan, and Cris Velasco, was released on CD by Sony Computer Entertainment on April 10, 2007. Dave Valentine of Square Enix Music Online gave the soundtrack an 8 out of 10, and said that it features a wide variety of ominous orchestral pieces, and each composer's contributions seem slightly more distinctive than the previous installment. Spence D. of IGN wrote that the score "is an impressive orchestral accomplishment within the ever-growing and constantly changing arena of videogame composition," but that it was aimed more towards the gaming experience of God of War II, rather than being a stand-alone musical experience. At the 2007 Spike Video Game Awards, the score was nominated for "Best Original Score". In March 2010, the soundtrack was released as downloadable content as part of the God of War Trilogy Soundtrack in the God of War III Ultimate Edition.
Novel
An official novelization of the game, titled God of War II, was announced in July 2009, along with a novelization of the original God of War. It was written by Robert E. Vardeman and published on February 12, 2013, by Del Rey Books in North America, and on February 19, 2013, in Europe by Titan Books. It is available in paperback, Kindle, and audio formats. The novel recounts the events of the game and adds even more layers than what the first book did in relation to the first game. The Sisters of Fate are given more story instead of only being the next to last boss fight of the game. They are introduced in Chapter 2 and have several chapters dedicated to what they were doing throughout Kratos' journey. For example, they allowed the Titans to come back due to their boredom and Lahkesis in particular liked to toy with Kratos. Due to how much the Sisters dabbled with Kratos' fate, it allowed him to make it as far as he did and also allowed him to act on his own will due to the many alterations to his life thread.
The intentions of some characters actions are also explained, and some characters are given more backstory. The Titan Typhon did not want to help Kratos because if he failed, Zeus would kill Typhon's wife Echidna and their children, who Zeus had allowed to live in freedom while Typhon was imprisoned. Theseus, the King of Athens, wanted the Sisters to give the god Dionysus a new lover so that he could have Ariadne back, and wanted to revive his father Aegus, who committed suicide as he thought Theseus had died. Theseus had the Aegean Sea named after his father. Jason of the Argonauts had stolen the Golden Fleece from Aeëtes of Colchis. He also loved a witch named Medea, who helped him steal the Fleece by killing her own brother. She also convinced Jason's nieces to murder his uncle Pelias and eat him as Pelias was going to betray Jason due to a false prophecy. Jason forsook Medea and married the daughter of King Creon, Creus, who was killed by Medea, along with their children. Despite this, Jason wanted Medea back because Creus did not truly love him. Jason died by Kratos' hand instead of the cerberus' as Jason tried to kill Kratos to get the Fleece back. Perseus was also given some backstory. He had fought the Graeae, a trio of witches. He fought the Gorgons and killed a monster that King Cepheus had tried to appease with a sacrifice. He wanted the Sisters to revive Andromeda, who was not explicitly mentioned in the game.
The novel introduced some characters who were not present in the game, or any other game. The goddesses Demeter and Hestia both made a very brief appearance just prior to Kratos joining the Spartans in Rhodes where Kratos overheard them discussing their displeasure of the endless war in Greece. Iris, the Goddess of the Rainbow and an occasional messenger, was another new character and had a more substantial role. Atropos contacted Iris and had her lie to Zeus about Kratos on several instances, and was the cause of distrust among the Olympians due to her rumor spreading and half-truths. She eventually replaced Hermes as the Messenger of the Gods. She also told Zeus that he would need to appoint a new God of War. Zeus pondered about making Hercules the new God of War. Athena wished Kratos to be returned as the God of War, thinking by doing so, it would stop the chaos and dissension between the gods. Hermes had thought to suggest Perseus as the new God of War and gifted him his invisibility helmet. Hermes eventually regained his position as the Messenger of the Gods when he finally convinced Zeus that Iris had been lying to him about Kratos. Iris was subsequently banished from Olympus, only to appear at sunrise and sunset, and when it rained.
The novel also explained that the Titans Rhea, Themis, Iapetus, and Mnemosyne, along with Hyperion, were banished to Tartarus after the Great War. At the end of the novel, the Titan Atlas was one of the Titans brought back from the past to reignite the Great War; in the game, Atlas was not brought back. Also in the game, Kratos and Theseus' fight was to determine who was the greatest warrior in all of Greece. This was not the bases for their fight in the novel. Another omission is that during Kratos' fight with the Barbarian King, the Boat Captain was not summoned to fight Kratos. Kratos also did not keep Euryale's head as a weapon. The first book omitted Kratos receiving the Blades of Athena; this book did not explain how he received them as he already had them at the start of the novel.
Reception
Regarded as one of the best PlayStation 2 and action games of all time, God of War II received "universal acclaim", according to review aggregator Metacritic. It has been praised for its story and improvements over its predecessor, such as gameplay and graphics. Chris Roper of IGN said that God of War II is "one of gaming's most intense and engaging experiences available." He said it "is practically devoid" of the minor flaws of the original, citing an example that players can now quickly navigate wall climbing, such as being able to vertically slide down walls. Furthering his praise of the gameplay, he said that it is one of the most "polished and refined experiences...in gaming." Although he said that the combat mechanics were practically identical to the original, he had no complaints, stating it is "for good reason as it was already perfect the first time out."
Kristan Reed of Eurogamer said that "God of War II sports one of the most satisfyingly honed game designs we've ever come across." He said that it would not overwhelm players and that it motivates them to improve their skills. He said that the balance "always feels spot-on," and the "learning curve is just right," adding that the magic attacks are more useful than those in God of War. He also said that God of War IIs gameplay, like the original, "finds a comfortable middle ground" between hardcore and casual players. Alex Navarro of GameSpot praised the pace of the game and the puzzle designs, and said the "scale of some of the levels is unbelievably massive." He also said that the story is interesting because it is more about what happens around Kratos, than what happens to him. Matt Leone of 1UP said that the strongest aspect "is how it excels as both a story and an action game," and it is the story that "allows the game to feel like a true sequel." Roper praised the scale of the levels, as well as the variety in environments, in comparison to the original installment, and said the art direction is "once again absolutely outstanding."
Reed praised the amount of detail and said that "at no stage did we ever see even a hint of frame-rate drop or v-syncing glitches." He also said that playing the game on the PS3 sharpens up the visuals. Navarro said that both the sound and graphics were "superb" and the technical graphics are impressive for the PlayStation 2. GameTrailers said that in terms of visuals, "there aren't that many PlayStation 2 games in the same league as God of War II." GameZone said that despite the issue of clipping, the game is "unbelievably gorgeous".
Roper said that there were a couple of puzzles "that seemed a little rough around the edges and whose otherwise straightforward solution suffered a bit from imperfect implementation." He also criticized the difficulty of unlocking some of the bonus content, as some requirements are "punishingly hard for most everyone." Reed, however, said if players can find any flaws, they are based on "personal taste", but also stated that regardless of refinement, "you can never quite replicate the wow factor of the original—even if it ends up being a better game." Navarro said that at times, the combat is "overly straightforward ... and still prone to button mashing," and said that it was "a bit disappointing" that more was not done to the combat system. He criticized the cliffhanger ending and said a few of the bonus challenges "aren't all that great." GameTrailers criticized the invisible walls, stating that "There are places you should be able to go that you simply can't." They also cited inconsistency issues in regards to navigation. Leone said his "only real" disappointment is that he did not feel the game was evolving the series.
Awards and accolades
Both IGN and GameSpot consider God of War II to be the "swan song" of the PlayStation 2 era. In 2007, it was awarded "PlayStation Game of the Year" at the 25th annual Golden Joystick Awards, and UGO awarded it "PS2 Game of the Year". At the 2007 Spike Video Game Awards, it was a nominee for "Best Action Game" and "Best Original Score". At the 12th Satellite Awards, God of War II received the Outstanding Platform Action/Adventure Game award. At the 2007 British Academy of Film and Television Arts (BAFTA) Video Game Awards, God of War II received the "Story and Character" and "Technical Achievement" awards, and was a nominee for "Action and Adventure", "Original Score", and "Use of Audio". In 2009, IGN named God of War II the second-best PlayStation 2 game of all time—five ahead of its predecessor. In November 2012, Complex magazine named God of War II the best PlayStation 2 game of all time—where God of War was named the eleventh-best—and also considered it better than its successor, God of War III.
References
Notes
Footnotes
Works cited
External links
God of War II official U.S. website
2007 video games
God of War (franchise)
Video games based on Greek mythology
Video games set in ancient Greece
Video games set in antiquity
Action-adventure games
Single-player video games
Hack and slash games
Video games about time travel
Video game sequels
Video games about revenge
PlayStation 2 games
PlayStation 2-only games
Sony Interactive Entertainment games
Novels based on video games
Video games developed in the United States
Video games scored by Cris Velasco
Video games scored by Gerard Marino
Video games scored by Mike Reagan
BAFTA winners (video games)
Santa Monica Studio games
Cultural depictions of Jason |
4376673 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stalin%20Note | Stalin Note | The Stalin Note, also known as the March Note, was a document delivered to the representatives of the Western Allies (the United Kingdom, France, and the United States) from the Soviet Union in separated Germany including the two countries in West and East on 10 March 1952. Soviet general secretary and premier Joseph Stalin put forth a proposal for a German reunification and neutralisation with no conditions on economic policies and with guarantees for "the rights of man and basic freedoms, including freedom of speech, press, religious persuasion, political conviction, and assembly" and free activity of democratic parties and organizations.
West German Chancellor Konrad Adenauer and the Western Allies characterised Stalin's move as an aggressive action that attempted to stall the reintegration of West Germany. However, there was later a debate on whether a chance for reunification had been missed. Six years after the exchange, two West German ministers, Thomas Dehler and Gustav Heinemann, blamed Adenauer for not having explored the chance of reunification.
There is ongoing debate over the sincerity of the note, though declassified documents from the former Soviet archives indicate that there was an intention to incorporate the German Democratic Republic into the Eastern bloc and to blame the division of Germany on the Western occupying powers.
Background
After the Second World War ended, Germany was divided into what became eventually a Western Zone and an Eastern Zone. By 1949, Germany had a parliamentary democracy in the West, called the Federal Republic of Germany (FRG, commonly "West Germany"), and a communist state in the East, called the German Democratic Republic (GDR, commonly "East Germany"). Opportunities to reunify both halves appeared unlikely from the Western standpoint. The Socialist Unity Party of Germany (SED) feared losing power if free elections were held. Germany had still not signed a peace treaty for the war because of animosity between the three Western Powers and the Soviet Union. The peace treaty with Germany, the Two Plus Four Agreement, was signed only in 1990.
In early 1950, the United States began negotiations for a peace treaty with Japan, which granted long-term US military bases in Japan. This may have had an influence on Stalin's decision to support North Korea's invasion of South Korea, but the alleged influence has not been proven. The Korean War (1950–1953) surprised the US and contributed to deteriorated relations between the US and the Soviet Union during the Cold War.
In discussions on reunification, East Germany stressed the importance of a peace treaty, while West Germany focused on the importance of free elections for all of Germany. West German Chancellor Konrad Adenauer did not believe that reunification was possible under the given conditions. He and his administration pursued a course that allied West Germany with the Western Bloc, particularly in relationship to military policy. Specifically, Adenauer felt that West Germany should maintain an army, which could be integrated into a larger West European military force. The European Defence Community Treaty was signed in May 1952, after the rejection of the Stalin Note, but the proposed European Defence Community never came into being because the treaty was rejected by the French National Assembly.
Stalin and East Germany condemned the treaty, although East Germany had created a pseudo-military force called the Kasernierte Volkspolizei. The Stalin Notes could be seen as a way to draw out the East German propaganda efforts so that reunification would fail.
On 15 September 1951, East Germany offered to discuss holding elections at a meeting with West Germany. However, West Germany refused to hold talks with the SED because that would have meant the actual recognition of East Germany as an equal country. Contact was always maintained through the Western Powers. Instead, West Germany wanted a commission of the United Nations to see if free all-German elections were possible.
The endeavours of the Western Powers made the commission meet in December 1951. East Germany refused to let it enter, however, and stated that the possibility of free elections should be investigated by a commission of the four occupying powers.
First Stalin Note
At a conference in Paris, the SED emphasised the importance of the two German states discussing a potential peace treaty. The Soviet leaders also encouraged the discussion of a peace treaty with the Western Powers because they were afraid of the push for the integration of the West German armed forces into a larger Western coalition.
East Germany appealed to the four powers to allow for negotiations of the peace treaty for Germany. After about two months, in August 1951, Stalin presented his first draft of the plan for a peace treaty. After working through numerous corrections and basic conceptual changes, the final version was ready seven months later.
On 10 March 1952, Andrei Gromyko gave a diplomatic note about the solution of the "German problem" to representatives of the three western occupiers (the United States, the United Kingdom and France) and called for a four-power conference. The note included the following points:
A peace treaty with all participants in the war with Germany should be negotiated with a single united German government. The Allies must agree on its formation.
Germany would be re-established as a united state within the boundaries established by the provisions of the Potsdam Conference.
All occupation forces would be withdrawn within one year of the date that treaty came into effect.
Germany would have democratic rights, such as having freedom of assembly, freedom of the press, and freedom to have a multi-party system, including for former members of the Nazi Party in the German armed forces, except for those under criminal prosecution.
Germany would become officially neutral and not enter any kind of coalition or military alliance directed against any of the countries whose military forces had participated in the war against it.
Germany would have access to world markets without restrictions.
Germany could have its own national armed forces to defend it and also manufacture munitions for those forces.
West German reaction
West Germany's priorities were different from East Germany's. Chancellor Adenauer considered his main priority to be the integration of West Germany into the West, and he saw reunification as a rather abstract goal. Specifically, his administration wanted to focus on the re-establishment of Germany into a capitalist Europe, and he felt that reunification was not possible until West Germany was securely established in Western Europe. He even believed that reunification could happen only at the same time as a radical change in Eastern Europe. If the integration of West Germany into the Western Alliance could not be managed, West Germany would come under the influence of the Soviet Union.
He felt that Germany alone would not be able to afford an army that could provide for the security of a neutral Germany. Thus, he assumed that two German states would co-exist for an indeterminate amount of time and he followed that goal in the background. For those reasons, Adenauer saw the note as an annoyance and wanted to continue proceedings with the Western Powers as if the note had not existed.
Adenauer's view that Stalin's offer was not serious was widely shared. However, there were other views about how to react to the offer. The Minister of All-German Affairs, Jakob Kaiser, had a "bridge theory" which suggested that Germany could be the mediator between the East and the West. He agreed with Adenauer about the importance of free elections and the refusal of the Potsdam borders, but Kaiser took the Soviet offer very seriously. In a radio address on 12 March 1952, he stated that the note had an important political significance, but he still thought it was important to approach it with caution. He asked for the Soviet suggestions to be carefully explored so that no opportunity for reunification would be missed.
Similarly, other ministers and also members of the Free Democratic Party (FDP) felt that they should at least seriously test Stalin's proposal so that public opinion would not be that reunification failed because of West Germany. It would also quickly prove whether Stalin really meant to keep his offer; otherwise, his deceit would be quickly revealed.
However, Adenauer felt that a "test" would have significant disadvantages:
A conference could be drawn out by the Soviet Union, and the relationship with the West would be delayed at first. If the West finally left the conference unnerved, Stalin could blame the failure of the talks on the West.
Because of the Second World War and other events in German history, such as the 1922 Treaty of Rapallo, it was essential for West Germany to appear as a reliable partner to the West. Agreeing with the offer would destroy that impression.
West Germany would participate in the conference with East Germany. The latter would thus be recognized by the West, which would allow Stalin to have already achieved one of his goals without given up anything in return.
Even if Stalin's offer were meant seriously, according to the historian Andreas Hillgruber, Adenauer was worried about a neutral unified Germany. He believed that it would not act responsibly in such a difficult situation between the East and the West. Adenauer also shared that idea with the West. Also, he thought that a neutral Germany could not defend itself alone from the Soviet Union.
Adenauer, his ministers, the opposing Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD) and most of the population in West Germany agreed that Stalin's proposal was not sincere and that the demand for free elections had to be maintained. However, there was still some uneasiness that West Germany could not do anything against the division of Germany.
East German reaction
In East Germany, the note was officially received with excitement. The party organ of the SED, Neues Deutschland ("New Germany"), greatly emphasised that "the Soviet Government gives the patriotic forces of the German people the possibility of starting a wide offensive against the enemies of the peaceful reunification of Germany", ("patriotic forces" meant principally communist forces). This was largely a result of the strong and heavy Soviet influence in East Germany, whose leaders were subordinated to the Soviets and their political goals and ideological directions.
East German Prime Minister Otto Grotewohl, indicated how the draft treaty was interpreted by East Germany in a government declaration on 14 March. He described East Germany as a democratic and free state and West Germany as undemocratic and fascist. Anti-peace and anti-democratic groups, however, could not be allowed to exist in a united Germany. In addition, a united Germany had to orientate itself with the East German five-year plan.
Finally, Walter Ulbricht, the general secretary of the central committee of the SED, unmistakably spoke of the interpretation of the note. It should be understood as an action against the "general war treaty" (the Germany Treaty), through which Germany would become dependent on the West. However, Germany could not develop freely and peacefully except in a communist so-called "world peace bloc". In the end, East German goals for German reunification pressed on a sweeping communist reform on a unified Germany, which could be seen by at least a few in West Germany and the West as a ploy by Moscow to gain all of Germany into the communist fold.
Western response
The West was not completely surprised by the proposition offered by the March note because Stalin had not yet tried to interfere with the western integration of West Germany. However, the Western Powers did not want to begin negotiations with the Soviet Union until West Germany had been securely integrated into the West. Therefore, the western response was to delay the start of negotiations for the Peace Treaty.
After the foreign ministers of the Western Occupation had finished their response, they asked Adenauer for his opinion on the matter in case he had any small changes that he wished to make. Although he mistrusted the note, he asked that it not be outright rejected in the answer since he wanted to avoid creating the impression that the West had brusquely refused it.
On 25 March 1952, the first note from the British, French and American governments was sent to Moscow and included the following points:
To begin negotiations on the Peace Treaty, the United Nations must check that all of Germany had free elections, which would then be held, and a government for all of Germany would finally be formed.
The borders from Potsdam (the Oder-Neisse line) were rejected since they were to be in effect only until a peace treaty was worked out.
Germany would have the right to enter into any alliances within the context of the UN Charter.
There would be full western agreement for Germany to be integrated into a defensive European military alliance, which was understood to be a clear reference to the European Defence Community. An independent German military would be a step back into a Europe that had been controlled by militaristic and aggressive rivalry.
Second Stalin Note
In the second Stalin Note, sent on 9 April 1952, the Soviet Union stood by its position that negotiations for the groundwork of a peace treaty and for the creation of a unified German government to begin. Stalin accepted that free elections could be the groundwork for a unified German government but insisted for the four occupying powers, rather than the United Nations, to supervise the elections. On the other hand, Stalin stayed firm on his idea for a reunified Germany to have the borders outlined by the Potsdam Conference and that even more generally, an armed Germany could not be in an alliance that was directed aggressively against other states.
In the second Western note of 13 May 1952, it was again emphasised that a freely-elected all-German government must participate in the treaty negotiations. Additionally, the West accepted that a commission of the occupying powers could oversee the elections but insisted for the commission not to be made up of government officials but impartial participants. The matter of dispute remained: free elections first (West) or peace treaty negotiations first (Soviet Union).
Third Stalin Note
A day before the official signing of the European Defence Community (EDC), the Soviet Union sent a third note, on 24 May 1952. Stalin criticised the creation of the EDC, whichaccording to the Germany Treatyshould be in effect even after reunification, and accused the West of delaying the negotiations for a peace treaty. In addition, the all-German government must remain under the control of the occupying powers during the treaty negotiations.
On 10 July 1952, the West criticised the centralisation, the collectivisation and the changes in the East German justice system that the SED had passed. The note stated that the conference should not negotiate a peace treaty yet but decide on a commission to oversee the elections first. There was still a difference of opinion over whether Potsdam could be the basis for negotiation, which contradicted all of the developments since 1945.
Fourth Stalin Note
On 23 August 1952, the Soviet Union sent its last note, which repeated its main positions and accusations. Although the Western Powers had conceded to allowing the occupying powers to oversee the elections, the Soviets suddenly refused any international election commission. Instead, both sides of Germany should be responsible for the creation of a commission with equal representation although the West had rejected that in 1951.
The West answered on 23 September 1952 with the repetition of its previous views and the renewal of its suggestion to form a nonpartisan commission of the four powers.
After the first Western note, the lack of success of the exchange of notes had already been internally determined in the East and the West. This view was also publicly expressed by the rather polemic contents of the last four notes. The signing of the two treaties with the West, on 26 May and 27 May 1952, emphasised it even more.
Debate about "missed chance"
There have been several debates about whether a real chance for reunification had been missed in 1952. The publicist Paul Sethe and the historians Wilfried Loth, Josef Foschepoth, Karl-Gustav von Schönfels and especially Rolf Steininger belong to the sceptics. Their views are answered by , and . There are two main disputes:
The more concrete question is easier to research and revolved around Stalin's motives and how ready he was to permit a neutralised democratic unified Germany and give up East Germany. Sceptics reject that, since a completely-independent Germany could be just as unpleasant in principle for Stalin as for the West. Besides, East Germany's existence had great advantages for Stalin:
As one of four occupying powers of the Second World War, the Soviets enjoyed prestige.
The Soviet right to occupy East Germany was generally recognised by the West.
East Germany was an important Soviet bridgehead in the middle of Europe, especially since Soviet troops had again left Czechoslovakia and Poland, the latter on the historically-important 17 September. East Germany was important to hold the system of the Soviet satellite states together.
Because of its precarious situation, the East German leadership was mostly true vassals of the Soviet Union.
East Germany could be economically exploited and provide soldiers.
There was little to no comparison with Austriafrom which the Soviet Union withdrew in 1955 following the Austrian State Treaty and the declaration of Austria's permanent neutralitysince Austria had less strategic and economic importance than Germany.
A more political and more speculative question is whether such a Germany would have been more desirable. The sceptics noted:
Stalin could have still tried to subjugate all of Germany indirectly by reunification.
Without the Western Alliance, Stalin could have conquered Western European countries little by little, as Hitler had treated Germany's neighbours.
Without integration with the West, West Germany or all of Germany would have fared worse economically.
Above all, there is debate about the behaviour of West Germany and that of the Western Powers. The sceptics alleged repeatedly that Adenauer, who came from the mostly-Catholic Rhineland, did not want reunification with the mostly-Protestant Prussia. During the Weimar Republic, he had wanted an independent Rhineland within the German Empire, which was used against him.
Also, Adenauer could have had a political motive since many of the traditional supporters of the SPD were in the East. Unification would give Germany more Protestants and more Social Democrats than West Germany had.
In essence, the debate had two peaks: at the end of the 1950s and then again after the opening of the Western Powers' archives in the mid-1980s. Newer research since the 1990s has also taken into account the archives of the former Eastern Bloc and thus raised further discussion. Finally, a book on the analysis of the Stalin Notes was published in 2002. During reunification in 1989 and 1990, the debate about the Stalin Notes played no part.
Discussion in the 1950s
The American historian Ruud van Dijk remarked that in the later discussions, much more sincerity was attributed to Stalin than in 1952. The clearer it became that the chances for German reunification were dwindling, the stronger the debate about whether or not an important chance had been missed in 1952. According to , the discussion increased in extent as the chances for reunification decreased.
Among journalists, it was Paul Sethe who most sharply criticized Adenauer's rejection of Stalin's offer. He was the co-publisher of the Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung in the early 1950s and had always spoken out in his commentaries for at least seeing how serious the notes were. Thus, he saw the neutralisation of Germany as an appropriate price for reunification. He completed his thesis of missed chances in his book (From Bonn to Moscow) and so he lay the cornerstone for a debate about the notes that lasted for decades.
The idea of the missed chance received attention through a debate in the Bundestag on 23 January 1958. The CDU/CSU were in a government coalition with the small DP, when two former ministers asked to speak, Thomas Dehler (FDP) and Gustav Heinemann (first CDU, now SPD). Both of them had left the government in the dispute with Chancellor Adenauer and accused him of not having done enough for reunification.
Discussion in the 1980s
The debate came again in the 1980s, when the western archives were opened for historians. The archives of the Soviet Union and East Germany were still not accessible to researchers. The historian Rolf Steininger asked in his article ("A Chance for Reunification?") in 1985, which was based predominantly on Western sources, if an important chance had been missed. Steininger and others disputed if it would have led to a divided Germany and if Adenauer did the best possible thing. Steininger's argument was based on three assumptions:
Stalin's offer was meant seriously.
The Western powers intended to sound out Stalin's offer.
Adenauer attempted to stop any attempt in that direction.
However, the historian justified the actions of the Western Powers. Also on the basis of the western archives, he attached little importance to Adenauer's influence on the negotiations. Graml interpreted the note itself and the "planned" failure of the negotiations as evidence that the Soviet Union more or less wanted to create an alibi to push on East German integration to the Eastern Bloc.
References
Further reading
Bürger, G.A.: Die Legende von 1952. Zur sowjetischen März-Note und ihrer Rolle in der Nachkriegspolitik. Leer (East Friesland) 1962.
Graml, Hermann: Nationalstaat oder westdeutscher Teilstaat. Die sowjetischen Noten vom Jahre 1952 und die öffentliche Meinung in der Bundesrepublik. in: Vierteljahrshefte für Zeitgeschichte (VfZ, Quarterly Journal of Contemporary History) 25 (1977), p. 821–864.
ibid.: Die Legende von der verpaßten Gelegenheit. Zur sowjetischen Notenkampagne des Jahres 1952. in: VfZ 29 (1981), p. 307–341.
Loth, Wilfried: Stalins ungeliebtes Kind. Warum Moskau die DDR nicht wollte. 1996.
Niedhart, Gottfried: "Schweigen als Pflicht. Warum Konrad Adenauer die Stalin-Note vom 10. März nicht ausloten ließ." (Die Zeit, March 13, 1992)
Schwarz, Hans-Peter (publ.): Die Legende von der verpaßten Gelegenheit. Die Stalin-Note vom 10. März 1952. Stuttgart/Zurich 1982.
Steininger, Rolf: Eine Chance zur Wiedervereinigung? Die Stalin-Note vom 10. März 1952. Bonn 1985.
Zarusky, Jürgen (publ.): Die Stalinnote vom 10. März 1952. Neue Quellen und Analysen. Munich 2002.
Cold War treaties
1952 documents
Cold War documents
Allied occupation of Germany
Foreign relations of the Soviet Union
Germany–Soviet Union relations
Soviet Union–United States relations
Note
German reunification
1952 in international relations |
4376813 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LGBT%20rights%20in%20Egypt | LGBT rights in Egypt | Lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) people in Egypt face legal challenges not experienced by non-LGBT residents.
Contemporary Egyptian law does not explicitly criminalize same-sex sexual acts. Instead, the state uses several morality provisions for the de facto criminalization of homosexual conduct. Any behavior, or the expression of any idea that is deemed to be immoral, scandalous or offensive to the teachings of a recognized religious leader may be prosecuted using these provisions. These public morality and public order laws have been used against LGBT people, in addition to the supporters of LGBT-reform.
History of homosexuality and legality of same-sex sexual activity
History of homosexuality in ancient Egypt
According to common interpretations of the Torah, Leviticus 18:3 alludes to the practice that ancient Egypt permitted two women or two men to marry each other. The best known case of possible homosexuality in ancient Egypt is that of the two high officials Nyankh-Khnum and Khnum-hotep. Both men lived and served under pharaoh Niuserre during the 5th Dynasty (c. 2494–2345 BC). Nyankh-Khnum and Khnum-hotep each had families of their own with children and wives, but when they died their families apparently decided to bury them together in one and the same mastaba tomb. In this mastaba, several paintings depict both men embracing each other and touching their faces nose-on-nose. These depictions leave plenty of room for speculation, because in ancient Egypt the nose-on-nose touching normally represented a kiss.
Egyptologists and historians disagree about how to interpret the paintings of Nyankh-khnum and Khnum-hotep. Some scholars believe that the paintings reflect an example of homosexuality between two married men and prove that the ancient Egyptians accepted same-sex relationships. Other scholars disagree and interpret the scenes as an evidence that Nyankh-khnum and Khnum-hotep were twins, even possibly conjoined twins. No matter what interpretation is correct, the paintings show at the very least that Nyankh-khnum and Khnum-hotep must have been very close to each other in life as in death.
It remains unclear, what exact view the ancient Egyptians fostered about homosexuality. Any document and literature that actually contains sexual orientated stories, never name the nature of the sexual deeds, but instead uses stilted and flowery paraphrases. While the stories about Seth and his sexual behavior may reveal rather negative thoughts and views, the tomb inscription of Nyankh-khnum and Khnum-hotep may instead suggest that homosexuality was likewise accepted. Ancient Egyptian documents never clearly say that same-sex relationships were seen as reprehensible or despicable. No ancient Egyptian document mentions that homosexual acts were set under penalty. Thus it was very likely tolerated, as there has never been proof suggesting otherwise.
The Roman Emperor Constantine in the 4th century AD is said to have exterminated a large number of "effeminate priests" based in Alexandria.
Coptic Egypt
The 6th- or 7th-century Ashmolean Parchment AN 1981.940 provides the only example in Coptic language of a love spell between men. This vellum leaf contains an incantation by a man named Apapolo, the son of Noah, to compel the presence and love of another man Phello, the son of Maure. Phello will be restless until he finds Apapolo and satisfies the latter's desire.
Medieval Islamic Egypt
Sunni Islam eventually supplanted Christianity as the dominant religion of Egypt in the centuries following the Muslim conquest of Egypt. Alongside Sunni Islam came a new ruling class: the Arabs, and later, the Mamluks. The cultural dialogue on homosocial and homosexual behaviors in medieval Egypt was usually critical. The native Egyptian population was tolerant of homosexual behaviors, and discussion of the matter was usually spearheaded by legalistic Islamic scholars from the Muslim ruling class. The Western concept of a homosexual, as presently understood, did not exist in medieval Egypt. Words describing homosexual-adjacent acts/behaviors described actions, and not a group of people. Furthermore, there is a lack of historically recorded evidence on homosexuality in Egypt until the 8th century: this marks the entrance of boy-love poetry into the historical record.
The existence of homosexual behaviors in the interim period shortly after the Muslim conquest is not in doubt, however. Medieval Egyptian society, though a Muslim society, did not by default share the same outlook on masculinity, homosexuality, and homoerotic behavior as other lands conquered by the Rashidun Caliphate, especially where Islam's influence was weaker. The cultural norms of homosexuality in medieval Egypt were in line with those of the Eastern Mediterranean; top-down societal pressure from Islam did cause these behaviors to be scrutinized more heavily than they were before, especially by religious officials. Coptic Christianity's interaction with Islam fostered a large Sufi mystic population, that, in turn, had its own cultural views on homoerotic behaviors, in the form of "gazing" at young men who were seen as earthly representations of the beauty of God. Sufi practices were attacked by religious conservatives and viewed as hotbeds of degeneracy.
Volney, a Frenchman who traveled through the later Mamluk Sultanate, said of the Mamluks: "They are, above all, addicted to that abominable wickedness which was at all times the vice of the Greeks ... It is difficult to account for this taste, when we consider that they all have women, unless we suppose they seek in one sex that poignancy of refusal which they do not permit the other." The practice described by Volney as "the vice of the Greeks" is known as pederasty, and this was a visible and tolerated expression of homosexual behaviors in both medieval Egypt and the historical Eastern Mediterranean. The introduction of Islam into the fold did not adversely impact this practice in the general public. In the Egyptian context, it was considered natural for older men to gaze upon younger men seen as desirable and beautiful, with some consideration given to their age, though not always. This attraction to male youth was viewed as natural and compatible with traditional Muslim gender roles; in that regard, pederasty was as natural as heterosexuality. Arab and Turkish poems dedicated to various beautiful young men began to appear in the 8th century in various Muslim countries, including medieval Egypt. The presence of homoerotic literature demonstrates the tolerance of certain same-sex behaviors in Arab and Muslim societies at large, with some cultural differences depending on the country in question. The prevalence of homoerotic behaviors in medieval Egyptian society as they pertain to men who already had wives was a topic of rigorous debate among religious authorities, though it was culturally tolerable in medieval Egypt. Islamic law on the matter of same-sex sexual activity was further expanded after the explosion of homoerotic narratives across the Muslim world in the 8th century. Medieval Egyptian society was tolerant of homosocial, homoerotic, and homosexual behaviors and acts; religious authorities were not. Islamic law tolerated a smaller subsection of behaviors (pederasty), for a time, and described certain acts as deeply dangerous to society and repugnant to the faith. Islam was discouraging of homosexual behaviors and non traditional gender roles, while native Egyptian cultural practices were tolerant of a larger array of homosexual behaviors, acts, and attractions. As such, it is best to consider the intersection of culture and religion at various moments in medieval Egyptian history when discussing the status of, by Western standards, LGBT individuals in medieval Egyptian society.
19th and mid-20th centuries
During the 19th century, the Egyptian public considered homosocial and homosexual relations to be a normal occurrence. Khawalat were male cross-dressing dancers who performed in public celebrations. It was typical for khawalat to take the place of female dancers. Over time, khawalat has since turned into a derogatory term in Egypt. French novelist Gustave Flaubert wrote a letter to a friend in 1850 in which Flaubert wrote how he was shocked by the overall normality and acceptance of homosexuality in Egypt; noting that the subject was freely admitted and discussed in public.
Scott Long notes that "Egypt’s criminalization of consensual, non-commercial sex between men arose partly out of, and partly in reaction to, the colonial regulation of female sex work." In 1883, Khedive Tewfik introduced a legal code in Egypt, which had been occupied by the British a year earlier. The code was modelled after the Napoleonic Code, the civil code introduced by Napoleon Bonaparte in France in 1804, and in part regulated the condition of female prostitutes in Egypt by requiring them to be subject to regular medical examinations, which remained in force until 1949. Political resistance in Egypt to the occupation soon targeted the Egyptian prostitution system, due to the solicitation of prostitutes by British troops and the "privileged status enjoyed by foreign prostitutes over Egyptians", which contributed to "prostitution's association with political subjugation." As noted by Long,
In 1949 a special committee of the House of Representatives (then the lower house of parliament) began studying the draft of the first anti-prostitution law in Egypt. The committee's report recommended introducing the term fujur [debauchery] as a criminalized conduct. It urged adding the word "so the text [can] include male prostitution, since the word di`ara [prostitution] only referred to female prostitution."
An extension to the law in 1951 defined prostitution as "the practice of vice with others with no distinction." As Long notes, "In the absence of the monetary element, the definition in effect criminalized consensual “promiscuity” in general, rendering exchange of money for sex irrelevant."
The inhabitants of the Siwa Oasis, which have been noted by historians to have been historically accepting of homosexuality, were subject to several studies by anthropologists during the early 20th century. German egyptologist Georg Steindorff explored the Oasis in 1900 and reported that homosexual relations were common and often extended to a form of marriage: "The feast of marrying a boy was celebrated with great pomp, and the money paid for a boy sometimes amounted to fifteen pounds, while the money paid for a woman was a little over one pound." Mahmud Mohammad Abd Allah, writing of Siwan customs for the Harvard Peabody Museum in 1917, commented that although Siwan men could take up to four wives, "Siwan customs allow a man but one boy to whom he is bound by a stringent code of obligations." In the late 1940s, a Siwan merchant told visiting British novelist Robin Maugham that the Siwan women were "badly neglected", but that Siwan men "will kill each other for boy. Never for a woman", although as Maugham noted, marriage to a boy had become illegal by then.
Mubarak regime
During the rule of Hosni Mubarak, the Egyptian government did not support LGBT-rights legislation at home and objected to attempts, starting in the 1990s, to have the United Nations include LGBT-rights within its human rights mission. While the Mubarak regime did not support LGBT rights, it did not enact an obvious ban on homosexuality or cross-dressing in the criminal code.
Criminal sanctions against gay and bisexual men tended to arise not from the penal code itself, but from a supplemental law, enacted in 1961, to combat prostitution.
The law against prostitution also bans "debauchery", even if the act did not involve trafficking or prostitution.
Egyptian courts interpreted the ban on debauchery to criminalize homosexual relations between consenting adults. Repeat offenders of the law can face even harsher punishment for what the law views as "habitual debauchery".
In addition to the law on prostitution, other public morality or order-based laws gave the police and judges significant leeway to jail or fine gay and bisexual men. While arrests had been periodically occurring under these laws for decades, a more systematic crackdown appeared to have begun in the early part of the twenty-first century.
Beginning in 2000, under Hosni Mubarak, these laws were used to engage in a more sophisticated and systematic crackdown on gay or bisexual men, or indeed anyone deemed by the government to be supportive of LGBT rights.
In 2000, police arrested an Egyptian gay couple and charged them with, "violation of honor by threat" and "practising immoral and indecent behavior". Their lawyer asked that the charges be dropped because homosexuality was not a crime, but the judge refused on the grounds that two men had in fact "offended" religious and moral standards. The incident became a media sensation, promoting various public figures to view homosexuality as a product of Western decadence and demand that the government execute homosexuals or send them to mental institutions to be reformed.
Within a year, the Egyptian government began a public crackdown on Egyptian gay men by raiding private parties, arresting the guests and charging them under the Prostitution and Debauchery law. This crackdown also saw the "Public Order and Public Morals" code being increasingly used to criminalize the sexuality of gay and bisexual men. The code, originally enacted in the 1990s to punish westernized students and liberal intellectuals, was now being used to punish gay and bisexual men.
The first of these raids was at a Cairo boat party, where all the Egyptian gay men, fifty-two, were arrested and charged with violating these vague public morality laws. The "Cairo 52" were arrested and tried on the original Prostitution and Debauchery law, as well as the newer Public Order and Public Morality code.
The impact of these laws on gay and bisexual men were brought to the world's attention by the Human Rights Watch.
It was during this time that the Human Rights Watch published a report on the laws used by the Egyptian government to criminalize homosexuality, the history of the laws, use of torture against gay and bisexual men by the police, and how such laws violate international human rights standards.
The Cairo 52 were defended by international human rights organizations such as Human Rights Watch, and Amnesty International. However, they had no organized internal support, pleaded innocent, and were tried under the state security courts. Members of the German parliament and the French President called upon the Egyptian government to respect the human rights of its LGBT citizens. Twenty-three of the defendants were sentenced to prison with hard labor, while the others were acquitted. More men have been arrested in various raids on homosexuals, although foreigners tend to be released quickly.
In many recent situations, men are being arrested for meeting or attempting to meet other adult men through various Internet chatrooms and message boards. Trans and gender non conforming people are also harassed this way. One such case, on 20 June 2003, when an Israeli tourist in Egypt was jailed for homosexuality for about fifteen days before he was eventually released and allowed to return home.
On 24 September 2003, police set up checkpoints at both sides of the Qasr al-Nil Bridge, which spans the Nile in downtown Cairo and is a popular place for adult men to meet other men for sex, and arrested 62 men for homosexuality.
In 2004, a seventeen-year-old private university student received a 17 years' sentence in prison, including 2 years' hard labor, for posting a personal profile on a gay dating site.
The Egyptian government's response to the international criticism was either to deny that they were persecuting LGBT people or to defend their policies by stating that homosexuality is a moral perversion.
In 2009, Al Balagh Al Gadid, a weekly Egyptian newspaper was banned, and two of its reporters were jailed for printing a news article that accused high-profile Egyptian actors Nour El Sherif, Khaled Aboul Naga and Hamdi El Wazir of being involved in a sexual prostitution sex ring and in bribing government agents to cover up their involvement.
Post Mubarak
LGBT-rights issues were not among the reforms demanded by many of the protesters or other dissidents during the 2011 revolution. The provisional constitution, approved by voters in 2011, does not specifically address LGBT-rights and the Egyptian government continued to oppose to join the United Nations' "Joint Statement on Ending Acts of Violence Related Human Rights Violations Based on Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity", which called for an end to "acts of violence, criminal sanctions and related human rights violations committed against individuals because of their sexual orientation or gender identity".
In 2013, Egyptian comedian Bassem Youssef said on The Daily Show, in an interview with Jon Stewart, that he had been charged with "propagating and promoting homosexuality and obscenity" by the Morsi government.
In November 2014, eight men were sentenced to three years in prison for charges of spreading indecent images, following the circulation of a video of a gay marriage ceremony.
In December 2014, around 26 men were arrested in a public bathhouse (Hammam) after a TV presenter, Mona Iraqi, collaborated with the Egyptian police. The court acquitted them.
The Revolution of 25 January 2011 and LGBT rights in Egypt
The Egyptian revolution of 25 January 2011 provided a political momentum and space for LGBT organizing in Egypt that were exceptionally productive in terms of movement building. In the aftermath of the revolution, Egyptian LGBT individuals, activists and organizations started becoming more visible and more eager to be part of the changing political and social landscapes that seemed promising and empowering. Many of the emerging LGBT activists, back then, started mobilizing not only LGBT rights but other intersecting rights as well. Women's rights, Gender and sexuality rights, Indigenous people's rights, and civic rights were among the main intersecting struggles that shaped the LGBT activism in the post-revolution years. By 2013, a number of online campaigns to fight against homophobia and transphobia started going viral on a number of social media platforms such as Twitter and Facebook. No one can claim that such mobilization resulted in successes that a normative legal perspective could translate into legal reforms; however, it was because of such mobilization and the advocacy that resulted from it that defending the rights of people targeted based on their sexuality by the Egyptian state became more of a collective demand within Human Rights groups and organizations in Egypt. Also, thanks to the revolution, the Egyptian public sphere provided a space for the LGBT community, that even at the toughest moments of state sponsored crackdown, they still managed to claim it.
The Rainbow Flags' incident
On 22 September 2017, a number of Egyptian youth raised rainbow flags as a way to advocate LGBT rights in Egypt, during a concert for the Lebanese band Mashrou' Leila that took place in Cairo. Shortly after the concert the pictures and videos of those young people went viral on social media and then on a number of Egyptian news websites. Starting from 23 September and for a number of days, Egyptian TV hosts such as Ahmed Moussa and Mohamed Al Gheity kept inciting against Egyptian LGBT communities generally and against those who raised the flags in specific; moreover, they urged the Egyptian state to take immediate actions against anyone who was involved in the incident of raising the rainbow flags during the concert.
The opinions produced by such TV hosts did not stop there. For example, during his show, Ahmed Moussa shared personal information of some of the young people who raised the flags. As a consequence of this religious campaign by the Egyptian media, the Egyptian state started to arrest a number of individuals based on their actual or perceived sexual orientations/ gender identities, whether from the streets, or dating applications, or even from their homes. Between 25 September and end of November 2017, at least 84 people were arrested and many of them were subjected to humiliating forced anal tests. Two of the people arrested were accused of halting the rule of the constitution and disrupting the security of the state and society, a charge that would have had them imprisoned for 15 years. The two individuals, Sarah Hegazy and Ahmed Alaa, were detained for three months before being released on bail in January 2018.
The consequences of the rainbow flags' incident and the backlash that followed were as severe as those of Cairo 52, if not worse. In addition to the numerous arrests, the crackdown by the Egyptian state, together with the Egyptian media, resulted in a state of trauma and despair among young Egyptian LGBT individuals, resulting in at least one suicide and many attempted suicides by a number of Egyptian LGBT youths. Egyptian LGBT individuals and activists are still recovering from the trauma of that severe backlash. Other Egyptian LGBTs had to leave the country because of the social and political threats. In January 2019, host Mohamed El Gheity was jailed one year for hosting a gay man on his TV show.
At least two of the persecuted youths, including one who was imprisoned for three months, received refuge in Canada with the aid of the Rainbow Railroad.
On 13 June 2020 an Egyptian lesbian woman, Sarah Hegazi, who waved the rainbow flag at a concert in Cairo in 2017, died by suicide. She was detained by the Egypt's authority and tortured with electric shocks. She had been charged with "inciting debauchery", and in custody she was molested by female cellmates on police order. She was then transferred to a solitary confinement. After three months of confinement she was bailed upon pressure from Western and South American diplomats. Hegazi then fled to Canada, fearing prosecution, and was granted political asylum. The reason of her suicide was notified as severe depression due to her past trauma.
Current Situation in Egypt
A report published by Human Rights Watch elaborates upon the country's treatment towards LGBT people. Titled – "Egypt: Security Forces Abuse, Torture LGBT People", the report's main findings include entrapment of LGBT people via social media platforms, prolonged detainment and torture of sexual and gender minorities in state custody. As stated by LGBTQ Rights Researcher Rasha Younes, even if legal charges are dismissed, any one accused for an LGBTQ-related offense could be ostracized from family or lose medical care and employment. Trans people often face medical neglect.
State officials and police routinely harass and abuse LGBT people, and specifically trans people, which leads to regular unfair arrests and further abuse by them in their custody.
Recognition of same-sex relationships
Personal and family law in Egypt (e.g. the laws of marriage, divorce, and inheritance) are governed by the religious law of the person or persons in question. As the religious law of all officially recognized religions in Egypt (chief among them Islam and Coptic Orthodox Christianity) do not recognize homosexual relationships as legitimate, Egyptian law only recognizes a marriage between a man and a woman. Reports suggest that if such a relationship becomes public, the police may use it as evidence in a criminal indictment for the various laws against Satanism, prostitution and public immorality.
Living conditions
Until 2001, the Egyptian government refused to recognize that homosexuality was the sexual identity for some of its residents, and after 2001, it only did so to brush off criticism from human rights organizations and foreign politicians.
Culturally, most Egyptian citizens are Muslim, which impacts prevailing social biases and attitudes. Traditional Islamic morality does not condone homosexuality. This is similarly seen within traditional Coptic Christian's morality's view on homosexuality. According to Pew Research Center 95% Egyptians believe that homosexuality should not be accepted by society.
Support for LGBT rights
Polling data suggests that only a minority of Egyptians support LGBT rights. This is why Egyptian political parties, human rights NGOs do not express public support for LGBT rights.
One of the few Egyptians to publicly support LGBT-rights has been Maher Sabry. Along with his human rights efforts on behalf of the Cairo 52, he also wrote a play on homophobia in Egypt and later directed the Egyptian film All My Life.
In August 2021, the Central Bank of Egypt was forced to confirm that rainbow holograms due to appear on new E£10 and E£20 banknotes were a secure watermarking feature to prevent counterfeiting, after online critics suggested it was a covert message of support for LGBT rights.
Media
Media depictions of cross-dressing or homosexuality have been negative in keeping with the current cultural and religious values of most Egyptians. In 2017, the Supreme Media Regulatory Council issued an order preventing "the appearance of the homosexuals" or "promoting their slogans" on media.
More liberal depictions of LGBT issues in films and other forms of media tend to be subjected to government censorship or criticism from conservatives.
In 1978, the Egyptian film by Youssef Chahine, Alexandria... Why?, featured a wealthy Egyptian man who has an affair with a British male soldier.
In 1999, the public performance of a play by Maher Sabry, which explored homophobia, was shut down by the government after a few performances. In 2008, Sabry directed an award-winning independent film about an Egyptian gay man, which provoked protests from clerics and government officials who wanted the film banned, if not destroyed.
A weekly newspaper called the Al Balagh Al Gadid was shut down, two reporters jailed, for printing a story that accused Egyptian actors Nour El Sherif, Khaled Aboul Naga and Hamdi El Wazir of bribing police officers in order to cover up their involvement with homosexual prostitution.
Likewise, when an Egyptian film or television program does deal with LGBT-themes it tends to do so in a negative fashion, but even a negative depiction still produces controversy from social conservatives. Films such as Uncensored (2009), Out of Control (2009), A Plastic Plate (2007) and The Yacoubian Building (2006) all depict many different taboos within Egyptian society, including homosexuality, which promoted public calls from social conservatives to censor or ban the films' exhibitions.
In 2013, Family Secrets premiered in Egypt and was billed as the first Egyptian and Arab movie about the life of an eighteen-year-old man struggling with his sexual orientation, and the social stigma surrounding homosexuality. The director made international headlines when he refused the Egyptian censorship board request that he delete certain scenes in the film.
Clampdown on social networking
In August 2018, Al Sisi's government introduced legislation bringing any social network service user with more than 5,000 followers or subscribers under increased scrutiny, subjecting them to prosecution under media laws as part of a crackdown on "terrorism and political activity".
Health
HIV/AIDS
The pandemic first reached Egypt in the 1980s, although public health effort were left to NGOs until the 1990s, when the government began to initiate policies and programs in response to the pandemic.
In 1996, the Health Ministry set up a national AIDS hotline. A 1999 Egypt Today cover story dealt with the AIDS-HIV pandemic in Egypt and the fact that it commonly seen as something caused by foreigners, homosexuals, or drug users. The article also mentioned that there was talk of an LGBT organization being created to target the Egyptian LGBT community, and while a same-sex safer sex brochure was published, the organization was never created and ignorance about the pandemic is common.
In 2005, the Egyptian government started to allow for confidential HIV testing, although most people fear that being tested positive will result in being labelled as a homosexual and thus a de facto criminal. Some Egyptians have access to home test kits brought back from the United States, but most Egyptians lack accurate information about the pandemic and quality care if they do become infected.
In 2007, the Egyptian government aired an educational film about HIV/AIDS in Egypt, with interviews from members of Health Ministry, doctors and nurses.
Summary table
See also
Human rights in Egypt
LGBT in the Middle East
LGBT rights in Africa
LGBT rights in Asia
References
External links
In a Time of Torture: The Assault on Justice In Egypt's Crackdown on Homosexual Conduct March 2004, Human Rights Watch
Activists stage global protests for LGBT Rights in Egypt |
4376814 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Large%20countable%20ordinal | Large countable ordinal | In the mathematical discipline of set theory, there are many ways of describing specific countable ordinals. The smallest ones can be usefully and non-circularly expressed in terms of their Cantor normal forms. Beyond that, many ordinals of relevance to proof theory still have computable ordinal notations (see ordinal analysis). However, it is not possible to decide effectively whether a given putative ordinal notation is a notation or not (for reasons somewhat analogous to the unsolvability of the halting problem); various more-concrete ways of defining ordinals that definitely have notations are available.
Since there are only countably many notations, all ordinals with notations are exhausted well below the first uncountable ordinal ω1; their supremum is called Church–Kleene ω1 or ω (not to be confused with the first uncountable ordinal, ω1), described below. Ordinal numbers below ω are the recursive ordinals (see below). Countable ordinals larger than this may still be defined, but do not have notations.
Due to the focus on countable ordinals, ordinal arithmetic is used throughout, except where otherwise noted. The ordinals described here are not as large as the ones described in large cardinals, but they are large among those that have constructive notations (descriptions). Larger and larger ordinals can be defined, but they become more and more difficult to describe.
Generalities on recursive ordinals
Ordinal notations
Recursive ordinals (or computable ordinals) are certain countable ordinals: loosely speaking those represented by a computable function. There are several equivalent definitions of this: the simplest is to say that a computable ordinal is the order-type of some recursive (i.e., computable) well-ordering of the natural numbers; so, essentially, an ordinal is recursive when we can present the set of smaller ordinals in such a way that a computer (Turing machine, say) can manipulate them (and, essentially, compare them).
A different definition uses Kleene's system of ordinal notations. Briefly, an ordinal notation is either the name zero (describing the ordinal 0), or the successor of an ordinal notation (describing the successor of the ordinal described by that notation), or a Turing machine (computable function) that produces an increasing sequence of ordinal notations (that describe the ordinal that is the limit of the sequence), and ordinal notations are (partially) ordered so as to make the successor of o greater than o and to make the limit greater than any term of the sequence (this order is computable; however, the set O of ordinal notations itself is highly non-recursive, owing to the impossibility of deciding whether a given Turing machine does indeed produce a sequence of notations); a recursive ordinal is then an ordinal described by some ordinal notation.
Any ordinal smaller than a recursive ordinal is itself recursive, so the set of all recursive ordinals forms a certain (countable) ordinal, the Church–Kleene ordinal (see below).
It is tempting to forget about ordinal notations, and only speak of the recursive ordinals themselves: and some statements are made about recursive ordinals which, in fact, concern the notations for these ordinals. This leads to difficulties, however, as even the smallest infinite ordinal, ω, has many notations, some of which cannot be proved to be equivalent to the obvious notation (the simplest program that enumerates all natural numbers).
Relationship to systems of arithmetic
There is a relation between computable ordinals and certain formal systems (containing arithmetic, that is, at least a reasonable fragment of Peano arithmetic).
Certain computable ordinals are so large that while they can be given by a certain ordinal notation o, a given formal system might not be sufficiently powerful to show that o is, indeed, an ordinal notation: the system does not show transfinite induction for such large ordinals.
For example, the usual first-order Peano axioms do not prove transfinite induction for (or beyond) ε0: while the ordinal ε0 can easily be arithmetically described (it is countable), the Peano axioms are not strong enough to show that it is indeed an ordinal; in fact, transfinite induction on ε0 proves the consistency of Peano's axioms (a theorem by Gentzen), so by Gödel's second incompleteness theorem, Peano's axioms cannot formalize that reasoning. (This is at the basis of the Kirby–Paris theorem on Goodstein sequences.) Since Peano arithmetic can prove that any ordinal less than ε0 is well ordered, we say that ε0 measures the proof-theoretic strength of Peano's axioms.
But we can do this for systems far beyond Peano's axioms. For example, the proof-theoretic strength of Kripke–Platek set theory is the Bachmann–Howard ordinal, and, in fact, merely adding to Peano's axioms the axioms that state the well-ordering of all ordinals below the Bachmann–Howard ordinal is sufficient to obtain all arithmetical consequences of Kripke–Platek set theory.
Specific recursive ordinals
Predicative definitions and the Veblen hierarchy
We have already mentioned (see Cantor normal form) the ordinal ε0, which is the smallest satisfying the equation , so it is the limit of the sequence 0, 1, , , , ... The next ordinal satisfying this equation is called ε1: it is the limit of the sequence
More generally, the -th ordinal such that is called . We could define as the smallest ordinal such that , but since the Greek alphabet does not have transfinitely many letters it is better to use a more robust notation: define ordinals by transfinite induction as follows: let and let be the -th fixed point of (i.e., the -th ordinal such that ; so for example, ), and when is a limit ordinal, define as the -th common fixed point of the for all . This family of functions is known as the Veblen hierarchy (there are inessential variations in the definition, such as letting, for a limit ordinal, be the limit of the for : this essentially just shifts the indices by 1, which is harmless). is called the Veblen function (to the base ).
Ordering: if and only if either ( and ) or ( and ) or ( and ).
The Feferman–Schütte ordinal and beyond
The smallest ordinal such that is known as the Feferman–Schütte ordinal and generally written . It can be described as the set of all ordinals that can be written as finite expressions, starting from zero, using only the Veblen hierarchy and addition. The Feferman–Schütte ordinal is important because, in a sense that is complicated to make precise, it is the smallest (infinite) ordinal that cannot be ("predicatively") described using smaller ordinals. It measures the strength of such systems as "arithmetical transfinite recursion".
More generally, Γα enumerates the ordinals that cannot be obtained from smaller ordinals using addition and the Veblen functions.
It is, of course, possible to describe ordinals beyond the Feferman–Schütte ordinal. One could continue to seek fixed points in a more and more complicated manner: enumerate the fixed points of , then enumerate the fixed points of that, and so on, and then look for the first ordinal α such that α is obtained in α steps of this process, and continue diagonalizing in this ad hoc manner. This leads to the definition of the "small" and "large" Veblen ordinals.
Impredicative ordinals
To go far beyond the Feferman–Schütte ordinal, one needs to introduce new methods. Unfortunately there is not yet any standard way to do this: every author in the subject seems to have invented their own system of notation, and it is quite hard to translate between the different systems. The first such system was introduced by Bachmann in 1950 (in an ad hoc manner), and different extensions and variations of it were described by Buchholz, Takeuti (ordinal diagrams), Feferman (θ systems), Aczel, Bridge, Schütte, and Pohlers. However most systems use the same basic idea, of constructing new countable ordinals by using the existence of certain uncountable ordinals. Here is an example of such a definition, described in much greater detail in the article on ordinal collapsing function:
ψ(α) is defined to be the smallest ordinal that cannot be constructed by starting with 0, 1, ω and Ω, and repeatedly applying addition, multiplication and exponentiation, and ψ to previously constructed ordinals (except that ψ can only be applied to arguments less than α, to ensure that it is well defined).
Here Ω = ω1 is the first uncountable ordinal. It is put in because otherwise the function ψ gets "stuck" at the smallest ordinal σ such that εσ=σ: in particular ψ(α)=σ for any ordinal α satisfying σ≤α≤Ω. However the fact that we included Ω allows us to get past this point: ψ(Ω+1) is greater than σ. The key property of Ω that we used is that it is greater than any ordinal produced by ψ.
To construct still larger ordinals, we can extend the definition of ψ by throwing in more ways of constructing uncountable ordinals. There are several ways to do this, described to some extent in the article on ordinal collapsing function.
The Bachmann–Howard ordinal (sometimes just called the Howard ordinal, ψ0(εΩ+1) with the notation above) is an important one, because it describes the proof-theoretic strength of Kripke–Platek set theory. Indeed, the main importance of these large ordinals, and the reason to describe them, is their relation to certain formal systems as explained above. However, such powerful formal systems as full second-order arithmetic, let alone Zermelo–Fraenkel set theory, seem beyond reach for the moment.
Beyond even the Bachmann-Howard ordinal
Beyond this, there are multiple recursive ordinals which aren't as well known as the previous ones. The first of these is Buchholz's ordinal, defined as , abbreviated as just , using the previous notation. It is the proof-theoretic ordinal of , a first-order theory of arithmetic allowing quantification over the natural numbers as well as sets of natural numbers, and , the "formal theory of finitely iterated inductive definitions".
Since the hydras from Buchholz's hydra game are isomorphic to Buchholz's ordinal notation, the ordinals up to this point can be expressed using hydras from the game.p.136 For example corresponds to .
Next is the Takeuti-Feferman-Buchholz ordinal, the proof-theoretic ordinal of ; and another subsystem of second-order arithmetic: - comprehension + transfinite induction, and , the "formal theory of -times iterated inductive definitions". In this notation, it is defined as . It is the supremum of the range of Buchholz's psi functions. It was first named by David Madore.
The next ordinal is mentioned in a piece of code describing large countable ordinals and numbers in Agda, and defined by "AndrasKovacs" as .
The next ordinal is mentioned in the same piece of code as earlier, and defined as . It is the proof-theoretic ordinal of .
This next ordinal is, once again, mentioned in this same piece of code, defined as , is the proof-theoretic ordinal of . In general, the proof-theoretic ordinal of is equal to — note that in this certain instance, represents , the first nonzero ordinal.
Next is an unnamed ordinal, referred by David Madore as the "countable" collapse of , where is the first inaccessible (=-indescribable) cardinal. This is the proof-theoretic ordinal of Kripke-Platek set theory augmented by the recursive inaccessibility of the class of ordinals (KPi), or, on the arithmetical side, of -comprehension + transfinite induction. Its value is equal to using an unknown function.
Next is another unnamed ordinal, referred by David Madore as the "countable" collapse of , where is the first Mahlo cardinal. This is the proof-theoretic ordinal of KPM, an extension of Kripke-Platek set theory based on a Mahlo cardinal. Its value is equal to using one of Buchholz's various psi functions.
Next is another unnamed ordinal, referred by David Madore as the "countable" collapse of , where is the first weakly compact (=-indescribable) cardinal. This is the proof-theoretic ordinal of Kripke-Platek set theory + Π3 - Ref. Its value is equal to using Rathjen's Psi function.
Next is another unnamed ordinal, referred by David Madore as the "countable" collapse of , where is the first -indescribable cardinal. This is the proof-theoretic ordinal of Kripke-Platek set theory + Πω-Ref. Its value is equal to using Stegert's Psi function, where = (; ; , , 0).
Next is the last unnamed ordinal, referred by David Madore as the proof-theoretic ordinal of Stability. This is the proof-theoretic ordinal of Stability, an extension of Kripke-Platek set theory. Its value is equal to using Stegert's Psi function, where = (; ; , , 0).
Next is a group of ordinals which not that much are known about, but are still fairly significant (in ascending order):
The proof-theoretic ordinal of second-order arithmetic.
A possible limit of Taranovsky's C ordinal notation. (Conjectural, assuming well-foundedness of the notation system)
The proof-theoretic ordinal of ZFC.
"Unrecursable" recursive ordinals
By dropping the requirement of having a concrete description, even larger recursive countable ordinals can be obtained as the ordinals measuring the strengths of various strong theories; roughly speaking, these ordinals are the smallest order types of "natural" ordinal notations that the theories cannot prove are well ordered. By taking stronger and stronger theories such as second-order arithmetic, Zermelo set theory, Zermelo–Fraenkel set theory, or Zermelo–Fraenkel set theory with various large cardinal axioms, one gets some extremely large recursive ordinals. (Strictly speaking it is not known that all of these really are ordinals: by construction, the ordinal strength of a theory can only be proved to be an ordinal from an even stronger theory. So for the large cardinal axioms this becomes quite unclear.)
Beyond recursive ordinals
The Church–Kleene ordinal
The supremum of the set of recursive ordinals is the smallest ordinal that cannot be described in a recursive way. (It is not the order type of any recursive well-ordering of the integers.) That ordinal is a countable ordinal called the Church–Kleene ordinal, . Thus, is the smallest non-recursive ordinal, and there is no hope of precisely "describing" any ordinals from this point on—we can only define them. But it is still far less than the first uncountable ordinal, . However, as its symbol suggests, it behaves in many ways rather like . For instance, one can define ordinal collapsing functions using instead of .
Admissible ordinals
The Church–Kleene ordinal is again related to Kripke–Platek set theory, but now in a different way: whereas the Bachmann–Howard ordinal (described above) was the smallest ordinal for which KP does not prove transfinite induction, the Church–Kleene ordinal is the smallest α such that the construction of the Gödel universe, L, up to stage α, yields a model of KP. Such ordinals are called admissible, thus is the smallest admissible ordinal (beyond ω in case the axiom of infinity is not included in KP).
By a theorem of Friedman, Jensen, and Sacks, the countable admissible ordinals are exactly those constructed in a manner similar to the Church–Kleene ordinal but for Turing machines with oracles. One sometimes writes for the -th ordinal that is either admissible or a limit of smaller admissibles.
Beyond admissible ordinals
is the smallest limit of admissible ordinals (mentioned later), yet the ordinal itself is not admissible. It is also the smallest such that is a model of -comprehension.
An ordinal that is both admissible and a limit of admissibles, or equivalently such that is the -th admissible ordinal, is called recursively inaccessible, and the least recursively inaccessible may be denoted . An ordinal that is both recursively inaccessible and a limit of recursively inaccessibles is called recursively hyperinaccessible. There exists a theory of large ordinals in this manner that is highly parallel to that of (small) large cardinals. For example, we can define recursively Mahlo ordinals: these are the such that every -recursive closed unbounded subset of contains an admissible ordinal (a recursive analog of the definition of a Mahlo cardinal). The 1-section of Harrington's functional is equal to , where is the least recursively Mahlo ordinal.p.171
But note that we are still talking about possibly countable ordinals here. (While the existence of inaccessible or Mahlo cardinals cannot be proved in Zermelo–Fraenkel set theory, that of recursively inaccessible or recursively Mahlo ordinals is a theorem of ZFC: in fact, any regular cardinal is recursively Mahlo and more, but even if we limit ourselves to countable ordinals, ZFC proves the existence of recursively Mahlo ordinals. They are, however, beyond the reach of Kripke–Platek set theory.)
Reflection
For a set of formulae , a limit ordinal is called -reflecting if the rank satisfies a certain reflection property for each -formula . These ordinals appear in ordinal analysis of theories such as KP+Π3-ref, a theory augmenting Kripke-Platek set theory by a -reflection schema. They can also be considered "recursive analogues" of some uncountable cardinals such as weakly compact cardinals and indescribable cardinals. For example, an ordinal which -reflecting is called recursively weakly compact. For finite , the least -reflecting ordinal is also the supremum of the closure ordinals of monotonic inductive definitions whose graphs are Πm+10.
In particular, -reflecting ordinals also have a characterization using higher-type functionals on ordinal functions, lending them the name 2-admissible ordinals. An unpublished paper by Solomon Feferman supplies, for each finite , a similar property corresponding to -reflection.
Nonprojectibility
An admissible ordinal is called nonprojectible if there is no total -recursive injective function mapping into a smaller ordinal. (This is trivially true for regular cardinals; however, we are mainly interested in countable ordinals.) Being nonprojectible is a much stronger condition than being admissible, recursively inaccessible, or even recursively Mahlo. By Jensen's method of projecta, this statement is equivalent to the statement that the Gödel universe, L, up to stage α, yields a model of KP + -separation. However, -separation on its own (not in the presence of ) is not a strong enough axiom schema to imply nonprojectibility, in fact there are transitive models of +-separation of any countable admissible height .
Nonprojectible ordinals are tied to Jensen's work on projecta. The least ordinals that are nonprojectible relative to a given set are tied to Harrington's construction of the smallest reflecting Spector 2-class.p.174
"Unprovable" ordinals
We can imagine even larger ordinals that are still countable. For example, if ZFC has a transitive model (a hypothesis stronger than the mere hypothesis of consistency, and implied by the existence of an inaccessible cardinal), then there exists a countable such that is a model of ZFC. Such ordinals are beyond the strength of ZFC in the sense that it cannot (by construction) prove their existence.
If is a recursively enumerable set theory consistent with V=L, then the least such that is less than the least stable ordinal, which follows.
Stable ordinals
Even larger countable ordinals, called the stable ordinals, can be defined by indescribability conditions or as those such that is a Σ1-elementary submodel of L; the existence of these ordinals can be proved in ZFC, and they are closely related to the nonprojectible ordinals from a model-theoretic perspective. For countable , stability of is equivalent to .
Variants of stable ordinals
These are weakened variants of stable ordinals. There are ordinals with these properties smaller than the aforementioned least nonprojectible ordinal, for example an ordinal is -stable iff it is -reflecting for all natural .
A countable ordinal is called -stable iff
A countable ordinal is called -stable iff , where is the least admissible ordinal larger than .
A countable ordinal is called -stable iff , where is the least admissible ordinal larger than an admissible ordinal larger than .
A countable ordinal is called inaccessibly-stable iff , where is the least recursively inaccessible ordinal larger than .
A countable ordinal is called Mahlo-stable iff , where is the least recursively Mahlo ordinal larger than .
A countable ordinal is called doubly -stable iff there is a -stable ordinal such that .
Stronger weakenings of stability have appeared in proof-theoretic publications, including analysis of subsystems of second-order arithmetic.
A pseudo-well-ordering
Within the scheme of notations of Kleene some represent ordinals and some do not. One can define a recursive total ordering that is a subset of the Kleene notations and has an initial segment which is well-ordered with order-type . Every recursively enumerable (or even hyperarithmetic) nonempty subset of this total ordering has a least element. So it resembles a well-ordering in some respects. For example, one can define the arithmetic operations on it. Yet it is not possible to effectively determine exactly where the initial well-ordered part ends and the part lacking a least element begins.
For an example of a recursive pseudo-well-ordering, let S be ATR0 or another recursively axiomatizable theory that has an ω-model but no hyperarithmetical ω-models, and (if needed) conservatively extend S with Skolem functions. Let T be the tree of (essentially) finite partial ω-models of S: A sequence of natural numbers is in T iff S plus ∃m φ(m) ⇒ φ(x⌈φ⌉) (for the first n formulas φ with one numeric free variable; ⌈φ⌉ is the Gödel number) has no inconsistency proof shorter than n. Then the Kleene–Brouwer order of T is a recursive pseudowellordering.
Any such construction must have order type , where is the order type of , and is a recursive ordinal.
References
Most books describing large countable ordinals are on proof theory, and unfortunately tend to be out of print.
On recursive ordinals
Wolfram Pohlers, Proof theory, Springer 1989 (for Veblen hierarchy and some impredicative ordinals). This is probably the most readable book on large countable ordinals (which is not saying much).
Gaisi Takeuti, Proof theory, 2nd edition 1987 (for ordinal diagrams)
Kurt Schütte, Proof theory, Springer 1977 (for Veblen hierarchy and some impredicative ordinals)
Craig Smorynski, The varieties of arboreal experience Math. Intelligencer 4 (1982), no. 4, 182–189; contains an informal description of the Veblen hierarchy.
Hartley Rogers Jr., Theory of Recursive Functions and Effective Computability McGraw-Hill (1967) (describes recursive ordinals and the Church–Kleene ordinal)
Larry W. Miller, Normal Functions and Constructive Ordinal Notations, The Journal of Symbolic Logic, volume 41, number 2, June 1976, pages 439 to 459, ,
Hilbert Levitz, Transfinite Ordinals and Their Notations: For The Uninitiated, expository article (8 pages, in PostScript)
Herman Ruge Jervell, Truth and provability, manuscript in progress.
Beyond recursive ordinals
Both recursive and nonrecursive ordinals
Michael Rathjen, "The realm of ordinal analysis." in S. B. Cooper and J. Truss (eds.): Sets and Proofs. (Cambridge University Press, 1999) 219–279. At Postscript file.
Inline references
Ordinal numbers
Proof theory |
4377150 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Begomovirus | Begomovirus | Begomovirus is a genus of viruses, in the family Geminiviridae. They are plant viruses that as a group have a very wide host range, infecting dicotyledonous plants. Worldwide they are responsible for a considerable amount of economic damage to many important crops such as tomatoes, beans, squash, cassava and cotton. There are 445 species in this genus.
Morphology
Virus particles are non-enveloped. The nucleocapsid is 38 nanometers (nm) long and 15–22 nm in diameter. While particles have basic icosahedral symmetry, they consist of two incomplete icosahedra—missing one vertex—joined together. There are 22 capsomeres per nucleocapsid.
Genome
Single stranded closed circular DNA. Many begomoviruses have a bipartite genome: this means that the genome is segmented into two segments (referred to as DNA A and DNA B) that are packaged into separate particles. Both segments are generally required for successful symptomatic infection in a host cell but DNA B is dependent for its replication upon DNA A, which can in some begomoviruses apparently cause normal infections on its own.
The DNA A segment typically encodes five to six proteins including replication protein Rep, coat protein and transport and/or regulatory proteins. This component is homologous to the genomes of all other geminiviruses. The proteins encoded on it are required for replication (Rep), control of gene expression, overcoming host defenses, encapsidation (coat protein) and insect transmission. The DNA B segment encodes two different movement proteins. These proteins have functions in intra- and intercellular movement in host plants.
The A and B components share little sequence identity with the exception of a ~200 nucleotide sequence with typically >85% identity known as the common region. This region includes an absolutely conserved (among geminiviruses) hairpin structure and repeated sequences (known as 'iterons') that are the recognition sequences for binding of the replication protein (Rep). Within this loop there is a nonanucleotide sequence (TAATATTAC) that acts as the origin (ori) of virion strand DNA replication.
Component exchange (pseudorecombination) occurs in this genus. The usual mechanism of pseudorecombination is by a process known as 'regulon grafting': the A component donates its common region by recombination to the B component being captured. This results in a new dependent interaction between two components.
The proteins in this genus may lie either on the sense strand (positive orientation) or its complement (negative orientation).
Genes
Segment A
V1 (R1)—positive orientation: Coat protein—29.7 kiloDaltons (kDa)
V2—positive orientation: Movement protein (precoat ORF)—12.8 kDa
C1 (L1)—negative orientation: Replication initiation protein (Rep)—40.2 kDa
C2: (L2)—negative orientation: Transcription activator protein (TrAP)—19.6 kDa
C3: (L3)—negative orientation: Replication enhancer—15.6 kDa
C4:—negative orientation: May determine symptom expression—12.0 kDa
Segment B
V1 (R1)—positive orientation: Nuclear shuttle protein—33.1 kDa
C1 (L1)—negative orientation: Movement protein—29.6 kDa
Virology
Smaller than unit length virus components—deletion mutants—are common in infections. These are known as defective interfering (di) DNAs due to their capacity to interfere with virus infection. They reduce virus DNA levels and symptom severity.
Phylogenetics
The two components of the genome have very distinct molecular evolutionary histories and likely to be under very different evolutionary pressures. The DNA B genome originated as a satellite that was captured by the monopartite progenitor of all extant bipartite begomoviruses and has subsequently evolved to become an essential genome component.
More than 133 begomovirus species having monopartite genomes are known: all originate from the Old World. No monopartite begomoviruses native to the New World have yet been identified.
Phylogenetic analysis is based on the A component. B components may be exchanged between species and may result in new species.
Analysis of the genus reveals a number of clades. The main division is between the Old and New World strains. The Old World strains can be divided into African, Indian, Japanese and other Asian clades with a small number of strains grouping outside these. The New World strains divide into Central and Southern America strains.
Along with these main groupings are a number of smaller clades. One group infecting a range of legumes originating from India and Southeast Asia (informally 'Legumovirus') and a set of viruses isolated from Ipomoea species originating from America, Asia and Europe (informally 'Sweepovirus') appear to be basal to all the other species. Two species isolated from Corchorus from Vietnam (informally 'Corchovirus') somewhat unexpectedly group with the New World species.
Transmission
The virus is obligately transmitted by an insect vector, which can be the whitefly Bemisia tabaci or can be other whiteflies. This vector allows rapid and efficient propagation of the virus because it is an indiscriminate feeder. The vector transmits in a persistent, circulative, non-propagative manner.
This USDA document describes a 5-year plan starting in 1992 to mitigate whiteflies.
Diseases
Several begomoviruses cause severe diseases all over the world. Those begomovirus species infecting tomato such as Tomato yellow leaf curl virus (TYLCV) and Tomato yellow mosaic virus (ToYMV), first identified in the late 1980s, cause significant economic losses worldwide. In countries where these viruses have become widespread such as Trinidad, the Dominican Republic, Mexico and much of Central America, Israel, as well as across Southeast Asia including Thailand, Cambodia, Indonesia, and India, these diseases in tomato and other crops including pepper, and eggplant, can cause an estimated yield loss of 50–60%. Begomoviruses infecting pepper (Capsicum spp.) such as Pepper leaf curl virus and Chilli leaf curl virus also cause significant losses worldwide. Disease is typically manifested in the infected plant as chlorosis, leaf distortion, flower bud absicion and crinkling and stunting. In countries where these viruses have become widespread across Southeast Asia including Thailand, Cambodia, Indonesia, Sri Lanka, and India, these diseases in pepper and other crops including tomato, cucumber, pumpkin, melon, and eggplant, can cause an estimated yield loss of 40–70%. Bean golden yellow mosaic virus (BGYMV) causes a serious disease in bean species within Central America, the Caribbean and southern Florida.
Species
Abutilon golden mosaic virus
Abutilon mosaic Bolivia virus
Abutilon mosaic Brazil virus
Abutilon mosaic virus
African cassava mosaic Burkina Faso virus
African cassava mosaic virus
Ageratum enation virus
Ageratum leaf curl Sichuan virus
Ageratum leaf curl virus
Ageratum yellow vein Hualian virus
Ageratum yellow vein Sri Lanka virus
Ageratum yellow vein virus
Allamanda leaf curl virus
Allamanda leaf mottle distortion virus
Alternanthera yellow vein virus
Andrographis yellow vein leaf curl virus
Asystasia mosaic Madagascar virus
Bean bushy stunt virus
Bean calico mosaic virus
Bean chlorosis virus
Bean dwarf mosaic virus
Bean golden mosaic virus
Bean golden yellow mosaic virus
Bean latent virus
Bean leaf crumple virus
Bean white chlorosis mosaic virus
Bean yellow mosaic Mexico virus
Bhendi yellow vein Bhubhaneswar virus
Bhendi yellow vein Haryana virus
Bhendi yellow vein mosaic Delhi virus
Bhendi yellow vein mosaic virus
Bitter gourd yellow mosaic virus
Blainvillea yellow spot virus
Blechum interveinal chlorosis virus
Blechum yellow vein virus
Boerhavia yellow spot virus
Cabbage leaf curl Jamaica virus
Cabbage leaf curl virus
Capraria yellow spot virus
Cassava mosaic Madagascar virus
Catharanthus yellow mosaic virus
Centrosema yellow spot virus
Chayote yellow mosaic virus
Chenopodium leaf curl virus
Chilli leaf curl Ahmedabad virus
Chilli leaf curl Bhavanisagar virus
Chilli leaf curl Gonda virus
Chilli leaf curl India virus
Chilli leaf curl Kanpur virus
Chilli leaf curl Sri Lanka virus
Chilli leaf curl Vellanad virus
Chilli leaf curl virus
Chino del tomate Amazonas virus
Chino del tomate virus
Cleome golden mosaic virus
Cleome leaf crumple virus
Clerodendron golden mosaic virus
Clerodendron yellow mosaic virus
Clerodendrum golden mosaic China virus
Clerodendrum golden mosaic Jiangsu virus
Cnidoscolus mosaic leaf deformation virus
Coccinia mosaic Tamil Nadu virus
Common bean mottle virus
Common bean severe mosaic virus
Corchorus golden mosaic virus
Corchorus yellow spot virus
Corchorus yellow vein Cuba virus
Corchorus yellow vein mosaic virus
Corchorus yellow vein virus
Cotton chlorotic spot virus
Cotton leaf crumple virus
Cotton leaf curl Alabad virus
Cotton leaf curl Bangalore virus
Cotton leaf curl Barasat virus
Cotton leaf curl Gezira virus
Cotton leaf curl Kokhran virus
Cotton leaf curl Multan virus
Cotton yellow mosaic virus
Cowpea bright yellow mosaic virus
Cowpea golden mosaic virus
Crassocephalum yellow vein virus
Croton golden mosaic virus
Croton yellow vein mosaic virus
Cucumber chlorotic leaf virus
Cucurbit leaf crumple virus
Dalechampia chlorotic mosaic virus
Datura leaf curl virus
Datura leaf distortion virus
Deinbollia mosaic virus
Desmodium leaf distortion virus
Desmodium mottle virus
Dicliptera yellow mottle Cuba virus
Dicliptera yellow mottle virus
Dolichos yellow mosaic virus
Duranta leaf curl virus
East African cassava mosaic Cameroon virus
East African cassava mosaic Kenya virus
East African cassava mosaic Malawi virus
East African cassava mosaic virus
East African cassava mosaic Zanzibar virus
Eclipta yellow vein virus
Emilia yellow vein Fujian virus
Emilia yellow vein Thailand virus
Emilia yellow vein virus
Erectites yellow mosaic virus
Eupatorium yellow vein mosaic virus
Eupatorium yellow vein virus
Euphorbia leaf curl Guangxi virus
Euphorbia leaf curl virus
Euphorbia mosaic Peru virus
Euphorbia mosaic virus
Euphorbia yellow leaf curl virus
Euphorbia yellow mosaic virus
French bean leaf curl virus
Hedyotis uncinella yellow mosaic virus
Hemidesmus yellow mosaic virus
Hibiscus golden mosaic virus
Hibiscus yellow vein leaf curl virus
Hollyhock leaf curl virus
Hollyhock yellow vein mosaic virus
Hollyhock yellow vein virus
Honeysuckle yellow vein virus
Horsegram yellow mosaic virus
Hybanthus yellow mosaic virus
Indian cassava mosaic virus
Jacquemontia mosaic Yucatan virus
Jacquemontia yellow mosaic virus
Jacquemontia yellow vein virus
Jatropha leaf curl Gujarat virus
Jatropha leaf curl virus
Jatropha leaf yellow mosaic virus
Jatropha mosaic India virus
Jatropha mosaic Nigeria virus
Jatropha mosaic virus
Jatropha yellow mosaic virus
Kudzu mosaic virus
Leonurus mosaic virus
Lindernia anagallis yellow vein virus
Lisianthus enation leaf curl virus
Ludwigia yellow vein Vietnam virus
Ludwigia yellow vein virus
Luffa yellow mosaic virus
Lycianthes yellow mosaic virus
Macroptilium bright mosaic virus
Macroptilium common mosaic virus
Macroptilium golden mosaic virus
Macroptilium mosaic Puerto Rico virus
Macroptilium yellow mosaic Florida virus
Macroptilium yellow mosaic virus
Macroptilium yellow spot virus
Macroptilium yellow vein virus
Malvastrum bright yellow mosaic virus
Malvastrum leaf curl Philippines virus
Malvastrum leaf curl virus
Malvastrum yellow mosaic Helshire virus
Malvastrum yellow mosaic Jamaica virus
Malvastrum yellow mosaic virus
Malvastrum yellow vein Cambodia virus
Malvastrum yellow vein Honghe virus
Malvastrum yellow vein Lahore virus
Malvastrum yellow vein virus
Malvastrum yellow vein Yunnan virus
Melochia mosaic virus
Melochia yellow mosaic virus
Melon chlorotic leaf curl virus
Melon chlorotic mosaic virus
Melon yellow mosaic virus
Merremia mosaic Puerto Rico virus
Merremia mosaic virus
Mesta yellow vein mosaic Bahraich virus
Mimosa yellow leaf curl virus
Mirabilis leaf curl virus
Mungbean yellow mosaic India virus
Mungbean yellow mosaic virus
Ocimum golden mosaic virus
Ocimum mosaic virus
Ocimum yellow vein virus
Okra enation leaf curl virus
Okra leaf curl Oman virus
Okra mottle virus
Okra yellow crinkle virus
Okra yellow mosaic Mexico virus
Oxalis yellow vein virus
Papaya leaf crumple virus
Papaya leaf curl China virus
Papaya leaf curl Guandong virus
Papaya leaf curl virus
Papaya severe leaf curl virus 1
Papaya severe leaf curl virus 2
Papaya yellow leaf curl virus
Passionfruit leaf curl virus
Passionfruit leaf distortion virus
Passionfruit severe leaf distortion virus
Pavonia mosaic virus
Pavonia yellow mosaic virus
Pea leaf distortion virus
Pedilanthus leaf curl virus
Pepper blistering leaf virus
Pepper golden mosaic virus
Pepper huasteco yellow vein virus
Pepper leaf curl Bangladesh virus
Pepper leaf curl Lahore virus
Pepper leaf curl virus
Pepper leaf curl Yunnan virus
Pepper leafroll virus
Pepper yellow leaf curl Aceh virus
Pepper yellow leaf curl Indonesia virus
Pepper yellow leaf curl Indonesia virus 2
Pepper yellow leaf curl Thailand virus
Pepper yellow leaf curl virus
Pepper yellow vein Mali virus
Polygala garcinii virus
Potato yellow mosaic Panama virus
Potato yellow mosaic virus
Pouzolzia golden mosaic virus
Pouzolzia mosaic Guangdong virus
Pouzolzia yellow mosaic virus
Premna leaf curl virus
Pumpkin yellow mosaic virus
Ramie mosaic Yunnan virus
Rhynchosia golden mosaic Havana virus
Rhynchosia golden mosaic Sinaloa virus
Rhynchosia golden mosaic virus
Rhynchosia mild mosaic virus
Rhynchosia rugose golden mosaic virus
Rhynchosia yellow mosaic India virus
Rhynchosia yellow mosaic virus
Rose leaf curl virus
Sauropus leaf curl virus
Senecio yellow mosaic virus
Senna leaf curl virus
Sida angular mosaic virus
Sida bright yellow mosaic virus
Sida chlorotic leaf virus
Sida chlorotic mottle virus
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4377286 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emperor%20Daowu%20of%20Northern%20Wei | Emperor Daowu of Northern Wei | Emperor Daowu of Northern Wei () (4 August 371 – 6 November 409), personal name Tuoba Gui (), né Tuoba Shegui (), was the founding emperor of the Northern Wei. He was the grandson of the last prince of Dai, Tuoba Shiyijian. After the fall of the Dai state to Former Qin in 376, he was presumed to be the eventual successor to the Dai throne. After Former Qin fell into disarray in 383 following its defeat by Jin forces at the Battle of Fei River, Tuoba Gui took the opportunity to reestablish Dai in 386. He soon changed the state's name to Wei and declared himself a prince. He was initially a vassal of Later Yan, but after defeating Later Yan emperor Murong Bao in 397 and seizing most of Later Yan's territory, he claimed the imperial title in 398.
Emperor Daowu was commonly regarded as a brilliant general, but cruel and arbitrary in his rule, particularly toward the end of his reign. In 409, as he considered killing his concubine Consort Helan, his son Tuoba Shao () the Prince of Qinghe, by Consort Helan, killed him, but was soon defeated by the crown prince Tuoba Si, who then took the throne as Emperor Mingyuan.
Life before founding of Northern Wei
Birth and childhood
According to official accounts, Tuoba Gui was born in 371, after his father Tuoba Shi (), the son and heir apparent to Tuoba Shiyijian the Prince of Dai, died earlier in the year from an injury he suffered while protecting Tuoba Shiyijian from an assassination attempt by the general Baba Jin (). His mother was Tuoba Shi's wife Heiress Apparent Helan, the daughter of the powerful tribal chief and Dai vassal Helian Yegan (). Tuoba Shiyijian, while mourning his son's death, was very pleased by the grandson's birth, and he declared a general pardon in his state and named the child Tuoba Shegui. (Other than the reference to the naming at birth, however, the name "Shegui" was scantily mentioned in historical accounts of the rest of his life, and presumably was shortened to "Gui" for simplicity.)
Around New Years 377, Former Qin launched a major attack against Dai. Tuoba Shiyijian temporarily fled his capital Yunzhong (雲中, in modern Hohhot, Inner Mongolia), but returned after Former Qin retreated. After his return, however, his nephew Tuoba Jin () convinced his oldest surviving son Tuoba Shijun () that Tuoba Shiyijian was considering naming one of the sons of his wife Princess Murong (a Former Yan princess) as heir and killing him. In response, Tuoba Shijun ambushed his father and brothers and killed them. This led to a collapse of Dai forces, and Former Qin forces occupied Yunzhong without a fight.
In the disturbance, Tuoba Gui's mother Lady Helan initially fled to her brother Helan Na (), who had taken over as tribal chief after Helan Yegan's death. Later, the Former Qin emperor Fu Jiān considered taking Tuoba Gui to the Former Qin capital Chang'an, but Tuoba Shiyijian's secretary Yan Feng () convinced Fu Jiān to instead allow Tuoba Gui to remain in Dai lands to be groomed as the eventual Dai prince, arguing that this would be the best way to maintain the tribes' allegiance to Former Qin. Meanwhile, Fu Jiān divided the Dai tribes into two groups, commanded by the Xiongnu chiefs Liu Kuren () and Liu Weichen (). Tuoba Gui, along with his mother, went to live with Liu Kuren, who honored the child as a prince.
Adolescence
Little is known about Tuoba Gui's life until 385, by which time Former Qin, which had come close to uniting all of China, had fallen into great disturbance in light of rebellions throughout the empire. In 384, Liu Kuren had attempted to aid Fu Jiān's son Fu Pi, who was then under siege by Murong Chui, the founder of Later Yan, but was assassinated by Muyu Chang (), the son of a Later Yan noble; he was succeeded by his brother Liu Toujuan (). In 385, however, Liu Toujuan was assassinated by Liu Kuren's son Liu Xian (), who took over as chief and viewed Tuoba Gui, now 14, as a threat. However, his subordinates Balie Liujuan () and Qiumuling Chong () found out, and at Balie's instruction Qiumuling escorted Tuoba Gui to his uncle Helan Na, who put Tuoba Gui under his protection. In 386, at the urging of previous Dai officials, Helan Na supported Tuoba Gui in reassuming the title of Prince of Dai.
Alternative version
However, an alternative version of Tuoba Gui's early life was presented in documents such as the Book of Jin and Book of Song—the official histories of the rival Jin Dynasty (266–420) and Liu Song Dynasty. Under this version, Tuoba Gui was not Tuoba Shiyijian's grandson, but his son—and was born significantly earlier than the official 371 date, of Tuoba Shiyijian's wife Princess Murong. When Former Qin attacked in 377, it was Tuoba Gui who restrained his father Tuoba Shiyijian and surrendered. Fu Jiān, offended at this act of betrayal, exiled Tuoba Gui. When Murong Chui, his uncle, declared Later Yan in 384, Tuoba Gui joined him, and was later put in charge of his father's tribes through a military campaign waged by Later Yan. Then, later, in order to avoid having the people know Tuoba Gui's status as a traitor to his father, the official version of his personal history was manufactured.
This version is not well attested but would solve a number of apparent contradictions in early Northern Wei history. These difficulties apparent in the official version include:
How Tuoba Gui's father, Tuoba Shi, had a nearly identical name to the perpetrator of the patricide, Tuoba Shijun. If both names were manufactured by Tuoba Gui's later apologists, then the similarity in name could be explained as lack of creativity.
How Tuoba Han (), mentioned as Tuoba Shi's younger brother, was also referred to in some official sources as Tuoba Gui's younger brother; as Tuoba Yi (), Tuoba Han's son, played an important role early in Northern Wei history as a key diplomat and general, he would be too old to be possibly Tuoba Gui's nephew if Tuoba Gui were born in 371. Obviously, if the official history, which stated that Tuoba Yi was Tuoba Gui's cousin, were correct, then there is no problem.
How Tuoba Gui appeared too willing to turn against his maternal uncles the Helans early in his reign. If he was actually the son of Princess Murong, then he would not be related to the Helans, and his campaigns against them seemed less problematic. (Of course, it would then render it problematic how he eventually attacked and seized most of Later Yan's history, as the Later Yan emperor Murong Bao would be his cousin.)
How Tuoba Gui could have a younger brother—as given and undisputed in official history—Tuoba Gu () -- described as also being a son of his mother Lady Helan, if he himself were born after Tuoba Shi's death. (Two alternative explanations exist, however—it could be that Tuoba Gu was actually born of a concubine of Tuoba Shi but raised by Lady Helan, or it could be that Lady Helan remarried after Tuoba Shi's death, to another member of the Tuoba clan—possibly Tuoba Yi's father Tuoba Han—and therefore her younger son Tuoba Gu would also carry the Tuoba name. The latter possibility is attested in that another semi-contradictory version of the official history stated that Tuoba Gu was Tuoba Yi's younger brother. Another possible explanation—that Tuoba Gu was a twin younger brother—appears unlikely, as the official accounts of Tuoba Gui's birth did not suggest the possibility of twin birth.)
How Tuoba Gui's oldest son Tuoba Si, born in 392, was said to be a late-arriving son. According to the official chronology, Tuoba Gui would only be 21 at this point, and it might be difficult to comprehend his being characterized as having had a late fatherhood. On the other hand, during his lifetime, particularly among non-Han peoples, marriage and childbirth often happened during adolescence.
How Tuoba Gui appeared to begin to show signs of mental deterioration when he was still just in his late 30s, with signs of paranoia that appeared to be more characteristic of men of much older age. The official version attribute this to poisoning from powders given him by alchemists, which is not an unreasonable explanation, however, or it also could have been that the paranoia had nothing to do with mental deterioration.
Whether Cui Hao, the prime minister of Tuoba Gui's grandson Emperor Taiwu of Northern Wei, propagated this version, and whether that contributed to Emperor Taiwu's execution of not only himself but his entire clan, is not completely clear, but appeared likely.
As Prince of Wei
Establishment of rule
For the first several years of his reign, Tuoba Gui had to endure constant gravitating of positions by tribal chiefs, and his position was not secure. As he gradually asserted his leadership, however, the tribal chiefs began to coalesce around him.
In spring 386, Tuoba Gui set his capital at Shengle (盛樂, in modern Hohhot, Inner Mongolia), and was said to encourage agriculture to try to rest his people. In summer 386, he changed his title to Prince of Wei (and thus the state became known in history as Northern Wei).
In fall 386, with support of Western Yan and Liu Xian, Tuoba Gui's youngest uncle Tuoba Kuduo () made a claim to the throne, and there were many chiefs under Tuoba Gui who secretly conspired with Tuoba Kuduo, causing Tuoba Gui to panic to flee to his maternal uncles' Helan tribe, while seeking assistance from Later Yan. Later Yan's emperor Murong Chui sent his son Murong Lin to assist, and together they defeated Tuoba Kuduo, who fled to and was executed by Liu Weichen.
Around the new year 387, Murong Chui offered the titles of Western Chanyu and Prince of Shanggu to Tuoba Gui, but as the title of Prince of Shanggu was not as honored of one as Prince of Wei, Tuoba Gui refused them.
Despite Later Yan's assistance of him and his status as a Later Yan vassal, Tuoba Gui began to secretly consider whether he could eventually conquer Later Yan. In 388, he sent his cousin Tuoba Yi the Duke of Jiuyuan to offer tributes to Murong Chui but also to observe the Later Yan court, to consider whether he would have eventual chance of attacking it. Murong Yi concluded that Murong Chui was growing old, and that his crown prince Murong Bao was incompetent—and that there were many potential claimants who would weaken Later Yan. This encouraged Tuoba Gui greatly in his eventual planning.
In 391, Helan Na's brother Helan Rangan () plotted to kill Helan Na, and the brothers engaged in wars against each other. Tuoba Gui took this opportunity to request Later Yan to jointly attack the Helan tribe—notwithstanding Helan Na and Helan Rangan's status as his uncles. In summer 391, Murong Lin captured Helan Na and Helan Rangan, but allowed Helan Na to remain free and be in command of his tribe, while taking Helan Rangan as a prisoner. It was after this campaign that Murong Lin, seeing Tuoba Gui's abilities, suggested to Murong Chui that Tuoba Gui be detained. Murong Chui refused.
In fall 391, an incident occurred that would lead to the break of relations between Later Yan and Northern Wei. That year, Tuoba Gui sent his brother Tuoba Gu to Later Yan to offer tribute, and Murong Chui's sons detained Tuoba Gu and ordered Tuoba Gui to offer horses to trade for Tuoba Gu's freedom. Tuoba Gui refused and broke off relations with Later Yan, instead entering into an alliance with Western Yan.
Following hostility with Later Yan
In 391, Tuoba Gui attacked Rouran—which had been a Dai vassal but had never submitted to him—inflicting major damage on Rouran, but was unable to destroy it. Rouran would remain an annoyance, and often a menace, for the rest of Northern Wei's history.
In winter 391, Liu Wenchen sent his son Liu Zhilidi () to attack Northern Wei, and Tuoba Gui, despite having a much smaller army than Liu Zhilidi, defeated him, and further crossed the Yellow River to attack Liu Wenchen's capital Yueba (悅拔, in modern Ordos, Inner Mongolia), capturing it, forcing Liu Wenchen and Liu Zhilidi to flee. The next day, Liu Wenchen was killed by his subordinates, and Liu Zhilidi was captured. Tuoba Gui annexed Liu Wenchen's territory and people into his own, and slaughtered Liu Wenchen's clan and associates—more than 5,000 people. Liu Wenchen's youngest son Liu Bobo, however, fled to the Xuegan () tribe, whose chief Tai Xifu () refused to turn him over despite Northern Wei demands, and Liu Bobo would eventually marry the daughter of Later Qin's vassal Mo Yigan () and became dependent on him. To punish Tai Xifu, Tuoba Gui attacked him in 393 and slaughtered much of his tribe, although Tai Xifu himself fled.
In 394, Western Yan's emperor Murong Yong, under heavy attack by Murong Chui, sought aid from Tuoba Gui, but Tuoba Gui, while sending an army by his cousin Tuoba Qian () the Duke of Chenliu and the general Yu Yue () to distantly try to distract Later Yan, Northern Wei forces never actually engaged Later Yan, and Murong Yong was captured and killed later that year when his capital Zhangzi (長子, in modern Changzhi, Shanxi) fell, and Western Yan was annexed into Later Yan.
In 395, Tuoba Gui led raids against Later Yan's border regions. Later that year, Murong Chui commissioned an 80,000-men army led by Murong Bao, assisted by his brothers Murong Nong and Murong Lin, to try punish Northern Wei. Tuoba Gui, hearing about Murong Bao's army, abandoned Shengle and retreated west across the Yellow River. Murong Bao's army quickly reached the river in fall 395 and prepared to cross the river. However, by this point, Northern Wei scouts had cut off the line of communication between Murong Bao's army and the Later Yan capital Zhongshan (中山, in modern Baoding, Hebei), and Northern Wei had the captured Later Yan messengers declare that Murong Chui had already died, causing great disturbance in the Later Yan army. The Later Yan and Northern Wei forces stalemated across the Yellow River for 20 odd days, when Murong Lin's followers tried to start a coup and support Murong Lin as new leader, and while the coup failed, uncertainty fell on Later Yan forces. As winter came, Later Yan forces retreated and, not realizing that the Yellow River would freeze to allow Northern Wei forces to cross easily, Murong Bao left no rearguard as he retreated. Tuoba Gui personally gave chase, catching Later Yan forces unprepared at the Battle of Canhe Slope, killing or capturing nearly the entire Later Yan army, and only Murong Bao and a number of officers escaped. Tuoba Gui, fearful of the Later Yan captives, slaughtered them at the suggestion of his brother-in-law Kepin Jian ().
In 396, concerned that Northern Wei would then view Murong Bao lightly, Murong Chui personally led another expedition against Northern Wei, initially successful and killing Tuoba Qian. Tuoba Gui became concerned and considered abandoning Shengle again. However, as the army reached Canhe Slope, the soldiers cried out loud for their fathers and brothers, and Murong Chui became angry and ill, forcing the Later Yan forces to retreat to Zhongshan. He soon died, and Murong Bao succeeded him as emperor.
In fall 396, Tuoba Gui led his Northern Wei troops and made a surprise attack on Bing Province (并州, modern central and northern Shanxi), defeating Murong Nong and forcing him to flee back to Zhongshan. Tuoba Gui then advanced east, ready to attack Zhongshan. Accepting Murong Lin's suggestion, Murong Bao prepared to defend Zhongshan, leaving the Northern Wei forces free to roam over his territory, believing that Northern Wei would retreat once its forces are worn out. However, this had the effect that all of the cities' garrisons in modern Hebei abandoned them, except for Zhongshan and two other important cities—Yecheng (in modern Handan, Hebei) and Xindu (信都, in modern Hengshui, Hebei). After making an initial attack against Zhongshan and failing, Tuoba Gui changed his tactic to establishing his rule over the other cities while leaving Zhongshan alone. In spring 397, Xindu fell. Meanwhile, however, Tuoba Gui had received news of a rebellion near his capital Shengle and offered peace—which Murong Bao rejected, and Murong Bao attacked Northern Wei forces as Tuoba Gui prepared to retreat, but instead was defeated by Tuoba Gui at great loss. At this time, concerned about a coup attempt by Murong Lin, Murong Bao abandoned Zhongshan and fled to the old Former Yan capital Longcheng (龍城, in modern Jinzhou, Hebei). However, the remaining garrison at Zhongshan supported Murong Bao's nephew Murong Xiang () the Duke of Kaifeng as their leader, and Tuoba Gui was unable to take Zhongshan immediately. Realizing that he had alienated the Later Yan people by having slaughtered the captives at Canhe Slope, Tuoba Gui changed his policy and tried to be gentle with the conquered Later Yan territory, and while time would be required, the territories began to abide by his rule.
Murong Xiang, meanwhile, declared himself emperor, and put Tuoba Gu to death to try to show his resolve. In the fall, however, Murong Lin made a surprise attack on him, killing him and taking over Zhongshan. Murong Lin also claimed imperial title, but was unable to stand Northern Wei military pressure, and Zhongshan fell to Tuoba Gui, who was largely gentle to Zhongshan's population despite their resistance—although he slaughtered the clans of those who advocated Tuoba Gu's death. It was around this time, however, that his army suffered a serious plague that might have killed as much as half of the army and livestock. When his generals tried to persuade him to suspend the campaign, Tuoba Gui gave a response that might be quite demonstrative of his personality:
This is the will of Heaven, and I can do nothing about it. A state can be established anywhere on earth where there are people. It only depends on how I govern it, and I am not fearful that the people would die.
Around the new year 398, with Tuoba Gui ready to attack Yecheng, Yecheng's defender Murong De abandoned it and fled south of the Yellow River, to Huatai (滑台, in modern Anyang, Henan), where he declared an independent Southern Yan state. With resistance north of the Yellow River largely gone, Tuoba Gui left Tuoba Yi and Suhe Ba () as viceroys over the former Later Yan territory, and returned to Shengle. In order to enhance communications and control, Tuoba Gui constructed a highway between Wangdu (望都, in modern Baoding, Hebei) and Dai (代, in modern Zhangjiakou, Hebei), over the Taihang Mountains. He soon, however, recalled Tuoba Yi to be his prime minister and replaced him with his cousin Tuoba Zun () the Duke of Lueyang.
In summer 398, Tuoba Gui considered restoring the old name of the state, Dai, but at the suggestion of Cui Hong (), he kept the name Wei. He moved the capital from Shengle south to Pingcheng (平城, in modern Datong, Shanxi), to be in greater proximity with the conquered territories. He also issued edicts to standardize weights and measures throughout the state, and to establish standard ceremonies based on Chinese and Xianbei traditions.
Around the new year 399, Tuoba Gui declared himself emperor. He also claimed descent from the mystical Yellow Emperor, to legitimize his reign over the Han.
Early reign as emperor
In 399, Emperor Daowu made a major attack on the Gaoche tribes near and in the Gobi Desert, inflicting great casualties and capturing many Gaoche tribesmen. In a display of cruelty and power, he ordered the captured Gaoche men to use their bodies as a wall on a hunt he carried out months later, to stop animals from escape. He also had the Gaoche slaves build a deer farm for him.
Later that year, he reorganized his government, expanding from 36 bureaus to 360 bureaus, and he also established a university at Pingcheng and ordered that books be collected throughout the empire and be delivered to Pingcheng.
In summer 399, the Southern Yan general Li Bian () surrendered the Southern Yan capital Huatai to Northern Wei, forcing the Southern Yan emperor Murong De to instead attack Jin and take over its Qing Province (青州, modern central and eastern Shandong) as his territory.
Later in 399, because Emperor Daowu was angry that, on a letter to Jin's general Chi Hui (), the official Cui Cheng () insufficiently deprecated the status of Emperor An of Jin (and also because he had been offended by a previous remark made by Cui in which he thought Cui compared him to an owl), he ordered Cui to commit suicide. This incident caused Emperor Daowu's reputation among the states to suffer, as for the next few years, some important Jin officials who lost out in Jin civil wars declined to flee to him for refuge because of the incident.
In 400, Emperor Daowu considered creating an empress. Of his consorts, he most favored Consort Liu, the daughter of Liu Toujuan, who bore his oldest son Tuoba Si. However, according to Tuoba tribe customs, he was required to make the potential candidates try to forge golden statues, to try to discern divine favor. Consort Liu was unable to complete her statue, while Consort Murong, the youngest daughter of Murong Bao, whom he captured when he took Zhongshan in 397, was able to complete her statue, and so Emperor Daowu created her empress.
Around this time, Emperor Daowu became increasingly superstitious and became trusting of astrologers and alchemists, seeking immortality. He also began to use strict laws against his subordinates, punishing them harshly if they carried out what he perceived to be disrespectful actions.
In 401-402, Emperor Daowu made an attempt to attack Later Yan, by now limited to modern Liaoning, but was unable to make gains against Later Yan's emperor Murong Sheng.
Around this time, Emperor Daowu also sought marriage and peace with Later Qin. However, Later Qin's emperor Yao Xing, hearing that he already had Empress Murong, refused, and because around this time Emperor Daowu constantly attacked several Later Qin vassals, the states' relations broke down. Emperor Daowu therefore began to prepare for a confrontation with Later Qin. Later in the year, Yao Xing did make a major attack against Northern Wei. In fall 402, Yao Xing's forward commander Yao Ping () the Duke of Yiyang was surrounded by Northern Wei's Emperor Daowu at Chaibi (柴壁, in modern Linfen, Shanxi), and despite counterattacks by both Yao Ping and Yao Xing, the Northern Wei siege became increasingly tighter, and in winter 402, Yao Ping and his army were captured following a failed attempt to break out, ending Yao Xing's campaign against Northern Wei.
Late reign
In the last few years of Emperor Daowu's reign, he became increasingly harsher in his treatment of his officials. For example, in 406, as he planned the expansion of Pingcheng with intent to make it into an impressive capital, he initially had his official Mo Ti (), an accomplished civil engineer, plan the city's layout, but over a relatively minor issue where Mo was not very careful, ordered Mo to commit suicide—and then used Mo's layout anyway. He also made increasing visits to Chaishan Palace (豺山宮, in modern Shuozhou, Shanxi), often spending months there at a stretch. Other key officials that he killed during this period included his cousin Tuoba Zun the Prince of Changshan, Yu Yue, Monalou Ti (), and Tuoba Yi the Prince of Wei.
In 407, Northern Wei and Later Qin entered into a peace treaty, returning previously captured generals to each other. This would have a disastrous consequence on Later Qin, however, as Liu Bobo, then a Later Qin general, became angry because his father Liu Weichen had been killed by Northern Wei, and therefore rebelled, establishing his own state Xia. However, he spent much more of his energy conducting guerilla warfare against Later Qin, gradually sapping Later Qin's strength, and did not actually conduct warfare against Northern Wei.
By 409, Emperor Daowu, who was said to be under the effect of poisonous substances given him by alchemists, was described to be so harsh and paranoid in his personality that he constantly feared rebellion, particularly because fortunetellers had been telling him that a rebellion would happen near him. He occasionally would not eat for days, or would not sleep overnight. He often mumbled about his past accomplishments or defeats, and he suspected all of his officials. Sometimes when officials made reports to him, he would suddenly think of their past faults and punish or even kill them. Occasionally, when others would behave even slightly inappropriately, he would be so angry that he would kill them personally and display their bodies outside the palace. The entire government came under a spell of terror. The only persons immune from this treatment were said to be the minister Cui Hong and his son Cui Hao, who were said to avoid the disaster by never offending or flattering the emperor—both of which could have brought disaster.
In fall 409, Emperor Daowu resolved to create Tuoba Si crown prince. Because of the Tuoba traditional custom of executing the designated heir's mother, he ordered Tuoba Si's mother Consort Liu to commit suicide. He explained his reasons to Crown Prince Si, who, however, could not stop mourning for his mother, and Emperor Daowu became very angry, and he summoned the crown prince. Crown Prince Si, in fear, fled out of Pingcheng.
At this time, however, Emperor Daowu would suffer death at another son's hand. When he was young, when he had visited Helan tribe, he saw his maternal aunt (Princess Dowager Helan's sister), who was very beautiful, and he asked to have her as a concubine. Princess Dowager Helan refused—but not under the rationale that it would be incest, but rather that the younger Lady Helan had already had a husband and was too beautiful—citing a saying that beautiful things were often poisonous. Without Princess Dowager Helan's knowledge, he assassinated the younger Lady Helan's husband and took her as a concubine. In 394, they had a son, Tuoba Shao (), whom he later created the Prince of Qinghe. Tuoba Shao was said to be a reckless teenager, who often visited the streets in commoner disguises, and often robbed travelers and strip them naked for fun. When Emperor Daowu heard this, he punished Tuoba Shao by hanging him upside down in a well, only pulling him out as he neared death. In fall 409, Emperor Daowu had an argument with Consort Helan, and he imprisoned her and planned to execute her, but it was dusk at the time, and he hesitated. Consort Helan secretly sent a messenger to Tuoba Shao, asking him to save her. At night, Tuoba Shao, then 15, entered the palace and killed Emperor Daowu. The next day, however, the imperial guards arrested and killed Tuoba Shao and Consort Helan, and Tuoba Si took the throne as Emperor Mingyuan.
Family
Consorts and Issue:
Empress Daowu, of the Murong clan (), second cousin
Empress Xuanmu, of the Liu clan (; d. 409)
Princess Huayin ()
Married Ji Ba, Prince Changle (), and had issue (one son)
Tuoba Si, Emperor Mingyuan (; 392–423), first son
Furen, of the He clan (; d. 409), aunt
Tuoba Shao, Prince Qinghe (; 394–409), second son
Furen, of the Wang clan ()
Tuoba Xi, Prince Yangping (; 399–421)
Furen, of the Wang clan ()
Tuoba Yao, Prince Henan (; 401–422)
Furen, of the Duan clan ()
Tuoba Lian, Prince Guangping (; d. 426), seventh son
Tuoba Li, Prince Jingzhao (; d. 428), eighth son
Unknown
Tuoba Xiu, Prince Hejian (; d. 416), fifth son
Tuoba Chuwen, Prince Changle (; 403–416), sixth son
Tuoba Cong ()
Princess Huoze ()
Married Lü Dafei, Prince Zhongshan (), a son of Yujiulü Datan, and had issue (one son)
Ancestry
References
Book of Wei, vol. 2.
History of Northern Dynasties, vol. 1.
Book of Jin, vols. 113, 114.
Book of Song, vol. 95.
Zizhi Tongjian, vols. 104, 106, 107, 108, 109, 110, 111, 112, 113, 114, 115.
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371 births
409 deaths
4th-century Chinese monarchs
5th-century Chinese monarchs
5th-century murdered monarchs
Northern Wei emperors
Former Qin people
Later Yan people
Murdered Chinese emperors
Patricides
People murdered in China
People from Baoding
Founding monarchs |
4377498 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ushi-oni | Ushi-oni | The , or gyūki, is a yōkai from the folklore of western Japan. The folklore describes more than one kind of ushi-oni, but the depiction of a bovine-headed monster occurs in most. Ushi-oni generally appear on beaches and attack people who walk there.
Description
Ushi-oni have brutal, savage personalites. Their appearance varies, mainly based on geographical location. They usually have an ox's head with sharp upward-curving horns, wicked fangs and a slender tongue. They spit poison and enjoy killing and eating humans. Their body is most commonly depicted as spider-like with six legs and long singular claws at the end of each appendage.
In other descriptions, they have the head of an ox and an oni's torso. Certain legends claim that they appear in front of temple gates in the mountains wearing human clothing, or flying with the wings of an insect. Other ushi-oni have a reverse appearance, with an oni's head and an ox's body.
They are said to appears in beaches, in mountains, in forests, in rivers, in swamps, and in lakes. They often appear in stream pools, and in the Kinki region and Shikoku among other places, there are many places names such as "ushi-oni fuchi" (ushi-oni stream pool) or "ushi-oni taki" (ushi-oni waterfall).
In yōkai emaki of the Edo Period such as the Hyakkai Zukan, they are most often shown with the bovine head and a spider torso. In the Hyakki Yagyō Emaki, a similar picture goes under the title of Tsuchigumo.
Legends by area
Mie Prefecture
The ushi-oni is considered to curse the Mie Prefecture. It is said that there was once an ushi-oni in the caves of Gokasho-ura, Minamiise, and when the lord of the Gokasho castle, Aisu Shigeaki shot it with a bow, the seishitsu (lord's wife) fell sick with an incurable illness due to the curse. Because of this, Shigeaki distanced himself from the seishitsu, and developed an infatuation for a shirabyōshi (dancer) who came from the capital. As a result, the seishitsu's parents, Kitabatake, came to have bad relations with the Aisu, and ended up ruining the Aisu.
Wakayama Prefecture
The ushi-oni stream pool in Nishimuro District connects to the sea at its bottom, and when the water gets dirty, people would say "the ushi-oni is there." Just encountering this ushi-oni would result in catching an illness. It is said that by saying opposites like "rocks flow, leaves sink, oxen neigh, and horses bellow," one's life can be saved. The ushi-oni of this land possess a catlike body that is springy like a ball with a tail at a length of 1 shaku (about 3.3 meters) or more, and therefore do not make sound as they walk.
It is said that there is an ushi-oni at the waterfall basin in Wado River. People who have their shadows licked by one would get a high fever and die in a few days, and to avoid this, one can provide the ushi-oni with its favorite thing, some alcohol, every year at new years.
The tale about the yōkai at Mio River pool is an extremely unusual story about an ushi-oni who would shapeshift into a human, and even help a human. A young lad shared his bentō with a woman, who was the shapeshifted master of the stream pool, the ushi-oni, and when this young lad was washed away by a flood two months later, he was saved by the shapeshifted ushi-oni. However, it is said that an ushi-oni who saves a human must leave this world in exchange, so as the ushi-oni was saving the young lad, deep red blood sprang out from the ushi-onis body as it melted and disappeared.
In Wakayama Prefecture, ushi-oni are mountain-dwelling beasts. Legend says when a hiker or traveler makes eye contact with the ushi-oni, the person cannot avert his or her gaze. The person's soul or energy is drained and he or she dies. This is called "Kage wo kuu (影を食う)" or sometimes "Kage wo nomu (影を飲む)", which translates to "eating the shadow" or "drinking the soul".
Okayama Prefecture
In tales told in Ushimado (now Setouchi), when Empress Jingū invaded the three Korean kingdoms, an eight-headed ox-shaped monster called Jinrinki attacked her, and she shot and killed it with an arrow. Jinrinki separated into head, torso, and tail, which became Ushimado's islands of Kishima (yellow island), Maejima (front island), and Aojima (blue island). As the empress returned from Silla, Jinrinki, who was not able to go in peace, turned into an ushi-oni and attacked again. The Sumiyoshi sanjin grabbed the ushi-oni by the horn and threw it away. After the ushi-oni was eliminated, it is said its body fell into pieces and became the islands of Kuroshima (black island), Naka no Kojima (middle small island), and Hashi no Kojima (side small island). The name "Ushimado" is considered to be from an accented form of calling this place of legend the "Ushimarobi" (the place where the ox fell). Also, in the Hachiman Gudōkun, which introduced the authority of Hachiman who was established in the Kamakura period, there are writings about an oni called Jinrin who fought with Emperor Chūai, and this is considered to be the origin of the aforementioned legend.
The Sakuyōshi (作陽志), at the Ōhira Mountain in Koshihata, Tomata District, Mimisaka Province (now Tomata District) mentions a paranormal phenomenon that it called "gyūki" (牛鬼). In the Kan'ei period, a villager girl just 20 years old had a child with a self-professed government official, but this child's fangs grew long, and became like an ushi-oni complete with a tail and horns, so the parents killed and skewered this child with a cast skewer to be exposed by the roadside. The folklorist Kunio Yanagita states that this is a once-deified mountain god who fell and became seen as a yōkai.
San'in region
On the coast from the San'in region to northern Kyushu, they are said to appear from the sea together with the nure-onna and iso-onna. It is said that a woman carrying a baby would stop someone and ask them to hold the baby; when this person holds the baby, the baby would become heavy like a stone, making the person unable to move, and the ushi-oni would use this chance to kill and eat that person. They are said to shapeshift themselves into women to approach people, but it is said that even after having shapeshifted, their reflection on the waterfront will still be that of an ushi-oni, so that is how one can discover their true identity. Likewise, in Iwami (now Shimane Prefecture), an angler was approached by a strange woman embracing a baby, who asked, "can you please hold on to this baby for a bit?" After he took hold of the baby, it looked like the woman disappeared, whereupon ushi-oni came forth from the sea, and the baby in his arms became a stone so heavy that fleeing was impossible. His family's inscribed sword passed down through generations came flying and pierced the ushi-oni's neck, thus making a narrow escape from death. The ushi-oni is also related to the origin of certain place names, and the island of Ushijima in Hikari, Yamaguchi Prefecture is said to be because an ushi-oni appeared there.
Kōchi Prefecture
In Meiwa 3 (1776), in a year of drought in the village of Okanouchi (now Kami), a man named Jirōkichi was said to have witnessed an ushi-oni at the river Mine no Kawa. In a tale from this prefecture, in a certain village, the livestock ox was killed and eaten by ushi-oni, and the villagers who tried to slay it were also killed and eaten, and a warrior of Chikamori Sakon who heard of this slew it with a single arrow shot. The villagers were overjoyed, and it is said that the villagers would imitate pulling an arrow while telling about how the ushi-oni was slain, and this is considered the origin of this prefecture's festival, the Momotesai.
In the legends of Azahodo field in Monobe (now Kami), it is said that an old lady who lived around the area rescued a crying ushi-oni who fell and was trapped in a pot-shaped bowl about 2-3 ken deep, and after that, the ushi-oni never cursed these lands again.
In Tosayama, there is a tributary of the Kagami River called the Shigekura River where there is a stream pool called the ushi-oni pool. Once, when it was known as the koke (moss) pool, an ushi-oni lived in it. A hunter from the village of Hase went out to hunt animals in their wallows, when he encountered an ushi-oni with a body height of 7 shaku, the body of an ox, and the head of an oni, so the hunter killed it. The ushi-oni fell into the stream pool and let out blood for 7 days and nights, and after that, bones with a length of about 7 shaku floated up. A small shrine was built and enshrined, so the shrine was called "Kawauchi-sama" and koke pool became called the ushi-oni pool.
Ehime Prefecture
The legend of the ushi-oni at Uwajima is one of the most well known among all the ushi-oni legends. Once, an ushi-oni attacked people and livestock, so a yamabushi from Kawabe, Kita District was called to slay it. Facing off with the ushi-oni in the village, the yamabushi blew a conch and chanted a mantra, whereupon the ushi-oni recoiled. The yamabushi thrust a sword between its eyebrows and proceeded to cut its body into pieces. The ushi-onis blood flowed for 7 days and nights, becoming a stream pool. Various places called "ushi-oni fuchi" (ushi-oni stream pool) – one at Tosayama, Kōchi Prefecture, one at Shirakiyama, Tokushima Prefecture, and one at Negoro-ji, Kagawa Prefecture – are said to be where this took place.
Another theory is that the ushi-oni that infested Ehime Prefecture had the head of an ox and the body of a whale. Despite being legends under the same name of "ushi-oni", they have remarkable variety in appearance, which has led the yōkai researcher Bintarō Yamaguchi to state that large monsters that come from the sea may all have been called ushi-oni.
In the Uwajima Domain, the shrine, Warei-jinja, built on the occasion of a house strife called the Warei Sōdō, holds something called the Ushi-oni Festival on July 23 and 24. Something like the dragon dancers at a Chinese New Year celebration, this ushi-oni is represented with a huge, multiple-person costume with a cloth body and a carved, painted head held upon a pole. It has an oni-like head, a long neck, and the body of an ox. The body is either red or brown with shaggy hair similar to the coat of a yak. A short sword replaces its tail, and it is thought to drive away evil spirits.
Tsubaki root theory
There is a theory that the ushi-oni is actually an aged tsubaki root. There are legends in Japan that divine spirits dwell in Tsubaki, so there is the interpretation that the ushi-oni is an incarnation of this spirit, and there are customs where they are honored for warding off evil spirits. Also, tsubaki has been viewed as a special, holy flower that grows in sanctuaries in the final reaches of capes and shores, and since tsubaki flowers bloom at the boundaries, there is the theory that this expresses the place where ushi-oni appear. Both the accompanying nure-onna and the ushi-oni appear from the shores, and do not come from anywhere else.
Shimane Prefecture, Iwami Area (島根県石見)
Another well-known ushi-oni is a massive, brutal sea-monster which lives off the coast of Shimane Prefecture and other places in Western Japan and attacks fishermen. It is often depicted with a spider- or crab-like body. This ushi-oni seems to be connected to another monster called the nure-onna, who sometimes appears before an ushi-oni attack and tricks the victim into holding her child, which then becomes stuck to the person's hands and grows heavier in order to hinder escape.
Izumo Region (出雲)
The appearance of the ushi-oni in the Izumo region according to some legends differs radically compared to the other legends. This bakemono resembles a shining, white butterfly instead of an ox. This version of the ushi-oni appears in groups and sticks to travelers' bodies when they cross bridges on humid, rainy days.
Kagawa Prefecture, Takamatsu City (香川県高松市)
Yet another ushi-oni is depicted as a statue on the grounds of the Negoroji temple in Takamatsu, Kagawa Prefecture. It is a bipedal monster with huge tusks, spurred wrists, and membranes like a flying squirrel. A sign nearby explains that this creature terrorized the area about four-hundred years ago, and was slain by a skilled archer by the name of Yamada Kurando Takakiyo (山田蔵人高清). He dedicated its horns to the temple, and they can still be seen to this day.
Kyoto, Kumihama Bay (京都府久美浜湾)
When night fishing in Kumihama Bay of Kyoto, a voice is heard by fishermen beckoning them from the opposite shore. Upon arriving to the other shore, however, no one is there. The voice is then heard from the original shore. After chasing the voice around for a while, the fisherman returns to his boat, only to find all the fish that were in the boat are gone. This terror is attributed to the ushi-oni.
Tokushima Prefecture, Shirokiyama Village (徳島県白木山)
Legend says that Shirokiyama village and its people were terrorized by an ushi-oni. It was defeated by a famous warrior.
Classical literature
Folk tales about ushi-oni are told in western Japan, but in classical literature, there are many statements about a yōkai similar to the ushi-oni appearing around Asakusa.
In writings such as the Azuma Kagami from the Kamakura Period, there is the following legend. In Kenchō 3 (1251), an ox-like yōkai appeared at Sensō-ji, and the 24 monks in the dining room was affected by its evil intent and fell ill, 7 of whom died. The Shinpen Musashi Fudoki Kō quotes from the Azuma Kagami and states that an ushi-oni-like yōkai appears at Sumida River, who jumped at the Ushijima Shrine opposite the river from Asakusa, and left behind an orb called the "ushi-tama", or "ox orb". This ushi-tama became a shrine treasure, and the ushi-oni was deified as a god. At this shrine, instead of komainu (guardian dogs), it instead is decorated with a pair of komaushi (guardian oxen). It also has a nadeushi (petting ox) statue, and it is thought that by petting it on an area where one's own self is not well, the illness can be cured. Considering how "Gozu-Tennō" (ox-head king of skies) is sometimes thought to be another name for Susanoo, and Susanoo's harsh personality, there is the theory that this ushi-oni is an incarnation of Susanoo, and the yōkai researcher Kenji Murakami states that Ushi Gozen's attack on the temple comes from a backdrop of a religious confrontation.
Their name is mentioned in The Pillow Book under the name of "Oroshiki Mono" ("Fearful Thing") in section 148, and their face-off with Minamoto no Yorimitsu is also depicted in the Taiheiki.
In the beginning of the Edo Period, according to an old jōruri called "Ushi Gozen no Ohonchi" (Ushi Gozen's Original Place), the wife of Minamoto no Mitsunaka, from a powerful family of the Heian period, had a dream where the Kitano Tenjin dwelt in her womb. After a long pregnancy of 3 years and 3 months, a boy infant was born on an ox year, on an ox day, at the ox hour. This infant would be Minamoto no Yorimitsu's next younger sibling (in the original text, らいくわうの御しやてい "raikwau no oshatei", or ただの満中が次男, "tada no Mitsunaka ga jinan"), but he had an ox's horns and an oni's face, so he was about to be killed. However, the court lady who was ordered to perform the killing instead saved him and raised him in secret in the mountains, and grew up to be called "Ushi Gozen." Mitsunaka ordered his son, the yōkai-slaying hero Minamoto no Yorimitsu, to deal with Ushi Gozen. Ushi Gozen fought many battles in Kantō and resisted to the end. He threw himself in the Sumida River, where it is said that he transformed into an ox 30 meters (about ten jō) in length and went berserk.
As atmospheric ghost lights
In an essay titled Isetsu Machimachi (異説まちまち) by Wada Masamichi, a warrior of the Sekiyado Domain, there are statements about ushi-oni as atmospheric ghost lights. According to this essay, in Izumo Province (now the northern parts of Shimane Prefecture), at a damp time of continual rain, if one goes to a place where there appears to be a bridge across a mountain stream where some white lights would fly about and stick to the body and not come off, one would say "I have encountered ushi-oni," and it is said to disappear by warming oneself at a hearth. This is thought to be similar to the atmospheric ghost light called minobi in Niigata Prefecture and Shiga Prefecture.
In legends of Inaba Province (now the eastern part of Tottori Prefecture), on snowy evenings, countless small firefly-like lights would collect on one's mino, and if one tries to shake them off, they would fall to the floor and then whirl up again and stick on. It is said that eventually, the mino and umbrella would all be covered with a green light.
Relics
In Anan, Tokushima Prefecture, a family called Kajima has enshrined a beast's skull told to have come from an ushi-oni. It is said that the Kajima family's ancestor's slew this ushi-oni upon request from the local farmers who were being tormented by it, and then brought back its head.
In Kurume, Fukuoka Prefecture, a mummified hand at the Kan'onji is said to be the hand of an ushi-oni that appeared one year in Kōhei (1063). It had an ox's head and an onis body, and it tormented the nearby residents with a supernatural power. It is said that although the warriors of several provinces hesitated to slay it, the head priest Kanamitsu Shōnin slew it with nenbutsu and Buddhist power. It is said that the hand went to temple, the head was presented at the capital, and the ears were buried at Minōsan ("ear storage mountain"). The name Minōsan comes from this legend.
At Negoro-ji on Aonomine, Goshikidai in Kagawa Prefecture, there are some treasured horns said to be from an ushi-oni slain by Yamada Kudando Takakiyo near the start of the Edo Period. According to the pictures in the scrolls of this temple, this ushi-oni had the head of a monkey and the body of a tiger, and both legs is a flying membrane-shaped wing like that of a musasabi or bat. The scroll and relic is currently not open to the public due to several problems, so it is open to the public only through the internet.
There are records that there were once ushi-oni around Kumakōgen, Ehime Prefecture, but none remain today.
In festivals
In the Nanyo Region of Ehime Prefecture, especially Uwajima and its surroundings, there is a local festival in which a procession of dashi (parade floats) called ushi-oni are paraded. There are several explanations suggested for the origin of this, including the aforementioned view of ushi-oni being holy, an Iyo Province story of how Tōnai Zusho and Kuraki Heinojō slew an ushi-oni, a story about how a person from Iyo slew the ushi-oni in Kaifu District, Tokushima Prefecture, and a story about how when Toyotomi Hideyoshi dispatched troops to Korea, Katō Kiyomasa made "turtle shell carts" to the tigers of Korea.
Shape
The cart is a turtle shell-shaped structure made from putting together bamboo, with an attached head (officially the "trunk") and tail ("sword"). The "trunk" is attached several meters ahead on bamboo, and on the other side is attached a T-shaped handle ("shumoku", or "bell-ringing rod"), which can be freely moved about. It is considered an honor to handle this. Depending on the region, some of them feature an ability to extend or contract the neck. The "sword" is attached to the main body by a rope. A large number of people would carry this and parade it about. At the same time, they would furiously shake the "trunk" and "sword", spin it around again and go into a fervor. However, they would not make them bump into each other or perform other kinds of "fights". Generally, there are two types of main bodies, one covered by a shuro (considered the original kind), and one covered by a black or red cloth (considered the development kind). The one with the shuro is the smaller one. The development kind has a shiny yellow thing in its center.
Furthermore, there is a saying that "if children can get the ushi-oni to bite their head, they'll become smart," so when the people carrying it are resting, the people nearby would take their children and grandchildren along to get their heads bit.
Festivals
The ushi-oni plays the main role in the festival of the Uwajima region. In the Warei Festival performed from July 22 to 24, ushi-oni would take the stage not just in Uwajima, but also in the mountain regions and in Kōchi Prefecture (Nishitosa). These are made by the city staff of Uwajima and the ushi-oni preservation societies of various regions. Also, ushi-oni appear in autumn festivals (such as small scale festivals in Akehama, Seiyo, among other places). Following the example of the Ehime Prefecture festival, ushi-oni also appear in events in many areas, such as alongside the taiko floats of Niihama, or alongside danjiri carts in Saijo.
Since Uwajima become a sister city to Honolulu, Hawaii, every year on the first Friday, Saturday, and Monday is the Matsuri in Hawaii: Pan-Pacific Festival where volunteers from the Maruho Ushi-oni Preservation Society and the Uwajima City Government Ushi-oni Preservation Society would participate as the Uwajima Ushi-oni Preservation Society.
In the Nanyo region, they would be at the front of mikoshi and are said to play the role of warding off devils.
Ushi-oni also appear in festivals in the Cape Sada region, Mikame, Seiyo, the Kita District, among other places.
History
Other
Ushi-oni mask (kabu)
On the premises of the Uwajima Station on the JR Yosan Line is an ushi-oni "kabu" displayed as decoration. Besides this, in regional cuisine establishments in the Uwajima region are sometimes decorated with things modeled after an ushi-oni "kabu." They can also be sometimes seen at Uwajima eating establishments in Matsuyama.
The ushi-oni of Kikuma
The autumn festival held at the Kamo Jinja in Kikuma, Imabari is the only one in the Tōyo region where ushi-oni appear. It dons a black cloth and is somewhat large with a round torso.
Besides Ehime Prefecture, on Amami Ōshima, there is the ushi-oni belief festival called the "Numato Nukanushi", where an ox yōkai god (farming god) with decorated countless eight-horned, eight-footed, and eight-tailed madara-shaped patterns would rise up from the sea and shout with a loud charamela-like voice and roam about the basket fires, whereupon the islanders would put their heads to the ground when it comes to them. However, this is actually a made-up god, and the islanders hate it when people from the mainland mention this to them.
There are also similar ushi-oni and ox god festivals in Minamitakaki District, Nagasaki Prefecture (now Unzen) known called "Tōshimon", in Uwajima, Ehime Prefecture called "Ushōnin", and in Ichiki, Hioki District, Kagoshima Prefecture (now Ichikikushikino) called "Tsukuimon". Similarly, at a town along the Kagoshima Bay in the Ōsumi Peninsula there is said to be something called the "unmushi" (sea ox), a monster black ox that would crawl up from the ocean and wander about. This unmushi is thought to appear after the bon festival on the 27th, so the people of this area would avoid the sea on this day.
The comic artist Mizuki Shigeru surmises that in the backdrop of the ushi-oni are the ancient Indian ox gods, so the incarnations of Daijizaiten (Shiva), Izanaten (Ishana) and Enma-ten (Yama) are related, and that also related is the existence of the Tenmangū that shrines Sugawara no Michizane (who is also Tenman Daijizaiten).
In popular culture
The Super Sentai franchise had its adaption of the ushi-oni:
In Ninja Sentai Kakuranger, the ushi-oni appears as a monster an ox dressed as a cowboy. It was unused in Mighty Morphin Power Rangers, but it did make cameos in Power Rangers Lost Galaxy.
In Samurai Sentai Shinkenger, the monster Gozunagumo is depicted as a spider monster with an ox head on its torso drawing inspiration from the Ushi-oni. He was adapted into Power Rangers Samurai as Arachnitor.
Elements of Ushi-oni appear in One Piece:
Gyūki: Yuzume is the name of an attack Zoro uses to defeat T-Bone.
One of the Five Elders, St. Jaygarcia Saturn, possesses an unnamed Mythical Zoan Devil Fruit that transforms him into a creature resembling an ushi-oni where his Awakened form gives him ox-like horns and spider-like legs.
In both the Nurarihyon no Mago manga and anime series, the beast known as Gyūki happens to be an ushi-oni with the head of an ox and the torso of a spider-like creature with large claws that with its demonic powers would lead lost travelers astray and prey on them.
In Naruto, Gyūki is Killer B's tailed beast. It is a cross between an ox and an octopus with the tentacles making up the tails. He can transform into the beast at will.
In Kamen Rider Decade, Hibiki's desire to destroy all Makamou caused his oni power to consume him and turn him into the ox Makamou Gyuki. When Asumu becomes the new Kamen Rider Hibiki, he puts the original Hibiki out of his misery by destroying him with his Mouka Dotou form.
In Gegege no Kitaro, an ushi-oni steals Kitaro (GeGeGe no Kitaro)'s soul and forces him to do its bidding.
In Touhou Project, Urumi Ushizaki is an ushi-oni.
In Fate/Grand Order, Minamoto Raikou is an ushi-oni called Ushi-Gozen.
See also
Gozu
Minotaur
References
Ehime Tourism Information: Sightseeing Routes
Negoro-ji Ushi-oni Shashinshū
Buddhist folklore
Oni
Mythological bovines
Yōkai
Atmospheric ghost lights
pt:Anexo:Lista de artigos mínimos de Youkais#Gyuki |
4378020 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20people%20from%20Harlem | List of people from Harlem | This is a list of people from Harlem in New York City.
The early period (pre-1920)
John James Audubon – naturalist
Richard Croker – Tammany Hall politician, lived at 26 Mount Morris Park West
James Reese Europe – musician, credited with inventing jazz; 67 West 133rd Street
Thomas Gilroy – New York mayor
Alexander Hamilton – politician; lived in Harlem at the end of his life
Hubert Harrison – "The Father of Harlem Radicalism"
Scott Joplin – pianist and composer; lived at 133 West 138th Street in 1916, then at 163 West 131st Street until his death in 1917; had a studio at 160 West 133rd Street
Alfred Henry Lewis – cowboy author
Vincent James McMahon – founder of the World Wide Wrestling Federation
Paul Meltsner – WPA era painter and muralist; grew up in Harlem
Thomas Nast – artist
Philip A. Payton Jr. – real estate entrepreneur; lived at 13 West 131st Street
Norman Rockwell – lived as a child at 789 St. Nicholas Avenue
Norman Thomas – radical activist
Daniel Tiemann – New York mayor
Robert Van Wyck – New York mayor
Cornelius Van Wyck Lawrence – New York mayor
Jewish, Italian, Irish Harlem (circa 1900–30)
Sholem Aleichem – writer, 110 Lenox Avenue
Moe Berg (1902–1972) – Major League Baseball catcher; spy
Milton Berle – comedian and actor, born in a five-story walkup at 68 West 118th Street
Fanny Brice – actress, houses at West 128th Street and West 118th Street
Art Buchwald – writer
Bennett Cerf – publisher, was born on May 25, 1898, at 68 West 118th Street, the same address as Milton Berle's
Morris Raphael Cohen – philosopher, 498 West 135th Street
Milt Gabler – record producer, responsible for many innovations in the recording industry of the 20th century
George and Ira Gershwin - composers, grew up in Harlem; lived at 108 West 111th and other addresses. George wrote his first hit song, "Swanee", at his home at 520 W. 144 Street in 1919. The pair were living at 501 Cathedral Parkway in 1924, and it was in this apartment that George wrote "Rhapsody in Blue."
Oscar Hammerstein I – inventor and theatrical entrepreneur; lived at 333 Edgecombe Avenue
Oscar Hammerstein II – writer and theatrical producer, addresses on East 116th Street and 112th Street
Lorenz Hart – lyricist half of the Broadway songwriting team Rodgers and Hart, 59 West 119th Street
Harry Houdini – magician; lived at 278 West 113th Street from 1904 until his death in 1926
Frank Hussey – Olympian, 129th Street
Burt Lancaster – Oscar-winning actor and producer
Seymour Martin Lipset – political sociologist, senior fellow at the Hoover Institution at Stanford University, and Hazel Professor of Public Policy at George Mason University
Ignazio Lupo – counterfeiter, gangster
Marx Brothers – comedians, 239 East 114th Street
Arthur Miller – playwright, 45 West 110th Street
Giuseppe Morello – gangster, 323 East 107th Street
Belle Moskowitz – political advisor to New York Governor and 1928 presidential candidate Al Smith
Al Pacino – Academy Award-winning actor
Charlie Pilkington – three-time New York champion boxer; East 102nd Street
Ed Sullivan – Broadway & Sports columnist, host of the long-running televised Sunday evening variety show; East 114th Street
David Rappaport – fashion manufacturer, designer and painter
Richard Rodgers – composer, 3 West 120th Street
Yossele Rosenblatt – celebrated cantor
Henry Roth – writer, 108 East 119th Street
Jessie Sampter – poet
John Sanford, born Julian Lawrence Shapiro – screenwriter and author who wrote 24 books
Arthur Sulzberger – publisher of the New York Times
Henrietta Szold – founder of Hadassah
Vincent and Ciro Terranova – gangsters, 352 East 116th Street
The Harlem Renaissance and World War II (1920–1945)
Louis Armstrong – bandleader and trumpet player
Count Basie – bandleader and pianist; lived at 555 Edgecombe Avenue
George Wilson Becton – religious cult leader
Julius Bledsoe – singer; lived at 409 Edgecombe Avenue
Arna Bontemps – writer
William Stanley Braithwaite – poet and essayist; lived at 409 Edgecombe Avenue
Eunice Carter – New York state judge; lived at 409 Edgecombe Avenue
John Henrik Clarke – editor of Freedomways Magazine and of several books; professor; moved to Harlem in 1933
Collyer brothers – compulsive hoarders; lived in a townhouse at 128th Street and Fifth Avenue in Harlem their entire adult lives
Countee Cullen – poet
Lillian Harris Dean – entrepreneur known as "Pigfoot Mary"
Aaron Douglas – painter; lived at 409 Edgecombe Avenue
W. E. B. Du Bois – activist, writer; lived at 409 Edgecombe
Duke Ellington – composer, pianist and bandleader; lived on Riverside Drive and at 555 Edgecombe
Father Divine – religious leader, lived in several locations in Harlem, including on Astor Row, and maintained offices at 20 West 115th Street
Rudolph Fisher – writer
Marcus Garvey – political figure, Pan-Africanist; home at 235 West 131st Street
Billy Higgins (1888–1937), stage comedian, songwriter, and singer
Charles Manuel "Sweet Daddy" Grace – evangelist, born in Cape Verde Islands but became prominent in Harlem in the 1920s
Lionel Hampton – jazz musician; lived in Harlem through World War II and for some years thereafter
Hubert Harrison – "the father of Harlem Radicalism"
Leonard Harper – Harlem Renaissance producer, stager, and choreographer
Coleman Hawkins – musician, saxophone player; lived at 555 Edgecombe Avenue
Billie Holiday – singer; lived with her mother at 108 West 139th Street
Casper Holstein – gangster
Lena Horne – singer and actress; lived at 555 Edgecombe Avenue
Langston Hughes – writer
Zora Neale Hurston – writer
Bumpy Johnson – gangster; lived in Lenox Terrace at 132nd Street and Lenox Avenue near the end of his life
James P. Johnson – pianist
James Weldon Johnson – author, activist, composer; lived at 187 West 135th Street
Donald Jones – actor and dancer born in Harlem but moved to the Netherlands
Fiorello La Guardia – New York mayor, from East Harlem
Alain Locke – editor
Joe Louis – boxer; lived at 555 Edgecombe Avenue
Claude McKay – poet and novelist; born in Jamaica but moved to Harlem and wrote the famous novel Home to Harlem, West 131st Street
Florence Mills – entertainer
Adam Clayton Powell Sr. – religious, civic leader
A. Philip Randolph – activist, labor organizer
Paul Robeson – singer and actor; lived at 555 Edgecombe Avenue
Bill "Bojangles" Robinson – dancer; lived on Strivers' Row
James Herman Robinson – pastor of the Church of the Master on 122nd Street, founder of Operation Crossroads Africa, a forerunner of the Peace Corps
Stephanie St. Clair – criminal leader; lived at 409 Edgecombe Avenue
Willie "The Lion" Smith – pianist
Wallace Thurman – writer
Jean Toomer – writer
James Van Der Zee – photographer
Madam C.J. Walker – philanthropist and tycoon
A'Lelia Walker – socialite and businesswoman
Fats Waller – pianist, born at 107 West 134th Street
Ethel Waters – singer, actress; born in Chester, Pennsylvania
Margot Webb - professional dancer
Walter Francis White – civil rights leader
Bert Williams – vaudeville performer; born in Antigua; died in 1922, near the start of the Harlem Renaissance
Mary Lou Williams – pianist; lived at 63 Hamilton Terrace
Lillian "Billie" Yarbo – comedienne, dancer, singer
Famous after World War II
Miles Aiken – basketball player
Fiona Apple – singer-songwriter and pianist, raised in Morningside Gardens
James Baldwin – novelist; lived at 131st Street and Adam Clayton Powell Blvd. (then called "Seventh Avenue")
Amiri Baraka, born LeRoi Jones – dancer, poet, activist
Patricia Bath, ophthalmologist, inventor, humanitarian, and academic
Romare Bearden – artist, primarily working in collage
Harry Belafonte – calypso musician
Claude Brown – novelist, wrote Manchild in the Promised Land
Ron Brown – U.S. Secretary of Commerce, grew up in the Hotel Theresa
Kareem Campbell – pro skateboarder
George Carlin – comedian; 121st Street between Amsterdam and Broadway
Jimmy Castor – R&B/funk bandleader
Dr. Kenneth Clark – psychologist and activist; lived at 555 Edgecombe Avenue
Evelyn Cunningham – civil-rights-era journalist and aide to Gov. Nelson A. Rockefeller of New York
Jules Dassin – film director
Benjamin J. Davis – New York City councilman, ultimately sent to jail for violations of the Smith Act
Ossie Davis – actor and director; lived in Harlem in the late 1930s and mid-1940s
Sammy Davis Jr. – entertainer, actor, member of Rat Pack, born in Harlem Hospital in 1925
Roy DeCarava – photographer, born in Harlem in 1919
Wanda De Jesus – actress
David Dinkins – Mayor of New York; lived in the Riverton Houses
Ralph Ellison – novelist, wrote Invisible Man, about a man who moves from the deep south to Harlem; lived at 730 Riverside Drive in Harlem
Erik Estrada – actor, from East Harlem
Donald Faison – actor
Jack Geiger – physician, co-founder of Physicians for Social Responsibility; lived with Canada Lee for a year at 555 Edgecombe Avenue
Herbert Gentry – abstract expressionist painter, lived at 126th street and Amsterdam Avenue, 1940s
Althea Gibson – professional tennis player; lived at 115 West 143rd Street
Oscar Hammerstein II – writer and theatrical producer
W. C. Handy – composer and bandleader; lived on Strivers' Row in Harlem towards the end of his life
Benny Harris – musician, trumpet
Lorenz Hart – lyricist
Johnny Hartman – vocalist; born in Louisiana, grew up in Chicago, moved to Harlem's Sugar Hill in 1950s
Evan Hunter, aka Ed McBain – author, grew up in East Harlem
Roy Innis – head of the Congress of Racial Equality; lived in Harlem but ultimately moved to Brooklyn
June Jordan – Caribbean American poet, novelist, journalist, biographer, dramatist, teacher
JTG – WWE wrestler
Ben E. King – soul singer and former lead tenor of The Drifters, best known for the song, "Stand By Me"
Canada Lee – actor; lived at 555 Edgecombe Avenue
Frank Lucas – drug dealer
Frankie Lymon – lead tenor of The Teenagers, best known for the song "Why Do Fools Fall in Love?"
Malcolm X – preacher, revolutionary
Earl Manigault – basketball player
Thurgood Marshall – Supreme Court justice; lived at 409 Edgecombe Avenue
Carl McCall – New York State senator, and Comptroller of New York State
Jackie McLean – musician, alto saxophone* Arthur Miller – playwright, was married to Marilyn Monroe
Hal Miller – actor (Sesame Street, Law & Order, etc.); also painter, singer, poet, lyricist, lived at 152nd Street & Macombs Place in the 1950s, born in Harlem
Moby – musician, born in Harlem
Edward Mosberg (1926-2022) - Polish-American Holocaust survivor, educator, and philanthropist
Alice Neel – artist; lived in East Harlem
Eleanor Holmes Norton – head of the Commission of Human Rights for New York City, now non-voting Delegate from the District of Columbia to the United States House of Representatives
Elaine Parker – community organizer and activist, Chairperson of Harlem C.O.R.E. Director of the Manhattan Borough President's Office, Special Assistant to the City Council President City of NY
Gordon Parks – film director and photographer
Basil Paterson – New York state senator, New York City deputy mayor for labor relations, Vice-Chairman of the Democratic National Committee
Fannie Pennington Harlem Civil Rights Foot Soldier
Samuel Pierce – Ronald Reagan's Secretary of Housing and Urban Development; lived in the Riverton Houses
Adam Clayton Powell Jr. – politician
Bud Powell – musician, pianist
Tito Puente, Sr. – musician, Spanish Harlem
Gene Anthony Ray – dancer and actor
Ving Rhames – actor
Brandon 'Scoop B' Robinson, NBA analyst
Sugar Ray Robinson – boxer, entrepreneur; moved to Harlem at age 12
Sonny Rollins – musician, tenor saxophone
Steve Rossi – comedian, former manager for Howard Stern
Henry Roth – novelist
J. D. Salinger – novelist; lived at 3681 Broadway until he was nine years old
Hazel Scott – pianist, wife of Adam Clayton Powell, Jr., first African-American woman with her own television show
Nina Simone – singer; lived, for a time, in Duke Ellington's old house in Harlem
Thomas Sowell – professional economist and author
Billy Strayhorn – jazz composer, arranger
Percy Sutton – Borough President of Manhattan: "If I were offered a million dollars, I wouldn't leave Harlem."
Billy Taylor – jazz pianist; lived in the Riverton Houses
Clarice Taylor – actress on the Cosby Show
Conrad Tillard (born 1964) - politician, Baptist minister, radio host, author, and civil rights activist
Samuel E Vázquez – abstract expressionist painter
Dinah Washington – "Queen of the Blues"; born in Alabama but became famous when she lived in Harlem
Roy Wilkins – civil rights leader; lived at 409 Edgecombe
Louis T. Wright – physician, chairman of the board of the NAACP
Morrie Yohai – rabbi, inventor of Cheez Doodles
Rap, hip hop, R&B and reality
40 Cal – rapper
ASAP Ferg – rapper ASAP Mob
ASAP Rocky – rapper from Harlem (member of ASAP Mob)
Azealia Banks – rapper, singer, lyricist
Stuart Bascombe - singer, songwriter, producer and actor
Leroy Burgess - Musician, singer, songwriter and producer
Big L – rapper
Black Ivory - R&B vocal group
Black Rob – rapper from Spanish Harlem
Cam'ron – rapper (owner of Diplomat Records) (Dipset)
Cannibal Ox – rap duo
Crash Crew – old-school rap group
Yaya DaCosta – America's Next Top Model contestant/model
Damon Dash – Co-founder of Roc-A-Fella Records
DJ Hollywood – VH-1 hip hop honoree; rap/hip-hop pioneer
DJ Red Alert – DJ, hip hop pioneer
Kool Moe Dee – old-school rapper and one-third of the Treacherous Three
Rob Base and DJ E-Z Rock – rap duo best known for their hit "It Takes Two"
Dave East – rapper (Mass Appeal Records)
Famous Dex – rapper
Fatman Scoop – Grammy and MTV Award winner; radio personality; reality TV star
The Fearless Four – pioneer rap group
Doug E. Fresh – '80s rapper, runs a waffle house in Harlem
Spoonie Gee – pioneer rapper
Ebony Haith – America's Next Top Model contestant, model
Charles Hamilton – rapper
Ilacoin – hip hop artist, creator of the "Pause" game
Freddie Jackson – singer
Jim Jones – rapper (co-CEO of Diplomat Records) (Dipset)
Joe Budden – rapper, media personality, host of The Joe Budden Podcast
Kareem "Biggs" Burke - co-founder of Roc-A-Fella Records
Kelis – R&B singer and songwriter
Rayne Storm – rapper, producer (Digiindie)
Puff Daddy – rapper, businessman, founder of Bad Boy Records
Freekey Zekey – rapper (owner, CEO of 730 Dips Records)
Immortal Technique – rapper
Kurtis Blow – rapper
Lil Mama – rapper; judge of America's Best Dance Crew
Biz Markie – rapper, disc jockey owns a Waffle House
Mase – rapper
Jae Millz – rapper
P-Star – rapper, singer, actress
Q-Tip – rapper, producer (A Tribe Called Quest)
Russell Patterson - singer, songwriter, producer and actor
Teddy Riley – producer, artist
Tupac Shakur - rapper
Carl Hancock Rux – writer, performer
Isabel Sanford – actor; co-star of The Jeffersons
Juelz Santana – rapper (owner, CEO of Skull Gang Records)
Bre Scullark – America's Next Top Model contestant, model
Smoke DZA – rapper
Dani Stevenson – singer
Keith Sweat – singer
Teyana Taylor – singer and rapper signed to Kanye West's G.O.O.D. Music label
Treacherous Three – old-school rap group
T-Rex – battle rapper (member Of Dot Mob)
Vado – rapper (We The Best Records)
Billy Dee Williams – actor
JR Writer – rapper (Dipset member)
Bodega Bamz - rapper, actor
Sheck Wes - rapper
Dave Wooley - director, producer, author and entrepreneur
21st-century residents
Bob Dylan - owned a brownstone on Striver’s Row from 1980’s until year 2000. The townhouse is located at 265 West 139th Street and it sold in 2018 for $3.7M
Kareem Abdul-Jabbar – basketball player, moved into a Mount Morris brownstone at 30 West 120th Street in September 2006
Lorraine Adams – writer and journalist
Maya Angelou – poet and author, owned a home on 120th Street in Mount Morris Park district
Angela Bassett – Emmy and Academy Award-nominated, and Golden Globe-winning actress
Keith David – actor and singer
Charlotte d'Amboise – actress and dancer
Jonathan Franzen – author; lived on 125th Street when he wrote his book The Corrections
Daphne Frias – activist
Marcia Gay Harden – Oscar-winning actress
Edward W. Hardy – Composer, musician and producer
Neil Patrick Harris – actor; lives near Morningside Park when not in Los Angeles
Rashidah Ismaili, writer
Jeff L. Lieberman – film director
Terrance Mann – actor and dancer
Cameron Mathison – actor on All My Children and contestant on Dancing with the Stars, 136 West 130th Street
S. Epatha Merkerson – actress
Harold "Hal" Miller – actor ("Gordon" on Sesame Street), lived on 152nd Street & Macombs Place, before going to live and work in China, India and throughout Europe
Mandy Patinkin – actor
Adam Clayton Powell IV – New York City Council member
Richard Price – author and screenwriter
Marcus Samuelsson – chef and restaurateur; lived in duplex near Frederick Douglass Boulevard
Miz Cracker - Drag Queen
Akhnaten Spencer-El – Olympic fencer
Stephen Spinella – Tony Award-winning actor
Joel Steinberg – killed his adopted daughter; moved to Harlem after his 2004 release from prison
Alton White – hockey player
Khalid Yasin – born in Harlem; raised in Brooklyn; teacher and lecturer of Islam
Oscar Peñas – composer and jazz guitarist – born in Barcelona, Spain; moved from Clinton Hill, Brooklyn to Hamilton Height, Harlem in 2018
Alysia Reiner - American actress and producer, best known for playing Natalie "Fig" Figueroa in the Netflix comedy drama series Orange Is the New Black (2013–2019), for which she won a Screen Actors Guild Award for her role as part of the ensemble cast
Representatives
Inez Dickens - New York City Council
Robert Jackson – New York City council
David Paterson – New York State Governor
Bill Perkins – New York State Senator
Adam Clayton Powell IV – New York State Assembly
Charles B. Rangel – United States House of Representatives, lives in Lenox Terrace at 132nd Street and Lenox Avenue
José M. Serrano – New York State Senate
Keith L.T. Wright – New York State Assembly
References
Harlem
People |
4378212 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inclusion%20%28education%29 | Inclusion (education) | Inclusion in education refers to all students being able to access and gain equal opportunities to education and learning. It arose in the context of special education with an individualized education program or 504 plan, and is built on the notion that it is more effective for students with special needs to have the said mixed experience for them to be more successful in social interactions leading to further success in life. The philosophy behind the implementation of the inclusion model does not prioritize, but still provides for the utilization of special classrooms and special schools for the education of students with disabilities. Inclusive education models are brought into force by educational administrators with the intention of moving away from seclusion models of special education to the fullest extent practical, the idea being that it is to the social benefit of general education students and special education students alike, with the more able students serving as peer models and those less able serving as motivation for general education students to learn empathy.
Implementation of these practices varies. Schools most frequently use the inclusion model for select students with mild to moderate special needs. Fully inclusive schools, which are rare, do not separate "general education" and "special education" programs; instead, the school is restructured so that all students learn together.
Inclusive education differs from the 'integration' or 'mainstreaming' model of education, which tended to be a concern.
A premium is placed upon full participation by students with disabilities and upon respect for their social, civil, and educational rights. Feeling included is not limited to physical and cognitive disabilities, but also includes the full range of human diversity with respect to ability, language, culture, gender, age and of other forms of human differences. Richard Wilkinson and Kate Pickett wrote, "student performance and behaviour in educational tasks can be profoundly affected by the way we feel, we are seen and judged by others. When we expect to be viewed as inferior, our abilities seem to diminish". This is why the United Nations Sustainable Development Goal 4 recognizes the need for adequate physical infrastructures and the need for safe, inclusive learning environments.
Integration and mainstreaming
Inclusion has different historical roots/background which may be integration of students with severe disabilities in the US (who may previously been excluded from schools or even lived in institutions) or an inclusion model from Canada and the US (e.g., Syracuse University, New York) which is very popular with inclusion teachers who believe in participatory learning, cooperative learning, and inclusive classrooms.
Inclusive education differs from the early university professor's work (e.g., 1970s, Education Professor Carol Berrigan of Syracuse University, 1985; Douglas Biklen, Dean of School of Education through 2011) in integration and mainstreaming which were taught throughout the world including in international seminars in Italy. Mainstreaming (e.g., the Human Policy Press poster; If you thought the wheel was a good idea, you'll like the ramp)tended to be concerned about "readiness" of all parties for the new coming together of students with significant needs. Thus, integration and mainstreaming principally was concerned about disability and 'special educational needs' (since the children were not in the regular schools) and involved teachers, students, principals, administrators, School Boards, and parents changing and becoming 'ready for' students who needed accommodation or new methods of curriculum and instruction (e.g., required federal IEPs – individualized education program) by the mainstream.
By contrast, inclusion is about the child's right to participate and the school's duty to accept the child returning to the US Supreme Court's Brown vs. the Board of Education decision and the new Individuals with Disabilities Education (Improvement) Act (IDEIA). Inclusion rejects the use of special schools or classrooms, which remain popular among large multi-service providers, to separate students with disabilities from students without disabilities. A premium is placed upon full participation by students with disabilities, in contrast to earlier concept of partial participation in the mainstream, and upon respect for their social, civil, and educational rights. Inclusion gives students with disabilities skills they can use in and out of the classroom.
Fully inclusive schools and general or special education policies
Fully inclusive schools, which are rare, no longer distinguish between "general education" and "special education" programs which refers to the debates and federal initiatives of the 1980s, such as the Community Integration Project and the debates on home schools and special education-regular education classrooms; instead, the school is restructured so that all students learn together. All approaches to inclusive schooling require administrative and managerial changes to move from the traditional approaches to elementary and high school education.
Inclusion remains in 2015 as part of school (e.g., Powell & Lyle, 1997, now to the most integrated setting from LRE) and educational reform initiatives in the US and other parts of the world. Inclusion is an effort to improve quality in education in the fields of disability, is a common theme in educational reform for decades, and is supported by the UN Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (UN, 2006). Inclusion has been researched and studied for decades, though reported lightly in the public with early studies on heterogeneous and homogeneous ability groupings (Stainback & Stainback, 1989), studies of critical friends and inclusion facilitators (e.g., Jorgensen & Tashie, 2000), self-contained to general education reversal of 90% (Fried & Jorgensen, 1998), among many others obtaining doctoral degrees throughout the US.
Classification of students and educational practices
Classification of students by disability is standard in educational systems which use diagnostic, educational and psychological testing, among others. However, inclusion has been associated with its own planning, including MAPS which Jack Pearpoint leads with still leads in 2015 and person-centred planning with John O'Brien and Connie Lyle O'Brien who view inclusion as a force for school renewal.
Inclusion has two sub-types: the first is sometimes called regular inclusion or partial inclusion, and the other is full inclusion.
Inclusive practice is not always inclusive but is a form of integration. For example, students with special needs are educated in regular classes for nearly all of the day, or at least for more than half of the day. Whenever possible, the students receive any additional help or special instruction in the general classroom, and the student is treated like a full member of the class. However, most specialized services are provided outside a regular classroom, particularly if these services require special equipment or might be disruptive to the rest of the class (such as speech therapy), and students are pulled out of the regular classroom for these services. In this case, the student occasionally leaves the regular classroom to attend smaller, more intensive instructional sessions in a separate classrooms, or to receive other related services, such as speech and language therapy, occupational and/or physical therapy, psychological services, and social work. This approach can be very similar to many mainstreaming practices, and may differ in little more than the educational ideals behind it.
In the "full inclusion" setting, the students with special needs are always educated alongside students without special needs, as the first and desired option while maintaining appropriate supports and services. Some educators say this might be more effective for the students with special needs. At the extreme, full inclusion is the integration of all students, even those that require the most substantial educational and behavioral supports and services to be successful in regular classes and the elimination of special, segregated special education classes. Special education is considered a service, not a place and those services are integrated into the daily routines (See, ecological inventories) and classroom structure, environment, curriculum and strategies and brought to the student, instead of removing the student to meet his or her individual needs. However, this approach to full inclusion is somewhat controversial, and it is not widely understood or applied to date.
Much more commonly, local educational agencies have the responsibility to organize services for children with disabilities. They may provide a variety of settings, from special classrooms to mainstreaming to inclusion, and assign, as teachers and administrators often do, students to the system that seems most likely to help the student achieve his or her individual educational goals. Students with mild or moderate disabilities, as well as disabilities that do not affect academic achievement, such as using power wheelchair, scooter or other mobility device, are most likely to be fully included; indeed, children with polio or with leg injuries have grown to be leaders and teachers in government and universities; self advocates travel across the country and to different parts of the world. However, students with all types of disabilities from all the different disability categories (See, also 2012 book by Michael Wehmeyer from the University of Kansas) have been successfully included in general education classes, working and achieving their individual educational goals in regular school environments and activities.
Alternatives to inclusion programs: school procedures and community development
Students with disabilities who are not included are typically either mainstreamed or segregated.
A mainstreamed student attends some general education classes, typically for less than half the day, and often for less academically rigorous, or if you will, more interesting and career-oriented classes. For example, a young student with significant intellectual disabilities might be mainstreamed for physical education classes, art classes and storybook time, but spend reading and mathematics classes with other students that have similar disabilities ("needs for the same level of academic instruction"). They may have access to a resource room for remediation or enhancement of course content, or for a variety of group and individual meetings and consultations.
A segregated student attends no classes with non-disabled students with disability a tested category determined before or at school entrance. He or she might attend a special school termed residential schools that only enrolls other students with disabilities, or might be placed in a dedicated, self-contained classroom in a school that also enrolls general education students. The latter model of integration, like the 1970s Jowonio School in Syracuse, is often highly valued when combined with teaching such as Montessori education techniques. Home schooling was also a popular alternative among highly educated parents with children with significant disabilities.
Residential schools have been criticized for decades, and the government has been asked repeatedly to keep funds and services in the local districts, including for family support services for parents who may be currently single and raising a child with significant challenges on their own. Children with special needs may already be involved with early childhood education which can have a family support component emphasizing the strengths of the child and family.
Some students may be confined to a hospital due to a medical condition (e.g., cancer treatments) and are thus eligible for tutoring services provided by a school district. Less common alternatives include homeschooling and, particularly in developing countries, exclusion from education.
Legal issues: education law and disability laws
The new anti-discriminatory climate has provided the basis for much change in policy and statute, nationally and internationally. Inclusion has been enshrined at the same time that segregation and discrimination have been rejected. Articulations of the new developments in ways of thinking, in policy and in law include:
The UN Convention on the Rights of the Child (1989) which sets out children's rights in respect of freedom from discrimination and in respect of the representation of their wishes and views.
The Convention against Discrimination in Education of UNESCO prohibits any discrimination, exclusion or segregation in education.
The UNESCO Salamanca Statement (1994) which calls on all governments to give the highest priority to inclusive education.
The UN Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (2006) which calls on all States Parties to ensure an inclusive education system at all levels.
From the least restrictive to the most integrated setting
For schools in the United States, the federal requirement that students be educated in the historic least restrictive environment that is a reasonable accommodation encourages the implementation of inclusion of students previously excluded by the school system. However, a critical critique of the LRE principle, commonly used to guide US schools, indicates that it often places restrictions and segregation on the individuals with the most severe disabilities. By the late 1980s, individuals with significant disabilities and their families and caregivers were already living quality lives in homes and local communities. The US Supreme Court has now ruled in the Olmstead Decision (1999) that the new principle is that of the "most integrated setting", as described by the national Consortium of Citizens with Disabilities, which should result in better achievement of national integration and inclusion goals in the 21st Century.
Inclusion rates in the world
The proportion of students with disabilities who are included varies by place and by type of disability, but it is relatively common for students with milder disabilities and less common with certain kinds of severe disabilities. In Denmark, 99% of students with learning disabilities like 'dyslexia' are placed in general education classrooms. In the United States, three out of five students with learning disabilities spend the majority of their time in the general education classroom.
Postsecondary statistics (after high school) are kept by universities and government on the success rates of students entering college, and most are eligible for either disability services (e.g., accommodations and aides) or programs on college campuses, such as supported education in psychiatric disabilities or College for Living. The former are fully integrated college degree programs with college and vocational rehabilitation services (e.g., payments for textbooks, readers or translators), and the latter courses developed similar to retirement institutes (e.g., banking for retirees).
Principles and necessary resources
Although once hailed, usually by its opponents, as a way to increase achievement while decreasing costs, full inclusion does not save money, but is more cost-beneficial and cost-effective. It is not designed to reduce students' needs, and its first priority may not even be to improve academic outcomes; in most cases, it merely moves the special education professionals (now dual certified for all students in some states) out of "their own special education" classrooms and into a corner of the general classroom or as otherwise designed by the "teacher-in-charge" and "administrator-in-charge". To avoid harm to the academic education of students with disabilities, a full panoply of services and resources is required (of education for itself), including:
Adequate supports and services for the student
Well-designed individualized education programs
Professional development for all teachers involved, general and special educators alike
Time for teachers to plan, meet, create, and evaluate the students together
Reduced class size based on the severity of the student needs
Professional skill development in the areas of cooperative learning, peer tutoring, adaptive curriculum
Collaboration between parents or guardians, teachers or para educators, specialists, administration, and outside agencies.
Sufficient funding so that schools will be able to develop programs for students based on student need instead of the availability of funding.
Indeed, the students with special needs do receive funds from the federal government, by law originally the Educational for All Handicapped Children Act of 1974 to the present day, Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act, which requires its use in the most integrated setting.
In principle, several factors can determine the success of inclusive classrooms:
Family-school partnerships
Collaboration between general and special educators
Well-constructed plans that identify specific accommodations, modifications, and goals for each student
Coordinated planning and communication between "general" and "special needs" staff
Integrated service delivery
Ongoing training and staff development
Leadership of teachers and administrators
By the mid-1980s, school integration leaders in the university sector already had detailed schemas (e.g., curriculum, student days, students with severe disabilities in classrooms) with later developments primarily in assistive technology and communication, school reform and transformation, personal assistance of user-directed aides, and increasing emphasis on social relationships and cooperative learning. In 2015, most important are evaluations of the populations still in special schools, including those who may be deaf-blind, and the leadership by inclusion educators, who often do not yet go by that name, in the education and community systems.
Differing views of inclusion and integration
However, early integrationists community integration would still recommend greater emphasis on programs related to sciences, the arts (e.g., exposure), curriculum integrated field trips, and literature as opposed to the sole emphasis on community referenced curriculum. For example, a global citizen studying the environment might be involved with planting a tree ("independent mobility"), or going to an arboretum ("social and relational skills"), developing a science project with a group ("contributing ideas and planning"), and having two core modules in the curriculum.
However, students will need to either continue to secondary school (meet academic testing standards), make arrangements for employment, supported education, or home/day services (transition services), and thus, develop the skills for future life (e.g., academic math skills and calculators; planning and using recipes or leisure skills) in the educational classrooms. Inclusion often involved individuals who otherwise might be at an institution or residential facility.
Today, longitudinal studies follow the outcomes of students with disabilities in classrooms, which include college graduations and quality of life outcomes. To be avoided are negative outcomes that include forms of institutionalization.
Differing views among experts in education
Inclusion in education, especially involving special education, has been a long-standing debate in many schools. Inclusion in this context is referring to putting students with special needs in the general classroom for most or all of the school day. The main reason people see this as beneficial is to reduce the social segregation for students. They claim that all their educational needs could be met in a general classroom if there was proper planning and support services given. On the other hand, many people see this as harmful to students with special needs education as they may not receive as much attention and help that they need.
James M. Kauffman and Jeanmarie Badar wrote an article that opens by saying if inclusion is the main priority "then special education will one day be looked upon as having gone through a period of shameful neglect of students' needs". The authors argue that the general education classroom is not the appropriate place to give children with special needs an effective education. This claim is backed up by providing six mistaken assumptions that people believe and giving reasons why it will not work and providing alternative ideas. One mistaken assumption they give is that "All students, including those with disabilities, should be expected to meet high standards". To which the authors say each child has their own highest standard and that this outlook should be adapted to all children, no matter if they have a disability or not. They go on to say that special education programs that pull students with disabilities out into separate classrooms and provide them with more attention, more time, and sometimes different assignments are extremely beneficial. The differences in the way students learn are what should be embraced in order to allow them to learn to their highest ability, as their education and understanding of the curriculum are more important than being included in the general classroom at all times.
On the other hand, some recent research has been done suggesting inclusion can be successful if certain things are done to help teachers become more educated on how to implement inclusion. Len Barton is a professor of Inclusive Education at the Institute of Education at the University of London and gave a lecture on how inclusion can be beneficial if certain criteria are followed. In a lecture he gave, he himself states that inclusion is not the one and only answer to helping education but it is a stepping stone. The conclusion of his studies states many criteria teachers need in order to make inclusion work. The first criterion is making the topic of inclusion the main part of educational programs for teachers in order to emphasize the importance of inclusion in boosting all students learning and participation.2 Barton says another factor is including disability and equality awareness training to teachers and staff done by trained professionals in order to increase teachers understanding behind inclusion.
In 2020, Dr. Chelsea P. Tracy-Bronson of Stockton University did a study looking at what people at the district level are doing to help inclusion in special education run smoothly. The goal of this study was to show modern strategies that are being implemented and that are working in order to create an equitable and inclusive education for all students. The study was done using a qualitative research methodology that looked at the views and experiences of seven special education leaders that were implementing successful and equitable inclusion programs.3 The research proposes that inclusion in special education can be successful when the district-level leaders encourage inclusive strategies, challenge the long-standing nonexclusive model, and really cultivate an environment for teachers and students to grow and understand the inclusive model.3 Like Barton, this study shows that inclusion can be a great tool in creating an equitable and inclusive learning environment for students with special needs.
Garry Hornby combines the two opposing sides into one idea that may help everyone. After analyzing teachers' attitudes and procedures directed at making inclusion work, Hornby concluded that inclusion into the general classroom should depend on the needs of the individual child. The ideas he analyzed focused on including and teaching children with special needs all in the same ways, which was not working. These inclusion models not working, frustrated teachers and administrators, making them have negative attitudes towards inclusion. However, if individual situations were addressed and a plan was made for each child with special needs, inclusion models would be more effective as children with very high needs would not spend as much time in the general classroom.4 This would shift the attention from how to make inclusion work, to a focus on effective education and helping the students reach their personal goals.
Overall, experts in the field of education have done extensive research on the topic of inclusion in regards to special education and have found a lot of data supporting both sides of the debate. As seen, this debate on whether or not inclusion is the right model for special education has been long-lasting, and there is no telling if it will ever really be over.
Common practices in inclusive classrooms
Students in an inclusive classroom are generally placed with their chronological age-mates, regardless of whether the students are working above or below the typical academic level for their age. Also, to encourage a sense of belonging, emphasis is placed on the value of friendships. Teachers often nurture a relationship between a student with special needs and a same-age student without a special educational need. Another common practice is the assignment of a buddy to accompany a student with special needs at all times (for example in the cafeteria, on the playground, on the bus and so on). This is used to show students that a diverse group of people make up a community, that no one type of student is better than another, and to remove any barriers to a friendship that may occur if a student is viewed as "helpless." Such practices reduce the chance for elitism among students in later grades and encourage cooperation among groups.
Teachers use a number of techniques to help build classroom communities:
Using games designed to build community
Involving students in solving problems
Sharing songs and books that teach community
Openly dealing with individual differences by discussion
Assigning classroom jobs that build community
Teaching students to look for ways to help each other
Utilizing physical therapy equipment such as standing frames, so students who typically use wheelchairs can stand when the other students are standing and more actively participate in activities
Encouraging students to take the role of teacher and deliver instruction (e.g. read a portion of a book to a student with severe disabilities)
Focusing on the strength of a student with special needs
Create classroom checklists
Take breaks when necessary
Create an area for children to calm down
Organize student desk in groups
Create a self and welcoming environment
Set ground rules and stick with them
Help establish short-term goals
Design a multi-faceted curriculum
Communicate regularly with parents and/or caregivers
Seek support from other special education teachers
Inclusionary practices are commonly utilized by using the following team-teaching models:
One teach, one support:
In this model, the content teacher will deliver the lesson and the special education teacher will assist student's individual needs and enforce classroom management as needed.
One teach, one observe:
In this model, the teacher with the most experience in the content will deliver the lesson and the other teacher will float or observe. This model is commonly used for data retrieval during IEP observations or Functional Behavior Analysis.
Station teaching (rotational teaching):
In this model, the room is divided into stations in which the students will visit with their small groups. Generally, the content teacher will deliver the lesson in his/her group, and the special education teacher will complete a review or an adapted version of the lesson with the students.
Parallel teaching:
In this model, one half of the class is taught by the content teacher and one half is taught by the special education teacher. Both groups are being taught the same lesson, just in a smaller group.
Alternative teaching:
In this method, the content teacher will teach the lesson to the class, while the special education teacher will teach a small group of students an alternative lesson.
Team teaching (content/support shared 50/50):
Both teachers share the planning, teaching, and supporting equally. This is the traditional method, and often the most successful co-teaching model.
Children with extensive support needs
For children with significant or severe disabilities, the programs may require what are termed health supports (e.g., positioning and lifting; visit to the nurse clinic), direct one-to-one aide in the classroom, assistive technology, and an individualized program which may involve the student "partially" (e.g., videos and cards for "visual stimulation"; listening to responses)in the full lesson plan for the "general education student". It may also require the introduction of teaching techniques commonly used (e.g., introductions and interest in science) that teachers may not use within a common core class.
Another way to think of health supports are as a range of services that may be needed from specialists, or sometimes generalists, ranging from speech and language, to visual and hearing (sensory impairments), behavioral, learning, orthopedics, autism, deaf-blindness, and traumatic brain injury, according to Virginia Commonwealth University's Dr. Paul Wehman. As Dr. Wehman has indicated, expectations can include post secondary education, supported employment in competitive sites, and living with family or other residential places in the community.
In 2005, comprehensive health supports were described in National Goals for Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities as universally available, affordable and promoting inclusion, as supporting well-informed, freely chosen health care decisions, culturally competent, promoting health promotion, and insuring well trained and respectful health care providers. In addition, mental health, behavioral, communication and crisis needs may need to be planned for and addressed.
"Full inclusion" – the idea that all children, including those with severe disabilities, can and should learn in a regular classroom has also taken root in many school systems, and most notably in the province of New Brunswick.
Collaboration among the professions
Inclusion settings allow children with and without disabilities to play and interact every day, even when they are receiving therapeutic services. When a child displays fine motor difficulty, his ability to fully participate in common classroom activities, such as cutting, coloring, and zipping a jacket may be hindered. While occupational therapists are often called to assess and implement strategies outside of school, it is frequently left up to classroom teachers to implement strategies in school. Collaborating with occupational therapists will help classroom teachers use intervention strategies and increase teachers' awareness about students' needs within school settings and enhance teachers' independence in implementation of occupational therapy strategies.
As a result of the 1997 re-authorization of the Individuals With Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), greater emphasis has been placed on delivery of related services within inclusive, general education environments. [Nolan, 2004] The importance of inclusive, integrated models of service delivery for children with disabilities has been widely researched indicating positive benefits. [Case-Smith& Holland, 2009] In traditional "pull out" service delivery models, children typically work in isolated settings one on one with a therapist, Case-Smith and Holland(2009) argue that children working on skills once or twice a week are "less likely to produce learning that leads to new behaviors and increased competence." [Case Smith &Holland, 2009, pg.419]. In recent years, occupational therapy has shifted from the conventional model of "pull out" therapy to an integrated model where the therapy takes place within a school or classroom.
Inclusion administrators have been requested to review their personnel to assure mental health personnel for children with mental health needs, vocational rehabilitation linkages for work placements, community linkages for special populations (e.g., "deaf-blind", "autism"), and collaboration among major community agencies for after school programs and transition to adulthood. Highly recommended are collaborations with parents, including parent-professional partnerships in areas of cultural and linguistic diversity (e.g., Syracuse University's special education Ph.D.'s Maya Kaylanpur and Beth Harry).
Selection of students for inclusion programs in schools
Educators generally say that some students with special needs are not good candidates for inclusion. Many schools expect a fully included student to be working at or near grade level, but more fundamental requirements exist: First, being included requires that the student is able to attend school. Students that are entirely excluded from school (for example, due to long-term hospitalization), or who are educated outside of schools (for example, due to enrollment in a distance education program) cannot attempt inclusion.
Additionally, some students with special needs are poor candidates for inclusion because of their effect on other students. For example, students with severe behavioral problems, such that they represent a serious physical danger to others, are poor candidates for inclusion, because the school has a duty to provide a safe environment to all students and staff.
Finally, some students are not good candidates for inclusion because the normal activities in a general education classroom will prevent them from learning. For example, a student with severe attention difficulties or extreme sensory processing disorders might be highly distracted or distressed by the presence of other students working at their desks. Inclusion needs to be appropriate to the child's unique needs.
Most students with special needs do not fall into these extreme categories, as most students who do attend school, are not violent, do not have severe sensory processing disorders, etc.
The students that are most commonly included are those with physical disabilities that have no or little effect on their academic work (diabetes mellitus, epilepsy, food allergies, paralysis), students with all types of mild disabilities, and students whose disabilities require relatively few specialized services.
Bowe says that regular inclusion, but not full inclusion, is a reasonable approach for a significant majority of students with special needs. He also says that for some students, notably those with severe autism spectrum disorders or "mental retardation", as well as many who are deaf or have multiple disabilities, even regular inclusion may not offer an appropriate education. Teachers of students with autism spectrum disorders sometimes use antecedent procedures, delayed contingencies, self-management strategies, peer-mediated interventions, pivotal response training and naturalistic teaching strategies.
Relationship to progressive education
Some advocates of inclusion promote the adoption of progressive education practices. In the progressive education or inclusive classroom, everyone is exposed to a "rich set of activities", and each student does what he or she can do, or what he or she wishes to do and learns whatever comes from that experience. Maria Montessori's schools are sometimes named as an example of inclusive education.
Inclusion requires some changes in how teachers teach, as well as changes in how students with and without special needs interact with and relate to one another. Inclusive education practices frequently rely on active learning, authentic assessment practices, applied curriculum, multi-level instructional approaches, and increased attention to diverse student needs and individualization. Student inclusion often starts with motivation, in order to reach the goal of engagement while in the classroom.
Sometimes it is not necessary that there will always be a positive environment and therefore a lot of attention of the teachers is also required along with the support of other children which will ensure a peaceful and happy place for both kinds of children.
Relationship to Universal Design for Learning (UDL)
A pedagogical practice that relates to both inclusive education and progressivist thinking is Universal Design for Learning (UDL). This method of teaching advocates for the removal of barriers in the physical and social environments that students of all abilities are within, as this is the main reason why students are unable to engage with the material presented in class. To implement UDL into a classroom, educators must understand not only the needs of their students, but also their abilities, interests, backgrounds, identities, prior knowledge, and their goals. By understanding their students, educators can then move on to using differentiated instruction to allow students to learn in a way that meets their needs; followed by accommodating and modifying programming to allow everyone to equitably and universally access curriculum. One study describes the applicability of UDL, by explaining that "the criteria for assessment of learning goals remain consistent. In effect, the learning endpoint goals stay the same, and it is the ways that student get to that endpoint of learning that is made more diverse. In this way, each student is challenged to learn to his or her own capacity, and is challenged through both multi-level authentic instruction and assessment". In other words, even though students are expressing their knowledge on the content through varied means, and quite possibly through different learning goals, they all inevitably accomplish the same goal, based on their own abilities and understandings.
In implementing UDL through the lens of access for those with exceptionalities, it is important to note what it means to be inclusive. Some classrooms or schools believe that being inclusive means that students with exceptionalities are in the room, without any attention paid to their need for support staff or modified curriculum expectations. Instead, inclusive education should be about teaching every single student and making the learning and teaching equitable, rather than equal. So, to implement UDL for the benefit of all students in the classroom, educators need to think about inclusivity relative to their students and their multifaceted identities – whether that is including materials written by authors of a particular race that happens to be prominent in their class, or creating more open spaces for a student in a wheel chair. Regardless of these changes, all students can benefit from them in one way or another.
Arguments for full inclusion in regular neighborhood schools
Advocates say that even partial non-inclusion is morally unacceptable. Proponents believe that non-inclusion reduces the disabled students' social importance and that maintaining their social visibility is more important than their academic achievement. Proponents say that society accords disabled people less human dignity when they are less visible in general education classrooms. Advocates say that even if typical students are harmed academically by the full inclusion of certain students with exceptionalities, that the non-inclusion of these students would still be morally unacceptable, as advocates believe that the harm to typical students' education is always less important than the social harm caused by making people with disabilities less visible in society.
A second key argument is that everybody benefits from inclusion. Advocates say that there are many children and young people who don't fit in (or feel as though they don't), and that a school that fully includes all disabled students feels welcoming to all. Moreover, at least one author has studied the impact a diversified student body has on the general education population and has concluded that students with 'mental retardation' who spend time among their peers show an increase in social skills and academic proficiency.
Advocates for inclusion say that the long-term effects of typical students who are included with special needs students at a very young age have a heightened sensitivity to the challenges that others face, increased empathy and compassion, and improved leadership skills, which benefits all of society.
A combination of inclusion and pull-out (partial inclusion) services has been shown to be beneficial to students with learning disabilities in the area of reading comprehension, and preferential for the special education teachers delivering the services.
Inclusive education can be beneficial to all students in a class, not just students with special needs. Some research show that inclusion helps students understand the importance of working together, and fosters a sense of tolerance and empathy among the student body.
Co-Design In Education
One form of design that heavily involves the users in the process of designing is co-design. Collaboration with the people who have personal experience with the topic at hand or people who will be using the product design (in this case curriculum or methods for inclusive learning) will result in a more effective product for the users. While most students are capable of learning in current educational settings, implementing co-design can create a more effective learning setting for students. Using co-design has the possibility to create a more accommodating experience. Curriculum designers do not have enough relevant experience to design the best working curriculum and strategies that are implemented for learning along curriculums used in classrooms that do not work for every student. That is why co-designing with teachers and when possible, students can create a more inclusive experience when learning for students to benefit all students and not just students with disabilities or "special needs".
The current and most common method in many ways centers around the designers themselves rather than the students and sometimes even the instructors, as it is the designer making the decisions and merely testing and getting feedback from the users as a form of incorporation. When designers control and limit the access to meanings that are included in the design process, it cuts off the chance for improved connections between the design and its user and is instead limited to what the designer deems significant. By leaving the users of the curriculum out of the design process itself the possibilities of new innovative ideas become limited to what designers value and the evolution of curriculum design remains moving at a slower pace than the needs of students evolve. If the canon of curriculum design could be evolved to be more collaborative with students in nature, making a more personalized and effective learning experience for students could be more obtainable.
There is a level of division between designers and users in which users do not feel equipped to take part in the design phase, "teachers are more comfortable adapting the implementation of materials than viewing themselves as critical users and co-designers of curriculum. Similarly, curriculum designers are more comfortable as the creators of materials rather than as partners with teachers in the design of the enacted curriculum." (Gunckel & Moore, pg. 2). Despite this, efforts have been made to include users in the design process of curriculums, such as a project reflected and explained by Kristin L. Gunckel and Felicia M. Moore in which designers brought in teachers to be in a position of co-design for a subject to be taught for a high school level class. This project served to see how including instructors as co-designers benefit the delivery of the curriculum. Throughout the project the designers were able to get feedback and suggestions from a perspective outside of the experience of the designers and could create a more impactful curriculum. As well from the perspective of the instructors, they were able to be more better prepared for the content and understood the intent and larger concept behind the materials to deliver more goal oriented lessons to the students. From this project it was shown how co-design in curriculum design is very beneficial to both designers and teachers as the teachers noted the implementation of the co-designed classes resulted in a positive and effective experience for the class.
Positive effects in regular classrooms
There are many positive effects of inclusions where both the students with special needs along with the other students in the classroom both benefit. Research has shown positive effects for children with disabilities in areas such as reaching individualized education program (IEP) goal, improving communication and social skills, increasing positive peer interactions, many educational outcomes, and post school adjustments. Positive effects on children without disabilities include the development of positive attitudes and perceptions of persons with disabilities and the enhancement of social status with non-disabled peers. While becoming less discriminatory, children without disabilities that learn in inclusive classrooms also develop communication and leadership skills more rapidly.
Several studies have been done on the effects of inclusion of children with disabilities in general education classrooms. A study on inclusion compared integrated and segregated (special education only) preschool students. The study determined that children in the integrated sites progressed in social skills development while the segregated children actually regressed.
Another study shows the effect on inclusion in grades 2 to 5. The study determined that students with specific learning disabilities made some academic and affective gains at a pace comparable to that of normal achieving students. Specific learning disabilities students also showed an improvement in self-esteem and in some cases improved motivation.
A third study shows how the support of peers in an inclusive classroom can lead to positive effects for children with autism. The study observed typical inclusion classrooms, ages ranging from 7 years old to 11 years old. The peers were trained on an intervention technique to help their fellow autistic classmates stay on task and focused. The study showed that using peers to intervene instead of classroom teachers helped students with autism reduce off-task behaviors significantly. It also showed that the typical students accepted the student with autism both before and after the intervention techniques were introduced.
Negative Accounts of Inclusion - Student Perspectives
Even with inclusive education becoming more popular in both the classroom and in society, there are still some students with exceptionalities that are not reaping the benefits of being in a mainstream classroom. Two recent studies show that there is still work to be done when it comes to implementing inclusivity into practice. One researcher studied 371 students from grades 1–6 in 2 urban and 2 rural mainstream elementary schools in Ireland that implemented inclusive education. Students were asked through questionnaire about the social status of their peers – some of whom are on the spectrum (Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD)) – in relation to play and work contexts. This was to determine if these students were accepted or rejected socially in an inclusive education setting. "Results showed that children with ASD experienced significantly lower levels of social acceptance and higher levels of social rejection". This demonstrates that even though there are practices in place that work to include students with exceptionalities, there are still some who are rejected by their peers.
Many of the placements in mainstream schools with inclusive education are done because they believe the student is academically able, but rarely do they consider if they are socially able to adjust to these circumstances. One research study examined the experiences of students with ASD in inclusive mainstream schools. The 12 students ranged from 11 to 17 years old with varied symptoms and abilities along the autism spectrum. Results showed that all participants experienced feelings of dread, loneliness, and isolation, while being bullied, misunderstood, and unsupported by their peers and teachers. These feelings and exclusion had an impact on their well-being and demonstrated "that mainstream education is not meeting the needs of all with autism deemed mainstream able; a gap exists between inclusion rhetoric and their lived realities in the classroom". This shows that there is still need for improvement on the social conditions within inclusive education settings, as many with exceptionalities are not benefiting from this environment.
Implications
These negative accounts are incredibly important to the understanding of inclusive education as a program and pedagogical method. Though inclusive education aims to universally include and provide equitable education to all students regardless of their ability, there is still more that needs to be done. The aforementioned studies show that a key part of inclusive education – or schooling in general – is social relationships and acceptance. Without social relationships, students will feel the very opposite of what feelings should be evoked through inclusivity. This means that educators and even researchers should further inquire about the inclusion rates in schools and learn how students feel about this programming. What is the point of continuing to do something that is meant to help everyone when it clearly does not? Researchers and students with exceptionalities in suggest that there be more collaborative assignments for students, as this provides an opportunity for relationships and social skills to develop. Further, the focus should be on the other students in increasing empathy and embracing difference. Besides improving the interactions between students, there is also the need for educators to evoke change. Students with ASD have provided several strategies to use to improve their quality of education and the interactions that occur in the classroom, with accommodations being carried out that relate to their specific needs. Some accommodations include having clear expectations, providing socialization opportunities, alternative ways to learn and express said learning, and limit sensory distractions or overload in the classroom. Knowing this, students, educators, researchers, and beyond need to conceptualize and implement the idea of inclusive education as one that treats students with exceptionalities equitably and with respect, based on their strengths, needs, interests, background, identity, and zone of proximal development.
Criticisms of inclusion programs of school districts
Critics of full and partial inclusion include educators, administrators and parents. Full and partial inclusion approaches neglect to acknowledge the fact that most students with significant special needs require individualized instruction or highly controlled environments. Thus, general education classroom teachers often are teaching a curriculum while the special education teacher is remediating instruction at the same time. Similarly, a child with serious inattention problems may be unable to focus in a classroom that contains twenty or more active children. Although with the increase of incidence of disabilities in the student population, this is a circumstance all teachers must contend with, and is not a direct result of inclusion as a concept.
Full inclusion may be a way for schools to placate parents and the general public, using the word as a phrase to garner attention for what are in fact illusive efforts to educate students with special needs in the general education environment.
At least one study examined the lack of individualized services provided for students with IEPs when placed in an inclusive rather than mainstreamed environment.
Some researchers have maintained school districts neglect to prepare general education staff for students with special needs, thus preventing any achievement. Moreover, school districts often expound an inclusive philosophy for political reasons, and do away with any valuable pull-out services, all on behalf of the students who have no so say in the matter.
Inclusion is viewed by some as a practice philosophically attractive yet impractical. Studies have not corroborated the proposed advantages of full or partial inclusion. Moreover, "push in" servicing does not allow students with moderate to severe disabilities individualized instruction in a resource room, from which many show considerable benefit in both learning and emotional development.
Parents of disabled students may be cautious about placing their children in an inclusion program because of fears that the children will be ridiculed by other students, or be unable to develop regular life skills in an academic classroom.
Some argue that inclusive schools are not a cost-effective response when compared to cheaper or more effective interventions, such as special education. They argue that special education helps "fix" the students with exceptionalities by providing individualized and personalized instruction to meet their unique needs. This is to help students with special needs adjust as quickly as possible to the mainstream of the school and community. Proponents counter that students with special needs are not fully into the mainstream of student life because they are secluded to special education. Some argue that isolating students with special needs may lower their self-esteem and may reduce their ability to deal with other people. In keeping these students in separate classrooms they aren't going to see the struggles and achievements that they can make together. However, at least one study indicated mainstreaming in education has long-term benefits for students as indicated by increased test scores, where the benefit of inclusion has not yet been proved.
Broader approach: social and cultural inclusion
As used by UNESCO, inclusion refers to far more than students with special educational needs. It is centered on the inclusion of marginalized groups, such as religious, racial, ethnic, and linguistic minorities, immigrants, girls, the poor, students with disabilities, HIV/AIDS patients, remote populations, and more. In some places, these people are not actively included in education and learning processes. In the U.S. this broader definition is also known as "culturally responsive" education, which differs from the 1980s-1990s cultural diversity and cultural competency approaches, and is promoted among the ten equity assistance centers of the U.S. Department of Education, for example in Region IX (AZ, CA, NV), by the Equity Alliance at ASU. Gloria Ladson-Billings points out that teachers who are culturally responsive know how to base learning experiences on the cultural realities of the child (e.g. home life, community experiences, language background, belief systems). Proponents argue that culturally responsive pedagogy is good for all students because it builds a caring community where everyone's experiences and abilities are valued.
Proponents want to maximize the participation of all learners in the community schools of their choice and to rethink and restructure policies, curricula, cultures and practices in schools and learning environments so that diverse learning needs can be met, whatever the origin or nature of those needs. They say that all students can learn and benefit from education, and that schools should adapt to the physical, social, and cultural needs of students, rather than students adapting to the needs of the school. Proponents believe that individual differences between students are a source of richness and diversity, which should be supported through a wide and flexible range of responses. The challenge of rethinking and restructuring schools to become more culturally responsive calls for a complex systems view of the educational system (see Michael Patton), where one can extend the idea of strength through diversity to all participants in the educational system (e.g. parents, teachers, community members, staff).
Although inclusion is generally associated with elementary and secondary education, it is also applicable in postsecondary education. According to UNESCO, inclusion "is increasingly understood more broadly as a reform that supports and welcomes diversity amongst all learners." Under this broader definition of inclusion, steps should also be taken to eliminate discrimination and provide accommodations for all students who are at a disadvantage because of some reason other than disability.
Curriculum
Gender-sensitive curriculum
The notion of a gender-sensitive curriculum acknowledges the current reality of our bi-gender world and attempts to break down socialized learning outcomes that reinforce the notion that girls and boys are good at different things. Research has shown that while girls do struggle more in the areas of math and science and boys in the area of language arts, this is partly a socialization phenomenon. One key to creating a gender-friendly classroom is "differentiation" which essentially means when teachers plan and deliver their instruction with an awareness of gender and other student differences. Teachers can strategically group students for learning activities by a variety of characteristics so as to maximize individual strengths and contributions. Research has also shown that teachers differ in how they treat girls and boys in the classroom. Gender-sensitive practices necessitate equitable and appropriate attention to all learners. Teacher attention to content is also extremely important. For example, when trying to hold boys' attention teachers will often use examples that reference classically male roles, perpetuating a gender bias in content.
In addition to a curriculum that recognizes that gender impacts all students and their learning, other gender-sensitive curricula directly engages gender-diversity issues and topics. Some curricular approaches include integrating gender through story problems, writing prompts, readings, art assignments, research projects, and guest lectures that foster spaces for students to articulate their own understandings and beliefs about gender.
LGBTQ-inclusive curriculum
LGBTQ-inclusive curriculum is curriculum that includes positive representations of LGBTQ people, history, and events. LGBTQ curriculum also attempts to integrate these narratives without biasing the LGBTQ experience as a separate and fragmented from overarching social narratives and not as intersecting with ethnic, racial, and other forms of diversity that exist among LGBTQ individuals.
The purpose of an LGBTQ-inclusive curriculum is to ensure that LGBTQ students feel properly represented in curriculum narratives and therefore safer coming to school and more comfortable discussing LGBTQ-related topics. A study by GLSEN examined the impact of LGBTQ-inclusive practices on LGBTQ students' perceptions of safety. The study found that LGBT students in inclusive school settings were much less likely to feel unsafe because of their identities and more likely to perceive their peers as accepting and supportive.
Implementation of LGBTQ-inclusive curriculum involves both curriculum decisions and harnessing teachable moments in the classroom. One study by Snapp et al. showed that teachers often failed to intervene in LGBTQ-bullying.
Other research has suggested that education for healthcare professionals on how to better support LGBTQ patients has benefits for LGBTQ-healthcare service. Education in how to be empathic and conscientious of the needs of LGBTQ patients fits within the larger conversation about culturally-responsive healthcare.
Benefiting in an inclusive environment
"The inclusion of age-appropriate students in a general education classroom, alongside those with and without disability is beneficial to both parties involved. With inclusive education, all students are exposed to the same curriculum, they develop their own individual potential, and participate in the same activities at the same time. Therefore, there is a variety of ways in which learning takes place because students learn differently, at their own pace and by their own style. Effectively, inclusive education provides a nurturing venue where teaching and learning should occur despite pros and cons. It is evident that students with disabilities benefit more in an inclusive atmosphere because they can receive help from their peers with diverse abilities and they compete at the same level due to equal opportunities given." Research on the topic of inclusive education can contribute to the development of existing knowledge in several ways.
See also
European Agency for Special Needs and Inclusive Education
Centre for Studies on Inclusive Education
Post Secondary Transition For High School Students with Disabilities
Mara Sapon-Shevin, student of Douglas Biklen
Discrimination in education
Douglas Biklen
Teaching for social justice
Mainstreaming in education
Special Assistance Program (Australian education)
Circle of friends (disability)
Accord Coalition for inclusivity on the grounds of religion (England and Wales)
Education for All Handicapped Children Act
The Compass Institute Inc Further education and vocational pathways for young people with disabilities
Right to education
Universal access to education
Community integration
Inclusive education in Latin America
Least dangerous assumption
References
Sources
Ainscow M., Booth T. (2003) The Index for Inclusion: Developing Learning & Participation in Schools. Bristol: Center for Studies in Inclusive Education
Thomas, G., & Loxley, A. (2007) Deconstructing Special Education and Constructing Inclusion (2nd Edition). Maidenhead: Open University Press.
Elementary programming for inclusive classrooms
Social development: Promoting Social Development in the Inclusive Classroom
M. Mastropieri, Thomas E. Scruggs. The Inclusive Classroom: Strategies for Effective Instruction
Mary Beth Doyle. The Paraprofessional's Guide to the Inclusive Classroom
Conrad M., & Whitaker T. (1997). Inclusion and the law: A principal's proactive approach. The Clearing House
Jorgensen, C., Schuh, M., & Nisbet, J. (2005). The inclusion facilitator's guide. Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co.
Gunckel, Kristin L., and Felicia M. Moore. "Including Students and Teachers in the Co-Design of the Enacted Curriculum." Eric.ed.gov, 2005, https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED498676.pdf.
Further reading
Baglieri, S., & Shapiro, A. (2012). Disability Studies and the Inclusive Classroom. New York, NY: Routledge.
Biklen, D.2000. Constructing inclusion: Lessons from critical, disability narratives.International Journal on Inclusive Education, 4(4):337 –353.
Biklen, D., & Burke, J. (2006). Presuming competence. Equity & Excellence in Education, 39, 166–175.
Connor, D. (2006). Michael's Story: "I get into so much trouble just by walking":Narrative knowing and life at the intersections of learning disability, race, and class. Equity & Excellence in Education, 39, 154–165.
Davis, L. J. (2010). Constructing normalcy. In L. J. Davis (Ed.), The Disability Studies Reader. (3rd ed.) (pp. 9–28). New York: Routledge.
Erevelles, N. (2011). "Coming out Crip" in inclusive education. Teachers College Record, 113 (10). Retrieved from http://www.tcrecord.org Id Number: 16429
Graham, L., & Slee, R. (2007). An illusory interiority: Interrogating the discourse/s of inclusion. Educational Philosophy and Theory, 40, 277–293.
Izquierdo, S.S., Izquierdo, L.R. & López-Pintado, D. (2018). "Mixing and diffusion in a two-type population". Royal Society Open Science, 5(2) 172102.
Kasa-Hendrickson, C. (2005) 'There's no way this kid's retarded': Teachers' optimistic constructions of students' ability. International Journal of Inclusive Education, 9 (1), 55–69.
Kluth, P. 2003. "You're going to love this kid." Teaching students with autism in the inclusive classroom, Baltimore: Brookes.
Knobloch, P. & Harootunian, B. (1989). A classroom is where difference is valued. (pp. 199–209). In: S. Stainback, W. Stainback, & Forest, M., Educating All Students in the Mainstream of Regular Education. Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes.
O'Brien, L. (2006). Being bent over backward: A mother and teacher educator challenges the positioning of her daughter with disabilities. Disability Studies Quarterly, 26 (2).
Porter, L., & Smith, D. (Eds.) (2011). Exploring inclusive educational practices through professional inquiry. Boston, MA: Sense Publishers.
Putnam, J. W. (1993). Cooperative Learning and Strategies for Inclusion: Celebrating Diversity in the Classroom. Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes.
Stainback, S. & Stainback, W. (1996). Inclusion: Guide for Educators. Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes.
Strully, J. & Strully, C. (1984, September). Shawntell & Tanya: A story of friendship. Exceptional Parent, 35–40.
Thomas, G. (2012). A review of thinking and research about inclusive education policy, with suggestions for a new kind of inclusive thinking. British Educational Research Journal, 38 (3), 473–490.
Thompson, B., Wickham, D., Shanks, P., Wegner, J., Ault, M., Reinertson, B. & Guess, D. (nd, @1985). Expanding the circle of inclusion: Integrating young children with severe multiple disabilities into Montessori classrooms. Montessori Life.
Toste, Jessica R.. "The Illusion of Inclusion: How We Are Failing Students with Learning Disabilities", Oath Inc. (2015). Website.11(12)2017
Wa Munyi, C. ( 2012). Past and present perceptions towards disability: A historical perspective. Disability Studies Quarterly, 32.
Werts, M.G., Wolery, M., Snyder, E. & Caldwell, N. (1996). Teacher perceptions of the supports critical to the success of inclusion programs. TASH, 21(1): 9-21.
Gunckel, Kristin L., and Felicia M. Moore. "Including Students and Teachers in the Co-Design of the Enacted Curriculum." Eric.ed.gov, 2005, https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED498676.pdf.
External links
Inclusion in an International Perspective, a webdossier by Education Worldwide, international inclusion information, information for each continent and several countries
Inclusion and Social Justice Articles - A directory of articles on the internet with a specific section on inclusion in education.
UNESCO: Inclusion in education
Inclusive Education Library
Education policy
Special education
Critical pedagogy
Educational environment
Philosophy of education
Educational psychology
Education reform
Accessibility
Segregation
Social inclusion |
4378258 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Solomon%20Cartwright | John Solomon Cartwright | John Solomon Cartwright, (September 17, 1804 – January 15, 1845) was a Canadian businessman, lawyer, judge, farmer and political figure in Kingston, Upper Canada. He was a supporter of the Family Compact, an oligarchic group which had dominated control of the government of Upper Canada through their influence with the British governors. He was also a member of the Compact Tory political group, first in the Legislative Assembly of Upper Canada, and then in the Legislative Assembly of the Province of Canada.
In spite of his relative youth when first elected in 1836, age 32, he was an influential member of the Compact Tory group in the Assembly. He was courted by two governors general to join the executive council of the Province of Canada, but declined each time, not willing to associate in government with the radical Reform members of the Assembly. He favoured including French-Canadians in the government of the new Province of Canada, but opposed the use of French in the Assembly and the courts.
In the aftermath of the Upper Canada Rebellion of 1837, he acted as a prosecutor in the trials of some alleged rebels, and was one of the military judges in the court martial of Nils von Schoultz, who had led an invasion force from the United States. In the trials, Cartwright worked with a rising young Kingston lawyer, John A. Macdonald, the future Prime Minister of Canada. In addition to his legal practice, he was involved in successful banking and land transactions.
Wealthy, and holding a large farming estate near Kingston, Cartwright donated land and buildings for public purposes in Kingston and neighbouring Napanee. A bon vivant, he enjoyed gambling with cards for high stakes, horse racing, and the elegancies of life, both food and good wine.
Cartwright died of tuberculosis in 1845, aged 40.
Early life and family
John Cartwright was born in Kingston, Upper Canada on September 17, 1804, the son of Richard Cartwright, a Loyalist, and Magdalen Secord, sister-in-law of Laura Secord, the Loyalist heroine. John's father was engaged in commerce and politics, being a member of the Legislative Council of Upper Canada. His father was also instrumental in bringing John Strachan to Kingston, initially to tutor John and his twin brother Robert. Strachan went on to become the first Bishop of Toronto for the Church of England in Canada, and a pillar of the Family Compact, an oligarchic conservative group that had informal control over the provincial government.
Richard Cartwright died in 1815, when John and his twin brother were ten years old. He left John an inheritance of £10,000. John and Robert had older siblings, but several died of tuberculosis.
In 1831, John married Sarah Hayter Macaulay, daughter of James Macaulay. The couple had seven children. While studying theology at Oxford University, his brother Robert married Harriet Dobbs of Ireland. Their son, John's nephew, was Sir Richard John Cartwright, who had a notable political career in the Parliament of Canada, although as a Liberal.
Cartwright was somewhat of a throwback to the Regency era, rather than the new Victorian period. He enjoyed horse-racing and betting, gambling with cards for high stakes, and the elegancies of life, good food and wine. Like most of the Family Compact, he was a strong supporter of the Anglican church. He was also a freemason, eventually becoming a warden of a masonic lodge in Kingston.
Legal and business career
Deciding to enter the legal profession, at the age of 16 Cartwright left home for York, the capital of Upper Canada, where he articled with John Beverley Robinson. Robinson was the attorney general for Upper Canada and one of the main leaders of the Upper Canada Tories and the Family Compact. Following his articles with Robinson, Cartwright was called to the bar of Upper Canada in 1825. In 1827, after the death of his mother, he went to London and studied law at Lincoln's Inn, while his twin brother Robert attended Oxford, studying for the ministry. Cartwright returned to Kingston in 1830, where he established his legal practice and quickly became one of Kingston's leading lawyers.
In addition to his legal practice, Cartwright was involved in banking and real estate transactions. In 1832, he became the first president of the local Kingston bank, the Commercial Bank of the Midland District. He was the unanimous choice of the bank directors, even though he was only 28 years old. Under his leadership over the next fourteen years, the Commercial Bank became the leading bank of the eastern part of the province, and was the only bank that did not suspend payments in specie during the Upper Canada Rebellion in 1837. In 1834, he became a judge in the Midland District and was named Queen's Counsel in 1838. Although a young man in his mid-thirties, he had developed a strong reputation for prudence, sobriety and integrity in his business dealings.
Cartwright also became involved in major land transactions. In addition to projects in Kingston and Napanee, he was involved in land matters in Hamilton, Niagara, and Montreal. He sold a significant tract of land in Hamilton to Allan MacNab, another leading figure in the Tory political group. When one of Cartwright's good friends and business associates, James Bell Forsyth, was in serious financial difficulties, he avoided bankruptcy because Cartwright came to his financial rescue.
With the success of his legal practice and business activities, Cartwright established a country estate outside of Kingston, named Rockwood, with an attached farm. He invested heavily in his cattle and sheep, and by 1841 was winning prizes with them in the local agricultural fairs.
Cartwright gradually accumulated a large collection of law books. When he was in England, he had spent around £250 acquiring legal texts, which he brought back to Kingston. He viewed his collection as public in nature, and readily loaned out books to other lawyers. When he was dying, he was concerned that his collection should stay in the Kingston area, and sold his library at a great discount to John A. Macdonald, then a young lawyer starting his career, who went on to be the prime minister of Canada.
Rebellions of 1837–38
Cartwight was a staunch supporter of the British colonial government during the
Rebellions of 1837–1838. He had been an officer in the local militia since 1822, and was the lieutenant-colonel of the 2nd Lennox militia during the rebellion. As an officer, Cartwright sat on the court martial in 1838 which tried Nils von Schoultz, who had led the invaders from the United States at the Battle of the Windmill, in the Patriot War. John A. Macdonald acted as von Schoultz's legal adviser, but under the law governing courts martial, von Shoultz had to conduct his own defence. Against Macdonald's advice, he pled guilty and assumed full responsibility for his actions. The court martial, including Cartwright, convicted von Schoultz for leading the invasion and condemned him to death. Von Schoultz was hanged at Fort Henry, Kingston, on December 8, 1838.
In the summer of 1838, Cartwright acted as the Crown prosecutor in treason trials for eight individuals from the Kingston area who were alleged to have taken up arms in the rebellion. Cartwright gave them a fair prosecution, allowing the accused a considerable degree of indulgence in their defence. Macdonald was again involved, this time as full defence counsel. In these cases, the jury returned acquittals.
Political career
Upper Canada
Member for Lennox and Addington
In 1834, Cartwright stood for election as a Tory to represent the combined district of Lennox and Addington counties in the Legislative Assembly, the lower house of the Parliament of Upper Canada, but was defeated by the two Reform movement candidates, Marshall Spring Bidwell and Peter Perry. Cartwright came in third in the two-member riding.
Two years later, in the general election of 1836, Cartwright tried again. This time, he was successful, benefiting from the strong showing the Tories made in the election, under the leadership of the Lieutenant Governor, Sir Francis Bond Head. The Tories had held political control in the province by means of their strong influence over the succession of governors sent from Britain. The members of the Reform movement challenged that oligarchic dominance, arguing for greater popular and democratic control of the provincial government. Bond Head campaigned on the basis that the election represented a choice between Tory loyalism to the Crown and Empire, and Reformer republicanism. The Tories won a substantial victory, gaining a clear majority in the Legislative Assembly. Cartwright and his fellow Tory candidate in Lennox and Addington, George Hill Detlor, defeated Bidwell and Perry. Cartwright and Detlor took their places in the thirteenth Parliament of Upper Canada.
As a member of the Legislative Assembly, Cartwright secured a charter for the town of Kingston in 1838, and helped to draw up the initial procedures for election of town officials. The Council unanimously elected him mayor, but he declined to serve. When the new governor general, Lord Durham, visited Kingston on a tour of Upper Canada in the summer of 1838, Cartwright was chosen to give the welcoming address on behalf of the town.
Cartwright's conditions for union of Canadas
Following the rebellions of 1837, there was a clear understanding that there had to be structural changes in the governments of Upper Canada and Lower Canada. The British government sent Lord Durham to investigate the political situation and to make recommendations for change. In his Report, Lord Durham recommended that the two Canadas should be re-united under a single government, with local control through the principle of responsible government, as used in the British Parliament. Durham also had harsh words for the Tories and the Family Compact, and their dominance of public affairs in the province, in spite of their lack of popular support.
Tories such as Cartwright were strongly opposed to Durham's recommendation for responsible government, which would reduce their power. Cartwright was deeply supportive of the British connection and British North America's place in the British Empire, but as he explained some years later in a letter to Governor General Bagot, he viewed the principle of responsible government as unfitted to the local conditions of Upper Canada: "... with our position as a Colony, – particularly in a country where almost universal suffrage prevails, – where the great mass of the people are uneducated, – and where there is but little of that salutary influence which hereditary rank and great wealth exercises in Great Britain."
The decision on union rested with the British government, but they considered it important to have support from the local British colonists of Upper Canada. In the spring session of 1839, the Legislative Assembly debated the union proposal given by the Lieutenant Governor, Sir George Arthur, who had replaced Bond Head. By substantial majorities, the Assembly voted its general approval of the proposal, in three related resolutions. Cartwright was amongst the majority who voted in favour of the union, and voted against a proposed amendment which suggested the French-Canadians of Lower Canada had forfeited their civil and political rights by their "disloyalty" in the late rebellion. Like the other Tories, he strongly supported maintaining the British connection. As well, as a businessman, he saw the commercial advantages if Upper Canada and Lower Canada were re-united into one single province, eliminating potential trade and customs barriers.
The Assembly then appointed a select committee to prepare instructions for a proposed delegation to London to set out the views of Upper Canadian supporters of the union. Cartwright was one of the members of the select committee. Although he supported union in principle, he was concerned that the English population of Upper Canada would lose control if united with French-speaking Lower Canada, which had a greater population. When the report of the select committee came to the Assembly for consideration, he proposed a series of conditions to seek guarantees of continued influence for Upper Canada. Key amongst the conditions were that Upper Canada would have more representatives in the new Legislative Assembly than Lower Canada; the Gaspé region would be transferred from Lower Canada to New Brunswick; the existing members of the Legislative Council of Upper Canada would be continued in office in the legislative council of the new government; the capital would be in Upper Canada; and only English would be used in the Parliament and the courts. The Legislative Assembly approved the Cartwright resolutions, and passed an additional resolution that it would be "distinctly opposed" to the union unless those resolutions were incorporated.
In December 1839, the new governor general, Charles Poulett Thomson (later appointed to the peerage as Lord Sydenham), advised the Assembly that the British government could not accept the conditions proposed by the Assembly, and insisted on unconditional approval of the union. The Legislative Assembly then passed a motion of approval without the Cartwright conditions. Undeterred, in January 1840, Cartwright and the other Tories presented a pared-down list of conditions for agreement to the union. Although Cartwright was not personally present for the vote due to a personal commitment, the Assembly approved the new conditions. The final version of the Address to the Queen supported the union in principle, including the equal representation of Upper Canada and Lower Canada in the Assembly, but called for provisions that English would become the sole language in the courts and in legislative debates; that the capital should be in Upper Canada; that there be a real estate qualification for membership in the Legislature; that emigration from Britain be encouraged; and that local governments be established in Lower Canada, similar to those in Upper Canada. The Address affirmed that the people of Upper Canada wished to maintain a constitutional system based on "... the representative mode of government under a monarchy, and to a permanent connexion with the British Empire, and a dutiful allegiance to our Sovereign." On receiving this version of the Address to the Queen, Governor General Thomson advised that he agreed with the provisions, including that English should be the sole language in the courts and the Assembly.
Province of Canada
Relations with moderate Tories
In 1840, the British Parliament enacted the Act of Union, which united Lower Canada and Upper Canada into the Province of Canada. The Act was proclaimed in force in February 1841, and elections were held in March and April. Lower Canada was now referred to as Canada East, and Upper Canada as Canada West. The Act provided that English was to be the language of the Parliament, one of the conditions which Cartwright had proposed, even though Cartwright repeatedly stated that he thought French-Canadians needed to be included in the government of the province.
In his Report, Lord Durham had been highly critical of the Family Compact and its previous dominance of the government of Upper Canada. The new governor general, Thomson, made it clear that he wanted to establish a broad-based government, with representatives in the executive council from the different political groups, and a focus on commercial and economic development rather than ideological or constitutional disputes.
In light of these developments, in November 1840 the Attorney General of Upper Canada, William Draper, began corresponding with Cartwright. Draper was a moderate Tory, whose interests were mainly commercial. He had co-operated with Thomson in obtaining the Upper Canada Assembly's approval for the union. Now, with the union approaching, he sounded out Cartwright on the possibility of creating a conservative party which could unite both the high Tories of the Compact, and the more moderate Tories which Draper represented.
Cartwright was apparently interested in the possibility, but after consulting with other Compact Tories, such as Allan MacNab and Robinson (now Chief Justice of the King's Bench of Upper Canada, but still involved in politics), he ultimately rejected Draper's proposal. Unlike his colleagues, Cartwright distrusted Draper's political honesty. Cartwright's leadership role with the Compact Tories was such that his refusal to act with Draper put an end to the proposal. The two Tory factions would continue to be separate in the new Parliament.
First session of Parliament, 1841
In 1841, Cartwright was elected to the Legislative Assembly of the first Parliament of the Province of Canada, again representing Lennox and Addington. One of the first matters before the new Legislative Assembly was a series of motions indicating support for the union of Upper Canada and Lower Canada into the Province of Canada. Cartwright, along with Compact Tory members such as Allan MacNab and George Sherwood, again voted in support of the union. However, Sydenham, following his instructions from Britain, was determined to form a broad-based centrist government, and excluded the Compact Tories, precisely as Durham had advocated. The feeling was mutual: Cartwright and the other Tories generally opposed the measures proposed by Governor General Sydenham in the first session of the Parliament.
Second session of Parliament, 1842
A year later, the political situation had changed. Sydenham had died suddenly in September 1841, of tetanus caused by a fall from his horse. The new governor general, Sir Charles Bagot, was appointed in 1842. Like Sydenham, Bagot tried to put together a ministry that crossed political divisions, including Compact Tories, moderate Tories such as Draper, and even "ultra" Reformers, notably Francis Hincks.
Bagot offered Cartwright the position of solicitor general for Canada West. Although the Tories respected the new governor general personally, after extensive consultations with his fellow Compact Tories, Cartwright declined the offer, because he could not join a ministry with Hincks, who in his view was a radical Reformer who had given unacceptable support to the leaders of the 1837 rebellions, William Lyon Mackenzie and Louis-Joseph Papineau. Cartwright's refusal to enter the ministry brought the plan to an end, and had the effect of also excluding Draper, who advised Bagot that in the circumstances he could not join the new ministry. The net effect was that the governor general felt obliged to form a ministry with the strong Reformers, Robert Baldwin and Louis-Hippolyte Lafontaine, as well as some moderate conservatives. The new ministry included several French-Canadian members from Canada East under Lafontaine's leadership.
Soon after the second session of Parliament was called, a resolution was introduced in support of the new ministry. MacNab and Cartwright introduced an amendment to the resolution which, although seen as critical of the new Reform-based ministry, nonetheless approved the inclusion of French-Canadian members in the ministry, stating: "... it is necessary and proper to invite that large portion of our fellow subjects who are of French origin to share in the Government of their country." The proposed amendment was defeated, demonstrating how little support the Compact Tories now had. The Compact Tories, including Cartwright, formed the nucleus of opposition to the new ministry.
Cartwright's approval of French-Canadian members in the ministry was consistent with his political views on the union. Although he opposed the use of French in the Legislative Assembly and the courts, Cartwright believed that the union could only work if French-Canadians were included in the government. Writing to Governor General Bagot in 1842, he stated that he was anxious to see the new province function well for all its citizens, and added: "But I do not see how it can be possible to arrive at this desirable end, without the concert and co-operation of the French Canadians." He was also highly critical of the conduct of the former governor general, Sydenham, in the first elections for the new Province of Canada the year before. Sydenham had gerrymandered the seats in French-speaking areas of Lower Canada to favour British voters, personally campaigned for the English party in Lower Canada, and had ignored cases where electoral violence had broken out against French-Canadian candidates, such as Lafointaine. In his letter to Bagot, Cartwright stated: "I cannot imagine how it could have ever been supposed that harmony could be produced by an act of the grossest injustice."
Third session of Parliament, 1843
Invitation to join government
Governor General Bagot died in May 1843, and was replaced by Sir Charles Metcalfe. A ministerial crisis was looming, as Metcalfe and his two main ministers, Lafontaine and Baldwin, entered a dispute over the appointment of government officials. It resulted in the resignation of the entire Lafontaine-Baldwin ministry in November 1843. Metcalfe then tried, as Bagot had tried the year before, to assemble a broad-based coalition that would attract general support, while excluding Lafontaine, Baldwin, and the other strong proponents of responsible government. Metcalfe invited Cartwright to consider joining the government, along with moderate Reformers from Canada West and Canada East. Cartwright attended some initial meetings, but ultimately did not agree to join the government. The moderate Reformers also refused to enter government, as did Reformers of Canada East, who continued to support Lafontaine. The result was that for a year, Metcalfe governed with a ministry of only three members, and did not recall the Legislative Assembly.
Proposal for reform schools
Cartwright was interested in penal reforms for juveniles, and thought that they should not be treated in the same way as adult offenders. In 1843, he proposed a form of juvenile reform school that he called "Juvenile Houses of Refuge", to shelter juvenile offenders. They would no longer be housed in the same facilities as adult offenders, and "... by labor and attention to their moral culture, they would become good members of society." Not all of the other members of the Assembly approved of his proposal. Cartwright's approach to the issue contrasted sharply with the harsher views of the outspoken member for Huron, William "Tiger" Dunlop, who said in the debates that Cartwright was displaying "maudlin sensibility", and if he had his way the children would be whipped and sent to bed. Cartwright had some support from other members, including Thomas Cushing Aylwin, the Solicitor-General for Canada East, and the matter was referred to a special committee of the Assembly. However, the proposal never came to a vote, as the Legislative Assembly was prorogued in December 1843, upon the resignation of the Lafontaine–Baldwin ministry. Juvenile reform schools would not be implemented until fifteen years later, long after Cartwright's death.
Mission to London, 1844
In 1843, the Legislative Assembly passed a motion proposing that the provincial capital be moved from Kingston to Montreal. Cartwright opposed the move. He believed that it was important to keep the capital amongst the British colonists, and that relocating it to Montreal, where the French influence would be stronger, would weaken the Province's attachment to Britain. Although in failing health from tuberculosis, in March 1844 he travelled to England to present a petition to the British government, with 16,000 signatures, opposing the proposal to move the capital. He was unsuccessful in his mission, and Montreal became the capital later in 1844.
The lengthy voyage was hard on Cartwright's health, and he realised that he no longer could participate in political life. He announced his retirement to his constituents in Kingston in October 1844. Governor General Metcalfe regretted Cartwright's retirement, as he had come to rely on Cartwright as an informal advisor.
Patron of architecture
Cartwright and the Cartwright family are credited in having a major effect on the architecture of public buildings in Kingston by choosing or helping influence the selection of architects. He and his brother Robert are believed to have commissioned the architect Thomas Rogers for their two townhouses in Kingston: John Cartwright's house at 221 King Street East, and Robert Cartwright's house at 191 King Street East. Cartwright also built an office building for his law practice at 223 King Street East, connected to his residence. As president of the Commercial Bank for the Midland District, Cartwright likely commissioned Rogers for the bank's Kingston building.
In nearby Napanee, it was said that every public building, including schools and churches, was built on land donated by Cartwright, including both the land and the building for the Anglican church of St. Mary Magdalene. He may have commissioned Rogers for that building as well.
In addition to Rogers, Cartwright commissioned another significant architect, George Browne, to build his country villa, Rockwood. Cartwright likely also helped Browne obtain the commission to build the Kingston Town Hall, which was designated a National Historic Site in 1961.
Death
In 1843, Cartwright began to close down his farming activities. He sold off some of his property for building lots at the same time, as the town of Kingston had expanded to the area. He died at his home of tuberculosis January 15, 1845, two years after his twin brother Robert, also living in Kingston, died of the same disease. Their widows then joined households.
Archives
Queen's University at Kingston holds some of Cartwright's library in its rare books collection. It includes books on philosophy, religion, literature, law, history and politics. There are several volumes of bound pamphlets, piano music, and family photographs. The Queen's University Archives also include a large collection of Cartwright family documents.
There is a Cartwright Family Fonds with the Ontario provincial archives, consisting of documents from 1799 to 1913. The documents were generated by John Solomon Cartwright, his father Richard Cartwright, his brother Reverend Robert David Cartwright, Robert's wife Harriet (Dobbs) Cartwright and their son, Sir Richard Cartwright.
References
1804 births
1845 deaths
Canadian people of English descent
Members of the Legislative Assembly of Upper Canada
Members of the Legislative Assembly of the Province of Canada from Canada West
Canadian lawyers
Canadian King's Counsel
Upper Canada judges
Members of Lincoln's Inn
People from Kingston, Ontario |
4378340 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Settled%20Land%20Acts | Settled Land Acts | The Settled Land Acts were a series of English land law enactments concerning the limits of creating a settlement, a conveyancing device used by a property owner who wants to ensure that provision of future generations of his family.
Two main types of settlement
Under a trust for sale, the property, which can be real or personal (land or goods), is transferred by the owner by deed or will to trustees who are obliged to sell the property and hold the proceeds of sale for the beneficiaries.
A strict settlement can only be created over land and it was a device which was used by a landowner to keep the land within his family.
By using the device of the strict settlement the ownership of the property was divided over time by using limited freehold estates.
The limited freehold estates
A fee tail is a limited estate with succession confined to the direct descendants of the original holder of the estate – descendant determined according to ancient heirship rules which leaned in favour of the eldest son.
A life estate is an estate to last someone's lifetime, either the grantee's lifetime or the lifetime of someone else – a life estate pur autre vie. These estates were used in the creation of a strict settlement.
The most common example of strict settlement occurs where a landowner provides in his will that the land is to go to his eldest son for life and then the remainder is to pass to his son's eldest son in fee tail.
Settlement would often provide for payment of an annuity to the widow (jointure). Provision could be made for the younger children of the landowner by giving them a capital sum on reaching a certain age or getting married (portions). These were capital sums designed to set them up for life. They were secured by charging them on the land.
The strict settlement meant that the land was effectively inalienable.
Disadvantages of strict settlements
The eldest son could not sell the land.
It was not feasible to grant a long lease of the property.
He often could not even open and work any mines on the land himself as the laws of waste apply to life estates and they provide that you cannot open new mines unless you are unimpeachable for waste. Even if he was unimpeachable for waste he would often not have the money to open them. This meant that the optimum benefit could not be obtained from the land and meant that many landowners became impoverished.
The life tenant would have to pay the widow her annuity and the other children their portions.
It was difficult to mortgage the land.
Land could be mismanaged and fall into severe disrepair.
These difficulties were compounded by the fact that very often the settlement would continue on ad infinitum through the process of resettlement. The son's eldest son who was entitled to the fee tail could by barring the entail create a fee simple and bring the settlement to an end. He was not entitled to his interest in possession until his father died. While his father lived he could not bar the entail unless his father consented to it. His father would be reluctant to give his consent as this would mean the land would pass outside the family. Obviously the son would be in need of money to sustain him until he became entitled in possession. A compromise would be reached which would enable the land to remain in the family but at the same time satisfy the son's need for cash. The father and son would bar the entail but there would be a resettlement of the land which usually took the form of a conveyance to the father for life, to the eldest son for life remainder to his eldest son in tail; the fee tail was passed back another generation. As part of the settlement the eldest son would be granted an immediate annuity on the land or a lump sum. If the family fell on hard times, these resettlements meant that the deterioration of the land and the impoverishment of the landowners continued for generation after generation.
Collective title
The Settled Land Acts 1882 to 1890 is the collective title of the following Acts:
The Settled Land Act 1882 (45 & 46 Vict. c. 38)
The Settled Land Act 1884 (47 & 48 Vict. c. 18)
The Settled Land Acts (Amendment) Act 1887 (50 & 51 Vict. c. 30)
The Settled Land Act 1889 (52 & 53 Vict. c. 36)
The Settled Land Act 1890 (53 & 54 Vict. c. 69)
Legislation
Mining Leases Act 1723
The Incumbered Estates (Ireland) Act 1849
The Settled Land Acts 1882 to 1890
The primary aim of this legislation was as Lord Halsbury stated in Bruce v. Ailesbury "to release the land from the fetters of the settlement – to render it a marketable article not withstanding the settlement".
The legislation achieved this by giving the tenant for life statutory powers to deal with the land which far exceeded the powers he had previously under common law. The most important of these powers was the power of the tenant for life to sell the fee simple interest in the land and not just a life estate pur autre vie.
Second aim of the legislation was to protect the interests of the beneficiaries under the settlement. Their interests were over-reached i.e. they detached from the land and became attached to the proceeds of sale instead, their interests shifted to the money – i.e. the settlement now applied to the proceeds of sale.
The Acts apply whenever there is a settlement.
A settlement is defined by s2(1) of the 1882 Act as "any land or any estate or interest in land, which stands for the time being limited to or in trust for any persons by way of succession".
Basically whenever a document creates a succession of interests in land the Settled Land Acts will apply.
Generally there must be an element of succession. Section 59 creates one situation of settled land where there is no element of succession – where an infant is entitled in possession to land it is deemed to be settled land even though it may not be limited by way of succession i.e. he might he entitled to a fee simple. This was to ensure the commerciability of land owned by a minor as a purchaser would be reluctant to sign a contract with him given that it was voidable once the minor reached the age of majority.
Generally it is the tenant for life who exercises the powers created by the Acts
The Acts ensures that the powers created are available whenever there is a settlement by designating in every possible case one person to be the tenant for life.
Section 25 of the 1882 Act defines the tenant for life as "the person who is for the time being, under a settlement, beneficially entitled to possession of settled land, for his life…" – usually the person entitled to the life estate in possession or entitled to the fee tail in possession.
Where powers conferred do not apply
There are two scenarios where the tenant for life does not exercise the powers conferred by the Act.
Where the person entitled in possession is an infant in which case under s.60 the trustees of the settlement exercise the powers.
The other exception is where the tenant wishes to exercise his power of sale but he wishes to buy the fee simple (so he wishes to buy it from himself) – under S12 of the 1890 Act the trustees of the settlement step into his shoes and exercise the power of sale on his behalf.
Under s.50(1) the powers of the tenant for life cannot be assigned to another and s.50(2) renders void any contract under which the tenant for life agrees not to exercise his statutory powers.
Also, the settlor cannot through the provisions of the settlement curtail either directly or indirectly the powers of the tenant for life under the Acts. Any provision attempting to do so will be void under s.51 of the 1882 Act
An example of an indirect attempt to curtail the exercise of the powers is found In re Fitzgerald 1902 IR 162
Section 56(1) provides that where there is a conflict between the provisions of a settlement and the provisions of the Act in relation to his powers where the settlement is more restrictive, the provisions of the Act will prevail.
Note s.57 provides that nothing in the Acts prevent a settlor from conferring on the tenant for life any powers additional to those conferred by the act.
Controls
Three controls were incorporated into the legislation to prevent the tenant for life abusing his powers:
Regard to interests of other parties
A s 53 tenant for life must "have regard to the interests of all parties entitled under the settlement."
He is required to have regard to the interests of the beneficiaries but he is not the same as the usual trustee since he is always one of the beneficiaries. In Re Earl of Stamford and Warrington (1916) 1 Ch Younger J described the tenant for life as a "highly interested" trustee.
"He may legitimately exercise his powers with some, but not of course, an exclusive regard for his own personal interests" – per Vaisey J in Re Boston's Will Trusts 1956 Ch 395.
He is entitled to a certain measure of discretion, Wheelwright v. Walker [1883] 23 Ch. 752 and Wheelwright v. Walker [1883] Weekly Reporter 912.
Under s 37 of the 1882 Act the tenant for life has the power to sell heirlooms so long as he gets a court order – Re Earl of Radnor's Will Trusts 1890 45 Ch D402.
Where land is involved the court will only intervene if the exercise of the power would financially affect the beneficiaries e.g. Re Earl Somers 1895 11 TLR 567.
However where the financial loss is only speculative the court will not intervene as in Thomas v. Williams 1883 24 Ch D 558.
One other situation where the courts will intervene is where the transaction is not bona fide or seems to involve an element of fraud, Middlemas v. Stevens (1901) 1 Ch.
Role of trustees
This is the role played by the trustees of the settlement.
Powers not equivalent to ownership
The powers are not equivalent to the powers of an absolute owner. Limits and restrictions are put on them by the legislation.
Specific powers
Sell/exchange
Under s.3 of the 1882 act the life tenant has the power to sell or exchange land or any part of it or any interest right or privilege of any kind over or in relation to it. A restriction is imposed by s 4 which provides that in selling "he must obtain the best price that can be reasonably obtained".
Also certain procedures must be followed. Once these procedures are followed, on a sale by the tenant for life the purchaser receives the fee simple absolute in the land freed from all the interests attaching to it under the settlement. The interests under the settlement are over-reached i.e. shifted to the proceeds of sale.
Under s.45(3) the purchaser, if he is dealing in good faith with the tenant for life, is not required to satisfy himself that the requisite notice has been given to the trustees. Over-reaching will still apply so long as the purchaser is acting in good faith even if this procedural requirement is not followed.
In Hughes v. Fanagan (1891) 30 LR IR the court held that when a lessee under a 35-year lease granted by the tenant for life knew that there were not trustees of the settlement he was not granted the protection of S45(3).
Another of the procedural requirements is that the sale proceeds or the capital money must be paid to the trustees of the settlements or into court – s22 of the 1882 Act.
Under s.54 on a sale, exchange, lease or mortgage a bona fide purchaser/lessee/ mortgagee shall if dealing in good faith with the tenant for life, be conclusively taken, as against the beneficiaries of the settlement, as having paid the best price that could reasonably be obtained and to have complied with all requisitions under the acts.
See obiter comments made by Black J in Gilmore v. The O'Conor Don 1947 IR 462
To lease the land
Section 6 allows a tenant for life to lease the land or any part of it. The lease will last for the full term even if the tenant for life dies before its termination.
There are certain conditions and restrictions –
• There are maximum limits on the lengths of such leases
Building leases could only be granted for 99 years.
Mining leases could only be granted for 60 years.
Other leases could only be granted for 35 years.
• Section 7 laid out certain requirements – the lease had to be made by deed and must come into effect in possession within 12 months of its date
• Every lease must reserve the best rent that can reasonably be obtained
• Every lease must contain a covenant by the lessee for payment of the rent and a condition for re-entry in the event of the rent remaining unpaid for a period not exceeding 30 days.
• A counterpart of the lease had to executed by the lessee and delivered to the tenant for life
• Notice must be given to the trustees of the settlement before the lease is granted – s.45. However under S7 of the 1890 Act the tenant for life can grant a lease for under 21 years provided a fine is not payable, the lessee is not exempted for liability for waste and it reserves the best rent that can reasonably be obtained without giving notice and notwithstanding the fact that there are no trustees of the settlement.
The general rule laid down in Re Wix 1916 1Ch is that the rent reserved in leases is to be treated as part of the tenant's income from the land. It is never capitalised i.e. put by for the other beneficiaries.
The 1882 Act makes an exception in the case of mining leases as the capital value of the land will be diminished by the mining –
s 11 provides that unless a contrary intention is expressed in the settlement part of the rent is to be set aside as capital money and the rest goes to the tenant as income. If the tenant for life is impeachable for waste ¾ of the rent is capitalised if he is unimpeachable ¼ of the rent is capitalised.
To mortgage
The Settled Land Acts did not radically change the tenant for life's power to mortgage.
Under s.18 he can mortgage the land if money is required for equality of exchange, to buy out the ground rent or to raise money to discharge incumbrances of a permanent nature. Any money raised by the mortgage is treated as capital money and under s.22 must be paid to the trustees or into court. Even in these instances s.53 still applies.
See: Hampden v. Earl of Buckinghamshire 1893 CH 53.
To carry out improvements
Improvements are expenditures over and above day to day expenses e.g. repairs which he must pay for himself. See s.25 of the 1882 Act and s.13 of the 1890 Act.
The improvements can only be made out of capital money and cannot become a charge on the settlement – Standing v. Grey 1903 1 IR 49.
Other miscellaneous powers
Other miscellaneous powers conferred on the tenant are more restrictive e.g. under s.10(2) of the 1890 Act the Principal Mansion house and its grounds cannot be sold, exchanged or leased by the tenant for life without the consent of the trustees of the settlement or an order of the court. Under s.37 of the 1882 Act heirlooms such as family pictures, antiques cannot be sold without an order of the court.
Trustees of the settlement
The role of the trustees is mainly supervisory.
They generally have no powers to actively deal with the land as these powers are vested in the tenant for life. The trustees of the settlement have a more active role in two scenarios –
Where the tenant for life is an infant, in which case the trustees can exercise that role for him until he reaches the age of majority- s.60 1882 Actor
Where the tenant for life wishes to buy the fee simple the trustees must step into his shoes and exercise the power of sale for him – s.12 1890 Act
Section 2(8) of the 1882 Act as supplemented by s.16 of the 1890 Act identifies 5 categories of persons who qualify as trustees of the settlement:
Trustees identified with a power of sale or a power to consent to the sale of settled land.
Persons named in the settlement as trustees of the settlement "for the purposes of the Settled land Acts 1882–1890" – s2(8)
Categories provided by s16 of the 1890 Act:
Section 16(1) -the trustees will be the trustees with a power of sale of other land which is subject to the same limitations as the settled land in question e.g. if a settlement includes two farms but trustees are only given a power to sell one then they will be the trustees of the settlement in relation to the other farm.
Section 16(2) – the trustees who have a future power of sale.
The court may appoint trustees of the settlement under s.38(1) of the 1882 Act.
Powers of the trustees of the settlement
The role of the trustees of the settlement was created to ensure that the tenant for life in exercising his statutory powers does not harm the interests of the other beneficiaries under the settlement.
Hughes v. Fanagan 1891 30 LR IR: the main aim of the trustees of the settlement is to protect the interests of those entitled in remainder.
To enable them to achieve this aim the legislation imposed 3 statutory requirements – they are required to receive the capital money, they are required to receive notice and to consent
Under s 22(2) the capital money paid to the trustees must be invested or applied by them in accordance with the direction of the tenant for life or if no direction is given at their own discretion.
S21 lists the various ways in which the money can be invested or applied. Court will only intervene if the investment plan clearly harms the financial interests of other beneficiaries under the settlement – Re Hunt's Settled estates 1906 2 Ch 11. Notice – under s 45 the major powers conferred by the acts on the tenant for life can only be exercised by him if he gives one months notice to the trustees. It is usually sent by registered post.
Note the trustees are under no obligation to bring an action. Under S42 they can not be held liable for failing to give a consent or failing to bring an action.
Consents – some transactions such as the sale of the principal mansion house will require the consent of the trustees – sale of the mansion house s.10(2). This can be given informally without the need for writing as per Gilbey v. Rush 1 Ch 11.
See also
English trusts law
English land law
Notes
Further reading
Barbara English and John Saville
.
English property law
Irish laws
Housing legislation in the United Kingdom |
4378365 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RAF%20East%20Fortune | RAF East Fortune | Royal Air Force East Fortune, or more simply RAF East Fortune, is a former Royal Air Force station located just south of the village of East Fortune. It is a short distance east of Edinburgh, in Scotland. RAF East Fortune was used as a fighter station during the First World War and later used by a night fighter operational training unit during the Second World War. The motto of the station is "Fortune Favours the Bold".
Following the Second World War, the runways were taken over for local private aviation use. The former RAF buildings have been used for the National Museum of Flight since 1976. The airfield is a Scheduled Monument.
History
The establishment of East Fortune as a flying station pre-dates the formation of the Royal Air Force. RAF East Fortune was first designated as a fighter and airship airfield in 1915 and became a Royal Naval Air Service station in August 1916. By early 1918, East Fortune was one of 66 Training Depot Stations (TDS). The purpose of the TDS was to train pilots for operational squadrons, and were often grouped together in threes. East Fortune was TDS station No. 208.
In July 1918, after the Royal Air Force was inaugurated, No. 22 (Training) Group RAF was activated at East Fortune and later moved to Stirling. No. 22 (Training) Group RAF is one of the few active Groups still operating within the RAF.
In 1918, a prototype Sopwith Snipe was trialled at East Fortune. After acceptance, this aircraft was introduced to the Torpedo Aeroplane School at the base, which was opened in August 1918.
The British airship R34 made the first-ever return flight across the Atlantic and the first east–west crossing by air, flying from East Fortune to Mineola, New York in 1919. The flight took 108 hours and 12 minutes.
In February 1920, the airfield and associated buildings were closed and listed for disposal. During the inter-war period, the hangars and airfield buildings were demolished, while the domestic site was sold to the South Eastern Counties of Scotland Joint Sanatorium Board for use as a tuberculosis sanatorium.
The airfield was reactivated during the Second World War, the land being requisitioned in June 1940 for use as a satellite airfield for nearby RAF Drem. However, it was subsequently decided to develop RAF East Fortune as a night fighter operational training unit (OTU), so on 4 June 1941, No. 60 OTU arrived from RAF Leconfield. This was an RAF Fighter Command unit that gave newly qualified pilots and other aircrew (wireless operator/air gunners or navigators) fresh from RAF Flying Training Command specific training and experience in night-fighting before assignment to operational squadrons as two-man (pilot and navigator/radar operator) crews. The OTU employed a mixture of trainer and operational aircraft types for this purpose; initially, crews were trained on the single-engined Boulton Paul Defiant night fighter, with Miles Master dual-control trainers being used for some pilot training exercises. As the Defiant became obsolete as a night fighter, the OTU switched to the twin-engined Bristol Blenheim and Bristol Beaufighter. By 1942 the Blenheim was also increasingly obsolescent as a night fighter, but as they had dual controls and were less challenging to fly than the newer Beaufighter they remained useful as trainers. Crews under training would therefore do most of their flying in Blenheims before converting to Beaufighters towards the end of the OTU course.
As the war progressed, the majority of the Luftwaffe's bombers were assigned to the Russian Front and Mediterranean Theatre. As a result, the threat of night attacks on Britain diminished and the need for additional night fighter crews was reduced, so starting in June 1942 part of No. 60 OTU was reassigned to RAF Coastal Command daylight strike training using Beaufighters. On 24 November 1942, 60 OTU was disbanded and some of its assets and personnel transferred to Coastal Command as the nucleus of the newly formed No. 132 OTU, a dedicated coastal strike training unit. Initially this unit continued to employ Blenheim and Beaufighter aircraft, but use of the ageing Blenheims subsequently declined and they were eventually replaced by Bristol Beauforts as the unit's dual-control trainers. In late 1944 the OTU began to receive some de Havilland Mosquito aircraft, and by the end of the war this was the main type used.
In addition to its primary training role RAF East Fortune was designated as an emergency diversion airfield for RAF Bomber Command, and it was available to heavy bombers returning from raids on Germany if adverse weather over England prevented them from landing at their home airfields.
In addition to No. 60 OTU and No. 132 OTU, the following units have operated here:
No. 1 Torpedo Training Squadron RAF (July – August 1918) became No. 201 TDS (August 1918 – April 1919) became Torpedo Training School, East Fortune (April 1919 – 1920)
No. 2 Gliding School RAF (October 1942)
No. 185 Squadron RAF
Detachment of No. 1489 (Fighter) Gunnery Flight RAF (September 1942 – ?)
Coastal Command Ground Instructors School RAF (1944 – October 1945)
Fleet Aerial Gunnery School RAF (July – November 1918)
Post-war use
No. 132 OTU disbanded on 15 May 1946, and the domestic site was returned to the Sanatorium Board. Thereafter the airfield saw little or no use by the RAF, although it was allocated to the United States Air Force in 1950 as a dispersal base for strategic bombers during the Cold War. To accommodate such aircraft the main runway was extended to cross the B1347 road, but in the event, East Fortune was never used by the USAF and the site was eventually sold by the Air Ministry in 1960. East Fortune enjoyed a brief revival as an airfield during the summer of 1961, when Turnhouse Airport was closed for construction work. As a result, all civil and air force traffic was diverted through East Fortune, with the airport accommodating the movement of nearly 100,000 passengers. The extended runway at East Fortune was used for this purpose throughout the summer of 1961.
After refurbishment, East Fortune Hospital reopened as a tuberculosis sanatorium in 1949. As the number of TB patients was declining, starting in the mid-1950s, spare capacity at the hospital was used for the long-term care of patients with learning disabilities and as a recuperation facility for general medical patients. Subsequently, the hospital primarily provided long-term geriatric care, which became the sole use in 1985 when the last mental health patients left. The hospital gradually declined during the 1990s and finally closed in 1997.
Accidents and incidents
During both world wars, flying accidents during training were common and many airmen were killed or injured on non-operational flights. One of the earliest fatal accidents involving East Fortune occurred on 17 March 1916 when a Farman HF.20 from East Fortune plunged into the Firth of Forth with the loss of its crew.
Unsurprisingly, relatively inexperienced aircrew flying in high-performance, war-weary aircraft, suffered high accident rates. There were particular risks associated with the types of training undertaken at East Fortune during the Second World War, namely night fighter training involving extensive flying during the blackout and coastal-strike training involving extensive low-level flying, which carried the attendant risk of CFIT accidents with insufficient altitude to bail out in the event of mechanical failure. Neither the Beaufighter nor the Mosquito were particularly easy to make emergency escapes from, and the Beaufighter was a notoriously difficult aircraft to fly if one of the engines failed. Accordingly, there were many serious accidents involving aircraft operating from East Fortune. Accidents during the Second World War include:
1941, 15 August, Defiant Mk I N1692 of 60 OTU crashed into a farm building during an attempted forced-landing at West Mains Farm, 5 km southeast of Haddington, killing the pilot.
1941, 29 August, Defiant Mk I T4042 of 60 OTU crashed on Hunt Law in the Lammermuir Hills whilst on a training flight from East Fortune, killing the pilot.
1941, 30 August, Master T8627 of 60 OTU crashed near Scremerston, Northumberland, killing both crew.
1941, 5 September, Defiant Mk I R1679 of 60 OTU crashed near Edlington Hall, Northumberland, killing both crew.
1941, 26 September, Defiant Mk I V1138 of 60 OTU crashed on approach 2 miles northeast of RAF East Fortune, killing the observer.
1941, 16 November, Master Mk III W8528 of 60 OTU crashed at North Berwick, killing the pilot.
1941, 8 December, Defiant Mk I N1570 of 60 OTU crashed into the Firth of Forth. Both crew missing, presumed dead.
1941, 30 December, Defiant Mk I N1680 of 60 OTU crashed on the railway near Drem station, killing the pilot.
1942, 1 January, Defiant Mk I N3432 crashed at Troutbeck, Westmorland on a delivery flight to 60 OTU East Fortune, killing the ferry pilot (who was serving with 96 Squadron). The aircraft flew into high ground in bad weather.
1942, 4 January, Defiant Mk I N3495 of 60 OTU crashed 1/4 mile northeast of East Linton whilst on approach to RAF East Fortune, killing both aircrew. A severe rainstorm had developed suddenly and all pupils airborne had been ordered to land, but the inexperienced pilot was believed to have been overwhelmed by the conditions and flew into the ground.
1942, 15 January, Defiant Mk I N3422 of 60 OTU crashed at Berwick Law, North Berwick after a high speed stall during air combat practice. Both aircrew were killed.
1942, 15 January, Defiant Mk I V1182 of 60 OTU failed to return from an exercise, and was presumed to have ditched or crashed into the Firth of Forth. Both crew missing, presumed dead.
1942, 8 February, Defiant Mk I N1705 of 60 OTU crashed at Kingston Farm, North Berwick killing both aircrew. Immediately before the crash the pilot radioed that he had collided with something in cloud and was attempting to return to East Fortune. Subsequently, marks were found on high ground on Berwick Law suggesting that a glancing collision with terrain had occurred.
1942, 24 February, Miles Master Mk III W8623 of 60 OTU crashed at East Fortune killing the pilot.
1942, 18 March, Defiant Mk I N1629 of 60 OTU dived into the ground near Athelstaneford, killing the pilot.
1942, 23 March, the undercarriage of a 60 OTU Blenheim collapsed at RAF East Fortune, killing an airman working beneath it.
1942, 8 April, Blenheim Mk IV Z5871 of 60 OTU crashed 1/2 mile south of Long Yester, East Lothian killing both crew.
1942, 29 September, Blenheim Mk V BA142 of 60 OTU crashed at Howmuir Farm, East Linton, killing the pilot.
1942, 28 October, Blenheim Mk I L6752 of 60 OTU crashed near Ormiston in bad visibility, killing the pilot.
1942, 8 December, Blenheim Mk IV Z7443 of 132 OTU crashed near Lauder, killing the pilot.
1943, 3 January, Blenheim Mk V BA235 of 132 OTU crashed at Woodhall Farm, Innerwick, killing the pilot.
1943, 14 March, Blenheim Mk V BA107 of 132 OTU crashed in a night forced landing southwest of Athelstaneford, killing the pilot.
1943, 28 March, Blenheim Mk V BA201 of 132 OTU flew into high ground near Haddington at night, killing the pilot.
1943, 29 March, Blenheim Mk I L6691 of 132 OTU crashed near Athelstaneford after taking off from East Fortune at night, killing the pilot.
1943, 2 April, Blenheim Mk I L1119 of 132 OTU crashed 2 miles north west of the airfield after takeoff, killing the pilot.
1943, 12 May, Beaufighter Mk IIF R2340 of 132 OTU crashed at Crauchie Farm on approach to RAF East Fortune, killing the pilot.
1943, 28 May, Beaufighter Mk IIF R2283 of 132 OTU crashed after an engine cut out on overshoot at RAF Drem, killing the pilot.
1943, 14 June, Beaufighter Mk IIF R2278 of 132 OTU crashed near Gilmerton House just south of the airfield after colliding with treetops on overshoot, killing the pilot.
1943, 17 June, Blenheim Mk IV V5492 of 132 OTU crashed during a forced landing, killing the pilot.
1943, 19 September, Beaufighter Mk VIC JL852 of 132 OTU ditched in the North Sea off Northumberland following an engine failure. The pilot was rescued by a passing ship but the observer was never found.
1943, 2 December, Beaufighter Mk VIC EL433 of 132 OTU crashed at RAF East Fortune after the pilot attempted to abort a single-engined landing at the last minute. The aircraft crashed into the airfield's motor transport shed and exploded, killing both aircrew.
1943, 21 December, Beaufighter Mk VIC JL873 of 132 OTU crashed 3 mile north west of Crail whilst attempting a night forced landing. The pilot survived but the navigator was killed.
1944, 5 January, Beaufighter Mk VIC JL425 of 132 OTU crashed into the Firth of Forth 2m east of the Isle of May. Neither of the crew were found.
1944, 27 February, Beaufighter Mk VIC JL449 of 132 OTU crashed at RAF East Fortune during an attempted landing during a snowstorm. Both aircrew were killed.
1944, 19 March, Beaufighter Mk VIC JL652 of 132 OTU failed to return from a training flight and was presumed to have crashed or ditched in the sea. Both crew were missing, presumed killed.
1944, 5 May, Beaufighter Mk VIC JL581 of 132 OTU crashed near Gifford after an engine failed shortly after takeoff from East Fortune, Both crew were killed.
1944, 15 May, Beaufighter Mk VIC EL457 of 132 OTU crashed at Hedgehopehill, 7 miles south of Wooller, Northumberland, killing both crew.
1944, 29 May, Beaufighter Mk VIC EL240 of 132 OTU crashed near Haddington due to an engine failure shortly after takeoff from East Fortune, killing both crew.
1944, 15 June, Beaufighter Mk VIC JL855 of 132 OTU crashed into the sea off North Berwick during a gunnery exercise. Neither of the crew were found.
1944, 27 July, Beaufighter Mk VIC JL776 of 132 OTU crashed into sand dunes at Dirleton gunnery range during a practice attack, killing both crew.
1944, 8 August, Beaufighter Mk VIC JL824 of 132 OTU ditched in the North Sea 10 miles off Carnoustie following engine failure. The pilot was rescued but the observer was never found.
1944, 12 August, Beaufighter Mk VIC T5216 of 132 OTU crashed at Belhaven Sands following engine failure, killing the pilot.
1944, 12 August, Beaufighter Mk VIC X8096 of 132 OTU crashed into the Firth of Forth 3 miles west of the Bass Rock during a night exercise, killing both crew.
1944, 14 August, Beaufighter Mk VIC JL813 of 132 OTU crashed into the North Sea 9 miles off Peterhead. Both of the crew were missing, believed killed.
1944, 20 August, Beaufighter Mk VIC T5219 of 132 OTU crashed near RAF Milfield (Northumberland) following an engine failure. The pilot survived but the navigator was killed.
1944, 23 September, Beaufighter Mk VIC JL423 of 132 OTU failed to return from a night training flight and was presumed lost at sea with both crew.
1944, 8 October, Beaufighter Mk VIC EL338 of 132 OTU crashed at RAF East Fortune after hitting a wall during an attempted take off, killing the pilot and injuring the navigator.
1944, 22 October, Mosquito T. Mk III LR559 of 132 OTU crashed into Beech Hill House, a country house near Haddington, after a fuel tank exploded shortly after takeoff. The accident killed both aircrew and four people in the house, amongst them a niece and nephew of Field Marshal Haig.
1944, 27 October, Beaufighter Mk VIC JL427 of 132 OTU crashed into the North Sea near Barns Ness lighthouse, killing the pilot.
1944, 11 November, Beaufighter TF Mk X LX944 of 132 OTU crashed into the North Sea 5 miles northeast of St Abb's Head in bad weather. Neither of the airmen were ever found.
1945, 22 March, Beaufort T Mk IIA ML564 of 132 OTU crashed during an attempted overshoot at East Fortune, killing the pilot.
1945, 15 April, Beaufighter TF Mk X JM220 of 132 OTU crashed into the Firth of Forth near Fidra during exercises at Dirleton gunnery range. Both crew were killed.
1945, 3 May, Beaufighter TF Mk X NE813 of 132 OTU crashed onto high ground at Wester Dod, Stottencleugh Farm, Oldhamstocks, killing both crew.
1945, 21 June, Mosquito FB Mk VI NT201 of 132 OTU overshot on landing at East Fortune after a radiator fairing detached. The aircraft collided with a hut and both crew were killed.
1945, 20 August, Beaufighter TF Mk X RD714 of 132 OTU crashed at RAF East Fortune, killing the pilot. An airman was awarded the British Empire Medal for saving the navigator from the burning aircraft.
Many of the airmen who died flying from RAF East Fortune are buried at St Martin's New Burial Ground in Haddington.
During East Fortune's brief stint as Edinburgh's temporary airport during 1961, two notable accidents occurred. On a very wet Sunday in April 1961 a BEA Viscount airliner landing on a flight from Heathrow overshot the runway and ended up in the grass at the end of the runway after a 180-degree turn. Although the flight was fully laden there were no injuries. A few weeks later, on 26 May 1961, an RAF Percival Pembroke communications aircraft (serial number WV737) called at East Fortune to drop off two Air Vice-Marshals returning from a NATO meeting in Paris. Having done so, the crew took off for the short flight to RAF Leuchars, but almost immediately the aircraft suffered an engine fire and had to be crash-landed near North Berwick. Both members of the crew escaped from the crash alive, although the aircraft was destroyed by fire. An investigation determined that hydraulic lock had occurred in the port engine, due to the pilot omitting to undertake the required pre-takeoff procedures.
Current use
In 1976 the Scottish National Museum of Flight was opened on the site of the former RAF station's technical site. Each summer the museum hosts an airshow. It is one of the few airfield-based airshows in the UK where fixed wing aeroplanes cannot land at the airfield.
The airfield is predominantly used for agriculture but the runways and taxiways are largely intact. A portion of the runways is used for a car boot sale each Sunday. The eastern end of the airfield is now used as a motorcycle racing circuit and is home to the Melville Motor Club. The concrete extension of the main runway west of the B1347 road is now used as a runway for microlight aircraft and as a scrapyard. This is the only part of the East Fortune airfield that can now handle aircraft, and no larger than a microlight.
The former domestic site, the East Fortune Hospital, remains largely vacant. In May 2016, it was revealed that there are plans for part of the site to be redeveloped as a village.
See also
List of former Royal Air Force stations
References
Citations
Bibliography
East Fortune
Scheduled Ancient Monuments in East Lothian
Airports established in 1915 |
4379212 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commitment%20ordering | Commitment ordering | Commitment ordering (CO) is a class of interoperable serializability techniques in concurrency control of databases, transaction processing, and related applications. It allows optimistic (non-blocking) implementations. With the proliferation of multi-core processors, CO has also been increasingly utilized in concurrent programming, transactional memory, and software transactional memory (STM) to achieve serializability optimistically. CO is also the name of the resulting transaction schedule (history) property, defined in 1988 with the name dynamic atomicity. In a CO compliant schedule, the chronological order of commitment events of transactions is compatible with the precedence order of the respective transactions. CO is a broad special case of conflict serializability and effective means (reliable, high-performance, distributed, and scalable) to achieve global serializability (modular serializability) across any collection of database systems that possibly use different concurrency control mechanisms (CO also makes each system serializability compliant, if not already).
Each not-CO-compliant database system is augmented with a CO component (the commitment order coordinator—COCO) which orders the commitment events for CO compliance, with neither data-access nor any other transaction operation interference. As such, CO provides a low overhead, general solution for global serializability (and distributed serializability), instrumental for global concurrency control (and distributed concurrency control) of multi-database systems and other transactional objects, possibly highly distributed (e.g., within cloud computing, grid computing, and networks of smartphones). An atomic commitment protocol (ACP; of any type) is a fundamental part of the solution, utilized to break global cycles in the conflict (precedence, serializability) graph. CO is the most general property (a necessary condition) that guarantees global serializability, if the database systems involved do not share concurrency control information beyond atomic commitment protocol (unmodified) messages and have no knowledge of whether transactions are global or local (the database systems are autonomous). Thus CO (with its variants) is the only general technique that does not require the typically costly distribution of local concurrency control information (e.g., local precedence relations, locks, timestamps, or tickets). It generalizes the popular strong strict two-phase locking (SS2PL) property, which in conjunction with the two-phase commit protocol (2PC), is the de facto standard to achieve global serializability across (SS2PL based) database systems. As a result, CO compliant database systems (with any different concurrency control types) can transparently join such SS2PL based solutions for global serializability.
In addition, locking based global deadlocks are resolved automatically in a CO based multi-database environment, a vital side-benefit (including the special case of a completely SS2PL based environment; a previously unnoticed fact for SS2PL).
Furthermore, strict commitment ordering (SCO; Raz 1991c), the intersection of Strictness and CO, provides better performance (shorter average transaction completion time and resulting in better transaction throughput) than SS2PL whenever read-write conflicts are present (identical blocking behavior for write-read and write-write conflicts; comparable locking overhead). The advantage of SCO is especially during lock contention. Strictness allows both SS2PL and SCO to use the same effective database recovery mechanisms.
Two major generalizing variants of CO exist, extended CO (ECO; Raz 1993a) and multi-version CO (MVCO; Raz 1993b). They also provide global serializability without local concurrency control information distribution, can be combined with any relevant concurrency control, and allow optimistic (non-blocking) implementations. Both use additional information for relaxing CO constraints and achieving better concurrency and performance. Vote ordering (VO or Generalized CO (GCO); Raz 2009) is a container schedule set (property) and technique for CO and all its variants. Local VO is necessary for guaranteeing global serializability if the atomic commitment protocol (ACP) participants do not share concurrency control information (have the generalized autonomy property). CO and its variants inter-operate transparently, guaranteeing global serializability and automatic global deadlock resolution together in a mixed, heterogeneous environment with different variants.
Overview
The Commitment ordering (CO; Raz 1990, 1992, 1994, 2009) schedule property has been referred to also as Dynamic atomicity (since 1988), commit ordering, commit order serializability, and strong recoverability (since 1991). The latter is a misleading name since CO is incomparable with recoverability, and the term "strong" implies a special case. This means that a substantial recoverability property does not necessarily have the CO property and vice versa.
In 2009 CO has been characterized as a major concurrency control method, together with the previously known (since the 1980s) three major methods: Locking, Time-stamp ordering, and Serialization graph testing, and as an enabler for the interoperability of systems using different concurrency control mechanisms.
In a federated database system or any other more loosely defined multidatabase system, which are typically distributed in a communication network, transactions span multiple and possibly Distributed databases. Enforcing global serializability in such system is problematic. Even if every local schedule of a single database is still serializable, the global schedule of a whole system is not necessarily serializable. The massive communication exchanges of conflict information needed between databases to reach conflict serializability would lead to unacceptable performance, primarily due to computer and communication latency. The problem of achieving global serializability effectively had been characterized as open until the public disclosure of CO in 1991 by its inventor Yoav Raz (Raz 1991a; see also Global serializability).
Enforcing CO is an effective way to enforce conflict serializability globally in a distributed system since enforcing CO locally in each database (or other transactional objects) also enforces it globally. Each database may use any, possibly different, type of concurrency control mechanism. With a local mechanism that already provides conflict serializability, enforcing CO locally does not cause any other aborts, since enforcing CO locally does not affect the data access scheduling strategy of the mechanism (this scheduling determines the serializability related aborts; such a mechanism typically does not consider the commitment events or their order). The CO solution requires no communication overhead since it uses (unmodified) atomic commitment protocol messages only, already needed by each distributed transaction to reach atomicity. An atomic commitment protocol plays a central role in the distributed CO algorithm, which enforces CO globally by breaking global cycles (cycles that span two or more databases) in the global conflict graph.
CO, its special cases, and its generalizations are interoperable and achieve global serializability while transparently being utilized together in a single heterogeneous distributed environment comprising objects with possibly different concurrency control mechanisms. As such, Commitment ordering, including its special cases, and together with its generalizations (see CO variants below), provides a general, high performance, fully distributed solution (no central processing component or central data structure are needed) for guaranteeing global serializability in heterogeneous environments of multidatabase systems and other multiple transactional objects (objects with states accessed and modified only by transactions; e.g., in the framework of transactional processes, and within Cloud computing and Grid computing). The CO solution scales up with network size and the number of databases without any negative impact on performance (assuming the statistics of a single distributed transaction, e.g., the average number of databases involved with a single transaction, are unchanged).
With the proliferation of Multi-core processors, Optimistic CO (OCO) has also been increasingly utilized to achieve serializability in software transactional memory, and numerous STM articles and patents utilizing "commit order" have already been published (e.g., Zhang et al. 2006).
The commitment ordering solution for global serializability
General characterization of CO
Commitment ordering (CO) is a special case of conflict serializability. CO can be enforced with non-blocking mechanisms (each transaction can complete its task without having its data-access blocked, which allows optimistic concurrency control; however, commitment could be blocked). In a CO schedule, the commitment events' (partial) precedence order of the transactions correspond to the precedence (partial) order of the respective transactions in the (directed) conflict graph (precedence graph, serializability graph), as induced by their conflicting access operations (usually read and write (insert/modify/delete) operations; CO also applies to higher-level operations, where they are conflicting if noncommutative, as well as to conflicts between operations upon multi-version data).
Definition commitment ordering Let be two committed transactions in a schedule, such that is in a conflict with ( precedes ). The schedule has the Commitment ordering (CO) property, if for every two such transactions commits before commits.
The commitment decision events are generated by either a local commitment mechanism or an atomic commitment protocol if different processes need to reach a consensus on whether to commit or abort. The protocol may be distributed or centralized. Transactions may be committed concurrently if the commit partial order allows (if they do not have conflicting operations). Suppose different conflicting operations induce different partial orders of the same transactions. In that case, the conflict graph has cycles, and the schedule will violate serializability when all the transactions on a cycle are committed. In this case, no partial order for commitment events can be found. Thus, cycles in the conflict graph need to be broken by aborting transactions. However, any conflict serializable schedule can be made CO without aborting any transaction by properly delaying commit events to comply with the transactions' precedence partial order.
CO enforcement by itself is not sufficient as a concurrency control mechanism since CO lacks the recoverability property, which should be supported as well.
The distributed CO algorithm
A fully distributed Global commitment ordering enforcement algorithm exists that uses local CO of each participating database, and needs only (unmodified) Atomic commitment protocol messages with no further communication. The distributed algorithm is the combination of local (to each database) CO algorithm processes and an atomic commitment protocol (which can be fully distributed).
Atomic commitment protocol is essential to enforce atomicity of each distributed transaction (to decide whether to commit or abort it; this procedure is always carried out for distributed transactions, independently of concurrency control and CO). A common example of an atomic commitment protocol is the two-phase commit protocol, which is resilient to many types of system failure. In a reliable environment, or when processes usually fail together (e.g., in the same integrated circuit), a simpler protocol for atomic commitment may be used (e.g., a simple handshake of distributed transaction's participating processes with some arbitrary but known special participant, the transaction's coordinator, i.e., a type of one-phase commit protocol). An atomic commitment protocol reaches consensus among participants on whether to commit or abort a distributed (global) transaction that spans these participants. An essential stage in each such protocol is the YES vote (either explicit or implicit) by each participant, which means an obligation of the voting participant to obey the decision of the protocol, either commit or abort. Otherwise, a participant can unilaterally abort the transaction by an explicit NO vote. The protocol commits the transaction only if YES votes have been received from all participants (thus, a missing vote is typically considered a NO). Otherwise, the protocol aborts the transaction. The various atomic commit protocols only differ in their abilities to handle different computing environment failure situations and the amounts of work and other computing resources needed in different situations.
The entire CO solution for global serializability is based on the fact that the atomic commitment protocol eventually aborts this transaction in case of a missing vote for a distributed transaction.
Enforcing global CO
In each database system, a local CO algorithm determines the needed commitment order for that database. By the characterization of CO above, this order depends on the local precedence order of transactions, which results from the local data access scheduling mechanisms. Accordingly, YES votes in the atomic commitment protocol are scheduled for each (unaborted) distributed transaction (in what follows, "a vote" means a YES vote). Suppose a precedence relation (conflict) exists between two transactions. In that case, the second will not be voted on before the first is completed (either committed or aborted), to prevent possible commit order violation by the atomic commitment protocol. Such can happen since the commit order by the protocol is not necessarily the same as the voting order. If no precedence relation exists, both can be voted on concurrently. This vote ordering strategy ensures that also the atomic commitment protocol maintains commitment order, and it is a necessary condition for guaranteeing Global CO (and the local CO of a database; without it both Global CO and Local CO (a property meaning that each database is CO compliant) may be violated).
However, since database systems schedule their transactions independently, it is possible that the transactions' precedence orders in two databases or more are not compatible (no global partial order exists that can embed the respective local partial orders together). With CO, precedence orders are also the commitment orders. When participating databases in the same distributed transaction do not have compatible local precedence orders for that transaction (without "knowing" it; typically no coordination between database systems exists on conflicts, since the needed communication is massive and unacceptably degrades performance) it means that the transaction resides on a global cycle (involving two or more databases) in the global conflict graph. In this case, the atomic commitment protocol will fail to collect all the votes needed to commit that transaction: By the vote ordering strategy above, at least one database will delay its vote for that transaction indefinitely to comply with its own commitment (precedence) order, since it will be waiting to the completion of another, preceding transactions on that global cycle delayed indefinitely by another database with a different order. This means a voting-deadlock situation involving the databases on that cycle.
As a result, the protocol will eventually abort some deadlocked transaction on this global cycle, since each such transaction is missing at least one participant's vote. Selection of the specific transaction on the cycle to be aborted depends on the atomic commitment protocol's abort policies (a timeout mechanism is common, but it may result in more than one needed abort per cycle; both preventing unnecessary aborts and abort time shortening can be achieved by a dedicated abort mechanism for CO). Such abort will break the global cycle involving that distributed transaction. Both deadlocked transactions and possibly others in conflict with the deadlocked (and thus blocked) will be free to be voted on. It is worthwhile noting that each database involved with the voting-deadlock continues to vote regularly on transactions that are not in conflict with its deadlocked transaction, typically almost all the outstanding transactions. Thus, in the case of incompatible local (partial) commitment orders, no action is needed since the atomic commitment protocol resolves it automatically by aborting a transaction that is a cause of incompatibility. This means that the above vote ordering strategy is also a sufficient condition for guaranteeing Global CO.
The following is concluded:
The Vote ordering strategy for Global CO Enforcing Theorem
Let be undecided (neither committed nor aborted) transactions in a database system that enforces CO for local transactions, such that is global and in conflict with ( precedes ). Then, having ended (either committed or aborted) before is voted on to be committed (the vote ordering strategy), in each such database system in a multidatabase environment, is a necessary and sufficient condition for guaranteeing Global CO (the condition guarantees Global CO, which may be violated without it).
Comments:
The vote ordering strategy that enforces global CO is referred to as in (Raz 1992).
The Local CO property of a global schedule means that each database is CO compliant. From the necessity discussion, the part above directly follows that the theorem is also true when replacing "Global CO" with "Local CO" when global transactions are present. Together it means that Global CO is guaranteed if and only if Local CO is guaranteed (which is untrue for Global conflict serializability and Local conflict serializability: Global implies Local, but not the opposite).
Global CO implies Global serializability.
The Global CO algorithm comprises enforcing (local) CO in each participating database system by ordering commits of local transactions (see Enforcing CO locally below) and enforcing the vote ordering strategy in the theorem above (for global transactions).
The exact characterization of voting-deadlocks by global cycles
The above global cycle elimination process by a voting deadlock can be explained in detail by the following observation:
First, it is assumed, for simplicity, that every transaction reaches the ready-to-commit state and is voted on by at least one database (this implies that no blocking by locks occurs).
Define a "wait for vote to commit" graph as a directed graph with transactions as nodes and a directed edge from any first transaction to a second transaction if the first transaction blocks the vote to commit of the second transaction (opposite to conventional edge direction in a wait-for graph). Such blocking happens only if the second transaction conflicts with the first transaction (see above). Thus this "wait for vote to commit" graph is identical to the global conflict graph. A cycle in the "wait for vote to commit" graph means a deadlock in voting. Hence there is a deadlock in voting if there is a cycle in the conflict graph. The local serializability mechanisms eliminate local cycles (confined to a single database). Consequently, only global cycles are left, which are then eliminated by the atomic commitment protocol when it aborts deadlocked transactions with missing (blocked) respective votes.
Secondly, also local commits are dealt with: Note that when enforcing CO, also waiting for a regular local commit of a local transaction can block local commits and votes of other transactions upon conflicts, and the situation for global transactions does not also change without the simplifying assumption above: The final result is the same also with a local commitment for local transactions, without voting in atomic commitment for them.
Finally, blocking by a lock (which has been excluded so far) needs to be considered: A lock blocks a conflicting operation and prevents a conflict from being materialized. Suppose the lock is released only after the transaction end. In that case, it may block indirectly either a vote or a local commit of another transaction (which now cannot get to ready state), with the same effect as a direct blocking of a vote or a local commit. A cycle is generated in the conflict graph only if such blocking by a lock is also represented by an edge. With such added edges representing events of blocking-by-a-lock, the conflict graph is becoming an augmented conflict graph.
Definition: augmented conflict graph
An augmented conflict graph is a conflict graph with added edges: In addition to the original edges a directed edge exists from transaction to transaction if two conditions are met:
is blocked by a data-access lock applied by (the blocking prevents the conflict of with from being materialized and have an edge in the regular conflict graph), and
This blocking will not stop before ends (commits or aborts; true for any locking-based CO)
The graph can also be defined as the union of the (regular) conflict graph with the (reversed edge, regular) wait-for graph
Comments:
Here, unlike the regular conflict graph, which has edges only for materialized conflicts, all materialized, and non-materialized conflicts are represented by edges.
Note that all the new edges are all the (reversed to the conventional) edges of the wait-for graph. The wait-for graph can also be defined as the graph of non-materialized conflicts. By the common conventions, edge direction in a conflict graph defines time order between conflicting operations, which is opposite to the time order defined by an edge in a wait-for graph.
Note that such a global graph contains (has embedded) all the (reversed edge) regular local wait-for graphs and also may include locking based global cycles (which cannot exist in the local graphs). For example, if all the databases on a global cycle are SS2PL based, then all the related vote blocking situations are caused by locks (this is the classical and probably the only global deadlock situation dealt with in the database research literature). This is a global deadlock case where each related database creates a portion of the cycle, but the complete cycle does not reside in any local wait-for graph.
In the presence of CO, the augmented conflict graph is, in fact, a (reversed edge) local-commit and voting wait-for graph: An edge exists from a first transaction, either local or global, to a second, if the second is waiting for the first to end in order to be either voted on (if global) or locally committed (if local). All global cycles (across two or more databases) in this graph generate voting-deadlocks. The graph's global cycles provide complete characterization for voting deadlocks and may include any combination of materialized and non-materialized conflicts. Only cycles of (only) materialized conflicts are also cycles of the regular conflict graph and affect serializability. One or more (lock related) non-materialized conflicts on a cycle prevent it from being a cycle in the regular conflict graph and make it a locking related deadlock. All the global cycles (voting-deadlocks) need to be broken (resolved) to both maintain global serializability and resolve global deadlocks involving data access locking. Indeed they are all broken by the atomic commitment protocol due to missing votes upon a voting deadlock.
Comment: This observation also explains the correctness of Extended CO (ECO) below: Global transactions' voting order must follow the conflict graph order with vote blocking when order relation (graph path) exists between two global transactions. Local transactions are not voted on, and their (local) commits are not blocked upon conflicts. This results in the same voting-deadlock situations and resulting global cycle elimination process for ECO.
The voting-deadlock situation can be summarized as follows:
The CO Voting-Deadlock Theorem
Let a multidatabase environment comprise CO compliant (which eliminates local cycles) database systems that enforce each Global CO (using the condition in the theorem above). A voting-deadlock occurs if and only if a global cycle (spans two or more databases) exists in the Global augmented conflict graph (also blocking by a data-access lock is represented by an edge). Suppose the cycle does not break by any abort. In that case, all the global transactions on it are involved with the respective voting-deadlock. Eventually, each has its vote blocked (either directly or indirectly by a data-access lock); if a local transaction resides on the cycle, eventually, it has its (local) commit blocked.
Comment: A rare situation of a voting deadlock (by missing blocked votes) can happen, with no voting for any transaction on the related cycle by any of the database systems involved with these transactions. This can occur when local sub-transactions are multi-threaded. The highest probability instance of such a rare event involves two transactions on two simultaneous opposite cycles. Such global cycles (deadlocks) overlap with local cycles that are resolved locally and are typically resolved by local mechanisms without involving atomic commitment. Formally it is also a global cycle, but practically it is local (portions of local cycles generate a global one; to see this, split each global transaction (node) to local sub-transactions (its portions confined each to a single database); a directed edge exists between transactions if an edge exists between any respective local sub-transactions; a cycle is local if all its edges originate from a cycle among sub-transactions of the same database, and global if not; global and local can overlap: the same cycle among transactions can result from several different cycles among sub-transactions, and be both local and global).
Also, the following locking based special case is concluded:
The CO Locking-based Global-Deadlock Theorem
In a CO compliant multidatabase system, a locking-based global-deadlock, involving at least one data-access lock (non-materialized conflict), and two or more database systems, is a reflection of a global cycle in the Global augmented conflict graph, which results in a voting-deadlock. Such a cycle is not a cycle in the (regular) Global conflict graph (which reflects only materialized conflicts, so such a cycle does not affect serializability).
Comments:
Any blocking (edge) in the cycle that is not by a data-access lock directly blocks either voting or local commit. All voting-deadlocks are resolved (almost all by Atomic commitment; see comment above), including this locking-based type.
Locking-based global-deadlocks can also be generated in a completely SS2PL-based distributed environment (special case of CO based). All the vote blocking (and voting-deadlocks) are caused by data-access locks. Many research articles have dealt for years with resolving such global deadlocks, but none (except the CO articles) is known (as of 2009) to notice that atomic commitment automatically resolves them. Such automatic resolutions are regularly occurring unnoticed in all existing SS2PL based multidatabase systems, often bypassing dedicated resolution mechanisms.
Voting-deadlocks are the key to the operation of distributed CO.
Global cycle elimination (here voting-deadlock resolution by atomic commitment) and resulting aborted transactions' re-executions are time-consuming, regardless of concurrency control used. If databases schedule transactions independently, global cycles are unavoidable (in a complete analogy to cycles/deadlocks generated in local SS2PL; with distribution, any transaction or operation scheduling coordination results in autonomy violation and is typically in substantial performance penalty). However, their likelihood can be made very low in many cases by implementing database and transaction design guidelines that reduce the number of conflicts involving a global transaction. This, primarily by properly handling hot spots (database objects with frequent access,) and avoiding conflicts by using commutativity when possible (e.g., when extensively using counters, as in finances, and especially multi-transaction accumulation counters, which are typically hot spots).
Atomic commitment protocols are intended and designed to achieve atomicity without considering database concurrency control. They abort upon detecting or heuristically finding (e.g., by a timeout; sometimes mistakenly, unnecessarily) missing votes and typically unaware of global cycles. These protocols can be especially enhanced for CO (including CO's variants below) to prevent unnecessary aborts and accelerate aborts used for breaking global cycles in the global augmented conflict graph (for better performance by earlier release upon transaction-end of computing resources and typically locked data). For example, existing locking based global deadlock detection methods, other than the timeout, can be generalized also to consider local commit and vote direct blocking, besides data access blocking. A possible compromise in such mechanisms is effectively detecting and breaking the most frequent and relatively simple to handle length-2 global cycles, and using timeout for undetected, much less frequent, longer cycles.
Enforcing CO locally
Commitment ordering can be enforced locally (in a single database) by a dedicated CO algorithm, or by any algorithm/protocol that provides any special case of CO. An important such protocol, being utilized extensively in database systems, which generates a CO schedule, is the strong strict two phase locking protocol (SS2PL: "release transaction's locks only after the transaction has been either committed or aborted"; see below). SS2PL is a proper subset of the intersection of 2PL and strictness.
A generic local CO algorithm
A generic local CO algorithm (Raz 1992; Algorithm 4.1) is an algorithm independent of implementation details that enforces exactly the CO property. It does not block data access (nonblocking) and consists of aborting a certain set of transactions (only if needed) upon committing a transaction. It aborts a (uniquely determined at any given time) minimal set of other undecided (neither committed, nor aborted) transactions that run locally and can cause serializability violation in the future (can later generate cycles of committed transactions in the conflict graph; this is the ABORT set of a committed transaction T; after committing T no transaction in ABORT at commit time can be committed, and all of them are doomed to be aborted). This set consists of all undecided transactions with directed edges in the conflict graph to the committed transaction. The size of this set cannot increase when that transaction is waiting to be committed (in the ready state: processing has ended,) and typically decreases in time as its transactions are being decided. Thus, unless real-time constraints exist to complete that transaction, it is preferred to wait with committing that transaction and let this set decrease in size. If another serializability mechanism exists locally (which eliminates cycles in the local conflict graph), or if no cycle involving that transaction exists, the set will be empty eventually, and no abort of a set member is needed. Otherwise, the set will stabilize with transactions on local cycles, and aborting set members will have to occur to break the cycles. Since in the case of CO conflicts generate blocking on commit, local cycles in the augments conflict graph (see above) indicate local commit-deadlocks, and deadlock resolution techniques as in SS2PL can be used (e.g., like timeout and wait-for graph). A local cycle in the augmented conflict graph with at least one non-materialized conflict reflects a locking-based deadlock. The local algorithm above, applied to the local augmented conflict graph rather than the regular local conflict graph, comprises the generic enhanced local CO algorithm, a single local cycle elimination mechanism, for both guaranteeing local serializability and handling locking based local deadlocks. Practically an additional concurrency control mechanism is always utilized, even solely to enforce recoverability. The generic CO algorithm does not affect the local data access scheduling strategy when it runs alongside any other local concurrency control mechanism. It affects only the commit order, and for this reason, it does not need to abort more transactions than those needed to be aborted for serializability violation prevention by any combined local concurrency control mechanism. At most, the net effect of CO may be a delay of commit events (or voting in a distributed environment), to comply with the needed commit order (but not more delay than its special cases, for example, SS2PL, and on average significantly less).
The following theorem is concluded:
The Generic Local CO Algorithm Theorem
When running alone or alongside any concurrency control mechanism in a database system, then
The Generic local CO algorithm guarantees (local) CO (a CO compliant schedule).
The Generic enhanced local CO algorithm guarantees both (local) CO and (local) locking based deadlock resolution. And (when not using a timeout, and no real-time transaction completion constraints are applied) neither algorithm aborts more transactions than the minimum needed (which is determined by the transactions' operations scheduling, out of the scope of the algorithms).
Example: Concurrent programming and Transactional memory
See also Concurrent programming and Transactional memory.
With the proliferation of Multi-core processors, variants of the Generic local CO algorithm have also been increasingly utilized in Concurrent programming, Transactional memory, and especially in Software transactional memory for achieving serializability optimistically by "commit order" (e.g., Ramadan et al. 2009, Zhang et al. 2006, von Parun et al. 2007). Numerous related articles and patents utilizing CO have already been published.
Implementation considerations: The Commitment Order Coordinator (COCO)
A database system in a multidatabase environment is assumed. From a software architecture point of view, a CO component that implements the generic CO algorithm locally, the Commitment Order Coordinator (COCO), can be designed straightforwardly as a mediator between a (single) database system and an atomic commitment protocol component (Raz 1991b). However, the COCO is typically an integral part of the database system. The COCO's functions are to vote to commit on ready global transactions (the processing has ended) according to the local commitment order, to vote to abort on transactions for which the database system has initiated an abort (the database system can initiate abort for any transaction, for many reasons), and to pass the atomic commitment decision to the database system. For local transactions (when can be identified), no voting is needed. For determining the commitment order, the COCO maintains an updated representation of the local conflict graph (or local augmented conflict graph for capturing also locking deadlocks) of the undecided (neither committed nor aborted) transactions as a data structure (e.g., utilizing mechanisms similar to locking for capturing conflicts, but with no data-access blocking). The COCO component has an interface with its database system to receive "conflict," "ready" (the processing has ended; readiness to vote on a global transaction or commit a local one), and "abort" notifications from the database system. It also interfaces with the atomic commitment protocol to vote and receive the atomic commitment protocol's decision on each global transaction. The decisions are delivered from the COCO to the database system through their interface, as well as local transactions' commit notifications, at a proper commit order. The COCO, including its interfaces, can be enhanced, if it implements another variant of CO (see below) or plays a role in the database's concurrency control mechanism beyond voting in atomic commitment.
The COCO also guarantees CO locally in a single, isolated database system with no interface with an atomic commitment protocol.
CO is a necessary condition for global serializability across autonomous database systems.
Suppose databases that participate in distributed transactions (i.e., transactions that span more than a single database) do not use any shared concurrency control information and use unmodified atomic commitment protocol messages (for reaching atomicity). In that case, maintaining (local) commitment ordering or one of its generalizing variants (see below) is a necessary condition for guaranteeing global serializability (a proof technique can be found in (Raz 1992), and a different proof method for this in (Raz 1993a)); it is also a sufficient condition. This is a mathematical fact derived from the definitions of serializability and a transaction. It means that if not complying with CO, then global serializability cannot be guaranteed under this condition (the condition of no local concurrency control information sharing between databases beyond atomic commit protocol messages). Atomic commitment is a minimal requirement for a distributed transaction since it is always needed, which is implied by the transaction definition.
(Raz 1992) defines database autonomy and independence as complying with this requirement without using any additional local knowledge:
Definition: (concurrency control based) autonomous database system
A database system is Autonomous, if it does not share any concurrency control information beyond unmodified atomic commitment protocol messages with any other entity. In addition, it does not use for concurrency control any additional local information beyond conflicts (the last sentence does not appear explicitly but rather implied by further discussion in Raz 1992).
Using this definition, the following is concluded:
The CO and Global serializability Theorem
CO compliance of every autonomous database system (or transactional object) in a multidatabase environment is a necessary condition for guaranteeing Global serializability (without CO, Global serializability may be violated).
CO compliance with every database system is a sufficient condition for guaranteeing Global serializability.
However, the definition of autonomy above implies, for example, that transactions are scheduled in a way that local transactions (confined to a single database) cannot be identified as such by an autonomous database system. This is realistic for some transactional objects but too restrictive and less realistic for general purpose database systems. If autonomy is augmented with the ability to identify local transactions, then compliance with a more general property, Extended commitment ordering (ECO, see below), makes ECO the necessary condition.
Only in (Raz 2009) the notion of Generalized autonomy captures the intended notion of autonomy:
Definition: generalized autonomy
A database system has the Generalized autonomy property if it does not share any other database system any local concurrency information beyond (unmodified) atomic commit protocol messages (however, any local information can be utilized).
This definition is probably the broadest such definition possible in the context of database concurrency control, and it makes CO together with any of its (useful: No concurrency control information distribution) generalizing variants (Vote ordering (VO); see CO variants below) the necessary condition for Global serializability (i.e., the union of CO and its generalizing variants is the necessary set VO, which may also include new unknown useful generalizing variants).
Summary
The Commitment ordering (CO) solution (technique) for global serializability can be summarized as follows:
If each database (or any other transactional object) in a multidatabase environment complies with CO, i.e., arranges its local transactions' commitments and its votes on (global, distributed) transactions to the atomic commitment protocol according to the local (to the database) partial order induced by the local conflict graph (serializability graph) for the respective transactions, then Global CO and Global serializability are guaranteed. A database's CO compliance can be achieved effectively with any local conflict serializability based concurrency control mechanism, neither affecting any transaction's execution process or scheduling nor aborting it. Also, the database's autonomy is not violated. The only low overhead incurred is detecting conflicts (e.g., with locking, but with no data-access blocking; if not already detected for other purposes) and ordering votes and local transactions' commits according to the conflicts.
In case of incompatible partial orders of two or more databases (no global partial order can embed the respective local partial orders together), a global cycle (spans two databases or more) in the global conflict graph is generated. This, together with CO, results in a cycle of blocked votes. A voting-deadlock occurs for the databases on that cycle (however, allowed concurrent voting in each database, typically for almost all the outstanding votes, continue to execute). In this case, the atomic commitment protocol fails to collect all the votes needed for the blocked transactions on that global cycle. Consequently the protocol aborts some transactions with a missing vote. This breaks the global cycle, the voting-deadlock is resolved, and the related blocked votes are free to be executed. Breaking the global cycle in the global conflict graph ensures that global CO and global serializability are maintained. Thus, in the case of incompatible local (partial) commitment orders, no action is needed since the atomic commitment protocol resolves it automatically by aborting a transaction that is a cause for the incompatibility. Furthermore, global deadlocks due to locking (global cycles in the augmented conflict graph with at least one data access blocking) result in voting deadlocks and are resolved automatically by the same mechanism.
Local CO is a necessary condition for guaranteeing Global serializability if the databases involved do not share any concurrency control information beyond (unmodified) atomic commitment protocol messages, i.e., if the databases are autonomous in the context of concurrency control. This means that every global serializability solution for autonomous databases must comply with CO. Otherwise, global serializability may be violated (and thus, is likely to be violated very quickly in a high-performance environment).
The CO solution scales up with network size and the number of databases without performance penalty when it utilizes common distributed atomic commitment architecture.
Distributed serializability and CO
Distributed CO
A distinguishing characteristic of the CO solution to distributed serializability from other techniques is the fact that it requires no conflict information distributed (e.g., local precedence relations, locks, timestamps, tickets), which makes it uniquely effective. It utilizes (unmodified) atomic commitment protocol messages (which are already used) instead.
A common way to achieve distributed serializability in a (distributed) system is by a distributed lock manager (DLM). DLMs, which communicate lock (non-materialized conflict) information in a distributed environment, typically suffer from computer and communication latency, which reduces the performance of the system. CO allows to achieve distributed serializability under very general conditions, without a distributed lock manager, exhibiting the benefits already explored above for multidatabase environments; in particular: reliability, high performance, scalability, the possibility of using optimistic concurrency control when desired, no conflict information related communications over the network (which have incurred overhead and delays), and automatic distributed deadlock resolution.
All distributed transactional systems rely on some atomic commitment protocol to coordinate atomicity (whether to commit or abort) among processes in a distributed transaction. Also, typically recoverable data (i.e., data under transactions' control, e.g., database data; not to be confused with the recoverability property of a schedule) are directly accessed by a single transactional data manager component (also referred to as a resource manager) that handles local sub-transactions (the distributed transaction's portion in a single location, e.g., network node), even if these data are accessed indirectly by other entities in the distributed system during a transaction (i.e., indirect access requires a direct access through a local sub-transaction). Thus recoverable data in a distributed transactional system are typically partitioned among transactional data managers. In such system, these transactional data managers typically comprise the participants in the system's atomic commitment protocol. If each participant complies with CO (e.g., by using SS2PL, or COCOs, or a combination; see above), then the entire distributed system provides CO (by the theorems above; each participant can be considered a separate transactional object), and thus (distributed) serializability. Furthermore: When CO is utilized together with an atomic commitment protocol also distributed deadlocks (i.e., deadlocks that span two or more data managers) caused by data-access locking are resolved automatically. Thus the following corollary is concluded:
The CO Based Distributed Serializability Theorem
Let a distributed transactional system (e.g., a distributed database system) comprise transactional data managers (also called resource managers) that manage all the system's recoverable data. The data managers meet three conditions:
Data partition: Recoverable data are partitioned among the data managers, i.e., each recoverable datum (data item) is controlled by a single data manager (e.g., as common in a Shared nothing architecture; even copies of the same datum under different data managers are physically distinct, replicated).
Participants in atomic commitment protocol: These data managers are the participants in the system's atomic commitment protocol for coordinating distributed transactions' atomicity.
CO compliance: Each such data manager is CO compliant (or some CO variant compliant; see below).
Then
The entire distributed system guarantees (distributed CO and) serializability, and
Data-access-based distributed deadlocks (deadlocks involving two or more data managers with at least one non-materialized conflict) are resolved automatically.
Furthermore: The data managers being CO compliant is a necessary condition for (distributed) serializability in a system meeting conditions 1, 2 above, when the data managers are autonomous, i.e., do not share concurrency control information beyond unmodified messages of atomic commitment protocol.
This theorem also means that when SS2PL (or any other CO variant) is used locally in each transactional data manager, and each data manager has exclusive control of its data, no distributed lock manager (which is often utilized to enforce distributed SS2PL) is needed for distributed SS2PL and serializability. It is relevant to a wide range of distributed transactional applications, which can be easily designed to meet the theorem's conditions.
Distributed optimistic CO (DOCO)
For implementing Distributed Optimistic CO (DOCO), the generic local CO algorithm is utilized in all the atomic commitment protocol participants in the system with no data access blocking and thus with no local deadlocks. The previous theorem has the following corollary:
The Distributed optimistic CO (DOCO) Theorem
If DOCO is utilized, then:
No local deadlocks occur, and
Global (voting) deadlocks are resolved automatically (and all are serializability related (with non-blocking conflicts) rather than locking related (with blocking and possibly also non-blocking conflicts)).
Thus, no deadlock handling is needed.
Examples
Distributed SS2PL
A distributed database system that utilizes SS2PL resides on two remote nodes, A and B. The database system has two transactional data managers (resource managers), one on each node, and the database data are partitioned between the two data managers in a way that each has an exclusive control of its own (local to the node) portion of data: Each handles its own data and locks without any knowledge on the other manager's. For each distributed transaction such data managers need to execute the available atomic commitment protocol.
Two distributed transactions, and , are running concurrently, and both access data x and y. x is under the exclusive control of the data manager on A (B's manager cannot access x), and y under that on B.
reads x on A and writes y on B, i.e., when using notation common for concurrency control.
reads y on B and writes x on A, i.e.,
The respective local sub-transactions on A and B (the portions of and on each of the nodes) are the following:
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+Local sub-transactions
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! !! A !! B
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!
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!
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The database system's schedule at a certain point in time is the following:
(also is possible)
holds a read-lock on x and holds read-locks on y. Thus and are blocked by the lock compatibility rules of SS2PL and cannot be executed. This is a distributed deadlock situation, which is also a voting-deadlock (see below) with a distributed (global) cycle of length 2 (number of edges, conflicts; 2 is the most frequent length). The local sub-transactions are in the following states:
is ready (execution has ended) and voted (in atomic commitment)
is running and blocked (a non-materialized conflict situation; no vote on it can occur)
is ready and voted
is running and blocked (a non-materialized conflict; no vote).
Since the atomic commitment protocol cannot receive votes for blocked sub-transactions (a voting-deadlock), it will eventually abort some transaction with a missing vote(s) by timeout, either , or , (or both, if the timeouts fall very close). This will resolve the global deadlock. The remaining transaction will complete running, be voted on, and committed. An aborted transaction is immediately restarted and re-executed.
Comments
The data partition (x on A; y on B) is important since without it, for example, x can be accessed directly from B. If a transaction is running on B concurrently with and and directly writes x, then, without a distributed lock manager the read-lock for x held by on A is not visible on B and cannot block the write of (or signal a materialized conflict for a non-blocking CO variant; see below). Thus serializability can be violated.
Due to data partition, x cannot be accessed directly from B. However, functionality is not limited, and a transaction running on B still can issue a write or read request of x (not common). This request is communicated to the transaction's local sub-transaction on A (which is generated, if does not exist already) which issues this request to the local data manager on A.
Variations
In the scenario above both conflicts are non-materialized, and the global voting-deadlock is reflected as a cycle in the global wait-for graph (but not in the global conflict graph; see Exact characterization of voting-deadlocks by global cycles above). However the database system can utilize any CO variant with exactly the same conflicts and voting-deadlock situation, and same resolution. Conflicts can be either materialized or non-materialized, depending on CO variant used. For example, if SCO (below) is used by the distributed database system instead of SS2PL, then the two conflicts in the example are materialized, all local sub-transactions are in ready states, and vote blocking occurs in the two transactions, one on each node, because of the CO voting rule applied independently on both A and B: due to conflicts is not voted on before ends, and is not voted on before ends, which is a voting-deadlock. Now the conflict graph has the global cycle (all conflicts are materialized), and again it is resolved by the atomic commitment protocol, and distributed serializability is maintained. Unlikely for a distributed database system, but possible in principle (and occurs in a multi-database), A can employ SS2PL while B employs SCO. In this case the global cycle is neither in the wait-for graph nor in the serializability graph, but still in the augmented conflict graph (the union of the two). The various combinations are summarized in the following table:
Comments:
Conflicts and thus cycles in the augmented conflict graph are determined by the transactions and their initial scheduling only, independently of the concurrency control utilized. With any variant of CO, any global cycle (i.e., spans two databases or more) causes a voting deadlock. Different CO variants may differ on whether a certain conflict is materialized or non-materialized.
Some limited operation order changes in the schedules above are possible, constrained by the orders inside the transactions, but such changes do not change the rest of the table.
As noted above, only case 4 describes a cycle in the (regular) conflict graph which affects serializability. Cases 1-3 describe cycles of locking based global deadlocks (at least one lock blocking exists). All cycle types are equally resolved by the atomic commitment protocol. Case 1 is the common Distributed SS2PL, utilized since the 1980s. However, no research article, except the CO articles, is known to notice this automatic locking global deadlock resolution as of 2009. Such global deadlocks typically have been dealt with by dedicated mechanisms.
Case 4 above is also an example for a typical voting-deadlock when Distributed optimistic CO (DOCO) is used (i.e., Case 4 is unchanged when Optimistic CO (OCO; see below) replaces SCO on both A and B): No data-access blocking occurs, and only materialized conflicts exist.
Hypothetical Multi Single-Threaded Core (MuSiC) environment
Comment: While the examples above describe real, recommended utilization of CO, this example is hypothetical, for demonstration only.
Certain experimental distributed memory-resident databases advocate multi single-threaded core (MuSiC) transactional environments. "Single-threaded" refers to transaction threads only, and to serial execution of transactions. The purpose is possible orders of magnitude gain in performance (e.g., H-Store and VoltDB) relatively to conventional transaction execution in multiple threads on a same core. In what described below MuSiC is independent of the way the cores are distributed. They may reside in one integrated circuit (chip), or in many chips, possibly distributed geographically in many computers. In such an environment, if recoverable (transactional) data are partitioned among threads (cores), and it is implemented in the conventional way for distributed CO, as described in previous sections, then DOCO and Strictness exist automatically. However, downsides exist with this straightforward implementation of such environment, and its practicality as a general-purpose solution is questionable. On the other hand, tremendous performance gain can be achieved in applications that can bypass these downsides in most situations.
Comment: The MuSiC straightforward implementation described here (which uses, for example, as usual in distributed CO, voting (and transaction thread) blocking in atomic commitment protocol when needed) is for demonstration only, and has no connection to the implementation in H-Store or any other project.
In a MuSiC environment local schedules are serial. Thus both local Optimistic CO (OCO; see below) and the Global CO enforcement vote ordering strategy condition for the atomic commitment protocol are met automatically. This results in both distributed CO compliance (and thus distributed serializability) and automatic global (voting) deadlock resolution.
Furthermore, also local Strictness follows automatically in a serial schedule. By Theorem 5.2 in (Raz 1992; page 307), when the CO vote ordering strategy is applied, also Global Strictness is guaranteed. Note that serial locally is the only mode that allows strictness and "optimistic" (no data access blocking) together.
The following is concluded:
The MuSiC Theorem
In MuSiC environments, if recoverable (transactional) data are partitioned among cores (threads), then both
OCO (and implied Serializability; i.e., DOCO and Distributed serializability)
Strictness (allowing effective recovery; 1 and 2 implying Strict CO—see SCO below) and
(voting) deadlock resolution
automatically exist globally with unbounded scalability in number of cores used.
Comment: However, two major downsides, which need special handling, may exist:
Local sub-transactions of a global transaction are blocked until commit, which makes the respective cores idle. This reduces core utilization substantially, even if scheduling of the local sub-transactions attempts to execute all of them in time proximity, almost together. It can be overcome by detaching execution from commit (with some atomic commitment protocol) for global transactions, at the cost of possible cascading aborts.
increasing the number of cores for a given amount of recoverable data (database size) decreases the average amount of (partitioned) data per core. This may make some cores idle, while others very busy, depending on data utilization distribution. Also a local (to a core) transaction may become global (multi-core) to reach its needed data, with additional incurred overhead. Thus, as the number of cores increases, the amount and type of data assigned to each core should be balanced according to data usage, so a core is neither overwhelmed to become a bottleneck, nor becoming idle too frequently and underutilized in a busy system. Another consideration is putting in a same core partition all the data that are usually accessed by a same transaction (if possible), to maximize the number of local transactions (and minimize the number of global, distributed transactions). This may be achieved by occasional data re-partition among cores based on load balancing (data access balancing) and patterns of data usage by transactions. Another way to considerably mitigate this downside is by proper physical data replication among some core partitions in a way that read-only global transactions are possibly (depending on usage patterns) completely avoided, and replication changes are synchronized by a dedicated commit mechanism.
CO variants: special cases and generalizations
Special case schedule property classes (e.g., SS2PL and SCO below) are strictly contained in the CO class. The generalizing classes (ECO and MVCO) strictly contain the CO class (i.e., include also schedules that are not CO compliant). The generalizing variants also guarantee global serializability without distributing local concurrency control information (each database has the generalized autonomy property: it uses only local information), while relaxing CO constraints and utilizing additional (local) information for better concurrency and performance: ECO uses knowledge about transactions being local (i.e., confined to a single database), and MVCO uses availability of data versions values. Like CO, both generalizing variants are non-blocking, do not interfere with any transaction's operation scheduling, and can be seamlessly combined with any relevant concurrency control mechanism.
The term CO variant refers in general to CO, ECO, MVCO, or a combination of each of them with any relevant concurrency control mechanism or property (including Multi-version based ECO, MVECO). No other generalizing variants (which guarantee global serializability with no local concurrency control information distribution) are known, but may be discovered.
Strong strict two phase locking (SS2PL)
Strong Strict Two Phase Locking (SS2PL; also referred to as Rigorousness or Rigorous scheduling) means that both read and write locks of a transaction are released only after the transaction has ended (either committed or aborted). The set of SS2PL schedules is a proper subset of the set of CO schedules.
This property is widely utilized in database systems, and since it implies CO, databases that use it and participate in global transactions generate together a serializable global schedule (when using any atomic commitment protocol, which is needed for atomicity in a multi-database environment). No database modification or addition is needed in this case to participate in a CO distributed solution: The set of undecided transactions to be aborted before committing in the local generic CO algorithm above is empty because of the locks, and hence such an algorithm is unnecessary in this case. A transaction can be voted on by a database system immediately after entering a "ready" state, i.e., completing running its task locally. Its locks are released by the database system only after it is decided by the atomic commitment protocol, and thus the condition in the Global CO enforcing theorem above is kept automatically. If a local timeout mechanism is used by a database system to resolve (local) SS2PL deadlocks, then aborting blocked transactions breaks not only potential local cycles in the global conflict graph (real cycles in the augmented conflict graph), but also database system's potential global cycles as a side effect, if the atomic commitment protocol's abort mechanism is relatively slow. Such independent aborts by several entities typically may result in unnecessary aborts for more than one transaction per global cycle. The situation is different for a local wait-for graph based mechanisms: Such cannot identify global cycles, and the atomic commitment protocol will break the global cycle, if the resulting voting deadlock is not resolved earlier in another database.
Local SS2PL together with atomic commitment implying global serializability can also be deduced directly: All transactions, including distributed, obey the 2PL (SS2PL) rules. The atomic commitment protocol mechanism is not needed here for consensus on commit, but rather for the end of phase-two synchronization point. Probably for this reason, without considering the atomic commitment voting mechanism, automatic global deadlock resolution has not been noticed before CO.
Strict CO (SCO)
Strict Commitment Ordering (SCO; (Raz 1991c)) is the intersection of strictness (a special case of recoverability) and CO, and provides an upper bound for a schedule's concurrency when both properties exist. It can be implemented using blocking mechanisms (locking) similar to those used for the popular SS2PL with similar overheads.
Unlike SS2PL, SCO does not block on a read-write conflict but possibly blocks on commit instead. SCO and SS2PL have identical blocking behavior for the other two conflict types: write-read, and write-write. As a result, SCO has shorter average blocking periods, and more concurrency (e.g., performance simulations of a single database for the most significant variant of locks with ordered sharing, which is identical to SCO, clearly show this, with approximately 100% gain for some transaction loads; also for identical transaction loads SCO can reach higher transaction rates than SS2PL before lock thrashing occurs). More concurrency means that with given computing resources more transactions are completed in time unit (higher transaction rate, throughput), and the average duration of a transaction is shorter (faster completion; see chart). The advantage of SCO is especially significant during lock contention.
The SCO Vs. SS2PL Performance Theorem
SCO provides shorter average transaction completion time than SS2PL, if read-write conflicts exist. SCO and SS2PL are identical otherwise (have identical blocking behavior with write-read and write-write conflicts).
SCO is as practical as SS2PL since as SS2PL it provides besides serializability also strictness, which is widely utilized as a basis for efficient recovery of databases from failure. An SS2PL mechanism can be converted to an SCO one for better performance in a straightforward way without changing recovery methods. A description of an SCO implementation can be found in (Perrizo and Tatarinov 1998). See also Semi-optimistic database scheduler.
SS2PL is a proper subset of SCO (which is another explanation why SCO is less constraining and provides more concurrency than SS2PL).
Optimistic CO (OCO)
For implementing Optimistic commitment ordering (OCO) the generic local CO algorithm is utilized without data access blocking, and thus without local deadlocks. OCO without transaction or operation scheduling constraints covers the entire CO class, and is not a special case of the CO class, but rather a useful CO variant and mechanism characterization.
Extended CO (ECO)
General characterization of ECO
Extended Commitment Ordering (ECO; (Raz 1993a)) generalizes CO. When local transactions (transactions confined to a single database) can be distinguished from global (distributed) transactions (transactions that span two databases or more), commitment order is applied to global transactions only. Thus, for a local (to a database) schedule to have the ECO property, the chronological (partial) order of commit events of global transactions only (unimportant for local transactions) is consistent with their order on the respective local conflict graph.
Definition: extended commitment ordering
Let be two committed global transactions in a schedule, such that a directed path of unaborted transactions exists in the conflict graph (precedence graph) from to ( precedes , possibly transitively, indirectly). The schedule has the Extended commitment ordering (ECO) property, if for every two such transactions commits before commits.
A distributed algorithm to guarantee global ECO exists. As for CO, the algorithm needs only (unmodified) atomic commitment protocol messages. In order to guarantee global serializability, each database needs to guarantee also the conflict serializability of its own transactions by any (local) concurrency control mechanism.
The ECO and Global Serializability Theorem
(Local, which implies global) ECO together with local conflict serializability, is a sufficient condition to guarantee global conflict serializability.
When no concurrency control information beyond atomic commitment messages is shared outside a database (autonomy), and local transactions can be identified, it is also a necessary condition.
See a necessity proof in (Raz 1993a).
This condition (ECO with local serializability) is weaker than CO, and allows more concurrency at the cost of a little more complicated local algorithm (however, no practical overhead difference with CO exists).
When all the transactions are assumed to be global (e.g., if no information is available about transactions being local), ECO reduces to CO.
The ECO algorithm
Before a global transaction is committed, a generic local (to a database) ECO algorithm aborts a minimal set of undecided transactions (neither committed, nor aborted; either local transactions, or global that run locally), that can cause later a cycle in the conflict graph. This set of aborted transactions (not unique, contrary to CO) can be optimized, if each transaction is assigned with a weight (that can be determined by transaction's importance and by the computing resources already invested in the running transaction; optimization can be carried out, for example, by a reduction from the Max flow in networks problem (Raz 1993a)). Like for CO such a set is time dependent, and becomes empty eventually. Practically, almost in all needed implementations a transaction should be committed only when the set is empty (and no set optimization is applicable). The local (to the database) concurrency control mechanism (separate from the ECO algorithm) ensures that local cycles are eliminated (unlike with CO, which implies serializability by itself; however, practically also for CO a local concurrency mechanism is utilized, at least to ensure Recoverability). Local transactions can be always committed concurrently (even if a precedence relation exists, unlike CO). When the overall transactions' local partial order (which is determined by the local conflict graph, now only with possible temporary local cycles, since cycles are eliminated by a local serializability mechanism) allows, also global transactions can be voted on to be committed concurrently (when all their transitively (indirect) preceding (via conflict) global transactions are committed, while transitively preceding local transactions can be at any state. This in analogy to the distributed CO algorithm's stronger concurrent voting condition, where all the transitively preceding transactions need to be committed).
The condition for guaranteeing Global ECO can be summarized similarly to CO:
The Global ECO Enforcing Vote ordering strategy Theorem
Let be undecided (neither committed nor aborted) global transactions in a database system that ensures serializability locally, such that a directed path of unaborted transactions exists in the local conflict graph (that of the database itself) from to . Then, having ended (either committed or aborted) before is voted on to be committed, in every such database system in a multidatabase environment, is a necessary and sufficient condition for guaranteeing Global ECO (the condition guarantees Global ECO, which may be violated without it).
Global ECO (all global cycles in the global conflict graph are eliminated by atomic commitment) together with Local serializability (i.e., each database system maintains serializability locally; all local cycles are eliminated) imply Global serializability (all cycles are eliminated). This means that if each database system in a multidatabase environment provides local serializability (by any mechanism) and enforces the vote ordering strategy in the theorem above (a generalization of CO's vote ordering strategy), then Global serializability is guaranteed (no local CO is needed anymore).
Similarly to CO as well, the ECO voting-deadlock situation can be summarized as follows:
The ECO Voting-Deadlock Theorem
Let a multidatabase environment comprise database systems that enforce, each, both Global ECO (using the condition in the theorem above) and local conflict serializability (which eliminates local cycles in the global conflict graph). Then, a voting-deadlock occurs if and only if a global cycle (spans two or more databases) exists in the Global augmented conflict graph (also blocking by a data-access lock is represented by an edge). If the cycle does not break by any abort, then all the global transactions on it are involved with the respective voting-deadlock, and eventually each has its vote blocked (either directly, or indirectly by a data-access lock). If a local transaction resides on the cycle, it may be in any unaborted state (running, ready, or committed; unlike CO no local commit blocking is needed).
As with CO this means that also global deadlocks due to data-access locking (with at least one lock blocking) are voting deadlocks, and are automatically resolved by atomic commitment.
Multi-version CO (MVCO)
Multi-version Commitment Ordering (MVCO; (Raz 1993b)) is a generalization of CO for databases with multi-version resources. With such resources read-only transactions do not block or being blocked for better performance. Utilizing such resources is a common way nowadays to increase concurrency and performance by generating a new version of a database object each time the object is written, and allowing transactions' read operations of several last relevant versions (of each object). MVCO implies One-copy-serializability (1SER or 1SR) which is the generalization of serializability for multi-version resources. Like CO, MVCO is non-blocking, and can be combined with any relevant multi-version concurrency control mechanism without interfering with it. In the introduced underlying theory for MVCO conflicts are generalized for different versions of a same resource (differently from earlier multi-version theories). For different versions conflict chronological order is replaced by version order, and possibly reversed, while keeping the usual definitions for conflicting operations. Results for the regular and augmented conflict graphs remain unchanged, and similarly to CO a distributed MVCO enforcing algorithm exists, now for a mixed environment with both single-version and multi-version resources (now single-version is a special case of multi-version). As for CO, the MVCO algorithm needs only (unmodified) atomic commitment protocol messages with no additional communication overhead. Locking-based global deadlocks translate to voting deadlocks and are resolved automatically. In analogy to CO the following holds:
The MVCO and Global one-copy-serializability Theorem
MVCO compliance of every autonomous database system (or transactional object) in a mixed multidatabase environment of single-version and multi-version databases is a necessary condition for guaranteeing Global one-copy-serializability (1SER).
MVCO compliance of every database system is a sufficient condition for guaranteeing Global 1SER.
Locking-based global deadlocks are resolved automatically.
Comment: Now a CO compliant single-version database system is automatically also MVCO compliant.
MVCO can be further generalized to employ the generalization of ECO (MVECO).
Example: CO based snapshot isolation (COSI)
CO based snapshot isolation (COSI) is the intersection of Snapshot isolation (SI) with MVCO. SI is a multiversion concurrency control method widely utilized due to good performance and similarity to serializability (1SER) in several aspects. The theory in (Raz 1993b) for MVCO described above is utilized later in (Fekete et al. 2005) and other articles on SI, e.g., (Cahill et al. 2008); see also Making snapshot isolation serializable and the references there), for analyzing conflicts in SI in order to make it serializable. The method presented in (Cahill et al. 2008), Serializable snapshot isolation (SerializableSI), a low overhead modification of SI, provides good performance results versus SI, with only small penalty for enforcing serializability. A different method, by combining SI with MVCO (COSI), makes SI serializable as well, with a relatively low overhead, similarly to combining the generic CO algorithm with single-version mechanisms. Furthermore, the resulting combination, COSI, being MVCO compliant, allows COSI compliant database systems to inter-operate and transparently participate in a CO solution for distributed/global serializability (see below). Besides overheads also protocols' behaviors need to be compared quantitatively. On one hand, all serializable SI schedules can be made MVCO by COSI (by possible commit delays when needed) without aborting transactions. On the other hand, SerializableSI is known to unnecessarily abort and restart certain percentages of transactions also in serializable SI schedules.
CO and its variants are transparently interoperable for global serializability
With CO and its variants (e.g., SS2PL, SCO, OCO, ECO, and MVCO above) global serializability is achieved via atomic commitment protocol based distributed algorithms. For CO and all its variants atomic commitment protocol is the instrument to eliminate global cycles (cycles that span two or more databases) in the global augmented (and thus also regular) conflict graph (implicitly; no global data structure implementation is needed). In cases of either incompatible local commitment orders in two or more databases (when no global partial order can embed the respective local partial orders together), or a data-access locking related voting deadlock, both implying a global cycle in the global augmented conflict graph and missing votes, the atomic commitment protocol breaks such cycle by aborting an undecided transaction on it (see The distributed CO algorithm above). Differences between the various variants exist at the local level only (within the participating database systems). Each local CO instance of any variant has the same role, to determine the position of every global transaction (a transaction that spans two or more databases) within the local commitment order, i.e., to determine when it is the transaction's turn to be voted on locally in the atomic commitment protocol. Thus, all the CO variants exhibit the same behavior in regard to atomic commitment. This means that they are all interoperable via atomic commitment (using the same software interfaces, typically provided as services, some already standardized for atomic commitment, primarily for the two phase commit protocol, e.g., X/Open XA) and transparently can be utilized together in any distributed environment (while each CO variant instance is possibly associated with any relevant local concurrency control mechanism type).
In summary, any single global transaction can participate simultaneously in databases that may employ each any, possibly different, CO variant (while concurrently running processes in each such database, and running concurrently with local and other global transactions in each such database). The atomic commitment protocol is indifferent to CO, and does not distinguish between the various CO variants. Any global cycle generated in the augmented global conflict graph may span databases of different CO variants, and generate (if not broken by any local abort) a voting deadlock that is resolved by atomic commitment exactly the same way as in a single CO variant environment. local cycles (now possibly with mixed materialized and non-materialized conflicts, both serializability and data-access-locking deadlock related, e.g., SCO) are resolved locally (each by its respective variant instance's own local mechanisms).
Vote ordering (VO or Generalized CO (GCO); Raz 2009), the union of CO and all its above variants, is a useful concept and global serializability technique. To comply with VO, local serializability (in it most general form, commutativity based, and including multi-versioning) and the vote order strategy (voting by local precedence order) are needed.
Combining results for CO and its variants, the following is concluded:
The CO Variants Interoperability Theorem
In a multi-database environment, where each database system (transactional object) is compliant with some CO variant property (VO compliant), any global transaction can participate simultaneously in databases of possibly different CO variants, and Global serializability is guaranteed (sufficient condition for Global serializability; and Global one-copy-serializability (1SER), for a case when a multi-version database exists).
If only local (to a database system) concurrency control information is utilized by every database system (each has the generalized autonomy property, a generalization of autonomy), then compliance of each with some (any) CO variant property (VO compliance) is a necessary condition for guaranteeing Global serializability (and Global 1SER; otherwise they may be violated).
Furthermore, in such environment data-access-locking related global deadlocks are resolved automatically (each such deadlock is generated by a global cycle in the augmented conflict graph (i.e., a voting deadlock; see above), involving at least one data-access lock (non-materialized conflict) and two database systems; thus, not a cycle in the regular conflict graph and does not affect serializability).
References
(also DEC-TR 841, Digital Equipment Corporation, November 1990)
Yoav Raz (1991a): US patents 5,504,899 (ECO) 5,504,900 (CO) 5,701,480 (MVCO)
Yoav Raz (1991b): "The Commitment Order Coordinator (COCO) of a Resource Manager, or Architecture for Distributed Commitment Ordering Based Concurrency Control", DEC-TR 843, Digital Equipment Corporation, December 1991.
Yoav Raz (1991c): "Locking Based Strict Commitment Ordering, or How to improve Concurrency in Locking Based Resource Managers", DEC-TR 844, December 1991.
Yoav Raz (1993a): "Extended Commitment Ordering or Guaranteeing Global Serializability by Applying Commitment Order Selectivity to Global Transactions." Proceedings of the Twelfth ACM Symposium on Principles of Database Systems (PODS), Washington, DC, pp. 83-96, May 1993. (also DEC-TR 842, November 1991)
Yoav Raz (1993b): "Commitment Ordering Based Distributed Concurrency Control for Bridging Single and Multi Version Resources." Proceedings of the Third IEEE International Workshop on Research Issues on Data Engineering: Interoperability in Multidatabase Systems (RIDE-IMS), Vienna, Austria, pp. 189-198, April 1993. (also DEC-TR 853, July 1992)
Footnotes
External links
Yoav Raz's Commitment ordering page
Data management
Databases
Transaction processing
Concurrency control
Distributed algorithms |
4379273 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adam%20Curle | Adam Curle | Charles Thomas William Curle (4 July 1916 – 28 September 2006), better known as Adam Curle, was a British academic, known for his work in social psychology, pedagogy, development studies and peace studies. After holding posts at the University of Oxford, University of Exeter, University of Ghana and Harvard University, in 1973 he became the inaugural Professor of Peace Studies at the University of Bradford, following the establishment of the University's Department of Peace Studies. Curle's works included several books on education, including Educational Strategy for Developing Societies (1963), and a number of books on peace and peacemaking, including Making Peace (1971). He was also, throughout his career and after his retirement in 1978, active in peacemaking and mediation, and visited Nigeria and Biafra several times as part of a Quaker contingent during the Nigerian Civil War of 1967–70.
Early life and education
Charles Thomas William Curle was born in L'Isle-Adam, Val-d'Oise, France, on 4 July 1916, as the Battle of the Somme raged nearby. His father was the British author, critic and journalist Richard Curle. His mother was Cordelia Curle (née Fisher), whose siblings included the historian H. A. L. Fisher, the cricketer and academic Charles Dennis Fisher, the naval officer William Wordsworth Fisher, the banker Edwin Fisher, and Adeline Vaughan Williams, the wife of the composer Ralph Vaughan Williams. Their other relatives included the historian Frederic William Maitland, the photographer Julia Margaret Cameron, the author Virginia Woolf and the painter Vanessa Bell. He was named after three of his mother's brothers, and took the name Adam, after his birthplace, after returning to France in 1919.
He grew up in Wheatfield, Oxfordshire, where he developed an affection for animals and a sensitivity to landscape. Richard Curle was not a frequent presence in his son's childhood; Adam did not meet his father until he was three years old. Curle later described how they became closer in Richard's later life, however, "on a man-to-man basis," having "somehow missed the father–son phase". Curle attributed his pacifism to the influence of his mother, who lost three of her brothers to war and instilled a hatred of war in her son. Woodhouse argued that Curle's mother was also responsible for the "self-confidence which was to enable him later to make a series of unconventional moves at critical turning points in his life". His "inclination to kick against convention", however, was identified by Woodhouse as closer to that of Richard Curle.
Curle attended Charterhouse School, where he was unhappy, later recalling having "survived a dreadful conventional schooling ... by playing the flute (mainly Bach), writing poems and reading the mystics". From 1935 he attended New College, Oxford, at first studying history with the intention of becoming a civil servant, then switching to anthropology. He continued his studies at Exeter College, Oxford and the Oxford Institute of Social Anthropology, and in 1938 travelled to Sápmi and the Sahara Desert on field trips.
Career
Britain and Pakistan
Curle served in the British Army for six years during World War II, rising to the rank of Major and becoming a research officer in the Civil Resettlement Units (CRUs). In this role he was involved in the development of a residential rehabilitation programme which provided counselling, skills training, medical and recreational facilities, and opportunities for social contact, and was tasked with evaluating the effectiveness of the CRUs' work. In this period he developed an interest in psychology, in particular the integration of psychological and anthropological approaches to society, and the psychological effects of traumatic experiences. He received a postgraduate degree in anthropology in 1947, having drawn on his experiences with the CRUs in his work. He began his academic career with a series of journal articles also drawing on those experiences, the first of which was a paper in Human Relations on the experiences of prisoners of war in returning to their communities and the relationship between individual and community.
In 1947 Curle took up a position at the Tavistock Institute of Human Relations, where he researched rural decay in South West England. This work led to his appointment, in 1950, as a lecturer in social psychology at the University of Oxford. While at Oxford in the early 1950s he developed an interest in the connections between social psychology and education policy. While he remained interested in the social psychiatry approach that Tavistock Institute emphasised, he also came to believe in the necessity of education for individuals' psychological stability and positive relationships with others, and published several articles on education policy. His work at Oxford led to his appointment in 1952 to the Chair in Education and Psychology at the University of Exeter, where he remained until 1956.
While at Exeter he became involved in a project focused on development in Europe, and his work took on an international dimension. In 1956 he was invited, via Harvard University, to advise on education policy in Pakistan. Initially planning to stay in Pakistan for a year, he later decided to remain for two additional years, and resigned from his position at Exeter in order to do so. From 1956 to 1959 he was an advisor to the Pakistan Planning Board, in which capacity he travelled in Pakistan (including present-day Bangladesh), including in the Hindu Kush. In addition to education policy, his work in Pakistan concerned health care, housing, labour relations, welfare and the Federally Administered Tribal Areas, where he worked among the Pashtun and Kho peoples. He would later frequently refer to his experiences in Pakistan in his lectures and books.
Ghana and Harvard
In 1959 Curle was appointed Professor of Education at the University of Ghana. While in Ghana he became a Quaker, which, like his pacifism, he attributed to his mother's influence. He also travelled widely in Africa during this time, and advised the Ghanaian government on education and development. His inaugural lecture, entitled The Role of Education in Developing Societies, was published in 1961. He resigned from the University in 1961, having reached the conclusion that the institution, which was then predominantly white, was "out of place" in a political context marked by the growth of African nationalism. That year he travelled to South Africa with the intention of establishing a college for Black Africans, but was arrested.
Also in 1961 he was appointed director of Harvard University's Centre for Studies in Education and Development, a position he would hold until 1971. While at Harvard he participated in field projects in Barbados, Central America, Nigeria and Tunisia, and returned to Pakistan in 1963 and 1964 as a consultant on education, contributing to Pakistan's third five-year plan. The fieldwork he conducted at Harvard led him to see education policy as vital in achieving and maintaining peace. In 1964 he also became an advisor to the United Nations Relief and Works Agency for Palestine Refugees in the Near East.
Indo-Pakistani War
Curle visited India and Pakistan as part of a Quaker contingent in the wake of the Tashkent Declaration, the January 1966 agreement which ended the Indo-Pakistani War of 1965. The team's roles included gathering information, facilitating communication between the Indian and Pakistani sides, offering assessments of the situation, and proposing possible measures for achieving peace. Curle was selected for the role due to his knowledge and experience of Pakistan. His role involved presenting the case for conciliation to the younger people involved in the conflict and those sceptical of possibilities for peace. The Quakers played only a minor role in maintaining peace in India and Pakistan and did not facilitate a breakthrough in relations, but did help to maintain the less tense relations that had developed. Their report described the history of Quaker activity in the region, outlined Indian and Pakistani viewpoints, and described their own work, and concluded that the onus was on India to take conciliatory measures towards Pakistan.
Nigerian Civil War
Known by this time for his work in the fields of pedagogy and development studies, Curle was consulted by governments and charities, and provided mediation in the Nigerian Civil War of 1967–70 as part of a group of three Quakers alongside John Volkmar and Walter Martin. Prior to becoming a mediator in Nigeria Curle had been involved in establishing a model school in Ayetoro, Nigeria. On their initial trip in 1967, their intention was to listen to the parties in conflict and to aid them through conciliation or relief. Arriving before the war began, Curle, Martin and Volkmar met with C. Odumegwu Ojukwu, Hamzat Ahmadu and Okoi Arikpo, and remained hopeful that peace could be maintained; a week after the team left, however, Ojukwu declared the secession of the Republic of Biafra. In early 1968 Curle and Volkmar hosted initial informal talks and met with Yakubu Gowon.
In March 1967 Curle and Martin visited Biafra, where they met with Louis Mbanefo and again with Ojukwu and Gowon. When the Commonwealth Secretariat arranged for public talks to be held in Kampala, Uganda, in May, Curle and his wife Anne were selected to attend as a Quaker delegation. The Curles' role in the Kampala talks involved mediating between Commonwealth Secretary-General Arnold Smith and the Biafrans and proposing possible terms of settlement. In Making Peace Adam described his and Anne's role as involving "persuasion, clarification, message carrying, listening, defusing, honest brokering, encouraging, and liaison with the Commonwealth Secretariat". The Curles then returned to Nigeria, where Adam met again with Gowon. In August 1967 Curle and Volkmar attended the continuing negotiations in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. When Gowon announced a "final push" against Biafra, the Quakers turned their attention to relief operations.
Curle, Volkmar and Martin embarked on another series of trips in September and October 1968. In the continuing impasse, the proposal made by Hamani Diori, the president of Niger, for a Quaker-sponsored meeting was taken up. Ojukwu's representatives expressed interest in Diori's proposal, and Curle discussed the proposal with Smith and a representative of the British government. The stalemate that continued through 1969, however, led the Quakers to once again turn their attention to providing relief. In October 1969, Curle met again with Gowon alongside Volkmar and Kale Williams. In London, Curle and Williams met with Smith and a Biafran representative to discuss issues including the possibility of the Commonwealth Secretariat again becoming involved in negotiations. In January 1970, however, the war ended with the Biafrans' surrender. Curle and Volkmar rejoined Williams on Nigeria days after the surrender, in order to observe the post-war climate and offer conciliation.
C. H. Mike Yarrow, in his study of Quaker reconciliation efforts, argues that the personal qualities and personalities of the Quaker contingent played a pivotal role in their success in building connections with Nigerian and Biafran leaders, though from mid-1968 Yarrow argues the Quaker organisation and the faith it engendered came to play a similar role. While Yarrow argues their listening process was a success, he describes their effectiveness at changing the parties' perceptions of one another in more ambivalent terms. In concluding, Yarrow argued that while the negotiated peace the Quakers sought was not achieved, Yarrow argues that "the peace terms resulting after the military solution were imbued with the spirit of conciliation."
Curle's experiences of the Indo–Pakistani and Nigerian conflicts contributed to his interest in the causes of war and informed his research on the relationships between violence, social transformation, and the goals of development. At Harvard he responded to the 1968 student protests and the emergence of the New Left by teaching history to schoolchildren in a working-class neighbourhood of Cambridge, Massachusetts, where he was struck by similarities to the "underdeveloped world".
Professor of Peace Studies
In 1973 Curle became the United Kingdom's first Professor of Peace Studies at the University of Bradford. Robert A. McKinlay, who was involved in the selection of the new Department of Peace Studies's inaugural professor, recalled contacting Curle after a fellow Quaker suggested Curle would disabuse him of the viability of the position, after which Curle expressed an interest in the post. As Professor of Peace Studies he was responsible for both the department's administration and its academic development. His first year at Bradford was spent recruiting staff, seeking especially those with experience in peacemaking, and developing a postgraduate programme. Among those he appointed were Tom Stonier, who would later head Bradford's School of Science and Society; Aleksandras Štromas, a lawyer and Soviet dissident; David Bleakley, a former Minister of Community Relations in the Government of Northern Ireland; Michael Harbottle, a former chief of staff of the United Nations Peacekeeping Force in Cyprus; Uri Davis, who had been involved in peacemaking among Jews and Arabs in the Middle East; Vithal Rajan, a Gandhian who had worked in India; Nigel Young, a political scientist formerly based at the University of Birmingham; and Tom Woodhouse, who became Curle's research assistant.
While at Bradford, Curle contributed to the development of peace studies and drew on his own experiences of mediation. In his 1975 inaugural lecture, entitled "The Scope and Dilemmas of Peace Studies", he argued for the necessity not only of resolving individual conflicts but also of addressing the underlying causes of war, which he identified as injustice and inequality. Departments of peace studies, he argued, should thus seek to create fair, just and open societies that would not foster the resentments that ultimately lead to war. Accordingly, he sought to operate his department in a democratic, participatory and non-hierarchical manner, and saw his own role as that of a co-ordinator rather than a leader.
Retirement
Towards the end of his tenure at Bradford, Curle began to feel the need to return to more direct involvement in international reconciliation, and so left the university in 1978, after five years. After his retirement, Curle continued to practice peacemaking and track two diplomacy, and worked with Quaker Peace and Service as a mediator in Pakistan, Zimbabwe, Northern Ireland, Sri Lanka, the Balkans and elsewhere. In 1983 a proposal formulated by Curle and others to assess the teaching of conflict resolution in schools was taken up by the Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe as part of a plan to ensure compulsory education contain a focus on non-violent behaviour.
Curle and his wife Anne visited the former Yugoslavia several times during the Yugoslav Wars of 1991–2001. In 1992 Curle co-founded the Centre for Peace, Human Rights and Non-Violence in Osijek, Croatia, a contested area that was the site of significant violence. The organisation sought to cultivate a culture of non-violence through education, and provided civil rights education, community mediation, groups for parents, legal and practical support, peace education programmes, self-help groups, and programmes for survivors of domestic violence. In Županja, Croatia, a multi-ethnic community which had similarly seen conflict and dispossession, Curle co-founded Mir i dobro (Peace and Good), which sought to aid the local community in adjusting to the war's aftermath and to build peace. In his work in Croatia, Curle emphasised the necessity for aid workers to respond to the needs of communities and encouraged dialogue to discern what those needs were. As part of this emphasis, in 1996 he convened a workshop to explore ways to mitigate the effects of the war on Županja's children. A further workshop in 1997 sought to explore ways to develop a culture of non-violence and to facilitate reintegration as refugees returned to their homes. Barbara Mitchels has argued that these workshops combined peacemaking with aspects of counselling. Curle continued to visit Županja into the 2000s.
In his later years he was also influenced by Tibetan Buddhism and the 14th Dalai Lama. In the 1990s and 2000s he worked with the Oxford Research Group as an advisor and a patron. Later in his career he also revisited his earlier work with prisoners of war and reaffirmed his argument that efforts to heal the psychological wounds of war ought to form part of a holistic programme of interventions. In 2000 he was awarded the Gandhi International Peace Award.
Thought
Overview
In the 1960s Curle published work on education and development that reflected conventional views about the relationship between economic modernisation and social progress. In this work he did, however, emphasise the role of the social and cultural, and in particular the concept of human potential, in development, rather than identifying development as a solely economic phenomenon. In this period he also sought to develop new teaching methods drawing on social psychology. From the late 1960s he came to question development per se, and questions relating to violence and conflict, informed by his experiences of the Indo-Pakistani War and the Nigerian Civil War, came to play a greater role in his work. Around this time, informed by the movement in opposition to the Vietnam War and the 1960s counterculture, he also looked to the roots of conflict that lay in developed countries. Curle's turn to peace studies was the result of these experiences, which instilled a desire to understand the causes of conflict.
Peace studies
In his work in peace studies, Curle developed an approach in which peace has both negative dimensions, relating to the prevention of violence, and positive dimensions, relating to the fulfilment of human needs and the freeing of human potential. Curle viewed peace in terms of human development rather than in terms of organisations or rules that would enforce peace. Finding the word "conflict" to be too ambiguous, Curle preferred to speak of "peaceful" and "unpeaceful" relationships, defining the former as relationships in which "the various parties did each other more good than harm", and the latter as those "doing more harm than good" to those involved. The development of peaceful relationships, rather than the containment of conflict, was at the core of Curle's conception of peace. While other peace researchers have tended to analyse social, political, and military systems, Curle's work focused on the values and attitudes of individuals within those systems. Curle played an important role in the emergence of peace studies as a separate field from international relations, and in the incorporation of insights from psychology, especially humanistic psychology, into the field. Curle's work also addressed the problems of occupational burnout and apathy among peace studies scholars and practitioners.
Curle saw peace studies as an interdisciplinary endeavour benefiting from a variety of backgrounds and skills. From the late 1960s he was aware of the work of Johan Galtung and Kenneth Boulding, whose work he saw as sharing a common goal with his own. Curle's work in peace studies was also influenced by the Russian esotericist P. D. Ouspensky and the Russian philosopher George Gurdjieff; by Buddhism (especially Tibetan Buddhism), Sufism and his involvement with the Quakers; and by the Brazilian educator Paulo Freire, who was his colleague at Harvard. In keeping with Quaker thought, Curle saw the Inner Light as a force in each human akin to a universal mind. Drawing on Buddhist philosophy, he argued that the three poisons (ignorance, greed and hatred) caused social alienation and formed the basis of most violence. Drawing on Vajrayana and Quakerism, he viewed all living things as connected, and believed that every human action has effects on humans' environment. He also emphasised the artistic and creative aspects of peacemaking and of writing on the subject.
Mediation and reconciliation
Mediation was, in Curle's view, the foremost tool of peacemaking. Its purpose, in Curle's account, was to eliminate misperceptions between parties in conflict and to allay violent emotions. Curle's proposed mediation process has four parts: first, mediators develop and improve communications; second, they provide information to, and between, the parties; third, they "befriend" the parties; and fourth, they encourage a willingness to engage in negotiations. Curle criticised "top down" forms of mediation as ineffectual, though, and argued mediation ought to be accompanied by the transformation of attitudes and of economic and social conditions. He saw this form of mediation as applicable on conflicts at all scales, from wars between nations to disputes within families. His theory of mediation draws on Quaker practices, on humanistic psychology, and on his own experiences in the field. It is distinct from John Burton's approach to conflict resolution, but shares with Burton several commitments: both saw the role of the mediator as one of structuring discussions and providing information, both thought mediation involved exploring and analysing the conflict in question, both used psychological principles to mitigate against misperceptions and misunderstandings, and both envisioned new understandings resulting that feed into the development of policy.
In his later works, published in the 1990s and 2000s, Curle continued to revise his theory of reconciliation and its role in peacemaking. His work with the Osijek Centre for Peace led to the realisation that the model of peacemaking by neutral parties that he had advanced in In the Middle (1986) was insufficiently nuanced to resolve the Yugoslav Wars, and that affected communities themselves ought to play a greater role in the process. He came to favour a form of conflict resolution in which outsiders' involvement would focus on training and supporting local peacemakers, and argued that effective peacemaking processes ought not to focus on the proliferation of peace treaties by elites, but rather ought to empower communities affected by war to construct peace "from below".
Works
Educational Strategy for Developing Societies (1963)
Curle's Educational Strategy for Developing Societies (1963) is a review of the role of education in economic growth and social and political transformation.
Planning for Education in Pakistan (1966)
Planning for Education in Pakistan: A Personal Case Study (1966) is an account of Curle's experiences as an advisor to the Planning Commission of Pakistan in 1963 and 1964. In it, he assesses problems with education in Pakistan and discusses the role of foreign advisors to governments. Drawing on his experiences with the Planning Commission and with educational bodies, Curle shows significant differences between East Pakistan and West Pakistan in education and literacy. Curle presents those involved in educational planning as complex, conflicted figures rather than aloof arbiters of objective facts.
Richard S. Wheeler, reviewing the book in The Journal of Asian Studies, described Curle's assessment of Pakistan's educational problems as "authoritative" and the insight provided into the role of foreign advisors as "rewarding". J. A. Keats and Daphne M. Keats, writing in the Australian Journal of Education, characterised the book as "an unusual and in some ways courageous approach to a serious examination of the problems of educational planning in a newly developing country", but argued that Curle's subjective approach was not wholly successful and queried the omission of certain important individuals from his account. Keats and Keats concluded that while Curle "has succeeded in showing the interaction between persons and action, he has achieved this at the expense of an objectivity which might well have led to an even more valuable exposition."
Educational Problems of Developing Societies (1969)
Educational Problems of Developing Societies: With Case Studies of Ghana, Pakistan, and Nigeria was first published in 1969, then in a revised and expanded edition in 1973. The book comprises 12 essays on various topics. After introducing the educational problems faced by developing societies, Curle describes background conditions in these societies and factors in educational development in Pakistan. As in Educational Strategy for Developing Societies, Curle here understands development in social psychological terms. Drawing on his experiences in Pakistan, he argues that development requires flexibility and an appreciation of cultural differences, and that solely economic approaches to development risk fomenting conflict.
Woodhouse describes the book as the best illustration of "the progress of Curle's intellectual development toward the distinct field of peace research". Philip Foster, in his review in the International Journal of Comparative Sociology, argued that the essays show only limited awareness of broader debates in the field, and questioned Curle's methodology in some of the essays, but concluded "that the good far outweighs the less than satisfactory." Joseph Kivlin, meanwhile, reviewing the book in Social Forces, argued that it "does not contribute much that is new to the understanding" of developing societies' educational problems, and noted that several of its chapters are only tangentially connected to the topic of education.
Making Peace (1971)
Curle's Making Peace (1971) applies ideas from peace studies to his own experiences, explores the definition of peacemaking and considers what constitute peaceful and non-peaceful relationships and what cause them.
Education for Liberation (1973)
Curle's Education for Liberation was published in 1973. Drawing on his personal experiences and responding to the educational environment of the 1970s, and dealing with similar topics to Making Peace, Curle considers how education can contribute to the achievement of peace and social change. More so than in his previous works, Curle is critical of existing forms of education, which he sees as contributing to authoritarianism, social hierarchy and economic materialism. He identifies this as especially problematic in developing countries, where education is "attuned to the competitive and materialistic ideologies of the rich nations". The book was strongly influenced by Paulo Freire's thought, and contains an appendix contrasting Curle's views with those of B. F. Skinner.
Richard D'Aeth, reviewing the book in the British Journal of Educational Studies, described Curle's analysis as "humane and warmly personal" and the book as "a pleasure to study, despite its pessimism". In his review in the British Journal of Educational Psychology, Ken Pease expressed enthusiasm for the book but argued its use of the concept of awareness was too insubstantial to form "the cornerstone of an educational system".
The Fragile Voice of Love (2006)
Curle's final book, The Fragile Voice of Love (2006), was published shortly before he died. The book, which includes aspects of memoir and travelogue, offers a personal account of the human condition and human despair at the beginning of the 21st century. Curle comments on alienation, greed, and commercialism as causes of conflict, and proposes ways to combat certain damaging illusions, such as the idea that material wealth results in happiness. Drawing on the insights of the Buddha on the ultimate emptiness of reality, denial of which he identifies as the cause of suffering, Curle proposes that suffering can be overcome first by cultivating and applying virtue, and second by acquiring wisdom. Curle concludes by discussing globalisation, which he argues is driven by the desire for power and profit. Reviewing the book in Peace and Conflict, William H. Long described the book as "straight from the heart", and suggested "like your grandfather's advice, it's best to pay it some mind."
Other works
Mystics and Militants: A Study of Awareness, Identity and Social Action (1972) deals with similar themes to Making Peace and examines the personal beliefs, qualities and skills of peace makers. It also considers the psychological aspects of social action, social awareness and identity, and the inner and outer, or private and public, aspects of peacemaking. Curle's interest in the concepts of awareness and identity was based on his observation of people in conflict situations. Like Making Peace, Mystics and Militants contributed to Curle's reputation as an influential figure in the field of peace research. Both books contributed to the emergence of peace studies.
Peacemaking Public and Private (1978) continued to explore the question of the inner and outer aspects of peacemaking first taken up in Mystics and Militants.
True Justice (1981) draws on Quaker theology and Curle's own experiences as a peacemaker, and focuses on personal solutions rather than structural ones. It explores the question of human nature in relation to religion, and continues to consider public and private levels of peacemaking. Curle argues here that feelings of hatred, anger, jealousy and the like are not unchangeable features of any individual, but rather the result of failures to understand and develop their own potential. Michael Hare Duke, in his review for the New Internationalist, acknowledged the importance of the interpersonal phenomena on which Curle focuses, but argued that the book lacked "a clear recognition of the economic realities which lie behind any justice in the distribution of the world's resources."
In the Middle (1986) argues for the importance of mediation and reconciliation in both peace research and peacemaking practice. In it, Curle introduces his account of mediation as a four-part process, and identifies three types of activity as central to peacemaking: the development of co-operative economic and social systems, nonviolent opposition to violent and oppressive regimes, and the achievement of reconciliation between conflicting parties, including through mediation. In concluding, Curle proposes the creation of an international organisation within the United Nations dedicated to mediation, which would conduct research and provide mediation, training and resources.
Tools for Transformation (1990), like Making Peace and Mystics and Militants, frames conflict as a dynamic force capable of effecting changes in individuals and social structures. Barbara Mitchels and Tom Woodhouse argue that this perspective influenced the development of peace studies by providing a holistic account of conflict that goes beyond merely ending or preventing wars. In To Tame the Hydra (1999), Curle describes a global situation in which violence, successfully subdued, immediately flares up elsewhere, akin to the Hydra, a mythological monster which grew a new head each time one was cut off. Curle saw these outbreaks of violence as fuelled by the pursuit of money and power, and argued for the continuing necessity of peacemaking techniques.
Curle also wrote poetry and fiction. His collection Recognition and Reality: Reflections & Prose Poems was published in 1987. Norbert Koppensteiner described the volume as "a poetic transrationality." His poem "Indra's Net" (1999), named for the metaphor used in Buddhist philosophy, reflects on the ideas of human interconnection that also formed part of his work on peace.
Personal life
Curle married Pamela Hobson in 1939. They had two daughters and divorced after the end of Curle's military service. In 1958 he married Anne Edie, a New Zealander who he had met in Dhaka during his travels. They had one daughter. Later in life he lived with Anne in London.
Death and legacy
Curle died from acute leukaemia on 28 September 2006 in Wimbledon, London.
Barbara Mitchels' study of Curle, Love in Danger, was published in 2006. It was followed in 2016 by Adam Curle: Radical Peacemaker, a collection of Curle's writings edited by Tom Woodhouse and John Paul Lederach.
In a 2003 article Mitchels described Curle as "one of the pioneers of the academic study of peace". In his obituary in The Guardian, Tom Woodhouse wrote that "the legitimacy and growth of peace studies" would be Curle's "greatest and enduring legacy". Mitchels and Woodhouse argue Curle's works "were instrumental in establishing the legitimacy of peace studies in universities worldwide and in advancing the scholarly agenda of peace research." Lederach described Curle as "a beacon of orientation" for his own work and "one of the most important influences relevant to many of our contemporary debates" in peace studies.
List of works
The Role of Education in Developing Societies (1961)
Educational Strategy for Developing Societies (1963), expanded and updated edition 1973
Planning for Education in Pakistan: A Personal Case Study (1966)
Educational Problems of Developing Societies: With Case Studies of Ghana, Pakistan, and Nigeria (1969) revised and expanded edition 1973
Making Peace (1971)
Mystics and Militants: A Study of Awareness, Identity and Social Action (1972)
Education for Liberation (1973)
Peacemaking Public and Private (1978)
Preparation for Peace (1980)
True Justice (1981)
Recognition and Reality: Reflections & Prose Poems (1987)
Tools for Transformation: A Personal Study (1990)
To Tame the Hydra: Undermining the Culture of Violence (1995)
In the Middle: Non-Official Mediation in Violent Situations (1986)
Peacemaking: The Middle Way (1992)
Another Way: Positive Responses to Contemporary Violence (1995)
The Fragile Voice of Love (2006)
Adam Curle: Radical Peacemaker (2016)
See also
List of peace activists
Notes
Sources
Further reading
1916 births
2006 deaths
20th-century educational theorists
20th-century British psychologists
Academics of the University of Bradford
Academics of the University of Exeter
Academics of the University of Oxford
Alumni of Exeter College, Oxford
Alumni of New College, Oxford
British Army personnel of World War II
British Christian pacifists
British educational theorists
British Quakers
Converts to Quakerism
Deaths from cancer in England
Deaths from acute leukemia
Development specialists
Gandhi International Peace Award recipients
Harvard University Department of Psychology faculty
Harvard University people
Non-interventionism
Peace and conflict scholars
People educated at Charterhouse School
People from L'Isle-Adam, Val-d'Oise
Queen's Royal Regiment officers
Social psychologists
Academic staff of the University of Ghana
Writers about Pakistan
Writers from London
Writers from Oxfordshire |
4379295 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulster%20Resistance | Ulster Resistance | Ulster Resistance (UR), or the Ulster Resistance Movement (URM), is an Ulster loyalist paramilitary movement established by the Democratic Unionist Party (DUP) in Northern Ireland in November 1986 in opposition to the Anglo-Irish Agreement.
Origins
Ulster Resistance was preceded by a number of attempts at forming paramilitary organisations by the DUP. In June 1976 DUP politician Peter Robinson approached Clifford Smyth, secretary of the United Ulster Unionist Council, with a suggestion for a DUP paramilitary wing but it never materialised. According to a senior Ulster Defence Association (UDA) figure, the paramilitary organisation was also contacted later that year by a DUP member with a request for assistance in arming the DUP's new group. The DUP member particularly sought plans for home-made rocket launchers. This earlier attempt at a militant DUP force never materialised, although the United Unionist Action Council (UUAC), a sub-committee of the United Ulster Unionist Council, of which the DUP was the leading political party, had a semi-paramilitary wing already in the Ulster Service Corps (USC). The UDA, Down Orange Welfare, and the Orange Volunteers were also represented on the UUAC.
The Anglo-Irish Agreement, signed by the British and Irish governments in November 1985, gave the Irish government an advisory role in Northern Ireland's administration. This new political initiative caused outrage amongst the Unionist community of Northern Ireland and there were months of protests, strikes, and street violence in response. DUP Press Officer Sammy Wilson threatened civil war in an interview shortly before the signing of the Agreement, in which "large sections of the Nationalist population would then be open to... retaliatory action" and Wilson himself would be a participant, although he "wouldn't relish it." In August 1986 DUP deputy leader Peter Robinson and several hundred Loyalists invaded the small Monaghan village of Clontibret. Days prior to its signing, DUP Chief Whip at the Assembly Jim Allister laid out the "carefully planned" Unionist response to the imminent Anglo-Irish Agreement. Firstly, Unionist politicians would attempt to disrupt the Agreement through Parliament, followed by a campaign of protest (petitions, by-elections, etc.), then an effort to make Northern Ireland ungovernable like the 1974 Ulster Workers' Council strike. The final phase according to Allister was:
Foundation
In the autumn of 1986, a meeting took place at a farmhouse near Omagh, County Tyrone. According to Peter Taylor, it was attended by five Unionist politicians (excluding Ian Paisley) and two members of the executive committee of the Ulster Clubs. At the meeting those in attendance discussed what form a new paramilitary organisation to fight the Anglo-Irish Agreement and Irish republicanism should take. The meeting concluded with a pledge that "whatever the cost to life or liberty" to see the endeavour through; a private army prepared to "fight to the bitter end". The Sunday Tribune reported that the acquisition of weapons was discussed and armed men guarded the doors during the meeting.
Ulster Resistance was launched at a 3000-strong invitation-only (male-only) meeting at the Ulster Hall on 10 November 1986. The rally was chaired by DUP Press Officer Sammy Wilson and addressed by party colleagues Ian Paisley, Peter Robinson and Ivan Foster. A colour party wore paramilitary uniforms and red berets. Ian Paisley told the assembled crowd that Ulster Resistance would "take whatever steps are necessary to destroy the Anglo-Irish Agreement and the ongoing republican conspiracy." He added that "law abiding Roman Catholics have nothing to fear." He was then filmed dramatically placing a red beret on his head and standing to attention. DUP deputy leader Peter Robinson was also photographed wearing the militant loyalist paramilitary regalia of beret and military fatigues at the rally. Also on the platform was Alan Wright, the chairman of the Ulster Clubs. Journalists who arrived at Ulster Hall to investigate the event were denied entry, DUP press officer Nigel Dodds instead appeared and handed out leaflets stating the goals of the new paramilitary grouping. The launch rally was followed by a number of similar assemblies across Northern Ireland. Its aim was to "take direct action as and when required" to end the Anglo-Irish Agreement.
Most of the political figures who appeared at the rally were members of the DUP, however both North Belfast MP Cecil Walker and Frazer Agnew of the Ulster Unionist Party (UUP) attended contrary to UUP party leader James Molyneaux's advice. Molyneaux said he did not object in principle to loyalist paramilitary groups assassinating members of the Provisional IRA, but added that his problem was "identifying the target".
Walker later claimed he was unaware before the meeting that its purpose was to declare the founding of a paramilitary grouping, while Agnew stated he would not be opposed to a "citizen's army" that came into conflict with the law. Some members of the UUP felt the new paramilitary group represented a "final straw" in the strained DUP-UUP political pact against the Anglo-Irish Agreement. Alan Chamber, chairman of the Greater Belfast Young Unionist Association, accused the DUP of being "increasingly
intent on breaking all links with the mainland so they can set up a fourth rate nation independent Paisleyland". UUP MP Harold McCusker told a journalist that "there may well be circumstances" where he would consider joining Ulster Resistance.
Ulster Resistance's first public rally was held in Kilkeel, County Down, opening with a march led by a military-style colour party. As the several thousand strong crowd marched through Kilkeel, some participants threw stones over barriers erected by the RUC in the religiously-mixed town and later the visibly hostile crowd attack a press photographer and stole his film, after the march had culminated at an Orange hall. Speaking before nine paramilitary standard bearers, Ian Paisley urged all listening to join Ulster Resistance. Peter Robinson told those assembled "Better to be dead than green" and "We need a body of men right across the province, prepared to die for Ulster." Ulster Clubs leader Alan Wright declared the new paramilitary group would initially turn its force against the Anglo-Irish Agreement and then turn to destroy its real enemy - militant republicanism, Sinn Féin and the IRA.
At a rally in Enniskillen, County Fermanagh, Peter Robinson announced: "Thousands have already joined the movement and the task of shaping them into an effective force is continuing. The Resistance has indicated that drilling and training has already started. The officers of the nine divisions have taken up their duties." Robinson warned at the rally that those who were "faint or half-hearted" shouldn't bother signing up. At a rally in Larne, Ian Paisley threatened that while Margaret Thatcher could ignore thousands of protestors at Belfast City Hall, maybe she would listen if those thousands had guns in their hands. Ivan Foster told a newspaper that Ulster Resistance had access to Royal Ulster Constabulary (RUC) intelligence and would use it to target and kill suspected members of the Provisional Irish Republican Army (IRA). Foster had previously stated that "there's no good carrying a gun if you don't intend to use it."
In Ballymena, County Antrim, Jim Allister, Peter Robinson, and Alan Wright led hundreds of loyalists, many wearing paramilitary uniforms and some wearing masks, parading in a show of strength to Ballymena Town Hall, where they met DUP leader Ian Paisley. Inside, Robinson told the gathering:
Alan Wright told the Irish Independent his organisation, Ulster Clubs, only joined forces with UR because he was assured that the new organisation was serious about acquiring arms and "was given assurances that they were prepared to go to any lengths" to bring down the Anglo-Irish Agreement and destroy militant Republicanism. Wright asserted that UR would fight the British Army and RUC if the Anglo-Irish Agreement wasn't scrapped and could carry out armed incursions into the Republic of Ireland. Wright also spoke of the necessity of a relationship with the UDA as he believed they were "too big to ignore".
A mass membership failed to materialise, but active groups were established in country areas such as County Armagh, attracting support from rural conservative Protestants. An internal memo presented for the Secretary of State for Northern Ireland in March 1987 reported that UR had carried out further recruiting and the organisation was acquiring more paramilitary uniforms. The report expressed concern that UR, described as a "DUP creation", would be used by the party as "shock troops" at the forefront of action against incoming public order legislation introduced in response to increasingly militant unionist anti-Agreement protests.
After Secretary of State for Northern Ireland Tom King publicly criticised at length the DUP for their role in creating the new militant group, leading DUP party official Nigel Dodds responded:
Organisation
It was reported in the press shortly after the founding rally on November 10 that Ulster Resistance was led by DUP party representatives Ian Paisley, Peter Robinson and Ivan Foster and Alan Wright, the chairman of the Ulster Clubs. Below them were nine divisions, based on District Council areas, led by a so-called "Commander". Below them were battalions, companies, and platoons. However, speaking at the closed Ulster Hall event, Peter Robinson stated that he nor other DUP leaders speaking were in fact commanders of the group but knew who were, and were "satisfied" that the military leadership were serious in their intentions. One UR organiser told a journalist that "The military are being placed in submission to the political leadership. It must be kept under the control of elected representatives." Journalist Ed Moloney reported in 1989 that an unidentified DUP figure and DUP activist Noel Little (later arrested on suspicion of arms trafficking) were acting as joint paramilitary leaders of the armed wing upon its founding.
The paramilitary wing was subordinate to the political leadership and was the de facto military wing of the DUP, though it operated outside the party's structures and was open to non-members. The group claimed 12,000 members across Northern Ireland, mostly outside Belfast. Smaller loyalist paramilitary organisations were taken in under the UR umbrella; Ulster Special Constabulary Association whose presence was inspirational rather than practical, Down Orange Welfare, largely inactive, and the Orange Volunteers. Former members of the Ulster Protestant Volunteers also joined UR.
A committee named "Loyalist Family Welfare" was later formed to provide financial assistance for the families of imprisoned Ulster Resistance members. Loyalist Family Welfare adverts seeking donations were regularly published in the Ulster Volunteer Force (UVF) magazine Combat in the early 1990s, with the address provided being in Portadown, County Armagh.
Arms importation
Ivan Foster at the group's launch claimed that the organisation already had access to a substantial amount of legally-owned firearms.
In December 1986, Ulster Resistance representatives met with other loyalist paramilitary groups to discuss smuggling weapons into Northern Ireland, according to police intelligence. In early 1987 senior UR member Noel Little, using an alias, travelled to Geneva and Paris to meet a representative of South African arms exporter Armscor named Douglas Bernhardt. Little arrived with a "shopping list" of weapons including assault rifles and mortars. At least two DUP members attended a meeting in County Armagh in May 1987 with UR leaders which discussed the possibility of acquiring arms. "They (the DUP members) were told there was a way of getting guns, that a shopping list was possible and that others were ready to help," an anonymous Ulster Resistance member later alleged. The group collaborated with the UVF and the UDA to procure arms. In June 1987 the UVF stole more than £300,000 from the Northern Bank in Portadown. The money was transferred to Swiss and other banks accounts in Europe via suitcases carried by "respectable" members of the Unionist community involved in banking business, and insurance. The money was used to buy 206 Vz. 58 assault rifles, 94 Browning 9mm pistols, 4 RPG-7 rocket launchers and 62 warheads, 450 RGD-5 grenades and 30,000 rounds of ammunition which arrived at Belfast docks from Lebanon in December 1987. The weapons were then transported to a farm between Armagh and Portadown, to await collection by the three groups.
On 8 January 1988, as they attempted to transport their share of the weapons from Portadown to Belfast in a convoy of three cars, the UDA's share was intercepted at a Royal Ulster Constabulary checkpoint. 61 assault rifles, 30 Brownings, 150 grenades and over 11,000 rounds of ammunition were seized and three UDA men arrested. Davy Payne, the UDA's North Belfast Brigadier was sentenced to 19 years in prison and the two others to 14 years each. The presiding judge, Justice Nicholson, appealed to the Protestant community to reject the UDA because they distracted the RUC from "dealing with terrorists in the shape of the PIRA and INLA." One of the convicted men, James McCullough, in response jumped up in the dock and shouted "Long live Ulster — you are a traitor." Noel Little, an Ulster Resistance member and former Ulster Defence Regiment (UDR) soldier who was also the Armagh chairman of the Ulster Clubs, was arrested in connection with the find under the Prevention of Terrorism Act but released without charge.
Part of the UVF's share was among weapons recovered in February 1988. An RPG-7 rocket launcher with 26 warheads, 38 assault rifles, 15 Brownings, 100 grenades and 40,000 rounds of ammunition were found following searches in the Upper Crumlin Road area of North Belfast.
In November 1988, part of the Ulster Resistance share of the weapons was uncovered in police searches at a number of locations in County Armagh around Markethill, Hamiltonsbawn and in Armagh town. Among the items recovered was a RPG-7 rocket launcher and 5 warheads, 5 assault rifles (one being a Kalashnikov-type rifle rather than a Czech vz. 58), a Browning pistol, 10 grenades, 12,000 rounds of ammunition and combat equipment. Also discovered in the arms caches were parts of a Javelin surface-to-air missile, several paramilitary uniforms and a number of UR red berets. Secretary of State for Northern Ireland Tom King speculated that the weapons could have been intended for loyalist attacks in the Republic of Ireland. This suggestion was reinforced by the discovery of a map of County Monaghan. One of the men convicted of arms possession in connection with the find was Mervyn Spratt, a long-serving DUP member from Markethill who had contested a council seat on three occasions. The DUP claimed that it had severed its links with Ulster Resistance in 1987. Ian Paisley stated in the House of Commons the that he knew Mervyn Spratt "very well" but denied the charges demonstrated the arms dump belonged to Ulster Resistance, or that Spratt was even connected to the weapons. When asked about the arms find, Sammy Wilson denied it was linked to UR but told the Sunday Tribune that he "[defended] the right of Unionist people to resist" and "Ulster Resistance are doing no more and no less than Lord Edward Carson." Despite the DUP claiming to have cut ties in 1987, Wilson declined to say when he had last been in contact with Ulster Resistance.
In September 1989, a 33-year-old man from Poyntzpass and a 35-year-old man from Tandragee were jailed to nine and six years respectively for storing and moving weapons and explosives on behalf of UR. In January 1990, a 32-year-old former member of the UDR from Richill was jailed for 12 years for possessing UR arms and explosives.
The weapons jointly imported by Ulster Resistance and the two main loyalist paramilitary organisations were linked to over 70 murders, including the, Sean Graham bookmaker's massacre, Greysteel massacre and the Loughinisland massacre. Ulster Resistance's portion of the South African arms shipment was linked to numerous attacks by loyalist paramilitaries; already in 1988 a Browning pistol and grenades sourced from UR were used by loyalist Michael Stone in the Milltown Cemetery attack. In the 1990s Willie Frazer, a "key figure" in the organisation, distributed assault rifles and rocket launchers from UR to the UDA.
South African missile plot
The contacts in Apartheid South Africa who had helped set up the 1987 arms deal were also interested in trading guns for missile technology. In October 1988, a model of the Javelin missile aiming system was stolen from the Short Brothers factory in Belfast, which had a mostly unionist workforce. It was theorised that Ulster Resistance penetration into Shorts came through links to a loyalist group, the "People's Loyalist Council", which was involved in intimidation of Catholic workers in Shorts in the aftermath of the Anglo-Irish Agreement. A few months later, parts of a Blowpipe missile went missing and a replica Blowpipe was stolen from a Territorial Army base in Newtownards in April 1989.
Three members of Ulster Resistance — Noel Little, a former UDR soldier, senior member of the Ulster Clubs, and DUP activist previously arrested in connection with the 1987 importation of arms, James King, a Free Presbyterian and DUP activist from Killyleagh, County Down and Samuel Quinn, a sergeant in the Territorial Army from Newtownards — were arrested at the Hilton Hotel, Paris on 21 April 1989. Three of Quinn's colleagues were expelled from the Territorial Army in the aftermath of the missile theft; one, Corporal James Shannon, was a leading DUP councillor and was later elected as Member of Parliament (MP) for Strangford. Also arrested were a diplomat from South Africa, Daniel Storm, and an American arms dealer, Douglas Bernhart, leading to claims that the unionists were attempting to procure arms in return for missile technology from Short Brothers. The "Paris Three" were charged with arms trafficking and associating with criminals involved in terrorist activities. They were convicted in October 1991 after more than two years on remand. They received suspended sentences and fines ranging from £2,000 to £5,000. Following the arrests, the SDLP called for Ulster Resistance to be made a proscribed organisation under British law and for RUC Special Branch to question DUP politicians about the organisation. Two weeks after the arrests DUP leader Ian Paisley announced his intention to visit the men in prison, claiming "the press had already tried these men and found them guilty and hung them high". DUP deputy leader Peter Robinson campaigned on behalf of the 'Paris Three' while Paisley sent them copies of the Bible. King said in an interview that the Three's defence was partly funded by donations from the Orange Order, Apprentice Boys, and Royal Black Institution. A fund set up by the DUP also assisted.
In early August 1989 former SDLP politician Austin Currie wrote to Irish Minister for Justice Gerry Collins alleging that two named serving members of the UDR in Fermanagh had been seen putting up posters reading, "Support the Paris Three and join Ulster Resistance", which were widely distributed across parts of Tyrone and Fermanagh.
Paramilitary activity
According to Martin Dillon, Ulster Resistance cooperated with the Ulster Freedom Fighters (UFF), the cover name for the group within the UDA responsible for paramilitary attacks. In Stone Cold Dillon alleges that UR members provided intelligence on potential targets in rural areas and also safehouses for loyalist hit squads. The UDA had already trained some UR members in the usage of firearms. In 1987, a UR unit based in County Fermanagh and County Tyrone informed the UDA they had the identity of an IRA intelligence officer, Dermot Hackett. In reality Hackett was an innocent Catholic who had no connection to the IRA or Sinn Féin but had been subject to intense harassment and intimidation from members of the RUC and Ulster Defence Regiment (UDR) and feared he was becoming the victim of a revenge campaign in response to the killing of a UDR soldier in Tyrone earlier that year. The harassment subsided after an intervention by Social Democratic and Labour Party (SDLP) politician Denis Haughey but Dillon believed there was "no doubt" that the UDR's focus on Hackett brought him to the attention of UR, because of the "natural collusion" between members of the UDR and loyalist paramilitaries.
On May 22, 1987, the IRA murdered Charles Watson, a former UDR soldier and UR member (UVF member according to the Sutton Index of Deaths). The following day UFF gunman Micheal Stone met with members of UR in Enniskillen, where he was then taken to a safehouse. They briefed him about Hackett's whereabouts and Stone was then transported to another safehouse in Omagh where he met two other members of the organisation who showed him a security file. The British security forces file had numerous photographs of Hackett, some of which allegedly showed him in the company of IRA members; Hackett's charity work with Society of Saint Vincent de Paul brought him into contact with many people and the paucity of evidence in the file supported the view that Hackett was a victim of spurious accusations, according to Dillon. Hackett was shot dead while driving his bread van near Drumquin, County Tyrone. Afterwards Stone was driven back to the Enniskillen safehouse. The UFF later claimed responsibility for the murder. However, Stone later claimed in his autobiography None Shall Divide Us that he had been selected to carry out the murder, but withdrew after being informed that British security forces had been informed of the operation in advance to secure the area and ensure an escape route. Stone alleged that two younger, local UDA/UFF members actually carried out the shooting. The Bishop of Derry Edward Daly afterwards said targeted harassment by the RUC "left Catholics open to attack" from "psychopathic" Protestant extremists. The following day in a further act of retaliation, an RUC officer who had just attended Charles Watson's wake fired several shots into a restaurant in Castlewellan, County Down, with a Third Force armband on his person.
Ulster Resistance members were also allegedly involved in the attempted assassination of Sinn Féin councillor John Davey near his home in Gulladuff, County Londonderry in February 1988. Loyalist paramilitaries succeeded in killing Davey at his home the following year; the UVF claimed responsibility. UR members reportedly assisted the UVF Mid-Ulster Brigade in a series of attacks in the late 1980s and early 1990s that marked an escalation of violence in County Tyrone and north County Armagh, although it was also alleged the UR name had become little more than a cover for the UVF.
The Irish News reported in 1996 that British security forces believed that Ulster Resistance "continued to act as a quartermaster" by organising an "arms pool" for loyalist paramilitaries, already in March 1988 Ulster Resistance supplied the grenades and handgun for the Milltown Cemetery massacre. According to UFF gunman Michael Stone, who carried out the attack, he met first a contact in Coleraine, County Londonderry, days prior. From Coleraine, Stone was driven for two hours in a three-car convoy to the sprawling farmhouse of a leading figure in UR. The UR representative gave Stone free access to a large arms cache consisting of pistols, revolvers, rifles and hand grenades and told him to "use it well". Stone was then driven to a loyalist safehouse by his Coleraine contact, and from there Stone was transported to Belfast with his weaponry by an off-duty RUC officer who used his police warrant card to bypass security forces checkpoints. According to Dillon, the arms were given to Stone on the orders of UDA intelligence chief Brian Nelson, who was later revealed to be an undercover agent of the British Army's Force Research Unit (FRU).
In the 1990s Willie Frazer, a former UDR soldier and "key figure" in the organisation living in Markethill, distributed assault rifles and rocket launchers from UR to the UDA. In the early 1990s Johnny Adair leader of the UDA's "C Company", 2nd Battalion Shankill Road, West Belfast Brigade made contact with Frazer through mid-Ulster based loyalists. The UDA's share of the South African shipment had been lost in 1988 but in 1991 the UDA's "C Company" had acquired its first assault rifle, likely via Markethill-based UR members and by 1993 UR had supplied the Adair with several weapons, including assault rifles. In September 1993 Adair (not knowing he was being recorded) admitted to an RUC officer that he had purchased RPG-7 rocket launchers from UR on the condition they not be used against loyalists or British security forces; in 1994 the UDA carried out a number of rocket attacks on pubs in republican areas of Belfast and against Sinn Féin's headquarters. Adair later described the Ulster Resistance arms as 'a Godsend'.
At a series of meetings near Markethill between representatives of the UDA's "C Company" and Ulster Resistance, Adair outlined a strategy for launching attacks on "specific republican targets" in South Armagh, a notorious republican stronghold where even the British Army travelled nearly exclusively by helicopter. The UDA would provide the gunmen while UR would handle intelligence and logistics; driving assassination teams to their targets, providing safe houses from which to mount attacks and disposing of weapons afterwards. The Ulster Resistance leaders present found the plan "sufficiently appealing" for them to give it further consideration. A list of targets was discussed, including Thomas "Slab" Murphy the leader of the IRA in South Armagh and member of the IRA Army Council, the executive body of the organisation. Ultimately the plan was dropped because local loyalists feared retaliation from the Provisional IRA.
In August 1996 Sunday Life reported that loyalist sources believed the newly-emerging Loyalist Volunteer Force (LVF) was joining forces with UR. Dillon wrote in 1997 that UR "remains an armed grouping, waiting in the wings for the call to violence" and "it shares views expressed by men like Billy Wright" that a civil war may be necessary to defend the position of Ulster Protestants. Dillon claimed that among the organisation's leaders were influential businessmen, serving RUC officers and former UDR soldiers. The organisation was highlighted again when grenades found in a dilapidated Gospel hall in north Belfast were linked to an UR arms shipment from South Africa. In July 1998 following a series of arson attacks on Catholic churches it was again reported that LVF members were "connected" with UR. The Irish Independent wrote in July 1998 that "Ulster Resistance and Third Force have been reactivated".
UR was reported to have supplied hand grenades to the Orange Volunteers (a separate organisation from the original Orange Volunteers) and the Red Hand Defenders, a covername for mainstream loyalists carrying out attacks contrary to their public ceasefires. Both groups carried out numerous grenade and pipe bomb attacks against Catholics in Northern Ireland in the years following the signing of the 1998 Good Friday Agreement.
In July 2000, UDA leader Johnny Adair reportedly travelled twice to Markethill to meet with a businessman connected to Ulster Resistance to purchase weaponry to arm a new dissident loyalist faction drawing its membership from the LVF and his Shankill-based UDA supporters. The UR representative reportedly told Adair the arms were not for sale at that time.
Aftermath
In the late 1980s some former members broke away naming themselves Resistance. It is believed to have joined the Combined Loyalist Military Command (CLMC), although it has long since faded. In April 1991 after the CLMC announced its existence and an immediate, time-limited ceasefire The Irish Press reported that the CLMC consisted of five paramilitary leaders representing the UFF, UVF, Red Hand Commando and a group known as Resistance. Later, when the ceasefire ended in July, the paper listed Ulster Resistance as one of the groups making up the CLMC.
In February 2004 a group calling itself "Ulster Resistance 'A' Company (Ballymena)" threatened landlords in Ballymena who failed to evict known drug dealers. The warning followed a hoax planted at the home of a man who had recently appeared in court on a drugs charge.
In a front-page article on 10 June 2007, the Sunday Life reported that Ulster Resistance were still active and armed. A statement released by the group claimed that it had "the capability and resources to strike with deadly force". A photo accompanying the article showed two masked men posing with automatic rifles beside a banner which read "Ulster Resistance C Division". A spokesman purporting to represent the organisation claimed it had the "capability and resources to strike with deadly force" and also that the group had members in Armagh, Fermanagh, south Londonderry and Tyrone and "a presence" in Belfast.
In June 2017, following the United Kingdom general election, the DUP's historic links with Ulster Resistance were discussed in the media in relation to the Conservative–DUP agreement. Emma Little-Pengelly, daughter of Noel Little of the "Paris Three", was elected MP for Belfast South in that election. When the DUP were asked to condemn Ulster Resistance in 2016 they stated "the party's stance is consistent, that anyone involved in illegal activity should be investigated and face the full weight of the law."
In August 2017 Peter Robinson, represented by defamation lawyer Paul Tweed, secured an apology, retraction and undisclosed damages from the Metro newspaper for an article alleging he had been a member of Ulster Resistance.
In August 2022 the Sunday World newspaper reported that "hard-line" loyalists opposed to the Good Friday Agreement had planned to assassinate Ulster Unionist Party leader David Trimble using Ulster Resistance arms. According to loyalist Barrie Halliday, his friend Willie Frazer had led a delegation of militant loyalists to David Trimble's home (uninvited) to pressure him to abandon plans to create a power-sharing administration for Northern Ireland. The border-based unionists left after a heated argument; days later a plan to murder Trimble materialised. The plot involved "hand-picked" members of various loyalist paramilitary groupings attacking Trimble's car with an Ulster Resistance-sourced RPG-7 rocket launcher as he exited onto the Belfast motorway from Lisburn. A Czech vz. 58 assault rifle and RGD-5 grenades were to be used to cover their escape. According to Halliday, the plan was foiled by Frazer, who emptied the arms cache.
Unlike the UVF and UDA, Ulster Resistance never decommissioned its arsenal of weapons.
Deaths as a result of activity
The weapons jointly imported by Ulster Resistance and the two main loyalist paramilitary organisations were linked to over 70 murders, including the Greysteel massacre and the Loughinisland massacre. Ulster Resistance's portion of the South African arms shipment was linked to numerous attacks by loyalist paramilitaries; already in 1988 a Browning pistol and grenades sourced from UR were used by loyalist Michael Stone in the Milltown Cemetery attack. In the 1990s UR distributed assault rifles and rocket launchers to the UDA explicitly to be used in "C Company's" ongoing campaign of violence against known republicans and innocent Catholics. According to Dillon, UR was directly involved in the murder of Catholic charity worker Dermot Hackett in County Tyrone in 1986.
The Sutton Index of Deaths states that Robert Metcalfe, the 40-year-old owner of an army surplus store in Lurgan shot dead by the Provisional IRA at his home in Magheralin, County Down, in October 1989, was a member of Ulster Resistance. Author Steve Bruce also claims that Metcalfe was "purportedly active in the UVF". In 1998 the Sunday Tribune alleged that Metcalfe was a former member of the infamous UVF unit led by Robin Jackson and Jackson had cried openly at his funeral. The killing of the UR/UVF member spurred a wave of revenge attacks by the Mid-Ulster UVF. Dillon claims that Charles Watson, a former UDR soldier murdered by the IRA in 1986 was a member of Ulster Resistance while according to Sutton he was a member of the UVF. The Irish National Liberation Army (INLA) alleged that Thomas Douglas, a Protestant man they shot dead outside his Belfast workplace in May 1994, was a member of Ulster Resistance but this was strenuously denied by both his family and the RUC. Sutton lists Douglas as a civilian.
Notes
References
Paul Arthur & Keith Jeffrey, Northern Ireland Since 1968, Oxford: Blackwell Publishers, 1996
Jonathan Bardon, A History of Ulster, Belfast: Blackstaff Press, 1992
Steve Bruce, "The Red Hand", Oxford University Press, 1992
Jim Cusack & Henry McDonald, "UVF", Poolbeg, 2000
Martin Dillon, "Stone Cold", Hutchinson, 1992
David McKittrick, "Lost Lives", Mainstream Publishing 2001
Peter Taylor, "Loyalists", Bloomsbury, 1999
Organizations established in 1986
Paramilitary organisations based in Northern Ireland
The Troubles (Northern Ireland)
Ulster loyalist militant groups |
4379348 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peggy%20Cripps | Peggy Cripps | Enid Margaret "Peggy" Appiah (née Cripps), MBE ( ; 21 May 1921 – 11 February 2006), was a British children's author, philanthropist and socialite. She was the daughter of the Right Honourable Sir Stafford Cripps and Dame Isobel Cripps, and the wife of Ghanaian lawyer and political activist Nana Joe Appiah.
Early life
The youngest of four children, Enid Margaret Cripps was born at Goodfellows in Gloucestershire, just across the county border from the home of her parents, Stafford Cripps and Isobel (née) Swithinbank, in the village of Filkins, Oxfordshire.
The family had only recently moved into Goodfellows, the home in Filkins where Peggy grew up; a Cotswold-style manor house, whose decoration and development owed much to the influence of Sir Lawrence Weaver, the architect, who was, with his wife Kathleen, one of the Cripps' closest friends. Lady Weaver died in 1927 of pneumonia. When Sir Lawrence also died in 1930, their two sons, Purcell and Toby, were, in effect, adopted by the Crippses. In later life, Peggy always regarded them as her brothers.
Childhood
Growing up in the countryside, in the care of her mother, her beloved nanny, Elsie Lawrence, and with the companionship of her sister Theresa, she spent much of her childhood exploring the English countryside, collecting the wild flowers, fruits, and mushrooms that grew in the hedgerows and meadows of the of her father's farm and surrounding woods and fields. As members of the British Wildflower Society, she and her sister learned how to identify plants and got to know the common and Latin names of many. She would go on to transfer this interest in her later years to the flora of Ghana. This love of nature united her family. Her brother, Sir John Cripps, not only farmed at Filkins, but edited 'The Countryman''' and was later the European Countryside Commissioner.
Family
On her father's side, the family had long lived in Gloucestershire: they were a solidly upper class family that claimed direct descent from William the Conqueror. Her paternal grandfather, Lord Parmoor, was a lawyer who had been ennobled in 1914, when he became a member of the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council. Her paternal great-great-grandfather, Joseph Cripps, had been MP for Cirencester. Lord Parmoor had represented Stroud in the House of Commons.
The political connections of her paternal side were impressive. Two of her paternal grandmother's sisters were married to the MPs Charles Edward Henry Hobhouse and Leonard Henry Courtney, Baron Courtney. Another great-aunt, Beatrice, was married to Sidney Webb, who served with her grandfather Lord Parmoor in the first Labour Government, in 1924, and was Secretary of State for the Colonies in the second Labour government in 1929, where he served in cabinet with Lord Parmoor, as Lord President of the Council, and was joined later by Stafford, as Solicitor General. (It was at this time that her father was knighted.). Through her maternal ancestor Admiral George Winthrop, she was descended from the Winthrop family of Boston Brahmins in British North America.
The Cripps family were devout Anglicans. Lord Parmoor was an ecclesiastical lawyer, a member—and in 1911 the Chairman—of the house of Laymen in the Province of Canterbury, Vicar General of various English provinces, and author of Cripps on Church and Clergy. Stafford Cripps is said to have been the first layman to preach in St Paul's Cathedral. When Peggy Cripps was preparing for her confirmation, she told her parents that she had doubts about some of the 39 articles of faith of the Church of England, and her father arranged for her to discuss them with his friend, William Temple, Archbishop of York (later Archbishop of Canterbury). Peggy used to enjoy telling people that as they had gone through the 39 articles, each time she had expressed a doubt, the Archbishop had said, "Yes, I find that one very difficult, too!"
Education
She had a conventional education for a young woman of her class and time. She was educated first at a day school at Queen's College, London, based in Harley Street, and later at Maltman's Green, a boarding school in Buckinghamshire, where she and a group of friends attended a Quaker Meeting House. Through her parents' connections, she also began to learn something of the world outside England. In 1938 she and her family spent several months in Jamaica, and in the same year Jawaharlal Nehru, with whom Stafford had begun an extensive correspondence as a result of his interest in the development of democracy in the British colonies, visited Goodfellows with his daughter Indira.
"Off to study"
After finishing school, she applied to Edinburgh University, but first went off to Italy to study the history of art in Florence. The Second World War was looming, forcing her hurriedly home to England. She declined her place at Edinburgh University, enrolling instead at Whitehall Secretarial College, which had been evacuated to Dorset with the onset of bombing in London, so she could start work immediately.
Once she had completed her training, she was able to set off to join her father in Moscow, where he was the British Ambassador and she was able to be useful as a secretary in the embassy. Because the direct route to Moscow would have required travelling through German-occupied Europe, she and her mother and her sister Theresa, travelled to Russia by way of Canada, crossing the continent on the Canadian Pacific Railway, then passing through Japan and China before crossing the Soviet Union by rail.
In Moscow, Peggy worked as secretary for her father and became friends with the daughters of the Yugoslav and Chinese ambassadors, and the daughter of an Iranian diplomat, who was to remain a lifelong friend. In 1941, at the age of 20, with her parents in London, and her sister in Iran, she was left in charge of the evacuation of the British Embassy, with the German invasion of Russia looming. Since she was officially a secretary in the Foreign Service, she found herself working for a man named Mr. Cook in the consular department in Teheran. Later on, when the British Army took over the Iranian railway system, she worked as a secretary for the Brigadier who was in charge.
In 1942, she returned to England with her father, who was returning from a visit to India. They travelled through the Middle East on a seaplane, landing on Lake Galilee in Israel and the Nile in Egypt, where she was able to see the pyramids of Egypt. This was also her first visit to the African continent. For the rest of the war she worked in the Ministry of Information, first in the Indian Division and then in the Soviet Relations Division, where she was able to use her knowledge of the Russian language in her work. As this happened, her father committed himself full-time to politics. Due to the reduced income that came with the loss of his legal practice, the family left Goodfellows and moved into a smaller house at Frith Hill, Gloucestershire, although her brother John eventually took over the running of the farm at Filkins.
At the end of the war, Peggy had a nervous breakdown. She had given up her place at university to be useful during the war; now she found herself experienced but unqualified for the job she was already doing. She was sent to Switzerland to recover at the Maximilian Bircher-Benner clinic in Zurich, spent a summer in Lugano studying painting, and returned to London to take up the study of art full-time at the Anglo-French Art Centre in St John's Wood, north London. She then took up painting in a small studio in the apartment of artist Feliks Topolski and attended life-classes at Hammersmith Art School, under the tutelage of Carel Weight.
Throughout this period she was in close and regular touch with her parents, even though her father was increasingly busy with politics. With the Labour Party victory in the 1945 election, Stafford had entered the cabinet as President of the Board of Trade, where he spent most of his time working on negotiations with the leaders of the Indian independence movement, including Gandhi, Nehru and Jinnah. In November 1947, he became Chancellor of the Exchequer and most of the rest of his life he helped to manage the beginnings of the post-War recovery of Britain and the creation of the modern welfare state.
In 1942, her mother had agreed to lead a campaign to raise money for aid to the people of China, who were facing great suffering as a result of the Japanese invasion, floods, disease and famine. Six years later, the Chinese government invited Lady Cripps to visit their country so that she could see what was being done with the money and express their gratitude for the work of British United Aid to China. Peggy went along as one of her mother's travelling companions. Since the money was meant to be used to help all the Chinese, they both stayed with General and Madame Chiang Kai-shek at their home. She visited the Communist "Liberated Areas" in Yan'an, where Peggy met Zhou Enlai and Madame Mao. On their way back from China, she and her mother travelled through Burma and India.
Engagement
As a result of her experiences in Jamaica, Russia, Iran, China, Burma and India, and her family's friendship with people such as the Nehrus, Peggy, who was now in her mid-twenties, knew many people from many countries and also knew much more about life outside England, indeed outside Europe, than most of her contemporaries. This experience, along with her deep Christian commitments, led her to work for co-operation among peoples; and in the late 1940s she started to work for an organisation called Racial Unity, which had been started by Miss Attlee, sister of the Prime Minister, as well as becoming active in the Youth Department of the World Council of Churches (WCC). It was through her work for Racial Unity, of which she was secretary in 1952, that she first met Joseph Emmanuel Appiah, who was President of the West African Students' Union. Their friendship grew fast and in January 1952, he proposed and she accepted.
At the time, however, Stafford Cripps was extremely ill. In May 1951 he had been taken to the Maximilian Bircher-Benner clinic in Zurich (where Peggy had recovered many years before) and was eventually thought well enough to return home to the family home at Frith Hill. But in early January 1952 he was flown back to Zurich, where he died nearly four months later. As a result of this illness, Isobel decided that it would be best if the engagement should be kept secret. Then, once he died, custom required that the engagement not be announced for another year. In the meanwhile, Peggy's mother suggested that she should visit the Gold Coast on her own, travelling out by steamship to see the country of her intended husband.
Ghana
Much to her surprise, Joe was already at home in Kumasi when she arrived, having flown back urgently on the death of his granduncle, Yaw Antony, whom he was to succeed as head of his branch of the nobility of the Ashanti people. She travelled to Kumasi on Christmas Eve 1952, where she was reunited with her fiancé, and met his family, for the first time, with him, on Christmas Day. On New Year's Eve she attended the Watch Night Service at the Wesley Methodist Church in Kumasi, worshiping for the first time in the church which was to celebrate her funeral more than fifty years later. She also visited the campus of what was to be Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, then a one-year-old teacher's training college, for the first time; a campus where she was to send her children to primary school and where, at the age of 84, in the last year of her life, she received an honorary degree of doctor of letters, to her great delight.
At home
On her first trip to Africa, she travelled as far north as Navrongo, crossed the Volta and entered French Togoland, in the east, and travelled to Elmina in the west. There was much speculation as to what she was doing in Ghana, and because the engagement had not been announced, she could not explain the real reason for her visit. She told the Daily Graphic: "[As] a member of a political family in Britain, I am very interested in the people of the Gold Coast and in their political advancement." Together with her future husband's family she met many prominent Ghanaians, including the Asantehene, Mrs. Rose Aggrey (wife of the founder of the Achimota School Dr James Aggrey), the artist Kofi Antubam, paramount chief Nene Mate Kole, as well as such leaders of the independence movement as Kwame Nkrumah, Komla Gbedemah, Kojo Botsio, and Krobo Edusei.
The announcement of the couple's engagement in 1953 produced a firestorm of comment in Britain and around the world; and when Peggy Cripps and Joe Appiah were married at St John's Wood Church, north London, in June 1953, the occasion was front-page news in Britain, in Ghana, and many other countries and the event was one of the social events of the year. George Padmore, the West Indian Pan-Africanist was best man, deputising for Kwame Nkrumah, who was too busy as the new leader of Government Business to attend himself. Hugh Gaitskell, Stafford's successor as Chancellor was there, as were Michael Foot, future leader of the Labour party, Aneurin Bevan, Lady Quist, the wife of the Speaker of the Gold Coast Assembly, and Krishna Menon, India's ambassador to the United Nations. A Jamaican newspaper commented that there were "top-hatted and frock-coated British aristocrats... ex-Cabinet Ministers... as well as several Tory and Socialist members of Parliament." The real attraction, however, was the kente cloth worn not only by the bridegroom but by many of his relatives and friends. Coverage in newspapers around the world ranged from the hostile to sceptical to admiring.
Peggy and Joe Appiah took their honeymoon in France and returned to England, where Joe was to finish his legal training at the Middle Temple. In May 1954 their first child, Kwame Anthony Appiah, was born (amid another flutter of newspaper publicity) and in November the young family arrived in the Gold Coast to begin their new life. During this period, while Joe was developing a legal career and beginning his life as a politician, Peggy focused most of her energy on her young family —- Ama was born in 1955, Adwoa in 1960 and Abena in 1962 —- and on working as a secretary and legal assistant in his law office and for his constituents, supporting her husband as she had supported her father. She learned to wear cloth, started attending funerals, and got to know her husband's family and his father's family as well. They built themselves a home in Mbrom (an area of Kumasi), where their neighbours were Victor Owusu, another senior NLM politician, John Brew, and, across the street, Joe Appiah's father, J. W. K. Appiah and his wife, Aunty Jane.
For more than 30 years, beginning in the late 1950s, Peggy Appiah's extensive library at Mbrom was made available to the children of the neighbourhood, who could come and read children's books, and, as they grew older, the novels and poetry she had collected. Among her most prized collections were many of the volumes of the Heinemann African Writers Series. Other frequent visitors to the house included the traders who brought her the goldweights they had acquired on their collecting trips through the villages and towns of Ghana. She also took an interest in the education and welfare of a number of young people, who became part of her extended family, among them Isobel Kusi-Obodom, whose father died in Nkrumah's prisons, and Dr Joe Appiah-Kusi of Seattle.
Politics
After Joe Appiah was elected to Parliament in 1956, prior to independence, Peggy Appiah continued to provide a secure home to which he could return from his political struggles, forget about politics, and rest in the bosom of his family. Peggy chose to join St. George's Church in Kumasi. She also worked with Dr. Alex Kyerematen for the development of the Cultural Center in Kumasi. She served on the Committee of the Children's Home, worked with the home for the Destitute in Bekwai, and in later years she became a patron of the Ghana National Association for the Blind. When her husband was imprisoned at the orders of Kwame Nkrumah in October 1961, she refused to leave the country and a deportation order was withdrawn when a front-page article appeared in the British press describing her situation.
Around this time her son Kwame was very ill. The following month, Queen Elizabeth II made her first visit to Ghana. While inspecting the Komfo Anokye Teaching Hospital in Kumasi, the Queen, the Duke of Edinburgh and President Nkrumah passed by the boy's bed. Since he had a picture of his parents displayed on his bedside table, the Duke of Edinburgh, who had visited Kumasi previously and had met Peggy Appiah, turned back, as he was leaving, to send his regards. President Nkrumah's reported anger at being embarrassed in this way -this was the husband of a foreign head of state sending a greeting to the wife of a man Nkrumah had in political detention – was reportedly one of the reasons that Kwame Appiah's doctor was deported.
The combination of her anxieties about her husband and her son put her under a great deal of strain, which was increased by the fact that she was pregnant at the time with her youngest child, Abena, who was extremely ill for much of her infancy. Nevertheless, she continued to maintain a stable home for her children and to work quietly for her husband's release, with the assistance of her mother, Lady Cripps, who was able to visit her son-in-law at Ussher Fort in 1962.
Lady Cripps returned to England with her sick grandson. Just before Christmas 1962, Joe was released from prison and allowed to return to legal practice. The anxieties of the final years of the Nkrumah regime were relieved in 1966, by the coup that ousted Nkrumah. In the years that followed, as her children were abroad at boarding schools and universities, and her husband was active once more in Ghanaian politics and as an ambassador for the nation, she stayed mostly in Kumasi, providing the base from which he could travel out into the world, secure in the knowledge that Peggy was taking care of things on the home front. She kept an eye on the properties he had inherited from his grand-uncle. Despite her family's extensive political involvements, Peggy herself was not particularly interested in party politics. She supported her husband, of course. But her own contributions were through the wide range of social work she engaged in. Having learned Twi, the language of the Asante, she became interested in and knowledgeable about Akan art and folklore, as she acquired a major goldweight collection, began collecting and translating proverbs, and learned Ananse stories, many of them from her husband. For three decades, a visit to her house and her goldweight collection was one of the highlights of a visit to Ashanti for visitors interested in its art.
From the mid-1960s onwards, she began to publish a series of volumes of Ananse stories, retold for children, which became widely known in Africa, England and America and throughout the English-speaking world. Beginning with Ananse the Spider: Tales from an Ashanti Village in 1966, and followed by Tales of an Ashanti Father, she went on to publish the Children of Ananse in 1968, The Pineapple Child and Other Tales from Asante in 1969, Why There are So Many Roads in 1972, and Why the Hyena Does Not Care for Fish and Other Tales from the Ashanti Gold Weights in 1977. She also published a series of readers to help Ghanaian children learn English: The Lost Earring, Yao and the Python, Abena and the Python, Afua and the Mouse and Kofi and the Crow, as well as a series of novels for children and adults, including Gift of the Mmoatia and Ring of Gold, and two volumes of poetry. Some of her works are used as set texts in primary and secondary schools in West Africa. Perhaps, her most important publication, however, which was the result of nearly five decades of work, was Bu Me Bé: Proverbs of the Akan, a collection of more than 7,000 Twi proverbs that was launched in Accra in 2001.
In 1985, she and Joe Appiah travelled abroad together to visit their friend Kamuzu Banda, President of Malawi, whom they had known during his period of exile in Ghana, to celebrate the twenty-first anniversary of Malawi's independence. They travelled widely around the country, before going on to stay with their daughter Abena, who was then living in Zimbabwe, and Ama, who was working in Angola. Later in the decade, they made a visit to Ama in Norway, where Joe was diagnosed with the cancer that claimed his life in 1990.
A widow
In 1990, Peggy Appiah, now a widow, never considered leaving Ghana, telling anyone who asked her when she was "going home," that she was home already. She moved into a smaller house, which she built in a compound with a house for her daughter Abena, continued to work for her church, and went on studying Akan folklore. She visited her son and her daughters in the United States, Namibia and Nigeria, and was visited in turn by her children and sons-in-law, and her six grandsons, Kristian, Anthony and Kojo, children of Ama (Isobel) and Klaus Endresen; and Tomiwa, Lamide and Tobi, children of Adwoa and Olawale Edun. In the house next to her, with her daughter Abena, were her two grandchildren, Mimi and Mame Yaa.
Awards
In 1996, Queen Elizabeth II awarded Peggy Appiah the MBE "for services to UK/Ghanaian relations and community welfare".
She was awarded an honorary degree by the Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology in 2005.
Last years
In 2001, Peggy Appiah visited England for the last time to celebrate her 80th birthday with the surviving members of her own generation in her family and her children and grandchildren, along with many nephews and nieces and great-nephews and nieces.
In the final years of her life, as she became increasingly limited in her movements, she continued to be the center of a wide network of family and friends, and a caring household led by her housekeeper, Ma Rose. As she wrote at the end of her autobiography, published in 1995: "I thank God for all He has given me and the happiness He has brought me."
Death
Peggy Appiah died on 11 February 2006, aged 84, from undisclosed causes, at the Komfo Anokye Teaching Hospital in Kumasi. She was buried at Tafo cemetery in Kumasi, where she had bought a plot for herself beside her husband's grave.
Publications
Bu Me Be: Akan Proverbs. Africa World Press, 2006.
Busy body. Accra: Asempa, 1995.
Rattletat. New Namibia Books, 1995.
The Rubbish Heap. Accra: Asempa, 1995.
Kyekyekulee, Grandmother's Tales. Accra: Quick Service Books, 1993.
Kofi and the Crow. Accra: Quick Service Books, 1991.
Afua and the Mouse. Accra: Quick Service Books, 1991.
Abena and the Python. Accra: Quick Service Books, 1991.
The Twins. Accra: Quick Service Books, 1991.
Tales of an Ashanti Father. Boston: Beacon Press, 1989.
A Dirge too Soon. Accra: Ghana Publishing, 1976.
Ring of Gold. London: Deutsch, 1976.
Why There are So Many Roads. Lagos: African University Press, 1972.
Gift of the Mmoatia. Accra: Ghana Publishing, 1972.
Why the Hyena Does Not Care for Fish and other tales from the Ashanti gold weights. London: Deutsch, 1971.
A Smell of Onions. London: Longman, 1971.
The Lost Earring. London: Evans, 1971.
Yao and the Python. London: Evans, 1971.
The Pineapple Child and other tales from Ashanti. London: Evans, 1969.
The Children of Ananse. London: Evans, 1968.
Ananse the Spider: Tales from an Ashanti village. New York: Pantheon, 1966.
In popular culture
It has been suggested that the experiences of the Appiahs, as well as the somewhat contemporary case of the Lloyd's underwriter Ruth Williams' marriage to the African aristocrat Kgosi Seretse Khama, influenced the writing of the Oscar-winning feature film, Guess Who's Coming to Dinner (1967).
References
Sources
Brozan, Nadine. "Peggy Appiah, 84, Author Who Bridged Two Cultures, Dies." New York Times, "International," 16 February 2006.
Tucker, Nicholas. "Peggy Appiah: Daughter of Stafford Cripps who dedicated herself to creating a children's literature for Ghana" (obituary). The Independent, 17 February 2006.
Addai-Sebo, Akyaaba. "The Legacy Of Peggy Appiah—A Tribute." The New Times Online. Sunday, 9 April 2006.
Akosah, Kwabena Sarpong. "Tribute for Peggy Appiah". Homepage Ghana'', 19 February 2006.
1921 births
2006 deaths
People from Lechlade
British emigrants to Ghana
People from Kumasi
Ghanaian people of English descent
English philanthropists
Ghanaian philanthropists
English socialites
British children's writers
British women children's writers
Ghanaian children's writers
Ghanaian women children's writers
Members of the Order of the British Empire
20th-century British philanthropists
20th-century British women writers
20th-century Ghanaian women writers
Winthrop family |
4379690 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brancacci%20Chapel | Brancacci Chapel | The Brancacci Chapel (in Italian, "Cappella dei Brancacci") is a chapel in the Church of Santa Maria del Carmine in Florence, central Italy. It is sometimes called the "Sistine Chapel of the early Renaissance" for its painting cycle, among the most famous and influential of the period. Construction of the chapel was commissioned by Felice Brancacci and begun in 1422. The paintings were executed over the years 1425 to 1427. Public access is currently gained via the neighbouring convent, designed by Brunelleschi. The church and the chapel are treated as separate places to visit and as such have different opening times and it is quite difficult to see the rest of the church from the chapel.
The patron of the pictorial decoration was Felice Brancacci, descendant of Pietro, who had served as the Florentine ambassador to Cairo until 1423. Upon his return to Florence, he hired Masolino da Panicale to paint his chapel. Masolino's associate, 21-year-old Masaccio, 18 years younger than Masolino, assisted, but during painting Masolino left to Hungary, where he was painter to the king, and the commission was given to Masaccio. By the time Masolino returned he was learning from his talented former student. However, Masaccio was called to Rome before he could finish the chapel, and died in Rome at the age of 27. Portions of the chapel were completed later by Filippino Lippi. During the Baroque period some of the paintings were seen as unfashionable and a tomb was placed in front of them.
The paintings
In his frescos, Masaccio carries out a radical break from the medieval pictorial tradition, by adhering to the new Renaissance perspectival conception of space. Thus, perspective and light create deep spaces where volumetrically constructed figures move in a strongly individualised human dimension. Masaccio therefore continues on Giotto's path, detaching himself from a symbolic vision of man and propounding a greater realistic painting. The cycle from the life of Saint Peter was commissioned as patron saint from Pietro Brancacci, the original owner of the chapel.
The paintings are explained below in their narrative order.
The Temptation of Adam and Eve
By Masolino da Panicale.
In contrast with Masaccio's Expulsion, this is a serene and innocent raffiguration.
The cycle begins with this painting by Masolino, placed on the higher rectangle of the arch delimiting the Chapel, within the pillar thickness. This scene and the opposite one (the Expulsion) are the premises to the story narrated in the frescos, showing the moment in which man severed his friendship with God, later reconciled by Christ with Peter's mediation.
The painting shows Adam standing near Eve: they look at each other with measured postures, as she prepares to bite on the apple, just offered to her by the serpent near her arm around the tree. The snake has a head with thick blond hair, much idealised. The scene is aulic in its presentation, with gestures and style conveying tones of late International Gothic. Light, which models the figures without sharp angles, is soft and embracing; the dark background makes the body stand out in their sensual plasticity, almost suspended in space.
The Expulsion from the Garden of Eden
Masaccio's masterpiece Expulsion from the Garden of Eden is the first fresco on the upper part of the chapel, on the left wall, just at the left of the Tribute Money. It is famous for its vivid energy and unprecedented emotional realism. It contrasts dramatically with Masolino's delicate and decorative image of Adam and Eve before the fall, painted on the opposite wall. It presents a dramatic intensity, with an armed angel who hovers over Adam and Eve indicating the way out of the Garden of Eden: the crying fornicators leave at their backs the gates of Paradise.
This work represents a neat separation from the past International Gothic style; Masolino's serene composures are also left behind, and the two biblical progenitors are portrayed in dark desperation, weighed down under the angel's stern sight, who, with his unsheathed sword, forcibly expels them, with such a tension never seen before in painting. Gestures are eloquent enough: on exiting Paradise's Gates, from where some divine rays are shooting forward, Adam covers his face in desperation and guilt; Eve covers her nudity with shame and cries out, with a pained face. The bodies' dynamism, especially Adam's, gives an unprecedented passion to the figures, firmly planted on ground and projecting shadows from the violent light modelling them. Many are the details which increase the emotional drama: Adam's damp and sticky hair (on Earth, he'll struggle with hard labour and dirt), the angel's posture, foreshortened as if diving down from above. Eve's position is from an ancient representation, that of Venus Pudica (modest Venus). The foliage covering the couple's nudities was removed during a restoration in 1990.
Peter's Calling
By Masolino.
In the left lunette, destroyed in 1746-48, Masolino had painted the Calling of Peter and Andrew, or Vocation, known thanks to some indications by past witnesses such as Vasari, Bocchi and Baldinucci. Roberto Longhi first identified an image of this lost fresco in a later drawing, which does not conform to the lunette's upper curvature, but appears today as a very probable hypothesis. In this scene, Masolino had divided his composition into two expanses, of sea and sky.
La Navicella
The opposite lunette housed the fresco of the Navicella, a traditional title for the scene where Christ, walking on water, rescues Peter from the surging waves of a storm and pulls him aboard the boat. This lunette again proposed a marine setting, on balance with the opposite scene and thus creating a sort of parable of Creation: from the skies of the Evangelists in the vault, to the seas of the upper register, to the lands and towns of the middle and lower registers, precisely like in Genesis. In a way, the viewer's sight shifts from Paradise to the terrene world in a consequential manner. Sources attribute this lunette to Masolino, but considering the alternating turns taken by the two artists on the scaffolding, some propound for a Masaccio fresco.
Peter's Repentance
Peter's Repentance is found in the left semi-lunette of the upper register, where a very schematic preparatory drawing of the sinopia was hosted. The scene was attributed to Masaccio, on the basis of its greater incisiveness in the treatment as against Masolino's work.
The Tribute Money
The most famous painting in the chapel is Tribute Money, on the upper right wall, with figures of Jesus and Peter shown in a three part narrative. The painting, largely attributed to Masaccio, represents the story of Peter and the tax collector from . The left side shows Peter getting a coin from the mouth of a fish and the right side shows Peter paying his taxes. The whole appears to be related to the establishment of the Catasto, the first income tax in Florence, in the time the painting was being executed.
The miracle is not represented in a hagiographic key, but as a human occurrence that posits a divine decision: a historical event, then, with an explicit and indubitable moral meaning. On the narrational plane, the Tribute is developed in three stages: in the central part, Christ, from whom the tax collector asks a tribute for the Temple, orders Peter to go and fetch a coin from the mouth of the first fish he can catch; on the left, Peter, squatting on the shore, takes the coin from the fish; on the right, Peter tenders the coin to the tax collector. The three stages unite and the temporal sequences are expressed in spatial measures. The absence of a chronological scansion in the narrative, is to be sought in the fact that the painting's salient motif is not so much the miracle, as the actuation of the Divine Will, expressed by Jesus' the imperative gesture. His will becomes Peter's will who, by repeating his Lord's gesture, simultaneously indicates the fulfillment of Christ's will. The apostles' solidarity is shown by their serrated grouping around Jesus, as if to form a ring, a "coliseum of men". However, the very task is given to Peter: he alone will have to deal with mundane institutions. The portico's pillar becomes a symbolic element of separation between the grouped apostles and the conclusive delivery of tribute to the tax collector on Peter's part.
In the central group, the transverse directions formed by Christ's gesture with his right arm – replicated by that of Peter and, in opposite, by the turned collector – cross with those formed by the gestures of the right group, emphasizing escape points placed in the deepest space.
Healing of the Cripple and Raising of Tabitha
The upper scene on the right wall shows, on the left side, the Healing of the Cripple and, on the right side, the Raising of Tabitha. The fresco is generally attributed to Masolino, although Masaccio's hand has been discovered by some scholars. The scene shows two different episodes, with St. Peter appearing in both of them enclosed in a scenario of a typical Tuscan city of the 15th century depicted according to the strict rules of central perspective. The latter is generally regarded as Masaccio's main contribution, whereas the two central figures show Gothic influences.
St Peter Preaching
By Masolino da Panicale.
On the upper left wall one can see St Peter Preaching by Masolino, completed in eight days. Peter is shown, with an expressive gesture, preaching in front of a crowd. The people in the group have many and varied demeanours, from the sweet attention of the veiled nun in the foreground, to the sleepiness of both the girl behind her and the bearded old man, to the fear of the woman at back, whose worried eyes only can be seen. Mountains seem to continue from the preceding scene, with a spatial unity that was one of Masaccio trademarks. The three heads behind St Peter are probably portraits of contemporary people, same as the two friars on the right: all were formerly attributed to Masaccio.
Baptism of the Neophytes
By Masaccio.
The whole composition presents details of astounding realism: the trembling neophyte, the water droplets from the baptised hair, the white sheet being removed in the background. Chromatic effects of "cangiantismo", where drapery is modelled using contrasting colours to create an effect that simulates cangiante textiles, is achieved by Masaccio through a pictorial technique based on the juxtaposition of complementary colours, later reprised by Michelangelo.
St Peter Healing the Sick with His Shadow
Lower centre wall, left side, by Masaccio. The episode depicts .
The picture's attribution to Masaccio is based in on the perspective structure used to create the street setting and the craggy naturalism of the physiognomies of the old man and the cripple. According to Federico Zeri, Masaccio's brother, the painter Giovanni di ser Giovanni Guidi, known as Lo Scheggia, may have served as the model for the apostle John and the old bearded man in the background is a possible portrait of Donatello.
The Distribution of Alms and Death of Ananias
Lower centre wall, right side, by Masaccio.
According to the narrative in , each Christian, after selling their own possessions, would bring the proceeds to the apostles, who distributed to everyone according to need. Only Ananias "kept back for himself some of the proceeds and brought only a part of it and laid it at the apostles' feet." Severely reprimanded by Peter, he fell to the ground and died. The composition concentrates on the moment in which Ananias lies on the ground, whilst the woman with child receives alms from Peter, accompanied by John. The compositional structure is quite tight and emotional, involving the viewer in the heart of the event.
Raising of the Son of Theophilus and St. Peter Enthroned
Lower left wall, by Masaccio, completed by Filippino Lippi approximately fifty years later.
Filippino composed the five bystanders on the left, the Carmelites' drapery and the central part of St. Peter's arm in the "enthroned" representation. According to the Legenda Aurea (Golden Legend) by Jacobus de Voragine, after release from prison, St. Peter resuscitates, with St Paul's assistance, Theophilus's son, who had died fourteen years before. So, people venerated St Peter and erected a new church to him, where he is enthroned so as to be revered and prayed by all. However, the true meaning of this fresco rests with the politics of the time: that is, in the conflict between Florence and the Duchy of Milan.
There is a precise iconographic resemblance between Theophilus (seated on the left, in an elevated position within a niche) and Gian Galeazzo Visconti, Florence's bitter enemy. The latter was a feared tyrant, whose thirst for power pushed him to start a war with Florence, almost destroying its freedom. Memory of this episode returned in all its crude vividness, when Florence had to confront a dispute with Filippo Maria Visconti, Gian Galeazzo's son. The figure sitting on Theophilus' (i.e., Gian Galeazzo's) right would be the Florentine chancellor Coluccio Salutati, author of an invective against the Lombard lord. St Peter's presence, therefore, symbolizes the mediating role of the Church in the person of Pope Martin V, to sedate the conflict between Milan and Florence. At the extreme right, a group of four bystanders should personify Masaccio (looking away from the painting), Masolino (the shortest one), Leon Battista Alberti (in the foreground); and Filippo Brunelleschi (the last). The frequent use of portraiture makes the imaginary world of painting and the viewer's personal experience converge. For Masaccio's contemporaries it should have been easier to read this scene as a reflection of themselves and their own social realities. The fresco's figures populate a dilated space of their own world and have a natural demeanor: they stretch their necks to see better, they look over their neighbour's shoulder, gesticulate, observe, and gossip about the event with the next bystander.
St Paul Visiting St Peter in Prison
By Filippino Lippi.
The cycle continues towards the left, on the pillar, in the lower register, with the scene of St Peter in Prison visited by St Paul, painted by Filippino Lippi. St Peter is visible at a window with bars, while the visitor gives his back to the viewer. Perhaps the scene followed a drawing by Masaccio, as shown by the perfect architectural continuity with the adjacent scene of the Resurrection of the Son of Theophilus.
Decoration of the Brancacci Chapel stayed incomplete due to Masaccio's departure to Rome in 1427, where he died a year later. Moreover, the commissioning patron's exile in 1436 hindered any possibility of the frescos completion by other artists; in fact, it is probable that some parts already painted by Masaccio were removed as a sort of damnatio memoriae, because of their portraiture of the Brancacci family members. Only with the return of this family to Florence in 1480, the frescos could be resumed, by commissioning the artist closer and more faithful to the great Masaccio tradition, that is to say, Filippino Lippi, the son of his first apprentice. Filippino's intervention is not documented with precision, but is datable to ca. 1485 thanks to some indications given by Giorgio Vasari.
St Peter Being Freed from Prison
Lower right wall, right side. By Filippino Lippi.
This is the last scene, to be related to the imprisoned saint on the opposite wall. In fact, it shows St Peter's liberation from prison by an angel, and it's entirely attributable to Filippino Lippi. Here too the architecture is connected with that of the adjacent depiction. The sword-armed guard sleeps in the foreground, leaning on a stick, whilst the miraculous rescue is happening – this implies Christian salvation, as well as perhaps Florence's recovered autonomy after the contention with Milan.
Disputation with Simon Magus and Crucifixion of St Peter
Lower right wall, centre. By Filippino Lippi.
The large panel in the lower register, right wall, is by Filippino Lippi. Outside the city walls, (in Rome, as indicated by the Pyramid of Cestius along the Aurelian Walls and by the edifices peeking from the merlons) one may see, on the right, the disputation between Simon Magus and St Peter in front of Nero, with a pagan idol lying at the latter's feet. On the left, Peter's crucifixion is taking place: the saint is hanging upside down because he refused to be crucified in the same position as Christ's. The scene is replete with portraits: the youth with a beret on the extreme right is Filippino's self-portrait. The old man with a red hat in the group near St Peter and Simon Magus, is Antonio del Pollaiuolo. The young man below the archway and looking towards the viewer, is a portrait of Sandro Botticelli, Filippino's friend and teacher. In Simon Magus, some critics wish to see the poet Dante Alighieri, celebrated as the creator of the renowned Italian vernacular used by Lorenzo il Magnifico and Agnolo Poliziano.
Layout of the painting complex
Left wall
Left wall, higher part
II. Expulsion of Adam and Eve (Masaccio), V. Tribute (Masaccio), IX. St Peter Preaching (Masolino, detail)
Left wall, lower part
XIII. St Paul Visiting St Peter in Prison (Filippino Lippi, unrestored), XV. Raising of the Son of Theophilus and St Peter Enthroned (Masaccio and Filippino Lippi), XI. St Peter Healing the Sick with His Shadow (Masaccio)
Right wall
Right wall, higher part
X. Baptism of the Neophytes (Masaccio), VI. Healing of the Cripple and Raising of Tabitha (Masolino), I=Original Sin (Masolino)
Right wall, lower part
XII. The Distribution of Alms and Death of Ananias (Masaccio), XVI. Disputation with Simon Magus and Crucifixion of St Peter (Filippino Lippi), XIV. St Peter Being Freed from Prison (Filippino Lippi)
Influence
Masaccio's application of scientific perspective, unified lighting, use of chiaroscuro and skill in rendering the figures naturalistically established new traditions in Renaissance Florence that some scholars credit with helping to found the new Renaissance style.
The young Michelangelo was one of the many artists who received his artistic training by copying Masaccio's work in the chapel. The chapel was also the site of an assault on Michelangelo by rival sculptor Pietro Torrigiano, who resented Michelangelo's critical remarks about his draughtsmanship. He punched the artist so severely that he "crushed his nose like a biscuit" (according to Benvenuto Cellini) which deformed Michelangelo's face into that of a boxer's.
Restoration
The first restoration of the chapel frescoes was in 1481-1482, by Filippino Lippi, who was also responsible for completing the cycle. Due to the lamps used for lighting the dark chapel, the frescoes were relatively quickly coated in dust and dirt from the smoke. Another restoration was conducted at the end of the 16th century. Around 1670, sculptures were added, and the fresco-secco additions were made to the frescoes, to hide the various cases of nudity. Late 20th century restoration removed the overpainting and collected dust and dirt. Some critics, including professor and art historian James H. Beck, have criticised these efforts, while others, including professors, historians and restorers, have praised the work done on the chapel.
See also
List of major paintings by Masaccio
Notes and references
External links
Official site
Frescoes in the Cappella Brancacci of Santa Maria della Carmine in Florence by Masaccio
Frescoes in the Cappella Brancacci of Santa Maria della Carmine in Florence by Filippino Lippi
abcgallery.com:The Brancacci Chapel
Smarthistory: Expulsion from Paradise (Masaccio)
1420s paintings
1480s paintings
Art museums and galleries in Florence
Renaissance art
Fresco paintings in Florence
Catholic paintings
Paintings by Masaccio
Paintings by Filippino Lippi
1386 establishments in Europe
14th-century establishments in the Republic of Florence
Chapels in Florence
Religious museums in Italy |
4379816 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North%20Carolina%20Department%20of%20Health%20and%20Human%20Services | North Carolina Department of Health and Human Services | The North Carolina Department of Health and Human Services (NCDHHS or DHHS) is a large state government agency in the U.S. state of North Carolina, somewhat analogous to the United States Department of Health and Human Services. The NCDHHS has more than 19,000 employees. The NCDHHS has its origins in the former North Carolina Department of Human Resources (DHR). The head of NCDHHS (Secretary) is appointed by the Governor of North Carolina and is a member of the North Carolina Cabinet in the executive branch of the North Carolina government. The NCDHHS was created in 1971.
Divisions
Among its divisions are:
Division of Social Services
Division of Public Health
Division of Mental Health, Developmental Disabilities, and Substance Abuse Services
Division of Medical Assistance (most well known for the Medicaid program)
Secretaries
The following is a list of NCDHHS secretaries:
Lenox D. Baker, 1972–73
David Flaherty, 1973–76
Phillip J. Kirk, Jr., 1976–77
Sarah T. Morrow, 1977–85
Lucy H. Bode, 1985
Phillip J. Kirk, Jr., 1985–87
Paul Kayye, 1987
David Flaherty, 1987–93
Charles Robin Britt, 1993–97
H. David Bruton, 1997–2000
Carmen Hooker Odom, 2001–07
Dempsey Benton, 2007–09
Lanier Cansler, 2009–12
Albert Delia, 2012–13 (acting)
Aldona Wos, 2013–15
Rick Brajer, 2015–16
Mandy Cohen, 2017–21
Kody H. Kinsley, 2022-present
Programs
North Carolina LINKS Program
History
Department of Human Resources (1971-97)
The NCDHHS has its origins in the former North Carolina Department of Human Resources (DHR). The DHR was created in 1971 as an umbrella to consolidate what had been more than 300 free-standing state agencies. The first Secretary of Human Resources, Dr. Lenox Baker, was appointed by Governor Robert W. Scott.
The Division of Public Health, an original part of the department, was taken out of the DHR in 1989. Most of its functions were transferred back to the DHR in 1997, when the agency was renamed the Department of Health and Human Services.
Medicaid system and abuse policy (2004-10)
In April 2004, NCDHHS awarded Affiliated Computer Services (ACS) a contract to replace the existing Medicaid Management Information System operated by Hewlett Packard Enterprise Services. ACS was to complete the design by the summer of 2006, though the contract was terminated in July 2006 for delays. ACS filed a lawsuit against the state for wrongful work termination, and the civil court case was settled in January 2007, with ACS agreeing to install an additional software suite to help Medicaid generate savings. Two years later NCDHHS again attempted to replace their Medicaid computer system, awarding a $265 million contract to Computer Science Services in January 2009, with an August 2011 deadline for putting the system live.
An incident at NCDHHS psychiatric hospitals in 2009 attracted media attention, when a patient at Cherry Hospital was left in a chair for 24 hours before dying. Lanier Cansler was appointed as Secretary of NCDHHS shortly afterwards. One of his first actions was to create a zero-tolerance policy for patient abuse. A year later, former house co-speaker Richard T. Morgan filed an ethics complaint against Cansler, alleging a conflict of interest when Cansler awarded a no-bid HHS contract to one of his former lobbying clients, Carolinas Center for Medical Excellence. The claim would be dismissed early the next year.
In 2009 and 2010, state regulators found that companies were billing for never performed care in the state Medicaid system, prompting the state General Assembly to change the criteria for patients to be eligible for Medicaid's personal care services. On September 8, 2010, Disability Rights North Carolina wrote an open letter to the Department of Justice and Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services, stating that despite thousands of individuals being referred to in-home PCS (Personal Care Services) since April 1, "relatively few" individuals had received care since, despite NCDHHS' code dictating that "assessments and patient notification should occur within 14 days." On November 4, 2010, WRAL published a report that delays in the NCDHHS Medicaid program had "people waiting weeks or months for care," with one elderly double-amputee still waiting to receive state-funded in-home care after five months. Disability Rights North Carolina further reported that people were dying as they waited to be assessed for services. Explained WRAL, "the state tried to rid the system of fraud and abuse, but the result has been that those who aren't trying to take advantage of the system are unintentionally penalized."
Vetoes and budget cuts (2011)
The state budget for the division overseeing Medicaid was around $3 billion by 2011. In July 2011, Republican lawmakers in North Carolina overrode three of Governor Bev Perdue's vetoes, including her veto of the budget bill for the state, making the S781 measure into law. Medical Malpractice Reform S33 and Medicaid/Health Choice Provider Requirement S496 were also both passed into law. The vetoes met with a fair degree of controversy both politically and in the press. About one of the passed laws, WRAL wrote "federal rules require Medicaid to be managed by a single state agency. S496 would give the final say in Medicaid appeals to an administrative law judge, not to NCDHHS, the agency administering the grant. Democratic critics of the bill said the change could provoke federal officials to withhold some or all of the state's Medicaid money, but Republicans countered that if it did, NCDHHS could suspend that part of the statute while seeking a waiver from the feds."
As a result of the vetoes, Republican lawmakers passed a $19.7 billion state budget that dictated cutting $356 million in state Medicaid funding by April 2012, with a provision requiring NCDHHS to make their own budget changes to achieve the cut. In August 2011, Cansler announced that NCDHHS would find it "next to impossible to achieve this budget," noting that the relatively long federal approval process for budget cuts might make the April 2012 deadline untenable. Cansler explained that without legislative approval of cuts granted in a timely manner, to meet the deadline NCDHHS would "have to make additional reductions," including potentially cutting services defined as "optional" such as podiatry, dental care, organ transplants and hearing aids. To allow input on what to cut, Cansler made North Carolina Medical Care Advisory Committee meetings public.
Budget shortfall and cuts (2011)
By October 2011, NCDHHS was facing a projected $139 million budget shortfall for Medicaid, partly because of "other agency liabilities that weren't paid for in the spending plan." NCDHHS argued that the legislature's dictated budget cuts hadn't taken into account a $300 million accounting error from 2008, and also hadn't noted that "the state also must repay $42 million after a federal audit found personal care services were either billed improperly or had inadequate documentation from providers." Among other problems, NCDHHS also stated that some of the requested cuts were illegal according to Medicaid's federal rules, and could endanger millions in federal revenue. Also, a slow approval process for changes from the Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services was projected to interfere in actually implementing the cuts before the state's deadline.
After creating a list of potential NCDHHS budget cuts for the General Assembly, on October 27, 2011, Cansler wrote a letter to Governor Perdue, arguing that forced NCDHHS cuts to meet the shortfall would be "devastating" to patients and health care providers in North Carolina. In response, House Speaker Thom Tillis argued the shortfall was the fault of NCDHHS for not communicating, stating "a lot of those cuts were made in consultation with the secretary and the Department of Health and Human Services. Obviously, if we'd been consulted by them and they said they weren't possible to begin with, (the cuts) wouldn't have been in there." Cansler, however, argued the nature of the cuts had been explained in two letters from the governor to the committee, dated in May and June. According to NCDHHS, in October, several lawmakers "publicly pledged to help fill the shortfall," eyeing the state's at the time $150 surplus to help. Stated representative Nelson Dollar at the time, "we are not going to cut services, and we are not going to cut rates to make up for one-time liabilities."
Medicaid IT delays, shortfall patch (2011-12)
In late 2011, NCDHHS revealed ongoing problems with the state's contract to refurbish the Medicaid billing system. In particular, the state's 2008 contract with Affiliated Computer Services (ACS) had faced two year delays, with the budget running from $287 million to $495 million. All but about 10% of the contract was paid with federal, not state, dollars. Cansler stated the delays were due to constantly changing federal guidelines, requiring constant system redesign. A performance audit of NCDHHS released on January 10, 2012, found problems with oversight of the Medicaid system's development. Among other budgetary missteps, the audit claimed that the computer system had been altered after final approval, leading to unexpected changes in the software.
Despite the General Assembly's response to the Medicaid budget shortfall in October 2011, over the following months money was not indicated by lawmakers as available except through the governor's office, leaving NCDHHS the choice of either "large-scale rate cuts or the elimination of some optional services". NCDHHS announced in December 2011 that it might cut adult services like hospice care and mental health care. As a result, the press reported that disabled but mentally sound North Carolinians could be institutionalized or made homeless. Reimbursements for physicians were also put on the cutting block, though as of January 2012, the federal government had approved less than half of the 54 rate cuts proposed by NCDHHS. At the time the press described a growing "political fight" on how to fill the budget hole, with "no signs of a solution". Officials estimated the Medicaid shortfall could grow to US$243 million by the end of the year.
On January 13, 2012, Cansler resigned from his role as secretary of NCDHHS, giving a two-week warning. Governor Perdue named Al Delia, her senior policy advisor, as acting secretary of the department in early February. At the time, Cansler stated in interviews that he had grown frustrated with the "political contest" over funding in the state legislature. Early in 2012, legislators passed a patch for the Medicaid shortfall. That year, the Medicaid program was estimated to have a $13 billion budget in state and federal funds.
Personal care crisis (2012)
As of April 2012, North Carolina stood to "lose $414 million in federal funding" over conflicts with the federal government on the regulations for allocating funding for personal care services. The North Carolina Association of Long Term Care Facilities asserted that if the conflicts were not resolved, "30,000 people could be 'put out on the street'." A federal deadline to fix the problem was initially set for May 1. On April 4, federal regulators gave "tentative approval" to NCDHHS' proposal, giving the state until the end of 2012 to implement fixes to personal care services. The new plan, according to NCDHHS, made most applicants eligible for long-term care, though some "4,000 people who now receive services in long-term care facilities will have to find alternative arrangements."
NCDHHS implemented the new computer system NC Fast in May 2012, an integrated case management system that replaced the 19 legacy computer systems previously used to deliver social service benefits. A limited version of the system was first tested that month in Guilford County, with state implementation to take place later. NCDHHS fired Craigan L. Gray, the head of the state Medicaid program, in June 2012. In October 2012, the state governor had $20 million shifted from other NCDHHS departments to fund adding 6,300 pre-kindergarten slots for at-risk toddlers.
In October 2012, it was projected that "more than 11,000 disabled people in group or adult care homes will no longer qualify for the services through Medicaid as of Jan. 1 because the state considers them functional enough to live without them." A special session on the group home funding was held in November 2012, called by house speaker Thom Tillis "to fix a budget gap that could cause about 2,000 people with mental illnesses and developmental disabilities to lose their homes." Wrote WRAL, "the crisis was triggered in July when the Republican-controlled legislature approved a one-word tweak to the state budget that excluded group homes from a nearly $40 million fund intended to cushion the effects of Medicaid eligibility changes for programs for the disabled."
New cabinet hires and NC Fast (2013)
On January 4, 2013, North Carolina Governor-elect Pat McCrory swore in Aldona Wos as Secretary of the North Carolina Department of Health and Human Services. At the time, NCDHHS had around 18,000 employees and a budget of around $18 billion. Wos declined her $128,000 salary and was instead paid a token $1. A new performance audit of the Department of Health and Human Services for 2012 was released on January 31, 2013. The audit criticized NCDHHS for its lack of record keeping and management concerning various funds, among other budgetary problems. Wos released her responses to the audit, agreeing on all points with the auditor, including the conclusion that NCDHHS had consistently exceeded budgeted amounts for administrative costs due to lack of oversight.
When speaking to the General Assembly in February 2013, Wos laid out her department priorities as "Medicaid and information technology." In July 2013, NCDHHS went live with its NCTracks system for managing Medicaid billings. Also that month, after three years in development NCDHHS oversaw the statewide rollout of NC Fast, a new system meant to manage the state's food stamps. Two months later, state food banks reported that NC Fast had developed a significant backlog, with North Carolina residents turning to the food banks as a last resort. Media criticism focused on Accenture, the company contracted to build the system. Accenture had previously run into budget issues with other contracted state systems.
Federal authorities began investigating NCDHHS for signs of wrongdoing in relation to work agreements in July 2013 from as early as 2006, with Wos and NCDHHS announcing their cooperation. In September 2013, Wos attracted criticism in the press for NCDHHS pay hikes, as well as a number of department hires that other employees perceived as underqualified. Wos defended the work contracts, arguing the higher rates were an effort to attract talent and avoid turnover, and that the hires were "an integral part of our effort to deliver more efficient, effective services." Under Wos, NCDHHS expanded its audit team in August from 6 to around 30. Wos was questioned at a state legislative hearing in October 2013, with lawmakers addressing higher salaries, severance payments, and her stated plan to reform Medicare in state.
Backlog resolution (2014)
In early 2014, NCDHHS dealt with a backlog of duplicate food stamp applications in the NCFast system, with many people waiting over a month for benefits. The backlog reached about 24,000 cases by January 18. On January 23, the USDA threatened to withhold $88 million in administrative funding for the state's food stamp program unless the backlog was promptly dealt with. The first deadline was set as February 10, and required the resolution of the "longest-delay cases." County agencies at NCDHHS met the deadline "by working nights and weekends, hiring temporary staff and diverting staff from other program areas." An end of March deadline was given for fixing the entire backlog. Though NCDHHS initially gave assurances it could meet the March deadline as well, on March 11, Wos told lawmakers that it would be difficult to resolve the outstanding 1,975 backlogged cases before March 31.
On March 25, Wos announced that NCDHHS was on track to meet the March deadline, excluding that Guilford County had just revealed 8,100 cases that hadn't been entered in computers or NCTrack. Wos argued the rate which NCDHHS' cut down on the backlog, however, showed "that [NCFast] works and it works very well." The state sent 22 workers to help Guilford County clear the cases before the March 31 deadline. In July 2014, the press revealed that in March, "the staff of the Guilford County [NCDHHS had been] instructed not to enter information into NC FAST in order to hide a case backlog from the [USDA]."
Surplus, Brajer hired (2015-16)
Throughout 2013 and early 2014, NCDHHS worked to resolve glitches with the NCTracks Medicaid billing system. The department announced the system was working "effectively" by July 204. The state's Medicaid program ended 2014 with a $130 million surplus, a contrast to the usual deficit held by the department. Despite the surplus, Wos stated that she was "disappointed" that the state elected not to move forward with her proposal to reform the state's Medicaid program. By 2015, NCDHHS had announced that the glitches from both NCTTracks and NC Fast were resolved, and Wos had "[convinced] the legislature of the need to invest in the state’s medical examiner system."
Wos resigned on August 15, 2015, stating in a press conference that it was "simply time to go home" and spend time with her family. Asked by the press if she would "change any of the decisions that she made over a sometimes rocky tenure," she replied "not at all." Wos was replaced by Rick Brajer, a former medical technology executive. After being sworn in, Brajer asserted to the press that Wos' resignation had been unrelated to the ongoing federal investigation into NCDHHS.
In October 2015, NCDHHS introduced their Medicaid 1115 waiver, which petitioned federal Medicaid authorities to change the state system to a "capitized" billing process, where doctors bill a set per-patient fee as compared to billing for specific medical items. At the time, the state was the "largest state that has not moved from a fee-for-service system to capitated payment." Medicaid was running about $185 million below budget at the time of the proposal. Brajer was praised for the development from lawmakers such as Senator Tommy Tucker, who had previously been vocal in criticizing the department. Tucker also stated "I don’t want us to minimize the effort of these folks and the previous secretary in the reform of the department.... [that effort] has allowed us to look at $200 or $300 million in surplus."
The Opioid epidemic, GenX in drinking water, and the COVID-19 pandemic (2017-22)
In January 2017 Mandy Cohen was appointed Health Secretary of the Department by Governor Roy Cooper.
She dealt with multiple health crises in North Carolina including the Opioid epidemic, GenX in drinking water, and the COVID-19 pandemic.
Cohen navigated the political divide over Medicaid in North Carolina, with Democratic Governor Cooper wanting to expand it under the Affordable Care Act and the Republican-majority North Carolina State Legislature opposing such measures. The Department led North Carolina through a transition from free-for-service Medicaid to a model contracted by the state with private insurance companies that are paid pre-determined rates to provide health services. Healthy Opportunities was created, an initiative testing the impact of providing high-need Medicaid enrollees with housing, food, transportation, and interpersonal safety interventions with the goal of improving public health and reducing costs. The initiative was funded with $650 million from state and federal Medicaid, authorized by the Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services. She implemented the Opioid Action Plan, which uses $45.5 million in grant funding to fight opioid misuse in the state. The plan also updated the Controlled Substance Reporting System, helping doctors identify patients at risk of misusing opioids. The plan led to a decline in overdose deaths in North Carolina for the first time in over a decade. In 2019 Cohen criticized the North Carolina House of Representatives' proposed budget for 2019–21, arguing that it harmed North Carolinians by making massive cuts to the Department of Health and Human Services, potentially impacting "everything from health inspections of restaurants to the safety of drinking water to child protective services." Governor Cooper announced on November 30, 2021, that Cohen would leave office on January 1, 2022.
COVID-19 pandemic
Cohen stressed the need for North Carolinians to wear face masks, practice social distancing, and wash their hands in order to prevent the spread of COVID-19. In March 2020 she sent a letter to the president of the 2020 Republican National Convention, asking for detailed plans on how the convention would operate during the COVID-19 pandemic after President Donald Trump published a series of tweets threatening to pull the convention out of North Carolina. The Department announced the creation of up to 300 testing sites in North Carolina, active through July, and requested more supplies from the federal government. On June 30, 2020, the Department announced that it would partner with Omnicare, a company owned by CVS Health, to administer tests to 36,000 nursing home residents and 25,000 nursing home employees in over 400 locations.
In the beginning of July, Cohen warned of people becoming desensitized to the data being collected about COVID-19. She said that she had concerns about teacher safety if schools were to re-open amidst the pandemic, but was confident in studies showing that the virus has minimal health consequences on younger children, saying that schools "have not played a significant role in the spreading of COVID-19." She met with William L. Roper, president of the University of North Carolina, to discuss how to resume in-person instruction for students at North Carolina's public colleges and universities. Earlier that month, during a press conference, she had called the virus a "serious threat". She warned of the state possibly returning to a stay-at-home order. She had also linked North Carolina's rise in cases with the reopening of the state. Cohen indicated that there would be a test surge in areas with troubling metrics.
References
Health and Human Services
State departments of health of the United States
Government agencies established in 1971
1971 establishments in North Carolina
Medical and health organizations based in North Carolina
Health and Human Services
Government of North Carolina |
4380127 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/94th%20Fighter%20Squadron | 94th Fighter Squadron | The 94th Fighter Squadron is a unit of the United States Air Force 1st Operations Group located at Joint Base Langley–Eustis, Virginia. The 94th is equipped with the F-22 Raptor.
The 94 FS is one of the oldest units in the United States Air Force, first being organized on 20 August 1917 as the 94th Aero Squadron of the United States Army Air Service at Kelly Field, Texas. The squadron deployed to France and fought on the Western Front during World War I as a pursuit squadron. It took part in the Champagne-Marne defensive; Aisne-Marne offensive; St. Mihiel offensive, and Meuse-Argonne offensive.
In 1924, it was consolidated with the 103d Aero Squadron (Pursuit). The 103d was largely composed of former members of the French Air Service Lafayette Escadrille (from the French Escadrille de Lafayette). This was a squadron of American volunteer pilots who had joined the French Air Service prior to the United States entry into the war on 6 April 1917. In July 1926, with the disestablishment of the U.S. Army Air Service, the squadron became part of the U.S. Army Air Corps (USAAC).
In June 1941, the squadron became part of the renamed U.S. Army Air Forces (USAAF). During World War II the unit served in the Mediterranean Theater of Operations (MTO) as part of Twelfth Air Force as a P-38 Lightning fighter squadron, participating in the North African and Italian campaigns. In September 1947, it became part of the newly established United States Air Force (USAF). During the Cold War it was both an Air Defense Command (ADC) fighter-interceptor squadron, and later as part of Tactical Air Command (TAC). It was one of the first USAF operational squadrons equipped with the F-15A Eagle in January 1976. With the disestablishment of TAC in 1992, it was assigned to the newly established Air Combat Command (ACC).
Overview
The 94 Fighter Squadron (94 FS) is tasked to provide air superiority for the United States and allied forces by engaging and destroying enemy forces, equipment, defenses or installations for global deployment as part of the 1st Fighter Wing.
The squadron flies one of today's most advanced air dominance fighters, the F-22A Raptor, being the USAF's second operational F-22 squadron in 2006. 94 FS aircraft, like other aircraft from the 1st Fighter Wing, have the tail code "FF".
History
The 94th Fighter Squadron has a long history and traditions that date back to World War I. The squadron was activated at Kelly Field, Texas, on 20 August 1917 as the 94th Aero Squadron. On 8 April 1924, the unit was consolidated with the 103d Aero Squadron which was organized on 31 August 1917.
World War I
See 94th Aero Squadron for an expanded World War I history
On 30 September 1917, two officers and 150 enlisted men left Texas for France and were sent to seven different aircraft factories for maintenance and repair training. In April 1918, the 94th was reunited and stationed at the Gengault Aerodrome near Toul, France, where it began operations as the first American squadron at the front. It was placed under the command of Major Raoul Lufbery, an ace pilot and veteran of the Lafayette Escadrille.
As the first American squadron in operation, its aviators were allowed to create their squadron insignia. They used the opportunity to commemorate the United States' entry into World War I by taking the phrase of tossing one's "hat in the ring" (a boxing phrase to signify one's willingness to become a challenger) and symbolizing it with the literal image of Uncle Sam's red, white and blue top hat going through a ring.
On 14 April, Lt. Douglas Campbell and Lt. Alan Winslow downed two German aircraft. These were the first victories ever scored by an American unit. No 94th pilot achieved more aerial victories than 1st Lt. Edward V. "Eddie" Rickenbacker, who was named America's "Ace of Aces" during the war. In his Nieuport 28 and later his SPAD S.XIII, Rickenbacker was credited with 26 of the squadron's 70 kills during World War I. By the end of hostilities, the 94th had won battle honors for participation in 11 major engagements and was awarded the Croix de Guerre with Palm.
The squadron was assigned to the 1st Pursuit Group based at Toul (5 May 1918), and subsequently at Touquin (28 June 1918), Saints (9 July 1918) and Rembercourt (1 September 1918). Rickenbacker took command of the squadron on 25 September, at the start of the Meuse Argonne Offensive, and retained it through the end of the war. Another flying ace of this squadron was Harvey Weir Cook.
The 103d Aero Squadron constructed facilities, December 1917 – 1 February 1918; with flight echelon originally composed of former members of the Lafayette Escadrille, participated in combat as a pursuit unit with the French Fourth Army, French Sixth Army, Detachment of the Armies of the North (French), French Eighth Army, and the American First Army, 18 February – 10 November 1918.
On 8 April 1924, the 103d was consolidated by the Air Service with the 94th Pursuit Squadron.
Between the wars: 1920s and 1930s
The squadron returned home in the spring of 1919, and after several moves, the 94th settled with the 1st Pursuit Group at Selfridge Field, Michigan, in July 1922. In 1923, the unit was re-designated the 94th Pursuit Squadron. The squadron stayed in Michigan for the remainder of the inter-war years, training in its pursuit role. The squadron flew 17 different aircraft during this period, culminating with the P-38 Lightning. One week after Pearl Harbor, the 94th moved to Naval Air Station San Diego, California. Expecting to see action in the Pacific, the squadron instead received orders for Europe. In the summer of 1942, the 94th and its parent group deployed under its own power to England, the U.K., via Canada, Labrador, Greenland, and Iceland as part of Operation Bolero. This marked the first time that a fighter squadron flew its own aircraft from the United States to Europe.
World War II
In May 1942, all pursuit groups and squadrons were re-designated "fighter". In November the 94th Fighter Squadron entered combat in North Africa during Operation Torch. Based in Algeria, Tunisia, and Italy, the 94th again distinguished itself in combat by winning two Presidential Distinguished Unit Citations as part of the 1st Group. In addition, the squadron earned 14 Campaign honors, participating in almost every campaign in North Africa and Europe. 64 pilots of the 94th Fighter Squadron were credited with 124 Axis aircraft destroyed. The 94th produced a total of six aces in World War II. In April 1945 the 1st Fighter Group received two YP-80 jets for operational testing. The 94th Squadron's Major Edward LaClare flew two operational sorties in the YP-80 although without encountering combat.
Cold War
After the end of World War II, the 94th trained in the Lockheed P-80 Shooting Star, America's first operational jet fighter, and was stationed at March AFB, California. In July 1950, the group became the 94th Fighter Interceptor Squadron (FIS) and was eventually assigned to Air Defense Command (ADC), later renamed Aerospace Defense Command (ADC). After the P-80, the squadron flew several aircraft in the interceptor role, including the F-86, F-102 and F-106. In 1956, the 94th won the Worldwide Rocket Firing Meet held at Vincent AFB, Arizona. In the 1960s, the unit was among the first ready units sent to Florida during the Cuban Missile Crisis in October 1962. The squadron carried out combat air patrol missions off the coast of Florida, setting a record for F-106 hours and sorties. During the 1960s, the 94th, along with other ADC units, maintained an alert force in Alaska.
With its supersonic F-106s, the squadron intercepted Russian bombers on missions over the Bering Sea. Then, in June 1969, with tensions mounting following the Pueblo Incident and the downing of an EC-121 electronic observation plane by North Korea, the squadron deployed to Osan AB, South Korea, for six months. It then replaced the 75th FIS at Wurtsmith AFB, Michigan until 1 July 1971. At that time, the squadron was redesignated the 94th Tactical Fighter Squadron, reassigned to Tactical Air Command, and reunited with the 27th and 71st Squadrons under the 1st Tactical Fighter Wing (1 TFW), flying the F-4E. The 94th assumed the duties of a Replacement Training Unit (RTU), providing F-4 aircrews for operational combat squadrons.
In 1975, the 1st TFW moved to Langley AFB, Virginia, and began the 94 TFS flying the F-15A and F-15B Eagle, with the squadron becoming combat-ready in early 1977. In September 1992, the squadron was renamed the 94th Fighter Squadron (94 FS).
The 94th Fighter Squadron did not deploy to Southwest Asia for the first Persian Gulf War, although many of its pilots and maintenance personnel did as augmenters to both the 71st and 27th Fighter Squadrons from the 1st Fighter Wing. The 94th successfully supported the UN-sanctioned Operation Southern Watch and Operation Northern Watch in Iraq with many deployments to Saudi Arabia and Turkey in the period leading up to the Iraq War. The 94th Fighter Squadron pilots repeatedly defeated Iraqi surface-to-air missiles (SAMs) and anti-aircraft artillery (AAA) attacks while enforcing UN sanctions, without loss or damage to a single aircraft.
Since the September 11 attacks on the United States, the aircraft of the 94th have patrolled the skies of the East Coast of the United States.
Modern era
In 2006, the 94th became the second operational squadron to fly the F-22 Raptor, receiving its first F-22A in June 2006, and receiving its full complement of F-22As, with AF Ser. No / tail number (T/N) 05-0094, in June 2007. This was due to the 94 FS trading tail number 086 for 094 with the 90th Fighter Squadron, which is part of the 3rd Wing based at Elmendorf AFB, Alaska.
Additionally, the 1st FW traded AF Ser. No. / tail number 05-0084 to the 90th Fighter Squadron for tail number 05-0101. Tail 10-194 is the current flagship of 94th Fighter Squadron.
2013 Sequestration
Air Combat Command officials announced a stand down and reallocation of flying hours for the rest of the fiscal year 2013 due to mandatory budget cuts. The across-the board spending cuts, called sequestration, took effect 1 March when Congress failed to agree on a deficit-reduction plan.
Squadrons either stood down on a rotating basis or kept combat ready or at a reduced readiness level called "basic mission capable" for part or all of the remaining months in fiscal 2013. This affected the 94th Fighter Squadron with a stand-down grounding from 9 April-30 September 2013.
Lineage
103d Aero Squadron
Organized as the 103d Aero Squadron on 31 August 1917
Redesignated 103d Aero Squadron (Pursuit) on 13 February 1918
Redesignated 103d Aero Squadron, 4 March 1919
Demobilized on 18 August 1919
Reconstituted on 8 April 1924 and consolidated with the 94th Pursuit Squadron as the 94th Pursuit Squadron
94th Fighter Squadron
Organized as the 94th Aero Squadron on 20 August 1917
Redesignated 94th Aero Squadron (Pursuit) on 30 March 1918
Redesignated 94th Aero Squadron on 1 June 1919
Redesignated 94th Squadron (Pursuit) on 14 March 1921
Redesignated 94th Pursuit Squadron on 25 January 1923
Consolidated with the 103d Aero Squadron on 8 April 1924
Redesignated 94th Pursuit Squadron (Interceptor) on 6 December 1939
Redesignated 94th Pursuit Squadron (Fighter) on 12 March 1941
Redesignated 94th Fighter Squadron (Twin Engine) on 15 May 1942
Redesignated 94th Fighter Squadron, Two Engine on 28 February 1944
Inactivated on 16 October 1945
Redesignated 94th Fighter Squadron, Single Engine on 5 April 1946
Redesignated 94th Fighter Squadron, Jet Propelled on 20 June 1946
Activated on 3 July 1946
Redesignated 94th Fighter Squadron, Jet on 15 June 1948
Redesignated 94th Fighter-Interceptor Squadron on 16 April 1950
Redesignated 94th Tactical Fighter Squadron on 1 July 1971
Redesignated 94th Fighter Squadron on 1 November 1991
Assignments
103d Aero Squadron
Post Headquarters, Kelly Field, 31 August 1917
Aviation Concentration Center, 5 November 1917
Third Aviation Instruction Center, 28 December 1917
Air Service Headquarters, American Expeditionary Force, 13 February 1918 (attached to Groupe de Combat 21 18 February 1918, Sixth Army (France) 11 April 1918, Army of the North (France) after 30 April 1918)
2d Pursuit Group, 5 July 1918
3d Pursuit Group, 7 August 1918
1st Air Depot, 5 June 1919
Advanced Section Services of Supply, 6–19 February 1919
Eastern Department, 4 March-18 Aug 1919
94th Aero (later, 94th Pursuit) Squadron
Post Headquarters, Kelly Field, 20 August 1917
Aviation Concentration Center, 5 October 1917
Overseas transport: RMS Adriatic, 27 October-10 November 1917
Headquarters Air Service, AEF, 12 November 1917
Attached to French Air Service for training, 19 November 1917 – 24 January 1918
3d Instructional Center, 24 January 1918
1st Pursuit Organization Center, 30 March 1918
1st Pursuit Group, 5 May 1918
5th Pursuit Group, 20 November 1918
1st Air Depot, 17 April 1919
Advanced Section Services of Supply, 5 May 1919
Post Headquarters, Mitchel Field, 1 June 1919
1st Pursuit Group, 22 August 1919 to consolidation.
Consolidated Squadron
1st Pursuit (later, 1st Fighter) Group, from consolidation in 1924 to 16 October 1945
1st Fighter (later, 1st Fighter-Interceptor) Group, 3 July 1946
Attached to Alaskan Air Command, 13 October 1947 – 16 February 1948
4705th Defense Wing, 6 February 1952
27th Air Division, 1 March 1952
1st Fighter Group, 18 August 1955
1st Fighter Wing, 1 February 1961
Attached to 314th Air Division, c. 6 June – 17 November 1969
23d Air Division, 1 December 1969
1st Tactical Fighter Wing, 1 July 1971
1st Operations Group, 1 October 1991–present
Stations
103d Aero Squadron
Kelly Field, Texas, 31 August-30 October 1917
Aviation Concentration Center, Garden City, New York, 5 November 1917
Overseas transport: RMS Baltic, 23 November-7 December
Liverpool, England, 8 December
Windall Downs Rest Camp, Winchester, England, 8 December
Southampton, England, 23 December
American Rest Camp, Le Havre, France, 24 December
Issoudun Aerodrome, France, 28 December
La Noblette Aerodrome, France, 13 Feb 1918
Bonne Maison Aerodrome, France, 8 April 1918
Leffrinckouke Aerodrome, France, 30 April 1918
Crochte Aerodrome, France, 6 June 1918
Gengault Aerodrome (Toul), France, 30 June 1918
Vaucouleurs Aerodrome, France, 7 August 1918
Lisle-en-Barrois Aerodrome, France, 20 September 1918
Foucaucourt Aerodrome, France, 6 November 1918
Colombey-les-Belles Airdrome, France, 5 Jun 1919
Brest, France, 6-19 Feb 1919
Garden City, New York, 4-18 Mar 1919
Undetermined, 19 March-18 Aug 1919
94th Aero (later, 94th Pursuit) Squadron
Kelly Field, Texas, 20 August 1917
Aviation Concentration Center, Garden City, New York, 5–27 October 1917
Liverpool, England, 10 November 1917
British Rest Camp #2, Le Havre, France, 11 November 1917
Reuilly Barracks, Paris, France, 18 November 1917
Squadron divided into flights and sent to several locations in France for training
Issoudun Aerodrome, France, 24 January 1918
Epiez Aerodrome, France, 1 April 1918
Gengault Aerodrome, Toul, France, 7 April 1918
Touquin Aerodrome, France, 29 June 1918
Saints Aerodrome, France, 9 July 1918
Rembercourt Aerodrome, France, 30 August 1918
Noers Aerodrome, Longuyon, France, 20 Nov 1918
Coblenz Aerodrome, Germany, 31 Dec 1918
Colombey-les-Belles Airdrome, France, 17 Apr 1919
Le Mans, France, 5–18 May 1919
Mitchel Field, New York, 1 Jun 1919
Selfridge Field, Michigan, 27 June 1919
Kelly Field, Texas, c. 31 August 1919
Ellington Field, Texas, 1 July 1921
Selfridge Field, Michigan, 1 July 1922 to consolidation.
Consolidated Squadron
Selfridge Field, Michigan, from consolidation in 1924
San Diego Naval Air Station, California, 9 December 1941
Long Beach Army Air Field, California, 6 February – 20 May 1942
RAF Kirton in Lindsey, England, 10 June 1942
RAF Ibsley, England, 27 August – 24 October 1942
Tafaraoui Airfield, Algeria, 15 November 1942
Nouvion Airfield, Algeria, 21 November 1942
Youks-les-Bains Airfield, Algeria, 28 November 1942
Detachments operated from Maison Blanche Airport, Algeria, 6–14 December 1942
Biskra Airfield, Algeria, 14 December 1942
Chateaudun-du-Rhumel Airfield, Algeria, 14 February 1943
Mateur Airfield, Tunisia, c. 20 June 1943
Detachments operated from: Dittaino, Sicily, 6–18 September 1943
Detachments operated from: Gambut, Libya, 4–12 October 1943
Djedeida Airfield, Tunisia, c. 1 November 1943
Monserrato, Sardinia, 29 November 1943
Gioia del Colle Airfield, Italy, c. 10 December 1943
Salsola Airfield, Italy, January 1944
Detachments operated from: Aghione, Corsica, 10–18 August 1944
Detachments operated from: Vincenzo Airfield, Italy, 9 January – 18 February 1945
Lesina Airfield, Italy, 16 March 1945
Marcianise, Italy, 26 September – 16 October 1945
March Field (later, AFB), California, 3 July 1946
Deployed at Ladd Field, Alaska, 13 October 1947 – 16 February 1948
George AFB, California, 18 July 1950
Selfridge AFB, Michigan, 18 August 1955
Deployed at Osan AB, South Korea, c. 6 June – 17 November 1969
Wurtsmith AFB, Michigan, 31 December 1969
MacDill AFB, Florida, 1 July 1971
Langley AFB, Virginia, 30 June 1975–present
Aircraft
103d Aero Squadron
Spad VII, 1918
Spad XIII, 1918
94th Aero (later, 94th Pursuit) Squadron
Nieuport 28, 1918
Spad XIII, 1918-1919
Fokker D.VII, Albatros D.V, Pfalz D.III, and Roland D.VI, during 1919
Royal Aircraft Factory S.E.5, 1919–1922
Curtiss JN-4, JN-6, Airco DH.4, Orenco D, and PW-5, during the period 1919 to consolidation in 1924
Thomas-Morse MB-3, 1922 to consolidation in 1924
Consolidated Squadron
Thomas-Morse MB-3, from consolidation in 1924 to 1925
PW-8, 1924–1926
P-1 Hawk, 1925–1931
P-2 Hawk, P-3 Hawk, and P-5 Hawk, 1926–1931
Boeing P-12, 1930–1932
P-6 Hawk, 1932
Berliner-Joyce P-16, 1932–1934
P-6 Hawk, P-26 Peashooter, and Consolidated P-30 (PB-2), 1934–1938
Seversky P-35, 1934–1941
P-36 Hawk, 1938–1940
P-40 Warhawk (and probably P-43 Lancer), 1939–1941
P-38 Lightning, 1941–1945
P-80 Shooting Star, 1946–1949
F-86D Sabre Interceptor, 1949–1960
F-106 Delta Dart, 1960–1971
F-4 Phantom II, 1971–1975
F-15 Eagle, 1976–2005
F-22A Raptor, 2006–present
See also
Barber pole#Aviation and space flight for insignia on aircraft.
Hamilton Coolidge
Reed Chambers
David M. Peterson
Raoul Lufbery
James Meissner
Eddie Rickenbacker
List of American Aero Squadrons
List of World War I flying aces
Lafayette Flying Corps
References
Notes
Citations
Bibliography
Further reading
Guttman, Jon. USAS 1st Pursuit Group. Botley, Oxford, UK: Osprey Publishing Ltd., 2008. .
Woolley, Charles. The Hat in the Ring Gang: The Combat History of the 94th Aero Squadron in World War I. Atglen, Pennsylvania: Schiffer Publishing, . .
External links
14 July 2008 - 90th anniversary Commemoration of 27th, 94th, 95th, 147th aero squadrons in France
094
Military units and formations in Virginia
094 |
4380305 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palatines | Palatines | Palatines () are the citizens and princes of the Palatine states of the Holy Roman Empire, controlled directly by the Holy Roman Emperor. After the fall of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806, the Palatine nationality came to refer specifically to people of the Rhenish Palatinate, known simply as "the Palatinate".
American Palatines, e.g. the Pennsylvania Dutch and New York Dutch, have maintained a presence in America since 1683. They are collectively known as "Palatine Dutch" ().
Towards the end of the 17th century and into the 18th, the Palatinate was repeatedly invaded by France, during the Nine Years' War and the War of the Spanish Succession. At that time the region had not yet fully recovered from the Thirty Years' War. Scorched earth policies and continuous military requisitions caused widespread devastation and famine. The winter of 1708/09 was notably cold, resulting in further hardships.
Some 13,000 Protestant refugees – known at the time as "Poor Palatines", although they included people from other German-speaking countries – arrived in England between May and November 1709. Their arrival led to a highly politicised debate over the merits of immigration. The government of the newly formed Kingdom of Great Britain moved the vast majority to Ireland and British North America. The most successful and long-lived Palatine settlements occurred in counties Limerick and Wexford in Ireland, and in the colony of New York.
Many of the Palatines settled in Ireland in 1709 had, within a few decades, also moved to North America. While fewer than 200 families remained as permanent settlers in Ireland, they maintained their distinctive culture until well into the 19th-century, and recognisably Palatine surnames became distributed throughout Ireland. The largest concentration of descendants of Palatines is in a wide area around Rathkeale, County Limerick.
In New York, nearly 3,000 Palatines arrived in 1710, transported by the British government in 10 ships. Many of them were initially required to work off the cost of their passage, residing at camps along the Hudson River. Close to 850 families settled in the Hudson River Valley, primarily in what are now Germantown and Saugerties, New York. They produced stores for the Navy in work camps on each side of the Hudson.
In 1723, 100 heads of families from the work camps were the first Europeans to acquire land west of Little Falls, in present-day Herkimer County on both the north and south sides along the Mohawk River. This settlement was halfway through the valley, on the frontier far beyond Schenectady and Albany. Later additional Palatines settled along the Mohawk for several miles, founding towns such as Palatine and Palatine Bridge, and in the Schoharie Valley.
Holy Roman Nationality
Palatines, Paladins, and the Holy Roman Empire (800–1806)
The term palatine or palatinus was first used in the Roman Empire for chamberlains of the emperor (e.g. Chamberlain of the Holy Roman Church) due to their association with the Palatine Hill, the home where Roman emperors lived since Augustus Caesar (and whence "palace").
After the fall of Ancient Rome, a new feudal type of title known simply as palatinus, came into use. The comes palatinus (Count palatine) assisted the Holy Roman Emperor in his judicial duties and at a later date administered many of these himself. Other counts palatine were employed on military and administrative work.
The Holy Roman Emperor sent the counts palatine to various parts of his empire to act as judges and governors; the states they ruled were called Holy Roman Palatinates. Being in a special sense the representatives of the Holy Roman Emperor, they were entrusted with more extended power than ordinary counts. In this way came about the later and more general use of the word "palatine", its application as an adjective to persons entrusted with royal Holy Roman powers and privileges—and also to the states and people they ruled over.
Imperial Palatines
Counts palatine were the permanent representatives of the Holy Roman Emperor, in a palatial domain (Palatinate) of the crown. There were dozens of these royal palatinates (Pfalzen) throughout the early empire, and the emperor would travel between them, as there was no imperial capital.
In the empire, the term count palatine was also used to designate the officials who assisted the emperor in exercising the rights which were reserved for his personal consideration, like granting arms. They were called imperial counts palatine (in Latin comites palatini caesarii, or comites sacri palatii; in German, Hofpfalzgrafen). Both the Latin form (Comes) palatinus and the French (comte) palatin have been used as part of the full title of the dukes of Burgundy (a branch of the French royal dynasty) to render their rare German title Freigraf, which was the style of a (later lost) bordering principality, the allodial County of Burgundy (Freigrafschaft Burgund in German), which came to be known as Franche-Comté.
During the 11th century, some imperial palatine counts became a valuable political counterweight against the mighty duchies. Surviving old palatine counties were turned into new institutional pillars through which the imperial authority could be exercised. By the reigns of Henry the Fowler and especially of Otto the Great, comites palatini were sent into all parts of the country to support the royal authority by checking the independent tendencies of the great tribal dukes. Apparent thereafter was the existence of a count palatine in Saxony, and of others in Lorraine, in Bavaria and in Swabia, their duties being to administer the royal estates in these duchies.
Next to the Dukes of Lotharingia, Bavaria, Swabia and Saxony, who had become dangerously powerful feudal princes, loyal supporters of the Holy Roman Emperor were installed as counts palatine.
The Lotharingian palatines out of the Ezzonian dynasty were important commanders of the imperial army and were often employed during internal and external conflicts (e.g. to suppress rebelling counts or dukes, to settle frontier disputes with the Hungarian and the French kingdom and to lead imperial campaigns).
Although a palatinate could be rooted for decades into one dynasty, the office of the palatine counts became hereditary only during the 12th century. During the 11th century the palatinates were still regarded as beneficia, non-hereditary fiefs. The count palatine in Bavaria, an office held by the family of Wittelsbach, became duke of this land, the lower comital title being then merged into the higher ducal one. The Count Palatine of Lotharingia changed his name to Count Palatine of the Rhine in 1085, alone remaining independent until 1777. The office having become hereditary, Pfalzgrafen were in existence until the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806. The palatinate of Saxony merged with the Electoral Duchy of Saxony. The Palatinate of the Rhine became an electorate, and both were Imperial Vicars.
Palatine states
Palatinate of Champagne
King Lothar of France (954–986) gave Odo I, Count of Blois, one of his most loyal supporters in the struggle against the Robertians and the Counts of Vermandois, in 976 the title of count palatine. The title was later inherited by his heirs, and when they died out, by the Counts of Champagne.
Palatinate of Bavaria
Originally, the counts palatine held the County Palatine (around Regensburg) and were subordinate to the Dukes of Bavaria, rather than to the king. The position gave its holder a leading position in the legal system of the duchy.
Meginhard I, Count Palatine of Bavaria in 883
Arnulf II (d. 954), son of Duke Arnulf I of Bavaria, constructed Scheyern Castle around 940
Berthold (d. 999), son of Arnulf II, Count Palatine of Bavaria between 954 and 976 with interruptions, ancestor of the Counts of Andechs
Hartwig I (d. 985), Count Palatine of Bavaria from 977 until his death
Aribo I (d. , son-in-law of Hartwig I, Count Palatine of Bavaria from 985 until his death
Hartwig II (d. 1027), son of Aribo I, Count Palatine of Bavaria from 1020 to 1026
Aribo II (d. 1102), son of Hartwig II, Count Palatine of Bavaria from 1026 to 1055
Kuno I (d. ), Count Palatine of Bavaria
Rapoto I (d. 1099), Count Palatine of Bavaria from to 1093
Engelbert I (d. 1122), nephew of both of Aribo II's wives, Count Palatine of Bavaria from 1099 to 1120
Otto IV ( – 1156), probably a descendant of Arnulf II, Count Palatine of Bavaria from 1120 until his death. He moved his residence from Scheyern Castle to Wittelsbach Castle and founded the House of Wittelsbach.
Otto V ( – 1183), Count Palatine of Bavaria from 1156 to 1180. He became Duke of Bavaria in 1180 as Otto I; his descendants ruled the Duchy until 1918.
Otto VII (d. 1189), younger son of Otto IV, Count Palatine of Bavaria from 1180 until his death
Otto VIII (d. 1209), son of Otto VII, Count Palatine of Bavaria from 1189 to 1208, infamous for murdering King Philip of Germany in 1208
Rapoto II (d. 1231), brother-in-law of Otto VIII, Count Palatine of Bavaria from 1208 until his death
Rapoto III (d. 1248), son of Rapoto II, Count Palatine of Bavaria from 1231 until his death. He was the last count palatine; after his death the Duke of Bavaria assumed the rights and possessions of the counts palatine.
Palatinate of Lorraine
Wigeric (915 – before 922), Count Palatine of Lotharingia and Count in the Bidgau
Gottfried ( – after 949), Count Palatine of Lotharingia and Count in the Jülichgau
From 985, the Ezzonids held the title:
Herman I (d. before 996), Count Palatine of Lotharingia and Count in the Bonngau, the Eiffelgau, the Zülpichgau and the Auelgau
Ezzo (d. 1034), son of Herman I, Count in the Auelgau and the Bonngau, Count Palatine of Lotharingia from 1020, married Mathilda of Saxony, the daughter of Emperor Otto II
Otto (d. 1047), son of Ezzo, Count Palatine of Lotharingia from 1035 to 1045, then Duke of Swabia as Otto II from 1045 until his death
Henry I (d. 1061), son of Ezzo's brother Hezzelin I, Count Palatine of Lotharingia from 1045 to 1060
Herman II (1049–1085), son of Henry I, Count Palatine of Lotharingia from 1061 to 1085 (until 1064 under the guardianship of Anno II, Archbishop of Cologne), also Count in the Ruhrgau and the Zülpichgau and Count of Brabant
The County Palatine of Lotharingia was suspended by the Emperor. Adelaide of Weimar-Orlamünde, Herman II's widow, remarried to Henry of Laach. Abt. 1087 he was assigned in the newly created office of Count Palatine of the Rhine.
Palatinate of the Rhine
In 1085, after the death of Herman II, the County Palatine of Lotharingia lost its military importance in Lorraine. The territorial authority of the Count Palatine was reduced to his territories along the Rhine. Consequently, he is called the Count Palatine of the Rhine after 1085.
The Golden Bull of 1356 made the Count Palatine of the Rhine an Elector. He was therefore known as the Electoral Palatinate.
Palatinate of Saxony
In the 10th century the Emperor Otto I created the County Palatine of Saxony in the Saale-Unstrut area of southern Saxony. The honour was initially held by a Count of Hessengau, then from the early 11th century by the Counts of Goseck, later by the Counts of Sommerschenburg, and still later by the Landgraves of Thuringia:
Adalbero (d. 982) was a Count in the Hessengau and in the Liesgau, Count Palatine of Saxony from 972,
Dietrich (d. 995), probably a son of Adalbero, was Count Palatine of Saxony from 992
Frederick (d. July 1002 or 15 March 1003), Count in the Harzgau and in the Nordthüringgau, was Count Palatine of Saxony from 995 to 996
Burchard I (d. after 3 November 1017), the first count of Goseck to hold the title, was a count in the Hassegau from 991, Count Palatine of Saxony from 1003, Count of Merseburg from 1004, and imperial governor from 1012
Siegfried (d. 25 April 1038), was Count Palatine of Saxony in 1028
Frederick I (d. 1042), a younger son of Burchard I, was Count of Goseck and in the Hassegau and was Count Palatine of Saxony in 1040
William (d. 1062), Count of Weimar, probably Count Palatine of Saxony in 1042
Dedo (fell in battle in Pöhlde on 5 May 1056), son of Frederick I, Count Palatine of Saxony from 1042 to 1044
Frederick II (d. 27 May 1088), younger brother of Dedo, Count Palatine of Saxony in 1056
Frederick III (murdered near Zscheiplitz on 5 February 1087), son of Frederick II
Frederick IV (d. 1125 in Dingelstedt am Huy), son of Frederick III, Count Palatine in 1114
Frederick V (d. 18 October 1120 or 1121), grandson of Frederick I, Count of Sommerschenburg, Count Palatine of Saxony in 1111
Frederick VI (d. 19 May 1162), son of Frederick V, Count of Sommerschenburg, Count Palatine of Saxony from 1123 to 1124
Herman II (murdered on 30 January 1152), Count of Formbach, Margrave of Meissen from 1124 to 1130 (deposed), Count Palatine of Saxony from 1129 to 1130, married in 1148 to Liutgard of Stade, who had divorced Frederick VI in 1144
Adalbert (d. 1179), son of Frederick VI, Count Palatine of Sommerschenburg from 1162 until his death
Louis III (d. 1190), Landgrave of Thuringia from 1172 until his death, appointed Count Palatine of Saxony on the Diet of Gelnhausen on 13 April 1180, abdicated in favour of Herman I in 1181
Herman III ( – 25 April 1215 in Gotha), younger brother of Louis III, Count Palatine of Saxony from 1181 until his death, Landgrave of Thuringia from 1190 until his death
Louis IV (28 October 1200 – 11 September 1227), son of Herman I, Count Palatine of Saxony and Landgrave of Thuringia from 1217 until his death
Henry Raspe (1204 – 16 February 1247), son of Herman I, Landgrave of Thuringia from 1227 until his death, Count Palatine of Saxony from 1231 until his death, anti-king of Germany opposing Frederick II and his son Conrad IV from 1246
After Henry Raspe's death, the County Palatine of Saxony and the Landgraviate of Thuringia were given to the House of Wettin, based on a promise made by Emperor Frederick II:
Henry III ( – 15 February 1288), Margrave of Meissen from 1227 until his death, Count Palatine of Saxony and Landgrave of Thuringia from 1247 1265
Albert II the Degenerate (1240 – 20 November 1314), son of Henry III, Count Palatine of Saxony and Landgrave of Thuringia from 1265 until his death, Margrave of Meissen from 1288 to 1292
Frederick VII the Bitten (1257 – 16 November 1323), son of Albert II, Count Palatine of Saxony from 1280 to before 1291, Margrave of Meissen before 1291 until his death, Landgrave of Thuringia from 1298 until his death
King Rudolph I of Germany gave the County Palatine of Saxony to the House of Welf:
Henry I (August 1267 – 7 September 1322), Count Palatine of Saxony from before 1291 until his death, Prince of Brunswick-Grubenhagen from 1291 until his death
...
Palatinate of Alamannia / Swabia
Holy Roman scribes often used the term Swabia interchangeably with Alamannia in the 10th to the 12th centuries.
Erchanger I, also known as Berchtold I, Count Palatine of Swabia in 880/892
Erchanger II (d. 21 January 917), probably a son of Erchanger I, was Count Palatine of Swabia and Missus dominicus and from 915 until his death Duke of Swabia
[...]
Frederick I, ( – shortly after 1053), Count Palatine of Swabia from 1027 to 1053
Frederick II ( – ), father of Frederick I and ancestor of the Hohenstaufen dynasty, Count Palatine of Swabia from 1053 to 1069
Manegold the Elder ( – shortly before summer 1094), son-in-law of Frederick II, Count Palatine of Swabia from 1070 to 1094
Louis of Staufen, son of Frederick I, Count Palatine of Swabia from 1094 to 1103, founder of St. Faith's Church, Sélestat
Louis of Westheim, probably a son of his predecessor, Count Palatine of Swabia from 1103 to 1112
Manegold the Younger, son of Manegold the Elder, Count Palatine of Swabia from 1112 to 1125
Adalbert of Lauterburg, son of Manegold the Elder, Count Palatine of Swabia from 1125 to 1146
After 1146, the title went to the counts palatine of Tübingen.
Palatinate of Tübingen
Hugo I (1146–1152)
Frederick (d. 1162) co-ruler with Hugo II
Hugo II (1152–1182)
Rudolf I (1182–1219)
Hugo III (1185– ) co-ruler with Rudolf I and Rudolf II, went on to found the Montfort-Bregenz lineage
Rudolf II (d. 1247)
Hugo IV (d. 1267)
Eberhard (d. 1304)
Gottfried I (d. 1316)
Gottfried II (d. 1369) sold the County Palatine of Tübingen to the Württemberg dynasty, went on to found the Tübingen-Lichteneck lineage
Palatinate of Burgundy
In 1169, Emperor Frederick I created the Free County of Burgundy (not to be confused with its western neighbour, the Duchy of Burgundy). The Counts of Burgundy had the title of Free Count (), but are sometimes called counts palatine.
Papal palatinates
A papal count palatine (Comes palatinus lateranus, properly Comes sacri Lateranensis palatii "Count of the Sacred Palace of Lateran") began to be conferred by the pope in the 16th century. This title was merely honorary and by the 18th century had come to be conferred so widely as to be nearly without consequence.
The Order of the Golden Spur began to be associated with the inheritable patent of nobility in the form of count palatinate during the Renaissance; Emperor Frederick III named Baldo Bartolini, professor of civil law at the University of Perugia, a count palatinate in 1469, entitled in turn to confer university degrees.
Pope Leo X designated all of the secretaries of the papal curia Comites aulae Lateranensis ("Counts of the Lateran court") in 1514 and bestowed upon them the rights similar to an imperial count palatine. In some cases the title was conferred by specially empowered papal legates. If an imperial count palatine possessed both an imperial and the papal appointment, he bore the title of "Comes palatine imperiali Papali et auctoritate" (Count palatine by Imperial and Papal authority).
The Order of the Golden Spur, linked with the title of count palatine, was widely conferred after the Sack of Rome, 1527, by Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor; the text of surviving diplomas conferred hereditary nobility to the recipients.
Among the recipients was Titian (1533), who had painted an equestrian portrait of Charles. Close on the heels of the Emperor's death in 1558, its refounding in papal hands is attributed to Pope Pius IV in 1559. Benedict XIV (In Supremo Militantis Ecclesiæ, 1746) granted to the Knights of the Holy Sepulchre the right to use the title of Count of the Sacred Palace of Lateran.
By the mid-18th century, the Order of the Golden Spur was being so indiscriminately bestowed that Casanova remarked "The Order they call the Golden Spur was so disparaged that people irritated me greatly when they asked me the details of my cross;"
The order was granted to "those in the pontifical government, artists, and others, whom the pope should think deserving of reward. It is likewise given to strangers, no other condition being required, but that of professing the catholic religion."
Imperial circles
As part of the Imperial Reform, six imperial circles were established in 1500; four more were established in 1512. These were regional groupings of most (though not all) of the various states of the empire for the purposes of defense, imperial taxation, supervision of coining, peace-keeping functions, and public security. Each circle had its own parliament, known as a Kreistag ("Circle Diet"), and one or more directors, who coordinated the affairs of the circle. Not all imperial territories were included within the imperial circles, even after 1512; the Lands of the Bohemian Crown were excluded, as were Switzerland, the imperial fiefs in northern Italy, the lands of the Imperial Knights, and certain other small territories like the Lordship of Jever.
Dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire, 1806
The Palatine territories on the left bank of the Rhine were annexed by Revolutionary France in 1795, mainly becoming part of the Mont-Tonnerre department. The Palatine Elector Maximilian Joseph accepted the loss of these territories after the Treaty of Paris. Those on the right were taken by the Palatine Elector of Baden, after Napoleonic France dissolved the Holy Roman Empire on 26 December 1805 with the Peace of Pressburg as a consequence of the French victory at the Battle of the Three Emperors (2 December); the remaining Wittelsbach territories were united by Maximilian Joseph under the Kingdom of Bavaria.
After the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806, the Palatine nationality came to refer more specifically to the people of the Rhenish Palatinate () throughout the 19th century. The Rhenish Palatinate's union with Bavaria was finally dissolved following the reorganisation of German states during the Allied occupation of Germany after World War II. Today the Palatinate occupies roughly the southernmost quarter of the German federal state of Rhineland-Palatinate (Rheinland-Pfalz).
Palatine migration in the 18th century
The Great Palatine Migration of 1709
In the second half of the 17th century, the Palatinate had not yet fully recovered from the destructions of the Thirty Years' War (1618–1648), in which large parts of the region had lost more than two thirds of its population (see the dark red-brown area South of Frankfurt am Main on the map).
Throughout the Nine Years' War (1688–1697) and the War of the Spanish Succession (1701–1714), recurrent invasions by the French Army devastated the area of what is today Southwest Germany. During the Nine Years War the French had used a scorched-earth policy in the Palatinate.
The depredations of the French Army and the destruction of numerous cities (especially within the Palatinate) created economic hardship for the inhabitants of the region, exacerbated by a rash of harsh winters and poor harvests that created famine in Germany and much of northwest Europe. The specific background of the migration from the Palatinate, as documented in emigrants' petitions for departure registered in the southwest principalities, was impoverishment and lack of economic prospects.
The emigrants came principally from regions comprising present-day Rhineland-Palatinate, Hesse, and northern areas of Baden-Württemberg along the lower Neckar. During the so-called Kleinstaaterei ("small state") period when this emigration occurred, the Middle Rhine region was a patchwork of secular and ecclesiastical principalities, duchies and counties. No more than half of the so-called Palatines originated in the namesake Electoral Palatinate, with others coming from the surrounding imperial states of Palatinate-Zweibrücken and Nassau-Saarbrücken, the Margraviate of Baden, the Hessian Landgraviates of Hesse-Darmstadt, Hesse-Homburg, Hesse-Kassel, the Archbishoprics of Trier and Mainz, and various minor counties of Nassau, Sayn, Solms, Wied, and Isenburg.
What triggered the mass emigration in 1709 of mostly impoverished people to England was the Crown's promise of free land in British America. Parliament discovered in 1711 that several "agents" working on behalf of the Carolina province had promised the peasants around and South of Frankfurt free passage to the plantations. Spurred by the success of several dozen families the year before, thousands of German families headed down the Rhine to England and the New World.
Arrival in England
The first boats packed with refugees began arriving in London in early May 1709. The first 900 people to reach England were given housing, food and supplies by a number of wealthy Englishmen. The immigrants were called "Poor Palatines": "poor" in reference to their pitiful and impoverished state upon arrival in England, and "Palatines" since many of them came from lands controlled by the Elector Palatine.
The majority came from regions around the Rhenish Palatinate and, against the wishes of their respective rulers, they fled by the thousands on small boats and ships down the Rhine River to the Dutch city of Rotterdam, whence the majority embarked for London. Throughout the summer, ships unloaded thousands of refugees, and almost immediately their numbers overwhelmed the initial attempts to provide for them. By summer, most of the Poor Palatines were settled in Army tents in the fields of Blackheath and Camberwell. A Committee dedicated to coordinating their settlement and dispersal sought ideas for their employment. This proved difficult, as the Poor Palatines were unlike previous migrant groups—skilled, middle-class, religious exiles such as the Huguenots or the Dutch in the 16th century—but rather were unskilled rural laborers, neither sufficiently educated nor healthy enough for most types of employment.
Political controversy
During the reign of Queen Anne (1702–1714), political polarization increased. Immigration and asylum had long been debated, from coffee-houses to the floor of Parliament, and the Poor Palatines were inevitably brought into the political crossfire.
For the Whigs, who controlled Parliament, these immigrants provided an opportunity to increase Britain's workforce. Only two months before the German influx, Parliament had enacted the Foreign Protestants Naturalization Act 1708, whereby foreign Protestants could pay a small fee to become naturalized. The rationale was the belief that an increased population created more wealth, and that Britain's prosperity could increase with the accommodation of certain foreigners. Britain had already benefited from French Huguenot refugees, as well as the Dutch (or "Flemish") exiles, who helped revolutionize the English textile industry.
Similarly, in an effort to increase the sympathy and support for these refugees, many Whig tracts and pamphlets described the Palatines as "refugees of conscience" and victims of Catholic oppression and intolerance. Louis XIV of France had become infamous for the persecution of Protestants within his realm. The invasion and destruction of the Rhineland region by his forces was considered by many in Britain as a sign that the Palatines were likewise objects of his religious tyranny. With royal support, the Whigs formulated a charity brief to raise money for the "Poor Distressed Palatines", who had grown too numerous to be supported by the Crown alone.
The Tories and members of the High Church Party (those who sought greater religious uniformity), were dismayed by the numbers of Poor Palatines amassing in the fields of southeast London. Long-standing opponents of naturalization, the Tories condemned the Whig assertions that the immigrants would be beneficial to the economy, as they were already an acute financial burden. Similarly, many who worried for the security of the Church of England were concerned about the religious affiliations of these German families, especially after it was revealed that many (perhaps more than 2,000) were Catholic. Although the majority of the Catholic Palatines were immediately sent back across the English Channel, many English thought their presence disproved the claimed religious refugee status of the Poor Palatines.
The author Daniel Defoe was a major spokesman, who attacked the critics of the government's policy. Defoe's Review, a tri-weekly journal dealing usually with economic matters, was for two months dedicated to denouncing opponents’ claims that the Palatines were disease-ridden, Catholic bandits who had arrived in England "to eat the Bread out of the Mouths of our People." In addition to dispelling rumors and propounding the benefits of an increased population, Defoe advanced his own ideas of how the Poor Palatines should be "disposed".
Dispersal
Not long after the Palatines' arrival, the Board of Trade was charged with finding a means for their dispersal. Contrary to the desires of the immigrants, who wanted to be transported to British America, most schemes involved settling them within the British Isles, either on uninhabited lands in England or in Ireland (where they could bolster the numbers of the Protestant minority). Most officials involved were reluctant to send the Palatines to America due to the cost, and to the belief that they would be more beneficial if kept in Britain. Since the majority of the Poor Palatines were husbandmen, vinedressers and laborers, the English felt that they would be better suited in agricultural areas. There were some attempts to disperse them in neighboring towns and cities. Ultimately, large-scale settlement plans came to nothing, and the government sent Palatines piecemeal to various regions in England and Ireland. These attempts mostly failed, and many of the Palatines returned from Ireland to London within a few months, in far worse condition than when they had left.
The commissioners finally acquiesced and sent numerous families to New York to produce naval stores at camps along the Hudson River. The Palatines transported to New York in the summer of 1710 totaled about 2800 people in ten ships, the largest group of immigrants to enter British America before the American Revolution. Because of their refugee status and weakened condition, as well as shipboard diseases, they had a high rate of fatalities. They were kept in quarantine on an island in New York harbor until ship's diseases had run their course. Another 300-some Palatines reached Carolina. Despite the ultimate failure of the Naval stores effort and delays on granting them land in settled areas (they were given grants on the frontiers), they had reached the New World and were determined to stay. Their descendants are scattered across the United States and Canada.
The experience with the Poor Palatines discredited the Whig philosophy of naturalization, and figured in political debates as an example of the pernicious effects of offering asylum to refugees. Once the Tories returned to power, they retracted the Act of Naturalization, which they claimed had lured the Palatines to England (though few had in fact become naturalized). Later attempts to reinstate an Act for Naturalization would suffer from the tarnished legacy of Britain's first attempt to support mass immigration of foreign-born peoples.
Re-settlement in Ireland
In 1709, some 3,073 Palatines were transported to Ireland. Some 538 families were settled as agricultural tenants on the estates of Anglo-Irish landlords. However, many of the settlers failed to permanently establish themselves and 352 families were reported to have left their holdings, with many returning to England. By late 1711 only around 1,200 of the Palatines remained in Ireland.
Some contemporary opinion blamed the Palatines for the failure of the settlement. William King, the Church of Ireland Archbishop of Dublin, said, "I conceive their design 'tis but to eat and drink at Her Majesty's cost, live idle and complain against those that maintain them." But the real reason for the failure was apparently lack of political support for the settlement from the High Church Tories, who generally opposed foreign involvement and saw the settlers as potential Dissenters rather than buttresses to their own established church.
The Palatine settlement was successful in two areas: Counties Limerick and Wexford. In Limerick, 150 families were settled in 1712 on the lands of the Southwell family near Rathkeale. Within a short time, they had made a success of farming hemp, flax, and cattle. In Wexford about the same time, a large Palatine population was settled on the lands of Abel Ram, near Gorey. The distinctive Palatine way of life survived in these areas until well into the nineteenth century. Today, names of Palatine origin, such as Switzer, Hick, Ruttle, Sparling, Tesky, Fitzell, and Gleasure are dispersed throughout Ireland.
Palatine migration to New York and Pennsylvania
Palatines had trickled into British America since their earliest days. The first mass migration, however, began in 1708. Queen Anne's government had sympathy for the Palatines and had invited them to go to America and work in trade for passage. Official correspondence in British records shows a combined total of 13,146 refugees traveled down the Rhine and or from Amsterdam to England in the summer of 1709. More than 3500 of these were returned from England either because they were Roman Catholic or at their own request. Henry Z Jones, Jr. quotes an entry in a churchbook by the Pastor of Dreieichenhain that states a total of 15,313 Palatines left their villages in 1709 "for the so-called New America and, of course, Carolina".
The flood of immigration overwhelmed English resources. It resulted in major disruptions, overcrowding, famine, disease and the death of a thousand or more Palatines. It appeared the entire Palatinate would be emptied before a halt could be called to emigration. Many reasons have been given to explain why so many families left their homes for an unknown land. Knittle summarizes them: "(1) war devastation, (2) heavy taxation, (3) an extraordinarily severe winter, (4) religious quarrels, but not persecutions, (5) land hunger on the part of the elderly and desire for adventure on the part of the young, (6) liberal advertising by colonial proprietors, and finally (7) the benevolent and active cooperation of the British government."
No doubt the biggest impetus was the harsh, cold winter that preceded their departure. Birds froze in mid-air, casks of wine, livestock, and whole vineyards were destroyed by the unremitting cold. With what little was left of their possessions, the refugees made their way on boats down the Rhine to Amsterdam, where they remained until the British government decided what to do about them. Ships were finally dispatched for them across the English Channel, and the Palatines arrived in London, where they waited longer while the British government considered its options. So many arrived that the government created a winter camp for them outside the city walls. A few were settled in England, a few more may have been sent to Jamaica and Nassau, but the greatest numbers were sent to Ireland, Carolina and especially, New York in the summer of 1710. They were obligated to work off their passage.
The Reverend Joshua Kocherthal paved the way in 1709, with a small group of fifty who settled in Newburgh, New York, on the banks of the Hudson River. "In the summer of 1710, a colony numbering 2,227 arrived in New York and were [later] located in five villages on either side of the Hudson, those upon the east side being designated as East Camp, and those upon the west, as West Camp." A census of these villages on 1 May 1711 showed 1194 on the east side and 583 on the west side. The total number of families was 342 and 185, respectively. About 350 Palatines had remained in New York City, and some settled in New Jersey. Others travelled down the Susquehanna River, settling in Berks County, Pennsylvania. The locations of the New Jersey communities correlate with the foundation of the oldest Lutheran churches in that state, i.e., the first called Zion at New Germantown (now Oldwick), Hunterdon County; the 'Straw Church' now called St. James at Greenwich Township, Sussex (now Pohatong Township, Warren County); and St. Paul's at Pluckemin, Bedminster Township, Somerset County.
Indentured servitude
Settlement by Palatines on the east side (East Camp) of the Hudson River was accomplished as a result of Governor Hunter's negotiations with Robert Livingston, who owned Livingston Manor in what is now Columbia County, New York. (This was not the town now known as Livingston Manor on the west side of the Hudson River.) Livingston was anxious to have his lands developed. The Livingstons benefited for many years from the revenues they received as a result of this business venture. West Camp, on the other hand, was located on land the Crown had recently "repossessed" as an "extravagant grant". Pastors from both Lutheran and Reformed churches quickly began to serve the camps and created extensive records of these early settlers and their life passages long before the state of New York was established or kept records.
The British Crown believed that the Palatines could work and be "useful to this kingdom, particularly in the production of naval stores, and as a frontier against the French and their Indians". Naval stores which the British needed were hemp, tar and pitch, poor choices given the climate and the variety of pine trees in New York State. On 6 September 1712, work was halted. "The last day of the government subsistence for most of the Palatines was September 12th." "Within the next five years, many Palatines moved elsewhere. Several went to Pennsylvania, others to New Jersey, settling at Oldwick or Hackensack, still others pushed a few miles south to Rhinebeck, New York, and some returned to New York City, while quite a few established themselves on Livingston Manor [where they had originally been settled]. Some forty or fifty families went to Schoharie between September 12th and October 31, 1712."
In the winter of 1712–13, six Palatines approached the Mohawk clan mothers to ask for permission to settle in the Schoharie River valley, a tributary of the Mohawk River. The clan mothers, moved by the story of their misery and suffering, granted the Palatines permission to settle; in the spring of 1713 about 150 Palatine families moved into the Schoharie valley. The Palatines had not understood that the Haudenosaunee were a matrilineal kinship society, and that the clan mothers had considerable power. They headed the nine clans that made up the Five Nations. The Palatines had expected to meet male sachems rather than these women, but property and descent were passed through the maternal lines.
Resettlement
A report in 1718 placed 224 families of 1,021 persons along the Hudson River while 170 families of 580 persons were in the Schoharie valley. In 1723, under Governor Burnet, 100 heads of families from the work camps were settled on each in the Burnetsfield Patent midway in the Mohawk River Valley, just west of Little Falls. They were the first Europeans to be allowed to buy land that far west in the valley.
After hearing Palatine accounts of poverty and suffering, the clan mothers granted permission for them to settle in the Schoharie Valley. The women elders had their own motives. During the 17th century, the Haudenosaunee had suffered high mortality from new European infectious diseases, to which they had no immunity. They also had been engaged in warfare against the French and against other indigenous tribes. Finally, in the 1670s–80s French Jesuit missionaries had converted thousands of Iroquois (mostly Mohawk) to Catholicism and persuaded the converts to settle near Montreal.
Historians referred to the Haudenosaunee who moved to New France as the Canadian Iroquois, while those who remained behind are described as the League Iroquois. At the beginning of the 17th century, about 2,000 Mohawk lived in the Mohawk River Valley, but by the beginning of the 18th century, the population had dropped to about 600 people. They were in a weakened position for resisting encroachment by English settlers. The governors of New York had showed a tendency to grant Haudenosaunee land to British settlers without permission. The clan mothers believed that leasing land to the poor Palatines was a preemptive way to block the governors from granting their land to land-hungry immigrants from the British isles. In their turn, the British authorities believed that the Palatines would serve as a protective barrier, providing a reliable militia who would stop French and Indigenous raiders coming down from New France (modern Canada). The Palatine communities gradually extended along both sides of the Mohawk River to Canajoharie. Their legacy was reflected in place names, such as German Flatts and Palatine Bridge, and the few colonial-era churches and other buildings that survived the Revolution. They taught their children German and used the language in churches for nearly 100 years. Many Palatines married only within the German community until the 19th century.
The Palatines settled on the frontiers of New York province in Kanienkeh ("the land of the flint"), the homeland of the Five Nations of the Iroquois League (becoming the Six Nations when the Tuscarora joined the League in 1722) in what is now upstate New York, and formed a very close relationship with the Iroquois. The American historian David L. Preston described the lives of the Palatine community as being "interwoven" with the Iroquois communities. One Palatine leader said about the relationship of his community with the Haudenosauee that: "We intend to live our lifetime together as brothers". The Haudenosauee taught the Palatines about the best places to gather wild edible nuts, together with roots and berries, and how to grow the "Three Sisters", as the Iroquois called their staple foods of beans, squash and corn. One Palatine leader, Johann Conrad Weiser, had his son live with a Mohawk family for a year in order to provide the Palatines with both an interpreter and a friend who might bridge the gap between the two different communities. The Palatines came from the patriarchal society of Europe, whereas the Haudenosaunee had a matrilineal society, in which clan mothers selected the sachems and the chiefs.
The Haudenosaunee admired the work ethic of the Palatines, and often rented their land to the hard-working immigrants. In their turn, the Palatines taught Haudenosaunee women how to use iron plows and hoes to farm the land, together with how to grow oats and wheat. The Haudenosaunee considered farming to be women's work, as their women planted, cultivated and harvested their crops. They considered the Palatine men to be unmanly because they worked the fields. Additionally, the Palatines brought sheep, cows, and pigs to Kanienkeh. With increased agricultural production and money coming in as rent, the Haudenosaunee began to sell the surplus food to merchants in Albany. Many clan mothers and chiefs, who had grown wealthy enough to live at about the same standard of living as a middle-class family in Europe, abandoned their traditional log houses for European-style houses.
In 1756, one Palatine farmer brought 38,000 beads of black wampum during a trip to Schenectady, which was enough to make dozens upon dozens of wampum belts, which were commonly presented to Indigenous leaders as gifts when being introduced. Preston noted that the purchasing of so much wampum reflected the very close relations the Palatines had with the Iroquois. The Palatines used their metal-working skills to repair weapons that belonged to the Iroquois, built mills that ground corn for the Iroquois to sell to merchants in New York and New France, and their churches were used for Christian Iroquois weddings and baptisms. There were also a number of intermarriages between the two communities. Doxstader, a surname common in some of the rural areas of south-western Germany, is also a common Iroquois surname.
Palatine and Indigenous relationship
Preston wrote that the popular stereotype of United States frontier relations between white settler colonists and Native Americans as being from two racial worlds that hardly interacted did not apply to the Palatine-Iroquois relationship, writing that the Palatines lived between Iroquois settlements in Kanienkeh, and the two peoples "communicated, drank, worked, worshipped and traded together, negotiated over land use and borders, and conducted their diplomacy separate from the colonial governments". Some Palatines learned to perform the Haudenosaunee condolence ceremony, where condolences were offered to those whose friends and family had died, which was the most important of all Iroquois rituals. The Canadian historian James Paxton wrote the Palatines and Haudenosaunee "visited each other's homes, conducted small-scale trade and socialized in taverns and trading posts".
Unlike the frontier in Pennsylvania and in the Ohio river valley, where English settlers and the Indians had bloodstained relations, leading to hundreds of murders, relations between the Palatine and Indians in Kanienkeh were friendly. Between 1756 and 1774 in the New York frontier, only 5 colonists or British soldiers were killed by Native Americans, while just 6 Natives were killed by soldiers or settlers. The New York frontier had no equivalent to the Paxton Boys, a vigilante group of Scots-Irish settlers on the Pennsylvania frontier who waged a near-genocidal campaign against the Susquehannock Indians in 1763–64, and the news of the killing perpetrated by the Paxton Boys was received with horror by both whites and Indians on the New York frontier.
However, the Iroquois had initially allowed the Palatines to settle in Kanienkeh out of sympathy for their poverty, and expected them to ultimately contribute for being allowed to live on the land when they become wealthier. In a letter to Sir William Johnson, the Superintendent of Northern Indian Affairs, in 1756, Oneida sachems and clan mothers complained that they had allowed the Palatines to settle in Kanienkeh out of "compassion to their poverty and expected when they could afford it that they would pay us for their land", going on to write now that the Palatines had "grown rich they not only refuse to pay us for our land, but impose on us in everything we have to do with them". Likewise, many Iroquois sachems and clan mothers complained that their young people were too fond of drinking the beer brewed by the Palatines, charging that alcohol was a destructive force in their community.
Palatines during the French and Indian War (1754–1763)
Despite the intentions of the British, the Palatines showed little inclination to fight for the British Crown, and during French and Indian War, tried to maintain neutrality. After the Battle of Fort Bull and the Fall of Fort Oswego to the French, German Flatts and Fort Herkimer become the northern frontier of the British Empire in North America, causing the British Army to rush regiments to the frontier. One Palatine, Hans Josef Herkimer, complained about the British troops in his vicinity in a letter written in broken English to the authorities: "Tieranniece [tyranny] over me they think proper ... Not only Infesting my House and taking my rooms at their pleashure [pleasure] but takes what they think Nesserarie [necessary] of my Effects".
The Palatines sent messages via the Oneida to Quebec City to tell the governor-general of New France, the Marquis de Vaudreuil, of their wish to be neutral while at the same time trading with the French via Indian middlemen. An Oneida Indian passed on a message to Vaudreuil in Quebec City, saying: "We inform you of a message given to us by a Nation that is neither English, nor French nor Indian and inhabits the lands around us ... That Nation has proposed to annex us to itself in order to afford each other mutual help and protection against the English". Vaundreuil in reply stated "I think I know that nation. There is reason to believe they are the Palatines". Another letter sent by the Palatines to Vaudreuil in late 1756 declared that they "looked upon themselves in danger as well as the Six Nations, they are determined to live and die by them & therefore begged the protection of the French".
Vaudreuil informed the Palatines that neutrality was not an option and they could either submit to the King of France or face war. The Palatines tried to stall, causing Vaudreuil to warn them that this "trick will avail nothing; for whenever I think proper, I shall dispatch my warriors to Corlac" (the French name for New York). At one point, the Oneida sent a message to Vaudreuil asking that "not to due [do] them [the Palatines] any hurt as they were no more white people but Oneidas and that their blood was mixed with the Indians". Preston wrote that the letter may have been exaggerating somewhat, but interracial and intercultural sexual relations are known to have occurred on the frontier. The descendants of the Palatine Dutch and Indians were known as Black Dutch.
On 10 November 1757, the Oneida sachem Canaghquiesa warned the Palatines that a force of French and Indigenous combatants were on their way to attack, telling them that their women and children should head for the nearest fort, but Canaghquiesa noted that they "laughed at me and slapping their hands on their Buttucks [buttocks] said they did not value the Enemy". On 12 November 1757, a raiding party of about 200 Mississauga and Canadian Iroquois warriors together with 65 and militiamen fell on the settlement of German Flatts at about 3:00 am, burning the town down to the ground, killing about 40 Palatines while taking 150 back to New France. One Palatine leader, Johan Jost Petri, writing from his prison in Montreal, complained about how "our people have been taken by the Indians and the French (but for the most part by our own Indians) and by our own fault". Afterwards, a group of Oneida and Tuscaroras came to the ruins of the German Flatts to offer food and shelter for the survivors and to bury the dead. In a letter to Johnson, Canaghquiesa wrote "we have condoled with our Brethren the Germans on the loss of their Friends who have been lately killed and taken by the Enemy ... that Ceremony was over three days ago".
New York Dutch
Because of the concentration of Palatine refugees in New York in the 18th century, the term "Palatine" became associated with German. "Until the American War of Independence 'Palatine' henceforth was used indiscriminately for all 'emigrants of German tongue'."
Pennsylvania Dutch
Many Pennsylvania Dutchmen are descendants of Palatines who settled the Pennsylvania Dutch Country. The Pennsylvania Dutch language, spoken by the Amish and Pennsylvania Dutch in the United States, is derived primarily from the Palatine German language which many Mennonite refugees brought to Pennsylvania in the years 1717 to 1732. The only existing Pennsylvania German newspaper, Hiwwe wie Driwwe, was founded in Germany un 1996 in the village of Ober-Olm, which is located close to Mainz, the state capital (and is published bi-annually as a cooperation project with Kutztown University). In the same village one can find the headquarters of the German-Pennsylvanian Association.
Palatine migration in the 19th century
Many more Palatines from the Rhenish Palatinate emigrated in the course of the 19th century. For a long time in the American Union, "Palatine" meant German American.
Palatine immigrants came to live in big industrial cities such as Germantown, Philadelphia and Pittsburgh in Pennsylvania. Land-searching Palatines moved to the Midwestern States and founded new homes in the fertile regions of Illinois, Indiana, and Ohio.
A vast inpouring of Palatines began to come especially in the middle of the 19th century. Johann Heinrich Heinz (1811-1891), the father of Henry John Heinz who founded the H. J. Heinz Company in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, emigrated from Kallstadt, Palatinate, to the United States in 1840.
Notable Palatines and descendants
Included are immigrants that came during the Colonial Period between 1708 and 1775 and their immediate family members.
1708 – Josua Harrsch alias Kocherthal (1669–1719), Lutheran minister
1710 – Johann Conrad Weiser Sr. (1662–1746), baker
1710 – Conrad Weiser (1696–1760), interpreter
1710 – Johann Hartman Windecker (1676–1754), settler
1710 – John Peter Zenger (1697–1746), printer and journalist
1710 – Johann Jost Herkimer (1700–1775), father of brigadier general Nicholas Herkimer (c 1728–1777) and of Loyalist Johan Jost Herkimer (c 1732–1795)
1717 – Caspar Wistar (1696–1752), glassmaker
1720 – Conrad Beissel (1691–1768), Baptist leader
1729 – Alexander Mack, (1679–1735), Brethren leader
1738 – Casper Shafer (1712–1784), miller
1738 – John Reister (1715–1804), farmer
1742 – Henry Muhlenberg (1711–1787), Lutheran pastor
1746 – John Christopher Hartwick (1714–1796), Lutheran minister
1749 – Henry Stauffer (c 1724–1777), settler
1750 – Henry William Stiegel (1729–1785), glassmaker
1755 – Bodo Otto (1711–1787), surgeon
1775 – David Ziegler (1748–1811), officer
See also
Pennsylvania Dutch
Hiwwe wie Driwwe
Potato Germans
Notes
Further reading
Defoe, Daniel. Defoe's Review. Reproduced from the original edition, with an introduction and bibliographical notes by Arthur Wellesley Secord. 9 vols. in 22 (Facsimile Text Soc., 44). New York, 1938–9.
Dickinson, Harry Thomas. "The poor Palatines and the parties". English Historical Review, 82 (1967), 464–85.
Jones, Henry Z, Jr. The Palatine Families of Ireland. 2nd. ed., Picton Press: Rockport, Maine, 1990.
Knittle, Walter Allen. Early eighteenth century Palatine emigration; a British government redemptioner project to manufacture naval stores, by Walter Allen Knittle.. Early Eighteenth Century Palatine Emigration: A British Government Redemptioner Project to Manufacture Naval Stores]. Philadelphia: Dorrance, 1937.
Statt, Daniel. Foreigners and Englishmen: The Controversy over Immigration and Population, 1660-1760. Newark, Del.: University of Delaware Press, 1995.
Olson, Alison. "The English Reception of the Huguenots, Palatines and Salzburgers, 1680-1734: A Comparative Analysis" in Randolph Vigne & Charles Littleton, (eds.), From Strangers to Citizens: The Integration of Immigrant Communities in Britain, Ireland and Colonial America, 1550-1750. Brighton and Portland, Ore.: The Huguenot Society of Great Britain and Ireland and Sussex Academic Press, 2001.
O'Reilly, William. "Strangers Come to Devour the Land: Changing Views of Foreign Migrants in Early Eighteenth-Century England". Journal of Early Modern History, (2016), 1-35.
Richter, Conrad. The Free Man. Fictional account of a Palatine who emigrated to the United States in the early 1700s and lived during the Revolutionary War.
External links
Irish Palatine Association
Palatines to America
Palatines
18th-century Irish people
Palatines
Palatines
Palatines
refugees |
4380393 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20the%20Kansas%20City%20metropolitan%20area | History of the Kansas City metropolitan area | The history of the Kansas City metropolitan area has records starting in the 19th century, as Frenchmen from St. Louis, Missouri moved up the Missouri River to trap for furs and trade with the Native Americans. The Kansas City metropolitan area, straddling the border between Missouri and Kansas at the confluence of the Kansas and Missouri Rivers, became a strategic point for commerce and security. Kansas City, Missouri was founded in 1838 and defeated its rival Westport to become the predominant city west of St. Louis. The area played a major role in the westward expansion of the United States. The Santa Fe, and Oregon trails ran through the area. In 1854, when Kansas was opened to Euro-American settlement, the Missouri-Kansas border became the first battlefield in the conflict in the American Civil War.
Exploration
Bourgmont
The first documented French visitor to the Kansas City area was Étienne de Veniard, Sieur de Bourgmont, who was also the first European to explore the lower Missouri River. Bourgmont was on the lam from French authorities after deserting his post as commander of Fort Detroit, after being criticized for his handling of a Native American attack on the fort. He lived with a Native American wife in the Missouri village about east near Brunswick, Missouri, and illegally traded furs.
In order to clear his name, Bourgmont wrote "Exact Description of Louisiana, of Its Harbors, Lands and Rivers, and Names of the Indian Tribes That Occupy It, and the Commerce and Advantages to Be Derived Therefrom for the Establishment of a Colony" in 1713 followed in 1714 by "The Route to Be Taken to Ascend the Missouri River". In these documents, he described the junction of the Kansas and Missouri rivers, being the first to refer to them by those names. French cartographer Guillaume Delisle used the descriptions to make the first reasonably accurate map of the area.
The French rewarded Bourgmont by giving him their highest honors and naming him commander of the Missouri. He built the first fort (and first extended settlement in Missouri) in 1723 at Fort Orleans, near his Brunswick home. In 1724, Bourgmont led a group of Native Americans probably up the Kansas River en route to the southwest to set up an alliance with the Comanche to fight the Spanish, thereby creating a New France empire extending from Montreal through Kansas City to New Mexico. To celebrate the success of the venture, he took the Native American chiefs on a junket to Paris to hunt with Louis XV and see the glory of France at Versailles and Fontainebleau.
Bourgmont got promoted to official noble status and stayed in Normandy, not accompanying the chiefs back to the New World. According to legend, the Native Americans then slaughtered everybody in the Fort Orleans garrison. The Spanish took over the region in the Treaty of Paris in 1763, but were not to play a major role in the area other than taxing and licensing all traffic on the Missouri River. The French continued their fur trade on the river under Spanish license.
Lewis and Clark era
Following the Louisiana Purchase of 1803, the Lewis and Clark Expedition left St. Louis on a mission to reach the Pacific Ocean. In 1804, Lewis and Clark camped for three days at the confluence of the Kansas and Missouri rivers. During their stay at the confluence of the Missouri and Kansas, they met French fur traders and mapped the area of Quality Hill in what would eventually become Kansas City, Missouri, calling it "a fine place for a fort". This became Kansas City, Kansas, memorialized at Kaw Point Park.
Because of the burgeoning trade up the Missouri River from St. Louis, especially following Lewis and Clark's expedition, the United States Government sought to create government posts all throughout the area. In 1808, Fort Osage was established 20 miles from the confluence of the Missouri and Kansas Rivers near present-day Sibley, Missouri.
Kaw's Mouth
In 1812, after Louisiana officially became a state, the remaining portions of the original Louisiana Territory north of Arkansas were renamed the Missouri Territory. As plans were made to divide up the territory for the entry of Missouri into the union, it was determined that the western border of the new state would run from Iowa along the Missouri River to the confluence of the Kansas River (Kaw) and the Missouri River, then as a straight line running south to the northwest corner of Arkansas. As part of the Missouri Compromise in 1821, Congress admitted Missouri to the union as the 24th state and as a slave state. The area of the confluence of the two rivers, alternately known as the village of Kansa, Chouteau's, Quindaro, Westport Landing, Missouri River Quay, Town of Kansas, City of Kansas, and finally Kansas City, has been subject to several floods and river course changes. Since 1800, the confluence has moved about a quarter mile up the Missouri River.
Early to mid-1800s
Native Americans
Missouri joined the Union in 1821 and, after the Treaty of St. Louis in 1825, the 1,400 Missouri Shawnees were forcibly relocated from Cape Girardeau to southeastern Kansas, close to the Neosho River. In 1826, the Prophet Tenskwatawa established a village in Argentine, Kansas. During 1833, only the Black Bob's band of Shawnee resisted the relocation efforts. They settled in northeastern Kansas, near Olathe and along the Kansas River in Monticello, near Gum Springs. Tenskwatawa died in 1836 at his village in Kansas City, Kansas (ed., the White Feather Spring marker notes the location).
Early European settlers
The language of the first European settlement in Kansas City was French. In 1821, 24-year-old François Gesseau Chouteau, nephew of René Auguste Chouteau, set up a permanent trading post in the great bend in the Missouri River that makes up the Northeast Industrial District (crossed today by Chouteau Trafficway). He referred to the post as "the village of the Kansa". In 1825, after natives agreed to leave the westernmost six miles of Missouri to the confluence of the Kansas, the area was referred to as "Chouteau's". In 1826, Chouteau moved his trading post to higher ground, Troost Avenue and the river, following a flood. He also financed the first Catholic church, which was built on Quality Hill.
The area was soon populated by trappers, scouts, traders, and farmers, leading to the incorporation of Jackson County, Missouri, in 1827 and the founding of the town of Independence, located approximately from the river junction, as its county seat. As the number of farmers increased, the fur traders retreated northward. In 1831, Moses Grinter established a ferry on the Kansas River on the old Indian trail by the Kaw's water. Grinter was one of the earliest permanent white settlers in the Kansas City, Kansas, area.
Latter Day Saint movement
In 1831, members of Church of Christ, the original name of the Latter Day Saint church founded by Joseph Smith, came from Kirtland, Ohio, and New York State and purchased about of land in the Paseo and Troost Lake areas. Conflict between the Saints and other Missouri residents led to the eviction of the Latter Day Saint from Jackson County in 1833 and the 1838 Mormon War.
Later, various groups of Latter Day Saints returned to Jackson County, the first of whom were members of the diminutive Church of Christ (Temple Lot), quickly followed by adherents to the Reorganized Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints under the leadership of Joseph Smith III and members of other factions, several of whom had established their headquarters in nearby Independence, Missouri.
The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church) is the largest sect in the Latter Day Saint movement and is headquartered in Salt Lake City, Utah. The LDS Church opened the Kansas City Missouri Temple on May 6, 2012.
Westport and Westport Landing
Over the next years, the character of Kansas City was defined by those who wanted to live close to the river (who were referred to as "Rabbits") and those who wanted to live in the hills (the "Goats"). John Calvin McCoy, who is considered the "father of Kansas City", had a hand in establishing settlements in both locations. In 1833, he opened a trading post in the hills three miles south of the river. McCoy named it "West Port" because it was the last place to get supplies before travelers went into Kansas Territory on the California Trail, Santa Fe Trail, and Oregon Trail. McCoy got supplies from boats that docked at a rocky outcropping on the river at what is Main Street and the river; the area was called "Westport Landing". McCoy's landing and Chouteau's trading post drove traffic to the last outpost before settlers traveled up the Kansas River or Missouri River. The road connecting Westport with the trading post and Westport Landing followed Broadway. In 1834, the steamboat John Hancock, which was laden with goods for McCoy, became the first steamboat to dock at the Westport Landing and opened up a new era of communication and transportation for the area.
Town of Kansas
Expansion around the landing was stifled because it was a farm mostly owned by Gabriel Prudhomme. In 1838, McCoy, Chouteau, and other merchants formed the Town of Kansas Company and purchased Prudhomme's farm for . The investors rejected other names for the new town including Port Fonda, Rabbitville and Possum Trot. The next year, in 1839, Chouteau died, and the area outside of Westport Landing was renamed the Town of Kansas.
Throughout the 1840s, the population and importance of the Town of Kansas swelled as it and nearby Independence and Westport became starting points on the Oregon, Santa Fe, and California trails for settlers heading west. Between St. Louis and California, one of the few substantially populated areas was around Kaw Point at the confluence of the Missouri and Kansas rivers. The first rail travel came to the Town of Kansas in 1847.
Jackson County finally formally incorporated the Town of Kansas on June 3, 1850, traditionally viewed as the date of Kansas City's founding. Its population was approximately 1,500 people. The first newspaper (the now-defunct Kansas City Ledger) and first telegraph service were established in the Town of Kansas in 1851.
City of Kansas
Missouri officially incorporated the city on March 28, 1853; it changed the name to the City of Kansas. At the first municipal election in 1853, there were 67 voters from an estimated population of 2,500. The initial incorporated area was about 10 blocks west to east and five blocks north to south. It was bordered by Bluff Road (about the location of present-day Interstate 35) on the west, Independence Avenue on the south and Holmes Street on the east and the Missouri River on the north. William S. Gregory became the first mayor but had to resign within 10 months when it was discovered that the mayor actually had to live in the city.
Border War
At the time of the City of Kansas's incorporation, Missouri was still a slave state. However, the population was deeply divided over the issue of slavery. In 1854, the United States Congress passed the Kansas–Nebraska Act, which rejected the 1820 Missouri Compromise and allowed new territories to choose whether they wished to allow slavery, whereas the Missouri Compromise had prohibited slavery in any new states to be created north of latitude 36°30'. Thus, according to the Missouri Compromise, Kansas Territory (located immediately to the west of the City of Kansas, Missouri) had been a free territory but now could choose to permit slavery.
As a result of the new potential for slavery in Kansas, pro-slavery activists infiltrated Kansas Territory from the neighboring slave state of Missouri. To abolitionists and other Free-Staters, who desired Kansas to be admitted to the Union as a free state, they were collectively known as Border Ruffians. Pro-slavery Missourians flocked to Kansas in force, electing a pro-slavery Kansas Territorial Legislature. In response, abolitionists began arriving in the area, and in 1855 they declared the Kansas Territorial Legislature "bogus" and elected their own representatives to form a new territorial government in Lawrence, Kansas (approximately west of the City of Kansas). The newly established City of Kansas soon found itself in the middle of a dispute known as Bleeding Kansas.
During the conflict, the City of Kansas continued to grow rapidly. It gained a courthouse, city market, and chamber of commerce in 1857. In 1858, however, the local violence had grown so fierce that the Kansas Territorial Governor and the State of Missouri both asked U.S. President James Buchanan to send in federal troops. The president agreed, and with the troops' presence the violence seemed quelled.
Civil War
Missouri stayed in the Union during the Civil War. However, since the city's first settlers had arrived via the Missouri River from the South, considerable tension existed there between pro-Union and pro-Confederate sympathizers. Missourian Sterling Price was to fight battles in the area at the beginning and end of the war, hoping to incite residents to join the Southern cause. Thus, the City of Kansas and its immediate environs became the focus of intense military activity. The First Battle of Independence resulted in a Confederate victory, but the Southerners were not able to follow it up in any meaningful way, as the City of Kansas was occupied by Union troops and proved too heavily fortified for them to assault.
In 1863, William Quantrill sacked and burned Lawrence, killing 168 people in what was called the Lawrence Massacre. The collapse of a makeshift prison in Kansas City holding women associated with bushwhackers was one of Quantrill's motivations for the massacre. Union General Thomas Ewing, Jr., believing that the raid was rooted in the four Missouri counties on the Kansas border south of the Missouri River, promulgated his General Order No. 11 which ordered the eviction of all those living in rural areas outside of designated urban areas, regardless of their loyalty. This order affected those living south of Brush Creek and east of the Blue River, and proved a source of resentments that lingered long after the war. The city's first mayor was exiled to St. Louis.
In 1864, Price invaded Missouri in a last-gasp Confederate offensive called Price's Raid. He pushed Union troops out of Independence in the Second Battle of Independence and into the City of Kansas, resulting in the pivotal Battle of Westport in October of that year near Brush Creek. Price was decisively defeated and forced out of the state, ending all significant Confederate military operations in the area.
After the war, Kansas City remained a hotbed for former pro-Southerns. John Newman Edwards founded the Kansas City Times to stringently object to Republican rule. He also created the Jesse James anti-hero myth, with James as a modern-day Robin Hood fighting an unjust Republican Reconstruction. Jesse James went on to rob the Kansas City fairgrounds at 12th Street and Campbell, all the while living at various places throughout the metropolitan area.
Mid to late 1800s
Crossroads of the country
In 1865, the Missouri Pacific railroad reached Kansas City. At the time, Kansas City was similar in population to Independence and Leavenworth, Kansas. That was to change in 1867, when Kansas City defeated Leavenworth (then over twice Kansas City's size) for the Hannibal & St. Joseph Railroad bridge over the Missouri River. The Hannibal Bridge, designed by Octave Chanute, opened in 1869. With that, the city's population quadrupled in fifty years.
In 1889, with a population of around 130,000, the city adopted a new charter and changed its name to Kansas City. In 1897, Kansas City annexed Westport. The initial meeting of tracks occurred in the West Bottoms an area that had previously been used to outfit travellers on the Oregon and Santa Fe trails who had followed the Kansas River. The biggest outfitting facility was the Central Overland California and Pikes Peak Express Company. That company went out of business following the collapse of the Pony Express. Its facilities were to become the Kansas City Stockyards. The city has since been the second to Chicago as busiest train center in the country. In 1914, the city's Union Station in the West Bottoms became outdated and the new Union Station was built.
Cow town
In 1871, the Kansas City Stockyards boomed in the West Bottoms because of their central location in the country and their proximity to trains. They became second only to Chicago's in size, and the city itself was identified with its famous Kansas City steak. In 1899, the American Hereford Association hosted a cattle judging contest in a tent in the stockyards. That event soon became the annual American Royal two-month-long livestock festival. The Kansas City Stockyards were destroyed in the Great Flood of 1951 and never fully recovered.
Strawberry Hill
In 1887, John G. Braecklein constructed a Victorian home for John and Margaret Scroggs in the area of Strawberry Hill. It is a fine example of the Queen Anne Style architecture erected in Kansas City, Kansas.
1890s to 1940
Pendergast era
The Pendergast era, under Democrat big city bosses James and Tom Pendergast from 1890 to 1940, ushered in a colorful and influential era for the city. The Pendergasts presided over an era in which many outsized personalities shaped the city and contributed to the whole country. During this period, the Pendergasts ensured that national prohibition was meaningless in Kansas City; the Kansas City boulevard and park system was developed; the Country Club Plaza, Country Club District, and Ward Parkway were created; TWA made Kansas City the hub of national aviation; most of the downtown Kansas City buildings were built; its inner city culture blossomed with contributions to Negro league baseball, Kansas City jazz music, and Kansas City-style barbecue cuisine; the stockyards and train station were second only to Chicago; and Harry S Truman, from nearby Independence, became President. Much of the construction during these "wide open days" used Pendergast Readi-Mix Concrete, and the era was marked by considerable violence and corruption. Pendergast was ultimately defanged with a 1939 income tax evasion charge.
Prohibition
Kansas enacted statewide prohibition on February 19, 1881. In Kansas City, however, residents on the Kansas side of the area who wished to drink simply went across the state line to Kansas City, Missouri, to the many saloons and taverns there. 12th Street in Downtown Kansas City was known for its large number of taverns. During the ongoing temperance movement, however, Missouri never enacted statewide prohibition. Missourians actually rejected statewide prohibition in three separate referendums in 1910, 1912, and 1918, all of which were brought by citizens' initiative petitions. In April 1901, famous temperance crusader Carrie A. Nation came to Kansas City and began to enter the saloons on 12th Street and smash liquor bottles with her hatchet. When she entered Flynn's Saloon on April 15, she promptly was arrested, hauled into Police Court (known today as the Municipal Court of Kansas City), fined , and ordered by a judge to leave Kansas City and never return.
When prohibition finally was imposed on Missouri in 1919 by means of the 18th Amendment and the subsequent Volstead Act, Kansas City remained essentially unaffected, mostly due to the Pendergast machine. Due to Pendergast, prohibition simply "never existed in Kansas City" because he kept the bars open, the liquor supplied, and Kansas City's federal prosecutor on his payroll to never bring a single felony prosecution under the Volstead Act. Dr. George Miller, the editor of the Omaha Herald, even remarked, "If you want to see some sin, forget about Paris. Go to Kansas City." So, when prohibition finally was repealed in 1933 by means of the 21st Amendment, very little changed in Kansas City.
World War I memorial
The Liberty Memorial, which houses The National World War I Museum, was dedicated on November 11, 1926, by U.S. President Calvin Coolidge. In attendance at the groundbreaking ceremony on November 1, 1921, were Lieutenant General Baron Jacques of Belgium, Admiral Lord Earl Beatty of Great Britain, General Armando Diaz of Italy, Marshal Ferdinand Foch of France and General John Pershing of the United States. In 1935, bas reliefs by Walker Hancock of Jacques, Beatty, Diaz, Foch and Pershing were unveiled.
Union Station massacre
Violence and gangster activity proliferated during this time as well. On June 17, 1933, three gangsters attempted to free Frank Nash from FBI custody, but wound up killing him and four unarmed agents. This is known as the Union Station massacre. The gangsters had spent the prior evening at the Hotel Monroe, adjacent to Pendergast's office, and had received assistance in eluding a bribed police force from John Lazia, a major underworld figure with connections to Pendergast.
Political history
James Pendergast
In 1880, James Pendergast, the oldest son of Irish immigrants, moved to Kansas City's West Bottoms. He worked at a local iron foundry until he bought a bar with money he won from betting on a longshot horse (Climax) at a local race track. From his new bar, Pendergast began networking with local leaders and soon built a powerful faction in the Jackson County Democratic Party. Pendergast's faction was called the "Goats", because they were backed by those living in the hills above the river. His chief rivals were the "Rabbits" because they tended to come from the area around the rivers. The lead of this faction was Joe Shannon.
Tom Pendergast
Just prior to winning his first of nine terms on the city council in 1892, James summoned his youngest brother Tom from nearby St. Joseph. As Jim's health deteriorated, Tom began to utilize many of his brother's connections to lead the "Goat" faction after Jim's death in 1910. Tom succeeded Jim in the council too, but left after three terms and assumed a more powerful position as chairman of the Jackson County Democratic Club with its headquarters at 1908 Main Street.
City manager
In 1925, Kansas City, Missouri, voted in favor of establishing a city manager-based government with one city council of 12 members instead of two chambers of 32 members total, giving Tom an easier road to gaining majority control. By 1925, the Pendergast machine had established a majority, appointing a passive mayor and powerful city manager Henry F. McElroy. Pendergast's power grew during the Great Depression, creating a Ten-Year Plan bond plan aimed at putting unemployed Kansas Citians to work building civic structures that still stand, including City Hall, Municipal Auditorium, and the Jackson County Courthouse. These structures, sporting art deco architecture, were built with concrete supplied by Pendergast's Ready-Mixed Concrete company and other companies that provided kickbacks to Pendergast.
At its peak, the machine wielded considerable influence on state politics, handily electing Platte County judge Guy Brasfield Park governor of Missouri in 1932 when the Democratic candidate Francis Wilson died two weeks before the election. Also during this time, Kansas City also became a center for nightlife and music, with jazz by musicians such as Count Basie and Charlie Parker, and blues flourishing in areas such as 18th and Vine. Pendergast's machine became synonymous with inflating election results by bringing in out-of-town hoodlums to vote for machine candidates repeatedly. The March 27, 1934, municipal elections (dramatized in Robert Altman's 1996 film Kansas City) resulted in nine deaths.
Machine's demise
Tom Pendergast's power was brought down by health ailments and a determined effort by The federal treasury department along with local reform leaders, capped by Tom pleading guilty to tax evasion on May 24, 1939. Remnants of the machine lingered until the 1950s. His biographers have summed up Pendergast's uniqueness:
Personalities
Walt Disney
Walt Disney moved to Kansas City with his family in the early 20th century. He attended weekend classes at the Kansas City Art Institute and was said to have been inspired to make the affectionate depiction of a mouse after seeing one in his office in Kansas City. After World War I, Disney ran his first animation studio at the Laugh-O-Gram Studio from 1921 to 1923 Kansas City.
Joyce Clyde Hall
J.C. Hall founded greeting card company Hallmark Cards with his brother Rollie in the early 20th century, by first selling Valentine's Day cards. He expanded the corporate headquarters into Crown Center shortly before he died in 1982.
TW&A
Charles Lindbergh helped lure the newly created Transcontinental & Western Airline (TW&A) – later Trans World Airlines (TWA) – to locate its corporate headquarters in Kansas City, because of the city's central location. During the latter part of the Golden Age of Aviation, the 1930s and 1940s, TWA was known as "The Airline Run by Flyers". With about 300 employees prior to World War II, the airline eventually employed more than 20,000 people from the metropolitan area.
William T. Kemper
William T. Kemper became the scion for a powerful financial family that had controlling interest of the city's two biggest banks, Commerce Trust Company (now Commerce Bancshares) and City Center Bank (later City National Bank, now UMB Financial Corporation). The family has influenced financial endeavors throughout Missouri and Kansas, including Kemper Arena and the Kemper Museum of Contemporary Art. William became president of Commerce. One of his sons, R. Crosby Kemper, controlled United Missouri Banks while the other son, James Madison Kemper, took over Commerce.
William Rockhill Nelson
William Rockhill Nelson founded the Kansas City Star in 1880, and was to eventually take over its prime competitor, the Kansas City Times. Nelson was a major supporter of the Democratic Party and an urban booster. At the urging of his paper, the city built Memorial Hall in 1899 to attract the 1900 Democratic National Convention. The hall burned in early 1900 was rebuilt in 90 days in time for the convention. Nelson left provisions that his house ultimately be torn down to create the Nelson-Atkins Gallery of Art.
J. C. Nichols
Beginning in 1906, developer J. C. Nichols created a planned upscale community called the Country Club District, located south of Brush Creek. This development is well known for the beautiful Ward Parkway, a wide, divided and manicured boulevard that gently slides north and south through the neighborhood. The parkway is lined with several large and attractive homes. In the 1920s, Nichols created the Country Club Plaza, a shopping district and neighborhood along Brush Creek modeled after the city of Seville, Spain. "The Plaza" is the world's first shopping center specifically designed to accommodate shoppers arriving by automobile. It is still one of the most popular shopping and dining venues in Kansas City – day and night. Every Thanksgiving evening, throngs of Kansas Citians flock there to watch the traditional Lighting of the Plaza, which kicks off the Christmas shopping season.
Harry S Truman
Harry S Truman, who was born in Lamar, Missouri, but grew up in Jackson County, started a haberdashery in downtown Kansas City after World War I. When his business failed, he asked Pendergast for a job and wound up an Eastern Jackson County judge (in actuality, a county commissioner position). Truman was later promoted to Senator. He was one of the few politicians who attended Tom Pendergast's funeral in 1945, just a few days after he became Vice President, and eventual President of the United States when Franklin Roosevelt died on April 12, 1945. Truman went on to win the following presidential election in 1948 and served another term.
R. A. Long
In 1873, Robert A. Long – who was born in Shelby County, Kentucky in 1850 – moved to Columbus, Kansas and with a friend and a cousin, Victor Bell and Robert White, started a hay business. Their business was unsuccessful, but there seemed to be a need for lumber so the three formed R. A. Long & Company. After White's death, the two remaining founders formed the Long-Bell Lumber Company in 1887 and the company's headquarters were moved to Kansas City. It became a very lucrative business, and made Long a millionaire. Other milestones achieved by Long included being a lumber baron, developer, investor, newspaper owner, and philanthropist. He built the towns of Longville, Louisiana and Longview, Washington. In 1907 he built the R.A. Long Building, the first steel framed skyscraper, in Kansas City. The building was bought by City National Bank & Trust Company in 1940. Long was a founding member and president of the Liberty Memorial Association that secured funding for the memorial. James M. Kemper served as treasurer, as well as president of a bank. In 1911 Long built Corinthian Hall, a 72-room mansion; then in 1914, he built the Longview Farm.
18th Street & Vine
One of the most dramatic developments of the era was the flourishing of the inner city neighborhood of 18th Street and Vine.
Kansas City Monarchs
The Kansas City Monarchs played at Municipal Stadium and were one of the premier baseball teams in the Negro leagues with championship teams and stars such as Satchel Paige, Jackie Robinson and John Jordan "Buck" O'Neil.
Kansas City Jazz
With Kansas City not enforcing liquor laws and clubs being allowed to stay open all night, musicians began all-night jam sessions after performing in structured big band performances. The Kansas City sound was hard-driving, riff-bass and blues oriented. This was the environment in which Charlie Parker developed in his early years before heading to New York City and laying the foundations for bebop.
Kansas City-style barbecue
Henry Perry first introduced a Memphis-style barbecue to the city from his restaurant in the 18th Street and Vine area in the early 20th century. Arthur Bryant later added more molasses to the recipe when he took over Perry's restaurant. Gates Bar-B-Q which was opened in 1946, by George W. Gates, is the only remaining family owned barbecue restaurant in the area. It is also the only sauce and product manufacturer based in Kansas City. The still family owned business is owned and operated by Ollie W. Gates. In 1986, Rich Davis sold KC Masterpiece Bar-B-Q Sauce to the Kingsford charcoal division of Clorox.
Crossroads of the world
The period between the 1940s and the 1970s was a heady time when Kansas City was sometimes considered the crossroads of the world. This was fueled by the Presidency of hometown native Harry Truman from 1945 to 1953, followed immediately by Kansan Dwight D. Eisenhower from 1953 to 1961. From the 1930s and part of this period TWA, under the leadership of Jack Frye, Paul E. Richter, and Howard Hughes as a stockholder, was headquartered in Kansas City. The city planned to turn the cosmopolitan hub into the gateway to the world. But the era's great expectations died down with the diminished presence of TWA.
1940s
After the fall of the Pendergast machine, reformer John B. Gage was elected mayor in 1940 and L. P. Cookingham was named city manager. Gage was elected mayor three times and served until 1946, while City Manager Cookingham served until 1959. The Gage and Cookingham government sought to "clean up" Kansas City from its corrupt past and enact "fair" government practices and merit-based hiring of city employees.
The war effort brought defense jobs to Kansas City, which was still suffering from the Great Depression, including the Pratt & Whitney engine plant. Other armaments plants in Kansas City, Kansas and eastern Jackson County provided additional jobs to the region. This was a relatively prosperous time for the city. In 1945, Jackson County resident Harry Truman became President of the United States, following the death of Franklin Roosevelt.
Annexation
In the mid-1940s, the Gage and Cookingham government began to annex land to expand the city's size. The city increased its geographical size to five times its size in 1940, with the annexation programs continuing through the 1970s. Following World War II, Kansas City, like virtually all other metropolitan areas, experienced significant lower density expansion, which was fueled principally by movement from outside the area and also by population shifts from the city's core to the suburbs. While other cities shrank, the newly annexed land helped Kansas City retain its population. Growth since 1970, however, has been limited and often negative, even during a modest population growth in the 1990s.
1950s
Since the 1950s, Kansas City has gone through a transition and tried to shed its Cow Town image. This began when Kansas City was at its height of national attention with the back-to-back Presidencies of Harry Truman and Kansas favorite-son Dwight D. Eisenhower. Events of the period saw the heyday of Roy A. Roberts' influence as editor of the Kansas City Star.
The change began in the early 1950s with the precipitous decline of the railroad due to competition from automobile and jet travel. Union Station, which had lorded over the second busiest rail intersection (next to Chicago), began a rapid decline. The Great Flood of 1951 decimated the Kansas City Stockyards in the West Bottoms. The stockyards (which were also second to Chicago in size) never came back to their full glory as stockyards moved away from urban and unionized centers. In 1955, Kansas City formally began its relationship with major league sports when the Philadelphia Athletics relocated to the city, becoming the Kansas City Athletics, playing at Municipal Stadium.
1960s
The 1960s contained many projects coupled with the rapid urban decay of many inner city neighborhoods. During this period, many historic buildings were demolished to make way for parking lots, and office buildings. The area became primarily for business rather than for everyday city life.
During this inner city decay, Kansas City began to annex land and expand its area. In the process, Kansas City eventually became one of the largest cities in the United States area-wise at , while its population decreased by 15,000 between 1950 and 2000. It is still not uncommon to find cattle and corn fields on the extreme edges of Kansas City. In 2000, Kansas City ranked as the 21st largest city in the United States in terms of area, while it placed 40th in population rankings.
In 1967, the Kansas City Chiefs participated in the first ever Super Bowl, losing to the Green Bay Packers. That same year, Charlie Finley got permission to move the Kansas City Athletics out of the 1923-era Municipal Stadium. Kansas City responded to these developments by approving a bond issue to build the Truman Sports Complex on the extreme suburban eastern edge of the city by the intersection of Interstates 70 and 435. The construction of the complex was so successful that many major league ballparks and football stadiums have been designed in accordance with the Truman Complex master plan, and most have been designed by Kansas City architects.
Also in 1967, work began on the Crown Center complex located around the headquarters of Hallmark Cards. Another development in the 1960s was the approval of a bond issue to move the city's main airport from Kansas City Downtown Airport to the TWA Kansas City Overhaul Base at what was formerly called Mid-Continent International Airport – now called Kansas City International Airport (but which is referred to in baggage tags by its original abbreviation of MCI). Although Kansas City continued to expand outward in the 1960s, the inner city endured numerous heartbreaks, fires and a 1968 riot that followed the assassination of Martin Luther King Jr. White flight continued on a large scale, ironically, resegregating the city even further than it was before the Civil Rights Movement.
1970s
The first half of the 1970s was dominated by Kansas City's ambitious urban renewal projects that were showcased when the city hosted the 1976 Republican National Convention. Though these projects did little to bring people back to the city, they removed many historic buildings in favor of more parking, and more office structures, as well as public housing projects.
New arenas and teams
After Charlie Finley moved the Kansas City Athletics to Oakland, California, Missouri Senator Stuart Symington threatened to remove professional baseball's antitrust exemption. Major League Baseball responded by awarding an expansion team to Kansas City which started play in 1969 under Ewing Kauffman. The Royals had winning seasons by 1971 and moved into their new home in the Truman Sports Complex at Royals Stadium (now Kauffman Stadium) in 1973, beginning a decade in which they appeared in the World Series two times (winning once) and won six American League West division titles. In 1972, the Kansas City Chiefs played their first game at the new Arrowhead Stadium. Ironically the Chiefs football franchise, who had defined Kansas City in the 1960s and those heady days at Municipal Stadium, went into a decline, having only two winning seasons between 1974 and 1988 and participating in only one playoff game from 1972 through 1989.
In 1972, Kansas City acquired a National Basketball Association team, the Cincinnati Royals, with promises of building a new indoor arena. Kemper Arena, which was the first major project by architect Helmut Jahn, was built in 18 months from 1973 to 1974 at the former location of the Kansas City Stockyards in the West Bottoms. Its construction was financed by general obligation bonds, donated land from the stockyards, donations from the American Royal and R. Crosby Kemper Sr. The arena was considered an architectural gem because of fast-track construction, and the fact that with external supports, there were no obstructions to sight lines. The arena was seen as the crowning achievement for luring the 1976 Republican Convention. The arena also resulted in Kansas City being awarded a National Hockey League expansion team, the Kansas City Scouts, which began play in 1974.
KCI Airport
The Kansas City Downtown Airport, which was built initially during the Pendergast in the Missouri River bottoms immediately north of downtown, was convenient. However, it lacked room for expansion and jets landing and taking off had to avoid the high bluffs, and the neighborhood of Quality Hill at its south edge. TWA, which was headquartered in Kansas City at the time, had an overhaul base with a landing strip surrounded by open farm land north of downtown in rural Platte County, Missouri. The airport was listed on maps as Mid-Continent International Airport.
In 1966 voters approved a $150 million bond issue to move the city's main airport to an expanded Mid-Continent. However, the city did not annex the area, and instead the small town of Platte City, Missouri did. Following a series of court battles, Kansas City eventually annexed the airport and selected architectural firm Kivett and Myers to design it, which was dedicated in 1972. Almost all the airlines that were hubbed at the old facility moved to the new airport, which was renamed Kansas City International Airport. The international designation was applied because of jets at the airport that traveled to and from Mexico. The "MCI" abbreviation remained because it was an existing airport and had already been listed on navigation charts.
On November 7, 2017, two weeks after KCI's 45th anniversary, Kansas City Missouri voters overwhelmingly approved a new privately financed and constructed single terminal at KCI. The New Terminal will replace the existing decrepit "Clover Leaf Terminals" and is expected to open in late 2021.
River Quay
One of the most tragic times during this period occurred when a gangland war broke out among the Kansas City Mafia over control of the newly created and thriving River Quay entertainment district, and control over mob skimming at the Stardust Resort & Casino in Las Vegas. In the process, several mobsters were killed and three buildings were blown up in the River Quay, which effectively ended its function as Kansas City's entertainment center. The battle ended the era of mob control of the Las Vegas casinos.
The River Quay in the City Market area along the Missouri River on the north edge of Downtown Kansas City, had been a 1970s urban renewal project to offer a more family friendly entertainment complex based on the city's jazz heritage, replacing the establishments along 12th Street which had deteriorated into a center for crime, drugs, and prostitution. The battle over mob skimming in Las Vegas was highlighted in the book Casino and its based upon movie by Nicholas Pileggi.
Big storms
Although the Kansas City area, which is in Tornado Alley, is usually hit with at least one and often many more tornadoes each year, two major non-tornadic storms had profound effects on the city. On September 12, 1977, following a soggy summer, of rain fell on Kansas City, causing severe flooding across the entire region. The most dramatic flooding was in the Country Club Plaza neighborhood, along Brush Creek. The storm killed 25 people, and caused nearly $100 million in property damage. On June 4, 1979, a severe thunderstorm that moved through the city that evening collapsed the roof of Kemper Arena. As the arena was not holding an event that night, no one was injured at the facility. Initial reports indicated that the collapse was the result of a downburst. However, an investigation later revealed that heavy rain from the storm had collected on the arena's roof, to the point where the supports were unable to handle the weight of the pooled water coupled with high winds that rocked its exterior skeleton. The arena was repaired and reopened in early 1980.
Small market major league
Kansas City's grandiose dreams began to diminish in the 1980s as TWA and the major league hockey and basketball teams left and the NCAA stopped holding its Final Four games in the city. The Kansas City Scouts were unable to create the same buzz as fellow NHL franchise, the St. Louis Blues, and relocated to Denver in 1976 to become the Colorado Rockies (which later became the New Jersey Devils in 1982). In 1986, the Kansas City Kings were relocated to Sacramento, California to become the Sacramento Kings. Kansas City began to settle into the fact that it was one of the smallest markets with major league teams, ranking #31 by television market size. The period since 1980 has been marked by substantial bond issues by the city to protect its historic buildings, such as Union Station and Liberty Memorial, as well as to make major improvements to Kansas City International Airport and the Truman Sports Complex. Kansas City is now experiencing the biggest building boom in downtown since the Pendergast era.
1980s
Desegregation case
The single most divisive issue in Kansas City in the 1980s and 1990s was a school desegregation case that spanned three decades, cost millions of dollars, be argued before the U.S. Supreme Court and be featured in a profile on the CBS newsmagazine 60 Minutes about good intentions gone awry. By 1970 the Kansas City school district had experienced massive white and middle-class black flight that left it with a smaller tax base and a severe money shortage. The district increasingly depended on federal funding and could not afford to turn down large federal grants that required it to integrate faster. "Ultimately, the desegregation that was accomplished in Kansas City was far too little and came far too late, after the district had lost most of its white students to the suburbs", says historian Peter Moran.
The legal case began in 1977 when the Kansas City, Missouri School District sued its neighboring districts for funds to help it desegregate its schools. In the ensuing court battle, Kansas City's school system itself was put under a federal court judge guidance; the judge then proceeded to order tax increases to improve the quality of the schools as the system built its network of magnet schools, including two high schools, Lincoln College Preparatory Academy and Paseo Academy. The battle dragged in the entire state of Missouri as schools outside the metropolitan area argued that they should not have to pay for Kansas City area schools. Further, Kansas City residents were angered over plans to bus students an hour or more each day over the city's vast area.
At the height of the debate, the Kansas City, Missouri district spent more than $11,700 per pupil – the most of any large public school district in the country. Teacher salaries skyrocketed, teacher-student ratios were 12 or 13 to 1 and some schools were equipped with Olympic-size swimming pools, wildlife sanctuaries and model United Nations with simultaneous translation capability. The Kansas City, Missouri School District had hoped to stop white flight to attain 35% white enrollment at nearly every school. Instead, over the life of the case, minority enrollment had grown from 67% to 84%. In 1995, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled in the case Missouri v. Jenkins that the courts had exceeded their authority in the case. The case still continued to work its way back through the courts, and in 2003, a federal court judge finally released Kansas City from the judicial oversight.
Hyatt Regency walkway collapse
One of the biggest showcases of Kansas City metropolitan area's rebirth in this era was Crown Center, which was being built by Hallmark Cards, itself headquartered in the complex by Union Station. The newest addition to the complex was the Hyatt Regency Hotel, where on July 17, 1981, the building's walkway collapsed during a tea dance, which had been set up to bring back the magic of Kansas City jazz. The collapse killed 114 people, making it the deadliest structural collapse in U.S. history at the time, and injured more than 200 others. The Kansas City Star, which had been caught flat-footed after the Kemper Arena collapse, hired a structural engineer following the Hyatt disaster and won a Pulitzer Prize for its coverage of the story.
Champions of the World
The Kansas City Royals helped boost the city's morale in 1980, when they played their first World Series (in which they were favored to win, but lost to the Philadelphia Phillies four games to two), and then in 1985 in the "I-70 Series" with the intrastate rival St. Louis Cardinals. The 1985, the Royals won the Western Division of the American League for the second consecutive season and the sixth time in ten years. The team improved their record to 91–71 on the strength of their pitching, led by pitcher Bret Saberhagen's Cy Young Award-winning performance. In the playoffs, the Royals went on to win the American League Championship Series for just the second time in its history. Both series were won in seven games after losing three of the first four games.
The championship series against the Cardinals, in which the Royals were the underdog, was forever remembered by umpires' blown calls: one that cost the Royals a run in the 4th, and a "blown call" in Game Six by umpire Don Denkinger that St. Louis fans claim led to the Royals tying the game. However, a dropped foul ball by Jack Clark had as much or more to do with the Royals rally that inning. Regardless, St. Louis had no answer for Saberhagen in the following game as the Royals won their first world championship over the Cardinals in Game 7, 11–0, and the series four games to three.
The Royals returned to the Fall Classic in 2014 losing in the 7th Game to the San Francisco Giants with the tying run just 90 feet away. In 2015, they returned once more and this time defeated the New York Mets in 5 games. The Royals won Game 1 in extra innings, tying for the longest game in World Series history. The Royals also won Game 2 with a complete game by Johnny Cueto, who allowed only one unearned run and two hits. With the series shifting to New York, the Mets won Game 3 with home runs by David Wright and Curtis Granderson. The Royals came from behind to win Game 4 after an error by Daniel Murphy led to a blown save by Jeurys Familia. Game 5 also went into extra innings, where bench player Christian Colón drove in the go-ahead run for the Royals, who clinched the series. Salvador Pérez was named the World Series Most Valuable Player.
The 1990s
Kansas City grew by 6,399 people during the 1990s, ending two decades of population losses. Emanuel Cleaver became the city's first African-American mayor in 1991, before being elected to Congress in 2004. The opening of the American Jazz Museum, Negro Leagues Baseball Museum, and refurbishing of Union Station as Science City helped memorialize early 20th-century Kansas City.
The suburb of North Kansas City became home to the first casino facility in Missouri when Harrah's North Kansas City opened in September 1994. In 1996, Kansas City received a Major League Soccer franchise, the Kansas City Wiz (later, the Kansas City Wizards from 1997 to 2010 and now known as Sporting Kansas City). The decade closed with Kansas City electing its first female mayor, Kay Waldo Barnes in 1999.
21st century
Population change
The City of Kansas City, Missouri's population has steadily increased by more than 24,000 people between the 2000 and 2010 Census to just under 460,000 residents. And by 2017, the city had grown to a population of almost 480,000 people. The Metropolitan Area's population is expected to grow from 2.1 Million in 2010 to over 2.7 Million by 2040. However, the urban core's population has continued to drop significantly, while downtown's has risen dramatically.
Rebirth of Downtown
In recent years, the Kansas City area has undergone extensive redevelopment, with over $6 billion in improvements to the downtown area on the Missouri side. One of the main goals is to attract convention and tourist dollars, office workers, and residents to downtown KCMO. Among the projects include the redevelopment of the Power & Light District, located in the area surrounding the Power & Light Building (the former headquarters of the Kansas City Power & Light Company, which is now based on the northern end of the district), into a retail and entertainment district; and the Sprint Center, an 18,500-seat arena that opened in the district in 2007, which was funded by a 2004 ballot initiative involving a tax on car rentals and hotels, and was designed to meet the stadium specifications for a possible future NBA or NHL franchise. Kemper Arena, which was replaced by Sprint Center, fell into disrepair and was sold to private developers. By 2017, the arena was being converted to a sports complex under the name Mosaic Arena. The Kauffman Performing Arts Center opened in 2011 providing a new, modern home to the KC Orchestra and Ballet. In 2015, an 800-room Hyatt Convention Hotel was announced for a site next to the Performance Arts Center & Bartle Hall. Construction is expected to start in early 2018 with Loews as the operator.
The downtown residential population in KCMO has quadrupled in the 2000s. Growing from almost 4,000 residents in the early 2000s to nearly 30,000 as of 2017. Kansas City, Missouri's Downtown ranks as the 6th fastest growing downtown in America with the population expected to grow by over 40% by 2022. Conversions of office buildings such as the P&L and Commerce Bank Tower into residential and hotel space has helped to fulfill the demand. New apartment complexes like One, Two, and Three Lights, RM West, and 503 Main have begun to reshape Kansas City's skyline. Strong Demand has led to occupancy rates in the high 90%s.
The residential population of downtown has boomed, but the office population has dropped significantly from the early 2000s to the mid-2010s. AMC and other top employers moved their operations to modern office buildings in the suburbs. High office vacancy has affected downtown, leading to the neglect of many office buildings. By the mid-2010s many office buildings were converted to residential uses and the Class A vacancy rate plunged to 12% by 2017. Swiss Re, Virgin Mobile, AutoAlert, and others have begun to move operations to downtown Kansas City from the suburbs and from expensive coastal cities.
Transportation
The area has seen additional development through various transportation projects, including improvements to the Grandview Triangle, which intersects Interstates 435 and 470, and U.S. Route 71, a thoroughfare that has long been notorious for fatal accidents.
In July 2005, the Kansas City Area Transportation Authority (KCATA) launched Kansas City's first bus rapid transit line, the Metro Area Express (MAX), which links the River Market, Downtown, Union Station, Crown Center and the Country Club Plaza. The KCATA continues to expand MAX with additional routes on Prospect Ave, Troost Ave, and Independence Ave.
In 2013, construction began on a two-mile streetcar line in downtown Kansas City (funded by a $102 million ballot initiative that was passed in 2012) that runs between the River Market and Union Station, it began operation in May 2016. In 2017, voters approved the formation of a TDD to expand the streetcar line south 3.5 miles from Union Station to UMKC's Volker Campus. Additionally in 2017, the KC Port Authority began engineering studies for a Port Authority funded streetcar expansion north to Berkley Riverfront Park. Citywide voter support for rail projects continues to grow with numerous light rail projects in development.
In 2016, Jackson County, Missouri acquired unused rail lines as part of a long term commuter rail plan. For the time being, the line is being converted to a trail while county officials negotiate with railroads for access to tracks in Downtown Kansas City.
On November 7, 2017, Kansas City, Missouri voters overwhelmingly approved a new single terminal at Kansas City International Airport by a 75% to 25% margin. The New Single Terminal will replace the 3 existing "Clover Leafs" at KCI Airport and is expected to open in 2021.
See also
Timeline of Kansas City, Missouri history
References
Further reading
Brown, A. Theodore, and Lyle W. Dorsett. K.C. A History of Kansas City, Missouri (1978)
Brown, A. Theodore. Frontier Community: Kansas City to 1870 (1963)
Brown, A. Theodore. The politics of reform;: Kansas City's municipal government, 1925-1950 (1958)
Brown, A. Theodore. "Business" Neutralism" on the Missouri-Kansas Border: Kansas City, 1854-1857." Journal of Southern History 29.2 (1963): 229-240. online
Dorsett, Lyle W. "Kansas City and the New Deal", in John Braeman et al. eds. The New Deal: Volume Two - the State and Local Levels (1975) pp 407–19
Dorsett, Lyle W. The Pendergast Machine - Kansas City (1968)
Glaab, Charles N. Kansas City and the Railroads: Community Policy in the Growth of a Regional Metropolis (1962) online
Haskell, Harry. Boss-busters and Sin Hounds: Kansas City and Its Star (University of Missouri Press, 2007).
Kirkman, Paul. A History Lover's Guide to Kansas City (Arcadia Publishing, 2020), popular history
Larsen, Lawrence H. and Nancy J. Hulston, "Criminal Aspects Of The Pendergast Machine", Missouri Historical Review (91#2) (1997) pp 168–180.
Jackson, David W. Kansas City Chronicles: An Up-To-Date History (Arcadia, 2010).
Mallea, Amahia K. A river in the city of fountains: an environmental history of Kansas City and the Missouri River (University Press of Kansas, 2018).
Matlin, John S. Political Party Machines of the 1920s and 1930s: Tom Pendergast and the Kansas City Democratic Machine. (PhD Dissertation, University of Birmingham, UK, 2009) online; Bibliography on pp 277–92.
Montgomery, Rick, et al. Kansas City: an American story (Kansas City Star Books, 1999), popular history
Reddig, William M. Tom's town: Kansas City and the Pendergast legend (University of Missouri Press, 1986).
Renner, G. K. "The Kansas City Meat Packing Industry Before 1900." Missouri Historical Review 55 (October 1960): 18-29. online
Shortridge, James R. Kansas City and How It Grew, 1822-2011 (University Press of Kansas; 2012) 248 pages; historical geography excerpt and text search
Older histories
Case, Theodore Spencer, ed. History of Kansas City, Missouri: With Illustrations and Biographical Sketches of Some of Its Prominent Men and Pioneers (Brookhaven Press, 1888) online.
Miller, William H. The History of Kansas City: Together with a Sketch of the Commercial Resources of the Country with which it is Surrounded (Birdsall & Miller, 1881) online.
Whitney, Carrie Westlake. Kansas City, Missouri: Its History and Its People 1808-1908. Vol. 3 (SJ Clarke publishing Company, 1908) biographies of prominent figures. online.
Culture
Broomfield, Andrea L. Kansas City: A Food Biography (Rowman & Littlefield, 2016).
Buckner, Reginald T. "A history of music education in the Black community of Kansas City, Kansas, 1905-1954." Journal of Research in Music Education 30.2 (1982): 91-106. online
Clifford-Napoleone, Amber R. Queering Kansas City jazz: Gender, performance, and the history of a scene (U of Nebraska Press, 2018).
Driggs, Frank, and Chuck Haddix. Kansas City Jazz: From Ragtime to Bebop--A History (Oxford University Press, 2006) excerpt
Dulin, Pete. Kansas City Beer: A History of Brewing in the Heartland (Arcadia, 2016).
Ehrlich, George. Kansas City, Missouri: an architectural history, 1826-1990 (University of Missouri Press, 1992)
Kirkman, Paul. Forgotten Tales of Kansas City (Arcadia, 2012)
Londre, Felicia Hardison. The Enchanted Years of the Stage: Kansas City at the Crossroads of American Theater, 1870-1930 (University of Missouri, 2007)
Peterson, John E. The Kansas City Athletics: A Baseball History, 1954-1967 (McFarland, 2015).
Rose, Mark H. "Urban Environments and Technological Innovation: Energy Choices in Denver and Kansas City, 1900-1940." Technology and Culture 25.3 (1984): 503-539. online
Russell, Ross. Jazz style in Kansas City and the southwest (Univ of California Press, 1983).
Wolferman, Kristie C. The Nelson-Atkins Museum of Art: Culture Comes to Kansas City (University of Missouri Press, 1993).
Wiberg, Ella Lydia. The History of the Development of Public Education in Kansas City, Missouri (University of Wisconsin--Madison, 1925) online.
University of Missouri at Kansas City. Marr Sound Archives. Rags to Be-bop: the Sounds of Kansas City Music, 1890–1945. [Text by] Chuck Haddix. Kansas City, Mo.: University of Missouri at Kansas City, University Libraries, Marr Sound Archives, 1991. Without ISBN
Society: gender, ethnicity, race
Briggs, John W. An Italian Passage: Immigrants to Three American Cities (Yale UP, 1978) on Utica NY, Rochester NY, and Kansas City, MO, 1890-1930. online
Coulter, Charles Edward. Take Up the Black Man's Burden: Kansas City's African American Communities, 1865-1939 (University of Missouri Press, 2006).
Garay-Huamán, Alejandro N., and Clara Irazábal-Zurita. "Latinos in Kansas City: The Political Economy of Placemaking." Journal of Planning Literature 36.2 (2021): 131-154. online
Garcia-Hallett, Janet, et al. "Latinxs in the Kansas City metro area: Policing and criminalization in ethnic enclaves." Journal of Planning Education and Research 40.2 (2020): 151-168. online
Gotham, Kevin Fox. Race, real estate, and uneven development: The Kansas City experience, 1900-2000 (SUNY Press, 2002).
Gotham, Kevin Fox. "Missed opportunities, enduring legacies: School segregation and desegregation in Kansas City, Missouri." American Studies (2002): 5-41. online
Gotham, Kevin Fox. "A city without slums: Urban renewal, public housing, and downtown revitalization in Kansas City, Missouri." American Journal of Economics and Sociology 60.1 (2001): 285-316. online
L'Heureux, Marie-Alice. "The Creative Class, Urban Boosters, and Race: Shaping Urban Revitalization in Kansas City, Missouri", Journal of Urban History (2015) 41#2 pp 245–260
Peavler, David J. "Drawing the Color Line in Kansas City." Kansas History 27 (2005): 188-201. online
Schirmer, Sherry Lamb. A city divided: The racial landscape of Kansas City, 1900-1960 (University of Missouri Press, 2002).
Historiography and memory
Crawford, Anne E., Peyton Galloway, and Jane Greer. "Drawing hope from difficult history: Public memory and rhetorical education in Kansas City." College English 82.3 (2020): 255-281. online
Glaab, Charles N., Mark H. Rose, and William H. Wilson. "The history of Kansas City projects and the origins of American urban history." Journal of urban history 18.4 (1992): 371-394. online
External links
Kansas City history database from the Kansas City Public Library
Sween, The Kansas City Star'''s 125th Anniversary homepage]
"[http://www.ku.edu/heritage/for_nancy/cards1.htm Pictorial History of Kansas City and Wyandotte County Kansas ". August 2000.
Vintage Kansas City.com
Murrel Bland, History of Wyandotte County
William G. Cutler, "History of the State of Kansas''", Kansas City, Kansas.
TWA history
History of Kansas City, Kansas
Kansas City |
4380648 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Local%20service%20district%20%28New%20Brunswick%29 | Local service district (New Brunswick) | A local service district (LSD) was a provincial administrative unit for the provision of local services in the Canadian province of New Brunswick. LSDs originally covered areas of the province that maintained some services but were not made municipalities when the province's former county municipalities were dissolved at the start of 1967; eventually all of rural New Brunswick was covered by the LSD system. They were defined in law by the Local Service Districts Regulation of the Municipalities Act. In 2017, the Municipalities Act was replaced by the Local Governance Act, which continued the Local Service Districts Regulation.
LSDs were operated by provincial staff. Residents had the opportunity to form committees to serve in an advisory capacity to provincial staff.
As management units collectively referred to as unincorporated areas, application of the LSD concept evolved to fit changes in communities over time, and they defined their communities to varying degrees. For example, sub-units of the LSD made it possible to have separate taxing authorities within an LSD where one area may have grown to have greater needs; a LSD covering a civil parish after the after the incorporation of a village or establishment of other LSDs may not have defined a community very well.
Provincial government guidelines required capitalising the words local service district only if they follow the specific part of the name: e.g. Flatlands Local Service District but the local service district of Flatlands.
A 2021 white paper recommended major reforms to New Brunswick's local governance system, including abolition of LSDs on 1 January 2023. Areas serviced by LSDs became parts of municipalities or, especially in sparsely populated areas, rural districts.
History
The Royal Commission on Finance and Municipal Taxation was established in 1962 by Order-in-Council 62-185, tasked with performing a comprehensive review of the province's municipal structures and taxation. The Commission's report, often called the Byrne report for the Commission chair, Edward Byrne, released in 1964, recommended sweeping changes in the province's structure, including abolishing the incorporated county municipalities that governed rural areas of the province and replacing the authority for assessments, and tax collection in Provincial hands.
Valuation of property was at first undertaken by the department of municipal affairs, and billing and collection later became the responsibility of the Services Corporation.
The Municipalities Act of 1966 enacted local government structural changes recommended by the Byrne report. Local service districts were established on November 23 by Order-in-Council. Those rural areas that provided one or two services normally provided by municipalities, primarily fire protection, would be served by local service districts.
92 local service districts were established in 11 of the province's 15 counties. Gloucester (which today has more local service districts than any two other counties combined), Charlotte, Kings, and Northumberland Counties did not have any local service districts. Of the 92 LSDs, 86 were civil parishes; 81 provided only fire protection, while six added street lighting in at least part of the LSD, four added community services and recreational facilities, and one added garbage collection.
The LSD system was extended to other unincorporated areas as needed, with the parish of Musquash in 1985 completing the process. Many LSDs were formed from parts of existing LSDs, a process that continued until 1994; three more have been formed since by combining existing LSDs.
Distribution
As of 1 June 2019 there were 236 LSDs. An additional eighty LSDs had been dissolved, most of incorporated as, or absorbed by, municipalities. The number of concurrent LSDs peaked at 291 in 1991 and declined since 1995.
There were 133 Parish LSDs (plus fifteen former parish LSDs), which range from entire parishes, such as Cardwell, to areas left over after large numbers of LSDs have been separated, such as Shippegan. The parishes of Gagetown, Grand Manan, Hampstead have never had parish LSDs; Huskisson, while unstated in Regulation 84-168, is part of LSD the parish of Harcourt.
The remaining 103 LSDs (plus 62 former) varied in nature – two were school districts dating from the original creation of LSDs in 1966, one an island, one a pair of islands, several centralised communities like Elgin, most decentralised communities or groups of communities (which could approach the size of parishes), and two resulted from mergers in 1996 (Chaleur) and 1999 (Allardville) that included three (two parish) and two (one parish) LSDs respectively.
LSDs by county as of 1 June 2019
Other uses
The number of LSDs is sometimes misstated, due to the existence of three units that can be confused with official LSDs: areas with increased or decreased services, Taxing Authorities, and Census Designated Places that are called Local Service Districts.
Special service areas (39 current plus 35 former) have been defined for different services than the parent LSD; with increasing regionalisation of services this has become limited to street lighting and/or community & recreation services. There does not seem to be an official term for such areas. Because the published descriptions of LSDs are only updated when voluntary services are added, many of these special service areas no longer serve any purpose.
Taxing Authorities (280 in 2019) usually match LSDs and special areas, but can also be subdivisions of LSDs that do not differ in services or groupings of special areas. Names can also vary from the appropriate LSD or special area, with "the parish of" typically dropped from the names of parish LSDs and "Parish" sometimes appended for clarity. The taxing authorities of Calhoun Road, Havelock Inside, and Saint-Grégoire cross LSD boundaries.
Incorporated rural communities and the Regional Municipality of Tracadie continue to receive some LSD services from the provincial government. These former LSDs serve as TAs (21 in RCs, 21 in Tracadie) and are sometimes referred to as LSDs when discussing the provision of those services.
Census Designated Places (DPL; 157 units in the 2016 census, including 34 parts of 16 divided DPLs) include current LSDs and special areas, as well as some former LSDs that have been incorporated into municipalities. The boundaries of DPLs don't always match those in Regulation 84-168, sometimes including isolated parts of parish LSDs bordering non-parish LSDs. The most pronounced variation from actual boundaries was with the local service district of the Parish of Saumarez, which consisted of the special area of Canton-des-Basques and five scattered pieces; the special area was classed as a DPL, and three other parts of the LSD were included in bordering LSDs for population counts and maps.
Operation
A business-like approach guides property taxation and local service provision administration in the local service district, with a manager and staff looking after any number of LSD units, including the private ballot advisory committee elections. It is therefore limited in its democratic function.
All properties are assessed for value by an arm of the provincial services corporation, Service New Brunswick, on behalf of the finance department, and taxed on the assessed value a local and provincial rate.
Local rates in unincorporated areas, known as the L.S.D. rate, are determined by a provincial Local Services Manager in order to pay for local services and are levied on all properties. These assessments may be for facilities situated in the LSD, services provided locally, cost-sharing between LSDs or purchased from a neighbouring municipality, or shared costs of operation of facilities in a municipality. The base rate, which includes fire protection, is $0.6315 per $100 of assessed value for owner-occupied residential properties.
A provincial levy called the Provincial amount is applied to all properties at a fixed rate for general provincial revenues. Non owner-occupied residential properties pay "double" provincial tax, and a variety of schemes are in place for non-residential properties such as businesses, farm timberland, private timberland, not-for-profits, golf courses, etc. Businesses pay 50% more than the total rate for non owner-occupied residential properties.
Advisory committees may function to assist with the LSD Manager and staff and also elected local government officials. Committees do not have decision-making powers and are not required to take procedural accountability measures.
Services
Originally all services within LSDs were voluntary, administered by area citizens and paid for by local property taxes. The provincial government has gradually taken over the administration of some services at the provincial level, with regional service commissions taking over many others. Regulation 84-168 has not kept up with these changes in administration, updating listed services only when boundary changes or addition of new services have taken place. Fire protection and recreational facilities are often paid for through cost-sharing with municipalities or other LSDs.
Services within LSDs can be grouped into two categories - mandatory and voluntary services. Mandatory services are:
animal control
dangerous or unsightly premises enforcement
emergency measures
fire protection
land use planning
rescue services
police protection
solid waste collection and disposal.
Voluntary services include, but are not limited to:
street lighting
recreational and sports facilities
Local participation
Local service districts have always had the ability to elect advisory committees; the requirements for establishing such committees have changed since 1966.
Currently 25 or more residents who are qualified to vote under the Elections Act may petition the Minister of Local Government to call a meeting for the purpose of electing a committee; a simple majority vote at such a meeting is sufficient to establish a committee. There is no minimum number of voters required to elect or re-elect an advisory committee. LSD advisory committees are elected for a term of four years according to the government's cycle for general municipal elections. Elections may be held outside municipal election years if replacing a dissolved committee or establishing a committee in an LSD that previously lacked one. LSDAC elections are handled by the Department of Local Government, not Elections New Brunswick; because of this, elections do not require normal polling hours, nor do they require widespread advertising or a centralised website that lists them, often resulting in low voter turnout.
LSDs may establish an advisory committee of three to five members if a public meeting with sufficient eligible voters is held. LSD advisory committees are disbanded if their membership falls below three. The Committees have no legislative or taxing authority, but work with the Local Service District Manager to administer services and set local budgets.
Advisory committee presidents are asked to participate on regional service commission boards. A certain amount of consulting and service contracts are awarded as a result of LSD service activity, which provide economic activities.
Local governance reform
The provincial government has been encouraging local service districts to participate in reforming government administration in rural areas.<! citation will follow> The rural community, an incorporated but non-municipal body, has been the most common model, although incorporation into existing municipalities has also been pursued. Since 2006 a total of 24 LSDs have become incorporated into rural communities or municipalities:
Cocagne, Hanwell, and Upper Miramichi have become rural communities with the same name, while the parish of Campobello incorporated as the rural community of Campobello Island.
The parish of Saint-André merged with the incorporated village of St. André to form the rural community of Saint-André.
the parish of Grimmer merged with the incorporated village of Kedgwick to form the rural community of Kedgwick.
Eighteen LSDs (and parts of two others) merged with the incorporated town of Tracadie-Sheila to form the regional municipality of Grand Tracadie-Sheila, which has since changed its name to Tracadie.
There have been dozens of other projects that are still in progress or have failed for various reasons, some reaching the plebiscite stage, many simply lacking local support to proceed to asking the government to conduct a feasibility study.
There have been at least two attempts by municipalities in Millville and Norton to devolve to local service districts, both rejected by the provincial government.
Planned reforms to New Brunswick's local governance system would abolish local service districts on 1 January 2023. The reforms include annexation to existing municipalities or incorporation in new local government entities for most populated areas in LSDs. The remaining area, including 9% of the 2016 population, will be organised into 12 rural districts, sometimes noncontiguous entities based on regional service commission boundaries. These
Criticisms
The term 'Democratic deficit' was used by Jean-Guy Finn (Local Governance Task Force, 2010) to describe an "unbalanced local government", as in: many residents without representation at a local level (35% of population and 90% of the provincial territory) and limited competition for elected offices (1/3 of municipal councils with less than 2000 pop acclaimed)
Boundary issues
The boundary descriptions of LSDs have sometimes suffered from ambiguous language or lack of update of existing LSD boundaries when a new entity was created. Originally most LSDs were defined by parish boundaries or grant lines; in the 1980s provincial property identity numbers began replacing grant lines; since the mid-2000s maps showing property lines have been the norm. All methods have led to problems:
Some original LSDs referenced school district boundaries, especially in Restigouche County, as did the later Black River-Hardwicke. There is no consolidated record of former school district boundaries in New Brunswick; the surviving records are scattered among various record series or documents and it is likely some records were destroyed.
Grant-based descriptions often refer to groups of grants without reference to smaller grants or ungranted land within large tiers of grants.
Expropriated land can create ambiguity when using grant lines. Dugas does not explicitly mention that the southern boundary of grants was after land was expropriated for the Village historique acadien.
References to direction, e.g. "northern corner" are sometimes based on map orientation rather than geographic coordinates.
Boundaries can overlap, usually due to a description of an older LSD not being updated when a new one was created. The Paroisse Notre-Dame-des-Érables overlaps with New Bandon-Salmon Beach where the actual grant lines are used by one and a prolongation of a grant line is used by the other
Poirier, which was established after the village of Maisonnette was incorporated, explicitly includes one land grant that is within the village.
Descriptions based on provincial property IDs suffer from properties being subdivided or consolidated. The province does not maintain a consolidated list of changes in property identity numbers.
Descriptions based on property lines that reference parish lines will sometimes include properties that are wholly within other parishes.
The use of property maps when updating boundary descriptions sometimes confuse taxation authority boundaries for those of LSDs. The most recent update of the boundaries of Tabusintac removed one property on the boundary of Neguac while removing part of a property crossed by a stream formerly used to define the boundary with Fair Isle. The update of the parish of Woodstock following an expansion of the town of Woodstock extended the LSD's boundaries into Richmond Parish.
See also
List of local service districts in New Brunswick
List of Rural Communities in New Brunswick
Notes
References
External links
Burton-Greater Geary Local Service District
LSD of Dennis Weston
Douglas LSD
District de services locaux de Grande-Digue
Kingsclear Local Service District
Lepreau LSD
Lincoln Local Service District
Petersville Local Service District-LSD
Rusagonis-Waasis LSD Information Page
Saint-Paul LSD
Tabusintac Local Service District
Barryville-New Jersey
Weldford Local Service District Advisory Committee
Western Charlotte Local Service District
Westfield West and East Local Service District - LSD
Types of administrative division
Local government in New Brunswick |
4380690 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oberwesel | Oberwesel | Oberwesel () is a town on the Middle Rhine in the Rhein-Hunsrück-Kreis (district) in Rhineland-Palatinate, Germany. It belongs to the Verbandsgemeinde Hunsrück-Mittelrhein, whose seat is in Emmelshausen.
Geography
Location
Oberwesel lies on the river Rhine’s left (west) bank in the Rhine Gorge or Upper Middle Rhine, a UNESCO World Heritage Site, between the neighbouring towns of Sankt Goar and Bacharach. It is called Oberwesel ("Upper Wesel") to distinguish it from the other city called Wesel along the Lower Rhine.
Constituent communities
The town is made up of several Stadtteile, namely the main centre, also called Oberwesel, and the outlying centres of Engehöll, Dellhofen and Langscheid.
Climate
Yearly precipitation in Oberwesel amounts to 604 mm, which is very low, falling into the lowest fourth of the precipitation chart for all Germany. Only at 22% of the German Weather Service’s weather stations are even lower figures recorded. The driest month is February. The most rainfall comes in June. In that month, precipitation is 1.6 times what it is in February. Precipitation varies only slightly. At only 1% of the weather stations are lower seasonal swings recorded.
History
As in many of the region’s towns, Oberwesel quite possibly had its beginnings as a Celtic settlement, named Vosavia or Volsolvia. The Romans later maintained a horse-changing station with a hostel here. After the fall of the limes, Oberwesel became a Frankish royal holding with a royal estate. The Wesel Estate passed under Emperor Otto I in 966 to the Archbishopric of Magdeburg. In 1220, Emperor Frederick II dissolved the pledge and Oberwesel became a free imperial city. In 1255, Oberwesel became a member of the Rhenish League of Towns (Rheinischer Städtebund), but in 1309, it lost its status as a free imperial city and fell under the lordship of the Electorate of Trier, to which it belonged until Secularization after the French Revolutionary Wars in 1802. In the so-called Weseler Krieg (“Wesel War”) in 1390 and 1391, the town tried yet again to turn over a new leaf, but after a successful siege by Archbishop of Trier Werner von Falkenstein, it had to back down.
Winegrowing, fishing, trade and handicrafts helped the town gather enough wealth to begin work on the town walls in 1220, building them in three phases from then until the mid 14th century. The town's importance in the Middle Ages can be gathered from the two great ecclesiastical foundations that it harboured (Our Lady's – or Liebfrauen in German – and Saint Martin's), as well as the two monasteries and the Beginenhof. All together, nine monasteries had sizeable commercial holdings in town.
In 1689, in the Nine Years' War (known in Germany as the Pfälzischer Erbfolgekrieg, or War of the Palatine Succession), Oberwesel was destroyed for the first time, by soldiers of the First French Empire. In 1794, the town was occupied by French Revolutionary troops and in 1802 was annexed by France. After the Congress of Vienna, Oberwesel became, along with the rest of the Rhine's left bank, Prussian.
“Saint” Werner
“Saint Werner’s Chapel” on the side of the town wall facing the Rhine was renovated in 2001. It was consecrated to the former saint, Werner of Oberwesel. In iconography, Werner was shown with a winegrower's billhook, a shovel and a pan as attributes, and was said to be the patron saint of winemakers. According to a blood libel, 16-year-old Werner was said to have been murdered on Maundy Thursday 1287 in Oberwesel by local Jews who were thought to have wanted to use his blood in their Passover rituals. A 14th-century Latin chronicle reports of an alleged host desecration: Jews from local communities hung Werner up by the feet to rob him of a piece of sacramental bread that he was about to swallow. The Jews then threw him in the Rhine. At the spot on the riverbank in Bacharach where his body washed up, the Gothic, Rheinromantik Saint Werner's Chapel was built. When word of the ritual murder spread, outraged mobs rose up, destroying not only Jewish communities on the Middle Rhine, but also up the Moselle and down on the Lower Rhine, too. In folk Christianity, the Cult of Werner arose, and it was only stricken from the calendar of the Diocese of Trier in 1963. Heinrich Heine treated the legend in his fragmentary tale, Der Rabbi von Bacherach.
Amalgamations
From 7 November 1970, the town formed with the municipalities of Damscheid, Dellhofen, Langscheid, Laudert, Niederburg, Perscheid, Urbar and Wiebelsheim the Verbandsgemeinde of Oberwesel. In the course of administrative restructuring in Rhineland-Palatinate, the new Verbandsgemeinde of Sankt Goar-Oberwesel was formed out of the towns of Sankt Goar and Oberwesel on 22 April 1972, with the administrative seat at Oberwesel. On 17 March 1974, the formerly self-administering municipalities of Langscheid, Dellhofen and Urbar were amalgamated with Oberwesel, although on 13 June 1999, Urbar once again became self-administering.
Politics
Town council
The council is made up of 20 council members, who were elected by proportional representation at the municipal election held on 7 June 2009, and the honorary mayor as chairman.
The municipal election held on 7 June 2009 yielded the following results:
Elections in 2014:
Mayor
Oberwesel's mayor is Marius Stiehl.
Oberwesel's mayors since the Second World War have been:
1945-1946: Schaus, SPD
1946-1948: Heinrich Hermann, CDU
1948–1976: August Zeuner, CDU
1976–1979: Hans Stemick, CDU
1980–1989: Johann Peter Josten, CDU
1989–1994: Willy Wißkirchen, FWO (Freie Wählergruppe Oberwesel)
1994–2009: Manfred Zeuner, CDU
2009–2019: Jürgen Port, CDU
2019–: Marius Stiehl, CDU
Coat of arms
The German blazon reads: In Gold ein rot bewehrter und rot bezungter schwarzer Adler.
The town's arms might in English heraldic language be described thus: Or an eagle displayed sable armed and langued gules.
From 1237 to 1309, the town was a free imperial city. Ever since, it has borne the Imperial Eagle as a charge in the town seal and the civic coat of arms.
The town's colours are black and yellow.
Culture and sightseeing
Buildings
The following are listed buildings or sites in Rhineland-Palatinate’s Directory of Cultural Monuments:
Oberwesel (main centre)
Evangelical church, beside Chablis-Straße 21 – Gothic Revival brick building, 1897–1899
Catholic Parish Church of Our Lady (Pfarrkirche Liebfrauen), Liebfrauenstraße 1 (see also below) – one-naved aisleless church with five-eighths quire and ridge turret, latter half of the 14th century; appointments: pulpit, 1619; tomb slabs, 16th and 17th centuries; cloister and vicarage, standing in the south wing, 14th and 15th centuries; various gravestones, 15th to 17th century; at the northeast corner a vicarage, plastered timber-frame house in mixed building styles, crosswise gable, 18th century; graveyard, Late Gothic Crucifixion, 16th century; various gravestones, 19th century; whole complex of buildings with church, cloister with vicarage and graveyard with Saint Michael's Chapel
Saint Martin's Catholic Parish Church (Pfarrkirche St. Martin), Martinsberg 2 (see also below) – transeptless two-naved basilica; sacristy, about 1300, nave and tower about 1350 to mid 15th century, side nave rebuilt about 1700 after destruction; rectory (Martinsberg 1): two-wing building, timber-frame, 18th century, essentially mediaeval, alterations and expansion in the 19th and 20th centuries; garden with Romanesque baptismal font; graveyard with Fátima Chapel, tomb, churchyard wall; former sexton's hut, jettying, partly solid, earlier half of the 17th century, one-floor timber-frame shed, marked 1625; whole complex of buildings
Town centre (monumental zone) – widely preserved town appearance, the two churches, Liebfrauen and St. Martin; almost the whole of the town fortifications preserved with 16 (of formerly 21) towers; characteristic town construction arrangement
Schönburg (monumental zone) – originally an Imperial castle, in 1149 owned by Hermann von Stahleck, until 1166 by Magdeburg, Burggraf (“castle count”) and Vögte were the Imperial ministeriales of Schönburg, 1166 Imperial immediacy, 1216 to Magdeburg once again, by the 14th century at the latest a castle shared by more than one family, 1374 held as fief by Archbishop Kuno of Trier, 1531 in bad structural state, 1689 laid waste, beginning in 1885 partial reconstruction by T. J. Oakley Rhinelander (of, among other things, the lookout corner and the southern lodging), beginning in the 1950s built into a hotel (the area of the two southern keeps and of the southern lodging) and into the House of the Kolping Society (northern lodging and keep, gatetower); building beginning in the earlier half of the 12th century of the northern lodging now preserved as remnants; gatetower, marked 1141/1161; beginning in 1237 building of the southern half of the castle with the two round keeps, the southern lodging, the chapel and the moat; in the earlier half of the 14th century the Hoher Mantel (protective wall), northern keep and bailey; Haus Schönberg, timber-frame house, built in 1886 by Johann Kastor; gravesite of the family Osterroth; belonging with the castle: Schönburg estate upstream as well as the area of the “Elfenlay” between Schönburg and the town and the Church of Our Lady
Town wall (see also below) – 16 towers and wall, great parts of which are preserved, shortly after 1200, partially raised in the earlier half of the 13th century, expansion in the latter half of the 13th century, walling of the outlying town of Niederburg in der ersten Hälfte of the 14th century, Ummauerung der Vorstadt Kirchhausen in the earlier half of the 15th century
“Saint” Werner's Chapel, Wernerstraße (see also below) – chapel with substructure, shortly before 1300 until the mid 14th century, repair after destruction about 1700; whole complex of buildings with Wernerkrankenhaus (hospital)
Borngasse 2 – timber-frame house, partly solid, marked 1659, expansion possibly in the 18th century
Chablisstraße 2 – timber-frame house, partly solid, plastered, marked 1708, conversion possibly in the earlier half of the 19th century
Chablisstraße 4 – timber-frame house, partly solid, marked 1586, shop built in, 1919
Chablisstraße 5 – timber-frame house, partly solid, jettying, marked 1626, addition in the back marked 1754, conversion possibly in the 19th century
Chablisstraße 65 – former Hertzners-Hollbachs Mühle (mill); timber-frame house, partly solid, early 18th century, window walling about 1600, possibly conversion marked 1719; one-floor commercial building, quarrystone, hipped mansard roof; whole complex of buildings
Heumarkt 15 – timber-frame house, earlier half of the 18th century
Heumarkt 17 – timber-frame house, plastered, partly shingled, early 18th century
Holzgasse 4 – timber-frame house, partly solid, marked 1576
Holzgasse 6 – timber-frame house, plastered, early 17th century
Kirchstraße 18 – Classicist plastered building, earlier half of the 19th century
Kirchstraße 20 – two- or three-floor timber-frame house, partly solid, latter half of the 15th century
Kirchstraße 39 – town school, so-called Mädchenschule (“girls’ school”); nine-axis sandstone building, marked 1907
At Kirchstraße 52 – door with skylight, mid 18th century
Kirchstraße 55 – Weißer Turm (“White Tower”) of the town wall
Koblenzer Straße 30 – former House of Leyen estate; five-axis lordly quarrystone building, marked 1745, addition possibly in the 19th century
Koblenzer Straße 57 – plastered timber-frame house, earlier half of the 19th century
Liebfrauenstraße 9 – shophouse; brick building with plastered façade, about 1920/1930
At Liebfrauenstraße 10 – door, Rococo frames, latter half of the 18th century
Liebfrauenstraße 17 – villa; brick building on two-floor basement, 1890
Liebfrauenstraße 29 – former Catholic school, so-called Knabenschule (“boys’ school”); ten-axis building, building inspector F. Nebel, Koblenz, 1865 interior conversion, 1886 conversion, 1965/1966 entrance moved and addition
Liebfrauenstraße 29 a-b – two shophouses, 1908/1909
Liebfrauenstraße 33 – wine cellar building; Swiss style, about 1865, expansion 1927/1928, conversion marked 1930; secondhand cellar lintel, marked 1654
Liebfrauenstraße 47 – timber-frame house plastered, possibly early 19th century, triaxial addition in the 19th century
Liebfrauenstraße 58 – brick building, late 19th century
Mainzer Straße – Prussian milestone, obelisk, about 1820
Mainzer Straße (no number) – railway station; reception building 1858/1859, renovation and lavatory building 1925, expansion 1907/1908
Mainzer Straße 6 – winemaker's villa, about 1900
Marktplatz 1 – timber-frame house, partly solid, middle third of the 18th century
Marktplatz 4 – timber-frame house, partly solid, jettying, mid to late 17th century
Martinsberg (no number) – Catholic youth home; one- or two-floor plastered building, 1923–1925
Martinsberg 3 – former sexton's hut of Saint Martin's Church; timber-frame house in mixed building styles, earlier half of the 17th century
Oberstraße 1 – brick building with knee wall, marked 1872
Oberstraße 11/13 – former church of the Minorite monastery (see also below); two-naved basilica, 1270/1290 to 1340, sacristy, 13th to 15th century, cloister wing, essentially mediaeval, conversion in the 17th or 18th century, monastery wall; Crucifixion group, earlier half of the 18th century; former grammar school, essentially mediaeval, 15th or 16th century, conversions from 17th to 19th century; former Electoral winery, timber-frame building, partly solid, mid 19th century; hall cellar, 15th or 16th century; whole complex of buildings
Rathausstraße 1 – quarrystone building, half-hipped roof, middle third of the 19th century; sandstone portal, marked 1629
Rathausstraße 3 – three-floor quarrystone building, middle third of the 19th century, wooden sculpture of “Saint” Werner, about 1900
Near Rathausstraße 5 – well, cast-iron hand pump, mid 19th century
Rathausstraße 6 – town hall; three-floor quarrystone building, partly slated timber framing, 1926/1927, architect T. Wildemans, Bonn, central structure 1847-1850
Rathausstraße 9 – shophouse, about 1910, Baroque cellar
Rathausstraße 14 – old bakehouse; one-and-a-half-floor timber-frame house, mid 19th century, conversion 1885; secondhand corner upright, marked 1659
At Rathausstraße 16 – inscription on gateway arch in capitals: Annis Cum Centum a Suecis Exu(sta) 1719 (on the keystone) Mar(tin) Augsthalers ope refecta fui; door and skylight, early 18th century
Rathausstraße 23 – brick building, about 1865
Rheinstraße 5 – timber-frame house, partly solid, marked 1765
Rheinstraße 7 – three-floor timber-frame house, partly solid, possibly from the 17th century, additions and conversions in the 18th and 20th centuries
Schaarplatz 4 – five-axis brick building, mixed building styles from Classicist and Renaissance Revival, marked 1887
Steingasse 6 – timber-frame house, partly solid, earlier half of the 17th century, addition in the 18th century
Unterstraße 1 – timber-frame house, partly solid, marked 1658, possibly conversion in the 19th century
Unterstraße 8 – Haus Schönburg; L-shaped, three-floor quarrystone building, second fourth of the 19th century (before 1850), essentially possibly mediaeval, Schönburg coat of arms, Schönburger Turm (tower) of the town wall incorporated
Unterstraße 12-14 – estate of the Eberbach Monastery with Saint Catherine's Chapel; aisleless church, possibly from the latter half of the 14th century; two-winged estate building, solid and Fachwerk, earlier half of the 18th century; whole complex of buildings
Unterstraße 18 – Haus Gertum, quarrystone building, hipped roof, about 1830
Wernerstraße 1 – plastered timber-frame house, 18th century
Border stones, west of town – seven border stones, one marked 1616
Jewish graveyard (on the Graue Lay, northwest of Oberwesel) (monumental zone) – opened in the earlier half of the 18th century, expanded possibly in the earlier half of the 19th century with building of the two main paths; with iron pale fence and gate with Star of David from the late 19th century; fenced area with 66 gravestones: 9 from the 18th century, mainly 19th and early 20th century, newest gravestone 1942
Kalvarienbergkapelle (“Mount Calvary Chapel”) and Stations of the Cross, Auf’m Kalvarienberg – Gothic Revival quarrystone aisleless church, 1843–1845; remnants of a Crucifixion group; 12 Stations of the Cross, Bildstock type, including two small chapels, from 1849 on; Lamentation of Christ, 16th century; whole complex of buildings
Warriors’ memorial 1866 and 1870/1871, near the Schönburg, across from the youth hostel – towards 1895, design by Heinrich Schuler, Kirchheimbolanden
Niederbachstraße 120 – Schneidersmühle (mill), timber-frame house, partly solid, 18th century, essentially older, marked 1607, painting work from the 19th century, millrace; whole complex of buildings with shed
Transformer tower, at the castle gate on the Momering – 1922, architect possibly T. Wildeman
Tunnel portals – portals of the Kammerecktunnel and Bettunnel, mid 19th century
Weiler-Boppard
Am Weinberg 60 – Saint Apollonia’s Chapel (St.-Apollonia-Kapelle); aisleless church, earlier half of the 18th century
Near Am Weinberg 60 – bakehouse, one-floor plastered building, 1830/1840
Dellhofen
Holy Cross Catholic Church (Kirche zum Heiligen Kreuz), Rheinhöhenstraße 24 – tower of the previous, Gothic Revival church, 1875/1876, nave under asymmetrically set saddle roof, 1961
Rheinhöhenstraße 19 – timber-frame Quereinhaus (a combination residential and commercial house divided for these two purposes down the middle, perpendicularly to the street), partly solid and slated, early 19th century
Rheinhöhenstraße 26 – bakehouse; one-floor brick building, latter half of the 19th century
Schulweg 6/8 – single-peak building; timber-frame building, mid 18th century
Engehöll
Our Lady of Sorrows Catholic Church (branch church; Filialkirche zur Schmerzhaften Muttergottes), Am Kapellenberg – quarrystone aisleless church, 1923–1925
Langscheid
Saint Nicholas’s Catholic Church (branch church; Filialkirche St. Nikolaus), Pfalzgrafenstraße 2 – aisleless church, 1782/1783, lengthening and new tower; whole complex of buildings with surrounding area
Bacharacher Straße 2 – bakehouse; plastered timber-frame building, marked 1888
Brunnenweg 1 – timber-frame Quereinhaus, late 19th or early 20th century
Kirchweg 1 – timber-frame Quereinhaus, partly solid, marked 1718, barn 19th century; whole complex of buildings
Oberweseler Straße 4 – timber-frame Quereinhaus, partly solid, stable building; whole complex of buildings
Pfalzgrafenstraße 1 – school; plastered timber-frame building, partly slated, 1841
Pfalzgrafenstraße 51 – timber-frame Quereinhaus, partly solid, 1916; former village smithy, partly slated, marked 19(2)3; whole complex of buildings
Further information about buildings and sites
The town wall, which was built in the early 13th century and some of whose parts are open to the public, was expanded and strengthened in the 14th century, and with 16 defensive towers – among them the Hospitalgassenturm (“Hospital Lane Tower”), the Steingassenturm (“Stone Lane Tower”), the Katzenturm (“Cats’ Tower”) and the Ochsenturm (“Ox’s Tower”), which is crenellated and has an octagonal top tower, making it a type of butter-churn tower (Butterfassturm) – is the best preserved girding wall anywhere on the Rhine Gorge. There was planning to open further sections to the public in 2006.
“Saint” Werner's Chapel is nowadays more properly known as the Mutter-Rosa-Kapelle, since its consecration to Werner has been rescinded and Werner has been stricken from the roll of saints. The chapel is now named after Rosa Flesch, the founder of a Franciscan order in the 19th century. Physically, it actually consists only of the quire of the chapel attached to the hospital, which itself was destroyed in 1689.
Building work on the Church of Our Lady (Liebfrauenkirche, or Pfarrkirche Liebfrauen as it is styled above) began in 1308. In 1331, the church was consecrated and it was completed in 1375. It was built on the spot once occupied by another church, which was first mentioned in 1213. From the old church, the new one took over an endowment for secular clergy (as opposed to regular clergy). Given its architecture and appointments (golden altar, rood screen, wall paintings), it is among the Rhineland’s most important Gothic churches.
Saint Martin’s Church, too, is a Gothic building that arose on a foregoing church’s old site. It was built in 1350, but was not finished owing to strained finances. The tower, which in the Wesel War was incorporated into the town wall as a defensive structure, is an illustrative example of ecclesiastical defensive architecture in the Rhineland. Much of the Gothic appointments has been destroyed. Preserved, however, are a few wall paintings from about 1500 to 1600.
The Minorite monastery was a Franciscan institution founded in 1242 and dissolved in 1802 by Napoleon. In the great town fire of 1836, it was destroyed, and has been a ruin ever since.
Haus Weitblick was opened in 2011. It is the seat of the Giordano Bruno Foundation and the seat of the Institute for Secular Law.
Museums
Museum der Stadt Oberwesel (town museum at the Kulturhaus Oberwesel - Kulturstiftung Hütte)
Regular events
Yearly concert Wir machen Musik (“We make/are making music”) staged by the Oberwesel “Kolping” family
Weinhexennacht (“Wine Witches’ Night”)
Mittelalterliches Spectaculum Oberwesel (“Mediaeval Spectacle”) at Whitsun in even-numbered years
Mittelrhein-Marathon from Oberwesel to Koblenz in June
Rhein in Flammen - Nacht der 1000 Feuer (“Night of the Thousand Fires”) with traditional parade on following Sunday, each year on the second Saturday in September
Wine market on the marketplace and on Rathausstraße, on each second and third weekend in September
Winegrowing
Within the Middle Rhine wine region, Oberwesel is one of the biggest winegrowing centres. The winemaking appellation – Großlage – of Schloss Schönburg encompasses 72 ha. Individual winemakers within this appellation – Einzellagen – are Sieben Jungfrauen, Oelsberg, Bienenberg, St. Martinsberg, Goldemund, Bernstein and Römerkrug. The vineyards are steeply terraced and 80% of the area is planted with Riesling and 20% with other white grape varieties (Müller-Thurgau, Kerner, Pinot blanc) and less often with red varieties (Pinot noir, Dornfelder). All kinds of wine (mild, half-dry and dry) and quality levels (Prädikat Kabinett to the odd ice wine) are produced. Recently in the Oelsberg vineyards, some light Flurbereinigung was undertaken, and the now newly planted vineyards have been provided with an irrigation facility. This was meant to safeguard this traditional Einzellage, for not only will it spare the winemakers some work, but it will also ensure good yields even in dry summers.
Some of the 30 or so winemaking estates in town have been under family ownership for more than 200 years; some also keep wine bars in the town.
Famous people
Sons and daughters of the town
Johann von Wesel (b. 1425; d. 1481 in Mainz), German theologian
Joseph Adamy (b.1778; d. 1849), mine owner and politician
August Zeuner (b. 6 September 1913; d. 1976), German politician (CDU), Member of the Landtag (Rhineland-Palatinate)
Johann Peter Josten (b. 15 July 1915), German politician (CDU), Member of the Bundestag, (Rhineland-Palatinate)
Wilhelm Lauer (b. 1923; d. 2007), geographer and university professor
Alfred Gottschalk (b. 7 March 1930; d. 12 September 2009), German-born American Rabbi, leader in the Reform Judaism movement
Robert Brahm (b. 25 August 1956), auxiliary bishop in Trier
Eberhard Lauer (b. 1956), church musician
Carl Johann Haag (b. 20 April 1820, d 17 January 1915) Orientalist watercolour painter and Höfmaler to the Duke of Saxe Coburg Gotha
Further reading
Die Kunstdenkmäler von Rheinland-Pfalz, Bd. 9, Die Kunstdenkmäler des Rhein-Hunsrück-Kreises, Teil 2. Ehemaliger Kreis St. Goar, 2. Stadt Oberwesel, bearb. v. Eduard Sebald, Hans Caspary, Ludger Fischer u. a.; München, /Berlin: Deutscher Kunstverlag, 1997
Ludger Fischer, Josef Heinzelmann, Wilhelm Hermann, Edmund Lahnert, Dieter Metzger: Heimat Oberwesel. Zwischen Liebfrauen und St. Martin. Ein Stadtführer; Oberwesel 1992
Hans-Jürgen Kotzur: Hochgotischer Dialog. Die Skulpturen der Hochaltäre von Marienstatt und Oberwesel im Vergleich; Worms 1993
Documents
Bild von Burg Schönburg aus J.F. Dielmann, A. Fay, J. Becker (Zeichner): F.C. Vogels Panorama des Rheins, Bilder des rechten und linken Rheinufers, Lithographische Anstalt F.C. Vogel, Frankfurt 1833
Bild von Oberwesel
Bild 2 von Oberwesel
Bild 3 Gebiet Oberwesel
Bild 4 Gebiet Oberwesel
References
External links
Town's official webpage
Verbandsgemeinde of Sankt Goar-Oberwesel
Portrait of the town from 1588 in Civitates orbis terrarum by Georg Braun and Frans Hogenberg
Towns in Rhineland-Palatinate
Rhein-Hunsrück-Kreis
Middle Rhine |
4380712 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20the%20Jews%20in%20Scotland | History of the Jews in Scotland | The history of the Jews in Scotland goes back to at least the 13th century. It is not known when Jews first arrived in Scotland, with the earliest concrete historical references to a Jewish presence in Scotland being from the 13th century. King Edward I expelled 3,000 Jews from England in 1290 AD. Many of them fled to Scotland. Most Scottish Jews today are of Ashkenazi background who mainly settled in Edinburgh, then in Glasgow in the mid 19th century. In 2013 the Edinburgh Jewish Studies Network curated an online exhibition based on archival holdings and maps in the National Library of Scotland exploring the influence of the community on the city.
According to the 2011 census, 5,887 Jews lived in Scotland; a decline of 8.7% from the 2001 census. The total population of Scotland at the time was 5,313,600, making Scottish Jews 0.1% of the population.
Middle Ages to union with England
There is only scant evidence of a Jewish presence in medieval Scotland. In 1180, the Bishop of Glasgow forbade churchmen to "ledge their benefices for money borrowed from Jews". This was around the time of anti-Jewish riots in England and so it is possible that Jews may have arrived in Scotland as refugees, or it may refer to Jews domiciled in England from whom Scots were borrowing money.
In the Middle Ages, much of Scotland's trade was with Continental Europe, with wool of the Borders abbeys being the country's main export to Flanders and the Low Countries. Scottish merchants from Aberdeen and Dundee had close trading links to Baltic ports in Poland and Lithuania. It is possible, therefore, that Jews may have come to Scotland to do business with their Scottish counterparts, but no direct evidence of that exists.
The late-18th-century author Henry Mackenzie speculated that the high incidence of biblical place names around the village of Morningside near Edinburgh might indicate that Jews had settled in the area during the Middle Ages. This belief has, however, been shown to be incorrect, with the names originating instead from the presence of a local farm named "Egypt" mentioned in historical documents from the 16th century and believed to indicate a Romani presence.
17th–19th centuries
The first recorded Jew in Edinburgh was one David Brown who made a successful application to reside and trade in the city in 1691.
Most Jewish immigration appears to have occurred post-industrialisation, and post-1707, by which time Jews in Scotland were subject to various anti-Jewish laws that applied to Britain as a whole. Oliver Cromwell readmitted Jews to the Commonwealth of England in 1656, and would have had influence over whether they could reside north of the border. Scotland was under the jurisdiction of the Jewish Naturalisation Act, enacted in 1753, but repealed the next year. It has been theorised that some Jews who arrived in Scotland promptly assimilated, with some converting to Christianity.
Unlike their English contemporaries, Scottish university students were not required to take a religious oath. Joseph Hart Myers, born in New York, was the first Jewish student to study medicine in Scotland; he graduated from the University of Edinburgh in 1779. The first graduate from the University of Glasgow who was openly known to be Jewish was Levi Myers, in 1787. In 1795, Herman Lyon, a dentist and chiropodist, bought a burial plot in Edinburgh. Originally from Mogendorf, Germany he left there around 1764 and spent some time in Holland before arriving in London. He moved to Scotland in 1788. The presence of the plot on Calton Hill is no longer obvious today, but it is marked on the Ordnance Survey map of 1852 as "Jew's Burial vault".
The first Jewish congregation in Edinburgh was founded in 1817, when the Edinburgh community consisted of 20 families. The first congregation in Glasgow was founded in 1821. Much of the first influx of Jews to Scotland were Dutch and German merchants attracted to the commercial economies of Scottish cities.
Isaac Cohen, a hatter resident in Glasgow, was admitted a burgess of the city on 22 September 1812. The first interment in the Glasgow Necropolis was that of Joseph Levi, a quill merchant and cholera victim who was buried there on 12 September 1832. This occurred in the year before the formal opening of the burial ground, a part of it having been sold to the Jewish community beforehand for one hundred guineas. Glasgow-born Asher Asher (1837–1889) was the first Scottish Jew to enter the medical profession. He was the author of The Jewish Rite of Circumcision (1873).
The story of his own family's experience was immortalised in Jack Ronder's book & TV series called The Lost Tribe, starring Miriam Margolyes & Bill Paterson.
In 1878, Jewish Hannah de Rothschild (1851–1890), the richest woman in Britain at the time, married Scottish aristocrat Archibald Primrose, 5th Earl of Rosebery, despite strong antisemitic sentiments in court and the aristocracy. They had four children. Their son, Harry, would become Secretary of State for Scotland in 1945 during Winston Churchill's postwar caretaker government.
To avoid persecution and pogroms in the Russian Empire in the 1880s, many Jews settled in the larger cities of Britain, including Scotland, most notably in Glasgow (especially the poorer part of the city, the Gorbals, alongside Irish and Italian immigrants). Smaller numbers settled in Edinburgh and even smaller groups in Dundee (first synagogue founded in 1878 and cemetery acquired in 1888) and Aberdeen (synagogue founded 1893). Small communities also existed for a time in Ayr, Dunfermline, Falkirk, Greenock, and Inverness. Russian Jews tended to come from the lands in the west of the empire known as the Pale of Settlement, in particular Lithuania and Poland, many using Scotland as a stopping post en route to North America. This explains why Glasgow was their favoured location. However, those who were not able to earn enough to afford the transatlantic voyage ended up settling in the city. In 1897, after the influx, the Jewish population of Glasgow was 6,500.
This second influx of Jews was notably larger than the first, and came from Eastern Europe as opposed to Western European countries like Germany and the Netherlands. This led to the informal distinction between the Westjuden, who tended to be middle class and assimilated into Scottish society, and the much bigger Ostjuden community, consisting of poor Yiddish-speakers who fled pogroms in Eastern Europe. The Westjuden had settled in more affluent areas such as Garnethill in Glasgow where Garnethill Synagogue was built between 1879 and 1881 in Victorian Romaneque style. It remains the oldest active synagogue in Scotland and now houses the Scottish Jewish Archives Centre and Scottish Jewish Heritage Centre. The Ostjuden in contrast mostly settled in slums in the Gorbals. This led to the building in 1901 of the South Portland Street Synagogue, also known at various times as the South Side Synagogue, the Great Synagogue and the Great Central Synagogue, regarded for many years as the religious centre of the Jewish community until its closure and demolition in 1974.
20th and 21st centuries
Immigration continued into the 20th century, with over 9,000 Jews in 1901 and around 12,000 in 1911. Jewish life in the Gorbals in Glasgow initially mirrored that of traditional shtetl life; however, concerns around this being a contributing factor to a rise in anti-semitism led to the established Jewish community establishing various philanthropic and welfare organisations with the goals of offering assistance to the refugees, including support in assimilating into Scottish society. Similarly the Edinburgh Jewish Literary Society was founded in 1888 for the purpose of teaching British culture to the Jewish immigrant population of Edinburgh and is still active today, albeit with a different focus. The passing of the Aliens Act 1905 and the onset of World War I led to a substantial decrease in the number of Jewish refugees arriving in Scotland.
In Edinburgh, the appointment of Rabbi Dr. Salis Daiches in 1918 was the catalyst for the unification of several disparate communities into a single Edinburgh Hebrew Congregation serving both the established anglicised Jews and the more recent Yiddish-speaking Eastern European immigrants. Daiches also worked to foster good relations between the Jewish community and wider secular society, and under his influence funds were raised for the building of the Edinburgh Synagogue, opened in 1932, the only purpose - built synagogue in the city.
Refugees from Nazi Germany and the Second World War further augmented the Scottish Jewish community, which has been estimated to have reached over 20,000 in the mid-20th century. By way of comparison, the Jewish population in the United Kingdom peaked at 500,000, but declined to just over half that number by 2008.
Whittinghame Farm School operated from 1939 to 1941 as a shelter for 160 children who had arrived in Britain as part of the Kindertransport mission. It was established in Whittinghame House in East Lothian, the family home of the Earl of Balfour and the birthplace of Arthur Balfour, author of the Balfour Declaration. The children were taught agricultural techniques in anticipation of settling in Palestine after the war.
The practising Jewish population continues to fall in Scotland, as many younger Jews either became secular, or intermarried with other faiths. Scottish Jews have also emigrated in large numbers to England, the United States, Israel, Canada, Australia and New Zealand for economic reasons, as other Scots have done. According to the 2001 census, 6,448 Jews lived in Scotland, According to the 2011 census, 5,887 Jews lived in Scotland; a decline of 8.7% from 2001. 41% (2,399) of Scottish Jews live in local authority area of East Renfrewshire, Greater Glasgow, making up 2.65% of the population there. 25% of Scottish Jews live in the Greater Glasgow suburb of Newton Mearns alone. Many Jewish families slowly moved southwards to more prosperous suburban areas in Greater Glasgow, from more central areas of Glasgow over the generations. Glasgow city itself has 897 Jews (15% of the Jewish population) living there, whilst Edinburgh has 855 (also 15%). The area with the least Jewish people was the Outer Hebrides, which reported just 3 Jews (0.05%) living there.
In March 2008 a Jewish tartan was designed by Brian Wilton for Chabad rabbi Mendel Jacobs of Glasgow and certified by the Scottish Tartans Authority. The tartan's colors are blue, white, silver, red and gold. According to Jacobs: "The blue and white represent the colours of the Scottish and Israeli flags, with the central gold line representing the gold from the Biblical Tabernacle, the Ark of the Covenant and the many ceremonial vessels ... the silver is from the decorations that adorn the Scroll of Law and the red represents the traditional red Kiddush wine."
Jewish communities in Scotland are represented by the Scottish Council of Jewish Communities.
Historic antisemitism
In the Middle Ages, while Jews in England faced state persecution culminating in the Edict of Expulsion of 1290, there was never a corresponding expulsion from Scotland, suggesting either greater religious tolerance or the simple fact that there was no Jewish presence at that time. In his autobiographical work Two Worlds, the eminent Scottish-Jewish scholar David Daiches, son of Rabbi Salis Daiches, wrote that his father would often declare that Scotland is one of the few European countries with no history of state persecution of Jews.
Modern antisemitism
Some elements of the British Union of Fascists formed in 1932 were anti-Jewish and Alexander Raven Thomson, one of its main ideologues, was a Scot. Blackshirt meetings were physically attacked in Edinburgh by communists and "Protestant Action", which believed the group to be an Italian (i.e. Roman Catholic) intrusion. In fact, William Kenefick of Dundee University has claimed that bigotry was diverted away from Jews by anti-Catholicism, particularly in Glasgow where the main ethnic chauvinist agitation was against Irish Catholics. Archibald Maule Ramsay, a Scottish Unionist MP claimed that World War II was a "Jewish war" and was the only MP in the UK interned under Defence Regulation 18B. In the Gorbals at least, neither Louise Sless nor Woolf Silver recall antisemitic sentiment. (See also Jews escaping from Nazi Europe to Britain.) As a result of rising anti-semitism in the United Kingdom by the 1930s, Jewish leadership bodies including the Glasgow Jewish Representative Council adopted a position of trying to prevent drawing attention to the city's Jewish population, such as through the promotion of assimilation. This was in line with the national leadership at the Board of Deputies of British Jews, although the Edinburgh Jewish Representative Council was notably more active and visible in its campaigning for support to be offered to German Jews.
In 2012, the Scottish Jewish Student Chaplaincy and the Scottish Council of Jewish Communities reported a "toxic atmosphere" at the University of Edinburgh, in which Jewish students were forced to hide their identity.
In September 2013, the Scottish Council of Jewish Communities published the "Being Jewish in Scotland" project, which researched the situation of Jewish people in Scotland through interviews and focus group attended by approximately 180 participants. The report included data from the Community Security Trust that, during 2011, there were 10 antisemitic incidents of abusive behaviour, 9 incidents of damage and desecration to Jewish property, and one assault. Some participants described experiences of antisemitism in their workplace, campus and at school.
During the Operation Protective Edge, in August 2014, the Scottish Council of Jewish Communities reported a sharp increase in antisemitic incidents. During the first week of August, there were 12 antisemitic incidents – almost as many as in the whole of 2013. A few months later, an irritating chemical was thrown on a member of staff selling Kedem (Israeli cosmetics) products in Glasgow's St Enoch Centre. In 2015, the Scottish government published statistics on abusive behaviour in Religiously Aggravated Offending in Scotland in 2014–15, covering the Protective Edge period, which noted an increase in the number of charges filed for anti-Jewish acts from 9 in 2014 (2% of those charged with religious offences) to 25 in 2015 (4% of total). Most dealt with "threatening and abusive behavior" and "offensive communications". The penalty imposed on those convicted was typically a fine.
Anti-semitism continues to be a topic of political debate in Scotland. In 2017 the Scottish Government formally adopted the International Holocaust Remembrance Alliance’s (IHRA) definition of anti-Semitism.
"Scots-Yiddish"
Scots-Yiddish is the name given to a Jewish hybrid vernacular between Scots and Yiddish, which had a brief currency in the Lowlands in the first half of the 20th century. The Scottish literary historian David Daiches describes it in his autobiographical account of his Edinburgh Jewish childhood, Two Worlds.
Daiches explores the social stratification of Edinburgh's Jewish society in the interwar period, noting what is effectively a class divide between two parts of the community, on the one hand a highly educated and well-integrated group who sought a synthesis of Orthodox Rabbinical and modern secular thinking, on the other a Yiddish-speaking group most comfortable maintaining the lifestyle of the Eastern European ghetto. The Yiddish-speaking population grew up in Scotland in the 19th century, but by the late 20th century had mostly switched to using English. The creolisation of Yiddish with Scots was therefore a phenomenon of the middle part of this period.
Daiches describes how this language was spoken by the band of itinerant salesmen known as "trebblers" who travelled by train to the coastal towns of Fife peddling their wares from battered suitcases. He notes that Scots preserves some Germanic words lost in standard English but preserved in Yiddish, for example "licht" for light or "lift" for air (German "Luft").
The Glaswegian Jewish poet A C Jacobs also refers to his language as Scots-Yiddish. The playwright and director Avrom Greenbaum also published a handful of Scots-Yiddish poems in the Glasgow Jewish Echo in the 1960s; these are now housed in the Scottish Jewish Archives Centre in Glasgow. In 2020 the poet David Bleiman won the first prize and Hugh MacDiarmaid Tassie in the Scots Language Association Sangschaw competition for his poem "The Trebbler's Tale" written in "macaronic" Scots-Yiddish. Bleiman describes the poem as being 5% "found" Scots-Yiddish, the rest being reimagined and reconstituted from the component languages.
Mythical history of the Jews in Scotland
List of Scottish Jews
Ronni Ancona, comedian
Jenni Calder, writer
Hazel, Lady Cosgrove, first female Court of Session judge
Ivor Cutler, musician, teacher and comedian
Noam Dar, professional wrestler
Sir Monty Finniston, industrialist
Hannah Frank, artist and sculptor
Myer Lord Galpern, MP, Lord Provost of Glasgow
Ralph Glasser, psychologist and economist (born in Leeds but grew up in Glasgow)
Professor Sir Abraham Goldberg KB MD DSc FRCP FRSE, leading medical academic
Muriel Gray, author and presenter of The Tube
Jeremy Isaacs, broadcaster, born in Glasgow from what were described as "Scottish Jewish roots".
A C Jacobs, poet
Mark Knopfler, Dire Straits co-founder, lead vocalist and lead guitarist
Kevin Macdonald, director, known for Touching the Void
Isi Metzstein, architect
Saul Metzstein, filmmaker
Neil Primrose, MP and soldier, younger son of Hannah de Rothschild
Malcolm Rifkind, politician
Hugo Rifkind, broadcaster
Harry Primrose, 6th Earl of Rosebery, Secretary of State for Scotland, elder son of Hannah de Rothschild
Jerry Sadowitz, controversial comedian and conjurer
Benno Schotz, sculptor
Sara Sheridan, writer
Manny Shinwell, politician
J. David Simons, novelist
Dame Muriel Spark, novelist
Harry, Lord Woolf, judge, brought up and educated in Scotland
Scottie Wilson, artist
See also
History of the Jews in Ireland
History of the Jews in Wales
History of the Jews in England
The Scottish Council of Jewish Communities
List of British Jews
List of Jewish communities in the United Kingdom
Notes and references
Further reading
Collins Dr. KE, Borowski E, and Granat L – Scotland's Jews – A Guide to the History and Community of the Jews in Scotland (2008)
Daiches, David - Two Worlds, Canongate Classics (1987)
Levy, A – The Origins of Scottish Jewry
Phillips, Abel – A History of the Origins of the First Jewish Community in Scotland: Edinburgh, 1816 (1979)
Glasser, R – Growing Up in the Gorbals, Chatto & Windus (1986)
Shinwell, Manny – Conflict Without Malice (1955) – autobiography
Conn, A (editor) – Serving Their Country- Wartime Memories of Scottish Jews (2002)
Kaplan, H L – Jewish Cemeteries in Scotland in Avotaynu, Vol.VII No 4, Winter 1991
Ronder, Jack – The Lost Tribe, W.H. Allen (1978)
External links
Jewish Year Book (JYB)
Jewish Community of Edinburgh - Chabad on Campus
Scottish Council of Jewish Communities
Jewish Encyclopedia on Scotland
Scottish Jewish Archives Centre
Edinburgh Burgh Records, 1691
The Virtual Jewish History Tour – Scotland
Curious Edinburgh Jewish History walking tour
Jewish burial ground in the Glasgow Necropolis
Edinburgh Hebrew Congregation
Aberdeen Hebrew Congregation
Sukkat Shalom Edinburgh – the Edinburgh Liberal Jewish Community
The Secret Yiddish History of Scotland
Gorbals
Edinburgh
Jews |
4380729 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power%3A%20A%20New%20Social%20Analysis | Power: A New Social Analysis | Power: A New Social Analysis by Bertrand Russell (1st imp. London 1938, Allen & Unwin, 328 pp.) is a work in social philosophy written by Bertrand Russell. Power, for Russell, is one's ability to achieve goals. In particular, Russell has in mind social power, that is, power over people.
The volume contains a number of arguments. However, four themes have a central role in the overall work. The first theme given treatment in the analysis is that the lust for power is a part of human nature. Second, the work emphasises that there are different forms of social power, and that these forms are substantially interrelated. Third, Power insists that "organisations are usually connected with certain kinds of individuals". Finally, the work ends by arguing that "arbitrary rulership can and should be subdued".
Throughout the work, Russell's ambition is to develop a new method of conceiving the social sciences as a whole. For him, all topics in the social sciences are merely examinations of the different forms of power – chiefly the economic, military, cultural, and civil forms (Russell 1938:4). Eventually, he hoped that social science would be robust enough to capture the "laws of social dynamics", which would describe how and when one form of power changes into another. (Russell 1938:4–6) As a secondary goal of the work, Russell is at pains to reject single-cause accounts of social power, such as the economic determinism he attributes to Karl Marx. (Russell 1938:4, 95)
The Content
The new social analysis examines at least four general topics: the nature of power, the forms of power, the structure of organisations, and the ethics of power.
Nature of power
Russell's view of human nature, like that of Thomas Hobbes, is somewhat pessimistic. By Russell's account, the desire to empower oneself is unique to human nature. No other animals besides Homo sapiens, he argues, are capable of being so unsatisfied with their lot, that they should try to accumulate more goods than meet their needs. The "impulse to power", as he calls it, does not arise unless one's basic desires have been sated. (Russell 1938:3) Then the imagination stirs, motivating the actor to gain more power. In Russell's view, the love of power is nearly universal among people, although it takes on different guises from person to person. A person with great ambitions may become the next Caesar, but others may be content to merely dominate the home. (Russell 1938:9)
This impulse to power is not only "explicitly" present in leaders, but also sometimes "implicitly" in those who follow. It is clear that leaders may pursue and profit from enacting their own agenda, but in a "genuinely cooperative enterprise", the followers seem to gain vicariously from the achievements of the leader. (Russell 1938:7–8)
In stressing this point, Russell is explicitly rebutting Friedrich Nietzsche's infamous "master-slave morality" argument. Russell explains:
"Most men do not feel in themselves the competence required for leading their group to victory, and therefore seek out a captain who appears to possess the courage and sagacity necessary for the achievement of supremacy... Nietzsche accused Christianity of inculcating a slave-morality, but ultimate triumph was always the goal. 'Blessed are the meek, for they shall inherit the earth. '" (Russell 1938:9, emphasis his).
The existence of implicit power, he explains, is why people are capable of tolerating social inequality for an extended period of time (Russell 1938:8).
However, Russell is quick to note that the invocation of human nature should not come at the cost of ignoring the exceptional personal temperaments of power-seekers. Following Adler (1927) – and to an extent echoing Nietzsche – he separates individuals into two classes: those who are imperious in a particular situation, and those who are not. The love of power, Russell tells us, is probably not motivated by Freudian complexes, (i.e., resentment of one's father, lust for one's mother, drives towards Eros and Thanatos (Love and Death drives, which constitute the basis of all human drives, etc.,) but rather by a sense of entitlement which arises from exceptional and deep-rooted self-confidence. (Russell 1938:11)
The imperious person is successful due to both mental and social factors. For instance, the imperious tend to have an internal confidence in their own competence and decisiveness which is relatively lacking in those who follow. (Russell 1938:13) In reality, the imperious may or may not actually be possessed of genuine skill; rather, the source of their power may also arise out of their hereditary or religious role. (Russell 1938:11)
Non-imperious persons include those who submit to a ruler, and those who withdraw entirely from the situation. A confident and competent candidate for leadership may withdraw from a situation when they lack the courage to challenge a particular authority, are timid by temperament, simply do not have the means to acquire power by the usual methods, are entirely indifferent to matters of power, and/or are moderated by a well-developed sense of duty. (Russell 1938:13–17)
Accordingly, while the imperious orator will tend to prefer a passionate crowd over a sympathetic one, the timid orator (or subject) will have the opposite preferences. The imperious orator is interested mostly in a mob that is more given to rash emotion than to reflection. (Russell 1938:18) The orator will try to engineer two 'layers' of belief in his crowd: "a superficial layer, in which the power of the enemy is magnified so as to make great courage seem necessary, and a deeper layer, in which there is a firm conviction of victory" (Russell 1938:18). By contrast, the timid will seek a sense of belonging, and "the reassurance which is felt in being one of a crowd who all feel alike" (Russell 1938:17).
When any given person has a crisis in confidence, and is placed in a terrifying situation, they will tend to behave in a predictable way: first, they submit to the rule of those who seem to have greater competence in the most relevant task, and second, they will surround themselves with that mass of persons who share a similarly low level of confidence. Thus, people submit to the rule of the leader in a kind of emergency solidarity. (Russell 1938:9–10)
Forms of power
To begin with, Russell is interested in classifying the different ways in which one human being may have power over another – what he calls the "forms of power". The forms may be subdivided into two: influence over persons, and the psychological types of influence. (Russell 1938:24,27)
To understand how organisations operate, Russell explains, we must first understand the basic methods by which they can exercise power at all – that is, we must understand the manner in which individuals are persuaded to follow some authority. Russell breaks the forms of influence down into three very general categories: "the power of force and coercion"; the "power of inducements", such as operant conditioning and group conformity; and "the power of propaganda and/or habit" (Russell 1938:24).
To explain each form, Russell provides illustrations. The power of mere force is like the tying of a rope around a pig's belly and lifting it up to a ship while ignoring its cries. The power of inducements is likened to two things: either conditioning, as exemplified by circus animals which have been trained to perform this-or-that trick for an audience, or group acquiescence, as when the leader among sheep is dragged along by chains to get the rest of the flock to follow. Finally, the power of propaganda is akin to the use of carrot and stick to influence the behaviour of a donkey, in the sense that the donkey is being persuaded that making certain actions (following the carrot, avoiding the stick) would be more or less to their benefit. (Russell 1938:24)
Russell makes a distinction between traditional, revolutionary, and naked forms of psychological influence. (Russell 1938:27) These psychological types overlap with the forms of influence in some respects: for instance, "naked power" can be reduced to coercion alone. (Russell 1938:63) But the other types are distinct units of analysis, and require separate treatments.
Naked and economic power
When force is used in the absence of other forms, it is called "naked power". In other words, naked power is the ruthless exertion of force without the desire for, or attempt at, consent. In all cases, the sources of naked power are the fears of the powerless and the ambitions of the powerful (Russell 1938:127). As an example of naked power, Russell recalls the story of Agathocles, the son of a potter who became the tyrant of Syracuse. (Russell 1938:69–72)
Russell argues that naked power arises within a government under certain social conditions: when two or more fanatical creeds are contending for governance, and when all traditional beliefs have decayed. A period of naked power may end by foreign conquest, the creation of stability, and/or the rise of a new religion (Russell 1938:74).
The process by which an organisation achieves sufficient prominence that it is able to exercise naked power can be described as the rule of three phases (Russell 1938:63). According to this rule, what begins as fanaticism on the part of some crowd eventually produces conquest by means of naked power. Eventually, the acquiescence of the outlying population transforms naked power into traditional power. Finally, once a traditional power has taken hold, it engages in the suppression of dissent by the use of naked power.
For Russell, economic power is parallel to the power of conditioning. (Russell 1938:25) However, unlike Marx, he emphasises that economic power is not primary, but rather, derives from a combination of the forms of power. By his account, economics is dependent largely upon the functioning of law, and especially, property law; and law is to a large degree a function of the power over opinion, which cannot be entirely explained by wage, labour, and trade. (Russell 1938:95)
Ultimately, Russell argues that economic power is attained through the ability to defend one's territory (and to conquer other lands), to possess the materials for the cultivation of one's resources, and to be able to satisfy the demands of others on the market. (Russell 1938:97–101, 107)
The power of (and over) opinion
In Russell's model, power over the creeds and habits of persons is easy to miscalculate. He claims that, on the one hand, the economic determinists had underestimated the power of opinion. However, on the other hand, he argues that the case is easy to make that all power is power over opinion: for "Armies are useless unless the soldiers believe in the cause for which they are fighting... Law is impotent unless it is generally respected." (Russell 1938:109) Still, he admits that military force may cause opinion, and (with few exceptions) be the thing that imbues opinion with power in the first place:
"We thus have a kind of see-saw: first, pure persuasion leading to the conversion of a minority; then force exerted to secure that the rest of the community shall be exposed to the right propaganda; and finally a genuine belief on the part of the great majority, which makes the use of force again unnecessary." (Russell 1938:110)
Thus, although "the power over opinion" may occur with or without force, the power of a creed arises only after a powerful and persuasive minority has willingly adopted the creed.
The exception here is the case of Western science, which seemingly rose in cultural appeal despite being unpopular with establishment forces. Russell explains the popularity of science is not grounded on a general respect for reason, but rather is grounded entirely on the fact that science produces technology, and technology produces things that people desire. Similarly, religion, advertising, and propaganda all have power because of their connections with the desires of their audiences. Russell's conclusion is that reason has very limited, though specific, sway over the opinions of persons. For reason is only effective when it appeals to desire. (Russell 1938:111–112)
Russell then inquires into the power that reason has over a community, as contrasted with fanaticism. It would seem that the power of reason is that it is able to increase the odds of success in practical matters by way of technical efficiency. The cost of allowing for reasoned inquiry is the tolerance of intellectual disagreement, which in turn provokes scepticism and dims the power of fanaticism. Conversely, it would seem that a community is stronger and more cohesive if there is widespread agreement within it over certain creeds, and reasoned debate is rare. If these two opposing conditions are both to be fully exploited for short-term gains, then it would demand two things: first, that some creed be held both by the majority opinion (through force and propaganda), and second, that the majority of intellectual class concurs (through reasoned discussion). In the long-term, however, creeds tend to provoke weariness, light scepticism, outright disbelief, and finally, apathy. (Russell 1938:123–125)
Russell is acutely aware that power tends to coalesce in the hands of a minority, and no less so when it comes to power over opinion. The result is "systematic propaganda", or the monopoly over propaganda by the state. Perhaps surprisingly, Russell avers that the consequences of systematic propaganda are not as dire as one might expect. (Russell 1938:114–115) A true monopoly over opinion leads to careless arrogance among leaders, as well as to indifference to the well-being of the governed, and a lack of credulity on behalf of the governed towards the state. In the long-term, the net result is:
"[to] delay revolution, but to make it more violent when it comes. When only one doctrine is officially allowed, men get no practice in thinking or in weighing alternatives; only a great wave of passionate revolt can dethrone orthodoxy; and in order to make the opposition sufficiently whole-hearted and violent to achieve success, it will seem necessary to deny even what was true in governmental dogma" (Russell 1938:115).
By contrast, the shrewd propagandist of the contemporary state will allow for disagreement, so that false established opinions will have something to react to. In Russell's words: "Lies need competition if they are to retain their vigour." (Russell 1938:115)
Revolutionary versus traditional power
Among the psychological types of influence, we have a distinction between "traditional, naked, and revolutionary power". (Naked power, as noted earlier, is the use of coercion without any pretense to legitimacy.)
By "traditional power", Russell has in mind the ways in which people will appeal to the force of habit to justify a political regime. It is in this sense that traditional power is psychological and not historical; since traditional power is not entirely based on a commitment to some linear historical creed, but rather, on mere habit. Moreover, traditional power need not be based on actual history, but rather be based on imagined or fabricated history. Thus he writes that "Both religious and secular innovators – at any rate those who have had most lasting success – have appealed, as far as they could, to tradition, and have done whatever lay in their power to minimise the elements of novelty in their system." (Russell 1938:40)
The two clearest examples of traditional power are the cases of "kingly power" and "priestly power". Russell traces both back historically to certain roles which served some function in early societies. The priest is akin to the medicine man of a tribe, who is thought to have unique powers of cursing and healing at their disposal (Russell 1938:36). In most contemporary cases, priests rely on religious social movements grounded in charismatic authority, which have been more effective at usurping power than those religions that lack iconic founders (Russell 1938:39–40). The history of the king is more difficult to examine, and the researcher can only speculate on their origins. At the very least, the power of kingship seems to be advanced by war, even if warmaking was not the king's original function (Russell 1938:56).
When the forms of traditional power come to an end, there tends to be a corresponding change in creeds. If the traditional creeds are doubted without any alternative, then the traditional authority relies more and more on the use of naked power. And where the traditional creeds are wholly replaced with alternative ones, traditional power gives rise to revolutionary power (Russell 1938:82).
"Revolutionary power" contrasts with traditional power in that it appeals to popular assent to some creed, and not merely popular acquiescence or habit. Thus, for the revolutionary, power is a means to an end, and the end is some creed or other. Whatever its intentions, the power of the revolutionary tends to either devolve back into naked power over time, or else to transform into traditional power (Russell 1938:82).
The revolutionary faces at least two special problems. First, the transformation back into naked power occurs when revolutionary power has been around for a long period without achieving a resolution to its key conflict. At some point, the original goal of the creed tends to be forgotten, and consequently, the fanatics of the movement change their goals and aspire toward mere domination (Russell 1938:92). Second, the revolutionary must always deal with the threat of counter-revolutionaries, and is hence faced with a dilemma: because revolutionary power must by definition think that the original revolution was justified, it "cannot, logically, contend that all subsequent revolutions must be wicked" (Russell 1938:87).
A transition into traditional power is also possible. Just as there are two kinds of traditional power – the priestly and the kingly – there are two kinds of revolutionary power, namely, the "soldier of fortune" and "the divine conqueror". Russell classes Benito Mussolini and Napoleon Bonaparte as soldiers of fortune, and Adolf Hitler, Oliver Cromwell, and Vladimir Lenin as divine conquerors (Russell 1938:12). Nonetheless, the traditional forms bear only an imperfect relationship, if any, to the revolutionary forms.
Structure of organisations
Having introduced the reader to the forms of power, Russell applies those forms to a selection of organisations. The purpose of discussing organisations is that they seem to be one of the most common sources of social power. By an "organization", Russell means a set of people who share some activities, and directed at common goals, which is typified by a redistribution of power (Russell 1938:128). Organizations differ in size and type, though common to them all is the tendency for inequality of power to increase as membership increases.
An exhaustive list of the types of organisation would be impossible, since the list would be as long as a list of human reasons to organise themselves in groups. However, Russell takes interest in only a small sample of organisations. The army and police, economic organisations, educational organisations, organisations of law, political parties, and churches are all recognised as societal entities. (Russell 1938:29–34,128,138-140)
The researcher might also measure the organisation by its use of communication, transportation, size, and distribution of power relative to the population. (Russell 1938:130,132-134) Improved abilities to communicate and transport tend to stabilise larger organisations and disrupt smaller ones.
Any given organisation cannot be easily reduced to a particular form of power. For instance, the police and army are quite obviously instruments of force and coercion, but it would be facile to say that they have power simply because of their ability to physically coerce. Rather, the police are regarded as instruments of a legitimate institution by some population, and the organisation depends upon propaganda and habit to maintain popular deference to their authority. Similarly, economic organisations operate by the use of conditioning, in the form of money; but the strength of an economy arguably depends in large part on the functional operation of law enforcement which makes commerce possible, by the regulation of peace and property rights. (Russell 1938:25,95)
The general effect of an organisation, Russell believes, is either to increase the well-being of persons, or to aid the survival of the organisation itself: "[I]n the main, the effects of organisations, apart from those resulting from governmental self-preservation, are such as to increase individual happiness and well-being." (Russell 1938:170)
Organizations and individuals
The types of relationship which any given individual may share with any given organisation can be assessed according to whether the organisation facilitates or suppresses the will of the person. The line between suppression and facilitation of the will is not absolute, but relative. An organisation may benefit one person or class of persons, while doing harm to another. Thus, for example, the police exist to enforce law and order, and this facilitates the will of the general populace; yet they also suppress the will of the criminal. (Russell 1938:166–171)
Of those whose wills are facilitated by an organisation, kinds include "the gentleman, the sage, the economic magnate, the political statesman", and "the covert manager" (or political wire-puller). Each beneficiary of power is parasitic upon certain kinds of organisations, and has certain key traits which uniquely put them at advantage (Russell 1938:29–34):
Thus, a political wire-puller such as Grigori Rasputin enjoys power best when playing off another person's hereditary power, or when the organisation benefits largely from an air of mystery. By contrast, the wirepuller suffers a wane in power when the organizational élite is made up of competent individuals (Russell 1938:34).
Of those whose wills may be suppressed, we may include "customers, voluntary members, involuntary members", and "enemies" (in order of ascending severity). Each form of membership is paired with typical forms of suppression. The will of the customer may be thwarted through fraud or deception, but this at least may be beneficial in providing the customer with the symbolic pleasure of some material goods. Voluntary organisations are able to threaten sanctions, such as expulsion, on its members. Voluntary organisations serve the positive function of providing relatively benign outlets for the human passion for drama, and for the impulse to power. Involuntary membership abandons all pretense to the benign. The clearest example of this kind of organisation, for Russell, is the State. (Russell 1938:171–173)
Organizations may also be directed specifically at influencing persons at some stage of life. Thus, we have midwives and doctors who are legally obliged to deliver the baby; as the child grows, the school, parents, and mass media come to the fore; as they reach working age, various economic organisations pull for the agent's attention; the church and the institution of marriage impact the actor in obvious ways; and finally, the State may provide a pension to the elderly (Russell 1938:166–168).
Forms of governance
The forms of governance are the familiar ways in which organisations set up their leadership structures: as monarchies, oligarchies, and democracies. In these ways, any organisation – be it economic, or political – is able to seek out its goals.
Each form of government has its own merits and failings:
Russell notes that monarchy arises more naturally than any other form of government, and is most cohesive. All that a monarchy requires to remain in power is, first, for the population to be afraid of the monarch; and second, that the inner circle of supporters be inspired with both confidence and an implicit lust for power. (Russell 1938:149–150)
However, monarchies have severe problems. Contra Hobbes, no monarchy can be said to arise from a social contract within the wide population. Moreover, if a monarchy is hereditary, then the royal offspring will likely
have no skill at governance; and if not, then civil war will ensue to determine the next in line. Finally, and
perhaps most obviously, the monarch is not necessarily compelled to have any regard for the well-being of his or her
subjects (Russell 1938:150–151).
Oligarchy, or rule of a few over the many, comes in many different guises:
Hereditary landed aristocracy, which (Russell argues) tends to be "conservative, proud, stupid, and rather brutal" (Russell 1938:151);
The bourgeoisie, a merchant class who had to earn their wealth. Historically, by Russell's account, they have tended to be more clever, astute, and diplomatic;
The industrial class, who are of "a totally different type" from the bourgeoisie, and are more apt to coerce than to behave diplomatically, due in large part to the impersonal relationships they have with their employees; and
The ideological élite. Ideological élites tend to allow for the reversion into monarchy, as well as admit to heavy censorship. However, their rule also has certain strengths. For instance, they are more likely to arrive at common agreement immediately after a revolution; they cannot represent a hereditary or economic minority of the population; and they tend towards being more politically conscious and active. (Russell 1983:152–153)
Democracy, or the rule of the many over themselves. The rule of the masses is positive, in that it is less likely to lead to civil war than the alternatives. An ambivalent feature of democracy is the fact that representatives are forced to compromise their ideologies to stay in power, which can curb both positive and negative tendencies. On the negative side, democracies are not very good at dealing with subjects that demand expert authority or quick decisions. Moreover, a democracy is easily corruptible by politicians with agendas. Also, a democracy may easily slip into popular apathy which allows for corrupt politicians to go unchecked (Russell 1938:154–159).
Ethics of power
Having completed those chapters which analyse the relevant aspects of power in social life, Russell shifts his focus onto the philosophical issues that are connected with those problems. Moving into this new terrain, he wonders what can be done to curb the efforts of those who love power. The answers can be found either in possible collective actions, or in individual duties.
Positive and private morality
There is a distinction between positive and private forms of morality. Positive morality tends to be associated with traditional power and following ancient principles with a narrow focus; for example, the norms and taboos of marital law. Personal morality is associated with revolutionary power and the following of one's own conscience. (Russell 1938:186–206)
The dominant social system will have some impact on the reigning positive moral codes of the population. In a system where filial piety is dominant, there will be greater emphasis in a culture upon the wisdom of the elderly. (Russell 1938:188–189) In a monarchy, the culture will be encouraged to believe in a morality of submission, with cultural taboos placed upon use of the imagination; both of which increase social cohesion by encouraging the self-censorship of dissent. (Russell 1938:190–191) Priestly power is not as impressive, even when it is in full bloom. At its peak, priestly power depends on not being opposed by kingly power and not being usurped by a morality of conscience; and even then, it faces the threat of wide scepticism. (Russell 1938:192–193) Still, some moral convictions do not seem to have any source at all in the power elite: for example, the treatment of homosexuality in the early twentieth century does not seem to be tied to the success of a particular rulership. (Russell 1938:194)
Russell wonders whether some other basis for ethics can be found besides positive morality. Russell associates positive morality with conservatism, and understands it as a way of acting which stifles the spirit of peace and fails to curb strife. (Russell 1938:197) Meanwhile, personal morality is the ultimate source of positive morality, and is more grounded in the intellect. (Russell 1938:198–199) However, personal morality is so deeply connected with the desires of individuals that, if it were left to be the sole guide to moral conduct, it would lead to the social chaos of the "anarchic rebel". (Russell 1938:206)
Advocating a compromise between positive and private morality, Russell first emphasises that there is such a thing as moral progress, a progress which may occur through revolutions. (Russell 1938:199) Second, he provides a method by which we can test whether a particular sort of private morality is a form of progress:
"An individual may perceive a way of life, or a method of social organisation, by which more of the desires of mankind could be satisfied than under the existing method. If he perceives truly, and can persuade men to adopt his reform, he is justified [in rebellion]." (Russell 1938:206)
Philosophy of power
Individual resistance to power can take two diametrically opposed forms: those which indulge the impulse to power, and those who seek to quell the impulse to power entirely.
Some of those who have attempted to find an escape from the impulse to power have resorted to forms of quietism or pacifism. One major proponent of such approaches was the philosopher Laozi. From Russell's perspective, such views are incoherent, since they only deny themselves coercive power, but retain an interest in persuading others to their cause; and persuasion is a form of power, for Russell. Moreover, he argues that the love of power can actually be a good thing. For instance, if one feels a certain duty towards their neighbours, they may attempt to attain power to help those neighbours (Russell 1938:215–216). In sum, the focus of any policy should not be on a ban on kinds of power, but rather, on certain kinds of use of power (Russell 1938:221).
Other thinkers have emphasised the pursuit of power as a virtue. Some philosophies are rooted in the love of power because philosophies tend to be coherent unification in the pursuit of some goal or desire. Just as a philosophy may strive for truth, it may also strive for happiness, virtue, salvation, or, finally, power. Among those philosophies which Russell condemns as rooted in love of power: all forms of idealism and anti-realism, such as Johann Gottlieb Fichte's solipsism; certain forms of Pragmatism; Henri Bergson's doctrine of Creative evolution; and the works of Friedrich Nietzsche (Russell 1938:209–214).
According to Russell's outlook on power, there are four conditions under which power ought to be pursued with moral conviction. First, it must be pursued only as a means to some end, and not as an end in itself; moreover, if it is an end in itself, then it must be of comparatively lower value than one's other goals. Second, the ultimate goal must be to help satisfy the desires of others. Third, the means by which one pursues one's goal must not be egregious or malign, such that they outweigh the value of the end; as (for instance) the gassing of children for the sake of future democracy (Russell 1938:201). Fourth, moral doctrines should aim toward truth and honesty, not the manipulation of others (Russell 1938:216–218).
To enact these views, Russell advises the reader to discourage cruel temperaments which arise out of a lack of opportunities. Moreover, the reader should encourage the growth of constructive skills, which provide the person with an alternative to easier and more destructive alternatives. Finally, they should encourage cooperative feeling, and curb competitive desires (Russell 1938:219–220, 222).
Taming arbitrary rule
Among the issues demanding collective ethical action, Russell identifies "political rule", "economic competition", "propagandistic competition", and "psychological life". To make positive changes in each of these spheres of collective behaviour, Russell believed that power would need to be made more diffuse and less arbitrary.
To succeed in the taming of arbitrary political rule, Russell says, a community's goal ought to be to encourage democracy. Russell insists that the beginning of all ameliorative reforms to government must presuppose democracy as a rule. Even lip service to oligarchies – for example, support for purportedly benevolent dictators – must be dismissed as fantastic. (Russell 1938:226)
Moreover, democracy must be infused with a respect for the autonomy of persons, so that the political body does not collapse into the tyranny of the majority. To prevent this result, people must have a well-developed sense of separation between acquiescence to the collective will, and respect for the discretion of the individual. (Russell 1938:227)
Collective action should be restricted to two domains. First, it should be used to treat problems that are primarily "geographical", which include issues of sanitation, transportation, electricity, and external threats. Second, it ought to be used when a kind of individual freedom poses a major threat to public order; for instance, speech that incites the breaking of law (Russell 1938:227–228). The exception to this rule is when there is a minority which densely populates a certain well-defined area, in which case, political devolution is preferable.
In formulating his outlook on the preferable size of government, Russell encounters a dilemma. He notes that, the smaller the democracy, the more empowerment the citizen feels; yet the larger the democracy, the more the citizen's passions and interests are inflamed. In both situations, the result is voter fatigue. (Russell 1938:229) There are two possible solutions to this problem: to organise political life according to vocational interests, as with unionisation; or to organise it according to interest groups. (Russell 1938:229–230)
A federal government is only sensible, for Russell, when it has limited but well-defined powers. Russell advocates the creation of a world government made up of sovereign nation-states (Russell 1938:197, 230–31). On his view, the function of a world government should only be to ensure the avoidance of war and the pursuit of peace (Russell 1938:230-31). On the world stage, democracy would be impossible, because of the negligible power any particular individual could have in comparison with the entire human race.
One final suggestion for political policy reform is the notion that there ought to be a political balance in every branch of public service. Lack of balance in public institutions creates havens for reactionary forces, which in turn undermine democracy. Russell emphasises two conditions necessary for the achievement of balance. He advocates, first, the abolition of the legal standing of confessions as evidence, to remove the incentive for extraction of confession under torture by the police (Russell 1938:232). Second, the creation of dual branches of police to investigate particular crimes: one which presumes the innocence of the accused, the other presuming guilt (Russell 1938:233).
Competition, for Russell, is a word that may have many uses. Although most often meant to refer to competition between companies, it may also be used to speak of competition between states, between ideologues, between classes, rivals, trusts, workers, etc. On this topic, Russell ultimately wishes to answer two questions: "First, in what kinds of cases is competition technically wasteful? Secondly, in what cases is it desirable on non-technical grounds?" (Russell 1938:176). In asking these questions, he has two concerns directly in mind: economic competition, and the competition of propaganda.
The question of whether or not economic competition is defensible requires an examination from two perspectives: the moral point of view and the technical point of view.
From the view of the technician, certain goods and services can only be provided efficiently by a centralised authority. For Russell, it seems to be an economic fact that bigger organisations were capable of producing items at a certain standard, and best suited to fill needs that are geographical in nature, such as railways and water treatment. By contrast, smaller organisations (like businesses) are best suited to create products that are customised and local. (Russell 1938:176–177;234)
From the view of the ethicist, competition between states is on the same moral plane as competition between modern businesses (Russell 1938:177). Indeed, by Russell's account, economic power and political power are both capable of devastation:
"In democratic countries, the most important private organisations are economic. Unlike secret societies, they are able to exercise their terrorism without illegality, since they do not threaten to kill their enemies, but only to starve them." (Russell 1938:147)
Since they are morally equivalent, perhaps it is not surprising that the cure for political injustices is identical to the cure for economic ones: namely, the institution of democracy in both economic and political spheres (Russell 1938:234).
By 'economic democracy', Russell means a kind of democratic socialism, which at the very least involves the nationalisation of select industries (railways, water, television). In order for this to operate effectively, he argues that the social system must be such that power is distributed across a society of highly autonomous persons. (Russell 1938:238–240)
Russell is careful to indicate that his support for nationalisation rests on the assumption that it can be accomplished under the auspices of a robust democracy, and that it may be safeguarded against statist tyranny. If either condition fail, then nationalisation is undesirable. In delivering this warning, Russell emphasises the distinction between ownership and control. He points out that nationalisation – which would allow the citizens to collectively own an industry – would not guarantee any of them control over the industry. In the same way, shareholders own parts of companies, but the control of the company ultimately rests with the CEO (Russell 1938:235).
Control over propaganda is another matter. When forming his argument here, Russell specifically targets the doctrines of John Stuart Mill. Russell argues that Mill's argument for the freedom of speech is too weak, so long as it is balanced against the harm principle; for any speech worth protecting for political reasons is likely to cause somebody harm. For example, the citizen ought to have the opportunity to impeach malicious governors, but that would surely harm the governor, at the very least (Russell 1938:179).
Russell replaces Mill's analysis with an examination of the issue from four perspectives: the perspective of the governor, the citizen, the innovator, and the philosopher. The rational governor is always threatened by revolutionary activities, and can always be expected to ban speech which calls for assassination. Yet the governor would be advised to allow freedom of speech to prevent and diminish discontent among the subjects, and has no reason to suppress ideas which are unrelated to his governance, for instance the Copernican doctrine of heliocentrism. Relatedly, the citizen mainly understands free speech as an extension of the right to do peaceably that which could only otherwise be done through violence (Russell 1938:179–182).
The innovator does not tend to care much about free speech, since they engage in innovation despite social resistance. Innovators may be separated into three categories: the hard millenarians, who believe in their doctrine to the exclusion of all others, and who only seek to protect the dissemination of their own creeds; the virtuous millenarians, who emphasise that revolutionary transitions must begin through rational persuasion and the guidance of sages, and so are supportive of free speech; and the progressives, who cannot foresee the direction of future progress, but recognise that the free exchange of ideas is a prerequisite to it. For the philosopher, free speech allows people to engage in rational doubt, and to grow in their prudential duties. (Russell 1938:182–185)
In any case, the citizen's right to dissent and to decide their governor is sacrosanct for Russell. He believes that a true public square could be operated by state-run media outlets, like the BBC, which would be charged with the duty to provide a wide range of points of view on political matters. For certain other topics, like art and science, the fullest and freest competition between ideas must be guaranteed. (Russell 1938:185)
The final discussion in the work is concerned with Russell's views on education. (Russell 1938:242–251) Citizens of a healthy democracy must have two virtues, for Russell: the "sense of self-reliance and confidence" necessary for autonomous action; and the humility required to "submit to the will of the majority" when it has spoken. (Russell 1938:244) The last chapter of Power: A New Social Analysis concentrates significantly on the question of how to inspire confidence in students, from an educator's point of view.
Two major conditions are necessary. First, the citizen/student must be free from hatred, fear, and the impulse to submit. (Russell 1938:244–245) Economic opportunities will have some impact on the student's temperament in this regard, and so, economic reforms need to be made to create more opportunities. But reform to the education system is also necessary, in particular, to foster in the student a kindness, curiosity, and intellectual commitment to science. The common trait of students with the scientific mind is a sense of balance between dogmatism and scepticism. (Russell 1938:246)
Moreover, the student must have good instructors, who emphasise reason over rhetoric. Russell indicates that the critical mind is an essential feature of the healthy citizen of a democracy, since collective hysteria is one of the greatest threats to democracy (Russell 1938:248). To foster a critical mind, he suggests, the teacher ought to show the students the consequences of pursuing one's feelings over one's thoughts. For example, the teacher might allow students to choose a field trip between two different locations: one fantastic place which is given a dull overview, and a shabby place which is recommended by impressive advertisements. In teaching history, the teacher might examine a particular event from a multitude of different perspectives, and allow the students to use their critical faculties to make assessments of each. (Russell 1938:247) In all cases, the object would be to encourage self-growth, a willingness to be "tentative in judgment", and "responsiveness to evidence". (Russell 1938:250)
The work ends with the following words: Fichte and the powerful men who have inherited his ideals, when they see children, think: 'Here is material that I can manipulate'... All this, to any person with natural affection for the young, is horrible; just as we teach children to avoid being destroyed by motor cars if they can, so we should teach them to avoid being destroyed by cruel fanatics... This is the task of a liberal education: to give a sense of the value of things other than domination, to help create wise citizens of a free community, and through the combination of citizenship with liberty in individual creativeness to enable men to give to human life that splendour which some few have shown that it can achieve (Russell 1938:251).
Historical context
Power (1938) is written with a mind toward the political ills that marred the headlines of the day. The work appeared at the brink of World War II, and contains more than one pointed reference to the dictatorships of Nazi Germany and fascist Italy, and one reference to the persecution of German Czechoslovakians. (Russell 1938:147) When his remarks treat of current affairs, they are often pessimistic. "Although men hate one another, exploit one another, and torture one another, they have, until recently, given their reverence to those who preached a different way of life." (Russell 1938: 204; emphasis added) As Kirk Willis remarked on Russell's outlook during the 1930s, "the foreign and domestic policies of successive national governments repelled him, as did the triumph of totalitarian regimes on the continent and the seemingly inexorable march to war brought in their wake... Despairing that war could be avoided and convinced that such a European-wide conflict would herald a new dark age of barbarism and bigotry, Russell gave voice to his despondency in Which Way to Peace? (1936) – not so much a reasoned defence of appeasement as an expression of defeatism". (Russell 1938:xxii-xxiii)
Ultimately, with his new analysis in hand, Russell hoped to instruct others on how to tame arbitrary power. He hoped that a stable world government composed of sovereign nation-states would eventually arise which would dissuade nations from engaging in war. In context, this argument was made years after the dissolution of the League of Nations (and years before the creation of the United Nations). Also, at many times during the work, Russell also mentions his desire to see a kind of socialism take root. This was true to his convictions of the time, during a phase in his career where he was convinced in the plausibility of guild socialism. (Sledd 1994; Russell 1918)
Critical reception
Russell, a famous logician and epistemologist, had many side-interests in history, politics, and social philosophy. The paradigmatic public intellectual, Russell wrote prolifically in the latter topics to a wide and receptive audience. As one scholar writes, "Russell's prolific output spanned the whole range of philosophical and political thought, and he has probably been more widely read in his own lifetime than any other philosopher in history" (Griffin:129).
However, his writings in political philosophy have been relatively neglected by those working in the social sciences. From the point of view of many commentators, Power: A New Social Analysis has proven itself to be no exception to that trend. Russell would later comment that his work "fell rather flat" (Russell 1969). Samuel Brittan and Kirk Willis, who wrote the preface and introduction to the 2004 edition (respectively), both observed the relative lack of success of the work (Russell 1938:viii, xxiv–xxv).
One reason why Power might be more obscure than competing texts in political philosophy is that it is written in a historical style which is not in keeping with its own theoretical goals. Willis remarked that, with hindsight, "Some of the responsibility for its tepid reception... rests with the book itself. A work of political sociology rather than of political theory, it does not in fact either offer a comprehensive new social analysis or fashion new tools of social investigation applicable to the study of power in all times or places" (Russell 1938:xxv).
Willis's review, written more than half a century past the original writing of the volume, is in some respects a gentler way of phrasing the work's immediate reception. One of Russell's contemporaries wrote: "As a contribution to social science... or to the study of government, the volume is very disappointing... In this pretentious volume, Russell shows only the most superficial familiarity with progress made in the study of social phenomena or in any special field of social research, either with techniques of inquiry, or with materials assembled, or with interpretations developed... it seems doubtful that the author knows what is going on in the world of social science." (Merriam, 1939) Indeed, the very preface of the work candidly states: "As usual, those who look in Russell's pronouncements for dotty opinions will be able to find a few". (Russell 1938:x) However, some other contemporary reviews were more positive. Russell's book was reviewed by George Orwell in The Adelphi magazine. Orwell praised the first half of the book, saying "The most interesting part of Mr. Russell's book is the earlier chapters in which he analyses the various types of power – priestly, oligarchical, dictatorial and so forth". However, Orwell criticized the second part of the book. Orwell argued that Russell did not put forward a convincing argument for creating a just and tolerant society, instead "a pious hope that the present state of things will not endure". Orwell suggested that "it does not prove that the slave society at which the dictators are aiming will be unstable." Orwell ended his review with praise for Russell's writing, and said Russell had "an essentially decent intellect, a kind of intellectual chivalry which is far rarer than mere cleverness".(Orwell 1998: 313–314) Other scholars, like Edward Hallet Carr, also found the work of some use. (Carr 2001:131)
Russell is routinely praised for his analytic treatment of philosophical issues. One commentator, quoted in (Griffin:202), observes that "In the forty-five years preceding publication of Strawson's 'On Referring', Russell's theory was practically immune from criticism. There is not a similar phenomenon in contemporary analytic philosophy". Yet Power, along with many of his later works in social philosophy, is not obviously analytic. Rather, it takes the form of a series of examinations of semi-related topics, with a narrative dominated by historical illustrations. Nevertheless, Brittan emphasised the strengths of the treatise by remarking that it can be understood as "an enjoyable romp through history, in part anticipating some of the 1945 A History of Western Philosophy, but ranging wider" (Russell 1938:vii).
In his autobiography (1967–69), Russell summarised the implications of Power, a new social analysis:
In this book I maintained that a sphere of freedom is still desirable even in a socialist state, but this sphere has to be defined afresh and not in liberal terms. This doctrine I still hold. The thesis of this book seems to me important, and I hoped that it would attract more attention than it has done. It was intended as a refutation both of Marx and of the classical economists, not on a point of detail, but on the fundamental assumptions that they shared. I argued that power, rather than wealth, should be the basic concept in social theory, and that social justice should consist in equalisation of power to the greatest practicable degree. It followed that State ownership of land and capital was no advance unless the State was democratic, and even then only if methods were devised for curbing the power of officials. A part of my thesis was taken up and popularised in Burnham's Managerial Revolution, but otherwise the book fell rather flat. I still hold, however, that what it has to say is of very great importance if the evils of totalitarianism are to be avoided, particularly under a Socialist régime.
Notes
Bibliography
References
ASIN B000FFTGRI,
ASIN B000FCEPPE,
ASIN B0006D6R4E
ASIN B000KRWCMW,
External links
Introduction to a 2004 edition by Samuel Brittan
Preview of Power: A New Social Analysis
E-text of "Which Way to Peace?"
E-text of "Proposed Roads to Freedom"
1938 non-fiction books
Allen & Unwin books
Books by Bertrand Russell
Books in political philosophy
English-language books
English non-fiction books
Sociology books |
4380898 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simon%20Wicks | Simon Wicks | Simon "Wicksy" Wicks is a fictional character from the British BBC soap opera EastEnders, played by Nick Berry between 1985 and 1990. Wicksy was introduced to take on some of the more adult storylines that had been scripted for another character, Mark Fowler; Mark's actor, David Scarboro, had left the serial prematurely due to personal problems. Wicksy was the soap's first male pin-up.
An early storyline saw Wicksy perform a song in the serial, "Every Loser Wins", which was subsequently released as a single in 1986 and reached number one in the UK Singles Chart. One of Wicksy's most prominent storylines was his adultery with Cindy Beale, and a subsequent feud with Cindy's husband, Ian Beale (Adam Woodyatt). Nick Berry quit the role in 1990, fearful of typecasting, and after five years on-screen, Wicksy departed on 27 December that year. On 13 January 2012, Simon made a one-off cameo for the funeral of his mother, Pat Evans (Pam St Clement).
Storylines
Simon arrives in Walford to see the man he believes to be his father, Pete Beale (Peter Dean). They have not seen each other for 10 years and Pete is pleased to see him. He quickly gets a job in The Queen Victoria public house and moves in. It is soon revealed that Simon had been in a band with Eddie Hunter (Simon Henderson) but Simon has borrowed money from loan sharks to keep the band afloat, but the band has fallen apart with Simon owing the loan sharks £1,500, which he cannot pay, and he has fled home after stealing from his mother, Pat Wicks (Pam St Clement). Pete pays off Simon's debt.
Simon attempts to form another band, but rivalry between the members prompts him to quit and go solo. He does not get very far however, and by the end of the year he gives up his dream of becoming a musician. Instead, Simon finds work as a barman in both The Queen Vic and later The Dagmar wine bar, where he frequently plays the pub piano, singing Cockney favourites to the regulars
Pat arrives in Walford, much to Pete's dismay, and tells Pete that he is not Simon's father. Pat had various affairs during their marriage, including one with Pete's brother Kenny Beale (Michael Attwell). This causes a rift between Simon and his mother, a relationship already damaged due to Simon's disapproval of her nonchalant style of parenting. Pat later admits that Simon's father is Brian Wicks (Leslie Schofield), his supposed adoptive father. Simon visits Brian following this revelation, but his father is abusive towards him and so Simon cuts contact.
Simon proves popular with women. He has flings with Donna Ludlow (Matilda Ziegler), Mary Smith (Linda Davidson) and Naima Jeffery (Shreela Ghosh) among others. In 1987, he dates Sharon Watts (Letitia Dean), but soon gets bored when she refuses to sleep with him. His first serious relationship is with caterer Magda Czajkowski (Kathryn Apanowicz). They move in together, but both want different things out of the relationship and Simon eventually jilts her in 1988 on the advice of his boss Den Watts (Leslie Grantham), whose womanising he idolises.
In 1988, Simon has flings with Donna and Cindy Williams (Michelle Collins) at the same time. Cindy refuses to tolerate Simon's womanising and when Ian Beale (Adam Woodyatt) starts wooing her, she dates him instead. Initially Cindy is only interested in making Simon jealous, but when she realises Ian is a budding entrepreneur, she agrees to marry him. Confused by Cindy, Simon reignites a relationship with Sharon. Jealous that Simon is moving on, Cindy seduces him and they have sex on the floor of The Queen Vic after closing time. This tryst culminates in Cindy falling pregnant with Simon's child. When Simon learns of the pregnancy, he refuses to have anything more to do with Cindy. Rejected, Cindy marries Ian and deceives him into thinking that her baby is his. She gives birth to Steven (Edward Farrell) on Boxing Day 1989.
Meanwhile, Simon and Sharon's relationship continues. Sharon makes plans to buy The Queen Vic and run it with Simon. However, Simon finds this commitment daunting; he starts pining for Cindy and develops paternal feelings towards his son. Simon and Cindy resume their affair and when Ian finds out, he becomes obsessed with breaking them up and ruining Simon's life. Simon is accused of theft from The Queen Vic when marked notes are found in his pocket; however, it is Ian who planted them. When Simon loses his job he accepts Ian's offer of employment at his catering company, where Ian attempts to frame him for theft. When this fails, Ian tries to kill Simon by sabotaging the brakes of the van he is driving on Christmas Day 1990. Realising that Ian will not stop the feud, Simon, Cindy and Steven leave Walford to start a new life together the following day.
In 1992, Cindy returns and reunites with Ian, stating Simon abandoned her and Steven to move abroad. Simon eventually settles in New Zealand and in 2002, Steven, who has so far been brought up by Ian, discovers his true paternity and moves to New Zealand to be with Simon. Simon's girlfriend Miriam becomes pregnant in 2009, but their relationship suffers in 2011 when Simon reveals to Pat that while staying with him, his brother, David Wicks (Michael French), had an affair with Miriam. When Pat dies of pancreatic cancer in January 2012, David claims Simon is unable to get a flight to attend her funeral; however, Simon later arrives at his mother's graveside, alone, laying flowers and saying goodbye. In 2014, Peter Beale (Ben Hardy) reveals that Steven is living in New Zealand with Simon after he plans to escape Walford after the murder of Lucy Beale (Hetti Bywater) (see Who Killed Lucy Beale?). The following year, Peter goes to visit Steven and Simon in New Zealand.
Creation
Simon Wicks was introduced by creator and executive producer Julia Smith just after the show's inception in 1985, making his first appearance in October that year. According to Smith, Simon was thought up overnight as a means to restore the cast balance distorted by the unexpected departure from the serial of actor David Scarboro who played the original Mark Fowler (who would appear on and off until the actor's suicide in 1988). Scarboro's departure meant many of his functions as the slightly eldest of the young characters would need to be taken over by another character and thus Wicksy was invented.
Simon Wicks was associated with one of EastEnders original families, the Beales. Specifically, he was introduced as the estranged son of Pete Beale (Peter Dean), born from his first marriage - events that had been written into Pete's backstory at the start of the programme. According to Smith, the producers and writers of the soap had always planned on introducing Pete's estranged son on-screen, but Wicksy's premature inclusion meant introducing him a year before it had originally been intended.
Actor Nick Berry was cast to play Wicksy with minimal delay. Smith has described his casting as one of the fastest on record. Berry auditioned in front of the soap's creators, Smith and Tony Holland, and was offered the part immediately. Berry was whisked into costume and make-up and given a new haircut, which Berry claimed was because the producers wanted to smarten his appearance up. Berry was already a fan of the soap at the time of his casting. He has told interviewer Dan Abramson, "I auditioned on a Wednesday and then on Friday I arrived in Albert Square and began shooting my first scenes with Dirty Den, whom I had enjoyed watching on the box for some time. For my first few episodes, I walked around with a big smile on my face, grinning at everybody. It was funny."
Wicksy has been described by writer Colin Brake as a major arrival during EastEnders''' first year. The character drove into EastEnders in a bright yellow sports car in episode 67. He suggested that with Wicksy's arrival, Walford gained a new pin-up.
Characterisation
Berry stated in 1986 that he modelled his portrayal of Simon on his younger brother, who was also called Simon. He commented, "he's already quite the ladies' man. He's extremely good-looking and is almost always the centre of attention wherever he goes."
Author Hilary Kingsley dubbed Wicksy in 1991 as Walford's "only sexy man". She added, "there is a cheekiness about Simon Wicks that's very attractive. In his early days he was happy-go-lucky, interested only in girls and paying off his debts [...] Simon put it about a bit". Kate Lock, author of EastEnders official book, Who's who?, described Simon as a "smoothie and a charmer [...] shallow, lazy and unreliable." She suggested that he graduated from the "love 'em and leave 'em school of relationships" and that he could not cope with commitment. Additionally, author Rupert Smith has suggested that, "with his blow-dried hair, rolled-up jacket and toothy grin, [Wicksy] was the apotheosis of 80s manhood. He went through the women of Walford like a dose of salts, but at the end of the day slippery Simon was a bolter".<ref name="20years">{{cite book |last= Smith|first= Rupert|title= EastEnders: 20 years in Albert Square |year=2005|publisher=BBC books|isbn=978-0-563-52165-5|title-link= EastEnders spin-offs#Non-fiction books}}</ref>
Discussing Wicksy's characterisation in 1993, Berry inferred that he was not entirely happy with the changes that producers attempted to introduce surrounding his character. Berry suggested that when Wicksy first arrived, he was "sort of the boy next door [...] But then they changed it. Dirty Den had left the show [in 1989] and they chose Wicksy as the new romantic lead. I resisted that change as I never really saw Wicksy like that and you have to be consistent with these characters."
Development
The Banned
In 1986, EastEnders decided to tackle a storyline about the ups and downs of a pop group. The group featured the majority of teenage characters in the soap at the time, including Wicksy. Nick Berry was musically trained, having attended London stage schools. He was initially chosen as the group's solo singer, who named themselves "The Banned" after they were banned from the Queen Victoria public house.
The storyline proved to be a successful merchandising tool for the serial, as it spawned two hit singles in the "real world". Actor Nick Berry released a ballad entitled "Every Loser Wins" in October 1986, having previously sung the song in character on-screen (accompanied by a piano). The song was written and produced by Simon May, who famously composed the EastEnders theme tune. "Every Loser Wins" was a smash hit, reaching number 1 in the UK singles chart, where it stayed for three weeks, knocking Madonna's "True Blue" off the top spot. It was the second biggest-selling single in the UK that year after "Don't Leave Me This Way" by The Communards, and held the record as the highest climbing chart single ever until 2001, when it was eclipsed by "It's the Way You Make Me Feel" by Steps (which climbed from 72-2). "Every Loser Wins" sold over a million copies and earned composer Simon May an Ivor Novello award. The song "also provided levity" on-screen, when it was used as Lofty Holloway's break-up song after Michelle Fowler had jilted him at the altar. Although the plot produced two hit singles in the real world, the actual storyline was not a great success with viewers. EastEnders creators Julia Smith and Tony Holland both felt it lacked credibility and branded it an experiment that failed.
Paternity
1986 heralded the beginning of a storyline that Colin Brake has described as one of the soap's most complicated, convoluted, confusing and mind-boggling: The paternity of Simon Wicks. As part of the original storyline, Wicksy's mother, Pat (Pam St Clement), was introduced as a major antagonist for the Beale family, when she announced that her former husband, Pete, was not Simon's biological father, as had previously been claimed. So began a long-running storyline played out throughout the year and continuing into 1988, which included other characters being implemented as the potential father of Simon, including Pete's older brother Kenny Beale (Michael Attwell). In the on-screen events, Simon was shown to bond with Kenny, despite Pat's admitting that she did not know which of the Beale brothers had fathered Wicksy. A final plot twist in mid-1988 saw Pat finally reveal what she thought was the truth, that Simon's real father was Brian Wicks (Leslie Schofield), Pat's second husband and Wicksy's adoptive father.
Despite this revelation on-screen, Colin Brake stated in an official EastEnders' book in 1995 that the true parentage of Simon was still uncertain in the minds of the producers. He stated, "At various times over the years the story has been amended, until the only certainty is that we will never be certain about the actual facts." He added that, at the time of writing the book for EastEnders''' 10th anniversary in 1994, "the current producers believe that Pete was the father of [Simon's older brother] David and may have been the father of Simon."
Love triangle
Another storyline featuring Wicksy was begun in 1988 with the on-screen arrival of a love-interest, Cindy Williams (Michelle Collins). In the storyline, Cindy had a fling with Wicksy before opting to have a more serious relationship with his half brother, Ian Beale (Adam Woodyatt). Colin Brake suggested that with this storyline, EastEnders were sowing the seeds of a situation that would provide much story material for years to come. In the storyline, Cindy and Simon committed to relationships with other people, but remained drawn to each other, resulting in a one-night stand and Cindy falling pregnant with Simon's baby. In a further plot twist, Cindy, rejected by Simon, married Ian and appropriated him as the father of Steven Beale, Wicksy's baby. The love triangle continued into 1990, resulting in Cindy leaving Ian for Wicksy. The episode where Ian discovered that Simon was Cindy's other man was dubbed by the script department as "the Devon Cottage Climax" and aired in September 1990. Colin Brake hailed it as the best episode of EastEnders that year. Having set up the secret that Steven was Simon's son rather than Ian's, script writers devised a way in which to reveal this secret, and according to Brake, the entire love triange storyline built up to this climax. In the on-screen events, Wicksy spent time with Steven and Cindy at her parents' cottage in Devon, but the idyll was shattered by the arrival of Ian. In his description of the episode, Brake said, "the scene was set. Debbie Cook's scripts took Pete and Ian, with his leg in plaster, to Devon for a confrontation that would contain elements of tragedy and farce. Particularly memorable was Ian furiously throwing bricks through the window of the [cottgae], followed by one of his crutches. This episode ended ominously with Ian finding Cindy's father's shotgun and stealing it ... Directed by Matthew Evans, these episodes not only brought the story to a good climax but also laid the roots for the next three months' worth of stories, building up to Wicksy and Cindy's final exit."
Departure and brief return
After five years playing Wicksy Nick Berry quit the role in 1990 and the character was written out in December that year, Berry having been offered a lucrative deal with BBC's rival network, ITV. Berry has since suggested that he left the role as he feared being typecast.
When asked in interviews, Berry has refused to rule out a possible return to Eastenders. In 2001, Berry commented, "Well, they never did kill off Wicksy. Maybe one day, he'll make a dramatic return through the doors of the Queen Vic? Never say never - who knows when I'll need the work..."
Berry was reportedly asked to reprise the role of Simon in 2004 by executive producer Louise Berridge, though a return at this time did not materialise. In 2007, the executive producer of EastEnders, Diederick Santer, stated that Wicksy was the character he would most like to see return to the serial. He commented, "I'd love to see what he's like today. What is this golden boy, who had the world and the women of Walford at his feet, doing now? Has he delivered on his early promise? I loved Nick Berry playing him – Simon was a likeable but complex character. Maybe I should ask him to come back…" He confirmed his desire to get the character back to website Walford Web in 2010, but added that it was not to be; he did not state whether or not Berry had been approached.
On 13 January 2012 Berry made a brief one-off appearance on EastEnders in a scene that aired as part of the episode's end credits, filmed the previous day. It depicted Simon laying flowers at his mother's grave at night — having arrived from New Zealand too late to attend the funeral — and saying goodbye to her before walking off into the darkness, and did not involve any other cast members. Berry was not credited on-screen.
Reception
The character proved popular among fans and Berry became a teen pin-up during his tenure, winning Britain's sexiest man title in 1986. The single Berry released as part of a storyline in the soap reached number one in the charts and was the UK's second highest selling record that year. According to Hilary Kingsley, Berry received the most fan mail out of all the actors in the show.
Kevin O'Sullivan of the Sunday Mirror said that Simon was a "cockney hero". He said his return was a "blast from the distant EastEnders past" and branded it "another dumb stunt". In 2020, Sara Wallis and Ian Hyland from The Daily Mirror placed Simon 60th on their ranked list of the best EastEnders'' characters of all time.
References
External links
Simon Wicks at BBC Online
EastEnders characters
Fictional bartenders
Television characters introduced in 1985
British male characters in television
Beale family (EastEnders) |
4381007 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assam%20Movement | Assam Movement | The Assam Movement (also Anti-Foreigners Agitation) (1979–1985) was a popular uprising in Assam, India, that demanded the Government of India detect, disenfranchise and deport illegal aliens. Led by All Assam Students Union (AASU) and All Assam Gana Sangram Parishad (AAGSP) the movement defined a six-year period of sustained civil disobedience campaigns, political instability and widespread ethnic violence. The movement ended in 1985 with the Assam Accord.
It was known since 1963 that foreign nationals had been improperly added to electoral rolls—and when the draft enrollments in Mangaldoi showed high number of non-citizens in 1979 AASU decided to campaign for thoroughly revised electoral rolls in the entire state of Assam by boycotting the 1980 Lok Sabha election. The Indira Gandhi government that followed could not accept the demands of the movement leaders since it came at considerable political costs and the movement escalated to economic blockades, oppression, violent pogroms and lasting ethnic conflict. The political nature of this movement was heavily debated among scholars in the journal Economic and Political Weekly. The accord became possible under the Rajiv Gandhi ministry when the emphasis was on negotiation and compromise which both sides made, and particularly because Rajiv Gandhi was less concerned with Congress (I)'s electoral fortunes.
The Assam Accord did not solve the problem of foreigners' names in electoral rolls, primarily due to the Illegal Migrants (Determination by Tribunals) Act, 1983 passed by the Indira Gandhi government soon after the disastrous 1983 elections that made it practically impossible to prove anyone in Assam was an illegal alien.
Background
Political Demography of Assam
Assam, a Northeast Indian state, has been the fastest growing region in the Indian subcontinent for much of the 20th century with the population growing six-fold till the 1980s as against less than three-fold for India. Since the natural growth rate of Assam has been found to be less than the national rate, the difference can only be attributed to a net immigration.
Immigration in the 19th century was driven by British colonialism—tribal and low castes were brought in from central India to labour in tea gardens and educated Hindu Bengalis from Bengal to fill administrative and professional positions. The largest group, Muslims peasants from Mymensingh, immigrated after about 1901—and they settled in Goalpara in the first decade and further up the Brahmaputra valley in the next two decades. These major groups were joined by other smaller groups that settled as traders, merchants, bankers, moneylenders, and small industrialists. Yet another community who had settled in Assam were Nepali dairy farmers.
The British dismantled the older Ahom system, made Bengali the official language (Assamese was restored in 1874), and placed Hindu Bengalis in colonial administrative positions. By 1891 one-fourth the population of Assam was of migrant origin. Assamese nationalism, which grew by the beginning of the 20th century, began to look at both the Hindu Bengalis as well as the British as alien rulers. The emerging Assamese literate class aspired to the same positions as those enjoyed by the Bengali Hindus, mostly from Sylhet.
The Bengali Muslims, who came in mainly from Mymensingh, were cultivators who occupied flood plains and cleared forests. They were not in conflict with the Assamese and did not align with the Bengali Hindus. In fact the Assamese elite encouraged their settlement. In the post-partition period as Assamese nationalists tried to dismantle Bengali Hindu dominance from the colonial period the tea garden labourers as well as the Muslim Bengalis supported them. Ever mindful of being the neighbour of the populous and culturally dominant Bengali people, the Assamese were alarmed that immigration not only had continued illegally in the post-independence period but that illegal immigrants were being included in electoral rolls.
Cross-border immigration
Immigration from East Bengal to Assam became cross-border in character following Partition of India—the 1951 census records 274,000 refugees between 1947 and 1951, most of who are estimated to be Hindu Bengalis. On the basis of a natural growth rate, it was estimated that the immigrants numbered 221,000 between 1951 and 1961. In 1971, the surplus over the natural growth was 424,000 and the estimated illegal immigrants from 1971 to 1981 was 1.8 million.
Immigration of Muslims from East Pakistan continued—though they declared India as the birth country and Assamese as their language, they recorded their religion correctly. As the immigration issue was growing the immigrant Muslims from Bengal supported the Assamese language movement—by accepting the Assamese language, supporting the official language act in contrast to the Bengali Hindus who opposed it, and casting their votes for the Congress.
Legal Instruments
The Assam Movement involved a tussle over the determination of immigrants, refugees and citizens as defined in their legal contexts. At the time of the Partition of India in 1947 when British India was divided into India and Pakistan the legal instrument prevalent that determined foreigners was the colonial-era The Foreigners Act, 1946. The law that determined Indian citizenship, The Citizenship Act 1955, was enacted a few years later in the context of the Constitution of India. In addition to these instruments, Assam had the National Register of Citizens for Assam (NRC) which was based on the 1951 census; no other Indian state had a similar document. At that time Assam constituted nearly the entire contiguous Northeast India and included the present-day Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Mizoram and Meghalaya though it did not include Manipur and Tripura.
There were a number of attempts by the government to change the mechanisms of detecting foreigners or the meaning of Indian citizenship. In 1983 the Congress (I) government enacted the Illegal Migrants (Determnation by Tribunal) Act that modified the mechanism of determining foreigners in Assam, while keeping the old mechanism intact in the rest of the country. After the Supreme Court of India declared the Act unconstitutional in 2005, the government attempted to change the mechanism once again the same year, which too was declared unconstitutional the next year. The NRC was revised under the supervision of the Supreme Court of India and the final draft created in 2019. In 2019 the BJP government enacted the Citizenship (Amendment) Act, 2019 which created pathways to citizenship for immigrants of all religions except Islam, and since have refused to accept the draft NRC as a legal document.
Foreigners' Tribunals, 1964
After the 1961 census, the Registrar General of India estimated, with inputs from intelligence reports, that there were about 220,000 "infiltrators" in Assam from East Pakistan. In 1962 the central government devolved its power to detect foreigners in Assam to district police and administrative heads and created Border Police units in some districts. In 1964 the Foreigners (Tribunal) Order was enacted that created a mechanism to verify the citizenship of suspected infiltrators; and though tribunals could be created anywhere in the country, they were used primarily in Assam. At first four tribunals were created—in the undivided districts of Goalpara, Kamrup, Darrang and Nawgong where most infiltrants from East Pakistan were expected to have settled—but by 1968 the number had gone up to nine. In these tribunals the hearings were conducted by a single person, usually a magistrate, an officer who then had both executive and judicial powers. Many of the suspected infiltrators were the illiterate poor and the big landowners, who benefited from the cheap labour they provided, gave them legal aid to defend themselves at the tribunals. Among the many criteria determining the citizenship of the accused, oral affidavits by locally known citizens and inclusion in the electoral rolls were two.
In 1965, during the run up to the Indo-Pakistani war, the Government of India directed the Assam Government to expel Pakistani (later Bangladesh) infiltrators but the implementation had to be given up when a number of Assam legislators threatened to resign. These tribunals were finally shut foen in 1972 on the claim of most infiltrators being caught; and also because after the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971 the adversarial East Pakistan was replaced by Bangladesh, a friendly nation.
Illegal Migrants (Determination by Tribunals) Act, 1983
In the wake of the violence in the 1983 elections, the Indian government, led by Indira Gandhi, enacted the IM(DT) Act. This act was applicable only in Assam, whereas the rest of the country followed The Foreigners Act, 1946—the key difference was that whereas the onus of the proof of citizenship was with the accused, the IMDT Act put the onus of proof on the accuser. The Supreme Court of India repealed it in July 2005 as unconstitutional based on a public interest litigation filled by Sarbananda Sonowal, a former AASU student leader. In response, the Government of India passed the Foreigners (Tribunals for Assam) Order, 2005. This too was set aside by the Supreme Court in 2006.
Foreign nationals in electoral rolls
The Indian Ministry of External Affairs in 1963 reported for the first time that foreigners were being enlisted in Indian voters list by politically interested parties. remarks that ironically the position of the report is remarkably similar to the position taken by the Assam movement leaders at the end of the next decade. In August 1975, the Home Ministry had instructed the state governments to use criminal investigation departments to identify illegal aliens in electoral rolls. In October 1978 S. L. Shakdhar (the then Chief Election Commissioner) declared foreigners' names were being included in electoral rolls in a large scale and that this was done at the demand of political parties—a claim repeated by a cabinet minister in the Rajya Sabha in November 1978.
These reports were noticed in Assam—AASU included "expulsion of foreigners" in their sixteen-point charter of demands in July 1978; and after Shakdher's announcement in October 1978 it called for a three-day program of protest demanding "reservation of 80 percent jobs for locals".
Mangaldoi Lok Sabha by-election, 1979
When the member of parliament from the Mangaldoi constituency died in March 1979 the Election Commission started the process for a by-election and in April 1979 published the draft electoral rolls and ordered a summary revision. Tribunals reviewed a list of about 47,000 doubtful names of which about 36,000 were processed—of these processed names 26,000 names (about 72 percent) were confirmed to be non-citizens. Though the issue of illegal aliens in electoral rolls had been simmering for some years at the national official level, the large numbers at Mangaldoi brought it into sharp public focus and provided the immediate trigger for the Assam Movement—AASU launched its first protest program on 8 June 1979 demanding the "detection, disenfranchisement and deportation" of foreigners.
The review process was opposed by political parties, especially the involvement of the police and the executive (and not judicial) officers, and the Chief Election Commissioner, Shakdhar, halted the activity of the tribunals—the final electoral list of Mangaldoi was never released. The Charan Singh government fell on 20 August 1979, the Lok Sabha was dissolved on 22 August 1979 and since fresh elections were announced the Mangaldoi by-election was cancelled. Shakdhar, who had earlier warned against foreigners' names in the electoral rolls announced a change his position in September 1979 and pushed the revision to after the 1980 general election polls.
Governments and electoral politics, 1979 to 1985
Government of India and Parliament
The Assam Movement began at a time of transition in New Delhi during the Morarji Desai government, the first non-Congress central government in India. Morarji Desai had come to power in 1977 following Indira Gandhi's Emergency after a historic election in which Gandhi lost her membership in parliament. But Indira Gandhi was able to come back to power very soon—in 1978 she split the Congress party to better defend herself and regained membership of the Lok Sabha via a by-election in Chikmagalur, a seat vacated by a party-man; in July 1979 she was able to bring down the Desai government by promising support to Charan Singh, a breakaway leader; a month later she withdrew support to the Charan Singh government necessitating early general elections; and after the general elections in 1980 she became the Prime Minister once again. The 1980 elections were strongly opposed by the Assam Movement leaders, violence erupted, and polls in only 3 of the 14 constituencies could be held. Significantly, Indira Gandhi tried to seek Muslim support in that election by citing the Assam Movement. Indira Gandhi then led the Government of India's administrative and political response to the Assam Movement and negotiated with its leaders. In October 1984 she was assassinated and her son Rajiv Gandhi became the Prime Minister who, having won a landslide victory in the 1984 Indian general election, settled the Assam Movement and a few other conflicts in a flurry of accords.
The Assam Movement successfully scuttled the 1980 Indian general election in Assam except for two constituencies in the Barak Valley; and the 1984 Indian general election elections were not conducted in the state at the same time as the rest of the country—they were conducted alongside the 1985 Assam Legislative Assembly election after the Assam Accord was signed. As a result Assam was largely unrepresented in the entire 7th Lok Sabha and part of the 8th Lok Sabha.
Government of Assam and State Assembly
During the entire duration of the Assam Movement, the Assam state government had been unstable. Even though the electoral backlash against Indira Gandhi in the 1977 general election was not felt in Assam, her party was defeated in the 1978 election and Golap Borbora, a Janata Party leader, became the first non-Congress Chief Minister of Assam; it was a minority government set up with the support of PTCA and independents and outside support of the CPI(M) and other left parties. This government fell in September 1979 as a result of the split in the Janata Party and Jogendra Nath Hazarika became the Chief Minister with the support of the Congress, Congress (I) and the CPI. The Hazarika government too fell, within ninety four days in December 1979, when the Congress withdrew support and President's Rule was imposed for the first time in the state of Assam. Since the President's Rule could not be extended beyond a year Congress (I), originally with only 8 members, was able to attract defections from other parties, obtain the support of the CPI, and form a government in December 1980 under the leadership of Anwara Taimur, the only woman or Muslim to have been a Chief Minister in post-Indian Independence Assam's history. The movement leaders challenged the legitimacy of this government and refused to recognize it. In June 1981 the Anwara Taimur government fell in the state assembly and President's Rule was again imposed. There was another attempt to form a Congress (I) government in January 1982 under Keshab Chandra Gogoi, but it too fell and President's Rule was again imposed in March 1982. After each of the two Congress (I) governments fell, the Congress (I) led central government did not allow non-Congress government formations in the state.
At the end of the assembly term the 1983 Assam Legislative Assembly election was announced amidst expectation that there would be widespread violence and the situation was not conducive for election. The election was boycotted by the movement and a number of opposition political parties did not participate; and polling took place amidst extensive inter-ethnic violence. The Congress (I) won an overwhelming number of seats and Hiteshwar Saikia formed a government. This government had to compete with the movement for legitimacy; this assembly was dismissed prematurely in 1985 as a precondition of the Assam Accord and in the 1985 Assam Legislative Assembly election that followed the movement leaders won a majority.
Parties and positions
AASU and AAGSP basic position
The Assam Movement was led by the All Assam Students Union (AASU) with Prafulla Mahanta (president) and Bhrigu Kumar Phukan (general secretary) as the public faces of it. The movement leadership was augmented by an organisation called All Assam Gana Sangram Parishad (AAGSP) that was constituted in August 1979 by representatives from civic and regional political parties. Even though the relationship of the Assam Movement to the earlier Assamese Language Movement was clear the leadership were careful to kept the issue of language out—instead they staked their claims purely on the basis of population statistics and constitutional rights and presented a set of demands that were secular and constitutionally legitimate. They clearly defined who they considered to be foreigners and tried to project the problem as not local but constitutional. Despite these formal positions and the demands structured around constitutional values, movement leaders did use ethnic themes for political mobilization. The Assam Accord that concluded the Movement, in its Clause 6, called for protection of the "Assamese people".
Congress (I)
Indira Gandhi (Congress (I)), who came to power after the 1980 Indian general election, provided the governmental position. She was the first prime minister to meet with the Movement leaders which she did in Delhi on 2 February 1980. She did not accept the demand to use the NRC 1951 and the Census report of 1952 as the basis for identifying foreigners and suggested 24 March 1971 as the cut-off date instead since she wanted to factor in the Liaquat–Nehru Pact of 8 April 1950 and her own agreement with Sheikh Mujibur Rahman in 1972. The cut-off date became the major stumbling block during the negotiations.
Political Party positions
Phased Developments
The duration of the Assam Movement could be divided into five phases.
Phase I: June 1979 to November 1980
The general strike (a 12-hour bandh) on 8 June 1979, sponsored by the AASU, demanding the "detection, disenfranchisement, and deportation" of foreigners could be considered as the beginning of the Assam Movement. This was followed by the formation of the All Assam Gana Sangram Parishad, an ad hoc coalition of different political and cultural organizations, on 26 August 1979 At the initial stage the protests were peaceful and the movement enjoyed wide popular support especially among the Assamese people as the Satyagraha program from 12 to 17 November 1979 demonstrated when estimated 700,000 in Guwahati and 2 million in the entire state courted voluntary arrests; but by the end of November, the initial optimism of a negotiated settlement gave way to pessimism.
The AASU leadership decided to oppose the 1980 general elections in Assam without a revision of the rolls. On 26 November a delegation of 17 student leaders submitted a memorandum to the President Neelam Sanjiva Reddy to stall the election, and the Home Minister held a meeting two days later to discuss the issue with opposition leaders and the Assam Chief Minister, but there was no solution. On 27 November 1979 AASU-AAGSP escalated the protests and called for the closure of all educational institutes and picketing in state and central government offices. In December 1979, the civil disobedience was extended with an economic blockade of crude oil and plywood. Nevertheless, neither the civil disobedience nor the economic blockade created any major confrontation between the agitators and the state since the movement had wide support among the state government officials.
General Election, 1980
On 2 December 1979 Shakdar, the CEC, decided to go ahead with polling in Assam with the claim that the rolls for 110 of the 126 Assembly constituencies were ready and those for the rest will be ready the next day. Mass picketing was arranged in front of all polling offices where candidate filed their nominations, in the first week of December 1979. No candidates were allowed to file nomination papers in the Brahmaputra valley. On 10 December, the last date for submitting the nomination papers, was declared as a statewide bandh. The government proclaimed a curfew at different parts of the state, including the major city of Guwahati.
At Barpeta, then IGP K.P.S. Gill led the police force in escorting Begam Abida Ahmed to file nomination papers; they attacked protestors. Khargeswar Talukdar, the 22-year-old general secretary of Barpeta AASU Unit, was beaten to death and thrown into a ditch next to the highway at Bhabanipur. Talukdar was honoured by the Assam Movement as its first Martyr. The Hazarika government was dismissed and President's Rule was imposed on 12 December 1979.
Elections were held in only two of the fourteen Lok Sabha Constituencies in the 1980 Indian general election: Karimganj and Silchar.
Phase II: December 1980 to January 1983
On 7 October 1982, while leading a procession from Nagaon to Hojai in support of a bandh called by the All Assam Students Union, Anil Bora was beaten to death at Hojai by people who opposed the bandh as well as the Movement.
Phase III: Election of 1983
This was a very critical and consequential period not only for the movement, but for the subsequent times as well. The Indira Gandhi-led government imposed assembly elections in the state as a challenge to the movement leading to widespread ethnic violence and breakdown of political order. The two-month old Keshab Gogoi government had fallen and the assembly dissolved on 19 March 1982, and under the then constitutional rules, a fresh election had to be held within a year. An amendment to the constitution to allow the maximum allowed period of President's Rule to two years, which required a two-third majority in Parliament to pass, was discussed but the effort was abandoned due to a lack of political alignment of the Congress (I), the left, and the opposition parties. By December 1982 there had been twenty-three rounds of talks between the government and the movement leaders to resolve the issue of identifying foreigners' names in electoral rolls; but the two parties found the biggest point of contention was the cut-off date to identify them.
In a conversation with journalist Shekhar Gupta in December 1982 the electoral campaign manager of the Congress (I), Rajesh Pilot, stated that the government intended to hold elections to politically finish the movement leaders.
Election and boycott
Even as the AASU-AAGSP leadership was returning to Guwahati on 6 January 1983 from yet another failed talk at New Delhi, the government announced that elections will be held with staggered polling on 14, 17, and 20 February 1983. The election was to use the unchanged 1979 electoral rolls—which meant the electoral rolls were corrected neither on the basis of 1951 which the movement leaders wanted nor on the basis of 1971 which the government was ready to accept; and it did not incorporate the names of those who had come of age to vote after 1979; though the Supreme Court of India ruled in 1984 that the 1979 electoral rolls were legally valid. The AASU-AAGSP leaders were arrested when they landed at the Guwahati airport, and the Government of Assam imposed censorship on two local newspapers that supported the movement. The issue for this election was to primarily hold the elections with the expectation that a moderate to high polling rate would weaken the movement; and the movement leaders boycotted the elections. A private citizen challenged the elections in the Gauhati High Court on the argument that the 1979 electoral rolls were not available to the public, as required, but the government was able to avert legal intervention by advancing the election notification.
Nagen Sarma and Nurul Hussain temporarily replaced the AASU leaders arrested on 6 January, and they along with the All Guwahati Students' Union and the All Kamrup District Students' Union organised the anti-election campaign. Besides Congress (I), the Left Democratic Alliance (Congress (S), CPI(M), CPI, RCPI, SUCI and RSP) and the PTCA decided to participate in the elections. The two Lok Dal factions, the Bharatiya Janata Party and the Janata Party, on the other hand, did not participate. The movement leaders decided to frame the elections as a do or die phase, calling the boycott "Assam's last struggle for survival", and used all means to stop the elections. They had the support not only of the extremist student activists, but also the majority of the local Assamese citizens. The movement leaders were thus able to revive the movement which had stagnated from 1981 to 1982.
Nomination, Campaign and Polling
The boycott program during the nomination period included blocking access to nominating centers by the general public, and local administration officers too agreed to a call to stay away from their duties. The government was aware of the possibility of poll disruption and violation and staggered the polling over three days; and it brought in 8000 officers from other states, additional battalions from CRPF, Haryana, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, BSF and Home Guards for a total of 150,000 armed personnel—one armed man for every 57 voters. The protests against the election were widespread and included road blockages, bridge burning, kidnapping, attacks on election candidates their relatives, political workers, and poll officers.
The political party leaders made inflammatory speeches during the campaign—the railway minister Ghani Khan Choudhury from Congress appealed to the Bengali Muslim immigrants to retaliate in kind to violence, and Atal Bihari Vajpayee warned of dire consequences if elections were held. On 10 February, Indira Gandhi warned the immigrant Muslim community in the then Nagaon district that if they did not vote for Congress they would have to leave the state.
Inter-group violence
The pro- vs anti- election violence eventually led to complete breakdown of ethnic amity beyond mere Assamese-Bengali or Hindu-Muslim divide where every group clashed against every other group: at Nellie (Tiwas against immigrant Muslims); Kokrajhar (Boro Kacharis against Bengali Hindus and Muslims); Goreswar and Khoirabari (Sarania and Boro against Bengali Hindus); Gohpur (Boro against Assamese Hindus); Dhemaji and Jonai (Mising tribals against Bengali Hindus and Muslims); Samaguri (Muslims against Hindus); Dhaila and Thekrabari (Muslims against Hindus); Chaowlkhowa Chapori (Assamese Hindus and Muslims against Bengali Muslims). On 18 February 1983, during the Nellie massacre, a mob — primarily composed of indigenous Tiwas and semi-indigenous lower caste Hindus — killed thousands of suspected muslim immigrants, in 14 villages in Nagaon district.
Phase IV: March 1983 to May 1984
Phase V: June 1984 to December 1985
See also
Assamese language movement
Notes
References
1979 establishments in Assam
1985 disestablishments in India
1970s in Assam
1980s in Assam
Conflicts in 1979
1980s conflicts
20th-century rebellions
Asom Gana Parishad
Assamese nationalism
Protests in India
Rebellions in India
Anti-immigration politics in Asia
Bangladesh–India relations |
4381244 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1st%20Operations%20Group | 1st Operations Group | The 1st Operations Group (1 OG) is the flying component of the 1st Fighter Wing, assigned to the USAF Air Combat Command. The group is stationed at Langley Air Force Base, Virginia. The 1st Operations Group is the oldest major air combat unit in the United States Air Force, being the successor organization of the 1st Pursuit Group. The 1st Pursuit Group was the first air combat group formed by the Air Service, American Expeditionary Force, on 5 May 1918.
The Group was first organized at Croix de Metz Aerodrome, near Toul, France, as a result of the United States entry into World War I. As the 1st Pursuit Group it saw combat on the Western Front in France, and during World War II as the 1st Fighter Group combat in the Mediterranean Theater of Operations. Pilots of the 1st Group are credited by the USAF with destroying 554.33 aircraft and 50 balloons, and 36 pilots are recognized as being aces.
The pilots of the 1st Group included Captain Eddie Rickenbacker, credited as the top scoring American ace in France during World War I. During World War II, the 1st FG was among the first groups deployed overseas in the summer of 1942. The group flew missions in England as part of the Eighth Air Force, then was transferred to North Africa in November 1942. It experienced significant combat as part of the Twelfth Air Force, moved to Italy, and became part of the fighter force of the Fifteenth Air Force. The 1st FG was equipped with the first operational U.S. jet fighter aircraft, the P-80A Shooting Star, in 1946.
Inactivated in 1961, after 30 years the group was renamed the 1st Operations Group (OG) and activated on 1 October 1991 as a result of the 1st Fighter Wing implementing the USAF objective wing organization. In 2005, the 1st OG was the first operational combat unit to receive the F-22A Raptor, a fifth generation fighter aircraft that uses stealth technology.
Overview
The 1st OG directs the training and employment of two F-22A Raptor air dominance squadrons and an operations support squadron. The group's flying squadrons maintain 36 F-22 air superiority fighter aircraft.
The group is responsible for 300 people and $3 billion in resources.
In addition to carrying out local training requirements, the group deploys personnel and equipment on a regular basis to support air expeditionary operations worldwide as part of the Global War on Terrorism.
Units
The 1st Operations Group consists of the following component squadrons:
7th Fighter Training Squadron (T-38C)
27th Fighter Squadron (F-22A)
The 27th Fighter Squadron (FS) is one of the oldest fighter squadrons in the Air Force, being first organized on 15 June 1917. The 27th FS is tasked to provide air superiority for United States or allied forces by engaging and destroying enemy forces, equipment, defenses or installations for global deployment.
71st Fighter Squadron (F-22A) Formal Training Unit for F-22A pilots
94th Fighter Squadron (F-22A)
The 94th FS is another of the oldest fighter squadrons in the Air Force, being first organized on 20 August 1917. The 94th FS is tasked to provide air superiority for the United States or allied forces by engaging and destroying enemy forces, equipment, defenses or installations for global deployment.
1st Operations Support Squadron
The 1st Operations Support Squadron, which traces its history to the World War II 1st Airdrome Detachment, is responsible for all facets of airfield operations, air traffic control, weather, aircrew life support and training, intelligence analysis and support, weapons and tactics training, 1st FW battle staff operations, airspace scheduling, range operations and wing flying hour program for three fighter squadrons.
History
World War I
When first deployed to France, the Aero Squadrons of the American Expeditionary Force (AEF) were dispersed among the various army organizations. This made it difficult, however, to coordinate aerial activities. Some higher organization was required.
Origins
The 94th and 95th Aero Squadrons had trained and traveled together since their organization on 20 August 1917 at Kelly Field, Texas. When the two squadrons boarded a train at Kelly Field on 20 September 1917 for the trip to Mineola, New York, they consisted entirely of the enlisted echelon that would form the squadron's ground support element. Arriving at Mineola on 5 October, the squadrons reported directly to Aviation Mobilization Camp No. 2. Each unit completed training there in about three weeks and proceeded to Pier No. 45, Hoboken, New Jersey where, on 27 October 1917, it boarded the Cunard liner for the trip to Europe.
The two squadrons arrived at Liverpool on 10 November, spent about fourteen hours in a rest camp, boarded a steamer at Southampton, and sailed for France on 12 November. The 94th and 95th entered camp at Le Havre the next day, but their travels were not quite over. On 15 November the 95th moved to the 3d Aviation Training Center at Issoudun Aerodrome.
On 18 November the 94th moved to the 1st Aviation Training Center at Paris, where it divided into seven detachments that immediately began advanced maintenance training in the region's airframe and aero-engine plants. The 94th reassembled in Paris and departed for Issoudun on 24 January 1918.
After the 95th's personnel arrived at Issoudun in November, they received advanced training on the same types of aircraft they would operate at the front. The 95th thus found itself well along in its training when the 1st Pursuit Organization and Training Center announced its readiness to receive units in mid-February, and it became the first unit to be attached to the center. The 94th made good progress at Issoudun, however, and it reported to
Villeneuve not long after the 95th.
1st Pursuit Organization Center
On 16 January 1918, Brig. General Benjamin Foulois, Chief of Air Service, AEF, assigned Major Bert M. Atkinson to command of the 1st Pursuit Organization and Training Center, a temporary administrative and training organization for arriving U.S. pursuit squadrons on 16 January 1918 in Paris. Headquarters for the new unit was designated to be located at Villeneuve-les-Vertus Aerodrome. The command staff left Paris and selected a site for its headquarters adjoining that of the Groupe de Combat No 12 of the French Aeronautique Militaire at Vertus, near the airfield.
The initial task of the unit was to erect barracks for arriving personnel from the United States; obtaining hangar space from the French; and obtaining airplanes. The 95th Aero Squadron arrived on 19 February from the 3d Instructional Center at Issoudun Aerodrome, however the squadron's aircraft had not yet arrived. On 28 February word was received that the 94th Aero Squadron would be leaving Issoudun on 1 March. Bad weather with heavy sleet and snow inhibited the arrival of Nieuport 28 airplanes for the group, and the first elements of the 94th Squadron arrived on 5 March. The next day, two Nieuports arrived and by 8 March a total of sixteen aircraft were at the airfield and the squadrons began training and familiarization flights. The planes received, however, were unarmed due to a lack of machine guns due to the difference of American ammunition, which was 3mm longer than the French.
The first combat patrol by the 95th Squadron was made on 15 March, consisting of three unarmed Nieuport 28 planes and one French pilot in a SPAD took off from the airfield at 11:30. A second patrol was carried out in the afternoon to carry out a barrage of the Marne between Chalons and Eppernay. Continuous German air raids in the vicinity of Vetrus led to the digging of zigzag trenches on the Aerodrome and falling shrapnel was a hazard from the French anti-aircraft guns. Patrols continued to be carried out by the French, but none of the accompanying American planes were armed.
Due to the lack of armed aircraft, sixteen pilots of the 95th were ordered back to Issoudun to take the course in aerial gunnery. On 30 March orders were received that both squadrons were to proceed at once to Epiez Aerodrome (Meuse) where the squadrons flew combat patrols, although bad weather limited the number of patrols carried out. On 9 April the 94th was detached from the group and was moved to Toul where it acted independently until it became part of the 1st Pursuit Group on 4 May. On 14 April, the first of many enemy aircraft was brought down by the 94th Squadron, being the first American Air Service organization to bring down an enemy plane. Combat patrols by the 94th on 23 and 25 April also shot down one enemy aircraft on each. On 29 April, Captain Hall and Lt. Rickenbacker attacked and brought down an enemy aircraft. This was Lt. Rickenbacker's first official patrol. During the period prior to the formation of the 1st Pursuit Group in May, the 94th brought down a total of nine enemy aircraft. One pilot, Lt Chapman was killed and one pilot became a POW, Captain Hall.
On 22 April the 147th Aero Squadron arrived and on 24 April the 27th Aero Squadron arrived. Also the pilots of the 95th squadron returned from Issoudun. Reconnaissance patrols were carried out, however word was received that no flights over the Voil-Toul line would be permitted. on 4 May the 95th Squadron was moved to the Croix de Metz Aerodrome (Toul) where it joined the 94th Squadron which has been moved there from Epiez. The 27th and 147th were moved to Epiez. Group Headquarters was moved to Toul on 4 May.
1st Pursuit Group
On 5 May 1918, the AEF replaced the 1st Pursuit Organization Center at Toul-Croix de Metz Aerodrome, with the 1st Pursuit Group, the first American group-level fighter establishment (the 1st Corps Observation Group, organized in April 1918, was the first U.S. group). Major Atkinson became the 1st Pursuit Group's first commanding officer, followed by Major Harold E. Hartney on 21 August 1918. The 27th and 147th Aero Squadrons (Pursuit) were officially assigned to the group on 2 June, and the 185th Aero Squadron, a night pursuit unit, on 18 October.
Second Battle of the Marne
Upon its formation, the 1st Pursuit Group was equipped with Nieuport 28s.
On 15 May, Captain David McK Peterson of the 95th squadron brought down two Enemy Aircraft. These were the first to be recorded in the records of the Group. Towards the end of June, the need for air support on the Château-Thierry front was critical due to the Germans breaking through the line. On the 28th, the group moved to Touquin Aerodrome, where the group was vigorously effective. During the weeks to follow in the Second Battle of the Marne, the group took the offensive on all points and was engaged continually in aerial combat in the Dormans-Eloup sector. Losses were heavy, however 38 victories were recorded while losing 36 pilots. This was the first real test of American airpower in the war.
On 5 July the group switched from Nieuports to SPAD XIIIs. The 94th switched over first, then by the middle of August the other three squadrons were also converted. Unfortunately, the American mechanics were unused to the V-8 engines of the Spads and so availability of the Spads suffered for the first few weeks after the changeover. On 9 July the group moved closer to the line at Saints Aerodrome. It is while stationed at Saints Aerodrome that Theodore Roosevelt's youngest son Quentin Roosevelt, flying with the 95th Aero Squadron, was shot down and killed on 14 July 1918. With the front moving north and east, the Group was now between 50 and 70 km from the lines. An advanced landing field at Coincy Aerodrome was established on 5 August for refueling and a detachment was established there from which alerts were dispatched.
Battle of Saint-Mihiel
On 31 August the group began moving to Rembercourt Aerodrome, a new airfield in the Saint-Mihiel sector. On 12 September the Saint-Mihiel Offensive started. The group was given orders to fly low and attack enemy targets on the ground, a very dangerous mission that exposed the pilots to ground fire. A number of the pilots became experts in balloon strafing, and Lt Luke of the 27th shot down fifteen enemy balloons in seventeen days. During the offensive, the group began patrols before daybreak, and kept up a constant barrage each day until after dark at night. Patrols were constantly engaging in low-level aerial battles with enemy reconnaissance and large formations of Fokker pursuit aircraft. The group kept up an incessant barrage over and above the ground forces and claimed thirty-four victories while losing one pilot.
In late September, a flight of the 27th Squadron was sent to an advanced airfield at Verdun. This flight worked on alerts and protection of Allied balloons. The Group patrolled a new sector near Watronville on the east of the Argonne forest flying low-level attacks while the Infantry advanced through the sector. Reconnaissance was flown over the enemy rear areas to secure important information about his bridges, road and troop activity.
Night Patrols
On 7 October, the 185th Aero Squadron was assigned to the Group, equipped with British Sopwith Camel F.1s. Its duties were to attack a line of searchlights and attack enemy night bombers. This was the first attempt at night flying attack patrols by the American Air Service. Enemy searchlights were attacked and patrols were flown where German bombers were known to cross the line at night. Adverse weather limited the effectiveness of the squadron, however the 185th engaged in five combats, however did not bring down any enemy bombers.
Meuse-Argonne Offensive
In the last great offensive of the war, the infantry continued its advance. The Group's sector advanced and lengthened considerably. On one day, 22d October, the group flew 84 Sorties with a total of 104 flying hours. Sixteen combats were engaged in, shooting down seven enemy aircraft. On 11 November news was received that the Armistice was formally signed.
Summary
From May until 11 November armistice, the Group recorded 1,413 aerial engagements, accumulating 151.83 confirmed kills of enemy aircraft, and 50 confirmed balloon victories. Nineteen of its pilots – five from each pursuit squadron except the 27th – were recognized as "aces". For its participation, the 1st received seven campaign streamers.
Two of the four pilots earning the Medal of Honor for actions during World War I were members of the 1st Pursuit Group: 2Lt Frank Luke Jr. and Captain Edward V. "Eddie" Rickenbacker.
Lieutenant Luke of the 27th Squadron during September became the American Ace of Aces for the time being. From 12 to 29 September he gained eighteen victories. He shot down fifteen balloons and three planes. Joining the Group on 1 August, he had gained one victory on the Chateau Therry front which never was made official. On 18 September, he brought down two balloons and three planes in a period of less than 10 minutes. On 29 September, he was reported missing in action. He had dropped a note to one of our balloons asking them to be on the watch for burning balloons. Twenty minutes later he burned three enemy balloons but did not return from his mission.
Captain Rickenbacker, commanding officer of the 94th Squadron, became an Ace on the Toul sector in the spring of 1918. When the group moved to Rembercourt Aerodrome, Captain Rickenbacker made the 94th Squadron the leading American Fighting Squadron in number of aerial victories gained. From the period 14 September – 11 November he brought down twenty more official enemy aircraft.
On 10 December 1918, orders were received relieving the First Pursuit Group from First Army with instructions to report to Commanding Officer, First Air Depot, Colombey-les-Belles Airdrome for demobilization.
SOURCES:
Air Service duty
The end of World War I was followed immediately by a massive demobilization of the U.S. Army Air Service, both in reduction of personnel and dissolution of air units, including the 1st Pursuit Group, demobilized 24 December 1918. A new 1st Pursuit Group began to be formed on 10 June 1919, at Selfridge Field, Michigan, and became an active part of the Air Service on 22 August 1919, consisting of the 27th, 94th, 95th and 147th Aero Squadrons (Pursuit), and the 2nd Air Park (later the 57th Service Squadron). The new 1st Pursuit Group, as part of the 1st Wing, moved to Kelly Field, Texas, on 31 August 1919, and Ellington Field, Texas, on 30 June 1921. There, the 94th Aero Squadron operated the Pursuit Training School. The 1st Pursuit Group returned to Selfridge on 14 June 1922, as part of the Sixth Corps Area, where it remained until World War II.
The designation of the Aero Squadrons was changed to "Squadrons (Pursuit)" on 15 March 1921 The 147th Aero Squadron became the 17th Squadron (Pursuit) on 31 March. All were renamed "Pursuit Squadrons" on 25 January 1923. The 2nd Air Park was renamed the 57th Service Squadron on 2 January 1923. In 1924 the original 1st Pursuit Group was reconstituted and consolidated with the active group formed in 1919. Two squadrons were transferred from the group, the 95th (1927) and the 17th (1940), replaced on 1 January 1941, by the 71st Pursuit Squadron. The 27th, 71st, and 94th Squadrons became the permanently assigned components of the group and wing. In December 1939 the group was redesignated 1st Pursuit Group (Interceptor), and in May 1941, 1st Pursuit Group (Fighter).
During the 1920s the group conducted pursuit training, tested new aircraft, participated in maneuvers and mobilization tests, conducted annual cold weather testing, gave demonstrations for other units, participated in civil airport dedications, and competed in the National Air Races each autumn. In 1922 Selfridge hosted the event. Captain Burt E. Skeel, commander of the 27th Pursuit Squadron, was killed 4 October 1924, in the crash of a Verville-Sperry R-3 at Wright Field, Dayton, Ohio, at the start of Pulitzer Trophy event of the 1924 Races.
The group changed aircraft frequently during its service between wars, as new types were developed and older models became outdated. It began its service flying Curtiss JNS, SE-5, and Fokker D.VII fighters left over from the First World War. From 1922 to 1925 it operated primarily MB-3A fighters. In 1925 it acquired Curtiss PW-8s for use by the 17th Pursuit Squadron, in 1926 Curtiss P-1 Hawks (a derivative of the PW-8), and in 1929 Boeing P-12s. Throughout this period each squadron often operated a different fighter type from the others.
Winter flying was conducted each February at Camp Skeel at Oscoda, Michigan, although in January 1927 the group instead sent a detachment to Ottawa, Ontario. In January 1929 the group conducted a lengthy search and rescue operation for a missing person in Petoskey, Michigan; and in January 1930 flew a squadron to Spokane, Washington, and back by way of North Dakota and Montana. Temperatures during the Petoskey rescue reached , disabling the aircraft engines. A local cement company extended a steam hose to thaw engine oil and other components, enabling the aircraft to operate.
The use of airpower demonstrations and participation in the dedication of civil airports to publicize the Air Corps reached its peak in 1929, when units of the 1st Pursuit Group participated in 24 airport dedications and 8 demonstrations. It garnered favorable publicity in other ways, however, using bombs to break up an ice jam on the Clinton River on 24 February 1925, and escorting Charles Lindbergh to Canada in 1927.
On 21 January 1924, the Adjutant General approved the 1st Pursuit Group's emblem, designed with the unit's history as its basis. The green and black colors represent the colors of the Army Air Service, the five stripes signify the original five flying squadrons, and the five crosses symbolized the five major World War I campaigns credited to the group. A crest above the shield bore the Group's Latin motto "Aut Vincere Aut Mori" (translation: "Conquer or Die"). In 1957, the emblem was revised, with the crest removed and the motto placed in a scroll beneath the shield, now assigned to the 1st Tactical Fighter Wing.
Army Air Corps service
The Air Corps Act of 1926, drafted by Chief of Air Service Mason Patrick and passed in part due to the controversies involving Billy Mitchell and in part to the recommendations of the Morrow Board, replaced the Air Service with the U.S. Army Air Corps. The Act authorized a 5-year plan for expansion and modernization of the Air Corps, still consisting of the original 6 groups, with the 1st the only pursuit group.
Resistance by the Coolidge administration to implementation of the plan for economic reasons, followed by the onset of the Great Depression severely limited the expansion. The 1st Group experienced restriction on its training operations and curtailment of personnel salaries. Officers were detached for duty with the Civilian Conservation Corps at varied intervals. However the Air Corps was able to expand from 6 to 14 groups in its first decade of existence, half of which were new pursuit groups. The 1st Pursuit Group trained individual squadrons at Selfridge and provided experienced cadres to the formation of these groups.
From February to June 1934 the 1st Pursuit Group delivered the mail in the north central United States under an executive order of President Franklin Roosevelt (see Air Mail scandal). Original orders called for 35 pilots and 16 aircraft to be detached for mail service, but the Curtiss P-6 Hawk and Boeing P-12 fighters detailed had insufficient cargo capacity potential. Ultimately 56 pilots were listed in group records as detached for mail service, and approximately half the group's 70 aircraft were involved. Six were involved in crashes in the first week, struggling through severe winter weather in Ohio, including one fatality on the first day. Altogether twelve aircraft were lost in eleven crashes, with one pilot and one enlisted man killed, and four pilots and one mechanic injured.
On 1 March 1935, all operational flying units, previously assigned to corps-level ground commands, were consolidated under a new centralized air force command named General Headquarters, Air Force. GHQ Air Force was divided into three wings, and the 1st Pursuit Group became part of the 2nd Wing.
In 1937 the group received its first enclosed cockpit, monoplane fighter with retractable landing gear, the Seversky P-35, replacing P-26s and PB-2As. The P-35 was obsolete from the beginning of its operational history and replacement by the Republic P-43 Lancer began in 1940. This fighter too was unsuitable for modern combat, and preparations for the possibility of U.S. participation in the Second World War introduced the 1st Pursuit Group to the new P-38 Lightning in July 1941, with the 27th Pursuit Squadron receiving the first operational aircraft in the Army Air Force's inventory.
1st Pursuit Group Commanders
1st Fighter Group in World War II
On the date the United States entered World War II the 94th Pursuit Squadron was in El Paso, Texas, its 20 P-38s en route from Selfridge Field to March Field, California. The 27th and 71st squadrons were immediately sent with an additional 12 P-38s and 24 P-43 fighters to March Field to provide the West Coast air defense against Japanese attack.
During its brief duty at March Field the Group provided cadre for newly mobilized fighter groups, losing over half of its assigned officers and enlisted men, but still made preparations for deployment to Europe on 25 April 1942. Before its departure, however, retired captain Eddie Rickenbacker made the first of several visits to the group both at home and abroad during World War II, listened to the Group's concerns and reported them to General "Hap" Arnold. Rickenbacker also worked with Arnold to reinstate the hat-in-the ring emblem, absent since Rickenbacker himself claimed the right to it when he retired, back to the 94th Fighter Squadron.
In 1942, U.S. war policy placed first priority with the war in Europe. VIII Fighter Command Special Orders 46, dated 25 June 1942, deployed 86 aircraft and pilots of the newly designated 1st Fighter Group to England as part of Operation Bolero, with the first aircraft departing on 27 June. Flights of P-38s were led by individual B-17s from the 97th Bomb Group navigating the route between Presque Isle, Maine, Labrador, Greenland and Iceland. En route the 27th Fighter Squadron was detached at "Indigo" airfield, Reykjavík, Iceland, for air defense duty in July and August. On 15 July 1942, six fighters from the 94th FS, "Tomcat Yellow" and "Tomcat Green", and their two B-17 escorts were forced by bad weather and low fuel to land on a glacier in Greenland. The crews were all recovered safely but the aircraft were abandoned.
Group headquarters and the 71st Fighter Squadron were based at RAF Goxhill, near Kingston upon Hull, and the 94th FS at Kirton in Lindsey. The 27th flew to England on 27 August after the group had moved south to Ibsley, and was based at High Ercall. During the late summer of 1942, the 1st FG flew training, escort and fighter sweeps over German-occupied France. The group experienced its first combat loss on 2 October 1942, when a P-38F escorting B-17 Flying Fortress bombers on a mission to Méaulte, France, was shot down by a German fighter of JG 26 near Calais, and 2nd Lt. William H. Young was killed in action.
The fighter and bomber groups initially deployed to England (97th and 301st Bomb Groups, and 1st, 14th, 31st, and 52nd Fighter Groups) were reassigned to support Operation Torch and redeployed to North Africa. While in transit, two 94th FS Lightnings were forced by mechanical difficulties to land in neutral Portugal, where the aircraft were confiscated and the pilots interned. However 1st Lt. Jack Ilfrey escaped, returned to the group, and became one of its leading aces. 1st Lt. Robert N. Chenoweth was killed when his P-38, on a ferry flight from the UK to North Africa, crashed into a mountain at Ortigueira, Corunna, Spain, on 15 November 1942. By 13 November 1942, the group completed the move to Algeria, where they provided close air support and fighter protection against the Afrika Korps.
On 29 November 1942, the 94th Fighter Squadron flew the group's first combat sorties in the Mediterranean theater, strafing a German airfield and recording several aerial victories. However, as the year came to a close, the group's morale sagged. Though the move from England to the desert environment added sometimes 200–300 hours to the life of the liquid-cooled Allisons, few replacement parts and virtually no replacement aircraft were available. Col. Clifford R. Silliman, in charge of Lightning maintenance and repairs for the 1st, 12th and 14th fighter groups, recalled that no hangars, machine shops or service bays were available, forcing ground crews to make repairs in the open air. Crewmen were exposed not only to attack but to virtually incessant blowing sand and dust that continually fouled filters, breathers and lubricants. The searing sun was so intense that mechanics were unable to as much as touch the aluminum surfaces of the fuselage, wings and cowlings with exposed skin, Silliman said. The grating sand found its way not only into engine components and weapons but crewmens' bedding, footwear, clothing, hair, eyes and even their teeth. Pilots recorded some kills, but the loss ratio in air-to-air combat was even at best. For nearly a year, the group moved throughout Algeria and Tunisia, flying bomber escort and providing air coverage for the ground campaign. On 23 February 1943, the group began two days of low-level strafing missions in support of hard-pressed Allied troops at Kasserine Pass, losing several aircraft.
In April 1943 the Germans made several concerted attempts to reinforce the Afrika Korps using Ju 52 transports flown at wavetop level over the Mediterranean Sea, resulting in a series of interceptions by Allied aircraft and large numbers of transports destroyed. On 5 April, pilots of the 27th FS shot down 11, plus four Ju 87 Stukas and two Bf 109 escorts, losing two Lightnings. On 10 April, the 71st FS intercepted another large force escorted by 15 Macchi 200 and Fw 190 fighters, shooting down 20 transports and 8 of the escorts without loss to itself. The North African campaign ended with the capture of Tunis on 7 May 1943.
Markings and squadron codes
In 1943 the squadrons of the 1st Fighter Group began to apply distinctive colors to their tailbooms, wingtips and propeller tips for rapid unit identification. This was in addition to the fuselage letter codes assigned to the group by the Eighth Air Force which it continued to use when reassigned to the Twelfth Air Force in November 1942. The 27th FS used red (squadron code HV, radio callsign PETDOG), the 71st FS used white (squadron code LM, callsign CRAGMORE), and the 94th FS used yellow (squadron code UN, callsign SPRINGCAP). When the group began receiving P-38s in an unpainted aluminium finish in the spring of 1944, the 71st changed its color to black. Red spinners were also introduced sometime in 1944 to the entire group. During the time of the North Africa invasion, the national insignia was outlined in yellow, replaced by a star-and-bar outlined in red in early 1943. From May 1943 on the standard star-and-bar national insignia was used.
Italian operations
Six months of continuous combat in North Africa was followed by a short break, flying reconnaissance and escort missions around the Mediterranean. The respite ended on 15 August 1943, as air attacks increased against southern Italy in preparation for landings at Salerno. On 25 August, the 1st FG launched 65 P-38s, and joined with 85 other fighters, conducted a fighter-bomber attack against the airfield complex at Foggia. In addition to strafing ground targets, pilots of the 1st FG damaged or destroyed 88 German aircraft, with a loss of two P-38s. For this mission, the group received its first Distinguished Unit Citation (DUC). Five days later, on 30 August, the 1st Fighter Group earned its second DUC. The group flew 44 aircraft in escorting B-26 bombers to the railroad marshalling yards at Aversa, Italy, and were opposed by approximately 75–100 German fighters. Outnumbered two to one, the group engaged the Luftwaffe for 40 minutes, enabling the bombers to strike their target and return to base without loss, but in doing so lost 13 fighters themselves, with 10 pilots killed.
The 1st Fighter Group became part of the newly created Fifteenth Air Force in December 1943 and moved to Italy, temporarily based at several airfields until its base at Salsola Airfield was ready on 8 January 1944. Living and supply conditions improved for the airmen, who received new P-38Js in the spring. On 16 April 1944, the group flew its 1,000th combat mission.
The 1st Fighter Group received its third DUC for an escort mission on 18 May 1944. Assigned to escort the force of 700 B-17 and B-24 bombers to the oil refineries at Ploieşti, Romania, bad weather caused roughly half the bombers to abort the mission. The 1st Fighter Group continued through the heavy weather to support B-17s that continued to the target and engaged 80 Luftwaffe and Romanian fighters attacking the Flying Fortresses. The group's 48 P-38s shot down and damaged nearly 20 aircraft for a loss of one P-38, and drove off the rest.
The minimal effect of high altitude bombing raids on the Ploieşti refineries prompted Fifteenth Air Force planners on 10 June 1944, to lay on a low level dive bombing attack by 48 P-38s of the 82nd Fighter Group and 45 of 1st FG. Mechanical turnbacks reduced the force by 21 aircraft, nine from the 1st Group. En route to the target much of the 1st FG was separated from the main force by a navigational error. Part of the 71st Fighter Squadron observed and attacked 6 Dornier 217 bombers but underestimated the numbers of Romanian IAR 80s escorting the bombers. Although six fighters and two bombers were credited as shot down, the 71st lost 9 Lightnings. When the 82nd FG arrived in the target area, along with the 27th Fighter Squadron and one flight of the 71st, they found the Ploieşti defense forces fully alert and a protective smoke screen concealing the targets. Flak shot down 7 P-38s during the attack, and 2 more were lost in strafing attacks on the return to Italy. After the attack, the 27th Fighter Squadron engaged 30–40 Bf 109s, claiming 4 destroyed, 2 probables, and 4 damaged, but lost 4 P-38s in the engagement. In all, the 1st Fighter Group had 14 P-38s shot down, its heaviest single day loss of the war, while claiming 18 kills, including five by a 71st pilot, 1st Lt. Herbert Hatch. The 82nd FG lost an additional 8 Lightnings.
From 10 to 21 August 1944, the 94th Fighter Squadron deployed sixty Lightnings to Aghione, Corsica, providing air support for the Allied invasion of Southern France. On an escort of a photo reconnaissance mission to Munich on 26 November 1944, the group lost an aircraft and pilot to an Me 262 jet.
The group's last major operation of the war came between 16 January and 19 February 1945. Under Operation Argonaut, the 1st FG escorted British and American delegations to the Yalta Conference, deploying 51 P-38's to protect the ships and aircraft carrying President Franklin D. Roosevelt, Prime Minister Winston Churchill, and their aides to and from the Crimea. The group changed bases shortly after its return to combat operations, moving to Lesina. There the 1st Fighter Group received two YP-80A jet fighters (serials 44-83028 and 44-83029) sent to the theater for operational testing ("Project Extraversion"). Although the jets were marked for combat operations with easily identifiable tail stripes and the letters 'A' and 'B' on their noses, and flown on two operational sorties by the 94th FS, neither saw combat before the end of the war.
On 15 April 1945, the 27th Fighter Squadron, which had scored the 1st Fighter Group's first kill of the war, also recorded the group's last aerial victory of World War II, during a mission in which 5 Lightnings were shot down strafing German airfields, with 4 pilots killed. Its final combat losses occurred on 23 April 1945, when three aircraft were shot down and a pilot, Capt. Clarence I. Knapp, killed in action.
During nearly three years of combat flying, from 31 August 1942, to 6 May 1945, the 1st Fighter Group flew over 21,000 sorties on 1,405 combat missions.
Aerial victories
The first aerial victory by a 1st Fighter Group pilot (and the first USAAF kill in the European Theater of Operations) occurred 14 August 1942, by a 27th Fighter Squadron pilot, 2nd Lt. Elza E. Shahan, stationed in Iceland, with the downing of an Fw 200C-3 Condor, a credit shared with a P-40C pilot of the 33rd Fighter Squadron. The final victory occurred 15 April 1945, by 1st Lt. Warren E. Danielson, also of the 27th Fighter Squadron, shooting down an Fw 190 near Regensburg.
The 1st Fighter Group had 402.5 claims credited for German aircraft destroyed in air-to-air combat recognized by U.S. Air Force Historical Study No. 85, with 17 pilots identified as aces. Among the various units of the 1st, the 27th Fighter Squadron had the most victories, with 83 pilots credited with 176.5 kills. The 94th Fighter Squadron was credited with 124 kills by 64 pilots and the 71st Fighter Squadron with 102 kills by 51 pilots.
The uneven distribution of kills among the squadrons is an apparent reflection of an unequal degree of contact with German fighter units after June 1944, almost all of which occurred in July 1944. Of the last 38 kills awarded to the 1st Fighter Group, 30 were by the 27th FS (24 in July, 2 in August 1944, and 4 in 1945). The 71st FS recorded only four, with the last occurring 21 October 1944, while the 94th recorded four in July 1944 and none thereafter.
Post-war air defense role
The 1st Fighter Group was inactivated 16 October 1945. In the post-war reorganization of the Army Air Forces, the group was reactivated as a P-80 Shooting Star group, replacing the inactivated 412th Fighter Group at March Field, California, on 3 July 1946, and receiving its personnel and equipment.
The Air Force became an independent service on 18 September 1947, and the 1st Fighter Group became part of the newly created 1st Fighter Wing. (See 1st Fighter Wing for command assignments.) During the summer of 1947, the Army Air Force implemented the Hobson Plan on a test basis, creating a self-sufficient wing at each base. As a result, on 15 August 1947, the 1st Fighter Wing was activated at March Field, California, and the 1st Fighter Group was assigned as its combat group. Administrative, maintenance and support, and medical functions were the responsibility of separate support groups. The test proved satisfactory and the Air Force implemented it for all its tactical wings.
The 1st Fighter Wing was re-equipped with F-86 fighters in 1949 and the group was redesignated 1st Fighter-Interceptor Group (FIG) in April of the following year. In January 1950, while stationed at George Air Force Base, California, the 1st Group formed an aerial demonstration team, the "Sabre Dancers." The team, composed of five pilots of the 27th Fighter-Interceptor Squadron (FIS), flew their most distinguished show on 22 April 1950, at Eglin Air Force Base, Florida, for an audience that included President Harry S Truman.
During the Korean War, the 1st Group served in an air defense role while the Wing's elements divided to provide defense for both coasts. The 1st FIG Headquarters, and the 27th and 71st FIS were temporarily detached to the Eastern Air Defense Force, while the Wing headquarters and the 94th Fighter Interceptor Squadron were assigned as part the Western Air Defense Force. The group was inactivated on 6 February 1952, in a general reorganization of all ADC units responding to ADC's difficulty under the existing wing base organizational structure in deploying fighter squadrons to best advantage. and its squadrons reassigned to other ADC headquarters.
In April 1955, the group's designation was changed to 1st Fighter Group (Air Defense) and it was reactivated in August as part of Air Defense Command. It replaced ADC's 575th Air Base (later Air Defense) Group which had been the USAF host for Selfridge AFB since 1 February 1952 and had commanded the fighter squadrons at Selfridge effective 13 February 1953. The 575th group replacement was part of "Project Arrow", an ADC program to reactivate historic units. Equipped first with radar equipped and Mighty Mouse rocket armed North American F-86D Sabre fighters, the group's 94th Fighter-Interceptor Squadron (FIS) upgraded to data link equipped F-86Ls for interception control through the Semi-Automatic Ground Environment system in 1956, followed by the 71st FIS in 1957. The 71st FIS transitioned to F-102 Delta Dagger aircraft the following year. The 71st retained its F-102s for only a year before converting to F-106 Delta Darts, while the 94th FIS retained its Sabres until converting directly to the F-106 in 1960. Until it was reassigned to the 1st Fighter Wing in 1956, it also served as the host organization for Selfridge AFB and was assigned a number of support organizations to fulfill this task. The group served as part of the 30th Air Division and the Detroit Air Defense Sector, based at Selfridge Air Force Base, before being reassigned as part of the 1st Fighter Wing (Air Defense) in 1956 and being inactivated on 1 February 1961.
1st Operations Group
On 1 October 1991, the 1st Tactical Fighter Wing was redesignated 1st Fighter Wing and the 1st Fighter Group reactivated as the 1st Operations Group to control its F-15 and operations support squadrons at Langley Air Force Base, Virginia as part of the implementation of the Air Force Objective Wing Reorganization.
On 15 March 1992, the 74th Air Control Squadron was transferred to the 1st Fighter Wing to provide command and control of air operations during deployments. On 1 February 1993, the 41st and 71st Rescue Squadrons, and the 741st Maintenance Squadron were also assigned to the 1st Fighter Wing. Stationed at Patrick AFB, Florida, the units provided search and rescue for NASA's space shuttle missions, and support of combat search and rescue operations in Southwest Asia. Additionally, C-21 operational support aircraft were assigned to the Wing on 1 April 1993, with the establishment of Detachment 1, 1st Operations Group. On 1 May, the detachment inactivated and the 12th Airlift Flight, with the same mission, activated.
On 14 June 1995, the 1st Rescue Group was activated as part of the 1st Fighter Wing and assumed operational control of the Search and Rescue organizations. On 1 April 1997, the 12th Airlift Flight was transferred to Air Mobility Command, leaving the group tasked with only fighter and air control operations.
In 2003 the 27th and 94th FS began transition to the F-22 Raptor, with the 94th FS reaching full operational status on 16 December 2005. Both the 27th FS and the 149th FS of the Virginia Air National Guard's 192nd Fighter Wing (integrated with the 1st Fighter Wing in operating and maintaining the 1st FW's forty F-22's) were declared fully operational by Air Combat Command on 15 December 2007.
Lineage
Organized in France as 1st Pursuit Group on 5 May 1918
Demobilized in France on 24 December 1918
Organized as 1st Pursuit Group on 22 August 1919
Redesignated: 1st Group (Pursuit) on 9 March 1921
Redesignated: 1st Pursuit Group on 25 January 1923
Consolidated with the 1st Pursuit Group (World War I) on 8 April 1924
Redesignated: 1st Pursuit Group, Air Corps on 8 August 1926
Redesignated: 1st Pursuit Group on 1 September 1936
Redesignated: 1st Pursuit Group (Interceptor) on 6 December 1939
Redesignated: 1st Pursuit Group (Fighter) on 12 March 1941
Redesignated: 1st Fighter Group on 15 May 1942
Inactivated on 16 October 1945
Activated on 3 July 1946.
Re-designated: 1st Fighter-Interceptor Group on 16 April 1950
Inactivated on 6 February 1952
Redesignated: 1st Fighter Group (Air Defense) on 20 June 1955
Activated on 18 August 1955
Discontinued and inactivated on 1 February 1961
Redesignated: 1st Tactical Fighter Group on 31 July 1985 (Remained inactive)
Redesignated: 1st Operations Group and activated on 1 October 1991
Assignments
Headquarters Air Service, AEF, 5 May 1918
1st Pursuit Wing, 30 August-9 December 1918
1st Air Depot, AEF, 9–24 December 1918
Post Headquarters, Selfridge Field, Michigan, 22 August 1919
Post Headquarters, Kelly Field, Texas, c. 31 August 1919
Post Headquarters, Ellington Field, Texas, 1 July 1921
Post Headquarters, Selfridge Field, Michigan, 1 July 1922
2d Wing, 1 March 1935
6th Pursuit Wing, 16 January 1941
I Bomber Command, 5 September 1941
Fourth Air Force, 9 December 1941
Attached to IV Interceptor Command, 22 December 1941 – January 1942
IV Interceptor Command, January 1942
VIII Fighter Command, 10 June 1942
6th Fighter Wing, 16 August 1942
XII Fighter Command, 14 September 1942
XII Bomber Command, 24 December 1942
7th Fighter (later, 47th) Bombardment Wing, 18 February 1943
5th Bombardment Wing, May 1943
2686th Medium Bombardment Wing (Provisional), 25 June 1943
42d Bombardment Wing, 24 August 1943
XII Bomber Command, 1 September 1943
42d Bombardment Wing, 1 November 1943
5th Bombardment Wing, January 1944
306th Bombardment Wing, 27 March 1944
305th Fighter Wing (Provisional), September 1944
305th Bombardment Wing, June–October 1945
Twelfth Air Force, 3 July 1946
1st Fighter (later, 1st Fighter-Interceptor) Wing, 15 August 1947 – 6 February 1952
Attached to: Eastern Air Defense Force, 15 August 1950 – 3 June 1951
4708th Air Defense Wing, 18 August 1955
30th Air Division, 8 July 1956
1st Fighter Wing, 18 October 1956 – 1 February 1961; 1 October 1991 – Present
Components
Squadrons
6th Airborne Command and Control Squadron: 1 October 1991 – 1 October 1992 (not operational after March 1992)
17th Pursuit Squadron: See 147th Aero Squadron
27th Aero Squadron (later 27th Squadron, 27th Pursuit Squadron; 27th Fighter Squadron, 27th Fighter-Interceptor Squadron, 27th Tactical Fighter Squadron, 27th Fighter Squadron): 2 June-24 December 1918, 22 August 1919 – 16 October 1945, 3 July 1946 – 6 February 1952 (detached after 15 August 1950), 1 October 1991 – present (detached 30 August—20 December 1994, 25 June–5 October 1996, 18 November 1997 – 10 January 1998, 13 August–8 October 1998, 9 June–9 Aug 1999, 9 June–9 September 2001)
41st Rescue Squadron: 1 February 1993 – 14 June 1995
71st Pursuit Squadron (later 71st Fighter Squadron, 71st Fighter-Interceptor Squadron, 71st Tactical Fighter Squadron, 71st Fighter Squadron, 71st Fighter Training Squadron): 1 January 1941 – 16 October 1945, 3 July 1946 – 6 February 1952 (detached after 15 January 1950), 18 August 1955 – 1 February 1961 1 October 1991 – 30 September 2010, August 2015 – present (detached 3 October 1995 – 10 January 1996, 28 June–2 October 1997, 6 October–16 December 1998, 7 December 2001 – 13 March 2002)
71st Rescue Squadron: 1 February 1993 – 14 June 1995
72nd Helicopter Squadron: 1 October 1992 - 30 December 1995.
94th Aero Squadron (later 94th Squadron, 94th Pursuit Squadron, 94th Fighter Squadron, 94th Fighter-Interceptor Squadron, 94th Tactical Fighter Squadron, 94th Fighter Squadron): 5 May–17 November 1918, 22 August 1919 – 16 October 1945, 3 July 1946 – 6 February 1952 (detached 13 October 1947 – 16 February 1948), 18 August 1955 – 1 February 1961, 1 October 1991 – present (detached 14 June–18 September 1992, 21 June–6 October 1995, 1 October–20 November 1997, 6 July–21 August 1998, 9 August–4 October 1999, 7 September–9 December 2001)
95th Aero Squadron (later 95th Squadron, 95th Pursuit Squadron: 5 May–24 December 1918, 22 August 1919 – June 1927
147th Aero Squadron (later 17th Squadron, 17th Pursuit Squadron): 2 June–24 December 1918, 22 August 1919 – 27 October 1940
185th Aero Squadron: 7 October–24 December 1918
Flights
11th Airlift Flight: 1 May 1993 – 1 April 97
72nd Helicopter Flight (later 72nd Helicopter Squadron): 1 November 1991 – 1 October 1992
4401st Helicopter Flight: 1 October–1 November 1991
Stations
Gengault Aerodrome (Toul), France, 5 May 1918
Touquin Aerodrome, France, 28 June 1918
Saints Aerodrome, France, 9 July 1918
Rembercourt Aerodrome, France, c. 1 September 1918
Colombey-les-Belles Airdrome, France, c. 9–24 December 1918
Selfridge Field, Michigan, 22 August 1919
Kelly Field, Texas, c. 31 August 1919
Ellington Field, Texas, 1 July 1921
Selfridge Field, Michigan, 1 July 1922
Naval Air Station North Island, San Diego, California, 9 December 1941
Van Nuys Army Airfield, California, 1 February–May 1942
RAF Goxhill (AAF-345), England, 10 June 1942
RAF Ibsley (AAF-347), England, 24 August 1942
Tafaraoui Airfield, Algeria, 13 November 1942
Nouvion Airfield, Algeria, 20 November 1942
Biskra Airfield, Algeria, 14 December 1942
Chateau-dun-du-Rhumel Airfield, Algeria, February 1943
Mateur Airfield, Tunisia, 29 June 1943
Sardinia, 31 October 1943
Gioia del Colle Airfield, Italy, c. 8 December 1943
Salsola Airfield, Italy, 8 January 1944
Vincenzo Airfield, Italy, 8 January 1945
Salsola Airfield, Italy, 21 February 1945
Lesina Airfield, Italy, March-16 October 1945
March Field (later, AFB), California, 3 July 1946
George AFB, California, 18 July 1950
Griffiss AFB, New York, 15 August 1950
George AFB, California, 4 June 1951
Norton AFB, California, 1 December 1951 – 6 February 1952
Selfridge AFB, Michigan, 18 August 1955 – 1 February 1961
Langley AFB, Virginia, 1 October 1991 – Present
Aircraft
Nieuport 28, 1918
Spad XIII, 1918
Sopwith Camel, 1918
During the period 1919–1941, used DH-4B, MB-3, P-1, PW-8, P-6, PT-3, P-16, PB-2, P-35, P-36, and P-43
P-38 Lightning, 1941–1945
F-80 Shooting Star, 1946–1952
F-86 Sabre, 1946–1952; 1955–1960
F-102 Delta Dagger, 1958–1960
F-106 Delta Dart, 1960–1961
F-15 Eagle, 1991–2010
Boeing EC-135, 1991–1992
CH-3A Sky King, 1993–1994
HC-130E Hercules, 1993–1995
C-21 Learjet, 1993–1997
HH-60 Pave Hawk, 1994–1995
F-22 Raptor, 2005 – present
1st FG P-38 on exhibit
Beginning in 1977, at least a dozen different groups attempted to locate and recover one of the eight aircraft abandoned on the Greenland ice cap after the forced landing of 15 July 1942. One of the B-17s was located and found to have been crushed by the glacial forces. A P-38 in restoreable condition was then located in 1988 approximately 268 feet below the surface. Efforts to bring it to the surface began in May 1992, culminating in the recovery in October 1992 of P-38F-1-LO 41-7630, last flown by 1st Lt. Harry L. Smith, Jr., 94th Fighter Squadron.
The P-38 was subsequently restored to flying condition over the next ten years, dubbed Glacier Girl by its new owner, the Lost Squadron Museum, and flown on 26 October 2002. The P-38 (civil aviation number N17663) was stored at the museum's location in Middlesboro, Kentucky, until its sale to a private individual. A scale model kit of Glacier Girl was released by Academy Plastic Model Co.-Model Rectifier Corporation (Kit No. 12208) in July 2006.
See also
Organization of the Air Service of the American Expeditionary Force
List of American aero squadrons
Notes
References
Maycock, Thomas J., Air Force Historical Study 105: Air Phase of the North African Invasion, November 1942 (1944). Retrieved 26 March 2012
Newton, Wesley P. et al., Air Force Historical Study 85: USAF Credits for Destruction of Enemy Aircraft, World War II Office of Air Force History (1978) very large (27.21 MB) pdf file, pp. 540, 567 and 581 for 1st FG totals.
Zeske, Jim, "Workbench Review", FineScale Modeler July 2006, Vol.24, No.6, Kalmbach Publishing.
External links
1st Fighter Group Website
1st Fighter Association
AFHRA Factsheet, 1st Fighter Wing. Retrieved 26 March 2012
AFHRA Factsheet, 1st Operations Group. Retrieved 26 March 2012
Lost Squadron website, detailing recovery and restoration of 1st FG P-38F
P-38 National Association and Museum, "Glacier Girl"
Goleta Air and Space Museum "virtual" museum with extensive photographs of Glacier Girl
1st Pursuit Group overview, history and 90th Anniversary celebration photos at www.usaww1.com
1st Pursuit Group interactive Google Map of bases, etc. at www.usaww1.com
"Fighter Pilot", Ernie Pyle column about 1st Fighter Group ace Jack Ilfrey in North Africa
The Mysterious YP-80 Shooting Stars in Italy during World War II, Project Extraversion with the 1st FG, photos and text
001
Military units and formations in Virginia
1918 establishments in France |
4381288 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mid-Cheshire%20line | Mid-Cheshire line | The Mid-Cheshire line is a railway line in the north-west of England that runs from Chester to Edgeley Junction, Stockport; it connects Chester with Manchester Piccadilly, via Knutsford. After Chester Northgate closed in 1969, the section between Mickle Trafford Junction and Chester was used for freight trains only until it closed in 1992; from Mickle Trafford, passenger trains use the Chester–Warrington line to Chester General instead. The route taken by passenger trains has changed over the years and now differs considerably from the original. Between 2001 and 2014, passenger journeys on the line increased to over 1.7 million per year. A near doubling of the passenger service was expected to occur from December 2018, however this did not materialise.
History
Altrincham to Chester
The Mid-Cheshire line has its origins in railways promoted by three separate railway companies in the 19th century. The Cheshire Midland Railway was opened to passengers between Altrincham and Knutsford on , then completed to Northwich on . The West Cheshire Railway opened from Northwich to West Cheshire Junction in 1869. This railway was extended from Mouldsworth to a new terminus at Chester Northgate in 1874. The line from Altrincham to Manchester was the Manchester, South Junction and Altrincham Railway (MSJAR), opened on and jointly owned by the London and North Western Railway and the Manchester, Sheffield and Lincolnshire Railway (MSLR, later the Great Central Railway). The line from Chester to Altrincham was vested in the Cheshire Lines Committee (CLC), a joint committee regulated by the Great Northern Railway (GNR), MSLR and the Midland Railway (MR). This committee became an independent company after 1867 and survived the 1923 Grouping intact. Services were operated by the CLC until nationalisation on 1 January 1948, when the line became part of British Railways London Midland Region. Between 1880 and 1969, CLC trains from Chester via Altrincham terminated at Manchester Central railway station.
The junction with the Sandbach branch became a triangular junction in 1957, with the addition of the single-line connection from Sandbach towards Chester.
Before the Beeching closures in the 1960s, there were branch lines with services from the Mid-Cheshire line (see also the Winsford and Over branch). Beeching had no plans to close part or all of the Mid-Cheshire line, although in his proposed second phase of closures there were plans to close the line between Chester and Warrington Bank Quay, which would have increased the number of passengers using the Mid-Cheshire line. Although those proposed closures never went ahead, the original termini at Chester and Manchester were closed in 1969 and services were re-routed to Chester General, via a new junction at Mickle Trafford, and Manchester Oxford Road.
The route was double track between Chester and Altrincham, although the section between Mickle Trafford and Mouldsworth was reduced to single track after Chester Northgate station closed in 1969. For many years the line had the reputation of being one of the busiest double-track routes in the UK.
Manchester to Altrincham
CLC trains from Manchester to Chester departed from Manchester Central and joined the MSJ&A tracks at Old Trafford, sharing the MSJ&A line as far as Altrincham. These trains usually ran "express", some non-stop, others calling only at Sale. The frequency of trains over this section led to a large section of the MSJ&A route between Manchester and Altrincham being quadrupled, and the whole route (from Manchester to the former Bowdon railway station, which was used as carriage sidings and repair depot) was electrified at 1500 volts DC in 1931. Local services between Manchester London Road and Altrincham were then provided by electric multiple unit trains. From 1960, Manchester Oxford Road railway station became the terminus for the Altrincham electrics and through running from London Road (renamed Piccadilly in that year) ceased. The journey time by the electric trains from Oxford Road to Altrincham was typically 20 or 21 minutes. The CLC trains typically took 13 minutes to travel between Manchester Central (Oxford Road from 1969) and Altrincham with one stop at Sale.
The original electric trains, built in 1931, were withdrawn in 1971 and the system was changed to 25 kV AC. Through running to Manchester Piccadilly was reintroduced and some services from Altrincham to Manchester were extended through Manchester to Alderley Edge/Crewe/Stoke-on-Trent and occasionally Wolverhampton. Services were provided by 'AM4' (later British Rail Class 304) electric multiple units. Unlike the 1931-built trains, these had not been designed specifically for the Altrincham route and they lacked the acceleration of the older trains, causing the journey time from Manchester to Altrincham to be extended by 3 minutes.
1990 saw further changes as Mid-Cheshire line trains were diverted via Stockport in preparation for conversion of the Sale route to Metrolink. The electrification system between Manchester and Altrincham was changed for the second time, to 750 V DC, and the electric trains replaced by trams. The journey time by tram to Altrincham was 27 minutes and the faster diesel service (the Mid-Cheshire line trains) ceased as these trains were diverted via Stockport with considerably extended journey times. The journey time by train from Manchester to Hale, for example, doubled from 17 to 34 minutes. Manchester Metrolink trams now exclusively use the trackbed between Deansgate Junction (between Navigation Road and Timperley) and Manchester.
Present route
The line serves many small, rural settlements in Cheshire before reaching Chester. Services follow the Crewe line from Manchester Piccadilly as far as Stockport, where the line diverges westwards. The line then curves around the south of Manchester until it meets the Metrolink line. Metrolink and Mainline services run parallel between Deansgate Junction through Navigation Road railway station to Altrincham, where the Metrolink terminates. Part of the route is single track between Stockport and Altrincham. South of Altrincham, the route leaves Manchester's suburbs. There are no further passenger interchanges on the line until the service reaches Chester. There is a single-track freight-only branch to the west of Northwich which links Northwich to Sandbach on the Crewe to Manchester Line. There is a campaign for this line to be re-opened as a passenger line to allow interchange with services at Sandbach or Crewe and serve the town of Middlewich, the railway station of which closed in 1960. There is also a curve to access the West Coast Main Line further west, but passenger services do not use this. The line joins up with the line from Chester to Warrington just east of Chester at Mickle Trafford Junction.
As part of (the then) new Northern franchise, which commenced in April 2016, the new operator Arriva was be required to run the existing service, as well as an additional service every hour on weekdays and Saturdays between Greenbank and Manchester. One service was required by the terms of the invitation to tender to run semi-fast and must call at Stockport, Altrincham, Knutsford and Northwich only, between Greenbank and Manchester in both directions. The announcement of Arriva as the franchise winner in December 2015 indicated that the future operator has gained agreement for the additional service to call at Hale although this was not specified in the invitation to tender. Services on Sunday from Chester to Manchester will become every hour in each direction.
The franchise agreement also required the removal and replacement of all Pacer trains by 2019. However it was not until 2020 that all class 142 were retired.
Current services
Monday to Saturday
Manchester to Chester: 18 trains per day
Chester to Manchester: 17 trains per day
Sunday
Chester to Manchester: 7 trains
Manchester to Chester: 7 trains
The above shows a cutback in the number of peak services to and from Manchester, which started in December 2008 and prompted an online petition. It also included the loss of a daily direct service to Blackpool from Northwich and the loss of a limited stop afternoon train from Chester to Manchester, as well as improvements made to the Sunday service, which was previously a 3 hourly Chester to Altrincham service. Due to growing numbers of passengers, the new Northern franchise planned to include increased services.
Passenger numbers for the Mid-Cheshire line show that the station on the line with the highest number of people boarding and alighting Manchester to Chester via Altrincham services is Manchester Piccadilly. The second highest, and the highest station served only by this line, is Knutsford, followed by Stockport, Chester, and Altrincham respectively. Ashley contributes the fewest passengers to the service.
Passenger services in the off-peak period are better utilised than passenger services on similar lines, with Altrincham being in the top 10 busiest Greater Manchester stations (excluding Central Manchester stations) for the morning off-peak period; Hale and Altrincham also both perform well in the morning peak period.
Future services
The following are proposals for future services to the line.
Additional services between Chester and Stockport
As part of Northern Trains' proposed December 2022 timetable (which focused on additional services within the Manchester area), an additional 4 trains per day between Chester and Stockport (2 in each direction) were proposed during peak hours on Mondays to Saturdays. These services were aimed at those who are commuting to and/or working in Manchester and Stockport. This change would have increase the number of trains departing Chester on the line to 20 per day, with the number departing Stockport also increased to 20 per day. The 2 hourly Sunday service would have remained the same, at 7 trains per day.
Reopening the Northwich to Sandbach line to passenger trains
This would allow a direct train service from stations along the line to access Crewe, without the need to change at Chester, which will should reduce journey times to destinations south of Chester, as well as reducing fares to those destinations. It would also allow the former station at Middlewich to re-open, and the possibility of a new station opening at Rudheath. An independent feasibility report found the Benefit to Cost Ratio for the reopening to be 5:1, which is almost four times higher than the recently reopened Borders railway in Scotland.
Manchester Airport western link
Proposals for a link to Manchester Airport from near Mobberley were first put forward in the 1990s, though little progress was made. However, in March 2009 it was mentioned in a Network Rail document as a possible project in the future, although reopening the Northwich to Sandbach line to regular passenger services was not mentioned in that document. The link to Manchester Airport railway station would be a 3.5 mile new railway, starting north of Mobberley railway station and continuing under the airport campus in tunnel, before making an end-on junction with the southernmost platforms of the existing airport station, which was designed with this extension in mind.
As well as providing links from mid-Cheshire and Chester to Manchester Airport, the new line would enable services from North Wales, Liverpool and the Wirral to reach the airport by shorter routes than today. The route from Chester and North Wales, in particular, would cut off more than 20 miles from today's route via Warrington and Manchester.
Manchester Piccadilly via Styal Line
Additionally, by running services from Cheshire through the airport, these could hypothetically continue through to Manchester Piccadilly via the Styal Line. Such a route would cut more than 5 miles off the current Stockport route and would restore journey times between Cheshire and Manchester to the times achieved before 1990, when the Sale route was transferred to Manchester Metrolink. However, the Styal Line route between the Airport and Manchester Piccadilly has become one of the most congested routes on the national rail network, with commuter stations on the line now operating on a skip-stop basis since the May 2018 timetable and no spare capacity left.
Running tram-trains directly to Manchester
The possibility of running tram-trains between Greenbank or Knutsford and central Manchester has been examined. However, it was decided in 2013 that the use of tram-trains alongside existing heavy rail passenger and freight services would provide poor value for money and alternative heavy rail options should be examined instead.
Electrification
In March 2015, the Electrification Task Force said that the Mid-Cheshire line was a tier 1 priority for being electrified in the CP6 period (2019-2024).
New station at Cheadle
Stockport Council has proposed a new single-platform station at Cheadle, to be supported by the Towns Fund.
Motive power and rolling stock
History
The CLC owned its own coaching stock but no locomotives (apart from four Sentinel steam railmotors). From the start of operations, motive power was provided by the MSLR and later the GCR, although locomotives and stock from the other CLC constituent companies could also be seen. This gave the Mid-Cheshire line a very "cosmopolitan" feel until well into the 1960s when older locomotives were replaced by British Railways (BR) standard designs.
Early passenger services were handled by MSLR/GCR class 12A (LNER class E3) 2-4-0 locomotives designed by Charles Sacre. These were replaced by John Robinson-built GCR class 11B (LNER class D9) 4-4-0, GCR class 11E (LNER class D10) 4-4-0 'Small Directors', GCR class 11F (LNER class D11) 4-4-0 'Large Directors' and GCR class 9K (LNER class C13) 4-4-2 tank locomotives. The 'Directors' and C13s lasted well into the nationalisation era and were eventually displaced by LMS and BR standard tank engines. Dieselisation of passenger services began in the early 1960s with class 108 and later class 101 diesel multiple units displacing the steam locomotives.
The route was a very busy freight artery – especially the section between Greenbank and Deansgate Junction. The I.C.I. works at Winnington and Lostock attracted much traffic, in particular heavy trains consisting of custom-built bogie hoppers, which carried limestone from Derbyshire. These trains required banking between Northwich and Winnington works and were the preserve of LMS class 8F 2-8-0 locomotives, later BR class 40, class 47 and class 20 diesels. Other locomotives to be seen included LMS class 4F, GCR class 8K (LNER class O4) and class 9D (LNER class J10) steam locomotives. Shunting and trip working was carried out by GCR class 9F (LNER class N5) steam and BR class 08 diesel locomotives.
The present
The line sees a mix of diesel traction. Many of the passenger trains used on this line are Class 150s and Class 156s.
In the past Class 142, Class 158 and Class 175s were used on some journeys on this line. Class 175s have not been used on services on this line since Northern Rail took over and the small fleet of Manchester-based Class 158s, which were used on the line until 2005, were transferred to Leeds to work services in the Yorkshire and North East areas. Class 175s occasionally travel along the line if engineering work is taking place on the Chester to Manchester via Warrington line.
Goods trains continue to use the line. The primary source of traffic for many years was limestone from quarries near Buxton, Derbyshire, to Brunner Mond's works at Winnington. This decreased sharply in 2014 when the works was closed by Tata Chemicals Europe. Since then, the majority of freight runs to and from the ICI plant and refuse incinerator at Folly Lane near to destinations in and around Manchester (including one on the route itself at Northenden) using the Greenbank to Hartford spur line to enter or leave the route. Some limestone traffic from Buxton to the former ICI terminal near Lostock Gralam (serving Tata's other chemical plant in the area) continues to run.
References
Sources
External links
Mid-Cheshire Community Rail Partnership
Mid Cheshire Rail Users Association
Rail transport in Greater Manchester
Rail transport in Cheshire
Transport in the Metropolitan Borough of Stockport
Railway lines in North West England |
4381419 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enhanced%20oil%20recovery | Enhanced oil recovery | Enhanced oil recovery (abbreviated EOR), also called tertiary recovery, is the extraction of crude oil from an oil field that cannot be extracted otherwise. Although the primary and secondary recovery techniques rely on the pressure differential between the surface and the underground well, enhanced oil recovery functions by altering the chemical composition of the oil itself in order to make it easier to extract. EOR can extract 30% to 60% or more of a reservoir's oil, compared to 20% to 40% using primary and secondary recovery. According to the US Department of Energy, carbon dioxide and water are injected along with one of three EOR techniques: thermal injection, gas injection, and chemical injection. More advanced, speculative EOR techniques are sometimes called quaternary recovery.
Methods
There are three primary techniques of EOR: gas injection, thermal injection, and chemical injection. Gas injection, which uses gases such as natural gas, nitrogen, or carbon dioxide (CO2), accounts for nearly 60 percent of EOR production in the United States. Thermal injection, which involves the introduction of heat, accounts for 40 percent of EOR production in the United States, with most of it occurring in California. Chemical injection, which can involve the use of long-chained molecules called polymers to increase the effectiveness of waterfloods, accounts for about one percent of EOR production in the United States. In 2013, a technique called Plasma-Pulse technology was introduced into the United States from Russia. This technique can result in another 50 percent of improvement in existing well production.
Gas injection
Gas injection or miscible flooding is presently the most-commonly used approach in enhanced oil recovery. Miscible flooding is a general term for injection processes that introduce miscible gases into the reservoir. A miscible displacement process maintains reservoir pressure and improves oil displacement because the interfacial tension between oil and gas is reduced. This refers to removing the interface between the two interacting fluids. This allows for total displacement efficiency.
Gases used include CO2, natural gas or nitrogen. The fluid most commonly used for miscible displacement is carbon dioxide because it reduces the oil viscosity and is less expensive than liquefied petroleum gas. Oil displacement by carbon dioxide injection relies on the phase behavior of the mixtures of that gas and the crude, which are strongly dependent on reservoir temperature, pressure and crude oil composition.
Thermal injection
In this approach, various methods are used to heat the crude oil in the formation to reduce its viscosity and/or vaporize part of the oil and thus decrease the mobility ratio. The increased heat reduces the surface tension and increases the permeability of the oil. The heated oil may also vaporize and then condense forming improved oil. Methods include cyclic steam injection, steam flooding and combustion. These methods improve the sweep efficiency and the displacement efficiency. Steam injection has been used commercially since the 1960s in California fields. In 2011 solar thermal enhanced oil recovery projects were started in California and Oman, this method is similar to thermal EOR but uses a solar array to produce the steam.
In July 2015, Petroleum Development Oman and GlassPoint Solar announced that they signed a $600 million agreement to build a 1 GWth solar field on the Amal oilfield. The project, named Miraah, will be the world's largest solar field measured by peak thermal capacity.
In November 2017, GlassPoint and Petroleum Development Oman (PDO) completed construction on the first block of the Miraah solar plant safely on schedule and on budget, and successfully delivered steam to the Amal West oilfield.
Also in November 2017, GlassPoint and Aera Energy announced a joint project to create California's largest solar EOR field at the South Belridge Oil Field, near Bakersfield, California. The facility is projected to produce approximately 12 million barrels of steam per year through a 850MW thermal solar steam generator. It will also cut carbon emissions from the facility by 376,000 metric tons per year.
Steam flooding
Steam flooding (see sketch) is one means of introducing heat to the reservoir by pumping steam into the well with a pattern similar to that of water injection. Eventually the steam condenses to hot water; in the steam zone the oil evaporates, and in the hot water zone the oil expands. As a result, the oil expands, the viscosity drops, and the permeability increases. To ensure success the process has to be cyclical. This is the principal enhanced oil recovery program in use today.
Fire flooding
Fire flooding works best when the oil saturation and porosity are high. Combustion generates the heat within the reservoir itself. Continuous injection of air or other gas mixture with high oxygen content will maintain the flame front. As the fire burns, it moves through the reservoir toward production wells. Heat from the fire reduces oil viscosity and helps vaporize reservoir water to steam. The steam, hot water, combustion gas and a bank of distilled solvent all act to drive oil in front of the fire toward production wells.
There are three methods of combustion: Dry forward, reverse and wet combustion. Dry forward uses an igniter to set fire to the oil. As the fire progresses the oil is pushed away from the fire toward the producing well. In reverse the air injection and the ignition occur from opposite directions. In wet combustion water is injected just behind the front and turned into steam by the hot rock. This quenches the fire and spreads the heat more evenly.
Chemical injection
The injection of various chemicals, usually as dilute solutions, have been used to aid mobility and the reduction in surface tension. Injection of alkaline or caustic solutions into reservoirs with oil that have organic acids naturally occurring in the oil will result in the production of soap that may lower the interfacial tension enough to increase production. Injection of a dilute solution of a water-soluble polymer to increase the viscosity of the injected water can increase the amount of oil recovered in some formations. Dilute solutions of surfactants such as petroleum sulfonates or biosurfactants such as rhamnolipids may be injected to lower the interfacial tension or capillary pressure that impedes oil droplets from moving through a reservoir, this is analyzed in terms of the bond number, relating capillary forces to gravitational ones. Special formulations of oil, water and surfactant, microemulsions, can be particularly effective in reducing interfacial tension. Application of these methods is usually limited by the cost of the chemicals and their adsorption and loss onto the rock of the oil containing formation. In all of these methods the chemicals are injected into several wells and the production occurs in other nearby wells.
Polymer flooding
Polymer flooding consists in mixing long chain polymer molecules with the injected water in order to increase the water viscosity. This method improves the vertical and areal sweep efficiency as a consequence of improving the water/oil mobility ratio.
Surfactants may be used in conjunction with polymers and hyperbranched polyglycerols; they decrease the interfacial tension between the oil and water. This reduces the residual oil saturation and improves the macroscopic efficiency of the process.
Primary surfactants usually have co-surfactants, activity boosters, and co-solvents added to them to improve stability of the formulation.
Caustic flooding is the addition of sodium hydroxide to injection water. It does this by lowering the surface tension, reversing the rock wettability, emulsification of the oil, mobilization of the oil and helps in drawing the oil out of the rock.
Low salinity nanofluids
EOR processes can be enhanced with nanoparticles in three ways: nanocatalysts, nanofluids, and nanoemulsions. Nanofluids are base fluids that contain nanoparticles in colloidal suspensions. Nanofluids perform many functions in EOR of oil fields, including pore disjoining pressure, channel plugging, interfacial tension reduction, mobility ratio, wettability alteration, and asphaltene precipitation prevention. Nanofluids facilitates disjoining pressure to remove sediment entrapped oil via aggregation at the interface. Alternatively, wettability alteration and interfacial surface tension reduction are other alternative mechanism of EOR.
Microbial injection
Microbial injection is part of microbial enhanced oil recovery and is rarely used because of its higher cost and because the development is not widely accepted. These microbes function either by partially digesting long hydrocarbon molecules, by generating biosurfactants, or by emitting carbon dioxide (which then functions as described in Gas injection above).
Three approaches have been used to achieve microbial injection. In the first approach, bacterial cultures mixed with a food source (a carbohydrate such as molasses is commonly used) are injected into the oil field. In the second approach, used since 1985, nutrients are injected into the ground to nurture existing microbial bodies; these nutrients cause the bacteria to increase production of the natural surfactants they normally use to metabolize crude oil underground. After the injected nutrients are consumed, the microbes go into near-shutdown mode, their exteriors become hydrophilic, and they migrate to the oil-water interface area, where they cause oil droplets to form from the larger oil mass, making the droplets more likely to migrate to the wellhead. This approach has been used in oilfields near the Four Corners and in the Beverly Hills Oil Field in Beverly Hills, California.
The third approach is used to address the problem of paraffin wax components of the crude oil, which tend to precipitate as the crude flows to the surface, since the Earth's surface is considerably cooler than the petroleum deposits (a temperature drop of 9–10–14 °C per thousand feet of depth is usual).
Liquid carbon dioxide superfluids
Carbon dioxide (CO2) is particularly effective in reservoirs deeper than 2,000 ft., where CO2 will be in a supercritical state. In high pressure applications with lighter oils, CO2 is miscible with the oil, with resultant swelling of the oil, and reduction in viscosity, and possibly also with a reduction in the surface tension with the reservoir rock. In the case of low pressure reservoirs or heavy oils, CO2 will form an immiscible fluid, or will only partially mix with the oil. Some oil swelling may occur, and oil viscosity can still be significantly reduced.
In these applications, between one-half and two-thirds of the injected CO2 returns with the produced oil and is usually re-injected into the reservoir to minimize operating costs. The remainder is trapped in the oil reservoir by various means. Carbon dioxide as a solvent has the benefit of being more economical than other similarly miscible fluids such as propane and butane.
Water-alternating-gas (WAG)
Water-alternating-gas (WAG) injection is another technique employed in EOR. Water is used in addition to carbon dioxide. A saline solution is used here so that carbonate formations in oil wells are not disturbed. Water and carbon dioxide are injected into the oil well for larger recovery, as they typically have low miscibility with oil. Use of both water and carbon dioxide also lowers the mobility of carbon dioxide, making the gas more effective at displacing the oil in the well. According to a study done by Kovscek, using small slugs of both carbon dioxide and water allows for quick recovery of the oil. Additionally, in a study done by Dang in 2014, using water with a lower salinity allows for greater oil removal, and greater geochemical interactions.
Plasma-pulse
Plasma-pulse technology is a technique used in the US as of 2013. The technology originated in the Russian Federation at the St. Petersburg State Mining University with funding and assistance from the Skolkovo Innovation Center. The development team in Russia and deployment teams across Russia, Europe and now the USA have tested this technology in vertical wells with nearly 90% of wells showing positive effects.
The Plasma-Pulse Oil Well EOR uses low energy emissions to create the same effect that many other technologies can produce except without negative ecological impact. In nearly every case the volume of water pulled with the oil is actually reduced from pre-EOR treatment instead of increased. Current clients and users of the new technology include ConocoPhillips, ONGC, Gazprom, Rosneft and Lukoil.
It is based in the same technology as the Russian pulsed plasma thruster which was used on two space ships and is currently being advanced for use in horizontal wells.
Economic costs and benefits
Adding oil recovery methods adds to the cost of oil—in the case of CO2 typically between 0.5–8.0 US$ per tonne of CO2. The increased extraction of oil on the other hand, is an economic benefit with the revenue depending on prevailing oil prices. Onshore EOR has paid in the range of a net 10–16 US$ per tonne of CO2 injected for oil prices of 15–20 US$/barrel. Prevailing prices depend on many factors but can determine the economic suitability of any procedure, with more procedures and more expensive procedures being economically viable at higher prices. Example: With oil prices at around 90 US$/barrel, the economic benefit is about 70 US$ per tonne CO2. The U.S. Department of Energy estimates that 20 billion tons of captured CO2 could produce 67 billion barrels of economically recoverable oil.
The oil and gas industry argues that the use of captured, anthropogenic carbon dioxide, derived from the exploitation of lignite coal reserves, to drive electric power generation and support EOR from existing and future oil and gas wells offers a multifaceted solution to U.S. energy, environmental, and economic challenges. There is no doubt that coal and oil resources are finite. The U.S. is in a strong position to leverage such traditional energy sources to supply future power needs while other sources are being explored and developed. For the coal industry, CO2 EOR creates a market for coal gasification byproducts and reduces the costs associated with carbon sequestration and storage.
From 1986 to 2008, the quote oil production deriving from EOR has increased from 0.3% to 5%, thanks to an increasing oil demand and a reduction of oil supply.
EOR projects with CO2 from carbon capture
Boundary Dam Power Station, Canada
SaskPower's Boundary Dam Power Station project retrofitted its coal-fired power station in 2014 with carbon capture and sequestration (CCS) technology. The plant will capture 1 million tonnes of annually, which it sold to Cenovus Energy for enhanced oil recovery at its Weyburn Oil Field, prior to the sale of Cenovus's Saskatchewan assets in 2017 to Whitecap Resources. The project is expected to inject a net 18 million ton CO2 and recover an additional of oil, extending the life of the oil field by 25 years. There is a projected 26+ million tonnes (net of production) of to be stored in Weyburn, plus another 8.5 million tonnes (net of production) stored at the Weyburn-Midale Carbon Dioxide Project, resulting in a net reduction in atmospheric CO2 by CO2 storage in the oilfield. That's the equivalent of taking nearly 7 million cars off the road for a year. Since CO2 injection began in late 2000, the EOR project has performed largely as predicted. Currently, some 1600 m3 (10,063 barrels) per day of incremental oil is being produced from the field.
Petra Nova, United States
The Petra Nova project uses post-combustion amine absorption to capture some of the carbon dioxide emissions from one of the boilers at the W.A Parish power plant in Texas, and transports it by pipeline to the West Ranch oil field for use in enhanced oil recovery.
Kemper Project, United States (canceled)
Mississippi Power's Kemper County energy facility, or Kemper Project, was to have been a first-of-its-kind plant in the U.S. that was expected to be online in 2015. Its coal gasification component has since been canceled, and the plant has been converted to a conventional natural gas combined cycle power plant without carbon capture. The Southern Company subsidiary worked with the U.S. Department of Energy and other partners with the intention to develop cleaner, less expensive, more reliable methods for producing electricity with coal that also support EOR production. The gasification technology was designated to fuel the integrated gasification combined cycle power plant. Additionally, the unique location of the Kemper Project, and its proximity to oil reserves, made it an ideal candidate for enhanced oil recovery.
Weyburn-Midale, Canada
In 2000, Saskatchewan's Weyburn-Midale oil field began to employ EOR as a method of oil extraction. In 2008, the oilfield became the world's largest storage site of carbon dioxide. The Carbon Dioxide comes through 320 km of pipeline from Dakota Gasification facility. It is estimated that the EOR project will store around 20 million tons of Carbon Dioxide, generate about 130 million barrels of oil, and extend the life of the field by over two decades. The site is also notable as it hosted a study on the effects of EOR on nearby seismic activity.
CO2 EOR in the United States
The United States has been using CO2 EOR for several decades. For over 30 years, oil fields in the Permian Basin have implemented EOR using naturally sourced from New Mexico and Colorado. The Department of Energy (DOE) has estimated that full use of 'next generation' CO2-EOR in United States could generate an additional of recoverable oil resources. Developing this potential would depend on the availability of commercial CO2 in large volumes, which could be made possible by widespread use of carbon capture and storage. For comparison, the total undeveloped US domestic oil resources still in the ground total more than , most of it remaining unrecoverable. The DOE estimates that if the EOR potential were to be fully realized, state and local treasuries would gain $280 billion in revenues from future royalties, severance taxes, and state income taxes on oil production, aside from other economic benefits.
The main barrier to taking further advantage of CO2 EOR in the United States has been an insufficient supply of affordable CO2. Currently, there is a cost gap between what an oilfield operation could afford to pay for CO2 under normal market conditions and the cost to capture and transport CO2 from power plants and industrial sources, so most CO2 comes from natural sources. However, using CO2 from power plants or industrial sources could reduce the carbon footprint (if the CO2 is stored underground). For some industrial sources, such as natural gas processing or fertilizer and ethanol production, the cost gap is small (potentially $10–20/tonne CO2). For other man-made sources of CO2, including power generation and a variety of industrial processes, capture costs are greater, and the cost gap becomes much larger (potentially $30–50/tonne CO2). The Enhanced Oil Recovery Initiative has brought together leaders from industry, the environmental community, labor, and state governments to advance CO2 EOR in the United States and close the price gap.
In the US, regulations can both assist and slow down the development of EOR for use in carbon capture & utilization, as well as general oil production. One of the primary regulations governing EOR is the Safe Drinking Water Act of 1974 (SDWA), which gives most of the regulatory power over EOR and similar oil recovery operations to the EPA. The agency in turn delegated some of this power to its own Underground Injection Control Program, and much of the rest of this regulatory authority to state and tribal governments, making much of EOR regulation a localized affair under the minimum requirements of the SDWA. The EPA then collects information from these local governments and individual wells to ensure they follow overall federal regulation, such as the Clean Air Act, which dictates reporting guidelines for any Carbon Dioxide sequestration operations. Beyond the atmospheric concerns, most of these federal guidelines are to ensure that the Carbon Dioxide injection causes no major damage to America's waterways. Overall, the locality of EOR regulation can make EOR projects more difficult, as different standards in different regions can slow down construction and force separate approaches to utilize the same technology.
In February 2018, Congress passed and the President signed an expansion of the carbon capture tax credits defined in section 45Q of the IRS' Internal Revenue code. Previously, these credits were limited to $10/ton and capped at a total of 75 million tons. Under the expansion, carbon capture and utilization projects like EOR will be eligible for a tax credit of $35/ton, and sequestration projects will receive a $50/ton credit. The expanded tax credit would be available for 12 years to any plant constructed by 2024, with no volume cap. If successful, these credits "could help sequester between 200 million and 2.2 billion metric tons of carbon dioxide" and bring down carbon capture and sequestration costs from a currently estimated $60/ton at Petra Nova to as low as $10/ton.
Environmental impacts
Enhanced oil recovery wells typically pump large quantities of produced water to the surface. This water contains brine and may also contain toxic heavy metals and radioactive substances. This can be very damaging to drinking water sources and the environment generally if not properly controlled. Disposal wells are used to prevent surface contamination of soil and water by injecting the produced water deep underground.
In the United States, injection well activity is regulated by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and state governments under the Safe Drinking Water Act. EPA has issued Underground Injection Control (UIC) regulations in order to protect drinking water sources. Enhanced oil recovery wells are regulated as "Class II" wells by the EPA. The regulations require well operators to reinject the brine used for recovery deep underground in Class II disposal wells.
See also
Gas reinjection
Steam assisted gravity drainage
Water injection (oil production)
Wikiversity:Enhanced oil recovery
References
IPCC Special Report on Carbon dioxide Capture and Storage. Chapter 5, Underground geological storage. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), 2005.
Undeveloped Domestic Oil Resources Provide Foundation For Increasing U.S. Oil Supply pdf // US Department of Energy, analysis of EOR potential. Game Changer Improvements Could Dramatically Increase Domestic Oil Resource Recovery. An analysis by Advanced Resources International, Arlington, VA, for the U.S. Department of Energy's Office of Fossil Energy. Advanced Resources International, February 2006. See also press release
External links
Enhanced Oil Recovery Institute – University of Wyoming
Licensable Technology: Particle Stabilized Emulsions of Carbon Dioxide & Water for Enhanced Oil Recovery & Extraction Processes – Massachusetts Technology Portal
Oilfield Glossary: Enhanced Oil Recovery – Schlumberger, Ltd.
Center for Petroleum and Geosystems Engineering – University of Texas at Austin
Polymer Flooding, Reservoir Sweep Improvement, New Mexico Tech
Petroleum production |
4381430 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Citipati | Citipati | Citipati (; meaning "funeral pyre lord") is a genus of oviraptorid dinosaur that lived in Asia during the Late Cretaceous period, about 75 million to 71 million years ago. It is mainly known from the Ukhaa Tolgod locality at the Djadochta Formation, where the first remains were collected during the 1990s. The genus and type species Citipati osmolskae were named and described in 2001. A second species from the adjacent Zamyn Khondt locality may also exist. Citipati is one of the best-known oviraptorids thanks to a number of well-preserved specimens, including individuals found in brooding positions atop nests of eggs, though most of them were initially referred to the related Oviraptor. These nesting specimens have helped to solidify the link between non-avian dinosaurs and birds.
Citipati was among the largest oviraptorids; it is estimated to have been around in length and to have weighed . Its skull was highly pneumatized, short, and had a characteristic crest formed by the premaxilla and nasal bones. Both upper and lower jaws were toothless and developed a horny beak. The tail ended in a pygostyle (the fusion of the last caudal vertebrae), which is known to support large rectrices.
The taxon is classified as an oviraptorid, a group of very bird-like feathered dinosaurs that had robust, parrot-like jaws. It is among the oviraptorid species that preserve nesting specimens. Citipati laid elongatoolithid eggs in a circular mound-shaped nest, where the parents brooded the eggs by sitting on the nest with their arms covering the nest perimeter. Both arms and tail were covered in long feathers, which likely protected both juveniles and eggs from weather. Citipati may have been an omnivorous oviraptorid, given that the remains of two young individuals of the contemporaneous troodontid Byronosaurus were found in a nest, likely preyed and brought by an adult Citipati to feed its hatchlings. It is also possible that these small Byronosaurus were hatched by the Citipati as a product of nest parasitism.
History of discovery
In 1993, a small fossilized oviraptorid embryo, labelled as specimen IGM 100/971, was discovered in a nest at the Ukhaa Tolgod locality of the highly fossiliferous Djadokhta Formation, Gobi Desert, during the Mongolian Academy of Sciences-American Museum of Natural History paleontological project. The expedition also discovered numerous mammal, lizard, theropod, ceratopsian and ankylosaurid fossils remains at this locality, with the addition of at least five types of fossil eggs in nests. The oviraptorid embryo is composed of a nearly complete skeleton and was found in a badly weathered semi-circular nest, which also included two perinate (hatchlings or embryos close to hatching) skulls less than of an unknown dromaeosaurid taxon. One of these skulls was reported to preserve portions of an eggshell. Both embryonic oviraptorid and dromaeosaurid skulls were briefly described by the paleontologist Mark A. Norell and colleagues in 1993, who considered this oviraptorid embryo to be closely related to the early named Oviraptor, and also as an evidence supporting that oviraptorids were brooding animals. The two perinates would be later identified as individuals belonging to the troodontid Byronosaurus.
During the same year 1993, expeditions of the paleontological project of the Mongolian Academy of Sciences-American Museum of Natural History discovered a large adult oviraptorid specimen also from the Ukhaa Tolgod locality of the Djadokhta Formation, in a sublocality known as Ankylosaur Flats. This new specimen was labelled under the specimen number IGM 100/979 and includes a partial skeleton comprising some ribs and partial limbs but lacking the skull, neck and tail. It was found in a nesting pose, sitting atop a nest of elongatoolithid eggs with folded forelimbs and crouched hindlimbs. Similar to the embryonic specimen, IGM 100/979 was considered to be an indeterminate oviraptorid closely related to Oviraptor. The specimen shortly became famous and was nicknamed as "Big Mama" by The New York Times press. A larger and more complete specimen, catalogued as IGM 100/978, was found in 1994 also from the Ankylosaur Flats sublocality by the American Museum–Mongolian Academy of Sciences field expeditions. The specimen was unearthed as a single individual not associated with eggs, and it is represented by a nearly complete skeleton including the skull and much of the postcranial elements. However, it was initially identified as a specimen of Oviraptor.
In 1995, the Mongolian Academy of Sciences-American Museum of Natural History expedition discovered a second nesting oviraptorid specimen from the Ukhaa Tolgod locality, in a region called Camel's Humps, at the Death Row sublocality. This new specimen was labelled as IGM 100/1004 and nicknamed "Big Auntie". The excavation lasted several days of work and a filming crew registered some of the excavation progress through video-documentary and photography. The professional team had to remove some of the sediments surrounding the specimen as the terrain was irregular and it was too heavy to be safely transported to the escarpment. As most fossils of the Ukhaa Tolgod locality have a relatively good preservation and exposure, the lack of associated nests argues against the possibility for this sublocality to be an oviraptorid nesting site. IGM 100/1004 is slightly more complete than 100/979; it preserves the entire cervical series with the exception of the atlas and axis, dorsal vertebrae with thoracic ribs, partial limbs and some sacral vertebrae.
In 2001, the paleontologists James M. Clark, Mark A. Norell and Rinchen Barsbold named the new genus and type species Citipati osmolskae based on the now regarded holotype IGM 100/978, and referred specimens IGM 100/971 (embryo) with 100/979 ("Big Mama"). The generic name, Citipati, is formed from the Sanskrit words citi (meaning funeral pyre) and pati (meaning lord) in reference to the lord of cemeteries in the Tibetan Buddhism folklore, Citipati, which is often depicted as a humanoid skeleton. The specific name, osmolskae, is in honor to the noted Polish paleontologist Halszka Osmólska, whose work dealt extensively with Mongolian theropods.
Description of specimens
Though the first specimen of Citipati (IGM 100/971) was briefly reported and discussed, Norell and colleagues in 2001 provided an extensive description of this specimen. As the description was published prior to the formal naming of Citipati, Norell and team tentatively referred this small embryo to a "new large species from Ukhaa Tolgod"—in fact, later known as Citipati osmolskae—based on the shared tall premaxilla morphology among specimens. The more famous IGM 100/979 was extensively described by Clark and team in 1999, also prior to the naming of Citipati. They considered this specimen to be most similar and closely related to Oviraptor than to the other oviraptorids known at that time. Despite being discovered in 1995, the specimen IGM 100/1004 remained partially figured and largely undescribed for years until its formal referral to the taxon Citipati osmolskae in 2018 by Norell and team.
The largest and most complete specimen of Citipati is represented by the holotype IGM 100/978, however, it was preliminarily described and figured in 2001 during the naming of the taxon and during that time, the specimen had not been completely prepared. The skull anatomy of the specimen was later described by Clark and colleagues in 2002, the furcula morphology in 2009 by Sterling J. Nesbitt with team, and the caudal vertebrae by W. Scott Persons and colleagues in 2014 who noted the presence of a pygostyle. Subsequent descriptions have been published in 2018 by Norell and team describing and illustrating some cervical vertebrae and uncinate processes, and Amy M. Balanoff and colleagues describing the endocranium anatomy. In 2003 Amy Davidson described the process in which the holotype was prepared, later supplemental by Christina Bisulca and team in 2009 describing conservation treatments of broken bones.
Zamyn Khondt oviraptorid
The Zamyn Khondt oviraptorid is a well-known oviraptorid represented by a single and rather complete specimen (IGM 100/42) collected from the Zamyn Khondt (also spelled as Dzamin Khond) locality of the Djadokhta Formation. Since the type skull and body remains of Oviraptor are crushed and partially preserved, the Zamyn Khondt oviraptorid had become the quintessential depiction of the former, even appearing in scientific literature with the label Oviraptor philoceratops.
Clark with team have pointed out that this distinctive-looking, tall-crested oviraptorid has more features of the skull in common with Citipati than it does with Oviraptor. Though being different in the crest shape of the skull, the Zamyn Khondt oviraptorid is similar to Citipati in the shape of the narial region and premaxilla morphology. They considered this oviraptorid to belong to the genus, however, they could neither confirm nor disregard that this specimen represents a second species of Citipati. Lü Junchang and colleagues in 2004 found this specimen to be closely related to Oviraptor, Phil Senter with team in 2007 placed it close to neither genus, and in 2020 Gregory F. Funston and colleagues found it to be the sister taxon of Citipati.
Description
Citipati was a large-bodied oviraptorid, with the largest individuals being emu-sized animals; it has been estimated at in length with a weight between , and was one of the largest known oviraptorosaurs until the description of Gigantoraptor. Based on their humeral lengths, IGM 100/1004 was about 11% larger than IGM 100/979. Like other oviraptorids, Citipati had an unusually long neck and shortened tail compared to most other theropods. The presence of a pygostyle and the brooding pose in specimens of Citipati indicate the presence of large wing and tail feathers, and plumage. Other oviraptorids and oviraptorosaurs are also known to have been feathered.
Skull
Its skull was unusually short and highly pneumatized (riddled with air-spaced openings), ending in a stout, toothless beak. Perhaps the most distinctive feature of Citipati was its tall crest, superficially similar to that of a modern cassowary. The crest was relatively low in C. osmolskae formed by the premaxilla and nasal bones of the skull, with a nearly vertical front margin grading into the beak. In contrast, the crest of IGM 100/42 was taller with a prominent notch in the front margin, creating a squared appearance.
Classification
Citipati is often referred to the subfamily Oviraptorinae along with Oviraptor. However, in 2020, Gregory F. Funston and colleagues found Oviraptor to be more basal, so they named a new subfamily Citipatiinae. The cladogram below follows their analysis:
Paleobiology
Feeding mechanics
A 2022 study of the bite force of Citipati and comparisons with other oviraptorosaurs such as Incisivosaurus, Khaan, and Conchoraptor suggests that Citipati had a very strong bite force, scored between 349.3 N and 499.0 N. The moderate jaw gape seen in oviraptorosaurs is indicative of herbivory in the majority of the group, but it is clear they were likely feeding on much tougher vegetation than other herbivorous theropods in their environment, such as ornithomimosaurs and therizinosaurs were able to. The examinations suggest oviraptorosaurs may have been powerful-biting generalists or specialists that partook of niche partitioning both in body size and jaw function. Of the oviraptorids examined in this study, Citipati had one of the most powerful bites, but its biting mechanics were unique among the oviraptorosaurs investigated.
Reproduction
The embryo-bearing egg was otherwise identical to other oviraptorid eggs in shell structure and was found in an isolated nest, again arranged in a circular pattern. Two skulls belonging to very young or embryonic Byronosaurus were found associated with the same nest as the first Citipati embryo. It is possible that these tiny troodontids were preyed upon by the Citipati to feed its nest. Alternately, Mark Norell suggested that the juvenile troodonts were raiding the Citipati nest, or even that an adult Byronosaurus had laid eggs in a Citipati nest as an act of nest parasitism.
Although fossilized dinosaur eggs are rare, Citipati eggs and oviraptorid eggs in general, are relatively well known. Along with the two known nesting specimens, dozens of isolated oviraptorid nests have been uncovered in the Gobi Desert. Citipati eggs are elongatoolithid, which are shaped like elongated ovals and resemble the eggs of ratites in texture and shell structure. In the nest, Citipati eggs are typically arranged in concentric circles of up to three layers, and a complete clutch may have consisted of as many of 22 eggs. The eggs of Citipati are the largest known definitive oviraptorid eggs, at 18 cm. In contrast, eggs associated with Oviraptor are only up to 14 cm long.
The two nesting specimens of Citipati are situated on top of egg clutches, with their limbs spread symmetrically on each side of the nest, front limbs covering the nest perimeter. This brooding posture is found today only in birds and supports a behavioral link between birds and theropod dinosaurs. The nesting position of Citipati also supports the hypothesis that it and other oviraptorids had feathered forelimbs. Thomas P. Hopp and Mark J. Orsen in 2004 analyzed the brooding behavior of extinct and extant dinosaur species, including oviraptorids, in order to evaluate the reason for the elongation and development of wing and tail feathers. Given that IGM 100/979 was found in a very avian-like posture, with the forelimbs in a near-folded posture and the pectoral region, belly, and feet in contact with the eggs, Hopp and Orsen indicated that long pennaceous feathers and a feather covering were most likely present in life. The "wings" and tail of oviraptorids would have granted protection for the eggs and hatchlings against climate factors like the sunlight, wind, and rainfalls. However, the arms of this specimen were not extremely folded as in some modern birds, instead, they are more extended resembling the style of large flightless birds like the ostrich. The extended position of the arm is also similar to the brooding behavior of this bird, which is known to nest in large clutches like oviraptorids. Based on the forelimb position of nesting oviraptorids, Hopp and Orsen proposed brooding as the ancestral reason behind wing and tail feather elongation, as there was a greater need to provide optimal protection for eggs and juveniles.
In 2014, W. Scott Persons and colleagues suggested that oviraptorosaurs were secondarily flightless and several of the traits in their tails may indicate a propensity for display behaviour, such as courtship display. The tail of several oviraptorosaurs and oviraptorids ended in pygostyles, a bony structure at the end of the tail that, at least in modern birds, is used to support a feather fan. Furthermore, the tail was notably muscular and had a pronounced flexibility, which may have aided in courtship movements.
Paleopathology
Clark and colleagues in 1999 during the description of "Big Mama" noted that the right ulna was badly broken but healed, leaving a prominent callus and possible elongated groove over the injury. As the ulna features positive signs of healing, in 2019 Leas Hearn and team suggested that this individual managed to survive an injury that would have interfered with foraging for several weeks in order to lay and incubate its nest.
In 2002 Clark with team reported a small notch preserved on the right jugal, just beneath the orbit, of the holotype skull of Citipati. This anomaly was likely produced by external damage, leaving a small injury.
Paleoenvironment
Citipati is vastly known from the Ukhaa Tolgod locality of the Djadokhta Formation, which is dated around 71 million to 75 million years ago (Late Cretaceous). This formation is separated into a lower Bayn Dzak Member and upper Turgrugyin Member, of which the Ukhaa Tolgod locality belongs to the former. Characteristic lithology across the formation include reddish-orange and pale orange to light gray, medium to fine-grained sands and sandstones, and caliche, with better exposures represented at Ukhaa Tolgod. The settings in which Citipati and associated paleofauna lived are interpreted as large dune fields/sand dunes and several short-lived water bodies with arid to semiarid climates. Other dinosaurs known from Ukhaa Tolgod include alvarezsaurids Kol and Shuvuuia; ankylosaurid Minotaurasaurus; birds Apsaravis and Gobipteryx; dromaeosaurid Tsaagan; fellow oviraptorid Khaan; troodontids Almas and Byronosaurus; and an undescribed protoceratopsid closely related to Protoceratops.
See also
Timeline of oviraptorosaur research
References
External links
Interactive CT scan of the holotype Citipati skull at DigiMorph
3D model of the holotype Citipati skull at Sketchfab
Late Cretaceous dinosaurs of Asia
Djadochta fauna
Oviraptorids
Feathered dinosaurs
Fossil taxa described in 2001
Taxa named by Mark Norell
Taxa named by Rinchen Barsbold
Taxa named by James M. Clark |
4381965 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman%20Catholic%20Archdiocese%20of%20Armagh | Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Armagh | The Archdiocese of Armagh (; ) is a Latin ecclesiastical territory or archdiocese of the Catholic Church located in the northern part of Ireland. The ordinary is the Roman Catholic Archbishop of Armagh who is also the Metropolitan of the Ecclesiastical province of Armagh and the Primate of All Ireland. The mother church is St Patrick's Cathedral. The claim of the archdiocese to pre-eminence in Ireland as the primatial see rests upon its traditional establishment by Saint Patrick circa 445. It was recognised as a metropolitan province in 1152 by the Synod of Kells.
the incumbent Archbishop is Eamon Martin. He has been assisted since 2019 by Michael Router, who is currently the only Catholic auxiliary bishop in Ireland.
Province and geographic remit
The Province of Armagh is one of the four ecclesiastical provinces that together form the Roman Catholic Church in Ireland; the others are Dublin, Tuam and Cashel. The geographical remit of the province straddles both political jurisdictions on the island of Ireland – the Republic of Ireland and the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. In Northern Ireland, the remit covers parts of the former administrative counties of Armagh, Londonderry and Tyrone. In the Republic of Ireland, the remit covers parts of County Louth and most of County Meath. It contains the city of Armagh and the large towns Ardee, Coalisland, Drogheda, Dundalk, Dungannon and Magherafelt.
The suffragan dioceses of the Metropolitan Province are:
Ardagh and Clonmacnoise
Clogher
Derry
Down and Connor
Dromore
Kilmore
Meath
Raphoe
Ecclesiastical history
Foundation and early history
St. Patrick, having received some grants of land from the chieftain Daire, on the hill called Ard-Macha (the Height of Macha), built a stone church on the summit and a monastery and some other religious edifices and fixed on this place for his metropolitan see. He also founded a school in the same place, which soon became famous and attracted thousands of scholars. In the course of time other religious bodies settled in Armagh, such as the Culdees, who built a monastery there in the 8th century.
The city of Armagh was thus until modern times a purely ecclesiastical establishment. About 448, St. Patrick, aided by Secundinus and Auxilius, two of his disciples, held a synod at Armagh, of which some of the canons are still extant. One of these expressly mentions that all difficult cases of conscience should be referred to the judgment of the Archbishop of Armagh, and that if too difficult to be disposed of by him with his counsellors they should be passed on to the Apostolic See of Rome. In Irish times, the primacy of Armagh was questioned only by the great southern centre of the Irish Church, at Cashel.
For many centuries the primates were accustomed to make circuits and visitations through various parts of the country for the collection of their dues. This was called the "Cattlecess", or the "Law of St. Patrick". Beginning in 734, during the incumbency of Primate Congus, it continued until long after the Cambro-Norman invasion, but ceased as soon as Norman prelates succeeded to the see. Two kings gave it their royal sanction: Felim, King of Munster, in 822, and Brian Boru, in 1006. The record of the latter's sanction is preserved in the Book of Armagh, in the handwriting of Brian Boru's chaplain. To add solemnity to their collecting tours, the primates were in the habit of carrying with them the shrine of St. Patrick, and as a rule their success was certain. These collections seem to have been made at irregular intervals and were probably for the purpose of keeping up the famous school of Armagh, said at one time to contain 7,000 students, as well as for the restoration, often needed, of the church and other ecclesiastical buildings when destroyed by fire or plundered in war. The Irish annals record no fewer than seventeen burnings of the city, either partial or total. It was plundered on numerous occasions by the Danes and the clergy driven out of it. It was also sacked during the conquest of Ulster by the Cambro-Normans.
Disputes over primacy
The seizure of the primacy of Armagh by laymen in the 11th century has received great prominence owing to St. Bernard's denunciation of it in his "Life of St. Malachy", but the abuse was not without a parallel on the continent of Europe. The chiefs of the tribe in whose territory Armagh stood usurped the position and temporal emoluments of the primacy and discharged by deputy the ecclesiastical functions. The abuse continued for eight generations until Cellach, known as St. Celsus (1105–29), who was intruded as a layman, had himself consecrated bishop, and ruled the see with great wisdom.
In 1111 he held a great synod at Fiadh-Mic-Aengus at which were present fifty bishops, 300 priests, and 3,000 other ecclesiastics, and also Murrough O'Brian, King of Southern Ireland, and his nobles. During his incumbency the priory of Sts. Peter and Paul at Armagh was re-founded by Imar, the learned preceptor of St. Malachy. This was the first establishment in Ireland into which the Canons Regular of St. Augustine had been introduced. Rory O'Connor, High King of Ireland, afterwards granted it an annual pension for a public school.
After a short interval, Celsus was succeeded by St. Malachy O'Morgair (1134–37), who later suffered many tribulations in trying to effect a reformation in the diocese. He resigned the see after three years and retired to the Bishopric of Down. In 1139 he went to Rome and solicited the Pope for two palliums, one for the See of Armagh and the other probably for a new Metropolitan See of Cashel. The following year he introduced the Cistercian Order into Ireland, by the advice of St. Bernard. He died at Clairvaux, while making a second journey to Rome. St. Malachy is honoured as the patron saint of the diocese.
Gelasius succeeded him and during a long incumbency of thirty-seven years held many important synods which effected great reforms. At the Synod of Kells, held in 1152 and presided over by Cardinal Paparo, the Pope's legate Gelasius received the pallium and at the same time three others were handed over to the new metropolitan sees of Dublin, Cashel, and Tuam.
The successor of Gelasius in the see, Cornelius Mac Concaille, who died at Chambéry the following year, on a journey to Rome, has been venerated ever since in that locality as a saint. He was succeeded by Gilbert O'Caran (1175–80), during whose incumbency the see suffered greatly from the depredations of the Anglo-Norman invaders. William Fitz-Aldelm pillaged Armagh and carried away St. Patrick's crosier, called the "Staff of Jesus". O'Caran's successor was Thomas O'Connor (1181–1201). In the year after his succession to the see, Pope Lucius III, at the instance of John Comyn, the first English prelate in the See of Dublin, tried to abolish the old Irish custom according to which the primates claimed the right of making solemn circuits and visitations in the province of Leinster as well as those of Tuam and Munster. The papal bull issued was to the effect that no archbishop or bishop should hold any assembly or ecclesiastical court in the Diocese of Dublin, or treat of the ecclesiastical causes and affairs of the said diocese, without the consent of the Archbishop of Dublin, if the latter were actually in his see, unless specially authorised by the Papal See or the Apostolic legate. This Bull laid the groundwork of a bitter and protracted controversy between the Archbishops of Armagh and of Dublin, concerning the primatial right of the former to have his cross carried before him and to try ecclesiastical cases in the diocese of the latter. This contest, however, must not be confounded with that regarding the primacy, which did not arise until the 17th century.
Lordship of Ireland (1215–1539)
As the first Anglo-Norman adventurers who came to Ireland showed very little scruple in despoiling the churches and monasteries, Armagh suffered considerably from their depredations. When the English kings got a footing in the country, they began to intervene in the election of bishops and a contest arose between King John and Pope Innocent III regarding Eugene MacGillaweer, elected to the primatial see in 1203. This prelate was present at the Fourth Council of the Lateran in 1215 and died at Rome the following year. The English kings also began to claim possession of the temporalities of the sees during vacancies and to insist on the newly elected bishops suing them humbly for their restitution.
Primate Reginald (1247–56), a Dominican, obtained a papal brief uniting the county of Louth to the See of Armagh. Primate Patrick O'Scanlan (1261–70), also a Dominican, rebuilt to a large extent the cathedral of Armagh and founded a house for Franciscans in that city. Primate Nicholas MacMaelisu (1272–1302) convened an important assembly of the bishops and clergy of Ireland at Tuam in 1291, at which they bound themselves by solemn oaths to resist the encroachments of the secular power. Primate Richard Fitz-Ralph (1346–60) contended publicly both in Ireland and England with the Mendicant Orders on the question of their vows and privileges.
A contest regarding the primacy of Armagh was carried on intermittently during these centuries by the Archbishops of Dublin and Cashel, especially the former, as the city of Dublin was the civic metropolis of the kingdom. During the English period, the primates rarely visited the city of Armagh, preferring to reside at the arch-episcopal manors of Dromiskin and Termonfechan, in the county of Louth, which was within the Pale. During the reign of Henry VIII, Primate Cromer, being suspected of heresy by the Holy See, was deposed in favour of Robert Wauchope (1539–51), a distinguished theologian, who assisted at the Council of Trent. In the meantime, George Dowdall, a zealous supporter of Henry, had been elevated into the Church of Ireland See of Armagh by that monarch, but upon the introduction of the Book of Common Prayer in the reign of Edward VI, he left Ireland in disgust. In the beginning of the reign of Queen Mary I, Dowdall (1553–58) was appointed properly by the Pope on account of the great zeal he had shown against Protestantism. He survived his consecration only three months.
During the English Reformation
After the short incumbency of Donagh O'Tighe (1560–62), the see was filled by Richard Creagh (1564–85), a native of Limerick. He was lawfully arrested and imprisoned in the Tower of London, where he was judicially examined and left to languish in captivity for some years until his death. Edward MacGauran, who succeeded him (1587–94), was very active in soliciting aid from the pope and Philip II of Spain for the Irish who were then engaged in a struggle with the Crown. After an interval of eight years, MacGauran was succeeded by Peter Lombard (1601–25) (not to be confused with Peter Lombard, the medieval Bishop of Paris). He remained in exile, in Rome, during the whole twenty-four years of his incumbency and thus never once visited his diocese.
Hugh MacCawell, a Franciscan, was consecrated abroad for the see in 1626, but died before he could reach it. Hugh O'Reilly, the next primate (1628–53), was very active in the political movements of his day. In the chaotic aftermath of the Irish Rebellion of 1641, in 1642, he summoned the Ulster bishops and clergy to a synod at Kells in which the war then carried on by the Irish was declared lawful and pious. He took a prominent part in the Irish Confederation of Kilkenny and was appointed a member of the Supreme Council of twenty-four persons who carried on the government of the country in the name of King Charles I. During the Cromwellian conquest of Ireland (1649–53), Ireland was re-conquered by English Parliamentarian forces, who were very hostile to Catholicism. After the defeat, death or exile of most of the Roman Catholic Irish leaders he was elected nominal commander of the Roman Catholic forces for the remainder of the conflict.
Edmund O'Reilly (1657–69) succeeded to the see, but owing to the difficulties of the time was only able to spend two years in the diocese out of the twelve of his incumbency. He was exiled on four occasions. During the whole time he spent in the diocese, he was hiding in woods and caves and never had any bed but a cloak thrown over straw. He opposed Peter Valesius Walsh, the author of the "Loyal Remonstrance" (1661, 1672) to King Charles II, and died in exile in France.
The next primate was Oliver Plunkett (1669–81). Shortly after his accession to the see, he was obliged to defend the primatial rights of Armagh against the claims put forward for Dublin by its archbishop, Peter Talbot. At a meeting of the Roman clergy in Dublin in 1670, each of these prelates refused to subscribe subsequent to the other. Plunkett thereupon wrote a work on the ancient rights and prerogatives of his see, published in 1672, under the title Jus Primatiale; or the ancient Preeminence of the See of Armagh above all the other Archbishops in the Kingdom of Ireland, asserted by O. A. T. H. P. Talbot replied to two years later in a dissertation styled Primatus Dublinensis; or the chief reasons on which the Church of Dublin relies in the possession and prosecution of her right to the Primacy of Ireland. A violent persecution stilled the controversy for some time and subsequent primates asserted their authority from time to time in Dublin.
In 1719 two Briefs of Pope Clement XI were in favour of the claims of Armagh. In practice, however, the primatial right has fallen into desuetude in Ireland as in every other part of the Church. In 1679, Oliver Plunkett was arrested on a charge of conspiring to bring 20,000 Frenchmen into the country and of having levied moneys on his clergy for the purpose of maintaining 70,000 men for an armed rebellion against the Crown. After being confined in Dublin Castle for many months, he was presented for trial on these and other charges in Dundalk; but the jury, though all Protestants, refused to find a true bill against him. The venue, however, of his trial was changed to London, where he was tried by a jury before he was able to gather his witnesses and bring them across, though he made the request to the judge. The principal witnesses against him were some priests and friars of Armagh whom he had censured and suspended for their alleged conduct. He was dragged on a sledge to Tyburn on 1 July 1681, where he was hanged, drawn, and quartered in presence of an immense multitude. His head, still in a good state of preservation, can be viewed to this day in St. Peter's church, West St., Drogheda.
Penal times
Dominic Maguire (1683–1707), a Dominican, succeeded to the see after the death of the Oliver Plunket. This primate, having to go into exile after the surrender of Limerick in 1691, spent the sixteen years that intervened between that time and his death in a very destitute condition. In the meantime the See of Armagh was administered by a vicar, Patrick Donnelly, a priest of the diocese, who in 1697 was appointed Bishop of Dromore, though retaining the administration of Armagh for several years afterwards.
Owing to the severity of the laws there was no primate resident in Ireland for twenty-three years after the flight of Primate Maguire, in 1691. Hugh MacMahon (1714–37), Bishop of Clogher, was at last appointed to the bereft see. Living during the worst of the penal times, the primate was obliged constantly to wander from place to place, saying Mass and administering Confirmation in the open air. Nevertheless, in spite of these difficulties he has left his name to posterity by the learned work Jus Primatiale Armacanum, written by command of the pope in defence of the primatial rights of Armagh. He was succeeded by his nephew, Bernard MacMahon (1737–47), then Bishop of Clogher, who is described as a prelate remarkable for zeal, charity, prudence, and sound doctrine. He also suffered considerably from the persecution, and spent most of his time in hiding. Bernard was succeeded in the primacy by his brother, Ross MacMahon (1747–48), also Bishop of Clogher.
Michael O'Reilly (1749–58), Bishop of Derry, was the next primate. He published two catechisms, one in Irish and the other in English, the latter of which has been in use in parts of the north of Ireland until our own time. On one occasion this primate and eighteen of his priests were arrested near Dundalk. He lived in a small thatched cottage at Milltown, in Termonfechin parish, and at times had to lie concealed in a narrow loft under the thatch. Anthony Blake (1758–86) was his successor. The persecution having subsided to a great extent, he was not harried like his predecessors, but nevertheless could not be induced to live permanently in his diocese, a circumstance which was the occasion of much discontent among his clergy and led to a temporary suspension from his duties. Richard O'Reilly (1787–1818) was his successor in the primacy. Having an independent fortune, he was the first Catholic prelate since the Revolution who was able to live in a manner becoming his station. By his gentleness and affability he succeeded in quieting the dissensions which had distracted the diocese during the time of his predecessor and was thenceforward known as the "Angel of Peace". In 1793, he laid the foundation-stone of Saint Peter's Church in Drogheda, which was to serve as his pro-cathedral, one of the first Catholic churches to be built within the walls of a town in Ireland since the Reformation. The Corporation of Drogheda, wearing their robes and carrying the mace and sword, appeared on the scene and forbade the ceremony to proceed, but their protest was disregarded.
19th and 20th centuries
Patrick Curtis (1819–32), who had been rector of the Irish College of Salamanca, was appointed to the see in more hopeful times, and lived to witness the emancipation of the Roman Church in the UK. He was one of the first to join the Catholic Association, and was on friendly terms with the Duke of Wellington, whom he had met in Spain during the Peninsular War. Thomas Kelly succeeded Curtis (1832–35). He lived and died with the reputation of a saint.
William Crolly succeeded him (1835–49). He was the first Catholic primate to reside in Armagh, and perform episcopal functions there, since the introduction of the Penal Laws. He began construction of St. Patrick's Cathedral, which took more than sixty years to bring to completion. The foundation-stone was laid 17 March 1840, and before the primate's death, the walls had been raised to a considerable height. Paul Cullen succeeded in 1849, but was translated to the See of Dublin in 1852. In 1850 he presided over the National Synod of Thurles, the first synod held in Ireland since the convention of the bishops and clergy in Kilkenny in 1642.
Joseph Dixon (1852–66), the next primate, held a synod in Drogheda in 1854, at which all the northern bishops assisted. Archbishop Dixon resumed the building of the cathedral, but did not live to see it finished. Michael Kieran (1866–69) succeeded, residing in Dundalk during his tenure of the primatial see. His successor, Daniel McGettigan (1870–87), spent three years of earnest labour in the completion of the cathedral, and was able to open it in 1873. He was succeeded by Cardinal Michael Logue, who succeeded to the primacy in 1887. He was the first Primate of Armagh to become a member of the College of Cardinals. He devoted himself for several years to the task of beautifying and completing in every sense the noble edifice. In the building of the sacristy, library, synod-hall, muniment-room, the purchase in fee-simple of the site, and the interior decorations and altars, he spent more than £50,000 on the cathedral. This great cathedral was consecrated on 24 July 1904. Cardinal Vincenzo Vannutelli, representing Pope Pius X, was present at the consecration.
Redemptoris Mater Seminary
A House of Formation was founded in 2012 by Cardinal Seán Brady and in 2016, the Redemptoris Mater Seminary was officially opened (in the former De La Salle monastery), in Dundalk, County Louth, in the Archdiocese of Armagh, it is a diocesan seminary that operates under the auspices of the Neocatechumenal way. Seminarians travel to Maynooth College for philosophical and theological studies. The first ordination took place in 2014. Rev. Giuseppe Pollio from Italy, serves as rector of the seminary. In 2022, Archbishop Eamon Martin, laid the foundation stone for an extension to the seminary.
Adult Faith Programmes
The Armagh Diocese in conjunction with St. Patrick's College, Maynooth commenced in 2019, Certificate, Diploma and Degree programmes in Theology (Adult Education and Pastoral Ministry) in Armagh and Dundalk. The archdiocese of Armagh is one of the regional locations where Maynooth run the Diploma in Diaconate Studies programme.
Ordinaries
List of recent archbishops:
Michael Kieran (1867–1869)
Daniel McGettigan (1870–1887)
Cardinal Michael Logue (1887–1924)
Cardinal Patrick O'Donnell (1924–1927)
Cardinal Joseph MacRory (1928–1945)
Cardinal John D'Alton (1946–1963)
Cardinal William John Conway (1963–1977)
Cardinal Tomás Ó Fiaich (1977–1990)
Cardinal Cahal Daly (1990–1996)
Cardinal Seán Brady (1996–2014)
Eamon Martin (2014 – present)
See also
Roman Catholicism in Ireland
List of Roman Catholic dioceses in Northern Ireland
List of Roman Catholic dioceses (alphabetical) (including archdioceses)
List of Roman Catholic dioceses (structured view) (including archdioceses)
List of Roman Catholic archdioceses (by country and continent)
Apostolic Nuncio to Ireland
References
External links
Catholic-Hierarchy.org – Diocese Profile
Dioceses established in the 5th century
5th-century establishments in Ireland
445 establishments
Religion in County Armagh
Religion in County Londonderry
Religion in County Meath
Religion in County Tyrone
Armagh |
4382221 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/La%20Galissonni%C3%A8re-class%20cruiser | La Galissonnière-class cruiser | The La Galissonnière-class cruisers''' were commissioned by the French Navy in the 1930s. They were the last French cruisers completed after 1935, until the completion of in 1956. They are considered fast, reliable and successful light cruisers. Two cruisers of this class, and , took part in the defence of Dakar in late September 1940 during World War II. With the cruiser , they joined the Allied forces after the successful Allied landings in North Africa in November 1942. The three other cruisers of the La Galissonière class, held under Vichy control at Toulon, were scuttled on 27 November 1942.
After refitting, Georges Leygues, Montcalm and Gloire took part in various Allied operations, including the Normandy landings in 1944. Postwar, several of the class acted as the flagship of the French Mediterranean Squadron, and carried out operations off Indo-China until 1954, and afterwards were deployed during the Suez Crisis and operations off Algeria. They were scrapped between 1958 and 1970.
Background
The French Navy emerged from World War I with light cruisers, in very small numbers, aged and exhausted by war service. One Austrian () and four German light cruisers (, , , ), were received as reparations for war losses. They were renamed from Alsace-Lorraine towns, respectively Thionville, Colmar, Mulhouse, Strasbourg and Metz, armed with nine guns for Thionville, and six to eight guns for the others, a displacement of 4,000 tons for Thionville, 5,000 to 7,000 tons for the other cruisers, with a speed of . They were retired from active service by the early 1930s.
In 1920 the French Navy made plans to construct 5,200-ton light cruisers, with a main armament of guns, capable of speeds over . Funds were granted in the 1922 budget for the three s, known as 8000 tons cruisers, which were launched in 1923–24. They had four turrets mounting two guns each. The guns, in regular use by the French Army were chosen to facilitate a streamlined ammunition supply chain. With nearly no armour, they had a speed of .
Also remaining in service were armoured cruisers, built between 1900 and 1910, that were obsolete when they had been commissioned. With their armament arrangement in two double turrets of guns, and single turrets and casemates of generally , (only the s Edgar Quinet and Waldeck-Rousseau cruisers had fourteen guns as their main armament), a speed of , an armoured belt of , for a displacement of 12,000 to 14,000 tons, they were outgunned by their British or German contemporaries.
Washington Naval Treaty
The 1922 Washington Naval Treaty forbade the armoured cruiser type, with clauses limiting the cruiser tonnage to 10,000 tons, and the size of their guns to .
As war experience had clearly shown the importance of securing trade routes against surface threats, all the signatories of the treaty had built, until 1930, nearly only Washington heavy cruisers (fifteen each for the United Kingdom and the United States, twelve for Japan, seven each for France and Italy). These cruisers bore eight 203 mm guns in four double turrets, in the British, French and Italian navies, but nine to ten guns in the United States Navy, or the Imperial Japanese Navy, with a speed from , and a very light armour, for the earliest ships built, and a better protection, with a slightly reduced speed, for the next classes. On the first Washington heavy cruisers built, in the French Navy, , the weight of armour was 430 tons, and the maximum speed on trials reached , with , and, for the last one, , the weight of armour was 2,657 tons, and the maximum speed , with .
Germany was not subject to the restrictions in warship building resulting from the treaty, and the German Reichsmarine laid down, between 1926 and 1928, three cruisers of the with a displacement of 6,650 tons, armed with three triple turrets of guns, and a speed of 30–32 knots. In 1929, an improved unit, , with a more powerful cruising diesel engine installation, and a more extended armoured belt, with nearly the same displacement (6,710 tons).
The British Navy considered that the Washington cruiser type was too large for its needs, and, in 1927, a slightly smaller -gun cruiser was laid down, HMS York, with only six 8-inch guns. As the 1930 London Naval Conference had just opened, the United Kingdom announced the cancellation of the next projected 8-inch-gun cruiser design, while the first unit of a new class was to be built, with a displacement of 6,500 tons and armed with eight guns, able to counter Leipzig. It was HMS Leander.
London Naval Treaty
The 1930 London Naval Treaty introduced a distinction between Type A cruisers (commonly called "heavy cruisers"), with guns over (the main armament mounted on the Duguay-Trouin-class cruisers) and up to , and Type B cruisers (commonly called "light cruisers"), with guns of or under. It fixed the limit for the number of Type A units of each signatory to the number of existing cruisers, and authorized their replacement only twenty years after their completion.
In 1926, as France had started to produce classes of destroyers (, , and es) which were superior in displacement and firepower to the destroyers of that period, in order to counter this, Italy decided to produce a new class of cruiser that would be of intermediate size between the new French destroyer classes and the cruisers built in that period. The four units of the Da Giussano class (first sub-class of the cruisers group) were laid down in 1928, and completed in 1931–32, respecting the newly signed London Naval Treaty. On a displacement of about 5,200 tons, they were armed with eight 152 mm guns in four double turrets, and could attain the remarkably high speed of , but with negligible armour and short radius of action.
A new French cruiser had been ordered in 1926 and launched in 1930, specially designed as a school ship for midshipmen. The cruiser had the same 6.1-inch guns, in double turrets, as the Duguay-Trouin class. But when, after the London Naval Treaty, a new cruiser was designed to operate both as a minelayer and as a destroyer flotilla leader, she was armed with a completely new armament and turret layout, nine guns in three triple turrets, for the first time in the French Navy. She had two double and two single mounts of for secondary anti-aircraft (AA) artillery. Reaching on speed trials, with , she was the fastest of the French cruisers ever built.
The triple turret was unusual in the French Navy, which had preferred the double turret on its battleships, and on its previous cruisers, or the quadruple turret. In 1910, the Chief Naval Constructor, French Navy, had designed the s with three quadruple turrets, and the quadruple turret was broadly used, on the s, as the mounting for the main armament, and for the dual-purpose secondary battery. Triple turrets have been common in the Italian Navy battleships (uninterruptedly since the first Italian dreadnought built, ) as in the Russian, World War I Austro-Hungarian, U.S. Navies (since the to the battleship classes), and even in the British Royal Navy, with the s. On cruisers, the triple turret was used in all the U.S. Navy Washington heavy cruiser classes, on the Reichsmarine light cruisers, and on "pocket battleships".
This was on the basis of Émile Bertins armament, and on s protection and propulsion that was designed the lead ship of the La Galissonnière class, launched in November 1933.
Large light cruiser
The Imperial Japanese Navy, and its Pacific Ocean rival the U.S. Navy, were both interested in large cruisers, whether they were classed "heavy" or "light". In the 1931 Building Program, Japan ordered the first units of a new light cruiser class, the , with fifteen guns, in five triple turrets, and a speed of , announcing, falsely, a displacement of 8,500 tons. The U.S. Navy answered with the , with fifteen guns, a speed of , but a more exact displacement of 9,700 tons. The first units of this class were launched in 1937–38. The Royal Navy had laid down a class of four light cruisers, the , smaller than the Leander class with only six guns. They were launched between 1934 and 1936. In reaction to the building of the Japanese and U.S. large light cruisers, the United Kingdom canceled some projected units of the Leander and Arethusa classes. The two first British large light cruisers, after drawing drafts for a so-called Minotaur class, became the which were launched in 1936. They were fitted with twelve 152 mm guns, in four triple turrets, and aircraft installations at the center of the ship, had a speed of , and were nearly respecting the 10,000-ton displacement.
Three vessels, De Grasse, Guichen and Chateaurenault, were authorized shortly before the war as improved La Galissonnière class, with a displacement of 8,000 tons, the same armament and arrangement of three triple 152 mm turrets, two fore and one aft, and three twin AA 90 mm aft, one axial and two lateral. Aircraft installations, two catapults, crane and hangar, accommodating three/four seaplanes, would have been fitted in the ship's center, aft of a single large funnel. They were intended to have more powerful propulsion machinery, , to reach . The silhouette, with a massive fore tower, would have been inspired by Algeries. But only the name ship was actually laid down in the Lorient Navy Yard, and as work was suspended during the war, she was launched in 1946, and completed only in 1956, as an integral anti-aircraft cruiser design.
DesignLa Galissonière-class cruisers were very different, in displacement, armament, and protection from the London Naval Treaty Type B cruisers, such as the British , American or Italian Da Giussano-class cruisers, with a displacement of 6,000 tons or less, armed with numerous guns sometimes inferior to 152 mm, to the large light cruisers (), the or Town-class cruisers, (about 10,000 tons, and from ten to fifteen 152 mm guns).
With a displacement of 7,500 tons, and nine 152 mm guns, the La Galissonière-class cruisers belong to a middle category, comparable with the last Kriegsmarine light cruiser (an improved version of Leipzig), the Italian cruiser (from the intermediate version of the Condottieri class), or the nine-gun units of the s, reduced version of the Town-class cruisers.
The displacement of French cruisers was around 7,000–9,000 tons, yet it was enough to accommodate both heavy armour and heavy armament, while maintaining good maximum speed.
Armament
The class' main armament, in three triple mountings, concentrated a powerful broadside in a relatively small vessel. Their displacement was of the 7,000-ton class, just like the Italian Condottieri III Group (Attendolo and Raimondo Montecuccoli). While the Condottieris had four turrets with eight 152 mm guns, French cruisers had only three turrets with nine guns. The use of triple turrets allowed, as on the U.S. Navy cruisers, the deployment of nine 203 mm guns, or even fifteen 152 mm guns, on hulls of 10,000 tons, or on the German light cruisers, to have nine guns, with less than 7,000 tons displacement.
The armament consisted of the 152 mm gun (152 mm/55 Model 1930), the only French-built gun of this caliber. The cruiser mount was the Model 1930, that displaced 169.3 tons (172 mt). The rate of fire was one shell every 12 seconds (5 rounds per min).
The secondary armament consisted of the 90 mm/50 cal Model 1926. It was a decided improvement over the old 75 mm guns, being mounted single or twin. La Galissonnière cruisers had four twin mounts. These ships were also fitted with two twin torpedo tubes, on sides, amidship. The torpedoes were the 23 DT model, in service since 1925. Their aircraft installations, with hangar and derrick on stern, and a catapult fitted on the top of the aft 152 mm turret, could accommodate four Loire 130 seaplanes.
Like most French warships completed prewar, they were originally weak in light anti-aircraft artillery, with four twin 37 mm guns, and six 13.2 mm twin mount machine guns. Four more were added in 1941, with one 37 mm and one double 25 mm guns, and two Hotschkiss 13.2 mm twin mount machine guns. The three ex-Vichy units received a refit, with American help, in 1943. , , and , had their aircraft installations and all their original anti-aircraft artillery removed, and were fitted with six quadruple Bofors 40 mm guns, and twenty single Oerlikon 20 mm guns.
Protection
The armour was thicker than that of many other cruisers of the time (such as the Italian Condottieri class), heavy enough to withstand opposing cruiser main batteries. The belt and deck armour was substantially thicker than usual. The Condottieri class Group III had only belt and deck armour, while La Galissonnière had an armoured belt as ranging from in thickness, and deck armour that ranged from . This was enough to withstand a 152 mm round at combat range (navweaps.com gives 76 mm at 11,000 m, when fired from a British gun), while Italian counterparts cannot have done the same with their light armour, sacrificed for the best speed. Only the last group of Condottieri class was superior, with a heavier displacement of 9,100 tons (20% more than French cruisers), ten guns, and up to armour (thought to withstand 152 mm as well), but they were only two ships. In any event, these powerful ships never fought one another. The La Galissonière-class cruisers 105 mm armored belt was also thicker than Nürnbergs , the Dido class's , or the Crown Colony class's () armour, and equivalent to the Leanders. The turret protection, with on faces, and on sides, back, and roofs was also better than on other cruisers with similar displacement ( on German cruisers, , on the British ones, on Town or Crown Colony classes, and on the Brooklyn class.
Propulsion
The propulsion was provided by four Indret boilers, and four Parsons turbines on , Georges Leygues, Montcalm, or Rateau Bretagne turbines on the others, and two shafts, for a speed of , with . They easily maintained 31/32 knots and all exceeded by far the expected trial speed of . Thus, steamed an average of during an 8-hour trial and during a ninth hour. At the end of the war, they could still easily make , on a full load displacement then increased to 10,850 tons. The endurance ( at ), was considerably better than Italian equivalents (Condottieris: around at ), but similar to the comparable light British or German cruisers, for the speed and radius, except the Leander and Arethusa-class cruisers, which had an exceptional radius of .
Service
The ships were:
La Galissonnière: scuttled at Toulon
Montcalm: scrapped 1970.
Georges Leygues: scrapped November 1959
: scuttled at Toulon
Marseillaise: scuttled at Toulon
Gloire: sold for scrap January 1958.
When completed, La Galissonnière, Jean de Vienne, and Marseillaise formed the 3rd Cruisers Division, flagship Marseillaise, attached to the Mediterranean Squadron, and based in Bizerte, Georges Leygues, Montcalm, and Gloire formed the 4th Cruisers Division, flagship Georges Leygues, attached to the Atlantic Fleet, and based in Brest. The 4th Cruiser Division carried out an endurance cruise to Indochina, from December 1937 to April 1938, and represented France at the July 1939 New York World's Fair.
Phoney War and under Vichy control
During the Phoney War, the 4th Cruiser Division was attached to the Force de Raid under Admiral Gensoul, with and , heavy cruisers and large destroyers, first based in Brest. This squadron took part in screening Atlantic convoys, and tried unsuccessfully to give chase to German surface raiders. As Italy remained neutral in the Mediterranean, Marseillaise and Jean de Vienne took part in the shipping to Canada of a part of the Banque de France's gold reserve, in December 1939, and shipped troops in the Mediterranean in March 1940.
In April 1940, Émile Bertin was damaged by the Luftwaffe off Norway, and Montcalm replaced her, and took part in the evacuation of Namsos. In response to the increasingly threatening attitude of Italy, in April 1940, the Force de Raid was sent to the Mediterranean Sea, and the 3rd and 4th Cruiser Divisions were then based in Algiers. After Italy entered the war in June, they carried out two sorties, unsuccessfully attempting to intercept Italian fleet units.
On 3 July 1940, Admiral Sommerville's Force H was sent to Mers-el-Kébir. As the French Admiralty signalled in a radio message in clear, that the Algiers cruisers had been ordered to rejoin the battleship squadron off Mers-el-Kébir, the British Admiralty warned Admiral Somerville and hurried him to put an end to the negotiations with Admiral Gensoul and to open fire. So the six cruisers had only one thing to do, to steer for Toulon, where they arrived the day after.
Two months after, the Vichy authorities obtained permission from the German Armistice Commission to send the 4th Cruisers Division (George Leygues, Montcalm and Gloire), and three large destroyers, to Libreville, to counter the Free French Forces which had taken control of French Equatorial Africa territories, except Gabon. As the oiler Tarn, escorted by the French cruiser had been intercepted in the Bight of Benin by British warships, and bound to Casablanca, refueling was no longer possible in Libreville, and the French cruiser squadron had to turn back to Dakar. Slowed by machinery problems, Gloire was intercepted by British cruisers, and was only allowed to proceed on to Casablanca, as Georges Leygues and Montcalm reached Dakar at full speed, and so took part in its defence against Operation Menace. Until 1943, they remained there, where Gloire joined them in March 1941: from 15 to 25 September 1942, she was sent to rescue the victims of the sinking of the British troopship Laconia, torpedoed by the German submarine .
In Toulon, two of the three cruisers from the 3rd Cruisers Division, Marseillaise and La Galissonnière, the latter being replaced on 15 March 1941 by Jean de Vienne, were incorporated in a so-called High Seas Force, which nearly never went to sea, due to the lack of fuel, but in November 1940, to cover the return to Toulon of the battleship , which had been severely damaged by British gunfire in July 1940. In January 1942, Jean de Vienne was sent to rescue the liner Lamoriciere, whose sinking in a winter tempest, off the Balearic Islands, caused more than 300 deaths.
After the successful Allied landings in Morocco and Algeria, in November 1942, the Germans occupied the Zone libre, and tried to seize the French warships in Toulon, (Operation Lila). But the three La Galissonière-class cruisers, La Galissonnière, Jean de Vienne, Marseillaise, as most of the ships based at Toulon, were scuttled, on 27 November 1942. In 1943, the Italian Navy tried to salvage Jean de Vienne and La Galissonnière, and registered them as FR11 and FR12. In 1944, after the Italian surrender, the Germans rendered the wrecks to the Vichy authorities, but they were sunk, following Allied bombing attacks on Jean de Vienne on 24 November 1943 and La Galissonnière, on 18 April 1944. They were both scrapped post war.
Allied service
Like all the French warships stationed in Africa and the French Antilles, Georges Leygues, Montcalm and Gloire joined the Allied Forces. Operating from Dakar, beginning in February 1943, Georges Leygues carried out patrols in the Central Atlantic. On 13 April, she intercepted the German blockade runner Portland, as the Flag Officer, French Navy West Africa, was Admiral Collinet, formerly commanding officer of the battleship Strasbourg, at Mers-el-Kebir.
In February 1943, Montcalm was sent to Philadelphia, to be refitted with American help, remaining there until August 1943. Gloire was sent to Brooklyn, from July to November 1943, and Georges Leygues, to Philadelphia, from July to October 1943. Their aircraft mounts were removed and they were fitted with modernised anti-aircraft weapons. Sent to the Mediterranean Sea, the Montcalm supported the Liberation of Corsica in September 1943, and Gloire carried out bombardment missions against land-based targets in the Gulf of Gaeta in early 1944.Georges Leygues and Montcalm supported the Allied Normandy landings, and, together with Gloire, Operation Dragoon. Georges Leygues returned to Toulon, on 13 September 1944, bearing the flag of the Chef d'état-major de la Marine, Vice Admiral Lemonnier, her commanding officer when she had left Toulon, and at the Battle of Dakar in 1940. Until April 1945, the three cruisers were part of the so-called Flank Force, operating off the Mediterranean coast of the western Italian Riviera.
Post war
In 1945, they carried out various missions to Indochina, and after 1954, off the Algerian coast. Gloire was flagship of the French Mediterranean Squadron, in 1951–52, Montcalm from October 1952 to June 1954, and Georges Leygues afterwards, and she took part as flagship of the Intervention Force in the operations off Egypt, during the Suez Crisis, carrying out a bombardment mission against Rafah on 1 November 1956, and supporting the landing at Port-Saïd. Gloire and Georges Leygues were scrapped in 1958 and 1959, and Montcalm'' in 1970.
References
Bibliography
Further reading
External links
152 mm gun
90 mm gun
torpedoes
Ship classes of the French Navy |
4382287 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German%20verbs | German verbs | German verbs may be classified as either weak, with a dental consonant inflection, or strong, showing a vowel gradation (ablaut). Both of these are regular systems. Most verbs of both types are regular, though various subgroups and anomalies do arise; however, textbooks for learners often class all strong verbs as irregular. The only completely irregular verb in the language is sein (to be). There are more than 200 strong and irregular verbs, but just as in English, there is a gradual tendency for strong verbs to become weak.
As German is a Germanic language, the German verb can be understood historically as a development of the Germanic verb.
Bare infinitives
The bare infinitive consists of the root and the suffix -en. With verbs whose roots end in el or er, the e of the infinitive suffix is dropped.
laufen 'to run'
lächeln 'to smile'
meistern 'to master'
German prefixes
This is a general view of the most important German prefixes. The example is "legen" (to lay)
Inseparable prefixes
There are some verbs which have a permanent prefix at their beginning. These prefixes are never stressed. The most common permanent prefixes found in German are ver-, ge-, be-, er-, ent- (or emp-), and zer-.
brauchen, "to need" – ver-brauchen, "to consume" or "to use up"
raten, "to advise", "to guess" – ver-raten, "to betray"
fallen, "to fall" – ge-fallen "to be pleasing"
hören, "to hear" – ge-hören (zu) "to belong (to)"
brennen, "to burn" (intransitive), to be burning (stative verb) – ver-brennen (etwas), "to burn (something)" (transitive) (action verb), to burn completely
be-ginnen, "to begin" (no form without the prefix) – *ginnen (doesn't exist)
The meaning of the permanent prefixes does not have a real system; the alteration in meaning can be subtle or drastic. The prefixes ver-, be- and ge- have several different meanings, although ge- is uncommon and often the root verb is no longer in existence. be- often makes a transitive verb from an intransitive verb. Verbs with er- tend to relate to creative processes, verbs with ent- usually describe processes of removing (as well as emp-, an approximate equivalent to ent- except usually used for root verbs beginning with an f), and zer- is used for destructive actions. Ver- often describes some kind of extreme or excess of the root verb, although not in any systematic way: 'sprechen', for example means to 'speak', but 'versprechen', 'to promise' as in 'to give one's word' and 'fallen', meaning 'to fall' but 'verfallen', 'to decay' or 'to be ruined'.
Separable prefixes
Many verbs have a separable prefix that changes the meaning of the root verb, but that does not always remain attached to the root verb. When attached, these prefixes are always stressed. German sentence structure normally places verbs in second position or final position. For separable prefix verbs, the prefix always appears in final position. If a particular sentence's structure places the entire verb in final position then the prefix and root verb appear together. If a sentence places the verb in second position then only the root verb will appear in second position. The separated prefix remains at the end of the sentence.
an-fangen ("to start")
Root verb in second position: Ich fange mit der Arbeit an. ("I start work.")
Root verb in final position: Morgens trinke ich Schokolade, weil ich dann mit der Arbeit an-fange. ("In the mornings I drink hot chocolate, because afterwards I begin work.")
Rarely a separable prefix may actually be two (or more) words:
wieder-gut-machen ("to rectify, make up", literally "to make good again")
Root verb in second position: Sie machte das Unrecht wieder gut. ("She rectified the injustice.")
Root verb in final position: Ich hoffe, dass du es bei ihm wieder-gut-machst. ("I hope that you're making it up to him.")
A small number of verbs have a prefix that is separable in some uses and inseparable in others.
um-fahren
("to drive into [something]") – (stress on um-)
Ich fahre das Verkehrszeichen um. "I drive into the traffic sign, knocking it over (um) in the process."
("to drive around") – (stress on fahr)
Ich um-fahre das Verkehrszeichen. "I drive around the traffic sign."
If one of the two meanings is figurative, the inseparable version stands for this figurative meaning:
über-setzen
Literal ("to ferry") – (stress on über-)
Ich setze morgen auf die Insel über. "I'll ferry over to the island tomorrow."
Figurative ("to translate") – (stress on setzen)
Ich über-setze die Geschichte morgen. "I'll translate the story tomorrow."
Complex infinitives
Components and word order
Complex infinitives can be built, consisting of more than the original infinitive. They include objects, predicative nouns and adverbial information. These are packed before the original infinitive, if used isolated. (elliptical)
If one wants to express that they suddenly see a bird (not an airplane);
NOT einen Vogel am Himmel plötzlich sehen ("suddenly see a bird in the sky," as opposed to seeing it slowly – "plötzlich" is stressed)
BUT plötzlich einen Vogel am Himmel sehen ("suddenly see a bird in the sky," as opposed to seeing a plane – "Vogel" is stressed)
Both sentences are correct but they have different focus.
Pronoun objects are usually mentioned before nominal phrase objects; dative nominal objects before accusative nominal objects; and accusative pronoun objects before dative pronouns. Order may change upon emphasis on the object, the first being more important. This can be viewed as a table:
normal
Ich gebe meinem Vater das Geld ("I give my father the money")
Ich gebe es ihm ("I give it to him")
Ich gebe ihm das Geld ("I give him the money")
Ich gebe es meinem Vater ("I give it to my father")
unusual
Ich gebe das Geld meinem Vater ("I give the money to my father")
Ich gebe das Geld ihm ("I give the money to him")
very strange (but still correct)
Ich gebe ihm es ("I give him it")
Ich gebe meinem Vater es ("I give my father it")
Native adverbs, like nicht, leider or gerne, are placed before the innermost verb (see Compound infinitives).
Predicative nouns and predicative adjectives
A predicative adjective can be the positive, comparative or superlative stem of an adjective, therefore it has the same form as the adverb. One might also use positional phrases or pronominal adverbs.
rot sein ("be red")
bekannt werden ("become well-known")
im Rathaus sein ("be in the town hall")
A predicative noun is a nominal phrase in the nominative case.
Ein Arzt sein ("be a doctor")
Note that, if the subject is singular, the predicative noun must not be plural.
Der Schwarm ist eine Plage (singular/singular) ("the swarm is a pest")
Die Bienen sind Insekten (plural/plural) ("the bees are insects")
Die Bienen sind der Schwarm (plural/singular) ("the bees are the swarm")
*Der Schwarm ist die Bienen (singular/plural)
but instead Der Schwarm ist ein Haufen Bienen ("the swarm is a load of bees")
or Die Bienen sind der Schwarm ("the bees are the swarm") (inversion)
3rd person pronouns are handled like any nominal phrase when used in a predicative way.
1st person or 2nd person pronouns are never used as predicative pronouns.
Normally, one makes an inversion when using a definite pronoun as predicativum.
Der bin ich. (*Ich bin der.) ("I'm the one")
Der bist du. (*Du bist der.) ("You're the one")
Der ist es. (*Es ist der.) ("He's the one")
Adverbs
One can use any kind of adverbial phrase or native adverb mentioned above.
But beware of modal verbs, they change the meaning and phrase of the sentence.
Compound infinitives
Compound infinitives can be constructed by the usage of modal verbs or auxiliary verbs. One places a new infinitive behind the main infinitive. Then this outer infinitive will be conjugated instead of the old inner infinitive. Sometimes one must turn the old infinitive into a passive participle.
Passive infinitive
There are two types of passive forms: static passive and dynamic passive. They differ by their auxiliary words. The static passive uses sein, the dynamic passive is formed with werden (which has a slightly different conjugation from its siblings). In both cases, the old infinitive is turned into its passive participle form.
sehen – gesehen sein – gesehen werden ("see – be seen")
plötzlich am Himmel gesehen sein/werden ("suddenly be seen in the sky")
A complex infinitive cannot be turned into passive form, with an accusative object, for obvious reasons. This restriction does not hold for dative objects.
mir den Schlüssel geben ("to give me the key")
NOT mir den Schlüssel gegeben werden
mir gegeben werden ("have been given to me")
The only exceptions are verbs with two accusative objects. In older forms of German, one of these accusative objects was a dative object. This dative object is removed, whereas the real accusative object stays.
Die Schüler die Vokabeln abfragen ("test the students on their vocab")
NOT Die Schüler abgefragt werden
Die Vokabeln abgefragt werden ("the vocab be tested")
Perfect infinitives
The perfect infinitive is constructed by turning the old infinitive into the passive participle form and attaching the auxiliary verbs haben or sein after the verb.
sehen – gesehen haben (transitive) ("see" – "saw/have seen")
einen Vogel sehen – einen Vogel gesehen haben (transitive) ("see a bird –" "saw/have seen a bird")
laufen – gelaufen sein (intransitive) ("walk – walked/have walked")
einen schnellen Schritt laufen – einen schnellen Schritt gelaufen sein/haben ("walk at a fast pace" – "walked/have walked at a fast pace")
Note that the perfect infinitive of an intransitive verb is created the same way as the static passive infinitive of a transitive verb.
One can also build perfect infinitives of passive infinitives, both static and dynamic. Since the passive is intransitive, having no accusative object, one must use the auxiliary sein:
sehen ("to see")
gesehen worden sein ("to have been seen")
gesehen geworden sein ("to have been being seen")
sein is used as an auxiliary verb, when the verb is:
intransitive,
indicates a movement from one place to another, or
describes the alteration of a state
haben is used, when
actually any other case, but could be described more specifically
The use of haben and sein may depend on a sentence's meaning. I have driven the car (Ich habe das Auto gefahren.) is transitive and takes haben, but I have driven to Germany (Ich bin nach Deutschland gefahren.) is intransitive and takes sein because of the position change, even though the verb, fahren, is identical.
Future infinitives
The future infinitive is more theoretical, because this infinite is only used in finite form. One keeps the old infinitive and appends the verb werden, which in the present tense means 'to become'.
nach Italien fahren ‘to drive to Italy’ – nach Italien fahren werden ‘to be about to drive to Italy’
The future infinitive can also be built by a perfect infinitive, which is used in the future perfect.
den Baum gefällt haben ‘to have felled the tree’ – den Baum gefällt haben werden ‘to be about having felled the tree’ (not necessarily soon).
Infinitives with modal verbs
Modal verbs are verbs that modify other verbs, and as such, are never found alone. Examples may include the following: "may", "must", "should", "want", or "can". Such verbs are utilized by placing the modal infinitive behind the old (passive or perfect) infinitive, without changing any other word. Some modal verbs in German are: können, dürfen, müssen, brauchen, wollen, mögen, lassen.
dorthin fahren können ("to be able to drive there")
nach Rom fahren lassen ("let someone drive to Rome")
A common misunderstanding among English-speakers learning German is caused by a divergence in meaning between English must and German müssen.
Ich muss: "I must"
Ich muss nicht: "I don't have to".
The meaning of must not is conveyed in German with the verb dürfen; "I must not" is therefore translated as ich darf nicht.
Accusativus cum infinitivo
Like Latin, an accusativus cum infinitivo (ACI) construction is possible. The ACI is formed by placing a bare infinitive after the main verb, and then inserting an accusative object between them. This can be done in two ways:
Simple ACI
Subject – Main verb – Object – Infinitive: Ich sehe dich stolzieren ‘I see you strutting’
Complex ACI
Subject – Main verb – Multiple objects – Infinitive: Ich lasse dich ein Haus bauen ‘I let you build a house’
The zu-infinitive
The zu-infinitive has nothing to do with the gerundive, although it is created in a similar way. One simply puts the preposition zu before the bare infinitive, before the permanent prefix, but after the separable prefix.
zu lesen ‘to read’
Ich lerne zu lesen ‘I learn to read’
zu verlassen ‘to leave’
Ich habe beschlossen, dich zu verlassen ‘I've decided to leave you’
wegzuwerfen ‘to throw away’
Ich habe beschlossen, das Buch wegzuwerfen ‘I've decided to throw away the book’
The zu-infinitive extended with um expresses purpose (in order to, for the purpose of). The subject of the main clause and the infinitive must be identical.
Ich habe ein Meer überquert, um dich zu treffen – "I have crossed an ocean to meet you."
Conjugation
There are three persons, two numbers and four moods (indicative, conditional, imperative and subjunctive) to consider in conjugation. There are six tenses in German: the present and past are conjugated, and there are four compound tenses. There are two categories of verbs in German: weak and strong. Some grammars use the term mixed verbs to refer to weak verbs with irregularities. For a historical perspective on German verbs, see Germanic weak verb and Germanic strong verb.
Below, the weak verb kaufen "to buy" and the strong verb singen "to sing" are conjugated.
Common conditional endings in present and past tense: -e, -est, -e, -en, -et, -en
sein "to be" is irregular in the conditional mood
Present conditional: sei, seist, sei, seien, sei(e)t,
Past conditional: wäre, wärst, wäre, wären, wär(e)t,
The (e)s are inserted when the stem of the verb ends in:
-chn -d, -dn, -fn, -gn, -t, -tm
The second person singular ending is -t for verbs whose stems end in:
-s, -ß, -x, -z
Examples
beten "to pray": weak transitive verb
Past Participle: gebetet
Present: bete, betest, betet, beten, betet,
Past: betete, betetest, betete, beteten, betetet,
bitten "to ask for, to beg": strong transitive verb
Past Participle: gebeten
Present: bitte, bittest, bittet, bitten, bittet,
Past: bat, bat(e)st, bat, baten, batet,
Some strong verbs change their stem vowel in the second and third person singular of the indicative mood of the present tense.
lesen "to read": strong transitive verb
Past Participle: gelesen
Present: lese, liest, liest, lesen, lest,
Past: las, las(es)t, las, lasen, las(e)t,
Auxiliary verbs
werden "to become" (strong, irregular)
Past participle: geworden
haben "to have" (mostly weak, irregular)
Compare the archaic English conjugation:
Past participle: gehabt
sein "to be" (suppletive, irregular)
Past participle: gewesen
Modal verbs
dürfen "to be allowed; may"
können "to be able; can; to be possible"
mögen "to like; to want; may"
müssen "to be required; must"
sollen "to be supposed to; should"
wollen "to want (with resolve)"
Modal verbs are inflected irregularly. In the present tense, they use the preterite endings of the strong verbs. In the past tense, they use the preterite endings of the weak verbs. In addition, most modal verbs have a change of vowel in the singular.
When a modal verb is in use, the main verb is moved to the end of the sentence.
For example:
Ich kann das Auto fahren. ("I can drive the car.")
Ich soll die Karten kaufen. ("I'm supposed to buy the cards.")
Er muss der Mutter danken. ("He must thank the mother.")Note: danken is a dative verb which is why die Mutter becomes der Mutter. For further information, please read the section about dative verbs.
Dative verbs
Most verbs go with an object in accusative case, similar to a direct object in English. Many verbs can additionally have a object in dative case (similar to an indirect object in English), for example geben "to give". However, some verbs only take a dative object, and these are called "dative verbs". Most dative verbs do not change the object. E.g., when you hit (schlagen) or wound (verletzen) someone, they get a bruise or wound, but when you thank, answer, help, or follow someone, they remain unchanged. There are however exceptions (including even wehtun "hurt"), and there are verbs that are dative verbs in only some senses (e.g. the most common sense "happen" of the very common verb passieren). Dative verbs include the following most common ones:
antworten ("Sie antwortet ihm.")
danken ("Er dankt ihr.")
folgen
gefallen
gehören
glauben
gratulieren
helfen
leidtun
passen
passieren (in the sense of "happen") ("Mir ist heute etwas Verrücktes passiert.") (Something crazy happened to me today. "Etwas Verrücktes" is the subject, "mir" is the dative object)
vertrauen
verzeihen
wehtun
zuhören
Reflexive verbs
Some verbs require the use of a reflexive pronoun. These verbs are known as reflexive verbs. In English, these are often slightly modified versions of ordinary verbs, such as "to sit down" spoken as "to sit oneself down".
Imperative conjugation
There is an imperative for second person singular and second person plural, as well as for third person singular and third person plural, as well as for first person plural and second person formal.
The endings for second person singular informal are: -(e), -el or -le, and -er(e).
The endings for second person plural informal are: -(e)t, -elt, and -ert.
Fahren (wir/Sie)! – Fahr(e)! – Fahrt!
The imperative of first person plural and second person formal is identical to the infinitive.
This subtopic is strongly related to the construction of German sentences.
Participles and verbal nouns
This section details the construction of verbal nouns and verbal adjectives from the main infinitive. The processes are the same both for simple and complex infinitives. For complex infinitives, adverbial phrases and object phrases are ignored, they do not affect this process; except something else is mentioned.
Past participle
There are some irregularities when creating the past participle form.
Weak verbs form their past participles with ge- plus the third person singular form of the verb.
fragen (er fragt) → gefragt
passen (es passt) → gepasst
antworten (er antwortet) → geantwortet
hören (er hört) → gehört
fühlen (er fühlt) → gefühlt
Verbs with non-initial stress (practically always the result of an unstressed inseparable prefix, or foreign words ending in stressed -ieren or -eien) do not have ge- added to the verb.
verführen (er verführt) → verführt
miauen (er miaut) → miaut
probieren (er probiert) → probiert
prophezeien (er prophezeit) → prophezeit
For irregular verbs, the infinitive ending -en remains.
gelaufen
gegeben
gegangen
geworfen
The separable prefix remains in place.
weggetragen
umverteilt
Note: Ich habe den Baum umgefahren (I drove over – crashed into – the tree)
Note: Ich habe den Baum umfahren (I drove around the tree)
The past participles of modal and auxiliary verbs have the same form as their infinitives. But if these verbs are used alone, without an infinitive, they have a regular participle.
Ich habe den Chef besuchen dürfen (Chef = boss) (I was allowed to see the boss)
Ich habe zum Chef gedurft (unusual) (I was allowed in to the boss)
Present participle
To create the basic form of a present participle, you attach the suffix -d to the infinitive of the verb.
laufen – laufend ("walk" – "walking")
töpfern – töpfernd ("make pottery" – "making pottery")
lächeln – lächelnd ("smile" – "smiling")
verraten – verratend ("betray" – "betraying")
aufbauen – aufbauend ("establish" – "establishing")
Future participle or gerundive
A gerundive-like construction is fairly complicated to use. The basic form is created by putting the word zu before the infinitive. This is also the adverb.
zu suchen ("to be looked for")
Der Schlüssel ist zu suchen ("the key needs to be looked for")
zu verzeichnen ("to be recorded")
Ein Trend ist zu verzeichnen ("A trend is to be recorded")
The adjective is more complicated. Instead of the infinitive, one uses the present participle, and then declines it corresponding to gender, number, case and article of the nominal phrase. (Compare the German declension of adjectives.)
Der zu suchende Schlüssel ("the key to be looked for")
Ein zu lüftendes Geheimnis ("a secret to be revealed")
Agent nouns
Agent nouns (e.g. photographer from photograph in English) are constructed by taking the infinitive, removing the ending and replacing it by -er, -ler or -er(er). If the person is a woman, the endings have an extra -in on them. In the explicitly feminine form a second syllable er is omitted, if the infinitive ends on ern or eren.
infinitive: fahren "to drive"
agent noun, masculine: der Fahrer "the (male) driver"
agent noun, feminine: die Fahrerin "the female driver"
infinitive: tischlern "to join (carpentry)"
agent noun, masculine: der Tischler "the (male) joiner"
agent noun, feminine: die Tischlerin "the female joiner"
infinitive: verweigern "to refuse"
agent noun, masculine: der Verweigerer "the (male) refuser"
agent noun, feminine: die Verweiger(er)in "the female refuser"
This form is hard to build for complex infinitives, therefore it is unusual:
infinitive: weggehen "to go away"
does not usually become der Weggeher or die Weggeherin, but instead Derjenige, der weggeht ("the one going away")
or even
infinitive: schnell zum Flughafen fahren um die Maschine noch zu erwischen ("to quickly drive to the airport to just catch the flight")
does not usually become: Der Schnell-zum-Flughafen-um-die-Maschine-noch-zu-erwischen-Fahrer ("the quickly-driving-to-the-airport-to-catch-the-flight-driver")
On the other hand, this form is often used in fun or mocking expressions, because the imputed behaviour that is content of the mocking can be merged into a single word. Examples are: Toiletten-Tief-Taucher ("toilet deep diver", which is an alliteration in German), or Mutterficker ("motherfucker"). A whole range of these expressions aim at supposedly weak or conformist behaviour, such as Ampel-bei-Rot-Stehenbleiber ("traffic-lights-on-red-stopper"), Warmduscher ("warm-showerer"), Unterhosen-Wechsler ("underpants changer"), or Schattenparker ("in the shadow parker"). Especially among children there are several fixed terms of this type, like Spielverderber ("game spoiler").
Note: The suffix -er is also used to form instrument nouns, e.g. Salzstreuer and Bohrer also denote instruments.
Verbal nouns and deverbatives
Verbal nouns
The two most common forms of verbal nouns are infinitives and gerunds. The bare infinitive, when used as a noun, has no plural (or if it does it is invariable, i.e. identical to the singular), and its gender is neuter.
arbeiten ‘to work’ – das Arbeiten ‘working’
Note: die Arbeiten is not the plural of the verbal noun Arbeiten, it is the plural of the feminine noun die Arbeit.
Example for the plural
„Das Verlegen“ kann verschiedene Bedeutungen haben: Das Verlegen einer Sache (die man dann nicht mehr findet); das Verlegen eines Veranstaltungsortes; das Verlegen einer Zeitung; etc. Diese verschiedenen „Verlegen“ sind ein gutes Beispiel für den Plural des Gerunds.
“Das Verlegen can have different meanings: the misplacing of a thing (which you'll never find later), the moving of an event location, the editing of a newspaper, etc. These different Verlegen form a good example of the verbal noun's plural.”
Gerunds in -ung are feminine and have regular plurals in -en. They are formed as in English, only the ending is -ung; e.g., ableiten ‘to derive’ – Ableitung ‘derivative (ling.)’; fordern ‘to demand; claim’ – Forderung ‘credit; claim’. While German gerunds formerly served the same function as they do in English, they now have concrete, usually technical meanings. Sometimes the German infinitive and gerund convey the same meaning, but this is rare (e.g. das Laugen – die Laugung, both ‘leaching, lixiviation’; das Kleben – die Klebung, both ‘chemically bonding, adhering’); usually only the infinitive carries the same meaning as an English gerund. Compare:
handeln ‘to act; do business, deal with’ – das Handeln ‘an act, action; dealing’ (in general) – die Handlung ‘physical act; deed; operation’
kochen ‘to cook’ – das Kochen ‘cooking’ (in general) – die Kochung ‘boiling of the boiling scheme’ (technical)
schwächen ‘to weaken’ – das Schwächen ‘weakening’ (in general) – die Schwächung ‘attenuation; debilitation, enfeeblement’
Deverbatives
One type of deverbative noun is formed by adding -erei (-lerei or -(er)ei) and (sometimes) has a slightly derogatory meaning. The grammatically dependent implication (i.e. independent of context, speech, and syntax) of disapproval for this type of deverbative is rather weak, though present. It must be supported either by context or speech. On the other hand, any positive implication from the context or speech will free the deverbative from any disapproval. Its plural ends in -en, and its gender is feminine.
arbeiten ‘to work’ – die Arbeiterei ‘silly working’
laufen ‘to run’ – die Lauferei ‘running around’
streiten ‘to argue’ – die Streiterei(en) ‘tiff, squabble’
schlemmen ‘to feast’ – die Schlemmerei(en) ‘gormandizing; gluttony’
malen ‘to paint’ – die Malerei(en) ‘doodle(s), goofy portrait’
The above form means a loose, vague abstractum of the verb's meaning. It is also often used to designate a whole trade, discipline or industry, or a single business/enterprise:
die Meierei ‘dairy farm’
malen ‘to paint’ – die Malerei ‘a painting’ (work of art), or ‘painters’ business’
In this form the plural is used just as with any other noun. Cf. also Metzgerei, Fleischerei ‘butcher’s shop’, Malerei (a business of professional painters (of rooms and buildings)) are not derived from verbs.
Similar to the form presented above, one may place the prefix ge- (after the separable prefix), if the verb doesn't have a permanent prefix, and then attach the ending -e ( -el, -er ). Most times, this noun indicates slightly more disapproval than the other one (depending in the same way on context, speech etc.). Its gender is neuter.
fahren ‘to drive’ – das Gefahre ‘silly driving’
laufen ‘to run’ – das Gelaufe ‘running around (like a child at play)’
A plural form does not exist. To indicate the reference to all instances the pronoun/numeral all can be added, as in the following example:
Mother to child: Hör mit dem Geschaukel auf! ("Stop that rocking!")
Child rocks in a different manner
Mother: Hör mit allem Geschaukel auf! ("Stop all rockings!")
However, a more formal reference to all instances would be Hör mit jeder Form von Geschaukel auf! (“Stop any form of rocking!”) instead. So this use of all is merely encountered in colloquial conversations.
If this type of deverbative is used to express disapproval, it is typically augmented by the prefix herum- or (short form) rum- to make it sound/look even more disapproving. For example: Das stundenlange Herumgefahre im Bus geht mir total auf die Nerven. ("The silly driving around for hours in the bus is totally getting on my nerves.")
These forms are hard to build for complex infinitives; therefore they are unusual. When they occur, all object phrases and adverbial phrases are put before the verbal noun:
von Allen gesehen werden "to be seen by everyone" – Das Von-Allen-gesehen-Werden "being seen by everyone"
Tenses
Although there are six tenses in German, only two are simple; the others are compound and therefore build on the simple constructions. The tenses are quite similar to English constructions.
Conjugation includes three persons, two numbers (singular and plural), three moods (indicative, imperative and subjunctive), and two simple tenses (present and preterite). The subjunctive of the present is almost never used in colloquial German (and relatively infrequent in written German as well); the subjunctive of the past is more common, at least for some frequent verbs (ich wäre, ich hätte, ich käme etc.). The latter is used like a conditional mood in German (English: I would).
English native speakers should note that German tenses do not carry aspect information. There are no progressive tenses in standard German. Das Mädchen geht zur Schule may mean "The girl goes to school" as well as "The girl is going to school". One must use an adverb to make a visible difference aside from the context.
In colloquial spoken German, in particular in the Rhineland and Ruhr areas, a present progressive tense does exist and is known as the rheinische Verlaufsform. It is formed with the verb sein ("to be") + am ("at the") + verbal noun. For example: Ich bin am Essen. – I am eating; Ich bin das Auto am Reparieren. – I'm fixing the car. However, this form is rarely used in writing and is not used in formal spoken German.
A second kind of progressive tense is formed with the verb sein ("to be") + present participle, and is the literal translation of the English progressive tense (for present and past). For example: Ich bin/war essend. – I am/was eating; Ich bin/war das Auto reparierend. – I am/was fixing the car. In contrast to the rheinische Verlaufsform, this progressive tense is a formally correct feature of standard German; however, it is very uncommon in both colloquial German and formal German. If it is used, it often may appear unwieldy or unnatural, except for specific usual cases. This form also differs from the other German tenses in that it has a very unambiguous progressive aspect.
As is shown in the following, German is not very rigid in its usage of tenses. More precise tenses are available to express certain temporal nuances, but both of the most common tenses (present tense and perfect tense) can often be used instead if the context is unambiguous.
Present (Präsens) – It is the present-conjugated form of the infinitive. It is the most important tense in German. The Present tense is mainly used for simple present, present progressive, as well as for future. It is also used for historical past.
Example: Ich kaufe das Auto. ("I buy the car")
Preterite (Imperfekt, Präteritum) – It is the past-conjugated form of the infinitive. This past tense is mainly used in written German and formal speech, except for some frequent verbs whose preterite forms are common colloquially (such as ich war, ich hatte, ich kam). It is also used for past progressive. Otherwise, the perfect is much preferred in colloquial language, but in northern regions of Germany it is more frequently used.
Example: Ich kaufte das Auto. ("I bought the car")
Perfect (Perfekt) – It is the present-conjugated form of the perfect infinitive. This tense has (widely) the same meaning as the preterite and very often replaces the latter in colloquial German. An English perfect tense is often expressed by the present in German. For example, "I have lived in Germany for three years now." → Ich lebe jetzt seit drei Jahren in Deutschland. (Literally "I live now for three years in Germany.")
Example: Ich habe das Auto gekauft. ("I (have) bought the car")
Pluperfect / past perfect (Plusquamperfekt) – It is the past-conjugated form of the perfect infinitive. It can be thought of as the perfect form of the preterite, used to describe what already had happened at a certain point in the past. If the context is unambiguous, the perfect or preterite may be used instead (as in English).
Example: Ich hatte das Auto gekauft. ("I had bought the car")
Future (Futur I) – It is the present-conjugated form of the future infinitive. It generally describes the future but may also express an assumption for the present. In contrast to English, the future tense is usually replaced by the present tense if the future meaning is already evident from the context. For example, "In ten years I'll be old" → In zehn Jahren bin ich alt. (Literally: "In ten years am I old.") This is particularly common in colloquial German but is also correct in writing.
Example: Ich werde das Auto kaufen. ("I will buy the car")
Future perfect (Futur II) – It is the present-conjugated form of the future infinitive of the perfect infinitive. It describes what will have happened at a certain point in the future (past of the future), but the simple perfect, or even present (and by a common pupils' mistake, Futur I, but that is universally judged to be incorrect), is preferred instead if the future meaning is evident from the context. More commonly, the future perfect expresses an assumption for the past: Er wird einen Unfall gehabt haben. ("He will [probably] have had an accident.")
Example: Ich werde das Auto gekauft haben. ("I'll have bought the car")
Colloquial contractions between verb and personal pronoun
Although not part of the standard language, nearly all varieties of colloquial German feature contracted forms in which a verb and a following (unstressed) personal pronoun become one word.
This is frequent in the 2nd person singular, where the verb ending -st and the pronoun du ("you") are contracted into -ste .
bist du → biste ("are you")
hast du → haste ("have you")
glaubst du → glaubste ("believe you"/"do you believe")
These forms are common in informal writing. Regionally, there may be different outcomes of the contraction. In western Germany, -t- might be lost as well, resulting in bisse, hasse and the like. In Upper German regions, the phenomenon often goes so far as to delete the pronoun completely, which gives rise to the Austro-Bavarian bist, hast and the Alemannic bisch, hasch.
Similar contractions exist for the formal 2nd person and the 3rd person plural, both of which use the pronoun sie/Sie.
können sie → könnse ("can you/they")
haben sie → hamse ("have you/they")
schauen sie → schaunse ("look you/they")
Again, shortened forms such as könn(en)s, hams are used in the South. They are often spelt können's, ham's or können S', ham S' in informal writing.
In Upper and Central German regions but only sporadically in originally Lower German areas, there are also contracted forms for the 1st person plural. They usually end in -mer . The reason is that the Upper and Central German dialects have traditionally used mir instead of wir ("we"). This form mir is itself due to an old contraction of the Middle High German verb ending -em and the following pronoun wir (e.g. loufem wir → loufe‿mir)
sind wir → simmer ("are we")
haben wir → hammer ("have we")
glauben wir → glaub(e)mer ("believe we"/"do we believe")
In parts of northern Germany, less distinct contractions such as sindwer, hamwer occur instead of the southern/central simmer, hammer.
Notes
Explanatory notes
Citations
Bibliography
Stern, Guy; and Bleiler, Everett F. Essential German Grammar, Dover Publications, 1961.
External links
Verb Conjugation Trainer by Wie Geht's German
German verb conjugation
German verb conjugation before and after the 1996 spelling reform
German verb conjugation
Verbs
Indo-European verbs
de:Deutsche Grammatik#Verben |
4382300 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard%20Gwyn | Richard Gwyn | Richard Gwyn (ca. 1537 – 15 October 1584), also known by his anglicized name, Richard White, was a Welsh teacher at illegal and underground schools and a Bard who wrote both Christian and satirical poetry in the Welsh language. A Roman Catholic during the reign of Queen Elizabeth I of England, Gwyn was martyred by being hanged, drawn and quartered for high treason at Wrexham in 1584. He was canonized by Pope Paul VI in 1970 as one of the Forty Martyrs of England and Wales. Since its creation in 1987, St. Richard Gwyn has been the Patron Saint of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Wrexham. Along with fellow lay martyr St. Margaret Clitherow, Gwyn is the co-patron of the Latin Mass Society of England and Wales.
Early life
While little is known of Richard Gwyn's early life, it is known that he was born about 1537 in Llanidloes, Montgomeryshire, Wales and, reportedly, "descended of honest parentage, bearing the surname of Gwin (sic)."
Only at the age of 20, "he did frame his mind to like of good letters", and accordingly matriculated at Oxford University, "where he made no great abode", and did not complete a degree. He then went to Cambridge University, "where he lived on the charity of the College", and its then Master, the Roman Catholic Dr. George Bullock. During his time at University, Gwyn's fellow students began calling him by the alias of "Richard White", "as being the English equivalent of his name". In the early part of the reign of Elizabeth I, Bullock was forced to resign the mastership in July 1559 and Gwyn was forced to leave the college.
After leaving the university, Gwyn found that, "need and poverty compelled him to become a teacher before he could perfectly lay the foundation to be a learner," and returned to his native district in Wales. Gwyn served successively as schoolmaster in the Wrexham area villages of Gresford, Yswyd, and Overton-on-Dee while continuing his studies of the liberal arts, theology, and history.
Gwyn married Catherine, a young woman from Overton-on-Dee. They had six children, three of whom survived him.
Despite repeated threats of both fines and imprisonment, Gwyn made every effort to avoid attending Anglican Sunday Services and taking the Oath of Supremacy. As a Recusant in a small village, Gwyn's adherence to the old faith was common knowledge. Gwyn also made no effort to hide his opinions and openly exhorted his neighbours who had conformed to return to the Catholic Church.
At the time, Bishops of the Established Church were under considerable pressure from Queen Elizabeth I to arrest Recusants, especially schoolmasters, who exercised great influence and Welsh Bards, who, like Richard Gwyn, were acting as secret messengers on behalf of Roman Catholic priests and Recusants within the Welsh nobility and commons. In this way, the Bards of Wales were highly important within the Welsh Catholic underground and were how news was spread about secret Masses and pilgrimages.
For these reasons, Dr. William Downham, a former Roman Catholic priest of the Augustinian Brothers of Penitence who had conformed to Anglicanism and been appointed by the Queen as Bishop of Chester, and his officers, "began to molest", Gwyn, "for refusing to receive at their communion table". The Bishop and local statesman Roger Puleston put considerable pressure upon Gwyn, who reluctantly agreed, "greatly against his stomach", to receive Communion at Anglican services the following Sunday. The next Sunday, however, as Gwyn left St. Mary the Virgin Church in Overton-on-Dee following the Anglican service there, he was assaulted and pecked all the way back to his home by a flock of crows and kites. Soon after, Gwyn became so gravely ill that his life was despaired of. Gwyn promised God that if his life were spared, he would return to the Catholic Faith and never again violate his conscience by attending services at a Protestant church. Soon after, the seminary priests began arriving in North Wales from Catholic Europe. Gwyn made his Confession and returned to the religion of his childhood.
Incensed by Gwyn's return to Catholicism, Bishop Downham and the Protestants of Overton made Gwyn's life so unbearable that the schoolmaster and his family fled the Diocese of Chester on foot. After crossing the River Dee and finding a new home in Erbistock, Gwyn set up the Welsh equivalent to an Irish hedge school inside a deserted barn, where he secretly taught the children of local Catholic families. In time, however, Gwyn was forced to flee from Erbistock as well to avoid arrest.
On a Wednesday night early in 1579, Richard Gwyn was arrested by the Vicar of Wrexham, Dr.. Hugh Soulley a former Roman Catholic priest who had conformed to Anglicanism and married, during a visit to the city's Cattle Market. Gwyn was confined to Wrexham Jail, where he was offered his liberty if he would conform to the Established Church. When he refused, Gwyn was told that he would appear before the magistrates the following day. That very night, Gwyn escaped and remained a fugitive for a year and a half.
Imprisonment
Recapture
After eighteen months on the run, Gwyn was on the way one afternoon in July 1580 into Wrexham in order to deliver a secret message that a priest was urgently needed. During his journey, Gwyn was recognized on the public highway by David Edwards, a wealthy Puritan cloth merchant. Even though English law at the time did not permit what is now called a citizen's arrest, Edwards ordered Gwyn to stop. When the latter refused, Edwards drew his dagger and attacked Gwyn, who defended himself with his staff and struck the Puritan such a severe blow on the head that Edwards was thrown to the ground. Gwyn thought at first that he had killed Edwards and stood in silent horror until the Puritan began showing signs of life. Gwyn then took to his heels. Edwards followed in pursuit and cried, "Stop thief! Stop thief!" The Puritan's servants were cutting hay nearby and, hearing their master's cries, they surrounded Gwyn and seized him.
David Edwards brought Gwyn into his own house, and kept him there in heavy bolts and chains while the magistrates were summoned. After the magistrates took charge of him, Gwyn was taken to Wrexham prison and lodged in an underground dungeon known as "The Black Chamber" (Middle Welsh: Siambrddu).
After laying on the cold ground in the Black Chamber for two days, Gwyn was brought before the Justice of the Peace, Robert Puleston, who ordered that Gwyn be sent to Ruthin Castle and, "very straitly guarded as being vehemently suspected of high treason." For this reason, Gwyn spent his first three months in Ruthin Castle wearing, "strong handbolts on his arms, and a huge pair of bolts on both heels, which were so placed that he could not lie on his side, but, whenever he would sleep, must needs lie on his back or his belly."
At the Michaelmas Assizes in 1580, Gwyn was offered his freedom if he would agree to attend Anglican services and to give up the names of the Catholic parents in Erbistock whose children he had taught. Gwyn refused and was returned to Ruthin Castle. By this time, however, Gwyn's jailer, "understanding that he had merely a prisoner for religion to deal with, remitted some part of his former rigour towards him."
Around Christmas 1580, all the prisoners at Ruthin Castle were transferred to Wrexham Jail, where the new jailer greeted Gwyn, "with a great pair of shackles, which was compelled to wear both night and day all the year following."
When brought before the next Assizes, Gwyn again refused to conform.
"Brawling in Church"
When the May Assizes were held at Wrexham in 1581, the Chief Justice of Chester, Sir George Bromley, ordered that Gwyn be "taken to church" by force. Gwyn was carried upon the shoulders of six men into St. Giles' Church in Wrexham. Gwyn was carried around the font and laid in heavy shackles before the pulpit to hear the sermon of an Anglican clergyman named Thomas Jones. However, Gwyn, "so stirred his legs that with the noise of his irons the preacher's voice could not be heard." Sir George Bromley ordered that, as punishment, Gwyn was to be placed in the stocks between 10:00am and 8:00pm and sermonized the whole time by Anglican ministers. One Anglican clergyman, who had a very large red nose, attempted to debate with Gwyn concerning the Keys of the Church, which the minister alleged were given just as much to him as to St. Peter the Apostle. "There is this difference", Gwyn replied, "namely, that whereas Peter received the Keys to the Kingdom of Heaven, the keys you received were obviously those of the beer cellar."
At 8:00 pm, Gwyn was finally released from the stocks and limped back to his cell, followed the whole way by the jeering laughter of David Edwards, the Puritan cloth merchant who had arrested him.
At his next court appearance, Gwyn learned he had been indicted and would be tried for the additional charge of "brawling during divine service." However, as James Garm, the clerk of court, began to read the indictment before the jury, he found himself unable to continue doing so and handed it to someone else. When Sir George asked Garm what was the matter, the clerk replied, "I do not know what has happened to my eyes, but I cannot see." Bromley replied, "Speak softly lest the Papists make a miracle of that." Richard Gwyn was found guilty by the jury and fined one hundred marks (£140).
In September 1581, Gwyn was moved to Denbigh Castle and was again brought before Sir George Bromley. Gwyn was fined £280 for refusing to attend Anglican Sunday Services under the penal statute setting the fine for that offence at £20 per month. This fine was in addition to Gwyn's previous fine of £140 for "brawling during divine service". Gwyn replied that he had some funds and could make some payment toward his fines. When Bromley asked what amount he could pay, Gwyn answered, "Six-pence". Outraged, Bromley ordered that Gwyn be returned to prison with extra irons.
Three Recusants
At that same assizes, Gwyn was soon joined at Denbigh Castle by two other Catholic prisoners, John Hughes and Robert Morris. In the spring of 1582, they were returned to Wrexham and brought before the Assizes. Instead of being charged or tried with an offence, the judge had ordered that the three Recusants were to hear a sermon by an Anglican clergyman, whose name does not survive, but who is described as a Zwinglian and as the illegitimate son of a Roman Catholic priest. "Their complaint to the judges proving vain", all three prisoners started to heckle the minister (one in Welsh, the second in Latin, and the third in English) until the whole exercise had to be abandoned.
At the same assizes, a complaint was filed against the Sheriff, Edward Hughes of the Holt, for showing allegedly excessive leniency towards the three Recusant prisoners. In response, a committee of four overseers was appointed, which included both Rev. Hugh Soulley and David Edwards, "in order to see to it that no one had access to the prisoners except their wives, and that no relief was given them."
From his position on the committee, Puritan cloth merchant David Edwards continued his persecution of Richard Gwyn. On one occasion, as Gwyn was standing in irons and holding his infant child at the door of Wrexham Jail, Edwards crossed the road and threw Gwyn backward onto the stones. It is said that Edwards left the imprint of the nails on his boots upon Gwyn's face and severely endangered the infant's life.
On another occasion, Edwards instructed his wife and daughter to testify before Judge Jevan Lloyd of Yale (Plas yn Iâl) that they had seen Richard Gwyn outside Wrexham Jail. The jailor, however, M. Coytmore was able to prove in court that the man they had seen outside the Jail was Judge Jevan Lloyd, rather than Richard Gwyn.
When the Michaelmas Assizes were held at Holt in 1582, Gwyn, Hughes, and Morris were indicted and tried for high treason based on the allegedly perjured testimony of Lewis Gronow of Meriadoc and Rev. Robert Clarke, the new Vicar of Wrexham. The case for the prosecution, however, seems to have broken down. Also, that following Christmas, the new Sheriff, Jevan Lloyd of Yale, relieved the committee of overseers of their offices and loaded Gwyn, Hughes, and Morris down with heavy irons.
Torture
In May 1583 an order was given for the removal of Gwyn, Hughes, and Morris to the jurisdiction of the Council of Wales and the Marches along with the Roman Catholic priest Fr. John Bennett and the layman Henry Pugh.The following November, all five suffered torture at Bewdley and at Bridgnorth Castle by being, "laid to the manacles (a kind of torture at the Council, not inferior to the rack at the Tower of London)."
At about seven or eight on the morning of 27 November 1583, Gwyn was interrogated by Richard Atkyns, the Attorney-General of Wales and the Marches, at the latter's own home. In particular, Atkyns demanded to know Gwyn's opinion of the 1570 papal bull Regnans in Excelsis, in which Pope Pius V had declared Queen Elizabeth I excommunicated and deposed for both heresy and religious persecution of the Catholic Church in England and Wales as well as in Ireland. Gwyn replied, "Notwithstanding that Bull (the which I never saw), I believe and confirm that she is our lawful Queen."
Atkyns, however, was unmoved and, from nine o'clock in the morning until dinner time that very day, Gwyn was tortured by being put to the manacles. According to a contemporary account, Gwyn "bestowed all the time of his torments in continual prayer, by craving of God for his tormentors mercy and forgiveness, and for himself safe deliverance from their malice by the merits of Jesus Christ His Passion; and this he did with a loud voice."
It is written, however, that Gwyn's interrogators, "seemed to be tormented with his words, as if they were possessed". Sir George Bromley responded in a rage, "There is no more pity to be had on thee than a mad dog! Wretches like you should all be hanged!"
Gwyn replied, "I pray you put me to death... and therein you shall do me greater pleasure than to kill me continually with torments."
Gwyn then fell to praying in silence and made no further answer to the demands of the interrogators, until at dinnertime, the interrogators finally took Gwyn down and left him alone with the manacles. Immediately after dinner, Gwyn was visited by the Councillors of Wales and the Marches; Sir George Bromley, Henry Townsend, Fabian Phillips, William Leighton of Plaish Hall, and Simon Thelwall. They were accompanied by deputy solicitor Thomas Evans and Thomas Sherer, the Keeper of the Judicial Seal of Montgomery and Examiner before the Council of the Marches. After a brief examination, the Councillors departed and Sherer continued the interrogation accompanied by threats of further torture. Although Gwyn remained in the same room with the manacles for two hours afterwards and fully expected to be laid to them a second time, "God protected him from any further cruelty at that time."
Soon afterwards, Gwyn, Hughes, and Morris were returned to Wrexham Jail, where the 1584 spring assizes were allowed to proceed without any further efforts to prosecute them.
Trial
Preliminary hearing
On Friday 9 October 1584, Richard Gwyn, John Hughes, and Robert Morris were arraigned at Wrexham before a panel of judges headed by the Chief Justice of Chester, Sir George Bromley, as well as Simon Thelwall, Piers Owen, Dr. Ellis Price, Roger Puleston, Jevan Lloyd of the Yale, and Owen Brereton. Upon coming before the court, Gwyn made the Sign of the Cross, "for which he was mocked and derided by a young man named Francis Bromley, a relative of the Chief Justice."
As the indictment was read aloud by the clerk of court, all three prisoners learned that they stood accused of high treason under the Act of Supremacy 1558 and the Religion Act 1580. Like all other British subjects tried for the same offence prior to the Treason Act 1695, Richard Gwyn, John Hughes, and Robert Morris were forbidden the services of a defence counsel and forced to act as their own attorneys.
When the prisoners were asked by the court how they wished to be tried, Gwyn responded, "We will be tried by you, who are the justices of the bench; for you are wise and learned, and better able to discern the equity of our cause than the simple people of our own country, altogether unacquainted in such matters."
It has been suggested that Gwyn's reason for requesting a bench trial rather than a trial by jury, "was to save the jury from the guilt of his blood, but no notice was taken of his request, as was inevitable, and a jury was empanelled."
According to Malcolm Pullan, "No one wished to sit on the jury so a collection of the local anti-Catholic riff-raff had to be paid to do jury service."
Testimony
Lewis Gronow deposed, "that the said three prisoners were in hand with him on a Sunday in July an. Dom. 1582, to become a Papist; secondly that he had heard them also to acknowledge", Pope Pius V, "to be the Supreme Head of the Church; thirdly, that he had heard", Richard Gwyn, " in plain terms to affirm the Pope now living to have the same authority which Christ gave to Peter."
Edward Erles also "deposed that he had heard", Gwyn, "rehearse certain rhymes of his own making against married priests and ministers; secondly, that he called the Bible a babble; thirdly that he termed Justice Bromley ustus y fram; and fourth that he defended the Pope's authority."
Howell David, the cousin of Gwyn's codefendant John Hughes, deposed against Gwyn, "that he had heard him complain of this world; and secondly, that it would not last long, thirdly, that he hoped to see a better world; and, fourthly, that he confessed the Pope's supremacy." The same witness also gave evidence against his own kinsman John Hughes and, very likely for this reason, Howell David, "had managed to secure his property."
The three prisoners then pointed out that Lewis Gronow, witness for the prosecution, had previously been upon the pillory for procuring the perjured testimony of Mr. Tudor Robert in another case. Richard Gwyn also denied ever having met Lewis Gronow.
John Hughes then called a witness of his own, who asserted that both Lewis Gronow and Edward Erles had been bribed with sixteen shillings each for bearing false witness in a previous case.
According to Malcolm Pullan, "The jury were understandably disturbed by this revelation, but the trial continued."
An Elizabethan English account of the trial, "corroborates this and says that the money was given them by Jevan Lloyd of Yale, the year he was Sheriff" and their perjured testimony on promise of bribery had been arranged by the Vicar of Wrexham.
In response, however, Justice Simon Thelwall, "asked various questions", of the defendants, "with a view of showing the jury that all three prisoners were obstinate Papists". Thelwall then, "roved over the insurrection in the north", the excommunication of the Queen by Pope Pius V in the papal bull Regnans in excelsis, "Story and Felton", Fr. Nicholas Sanders and the Second Desmond Rebellion, "Campion and his fellows, Arden and Sommerfield, Francis Throckmorton; aggravating the prisoners to be of one religion with the person's before named and recited". In response, Gwyn, Hughes, and Morris, "protested their innocence."
Deliberation & verdict
The jury was reportedly so visibly unhappy with the contradictory evidence they had heard that, before they retired for deliberation, Sir George Bromley threatened them "with dire consequences if they did not bring in a guilty verdict after they retired for the night". Sir George also, "appointed the pronotary to read the commission from the Privy Council"; which was signed by Sir Thomas Bromley, the Lord Chancellor, Sir Henry Sidney, Lord President of the Marches, Sir Francis Walsingham, the Queen's Principal Secretary, Sir James Croft, and many other senior officials. This further had the effect of, "terrifying the simple men with the sight of the commission from higher powers". The jury then retired for their deliberations to St Giles' Church, where they remained with their keeper the whole night following.
After an hour of deliberation, however, two members of the jury "were sent for to confer with the judges, to know of them, whom they should acquit, and whom they should find guilty."
At 8:00 AM on Saturday 10 October 1584, the jury returned with a verdict.
Richard Gwyn and John Hughes were found guilty of high treason. Robert Morris "was acquitted to his great sorrow" and publicly wept.
Gwyn replied to the verdict by saying in Ecclesiastical Latin, Non audent aliter dicere propter metum Judeorum ("They dare not say otherwise for fear of the Jews"), a reference to John 7:13.
Sentencing
As Sir George Bromley was absent, Simon Thelwall then proceeded to pass sentence. John Hughes was reprieved and Richard Gwyn was condemned to death by hanging, drawing and quartering upon the following Thursday, 15 October 1584. As the capital sentence was being pronounced upon him, Richard Gwyn, "did not change countenance". When the judge was finished, Gwyn calmly asked, "What is all this? Is it any more than one death?"
Catherine Gwyn and Mrs. John Hughes then arrived, each carrying a newborn baby, both of whom had recently been conceived by the defendants due to the Jailer, Mr. Coytmore, who had granted both Recusants an unauthorized parole in order to visit their wives.
As Judge Thelwall proceeded to admonish both women not to follow their husbands' example, Catherine Gwyn angrily replied, "If you lack blood, you may take my life as well as my husband's; and if you will give the witnesses a little bribe, you may call them; they will bear evidence against me as well as they did against him." Mrs. Hughes spoke similarly, and both women were accordingly imprisoned for contempt of court, but soon afterwards were released on bail.
Death
Last days
On Tuesday 13 October 1584 Richard Gwyn was visited in Wrexham Jail by "a gentleman", who, "in the Sheriff's name offered to discharge him of all his troubles, if he would acknowledge the Queen Supreme Head of the Church within her own dominions; but the man, being constant, refused to purchase his own liberty so dear." On the same day Gwyn, "sent his signet or seal of brass off his finger to a gentleman, his very familiar friend."
On Wednesday 14 October 1584 Catherine Gwyn visited her husband, who blessed and kissed twenty-four silk laces, which were coloured white as a pun regarding his surname. Gwyn instructed his wife to give twelve of the laces as gifts in his name to twelve underground Roman Catholic priests. Gwyn then instructed his wife to give the other dozen laces as gifts to twelve members of the local Welsh nobility, "to whom he was greatly beholden.
Gwyn then bent a single penny, which he blessed and instructed his wife to deliver to his spiritual director. Gwyn also "caused his garters to be given [to] two priests of his very familiar acquaintance."
Final day
On the morning of Thursday 15 October 1584 Catherine Gwyn saw the Puritan cloth merchant David Edwards passing by Wrexham Jail and cried out, "God be a righteous judge between thee and me!" According to a contemporary account, however, Richard Gwyn, "rebuked her, saying that, if they did not forgive now freely, all their labours would be lost."
At about 10:00 in the morning, Gwyn heard, a great noise in the backside of", Wrexham Jail and demanded to know what it was. He was told that it was Mrs. Coytmore, the Jailer's wife, making, "lamentation for him".
The Coytmores had grown very fond of Richard Gwyn during his imprisonment and, possibly as punishment for his many acts of leniency, Mr. Coytmore had been ordered to act as Gwyn's executioner.
Despite this, however, when he learned of the reason for Mrs. Coytmore's weeping, Gwyn said to his wife, "I pray thee, Catherine, go and comfort her."
As Catherine left to fulfill his request, Gwyn went down to the ground floor of Wrexham Jail. Even though this was, according to Malcolm Pullan, the level as, "where common thieves were kept", all of the prisoners, among whom were "diverse children", were weeping over Gwyn's execution. Gwyn laid his hands upon the head of each prisoner and, "prayed God to bless them". Gwyn then beheld a large number of people outside the Jail, who had also come to say goodbye to him. Reaching his hands through the window, Gwyn grasped each person by the hand and took leave of them one by one. One local member of the Welsh nobility who had been Gwyn's pupil, especially "made great lamentations", but Gwyn told him, "Weep not for me, for I do but pay the rent before the rent-day."
Gwyn then distributed five shillings in small silver coins, which a local Recusant had sent to be given away by Gwyn's own hands, to the poor from the door of Wrexham Jail. Before leaving for the place of execution, Gwyn gave his wife eleven shillings and his rosary, which, according to a contemporary account, "was all the wealth he left her."
Soon after, the Sheriff, Piers Owen, came in to tell Gwyn to prepare for death. Gwyn kissed his wife and Mrs. John Hughes goodbye and blessed his infant son, who was only one month old, by making the Sign of the Cross upon his forehead.
John Hughes and Robert Morris asked leave to be present at Gwyn's execution, which was refused. So instead, all four knelt to receive his blessing. Gwyn prayed for God to stand by them and then went to the sled which had been provided, instead of a hurdle, to drag him to the place of execution.
Martyrdom
As Gwyn stepped through the prison door, he said, "In the name of Jesus". Upon arriving at the sled, he first made the Sign of the Cross before his arms were tied behind his back. As Gwyn was laid upon the sled, a heavy rain began to fall and continued until the moment of Gwyn's death. Meanwhile, Gwyn prayed the rosary the whole way to the gallows, "using the end of a string wherewith he held up his irons instead of beads."
As Gwyn arrived at the gallows, which had been erected in the Beast Market of Wrexham, he turned to the people and said, "God is merciful to us; behold the elements shed tears for our sins."
Gwyn then climbed the ladder to the gallows, where Mr. Coytmore, who had been ordered to serve as the executioner, knelt down and asked for his forgiveness. Gwyn replied, "I do forgive thee before God, and I wish thee no more harm than I wish my own heart."
Owen Brereton then asked Gwyn if he would like a priest. Gwyn replied, "Yea, with all my heart, but I will have no minister."
Sheriff Piers Owen then asked Gwyn, "whether he repented of his treasons and asked the Queen's forgiveness". Gwyn replied, "I never committed any treasons against her any more than your father or grandfather did, unless it be treason to fast and pray."
The Vicar of Wrexham then asked Gwyn, "if he acknowledged the Queen's supremacy over the Church", and Gwyn replied, "that he acknowledged her to be lawful Queen of England".
Stunned, the Vicar asked why Gwyn had not mentioned this at his trial. Gwyn responded, "The question was not asked me; but I told the Council at another time that I was her poor subject, and that I prayed for Her Majesty. Mine examinations are to be seen, and my hand to the same; search the records, and you shall find this to be true. Moreover, that I offered to go out of the realm to pleasure them, or into rocks and deserts, yea, if it were possible, under the ground, to use my conscience in the least offensive manner I might, or into whatever place it might pleasure my Prince to send me; but nothing will serve."
Addressing the crowd, Gwyn expressed his forgiveness of David Edwards and all others who had harmed him. He requested the prayers of all those present. Gwyn then addressed the crowd, saying, "My dear countrymen, remember your souls and do not lose them for this vile transitory muck which Christ hath so dearly bought. This is but one hour's pain to me. And what is that in respect to the torments of Hell which shall never have an end?"
The Sheriff then ordered Coytmore to proceed and all those present fell to their knees to pray for Gwyn. Coytmore allowed Gwyn to continue exhorting all those present to reconcile themselves to the Catholic Church. Coytmore again asked Gwyn's forgiveness and Gwyn replied by kissing the executioner's hand and saying, "I do forgive thee with all my heart; God and our Blessed Lady and St. Michael forgive thee; it is all one to me that thou do this deed as another."
Just before the ladder was turned from under him and Gwyn was hanged, he turned to the crowd and also said, "I have been a jesting fellow, and if I have offended any that way, or by my songs, I beseech them for God's sake to forgive me."
Gwyn then said in Ecclesiastical Latin, "Deus propitius esto mihi peccatori!" ("God, be merciful to me a sinner!"), a quote of Luke 18:13. And the ladder was turned out from under him. For some time he hung silently, beating his breast with both hands. Meanwhile, Mr. Coytmore pulled upon Gwyn's shackles, in which he had been hanged, in the hope of putting him out of his pain.
Fully aware of the Jailer's intentions, Sheriff Piers Owen ordered Mr. Coytmore to cut Gwyn down as soon as he was unconscious. As the inexperienced Mr. Coytmore made a mess of disembowelling the prisoner and burning his entrails before his face, Richard Gwyn revived, but made no sound and continued to beat his breast in penitence, "until the sheriff's men held his arms back by force." At last, Gwyn raised his head, looked down at his own mangled torso, and cried out in Middle Welsh, "O Duw gwyn pybeth y diw hun?!" ("Holy God, what is this?!")
M. Coytmore answered, "It is the execution of the Queen's Majesty."
Richard Gwyn then said his last words, also in Welsh, mere moments before his head was severed, "" ("Jesus, have mercy on me").
After the execution of Richard Gwyn, his head and one of his quarters were spiked upon Denbigh Castle. The other three quarters were similarly displayed at Wrexham, Ruthin Castle, and Holt Castle.
Within seven months of Richard Gwyn's execution, Lewis Gronow confessed to having committed perjury in return for a bribe. The Elizabethan English account of the case alleges that, shortly afterwards, Sir George Bromley lost the use of his reason and, "became an idiot". Simon Thelwall died soon afterwards, as did most of the members of the jury. Furthermore, the Puritan cloth merchant David Edwards allegedly "died a fearful death" during Lent of 1585. Mr. Christopherson, the crier of the court, also lost the use of his reason and was left catatonic. The anonymous author of the account "sees in all these events the finger of Providence."
Bard
When he began working as a village schoolmaster, Richard Gwyn was reportedly fascinated by the Welsh folklore and poetry of the Wrexham area.
At the time, Queen Elizabeth I of England had commanded that the bards of Wales were to be examined by the officials of the Crown and licensed to be allowed to compose Welsh poetry or compete in Eisteddfodau. Poets who were refused a licence, according to Hywel Teifi Edwards, were coercively, "put to some honest work." Richard Gwyn, however, chose to compose poetry anyway. According to an anonymous writer from the Elizabethan era, "As for his knowledge of the Welsh tongue, he was inferior to none in his country, whereto he hath left to posterity some precedent in writing, eternal monuments of his wit, zeal, virtue, and learning."
During the early 20th-century, five works of Welsh poetry in strict meter by St. Richard Gwyn, were identified by John Hobson Matthews of the Catholic Record Society in one of the Llanover Manuscripts. The manuscript containing the poems is dated 1670 and is in the handwriting of the famous Welsh poet Gwilym Puw, a Recusant member of the Welsh aristocracy who fought as a Royalist officer during the English Civil War. John Hobson Matthews found a sixth poem at the Cardiff Free Library (Welsh MS. 23, Ph. 2954 {vol. I, p. 255.}).
Catholic Record Society founder Fr. John Hungerford Pollen wrote that the Richard Gwyn poems discovered by John Hobson Matthews, "fully justify the biographer's praise. 'Wit, zeal, virtue, and learning' are all clearly there."
Prosecution witness Edward Erles had testified that Gwyn was composing anti-Protestant poetry in the Welsh language. This is confirmed by the six poems that have survived in manuscript form, which reveal further why the Queen and her Councillors viewed a Welsh village schoolmaster as such a serious danger to enforcing the Elizabethan religious settlement.
In Wales, whose people have always admired their poets above all others, Richard Gwyn was using both his education and his literary talents to spread the theology of what would later be dubbed the Counter-Reformation through the means of Welsh poetry.
In a poem which Hobson Mathews and Fr. Pollen dubbed "Carol I" ("The Church of God is One") and which begins Gwrando gyngor gwr oth wlad ("Hear the counsel of a man of thy nation"), Gwyn argued that, just as there was only one Garden of Eden and one Ark to save Noah from the Great Flood, there is also only One True Church, the government of which was give by Jesus Christ to St. Peter and to St. Peter's spiritual children. Gwyn then said that the Church is as clearly seen as the sun in the sky and is dowered beyond price, even though smoke is mounting from Satan's pit between the eyes of the blind man and the sky. Gwyn then denounced Martin Luther as a, glafer glec ("cunning flatterer"). Gwyn added that if two Protestants have ever agreed without arguing about points of new doctrine, then Richard Gwyn himself would willingly praise them and become the third member of their denomination. Gwyn continued by accusing Protestants of denying the Christian Bible, Gidai mean gelwydde ("with their mean lies"), as well as the Saints and Doctors of the Church. Gwyn urged his listeners to beware of Protestant ministers and to seek the Catholic Faith, lest, "when night shades fall", they will have to give an account upon the highest hill of why they did not. Gwyn ended the poem by describing himself as a man under the protection of Jesus and who implored God every day to return the Catholic Faith to Wales.
In "Carol II", which begins, Duw a ro yr awen i brudydd o Bryden ("May God send the Muse to a poet of Britain"), Gwyn argued in favour of both having devotion to the Blessed Virgin and of regularly reciting all fifteen decades of the Rosary. In what may have been a subtle dig at the exclusive use of John Calvin's Genevan Psalter in Reformed worship throughout Europe, Gwyn dubbed the rosary, Pllaswyr Fair ("The Psalter of Mary").
In "Carol III", which begins, Gwrandewch ddatcan, meddwl maith ("Hear a song, a great thought,"), Gwyn both summarized and versified Jesuit priest Fr. Robert Persons's 1580 samizdat work, A brief discovrs contayning certayne reasons why Catholiques refuse to goe to Church. All the reasons given by Fr. Persons for Catholics to avoid attending Anglican services were listed by St. Richard Gwyn, "but of course only in brief poetic way."
In "Carol IV", which begins Adda ag Efa ar Neidir fraeth ("Adam and Eve and the smooth-tongued serpent"), Gwyn denounced the theology of the Protestant Reformation and the greed, gluttony, and hedonism of those whom he said preached it. Gwyn alleged that tithe money given to Anglican Vicars went solely to support their luxurious lifestyle. Gwyn also urged his listeners to pay no attention to anyone who preached against devotion to the Blessed Virgin, the Saints, or against the Catholic doctrine of Transubstantiation. At the end of his poem, Gwyn argued that he preferred to have his own head cut off rather than believe in Protestant theology.
In "Carol V", which begins Angau su yn y Sessiwn Mawr ("The Grim Reaper is in the Great Session"), Gwyn began by briefly describing the famous aftermath to the 5 July 1577 trial of printer and bookseller Roland Jenks before the Oxford Assizes for illegally selling Catholic books. Within just a few hours of Jenks being convicted and sentenced to have both of his ears cut off, an epidemic took the lives of the judge, half the members of the Bar present, and large numbers of the bystanders. Taking these events as a springboard, Gwyn argued in favour of a life spent in penance and willing acceptance of martyrdom, so that death will not find each soul unprepared to meet it's Maker. Gwyn accused Protestant royalty, nobles, and ministers of spiritual blindness and inability to lead anyone to salvation. He said that if coughing was good for an old crone, if a fish-hook was good for a fish, of if a hard frost was good at midsummer, than such people had a good conscience. Gwyn concluded by saying that, although he lived under imprisonment, he yet lived in hope.
An 11th-century Statute alleged to be by King Gruffydd ap Cynan of the House of Aberffraw in Gwynedd had been used as the basis for the 1523 Caerwys eisteddfod and all those that have since followed it. Among many other things, the Statute decreed that Welsh bards must never write satirical poetry.
Despite this fact, the sixth Richard Gwyn poem, which was found by John Hobson Matthews at the Cardiff Free Library, is titled Cowydd Marwnadd yn llawn cabledd ir prins o Orens ("Funeral Ode, full of reproach of the Prince of Orange"). The poet is a satirical eulogy and a work of praise poetry in Cywydd-form. It was composed at Wrexham Jail after Balthasar Gérard's 10 July 1584 assassination at Delft of William the Silent, the Calvinist Prince of Orange-Nassau and the English-backed leader of the Dutch Revolt against the rule of King Philip II of Spain.
According to Fr. John H. Pollen, St. Richard Gwyn, "was sometimes carried into the faults usual to men of his ardent character and that he was a good hater as well as a warm lover". Fr. Pollen further writes, "The paean over the assassination of the Prince of Orange", was, "not unnatural considering the circumstances". To Gwyn, "the hyperbolic praises", lavished on the slain Prince by the Elizabethan State, and, "the hypocrisy of persecuting the Catholics" of the British Isles, "because of a political assassination in Holland might, with reason, have exasperated him. Nevertheless, the poem is one which we must now regret, and indeed condemn, for it is plainly wanting both in forbearance and in good feeling."
All six of Gwyn's poems were literally translated into English from the Middle Welsh literary language by John Hobson Matthews and David Lloyd Thomas and bilingually published, side by side, by the Catholic Record Society in 1908.
In 1931, Welsh Bard T.H. Parry-Williams, who at the 1912 National Eisteddfod of Wales at Wrexham had achieved for the first time the almost unheard of feat of winning both the Bardic Chair and the Crown at the same Eisteddfod and who had since become Professor of Welsh at the University of Wales, Aberystwyth, published his own scholarly edition of the complete poems of Richard Gwyn, along with original source material about his life in Middle Welsh, Elizabethan English, and Renaissance Latin.
Investigation, canonization, and feast day
In 1588, a detailed account of Richard Gwyn's martyrdom written by Fr. John Bridgewater in Renaissance Latin was published at Trier, as part of the book Concertatio Ecclesiae Anglicanae.
Following Catholic Emancipation in 1829, an Elizabethan era samizdat manuscript was found at the Mission House of the Catholic Chapel, Holywell". The manuscript, which is titled, "A True Report of the Life and Martyrdom of Mr. Richard White, Schoolmaster, Who suffered on the 15th day of October, an. Dom. 1584", provides a detailed account of Richard Gwyn's life and martyrdom. The contents of the manuscript, which is held in the archives of St. Beuno's College in Tremeirchion, Denbighshire, Wales, were first published in The Rambler in 1860 by Fr. John Henry Newman of the Birmingham Oratory. When checked against other period sources, this Elizabethan English account has been found far more reliable than Fr. Bridgewater's account in Latin, including for the dates of St. Richard Gwyn's trial and even for that of his execution.
Cardinal William Godfrey of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Westminster, submitted 24 potentially miraculous cures to the Sacred Congregation for the Causes of Saints. Out of the candidate cases for recognition as answered prayers, the alleged cure of a young mother from a malignant tumor was selected as the clearest case. In light of the fact that Saints Thomas More and John Fisher, who belonged to the same group of Martyrs, had been canonized in 1935 with a dispensation from miracles, Pope Paul VI, after discussions with the Sacred Congregation, decided that it was permissible under the Code of Canon Law to proceed with multiple Canonizations on the basis of one miracle.
In response, Pope Paul VI granted permission for the whole group of 40 names to be recognized as saints on the basis of this one miracle cure. The canonization ceremony for St. Richard Gwyn took place as part of that for the Forty Martyrs of England and Wales at Rome on 25 October 1970.
Like the other 39 martyrs Canonized with him, St. Richard Gwyn was originally commemorated by the Catholic Church in England with a feast day on 25 October, which is also the feast of Saints Crispin and Crispinian, but he is now venerated together with all the 284 canonized and beatified martyrs of the English Reformation on 4 May.
The Catholic Church in Wales celebrates the feast day of the Six Welsh Martyrs: priests Philip Evans and John Lloyd, John Jones, David Lewis, John Roberts, the layman Richard Gwyn, and their companions, every year on October 25.
Relics of St. Richard Gwyn are available to be venerated at the Gothic revival Church of Our Lady of Sorrows, which began being construction in 1857 and is now the Cathedral Church of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Wrexham. Every year, St. Richard Gwyn is honoured by the Catholics of Wrexham by a religious procession to the site of his execution in the former Beast Market of the city. Along with St. Margaret Clitherow, Gwyn is also the co-patron of the Latin Mass Society of England and Wales, which since 2015 has sponsored an annual pilgrimage to Wrexham and Tridentine Missa Cantata on the closest Sunday to the anniversary of Gwyn's martyrdom.
Other relics of St. Richard Gwyn may be venerated at the Roman Catholic Church of Our Lady and Saint Richard Gwyn in his native town of Llanidloes. The church building began construction during the 1950s next to the Franciscan friary on Penygreen Road. The first Mass was celebrated there on the 18 October 1959.
Commemoration
In 1954, Blessed Richard Gwyn Roman Catholic High School was founded in Flint, Flintshire. Its name was altered slightly following Gwyn's Canonization in 1970. St Richard Gwyn Catholic High School in the Vale of Glamorgan, which was originally named St Cadoc's, was renamed in honour of St Richard Gwyn in 1987.
Quote
From Carol IV:
Nid wrth fwyta cig yn ffêst
A llenwi'r gêst Wenere
A throi meddwl gida'r gwynt,
Yr aethon gynt yn Saintie.
"Not by eating flesh speadily
And filling the paunch on Fridays
And turning one's opinion with the wind
Were folk made Saints of old."
See also
Dissident
Jean de La Ceppède
Joost van den Vondel
Metaphysical poets
Parrhesia
Robert Southwell
Samizdat
Speaking truth to power
References
Further reading
Malcolm Pullan (2008), The Lives and Times of the Forty Martyrs of England and Wales 1535–1680, Athena Press, London
T.H. Parry-Williams (1931), Carolau Richard White, Gwasg Prifysgol Cymru
External links
Edited by Edwin H. Burton & J.H. Pollen, S.J. (1914), Lives of the English Martyrs: Second Series; The Martyrs Declared Venerable. Volume I: 1583–1588 Pages 127–144.
Collected and Edited by John Hungerford Pollen, S.J. (1908), Unpublished Documents Relating to the English Martyrs. Volume I: 1584–1603 Pages 90–99.
Saint Richard Gwyn, The Angelus, October 1978, Volume I, Number 10; by Malcolm Brennan
1530s births
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16th-century Christian saints
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16th-century Welsh poets
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4382576 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fast%20battleship | Fast battleship | A fast battleship was a battleship which in concept emphasised speed without undue compromise of either armor or armament. Most of the early World War I-era dreadnought battleships were typically built with low design speeds, so the term "fast battleship" is applied to a design which is considerably faster. The extra speed of a fast battleship was normally required to allow the vessel to carry out additional roles besides taking part in the line of battle, such as escorting aircraft carriers.
A fast battleship was distinguished from a battlecruiser in that it would have been expected to be able to engage hostile battleships in sustained combat on at least equal terms. The requirement to deliver increased speed without compromising fighting ability or protection was the principal challenge of fast battleship design. While increasing length-to-beam ratio was the most direct method of attaining a higher speed, this meant a bigger ship that was considerably more costly and/or could exceed the naval treaty tonnage limits (where these applied, such as the Washington Naval Treaty shaping naval fleet composition after World War I). Technological advancements such as propulsion improvements and light, high-strength armor plating were required in order to make fast battleships feasible.
Unlike battlecruiser, which became official Royal Navy usage in 1911, the term fast battleship was essentially an informal one. The warships of the were collectively termed the Fast Division when operating with the Grand Fleet. Otherwise, fast battleships were not distinguished from conventional battleships in official documentation; nor were they recognised as a distinctive category in contemporary ship lists or treaties. There is no separate code for fast battleships in the U.S. Navy's hull classification system, all battleships, fast or slow, being rated as "BB".
Origins
Between the origins of the armoured battleship with the French and the Royal Navy's at the start of the 1860s, and the genesis of the Royal Navy's Queen Elizabeth class in 1911, several battleship classes appeared which set new standards of speed. Warrior, at over under steam, was the fastest warship of her day as well as the most powerful. With the increasing weight of guns and armour, this speed was not exceeded until achieved under steam. The Italian of 1880 was a radical design, with a speed of , heavy guns and no belt armour; this speed was not matched until the 1890s, when higher speeds came to be associated with second-class designs such as the of 1895 (18 knots) and the and of 1903 (20 knots). In these late pre-dreadnought designs, the high speed may have been intended to compensate for their lesser staying power, allowing them to evade a more powerful opponent when necessary.
From about 1900, interest in the possibility of a major increase in the speed of Royal Navy battleships was provoked by Sir John ("Jackie") Fisher, Commander-in-Chief of the Mediterranean Fleet. The Senior Officer's War Course of January 1902 was asked to investigate whether a ship with lighter armour and quick-firing medium guns ( calibre), with a advantage in speed, would obtain any tactical advantage over a conventional battleship. It was concluded that "gun power was more important than speed, provided both sides were determined to fight"; although the faster fleet would be able to choose the range at which it fought, it would be outmatched at any range. It was argued that, provided that the fighting was at long range, an attempt by the faster fleet to obtain a concentration of fire by "crossing the T" could be frustrated by a turn-away, leading to the slower fleet "turning inside the circle of the faster fleet at a radius proportional to the difference in speed" (Figure 1). War games conducted by the General Board of the U.S. Navy in 1903 and 1904 came to very similar conclusions.
Fisher appears to have been unimpressed by these demonstrations and continued to press for radical increases in the speed of battleships. His ideas ultimately came to at least partial fruition in the of 1906; like Warrior before her, Dreadnought was the fastest as well as the most powerful battleship in the world.
Early dreadnoughts
Dreadnought was the first major warship powered by turbines. She also included other features indicating an increased emphasis on speed:
An improved hull form was developed, with increased length-to-beam ratio.
The thickness of the main belt was reduced to 11 inches, compared to 12 inches for preceding classes.
The belt terminated at the upper deck, the usual "upper belt" being deleted.
The forecastle was raised, allowing higher sustained speed in heavy seas.
In the decade following the construction of Dreadnought, the Royal Navy's lead in capital ship speed eroded as rival navies responded with their own turbine-powered "dreadnoughts". Meanwhile, in the UK, Fisher continued to press for still higher speeds, but the alarming cost of the new battleships and battlecruisers provoked increasing resistance, both within the Admiralty and from the Liberal government that took office in 1906. As a result, many potentially significant fast battleship designs failed to achieve fruition.
A notable abortive design was the 22,500-ton "X4" design of December 1905. This would have been a true fast battleship by the standards of the time, carrying the same armament and protection as Dreadnought at a speed of . However, the British lead in dreadnought and battlecruiser construction was deemed to be so great that a further escalation in the size and cost of capital ships could not be justified. The X4 design is often described as a "fusion" of the Dreadnought concept with that of the battlecruiser, and it has been suggested that she "would have rendered the s obsolete".
Fisher was again rebuffed in 1909 over the first of the "super-dreadnoughts", the ; of the two alternative designs considered, one of and the other of , the Board of Admiralty selected the slower and cheaper design. Fisher had his dissent recorded in the board minutes, complaining "we should not be outclassed in any type of ship".
Queen Elizabeth class
Fisher's aspirations for faster battleships were not fulfilled until after his retirement in 1910. Following the success of the gun used in the Orion class, the Admiralty decided to develop a gun to equip the battleships of the 1912 construction programme. The initial intention was that the new battleships would have the same configuration as the preceding , with five twin turrets and a speed of . However, it was realised that by dispensing with the amidships turret, it would be possible to free up weight and volume for a much enlarged power plant and still fire a heavier broadside than the Iron Dukes.
Although War College studies had earlier rejected the concept of a fast, light battlefleet, they were now supportive of the concept of a Fast Division of or more, operating in conjunction with a conventional heavy battle line, which could use its advantage in speed to envelop the head of the enemy line (Figure 2). Compared to Fisher's idea of speeding up the entire battlefleet, the advantages of this concept were that there would be no need to compromise the fighting power of the main fleet, and that it would be possible to retain the use of the existing 21-knot ships. Up to this time, it had been assumed that the role of a Fast Division could be fulfilled by the battlecruisers, of which there were ten completed or on order. However, it was realised that there were two problems with this assumption. The first was the likelihood that the battlecruisers would be fully committed in countering the growing and very capable German battlecruiser force. The second was that, as Winston Churchill, First Lord of the Admiralty, put it, our beautiful "Cats" had thin skins compared to the enemy's strongest battleships. It is a rough game to pit ... seven or nine inches of armour against twelve or thirteen".
The new battleships would, in fact, be the most heavily armoured dreadnoughts in the fleet. The original 1912 programme envisaged three battleships and a battlecruiser. However, given the speed of the new ships, it was decided that a new battlecruiser would not be needed. The battleship design for the following year's programme, which became the , also had 15-inch guns, but reverted to the 21-knot speed of the main battlefleet. Again, no battlecruiser was included, a decision which suggests that the fast battleships were perceived at that time as superseding the battlecruiser concept.
Battle of Jutland
When the fast battleship concept was put to the test at the Battle of Jutland, the Queen Elizabeth class ships had been temporarily attached to Vice Admiral David Beatty's Battlecruiser Fleet at Rosyth (this was to release the Invincible-class battlecruisers of the 3rd Battlecruiser Squadron for gunnery practice at Scapa Flow). The Queen Elizabeth ships proved an outstanding success, firing with great rapidity, accuracy and effect, while surviving large quantities of hits from German 28.3-centimetre (11 in) and 30.5-centimetre (12 in) shells and successfully evading the main German battlefleet during the so-called "run to the North". In the fighting, was severely damaged, suffered a steering failure and was obliged to withdraw, while Malaya suffered a serious cordite fire which nearly caused her loss. However, both ships returned safely to port. This was in notable contrast to the performance of the battlecruisers, of which three out of the nine present were destroyed by magazine explosions after a relatively small number of hits.
When the main body of the Grand Fleet came into action, the Queen Elizabeth ships were unable to reach their intended station ahead of the battle line and instead joined the rear of the line, seeing little further action. Meanwhile, the six surviving battlecruisers assumed the "Fast Division" role, operating ahead of the battle line with some success, exploiting their advantage of speed to damage the head of the German line with virtual impunity.
Jutland was a crippling blow to the reputation of the existing battlecruisers. However, it also reinforced the views of Commander-In-Chief Sir John Jellicoe that the Queen Elizabeth ships were too slow to operate with the Battlecruiser Fleet on a permanent basis. Based on combat reports, Jellicoe erroneously credited the German s with , which would mean that Queen Elizabeth ships, which were rated at , would be in serious danger if they were surprised by a battlefleet headed by these ships.
Admiral class
Even before Jutland, Jellicoe had expressed concern at the lack of new construction for the Battlecruiser Fleet and the inadequacy of the ships already provided. Early in 1916, he had rejected proposals for a new fast battleship design, similar to the Queen Elizabeth but with reduced draught, pointing out that, with the five new Revenge-class nearing completion, the fleet already had a sufficient margin of superiority in battleships, whereas the absence of battlecruisers from the 1912 and 1913 programmes had left Beatty's force with no reply to the new 12-inch-gunned German battlecruisers. Jellicoe believed that the Germans intended to build still more powerful ships, with speeds of up to , and hence called for ships to fight them. Although two new battlecruisers ( and ) had been ordered in 1914, and were being constructed remarkably quickly, Jellicoe argued that, although their speed was adequate, their armour protection was insufficient. The 1915 design was therefore recast as a battlecruiser with eight guns, an eight-inch belt, and a speed of . A class of four ships was ordered in mid-1916.
The losses at Jutland led to a reappraisal of the design. As noted above, the British were now convinced that their fast battleships were battleworthy but too slow, and their battlecruisers—even the largest—unfit for sustained battle. As a result, the ships were radically redesigned in order to achieve the survivability of the Queen Elizabeths while still meeting the requirement for battlecruisers, although this reworking was flawed. The resulting ships would be the s; at tons by far the largest warships in the world. In 1917 construction was slowed down to release resources for the construction of anti-submarine vessels; when it became clear that the threatened German battlecruisers would not be completed, the last three were suspended and ultimately canceled, leaving only the lead ship, , to be completed.
Although the Royal Navy designated Hood as a battlecruiser, some naval historians such as Antony Preston characterise her as a fast battleship, as she theoretically had the protection of the Queen Elizabeth ships while being significantly faster. On the other hand, the British were well aware of the protection flaws remaining despite her revised design, so she was intended for the duties of a battlecruiser and served in the battlecruiser squadrons throughout her career, other than a few months assigned to Force H in 1940. Moreover, the scale of her protection, though adequate for the Jutland era, was at best marginal against the new generation of -gunned capital ships that emerged soon after her completion in 1920, typified by the US and the Japanese .
Other designs, 1912–1923
During the First World War, the Royal Navy was unique in operating both a Fast Division of purpose-built battleships and a separate force of battlecruisers. However, from 1912 to 1923 there was a series of advances in marine engineering which would lead to a dramatic increase in the speeds specified for new battleship designs, a process terminated only by the advent of the Washington Naval Treaty. These advances included:
small-tube boilers, allowing more efficient transfer of heat from boiler to propulsive steam;
increases in steam pressure and temperature;
reduction gearing, which allowed propellers to rotate at a slower, and more efficient, speed than the turbines that powered them;
By the early 1920s, the wealth of the U.S. and the ambition of Japan (the two Great Powers least ravaged by World War I) were forcing the pace of capital ship design. The Nagato class set a new standard for fast battleships, with guns and a speed of . The Japanese appear to have shared Fisher's aspiration for a progressive increase in the speed of the whole battlefleet, influenced partly by their success at outmanoeuvring the Russian fleet at Tsushima, and partly by the need to retain the tactical initiative against potentially larger hostile fleets. The immediate influence of the Nagatos was limited by the fact that the Japanese kept their actual speed a closely guarded secret, admitting to only . As a result, the U.S. Navy, which had hitherto adhered steadily to a battlefleet, settled for a modest increase to the same speed in the abortive of 1920.
The Japanese planned to follow up the Nagatos with the , (ten guns, 29.75 knots, 39,900 tons) described as "fast capital ships" and, according to Conway's, representing a fusion of the battlecruiser and battleship types. Meanwhile, the Royal Navy, alarmed at the rapid erosion of its preeminence in capital ships, was developing even more radical designs; the gunned and the , gunned G3 class both of some 48,000 tons. Officially described as battlecruisers, the G3s were far better protected than any previous British capital ship and have generally been regarded, like the Kiis, as true fast battleships. The G3s were given priority over the N3s, showing that they were considered fit for the line of battle, and orders were actually placed. However, both the British and the Japanese governments baulked at the monstrous cost of their respective programmes and ultimately were forced to accede to U.S. proposals for an arms limitation conference; this convened at Washington, D.C. in 1921 and resulted in the 1922 Washington Naval Treaty. This treaty precipitated the demise of the giant fast battleship designs, although the British used a scaled-down version of the G3 design to build two new battleships permitted under the treaty; the resulting vessels were completed with the modest speed of 23 knots.
The Italian s were designed to be similar to the Queen Elizabeth class, with eight 15-inch guns and a top speed of , and therefore can be considered fast battleships. However, construction (begun in 1914–1915) was stopped by the war, and none was ever completed.
Washington Naval Treaty era
The signatories of the Washington Naval Treaty were the U.S., UK, Japan, France, and Italy; at that time the only nations in the world with significant battlefleets. As a result, the terms of the treaty, and the subsequent treaties of London 1930 and London 1936, had a decisive effect on the future of capital ship design. The treaties extended the definition of capital ship to cover all warships exceeding 10,000 tons standard displacement or carrying guns exceeding calibre; imposed limits on the total tonnage of capital ships allowed to each signatory; and fixed an upper limit of 35,000 tons standard displacement for all future construction. These restrictions effectively signaled the end of the battlecruiser as a distinct category of warship, since any future big-gun cruiser would count against the capital ship tonnage allowance. It also greatly complicated the problem of fast battleship design, since the 35,000-ton limit closed off the most direct route to higher speed, as the increasing length-to-beam ratio would have meant a bigger ship.
Evidence of continued interest in high-speed capital ships is given by the fact that, although the signatories of the treaties were allowed to build gunned ships as their existing tonnage became due for replacement, most of them passed up the opportunity to do so, preferring instead lighter-armed but faster ships. A British Admiralty paper of 1935 concludes that a balanced design with speed and 16-inch guns would not be possible within the 35,000 ton limit, since it would be either insufficiently armoured or too slow; it is clear that by this date the speed of the Nelsons was considered insufficient. The recommended design (never built) was one with nine guns and speed "not less than ". The 15-inch-gunned and es, built in the 1930s by Italy and France respectively, reflect similar priorities to the British.
Four capital ships of the treaty era were built to displacements appreciably less than the 35,000-ton limit; the French and and the German and . The was built in response to the German (or "pocket battleship") . The were, in effect, a revival of the late 19th century concept of the commerce-raiding armoured cruiser; long-ranged, heavily armed, and fast enough to evade a conventional capital ship. Likewise, the Dunkerque, can be regarded as a revival of the armoured cruiser's nemesis, the battlecruiser. With 29-knot speed and 330 mm (13 inch) guns, she could operate independently of the fleet, relying on her speed to avoid confrontation with a more powerful adversary, and could easily overtake and overwhelm a Panzerschiff, just as Sturdee's battlecruisers had done to von Spee's cruisers at the Falkland Islands in 1914. On the other hand, as a member of the line of battle, alongside the elderly and slow dreadnoughts that made up the rest of the French battlefleet, the design would make no sense, since her speed would lose its value and neither her armament nor her protection would be at all effective against a modern 16-inch gunned battleship such as Nelson.
The Scharnhorst and Gneisenau were Germany's response to the Dunkerques. They were an attempt to redress the inadequacies of the design in speed, survivability and powerplant (the diesel engines of the were unreliable and produced severe vibration at high speed), and used much material assembled for the programme (most significantly, the six triple gun mountings originally intended for D to F). Although much larger than the Dunkerques, the Gneisenaus were also not intended for the line of battle; apart from their insufficient armament, set-piece battles against the vastly more numerous Allied battlefleets had no place in Germany's strategic requirements. Instead, the two German ships relied throughout their career on their superlative speed (over 32 knots) to evade the attentions of Allied capital ships. On Gneisenau, the nine 28.3 cm SK C/34 guns in three triple turrets were supposed to be replaced with six 38.1 cm SK C/34 guns in twin turrets, which would have rectified her key weakness, but work was cancelled.
The treaties also allowed the reconstruction of surviving battleships from the First World War, including up to additional protection against torpedoes, high-altitude bombing and long-range gunnery. In the late 1930s, the Italian and Japanese navies opted for extremely radical reconstructions: in addition to replacing the powerplant in their existing ships, they lengthened the ships by adding extra sections amidships or aft. This had a double benefit; the extra space allowed the size of the powerplant to be increased, while the extra length improved the speed/length ratio and so reduced the resistance of the hull. As a result, both navies realised significant increases in speed; for example the Japanese was increased from 23 to , and the Italian from . France, the UK and the US took a less radical approach, rebuilding their ships within their original hulls; boilers were converted to oil-firing or replaced, as were the engines in some cases, but increases in the output of the powerplant were generally canceled out by increases in the weight of armour, anti-aircraft armament and other equipment.
The exception to the European battleship trend was Japan, which refused to sign the Second London Treaty. It rather uncharacteristically settled for a moderate speed of 27 knots, for the sake of high levels of protection and firepower in the -gunned, displacement .
After much debate, the US settled on two 35,000 ton classes, also with a speed of 27 knots, in the and es. Due to treaty restrictions, firepower and protection were emphasised first, although both did manage respectable speed increases compared to their World War I contemporaries to be able to operate as carrier escorts. The US signed the Second London Treaty but was quick to invoke an "escalator clause" to increase the main battleship caliber from 14 to 16 inches as Italy and Japan refused to adopt it. This made the North Carolinas somewhat unbalanced ships, being designed to resist shells from the 14-inch guns that it was originally intended to carry, but being up-gunned during construction. The South Dakotas rectified this with protection proof against 16-inch guns. In order to counter the increase in armor weight and stay within tonnage limits, the South Dakota class had to go with a shorter hull to reduce the length of the required protected area, compensating by installing more powerful machinery than in the North Carolinas, and this made the ships somewhat cramped. The balanced 35,000-ton design was achieved by combining highly efficient lightweight double-reduction gear machinery, which reduced the length and volume of the armored citadel, with a sloped internal armored belt, which increased protection without increasing overall armor thickness. The US also used the treaty's "escalator clause" to order the , after Japan's withdrawal from the treaty. With the additional tonnage, the Iowas had new 16-inch guns with a greater maximum range, and they had even more powerful engines and a lengthened hull for a significantly faster speed over the North Carolinas and South Dakotas.
World War II designs
In 1938 the U.S., UK, and France agreed to invoke the escalator clause of the Second London Treaty, allowing them to build up to 45,000 tons standard. By this time, all three Allied nations were already committed to new 35,000-ton designs: the U.S. North Carolina (two ships) and South Dakota (four), the British (five ships) and the French Richelieus (two completed out of four planned, the last of the class, Gascogne, to a greatly modified design).
The UK and U.S. laid down follow-on classes, designed to the 45,000 ton standard, in 1939 and 1940 respectively. The U.S. succeeded in completing four of the intended six Iowa class, but the British were not built; two of the planned four units were laid down in the summer of 1939, but neither was completed because of limited capacity to produce the turrets and guns. They would have embarked nine guns and, at , would have been slightly faster than the King George V class. The UK did complete one final battleship to an "emergency" design, the , a modified Lion design that could use the gun mountings removed from the World War I "large light cruisers" and after their conversion to aircraft carriers. Her design revised during the war to adopt lessons from the loss of other ships, she was completed in 1946 and was similar in speed to the Lions.
The last U.S. battleship design was the first since 1922 to be entirely free of treaty constraints. The huge s represent a return to "normal American practice" in battleship design, with massive protection, heavy firepower, and moderate speed (28 knots). At 60,500 tons standard, they approached the size of the Yamatos, which they resembled in concept. Five of these ships were ordered, but they were ill-suited to the needs of fast carrier task force operations, and none were laid down.
Fleets
The following classes of warship have been considered to be fast battleships, in accordance with the definition used in this article and/or with contemporary usage. The list includes all new construction of the 1930s and 1940s, along with some reconstructions; this reflects the fact that, while not all of these ships were notably fast by contemporary standards of new construction, they were all much faster than the considerable number of capital ships built in the pre-treaty era and still in service at that time. All speeds are design speeds, sourced from Conway's; these speeds were often exceeded on trial, though rarely in service.
Royal Navy
(24 knots): the prototype fast battleship class
(32 knots), the sole member of the , was characterised by the Royal Navy as a battlecruiser throughout her lifetime; nonetheless some modern authorities characterise her as a fast battleship, as she appeared on paper to be an improvement over the Queen Elizabeth class.
(28 knots)
(30 knots)
United States Navy
(28 knots)
(27.5 knots)
(33 knots)
Imperial Japanese Navy
– as reconstructed (30.5 knots). Originally classified as battlecruisers, these ships were reclassified as battleships after their first reconstruction in 1929–1931. Even after a second reconstruction in the late 1930s, they remained relatively weak in armament and protection by Second World War standards.
– as completed (26.5 knots). Unusually for a Japanese design, the speed was reduced to when the class was reconstructed in 1934–1936.
(27 knots)
German Navy
(also known as the ) (31 knots). These ships were officially designated Schlachtschiffe (battleships). The contemporary Royal Navy termed them "battlecruisers", on the basis of their exceptionally high speed and weak armament.
(30.8 knots)
French Navy
(29.5 knots). As with the Gneisenau'' class, the Royal Navy termed these ships "battlecruisers".
(32 knots)
Royal Italian Navy
– as reconstructed, 1933–1937 (27 knots)
– as reconstructed, 1937–1940 (26 knots)
(30 knots).
Notes
References
Battleships
Ship types |
4382733 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marriage%20in%20Hinduism | Marriage in Hinduism | The Hindu marriage () is the most important of all the samskaras, the rites of passage described in the Dharmashastra texts.
Variously defined, it is generally described to be a social institution for the establishment and regulation of a proper relationship between the sexes, as stated by Manu. Marriage is regarded to be a sacrament by Hindus, rather than a form of social contract, since they believe that all men and women are created to be parents, and practise dharma together, as ordained by the Vedas. The Brahmanas state that a man is only said to be "complete" after marrying a woman, and acquiring progeny.
Aspects
Conception
The ideal conception of marriage that was laid down by the ancient Indians is one in which it is a ceremonial gift of a bride (Vadhū) by her father, or another appropriate family member, to a bride-groom (Vara), so that they may fulfil the purposes of human existence together. In such a conception, vivaha, which originally meant the wedding ceremony, but has to acquire the definition of marriage as a whole, is meant for procreation, and the establishment of a family (kutumba). After one's wedding, one is believed to have entered the second stage of life, the grihastha ashrama, performing the duties of a householder.
Goals
In Hinduism, the four goals of life (Purusarthas) are regarded to be righteousness (dharma), wealth (artha), pleasure (kama), and liberation (moksha). Marriage is considered to be necessary to fulfil these goals. The three goals of marriage include allowing a husband and a wife to fulfil their dharma, bearing progeny (praja), and experiencing pleasure (rati). Sexual intercourse between a husband and wife is regarded to be important in order to produce children, but is the least desirable purpose of marriage in traditional Hindu schools of thought.
Age
The Manusmriti states that following menarche, a maiden may wait for three years, after which she may marry. Girls are usually considered to have achieved puberty when they are 16 years old, and are allowed to choose their own husbands if a suitable groom is not procured for them.
Gotra
While Hindu texts prescribe marrying within one's own community, they prohibit individuals from marrying those who belong to their own gotra, or lineage from the same Vedic sage:
Horoscope
The use of jatakam or janmakundali (natal and astrological chart at the time of birth) of one's son or daughter to arrange a marriage with the help of a priest is common, but not universal. Parents also take advice from Brahmin astrologers called 'Jothidar' in Tamil, 'Panthulu or Siddanthi' in Telugu, and Kundali Milan in Hindi, who holds astrological data of those individuals looking to get married. Some communities, like the Brahmins in Mithila, use genealogical records ("Panjikas") maintained by the specialists.
A jatakam or kundali chart is drawn based on the placement of the stars and planets at the time of one's birth. Those individuals who subscribe to Hindu astrology believe that the position of these celestial objects at the time of their birth, and their benefic or malefic influence, influence the auspicious compatibility between a bride and groom. For instance, the planet Venus is believed to be a benefic planet, and influential in terms of marriage. The maximum points for any match can be 36, and the minimum points for matching is 18. Any match with points under 18 is not considered as an auspicious match for a harmonious relationship, but they may still marry if they so choose. If the astrological chart of the two individuals (male and female) achieve the required threshold in points, then further talks are considered for a prospective marriage. The man and woman are given a chance to talk, and understand each other. If both parties consent, an auspicious time is chosen for the wedding to take place.
Types of marriages
Hindu texts such as the Atharvaveda and the Manusmriti III.20-34, identify eight forms of marriage. They are traditionally presented, as here, in order of their religious appropriateness (prashasta). They also differ very widely in social acceptability.
While all of these marriages are recognised, not all have religious sanction; four of them are declared to be righteous, and the other four are stated to be non-righteous.
Brahma marriage
The Brahmavivaha is a righteous form of marriage. It refers to the marriage of one's daughter to a man of good conduct, learned in the Vedas, and invited by oneself. Originally intended only for the Brahmins, a Brahma marriage is where a boy is able to get married once he has completed his education in the first stage of life, the Brahmacharya. Brahma marriage holds the supreme position of the eight types of Hindu matrimony. When the parents of a boy seek a suitable bride, they consider her family background, and the girl's father would ensure that his daughter's prospective groom is a scholar, one who is well-versed in the Vedas.
Daiva marriage
The Daivavivaha is a righteous form of marriage. It is a form of marriage unique to the ancient Brahmins, where a man gifts his richly bedecked daughter's hand in marriage to a priest who officiates at the former's sacrifice ceremony, in lieu of paying the latter a nominal sacrificial fee. This form of a marriage, ranked as the second most meritorious, is regarded to redeem the sins of seven ascendants and descendants. It is called such because it is believed to be worthy of the devas themselves.
Arsha marriage
The Arshavivaha is a righteous form of marriage. It is a form of marriage where a man gifts his daughter as a bride, after receiving one pair of cattle, a cow and a bull, or two pairs from a groom, the exchange being perceived as a matter of the law, rather than the sale of the former's daughter. The sage Yajnavalkya prescribes offering one's maiden daughter as a bride in exchange for a pair of cows.
Prajapatya marriage
The Prajapatyavivaha is a righteous form of marriage. It is a form of marriage where a girl's father gives her hand in marriage to a bridegroom, treating him with respect, and addressing them with the following words: 'May both of you perform together your religious duties' (Sanskrit: Hyā kanyēśīṃ dharmācēṃ ācaraṇa kara, or Prajōtpādanārtha kanyārpaṇa). In a Prajapatya marriage, the bride's father goes in search of a groom, rather than the other way around.
Gandharva marriage
The Gandharvavivaha is a non-righteous form of marriage. It is a form of love marriage that arises out of the mutual love shared between a youth and a maiden, where the primary purpose is sexual intercourse. It is not approved because no consultation of one's family members or the performance of ritual ceremonies take place. It is considered to be permissible to the members of the Kshatriya varna, and only the Vaishya and the Shudra varnas according to Smriti texts, though it has grown increasingly common in the present-day due to the practice of dating among the newer generations.
Asura marriage
The Asuravivaha is a non-righteous form of marriage. It is a form of marriage where a bridegroom receives a maiden, after having given of his own free will as much wealth as he can afford, to the bride, and her kinsmen. As a form of marriage performed by paying a bride price, it is generally stated to be forbidden.
Rakshasa marriage
The Rakshasavivaha is a non-righteous form of marriage. It is the marriage performed after a non-consenting maiden is seized by force or abducted by a man. When such a maiden is abducted, she is described to weep as her relatives are assaulted and slain, and their house is wrecked. The marriage is then celebrated in the absence of the father of the bride by the family of her abductor. It is a reprehensible form of a marriage that is condemned by the Manusmriti, and is punished by law in society in the present-day.
This form of a marriage is different from answering the marriage proposal of a bride, and eloping with her during her svayamvara, the ancient Indian ceremony where a bride chooses her groom from an approved assembly of suitors. For instance, in Hindu mythology, when the deity Krishna elopes with the princess Rukmini during her svayamvara, it is not a form of Rakshasa marriage; while he does take her away in his chariot and fights her attacking family members, she had sought to marry him, and hence consent was present.
Paishacha marriage
The Paishachavivaha is a non-righteous form of marriage. When a man stealthily rapes a woman who is asleep, intoxicated, or mentally challenged, it is regarded to be a marriage, though only to preserve the honour of the woman. This is condemned in the Manusmriti as a sinful act. In modern times, this is classified as a form of date rape, and is a crime in most countries.
James Lochtefeld comments that these last two forms were forbidden, but the marriages themselves were still recognised in ancient Hindu societies, not to allow these acts, but rather to provide the woman and any resulting children with legal protection in the society.
Conjugal forms
While Monogamy was dominant and prevailed in Hinduism and most Hindus of the Indian subcontinent predominantly practise monogamy today, polygamous marriages have also characterized Hindu society for millennia.
Polygyny
Polygyny refers to a form of marriage where a man is married to more than one woman during the same period of time. While monogamy was and still is a sacred form of Hindu cultural ideas, having more than one wife was seen as a deviation from this ideal with some exceptions in the cases where it was tolerated such as if Women turns out to be infertile, deficient, etc. Furthermore, Polygyny was confined to the members of royalty and the aristocracy who were often polygamous for political reasons, prestige, and social status. The Apastamba Dharmasutra, the oldest of the four Dharmasutras encourages practicing monogamy and discourages polygamy if the wife is able to participate in the ritual activities and have children. Polygyny was also sanctioned by ancient law-makers such as Manu and Yajnavalkya and allowed under special circumstances. As per the scholar, The rishis(ancient sages) unequivocally made it clear that the first marriage in its accepted form was a dharmic marriage, a marriage for dharma. Other marriages and unions could not claim this quality. Over time all legal distinctions between them disappeared, but in earlier days polygamous marriages were considered to be somehow deficient in religious quality unless the first wife was lacking in dharmic aspects.
Until the passage of the Hindu Marriage Act of 1955, every Hindu in India was theoretically allowed to have multiple wives.
Polyandry
Polyandry refers to a marriage where a woman is married to more than one man during the same period of time. This form of marriage was exceedingly rare among Hindu society in Indian history, and the Mahabharata's polyandrous marriage of Draupadi to the five Pandava brothers is the most cited example of this custom. Vyasa in Mahabharata, however, does state that it is unusual and not great for a woman to have multiple husbands but it was to be "accepted as the default" referring to certain event. The Aitareya Brahmana too prohibits a woman from having two husbands. The practice of polyandry has historically existed among the Nair community of Kerala, called Sambandam, though its practice is sporadic in the modern period. The Todas of the Nilgiris, the Khasa of Dehradun, and a few communities of northern India are also cited to have been polyandrous. Polyandry is viewed with contempt in India today, a practice little removed from promiscuity on the part of a woman.
Monogamy
Monogamy refers to a marriage where a man is married to only one woman during a given period of time. Ever since the Vedic period, monogamy has been the dominant form of conjugal relationship and form of marriage in India. Monogamy is counselled to men by Vatsyayana, a philosopher and an authority of the Kama Sutra, with the belief that a man is only capable of physically, psychologically, and spiritually pleasing one woman at a time. Hindu texts that permit bigamy and polygyny recommend the monogamous marriage as the most appropriate form of the concept. It is exemplified in Hindu texts such as Ramayana, where Rama is believed to have taken the ekapatnivrata, literally meaning the, 'vow of one wife', the act of fidelity to one wife, Sita, and forbidding himself from engaging in sexual relations with other women.
History
For most of Indian history, women were seen as subservient to the will of her father, and it was thought that unmarried women could not be kept at home – this belief is still held by some. It was – and in some places, still is – thought that one's daughter is only temporary, and that she is meant to be her husband's. The main duty of a girl's parents was, and is, regarded to arrange her marriage. After marriage, a woman is seen as a guest when visiting her natal home, and no longer a member of that family. In Hinduism, the main duty of a woman is serving her husband and family, and several Hindu festivals reflect this, by reinforcing the tradition of a woman fasting, or performing other rituals, to pray for her husband's long life. Dowry, the practice of the bride's family gifting property or money to her husband, is still prevalent despite the enactment of the Dowry Prohibition Act of 1961. Historically, if the amount of dowry was seen as insufficient, the groom's family would take it as an insult, and harass the new bride to ask her family for more dowry.
Contemporary period
Many people believe that arranged marriage is the traditional form of marriage in India; however, the concept of love marriage has gained popularity as well, especially in urban areas. Love marriage differs from arranged marriage in that the couple, rather than the parents, choose their own partner, and that the consent of their parents is not asked for before marrying. The concept of a love marriage is not a novelty in India, as it is regarded to be the equivalent of the gandharva marriage, which is still perceived as not righteous today. Hindu literature does indicate that love marriages were recognised and accepted in ancient times, for example, the legend of Dushyanta and Shakuntala in the Mahabharata. Somewhere in the course of time, arranged marriages became predominant, and love marriages became unacceptable or at least frowned upon.
Despite the rise in the count of Hindus marrying for love, arranged marriages still remain the norm: In a 2012 survey conducted by Ipsos for the TV channel NDTV, 74% of the respondents said that they preferred an arranged marriage. While the vast majority of Hindus continue to have arranged marriages, the prospective spouses usually have more agency in the match today than they did historically.
In a 2014 survey conducted by the United Nations Population Fund and International Center for Research on Women, 11.7% of men and 8.5% of women in India surveyed claimed that they chose their partners, and married with, or without, the consent of their families. The boundaries between the two types of marriage are believed to have started to blur. The term love-arranged marriage is used to describe a new emerging form of marriage, which contains elements of both an arranged marriage and a love marriage. Love marriages are sometimes seen as imposition of the younger generation's will over the older generation's wishes.
Shuddhikaran
In India, when a Hindu and a non-Hindu marry under the Hindu Marriage Act and for the Hindu marriage to be valid, both partners must be Hindu amongst other conditions that also need to be fulfilled, and the non-Hindu partner must convert to Hinduism. A specific kind of ancient ritual is performed before the Hindu marriage called Shuddhikaran which is also practised by members of the Arya Samaj community who started the socio-political Shuddhi Movement that was derived from this ancient rite. The non-Hindu partner is converted to Hinduism through this purification rite before marrying, or else the marriage is regarded to be void, or not legally binding. The Hindu wedding ceremony that follows includes the vows and the saptapadi, the ritual of circling the sacred fire seven times; the completion of the seventh round binds the marriage. This is accepted as a complete, valid marriage in all states of India, and needs no registration with the exception of Goa, that is governed by a single code called Goa civil code, where the registration of marriage is made compulsory as it is accepted as the only proof of marriage.
Same-sex marriage
Hindu literature does not sanction marriage between members of the same sex. The Manusmriti classifies sexual intercourse between men to be an offence in Hinduism, stating that it would lead one to lose their jati.
There are both conservative and liberal views about homosexuality and same-sex marriages in Hinduism, with Hindu priests having performed marriage of same-sex couples. In 2004, Hinduism Today asked Hindu swamis (teachers) their opinion of same-sex marriage. The swamis expressed a range of opinions, positive and negative.
See also
Hindu wedding
Pativrata
Buddhist view of marriage
Weddings in India
Shuddhikaran
Shuddhi (Hinduism)
Interfaith marriage
Jewish views on marriage
Christian views on marriage
Marriage in Islam
References
Family
Vedic customs |
4382952 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aztec%20religion | Aztec religion | The Aztec religion is a polytheistic and monistic pantheism in which the Nahua concept of was construed as the supreme god , as well as a diverse pantheon of lesser gods and manifestations of nature. The popular religion tended to embrace the mythological and polytheistic aspects, and the Aztec Empire's state religion sponsored both the monism of the upper classes and the popular heterodoxies.
The Aztec Empire officially recognized the most popular cults such that the deity was represented in the central temple precinct of the capital . The imperial cult was specifically that of the distinctive warlike patron god of the Mexica . Subjugated peoples were allowed to retain their own religious traditions in conquered provinces so long as they added the imperial god to their local pantheons, while the Empire would often incorporate practices from its new territories into the mainstream religion.
In common with many other indigenous Mesoamerican civilizations, the Aztecs put great ritual emphasis on calendrics, and scheduled festivals, government ceremonies, and even war around key transition dates in the Aztec calendar. Public ritual practices could involve food, storytelling, and dance, as well as ceremonial warfare, the Mesoamerican ballgame, and human sacrifice.
The cosmology of Aztec religion divides the world into thirteen heavens and nine earthly layers or netherworlds. The first heaven overlaps with the first terrestrial layer, so that heaven and the terrestrial layers meet at the surface of the Earth. Each level is associated with a specific set of deities and astronomical objects. The most important celestial entities in Aztec religion are the Sun, the Moon, and the planet Venus (as both "morning star" and "evening star").
Many leading deities of the Aztecs are worshiped in the contemporary or present-day world. These deities are known by names such as Tlaloc, Quetzalcoatl and Tezcatlipoca, who are venerated by different names in multiple cultures and have been throughout the history of Mesoamerica. For the Aztecs, deities of particular importance are the rain god Tlaloc; Huitzilopochtli, patron of the Mexica tribe; Quetzalcoatl, the feathered serpent and god of wind and learning; and Tezcatlipoca, the shrewd, elusive god of destiny and fortune. Tezcatlipoca was also connected to war and sorcery. Tlaloc and Huitzilopochtli were worshipped in shrines at the top of the largest pyramid (Templo Mayor) in the Aztec capital Tenochtitlan. A third monument in the plaza in front of Templo Mayor was devoted to the wind god, Ehecatl, who was an aspect or form of Quetzalcoatl.
Teotl
Nahua metaphysics centers around , "a single, dynamic, vivifying, eternally self-generating and self-regenerating sacred power, energy or force." This is conceptualized in a kind of monistic pantheism as manifest in the supreme god , as well as a large pantheon of lesser gods and idealizations of natural phenomena such as stars and fire. Priests and educated upper classes held more monistic views, while the popular religion of the uneducated tended to embrace the polytheistic and mythological aspects.
is sometimes translated as "god", but it held more abstract aspects of divinity or supernatural energy, akin to the Polynesian concept of Mana.
In first contact with the Spanish prior to the conquest, emperor Moctezuma II and the Aztecs generally referred to Cortés and the conquistadors as "". Some historians interpret this to mean that the Aztecs believed them to be gods, but a better understanding of suggests that they were being referred to as "mysterious" or "inexplicable".
Pantheon
The Aztecs would often adopt gods from different cultures and allow them to be worshiped as part of their pantheon. For example, the fertility god, Xipe Totec, was originally a god of the Yopi (the Nahuatl name of the Tlapanec people), but became an integrated part of the Aztec belief system. Further, sometimes foreign gods would be identified with an already existing god. Other deities, such as Tezcatlipoca and Quetzalcoatl, had roots in earlier civilizations of Mesoamerica, and were worshiped by many cultures under different names.
The many gods of the Aztecs can be grouped into complexes related to different themes. Some were associated with aspects of nature, such as Tlaloc and Quetzalcoatl, and other gods were associated with specific trades. Reflecting the complexity of ritual in Aztec society, there were deities related to pulque, a sacred alcoholic beverage, but also deities of drunkenness, excess, fun, and games. Many gods had multiple aspects with different names, where each name highlighted a specific function or trait of the god. Occasionally, two distinct gods were conflated into one, and quite often, deities transformed into one another within a single story. Aztec images sometimes combined attributes of several divinities.
Aztec scholar H. B. Nicholson (1971) classed the gods into three groups according to their conceptual meaning in general Mesoamerican religion. The first group he called the "celestial creativity—divine paternalism group". The second: the Earth-mother gods, the pulque gods, and Xipe Totec. The third group, the War-Sacrifice-Sanguinary Nourishment group, contained such gods as Ometochtli, Huitzilopochtli, Mictlantecuhtli and Mixcoatl. A more specific classification based upon the functional attributes of the deities is as follows:
Cultural God
Tezcatlipoca: meaning "smoking mirror", a Pan-Mesoamerican shaman god, omnipotent universal power
Quetzalcoatl: meaning "feathered serpent", a Pan-Mesoamerican god of life, the wind and the morning star
Tlaloc: a Pan-Mesoamerican god of lightning, rain, water, and thunder
Mixcoatl: meaning "cloud serpent", the tribal god of many of the Nahua people such as the Tlaxcalteca, god of war, sacrifice and hunting
Huitzilopochtli: meaning "left-handed hummingbird", the patron god of the Mexica of Tenochtitlan, the sun
Nature gods
Metztli: the moon
Tlaltecuhtli: meaning "earth lord", goddess of the Earth
Chalchiuhtlicue: meaning "jade her skirt", goddess of springs
Centzon Huitznahua: meaning "the 400 southerners", gods of the stars
Ehecatl: the wind, often conflated with Quetzalcoatl and called "Quetzalcoatl-Ehecatl"
Gods of creation
Ōmeteōtl/Tōnacātēcuhtli: creator gods
Huehuetéotl/Xiuhtecuhtli: meaning "old god" and "turquoise lord", god of origin, time, fire and old age
Coatlicue/Toci/Teteoinnan/Tonantzin: progenitor goddesses
Lords of the Night
Xiuhtecuhtli: god of fire and time
Tezcatlipoca: god of providence, the darkness and the invisible, lord of the night, ruler of the North.
Piltzintecuhtli: god of visions, associated with Mercury (the planet that is visible just before sunrise or just after sunset) and healing
Centeotl: god of maize
Mictlantecuhtli: god of the Underworld (Mictlan)
Chalchiuhtlicue: goddess of running water, lakes, rivers, seas, streams, horizontal waters, storms, and baptism.
Tlazolteotl: goddess of lust, carnality, and sexual misdeeds.
Tepeyollotl: god of the animals, darkened caves, echoes, and earthquakes. Tepeyollotl is a variant of Tezcatlipoca and is associated with mountains.
Tlaloc: god of rain, lightning and thunder. He is a fertility god.
Lords of the Day
Xiuhtecuhtli: god of fire and time
Tlaltecuhtli: old god/goddess of earth (changed in the landscape and atmosphere)
Chalchiuhtlicue, goddess of running water, lakes, rivers, seas, streams, horizontal waters, storms, and baptism.
Tonatiuh: god of the Sun
Tlazolteotl: goddess of lust, carnality, and sexual misdeeds.
Mictlantecuhtli: god of the Underworld (Mictlan)
Mictecacihuatl: goddess of the Underworld (Mictlan)
Centeotl: god of maize
Tlaloc: god of rain, lightning and thunder. He is a fertility god.
Quetzalcoatl: god of life, light and wisdom, lord of the winds and the day, ruler of the West.
Tezcatlipoca: god of providence, the darkness and the invisible, lord of the night, ruler of the North.
Tlahuizcalpantecuhtli: god of dawn (Venus)
Citlalicue: goddess of female stars in the Milky Way.
Citlalatonac: god of female stars (Husband of Citlalicue)
Gods of pulque and excess
Tlazolteotl: goddess of filth, guilt, and of cleansing
Tepoztecatl: god of pulque worshipped at Tepoztlan
Xochiquetzal: goddess of pleasure, indulgence, and sex
Mayahuel: goddess of pulque and maguey
The Ahuiateteo:
Macuiltochtli
Macuilxochitl
Macuil Cuetzpalin
Macuilcozcacuauhtli
Macuil Malinalli
Centzon Totochtin: meaning "the 400 rabbits", god of intoxication
Ometochtli: meaning "two rabbit", leader of the Centzon Totochtin, god of fertility and intoxication
Gods of maize and fertility
Xipe Totec: meaning "our flayed lord", fertility god associated with spring, patron god of goldsmiths
Centeotl: god of maize
Chicomecoatl: goddess of agriculture
Xilonen: goddes of tender maize
Xochipilli: meaning "flower prince", god of happiness, flowers, pleasure, and fertility
Gods of death and the underworld
Mictlantecuhtli: lord of the underworld
Mictlancihuatl: queen of the underworld
Xolotl: meaning "the animal", lord of the evening star
Trade gods
Yacatecuhtli: meaning "nose lord", god of merchants
Patecatl: god of doctors and medicine
Religion and society
Religion was part of all levels of Aztec society. On the state level, religion was controlled by the Tlatoani and the high priests governing the main temples in the ceremonial precinct of the Aztec capital of Tenochtitlan. This level involved the large monthly festivals and a number of specific rituals centered around the ruler dynasty and attempted to stabilize both the political and cosmic systems. These rituals were the ones that involved a sacrifice of humans. One of these rituals was the feast of Huey Tozoztli, when the ruler himself ascended Mount Tlaloc and engaged in autosacrifice in order to petition the rains. Throughout society, each level had their own rituals and deities and played their part in the larger rituals of the community. For example, the class of Pochteca merchants were involved in the feast Tlaxochimaco, where the merchant deity would be celebrated and slaves bought on specific slave markets by long-distance traders would be sacrificed. On the feast of Ochpaniztli all commoners participated in sweeping the streets. Afterwards, they also undertook ritual bathing. The most spectacular ritual was the New Fire ceremony which took place every 52 years and involved every citizen of the Aztec realm. During this, commoners would destroy house utensils, quench all fires, and receive new fire from the bonfire on top of Mt. Huixachtlan, lit on the chest of a sacrificed person by the high priests.
Women were also a vital part of Aztec society and religion. Many women had the right to land and the ability to vote on important issues. The Aztec deities also reflected this, as many of the essential deities were women.
Priests and temples
In the Nahuatl language, the word for priest was teopixqui – meaning "god guard". These men were seen as prominent leaders of the community who taught various ideas and morals to the public. Tlamacazqui the "giver of things" ensured that the gods were given their due in the form of offerings, ceremonies, and sacrifices.
The Tlatoani of Tenochtitlan was the head of the cult of Huitzilopochtli and of the state religion of the Aztec empire. He had special priestly duties in different rituals on the state level.
However, the Aztec religious organization was not entirely under his authority. Bernardino de Sahagún and Duran describe the pairs of high priests (quetzalcoatlus) who were in charge of the major pilgrimage centres (Cholula and Tenochtitlan) as enjoying immense respect from all levels of Aztec society—akin to archbishops—and a level of authority that partly transcended national boundaries. Under these religious heads were many tiers of priests, priestesses, novices, nuns, and monks (some part-time) who ran the cults of the various gods and goddesses. Sahagún reports that the priests had very strict training, and had to live very austere and ethical lives involving prolonged vigils, fasts, and penances. For instance, they often had to bleed themselves and undertake prescribed self-mortifications in the buildup to sacrificial rites.
Additionally, Sahagún refers to classes of religious specialists not affiliated with the established priesthood. This included wandering curers, black magicians, and other occultists (of which the Aztecs identified many types, most of which they feared) and hermits. Finally, the military orders, professions (e.g. traders (pochteca)) and wards (calpulli) each operated their own lodge dedicated to their specific god. The heads of these lodges, although not full-time religious specialists, had some ritual and moral duties. Duran also describes lodge members as having the responsibility of raising sufficient goods to host the festivals of their specific patron deity. This included annually obtaining and training a suitable slave or captive to represent and die as the image of their deity in that festival.
Aztec temples were basically offering mounds: solid pyramidal structures crammed with special soils, sacrifices, treasures and other offerings. Buildings around the base of the pyramid, and sometimes a small chamber under the pyramid, stored ritual items and provided lodgings and staging for priests, dancers, and temple orchestras. The pyramids were buried under a new surface every several years (especially every 52 years—the Aztec century). Thus the pyramid-temples of important deities constantly grew in size.
In front of every major temple lay a large plaza. This sometimes held important ritual platforms such as the "eagle stone" where some victims were slain. Plazas were where the bulk of worshippers gathered to watch rites and dances performed, to join in the songs and sacrifices (the audience often bled themselves during the rites), and to partake in any festival foods. Nobility sat on tiered seating under awnings around the plaza periphery, and some conducted part of the ceremonies on the temple.
Continual rebuilding enabled Tlatoani and other dignitaries to celebrate their achievements by dedicating new sculptures, monuments, and other renovations to the temples. For festivals, temple steps and tiers were also festooned with flowers, banners and other decorations. Each pyramid had a flat top to accommodate dancers and priests performing rites. Close to the temple steps there was usually a sacrificial slab and braziers.
The temple house (calli) itself was relatively small, although the more important ones had high and ornately carved internal ceilings. To maintain the sanctity of the gods, these temple houses were kept fairly dark and mysterious—a characteristic that was further enhanced by having their interiors swirling with smoke from copal (meaning incense) and the burning of offerings. Cortes and Diaz describe these sanctuaries as containing sacred images and relics of the gods, often bejeweled but shrouded under ritual clothes and other veils and hidden behind curtains hung with feathers and bells. Flowers and offerings (including a great amount of blood) generally covered much of the floors and walls near these images. Each image stood on a pedestal and occupied its own sanctuary. Larger temples also featured subsidiary chambers accommodating lesser deities.
In the ceremonial center of Tenochtitlan, the most important temple was the Great Temple which was a double pyramid with two temples on top. One was dedicated to Huitzilopochtli; this temple was called Coatepec (meaning "snake mountain"), and the other temple was dedicated to Tlaloc. Below the Tlatoani were the high priests of these two temples. Both high priests were called by the title Quetzalcoatl—the high priest of Huitzilopochtli was Quetzalcoatl Totec Tlamacazqui and the high priest of Tlaloc was Quetzalcoatl Tlaloc Tlamacazqui. Other important temples were located in the four divisions of the town. One example was the temple called Yopico in Moyotlan which was dedicated to Xipe Totec. Furthermore, all the calpullis had special temples dedicated to the patron gods of the calpulli. Priests were educated at the Calmecac if they were from noble families and in the Telpochcalli if they were commoners.
Cosmology and ritual
The Aztec world consisted of three main parts: the earth world on which humans lived (including Tamoanchan, the mythical origin of human beings), an underworld which belonged to the dead (called Mictlan, "place of death"), and the upper plane in the sky. The earth and the underworld were both open for humans to enter, whereas the upper plane in the sky was impenetrable to humans. Existence was envisioned as straddling the two worlds in a cycle of birth, life, death and rebirth. Thus as the sun was believed to dwell in the underworld at night to rise reborn in the morning and maize kernels were interred to later sprout anew, the human and divine existence was also envisioned as being cyclical. The upper and nether worlds were both thought to be layered. Mictlan had nine layers which were inhabited by different deities and mythical beings. The sky had thirteen layers, the highest of which was called Omeyocan ("place of duality") and served as the residence of the progenitor dual god Ometeotl. The lowest layer of the sky was a verdant spring-like place with abundant water called Tlalocan ("the place of Tlaloc").
After death, the soul of the Aztec went to one of three places: the sun, Mictlan, or Tlalocan. Souls of fallen warriors and women that died in childbirth would transform into hummingbirds that followed the sun on its journey through the sky. Souls of people who died from less glorious causes would go to Mictlan. Those who drowned would go to Tlalocan.
In Aztec cosmology, as in Mesoamerica in general, geographical features such as caves and mountains held symbolic value as places of crossing between the upper and nether worlds. The cardinal directions were symbolically connected to the religious layout of the world as well; each direction was associated with specific colors and gods.
To the Aztecs, death was instrumental in the perpetuation of creation, and gods and humans alike had the responsibility of sacrificing themselves in order to allow life to continue. This worldview is best described in the myth of the five suns recorded in the Codex Chimalpopoca, which recounts how Quetzalcoatl stole the bones of the previous generation in the underworld and how later the gods created four successive worlds or "suns" for their subjects to live in, all of which were destroyed. Then, by an act of self-sacrifice, one of the gods, Nanahuatzin ("the pimpled one"), caused a fifth and final sun to rise where the first humans, made out of maize dough, could live thanks to his sacrifice. Humans were responsible for the sun's continued revival. Blood sacrifice in various forms were conducted. Both humans and animals were sacrificed, depending on the god to be placated and the ceremony being conducted, and priests of some gods were sometimes required to provide their own blood through self-mutilation.
Sacrificial rituals among the Aztecs, and in Mesoamerica in general, must be seen in the context of religious cosmology: sacrifice and death was necessary for the continued existence of the world. Likewise, each part of life had one or more deities associated with it and these had to be paid their dues in order to achieve success. Gods were paid with sacrificial offerings of food, flowers, effigies, and quail. But the larger the effort required of the god, the greater the sacrifice had to be. Blood fed the gods and kept the sun from falling. For some of the most important rites, a priest would offer his own blood by cutting his ears, arms, tongue, thighs, chest, genitals, or offer a human life or a god's life. The people who were sacrificed came from many segments of society and might have been a war captive, slave, or a member of Aztec society; the sacrifice might also have been man or woman, adult or child, or noble or commoner.
Deity impersonation
An important aspect of Aztec ritual was the impersonation of deities, called teixiptla. Priests or otherwise specially elected individuals would be dressed up to achieve the likeness of a specific deity. To honor the gods, various outfits and festivals were held. The Aztec deities served as providers for all of the society's needs. Along with various rituals and offerings, dressing up was thought as a way to respect the gods worshiped. It was considered an honorable impersonate a god, the person selected to do so was venerated as an actual physical manifestation of the god until the inevitable end when the god's likeness had to be killed as the ultimate sacrifice under great circumstance and festivities.
Reenactment of myth
As with the impersonation of gods, Aztec ritual was often a reenactment of a mythical event which at once served to remind the Aztecs of their religion, but it also served to perpetuate the world by repeating the important events of the creation.
Calendar
The Aztec religious year was connected mostly to the natural 365-day calendar, the xiuhpohualli ("yearcount"), which followed the agricultural year. Each of the 18 twenty-day months of the religious year had its particular religious festival—most of which were connected to agricultural themes. The greatest festival was the xiuhmolpilli, or New Fire ceremony, held every 52 years when the ritual and agricultural calendars coincided and a new cycle started. In the table below, the veintena festivals are shown, the deities with which they were associated and the kinds of rituals involved. The descriptions of the rites are based on the descriptions given in Sahagún's Primeros Memoriales, the Florentine Codex, and of Diego Durán's Of the Gods and Rites—all of which provide detailed accounts of the rituals written in Nahuatl soon after the conquest.
When the Spaniards documented Aztec religious and ritual life, they provided abundant evidence that suggests that there existed a correspondence between the tropical year, the cycles of nature, and Aztec ceremonies. Given that such a relation existed, and that ritual functioned to reinforce it, scholars speculate that an unknown method must have been used to maintain the calendar in harmony with the solar year.
Mythology
The main deity in the Mexica religion was the sun god and war god, Huitzilopochtli. He directed the Mexicas to found a city on the site where they would see an eagle, devouring an animal (not all chronicles agree on what the eagle was devouring, one says it was a precious bird, and though Father Duran says it was a snake, this is not mentioned in any pre-Hispanic source), while perching on a fruit bearing nopal cactus. According to legend, Huitzilopochtli had to kill his nephew, Cópil, and throw his heart on the lake. But, since Cópil was his relative, Huitzilopochtli decided to honor him, and caused a cactus to grow over Cópil's heart which became a sacred place.
Legend has it that this is the site on which the Mexicas built their capital city of Tenochtitlan. Tenochtitlan was built on an island in the middle of Lake Texcoco, where modern-day Mexico City is located. This legendary vision is pictured on the Coat of Arms of Mexico.
According to their own history, when the Mexicas arrived in the Anahuac Valley around Lake Texcoco, they were considered by the other groups as the least civilized of all. The Mexicas decided to learn, and they took all they could from other peoples, especially from the ancient Toltec (whom they seem to have partially confused with the more ancient civilization of Teotihuacan). To the Mexicas, the Toltecs were the originators of all culture; toltecayotl was a synonym for culture. Mexica legends identify the Toltecs and the cult of Quetzalcoatl with the mythical city of Tollan, which they also identified with the more ancient Teotihuacan.
In the process, they adopted most of the Toltec/Nahua pantheon, but they also made significant changes in their religion. As the Mexica rose in power, they adopted the Nahua gods at equal status to their own. For instance, Tlaloc was the rain god of all the Nahuatl-speaking peoples. They put their local god Huitzilopochtli at the same level as the ancient Nahua god, and also replaced the Nahua Sun god with their own. Thus, Tlaloc/Huitzilopochtli represents the duality of water and fire, as evidenced by the twin pyramids uncovered near the Zocalo in Mexico City in the late 1970s, and it reminds us of the warrior ideals of the Aztec: the Aztec glyph of war is burning water.
Human sacrifice
Human sacrifice was practiced on a grand scale throughout the Aztec empire, which was performed in honor of the gods, although the exact figures were unknown. At Tenochtitlán, the principal Aztec city, "between 10,000 and 80,400 people" were sacrificed over the course of four days for the dedication of the Great Pyramid in 1487, according to Ross Hassig . Excavations of the offerings in the main temple has provided some insight in the process, but the dozens of remains excavated are far short of the thousands of sacrifices recorded by eyewitnesses and other historical accounts. For millennia, the practice of human sacrifice was widespread in Mesoamerican and South American cultures. It was a theme in the Olmec religion, which thrived between 1200 BCE and 400 BCE and among the Maya. Human sacrifice was a very complex ritual. Every sacrifice had to be meticulously planned from the type of victim to the specific ceremony needed for the god. The sacrificial victims were usually warriors but sometimes slaves, depending upon the god and needed ritual. The higher the rank of the warrior the better he is looked at as a sacrifice. The victim(s) would then take on the persona of the god he was to be sacrificed for. The victim(s) would be housed, fed, and dressed accordingly. This process could last up to a year. When the sacrificial day arrived, the victim(s) would participate in the specific ceremonies of the god. These ceremonies were used to exhaust the victim so that he would not struggle during the ceremony. Then five priests, known as the Tlenamacac, performed the sacrifice usually at the top of a pyramid. The victim would be laid upon the table, held down and subsequently have his heart cut out.
Sacrifices to specific gods
Huitzilopochtli
When the Aztecs sacrificed people to Huitzilopochtli (the god with warlike aspects) the victim would be placed on a sacrificial stone. The priest would then cut through the abdomen with an obsidian or flint blade. The heart would be torn out still beating and held towards the sky in honor to the Sun-God. The body would then be pushed down the pyramid where the Coyolxauhqui stone could be found. The Coyolxauhqui Stone recreates the story of Coyolxauhqui, Huitzilopochtli's sister who was dismembered at the base of a mountain, just as the sacrificial victims were. The body would be carried away and either cremated or given to the warrior responsible for the capture of the victim. He would either cut the body in pieces and send them to important people as an offering, or use the pieces for ritual cannibalism. The warrior would thus ascend one step in the hierarchy of the Aztec social classes, a system that rewarded successful warriors.
During the festival of Panquetzaliztli, of which Huitzilopochtli was the patron, sacrificial victims were adorned in the manner of Huitzilopochtli's costume and blue body paint, before their hearts would be sacrificially removed. Representations of Huitzilopochtli called teixiptla were also worshipped, the most significant being the one at the Templo Mayor which was made of dough mixed with sacrificial blood.
Tezcatlipoca
Some captives were sacrificed to Tezcatlipoca in ritual gladiatorial combat. The victim was tethered in place and given a mock weapon. He died fighting against up to four fully armed jaguar knights and eagle warriors.
During the 20-day month of Toxcatl, a young impersonator of Tezcatlipoca would be sacrificed. Throughout a year, this youth would be dressed as Tezcatlipoca and treated as a living incarnation of the god. The youth would represent Tezcatlipoca on earth; he would get four beautiful women as his companions until he was killed. In the meantime he walked through the streets of Tenochtitlan playing a flute. On the day of the sacrifice, a feast would be held in Tezcatlipoca's honor. The young man would climb the pyramid, break his flute and surrender his body to the priests. Sahagún compared it to the Christian Easter.
Huehueteotl/Xiuhtecuhtli
Both Xiuhtecuhtli and Huehueteotl were worshipped during the festival of Izcalli. For ten days preceding the festival various animals would be captured by the Aztecs, to be thrown in the hearth on the night of celebration.
To appease Huehueteotl, the fire god and a senior deity, the Aztecs had a ceremony where they prepared a large feast, at the end of which they would burn captives; before they died they would be taken from the fire and their hearts would be cut out. Motolinía and Sahagún reported that the Aztecs believed that if they did not placate Huehueteotl, a plague of fire would strike their city. The sacrifice was considered an offering to the deity.
Xiuhtecuhtli was also worshipped during the New Fire Ceremony, which occurred every 52 years, and prevented the ending of the world. During the festival priests would march to the top of the volcano Huixachtlan and when the constellation "the fire drill" (Orion's belt) rose over the mountain, a man would be sacrificed. The victim's heart would be ripped from his body and a ceremonial hearth would be lit in the hole in his chest. This flame would then be used to light all of the ceremonial fires in various temples throughout the city of Tenochtitlan.
Tlaloc
Archaeologists have found the remains of at least 42 children sacrificed to Tlaloc at the Great Pyramid of Tenochtitlan. Many of the children suffered from serious injuries before their death, they would have to have been in significant pain as Tlaloc required the tears of the young as part of the sacrifice. The priests made the children cry during their way to immolation: a good omen that Tlaloc would wet the earth in the raining season.
Xipe Totec
Xipe Totec was worshipped extensively during the festival of Tlacaxipehualiztli, in which captured warriors and slaves were sacrificed in the ceremonial center of the city of Tenochtitlan. For forty days prior to their sacrifice one victim would be chosen from each ward of the city to act as teixiptla, dress and live as Xipe Totec. The victims were then taken to the Xipe Totec's temple where their hearts would be removed, their bodies dismembered, and their body parts divided up to be later eaten. Prior to death and dismemberment the victim's skin would be removed and worn by individuals who traveled throughout the city fighting battles and collecting gifts from the citizens.
See also
Aztec philosophy
Aztec use of entheogens
Maya religion
Mesoamerican mythology
Muisca religion
Santa Muerte (Mictecacihuatl reincarnate)
Notes
References
Broda, Johanna. "Festivals and Festival Cycles." In Carrasco David (ed). The Oxford Encyclopedia of Mesoamerican Cultures. : Oxford University Press, 2001.
External links
Aztecs at Mexicolore: constantly updated educational site specifically on the Aztecs, for serious students of all ages
Aztec society
Mesoamerican mythology and religion
Religion in North America
Religion in Mexico
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