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4421511 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bad%20Day%20%28Daniel%20Powter%20song%29 | Bad Day (Daniel Powter song) | "Bad Day" is a pop song by Canadian singer-songwriter Daniel Powter from his self-titled second studio album (2005). It was written by Powter and produced by Jeff Dawson and Mitchell Froom. Powter and Dawson recorded the song in 2002, but were initially unable to find a record label to release it. The song was first used in a French Coca-Cola television advertisement in Christmas 2004 before its official release. Tom Whalley, Warner Bros. Records' chairman and CEO, offered Powter a contract after hearing a demo tape of it. This track ended up being released as the aforementioned album's lead single in Europe in early 2005.
The song was received with a generally mixed reception from critics. While some praised its lyrics for their "universal appeal", others felt they were too broad. Despite this, it was a commercial success. In 2005, the single charted in the top five in more than ten countries worldwide and became the most played song on European radio. After its European success, it was released in the United States where it topped the Billboard Hot 100, Pop 100, Adult Top 40, and Adult Contemporary charts. In 2006, it became the first song ever to sell two million digital copies in the United States, as well as being measured by Billboard as the most popular song of the year inside of the United States, and the first under its new system. After another million were sold, it was certified three-times platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) in 2009. It was certified platinum in Australia, Canada, and the United Kingdom, gold in Denmark and Germany, and also received a certification in France and Japan.
The accompanying music video for "Bad Day" was directed by Marc Webb and became the eighth most-watched music video on the Internet in 2006, reaching 9.8 million views one year after its release. The video depicts two downcast people sharing a similar routine until they meet each other at the end of the video. The song was used for advertisements and television programs, most prominently as American Idols elimination song. Different shows and artists covered and parodied "Bad Day", including Saturday Night Live and Alvin and the Chipmunks. Powter has also performed the song on television shows including The Tonight Show with Jay Leno and The Ellen DeGeneres Show, and during his concert tours in North America and Europe. The song's success made it Powter's "anthem" and would be included on his later compilation albums B-Sides (2007) and Best of Me (2010).
Background and release
After leaving MacEwan University in Edmonton at 20, Powter moved to Vancouver, British Columbia where he played keyboards before he started composing songs. In 1997, he partnered with music producer Jeff Dawson; they recorded "Bad Day" in 2002. For two weeks, Powter had a melody that "wouldn't go away" from his mind. Thinking of a lyric that would fit the melody, he thought an "up and poppy" lyric would make it "the cheesiest song of all time". He then thought "bad day" would be a good choice for the chorus, and wrote the lyrics partly based on his life as "a struggling musician". It was the last song to be composed for his album, with Powter writing it in an hour during a ferry journey between Victoria and Vancouver. Powter said it was not a lyrically elaborate song, but that: "mostly it's about phonics. It's about words that sing great. I was mumbling something, and those words came out."
Dawson and Powter included the song on a disc that was offered to record labels that asked Powter to audition in New York, but his lack of stage presence led to the labels turning him down. Disappointed, he returned to Vancouver to move on because: "once a record company says no, it's difficult to come around again". After this failure, his new representative, Gary Stamler, played a demo tape for Tom Whalley, chairman and CEO of Warner Bros. Records. Whalley offered Powter a contract but he was reluctant to sign it because he considered himself primarily a songwriter. He accepted the offer in April 2003 and, along with Dawson and producer Mitchell Froom, worked on his album and the song in Los Angeles, California. The album was originally recorded in Powter's Vancouver apartment but Warner Bros. asked that it be rerecorded. However, because Froom wanted to keep its "original feel[ing]", in Powter's words it was just "touch[ed] up".
"Bad Day" was first released to three French radio stations—RTL, NRJ, and Europe 2—in early 2005. On February 8, Barnes & Noble released it on an exclusive extended play (EP), which also contained "Free Loop", "Lie to Me", and "Song 6". In the United States it was digitally released on February 22, 2005. In 2005, Warner Bros. Records released it as a CD single in Switzerland on March 4, in France on March 22, in Italy on May 18, in Germany on May 30, in Australia on June 27, in the United Kingdom on July 25, and in Canada on July 28. The Swiss and Canadian release also included "Stupid Like This", a non-album track, while the Italian, German, and Australian versions included "Stupid Like This" and "Lost on The Stoop". In France and the United Kingdom, both versions were released, and the British release also contained the music video for "Bad Day". A live-recorded version for Austrian radio station Hitradio Ö3 was included on the 2005 EP Free Loop. On August 6, 2008, an EP live from Tokyo was released exclusively on iTunes and it included "Song 6", "Free Loop", "Best of Me", "Love You Lately" and "Bad Day". "Bad Day" was also included on Powter's compilation albums B-Sides (2007) and Best of Me (2010).
Composition
"Bad Day" is a midtempo pop power ballad, performed in a moderate groove and accompanied by a piano. The song is composed in the key of E♭ major, and uses syncopated 16th-note rhythms. According to the sheet music published at Musicnotes.com by Warner Bros., Powter's vocals range from the note of E♭3 and D♭5. Its instrumentation differs from "the scores of adolescent thrust-rockers" and includes, as Powter referred to it, "aggressive" drums. David Browne of Entertainment Weekly said it is: "addressed to anyone who's feeling depressed ... but [in contrast] its grand, panoramic arrangement wants to pump you up". Simon Donohue of the Manchester Evening News commented its sound " from boy band banality to Foo Fighters-style raucous rock". According to Winston Kung of PopMatters, it is "in tune with the zeitgeist".
The lyrics of "Bad Day" were said to have a universal appeal by Alan Connor of BBC News Magazine as they have an "everyman breeziness" because the song's subject can be any person going through a bad daytime. Stephen Thomas Erlewine from AllMusic described it as: "a loping, sunny tune that pretty much has the opposite sentiment of its title". Although About.com's Bill Lamb described its lyrics as having a "reassuring, comforting" tone, Powter said the song "mak[es] fun of self-absorbed and narcissistic people who bitch and gripe". He also affirmed: "It's not literally about having a bad day, it's more about not taking yourself too seriously and complaining about trivial things".
Critical reception
The song received mixed reviews by commentators; some reviewers praised it for its composition, while other critics felt that the lyrics were not profound. Billboard Chuck Taylor called the song "instantly memorable" and praised its instrumentation for being different "from the scores of adolescent thrust-rockers currently dominating the scene." Dubbing it "elegant, timeless pop/rock", Taylor qualified it as "one of the great discoveries of the year", while Pete Waterman, writing for The Guardian in 2007, stated it was "one of [his] favourite songs of recent years". Eric R. Danton from the Hartford Courant classified it as the best track on the album, while Erlewine called it "the template for the rest of his debut". In contrast, Wilson Kung said the song "pales in comparison to some of the truly strong songs" on the album Daniel Powter. Alan Connor of BBC News Magazine said it is a typical sentimental song but that in "Bad Day"'s case "there's even less detail". He said the song "is so low on the specifics, there are some couplets that feel like they've been translated from a foreign language, possibly by a computer". A writer for The Daily Edge called it "a song so sweet it gave you a toothache", while a reviewer from The Scotsman called it a "horrible song". Bill Lamb said it "feels genuine" but "if you are looking for depth, this is not your song", Chris Lee of the Los Angeles Times said the song is "baleful but soulful", and People commented: "'Bad Day' may be catchy enough to overcome its trite lyrics".
Accolades
"Bad Day" won an award from the Society of Composers, Authors and Music Publishers of Canada as one of six Canadian pop songs with the most radio airplay in 2005. In 2006, it won the Tokio Hot 100 Award for Best Song, and guaranteed Powter the Canadian Radio Music Award for Best New Group or Solo Artist—Mainstream AC. In the following year, the song won a BMI Pop Award, and shared the 2007 Japan Gold Disc Award for the most-downloaded international song with "You Raise Me Up" by Celtic Woman and "Dani California" by Red Hot Chili Peppers. The song was nominated for Pop 100 Single of the Year at the 2006 Billboard Music Awards losing to Nelly Furtado's "Promiscuous". At the APRA Music Awards of 2006, it was nominated for Most Performed Foreign Work but lost to Rob Thomas's "Lonely No More". In 2007, it was nominated for Best Male Pop Vocal Performance at the 49th Annual Grammy Awards but John Mayer's performance on "Waiting on the World to Change" won him the award. It received a nomination for Best Song at the 2007 Kids' Choice Awards but lost to Beyoncé's "Irreplaceable".
Chart performance
"Bad Day" topped Nielsen Music Control's Pan European Airplay 100 as the most played song on European radio stations in 2005. It was also the third most downloaded song that year in Europe. On Billboards European Hot 100 Singles it peaked at number two on the weekly chart, while it placed seventh on its year-end chart. The song debuted on the UK Singles Chart issue dated August 6, 2005, at number two, its peak position, spending 38 weeks on the chart. "Bad Day" was the eleventh best-selling single and the third most downloaded song in the UK in 2005. It was the most played song on UK radio during the period 2003–08. In October 2016 it was certified platinum by the British Phonographic Industry. The song debuted on the Irish Singles Chart at number 13 on July 28, 2005, and topped it for three weeks, spending 19 weeks on the chart. The song peaked at number three on the French Singles Chart, and was the most played song on French radio in 2005. It was the most played song on the German Airplay Chart in 2005. It sold 143,600 copies and was certified silver in France, and in Germany it was certified gold for the shipment of over 150,000 copies. It peaked at number one in the Czech Republic, at number three in Italy, at number 5 in Denmark, and reached the top 10 on the singles chart in eight other European territories.
"Bad Day" debuted at number 55 on the US Billboard Hot 100 chart issue dated February 25, 2006. On March 30, 2006, it reached the top spot on the chart. A week before, the song had reached the top of the Hot Digital Songs chart. In the following weeks, it reached number one on the Pop 100 and the Adult Top 40. It topped the Adult Top 40 for 12 weeks, the longest period a song by a lead male artist had spent on the chart. It remained at number one on the Adult Contemporary chart for 19 weeks, making it the song that spent the most time on the Adult Contemporary chart that year, tying Phil Collins' "You'll Be in My Heart" as the longest-running number-one song by a solo male artist to that date. "Bad Day" became the first song to sell two million digital copies in the United States in December 2006, and was the best-selling "digital track" and "digital song" for 2006. "Bad Day" received a three-times platinum certification from the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) for digital sales of over 3 million in September 2009. It was the seventh most played song on the American radio in 2006, and was the number one song of 2006 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart. It also performed well on other year-end charts, ranking second on Hot Adult Pop Songs, and third on Hot Adult Contemporary Songs. Media considered its exposure on American Idol as a major factor in its success in the United States.
In Canada, the song was certified platinum by the Canadian Recording Industry Association for the sale 20,000 downloads. "Bad Day" peaked at number seven on the Canadian Singles Chart and at number six on the Hot Canadian Digital Singles chart. In Japan, a ringtone version was certified by the Recording Industry Association of Japan (RIAJ) for shipment of over one million copies. Its full-length ringtone version was certified platinum for shipment of over 250,000 copies, while its single track version was certified double platinum for shipment of over 500,000 copies. "Bad Day" was certified platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association (ARIA) for shipment of over 70,000 copies. The song debuted at number 21 on the ARIA Charts issue dated July 4, 2005, peaked at number three on the issue dated August 15, 2005, and spent 20 weeks on the chart. It was the 18th top single of 2005 in the year-end ARIA Charts, and was the second most-played song in the country in 2006. It peaked at number 7 in New Zealand appearing for 23 weeks, and was on Venezuela's Pop Rock chart for 19.
Music video
The music video was directed by Marc Webb and premiered on Yahoo!'s website in early 2005. , it had been streamed over a million times. It was released on VH1.com on April 28, 2005, and at the iTunes Store for digital download on December 13, 2005. It debuted on television channel VH1 on January 23 of the following year, reaching the Top 20 Countdown for two weeks in March. It was subsequently put on heavy rotation in April 2006, when it was played more than 50 times a week, reduced to 30 weekly airings in May. The video was the eighth most-watched music video on the Internet, with over 9.8 million views in 2006. Warner Bros. Records released the video on YouTube on October 26, 2009. As of February 2023, the video has over 231 million views.
The music video accompanying "Bad Day" features a man (Jason Adelman) and a woman (Samaire Armstrong) going about their daily routines over a three-day period. Parts of the video are shown in split screen as they do exactly the same thing at different times, sometimes in the same location. The central point of the video occurs when they paint separately on the same billboard. Armstrong's character shows her negativeness by adding rain and a car running through a puddle of water while Adelman adds an umbrella and a man with a coat to protect the woman in the billboard. At some point, he draws a question mark and she completes it with a heart. At the end of the video, they finally meet when the man offers the woman an umbrella during a rain shower as a taxi cab stops for them. Throughout the video, Powter is shown playing piano on Pershing Square in downtown Los Angeles while wearing a tuque—a type of knitted hat.
Chuck Taylor said the video is "strikingly good" and "brings emotion and clarity to an artist that we are meeting for the first time". The Daily Edge disagreed calling the video "drippy". VH1 ranked it 17th on its Top 40 Videos of the Year in 2006. It was nominated for the MuchMoreMusic Award at the 2006 MuchMusic Video Awards, but lost to Michael Bublé's "Save the Last Dance for Me". It was nominated for Best Male Video at the 2007 MTV Video Music Awards Japan, but "Age Age Every Knight" by DJ Ozma was the winner.
A lyrics video version of the song was released on Powter's YouTube channel on August 1, 2022.
Usage in other media
"Bad Day" was much-used in the media to the point where Powter declared he felt "quite detached from th[e] song. It's more like it's everybody's song." According to Alan Connor: "...turning off the radio isn't enough to escape the tune. It can be heard everywhere from in shops, on mobiles and especially on TV." During Christmas 2004, the song was used in a Coca-Cola advertisement which played in France for two weeks. It was also featured in a television advertisement for Right Guard deodorant in the United Kingdom and the long-running NFL.com Fantasy Football Playoff Challenge ads in the United States, starting in 2008.
The fifth season of American Idol used "Bad Day" to underscore a montage of each contestant shown when they were eliminated. Although it was not his decision to have it on the show, Powter said: "I need every opportunity that I can to get the music out there". "Bad Day" was subsequently used in other shows, including the Brazilian series Malhação in 2005, and TV Asahi's 2006 Japanese drama Regatta: Kimi to Ita Eien. It was featured in Veronica Mars episode "The Bitch Is Back" in 2007, and in a 2012 episode of the German show Danni Lowinski. In 2014, the song was used as Lestrade's ringtone for Sherlock Holmes and Joan Watson in an episode of Elementary titled "The One Percent Solution". An FX promotional trailer for Fargo featured a muzak version of "Bad Day".
"Weird Al" Yankovic wanted to record a parody of the song in 2006, but Powter refused his proposal. Later, however, Powter decided to give him permission to record the parody, which was to have been called "You Had a Bad Date", but was told by Yankovic that "the train had left the station", as he recorded "White & Nerdy" the day after instead. In April 2006, "Bad Day" was parodied on an episode of the television series Saturday Night Live, featuring a montage of former member of the United States House of Representatives Tom DeLay. The Daily Show used the song for an American Idol-based montage satirizing the June 2006 death of Abu Musab al-Zarqawi, leader of Al-Qaeda in Iraq. It was parodied by comedy group Moron Life titled "Overplayed" and was released on MySpace in August 2006. "Bad Day" was also covered by the fictional music group Alvin and the Chipmunks for their 2007 film Alvin and the Chipmunks. Their version made the charts in January 2008, peaking at number 67 on the Billboard Hot 100.
Live performances
Powter performed "Bad Day" during the Live 8 concert in Berlin on July 2, 2005, at the Siegessäule. He also performed the song at the MTV Asia Awards 2006 on May 6 at the Siam Paragon in Bangkok. During the penultimate episode of American Idol on May 23, 2006, Powter performed "Bad Day" at the Kodak Theatre. On May 26, 2007, he performed the song at the Saitama Super Arena during the MTV Video Music Awards Japan. Powter performed it in a duo with Japanese singer Ayaka on November 26, 2008, at Astro Hall in Harajuku, Japan.
Powter has performed the song on several television shows, including CD USA in February 2006, and Total Request Live on April 6, 2006. On April 14, he sang it during the Today Show at the Rockfeller Center in the morning, and, at night, on the Late Night with Conan O'Brien. He sang it on Live with Regis and Kelly on April 18, on The Tonight Show with Jay Leno on April 24 and, on The Ellen DeGeneres Show on April 27. He performed again on Leno's and DeGeneres's shows on June 1 and on July 7 respectively, and appeared on The CBS Early Show to sing it on August 9.
The song was included on the set lists for Powter's European tour, in the United Kingdom, and in the United States to promote its parent album. In a performance in Chicago's Park West venue during the American tour, Andy Downing of the Chicago Tribune called the song "a high point" of the show, and said the slower version was prettier than the original record but that it was "the spartan arrangement" that saved it from "montage hell.
Formats and track listings
Barnes & Noble extended play
"Bad Day" – 3:53
"Free Loop" – 3:52
"Lie to Me" – 3:24
"Song 6" – 3:30
Track single (Canada, France, Switzerland, UK)
"Bad Day" – 3:53
"Stupid Like This" – 3:23
Maxi single (Australia, France, Germany, Italy, UK)
"Bad Day" – 3:53
"Stupid Like This" – 3:23
"Lost on The Stoop" – 4:10
Credits and personnel
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Daniel Powter.
Personnel
Songwriting – Daniel Powter
Production – Mitchell Froom, Jeff Dawson
Engineering – Jeff Dawson, David Boucher
Mixing – David Boucher
Mastering – Bob Ludwig
Drums – Brendan Ostrander
Guitar – Jeff Dawson, Val McCallum
Keyboards – Mitchell Froom, Daniel Powter
Bass – Davey Faragher, Darren Parris
Programming – Jeff Dawson
Charts
Weekly charts
Alvin and the Chipmunks version
Year-end charts
Decade-end charts
All-time charts
Certifications
Release history
See also
2005 in music
2006 in music
Billboard Year-End Hot 100 singles of 2006
List of Billboard Adult Contemporary number ones of 2006
Notes
References
2000s ballads
2005 debut singles
2005 songs
Alvin and the Chipmunks songs
Billboard Hot 100 number-one singles
Daniel Powter songs
Irish Singles Chart number-one singles
Music videos directed by Marc Webb
Number-one singles in the Czech Republic
Number-one singles in Scotland
Pop ballads
Song recordings produced by Mitchell Froom
Songs written by Daniel Powter
Warner Records singles |
4421648 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ron%20Carey%20%28labor%20leader%29 | Ron Carey (labor leader) | Ronald Robert Carey (March 22, 1936 – December 11, 2008) was an American labor leader who served as president of the International Brotherhood of Teamsters from 1991 to 1997. He was the first Teamster General President elected by a direct vote of the membership. He ran for re-election in 1996 and won, but in 1997 federal investigators discovered that the Carey campaign had engaged in an illegal donation kickback scheme to raise more than $700,000 for the 1996 re-election effort. His re-election was overturned, Carey was disqualified from running for Teamsters president again, and he was subsequently expelled from the union for life. Although a federal jury ultimately cleared him of all wrongdoing in the scandal, the lifetime ban remained in place until his death.
Early life
Carey, the second of six children (all of them boys), was born in Long Island City in March 1936 to Joseph and Loretta Carey. His father was a driver for United Parcel Service (UPS). Carey's father had to work Sundays and Christmas Day (often without pay), which taught Ron about workplace injustice, but his father also took him to union meetings where Ron learned about workplace change and how to run a democratic union. Raised in Astoria and Long Island City, he graduated from Haaren High School in Manhattan and was offered entry into St. John's University on a swimming scholarship. But he turned down college, enlisting in the Marines in 1953 and serving until 1955. At the age of 18, he married Barbara Murphy, a girl who lived in the apartment above him. The Careys remained married until Ron's death; they had five children.
Carey became a UPS driver and joined the Teamsters in 1956. He and his father pooled their money and bought a home for both families in Kew Gardens, Queens. He ran for and was elected shop steward of the 7,000-member Local 804 in 1958 because he felt members weren't getting the services their dues paid for. He was elected secretary of the local in 1965. After several unsuccessful campaigns, Carey was elected Local 804 president in November 1967. He earned a reputation as a hard bargainer (by 1977, he had negotiated salary increases which doubled his members' 1968 hourly wages) and for being free from graft and the influence of organized crime. Under his leadership, in November 1967 Local 804 became one of the first Teamster locals whose members qualified for a pension after 25 years of employment regardless of age. He also led long but successful strikes in 1968, 1971, 1974, and 1982. He was re-elected eight times, winning each campaign by landslide margins. Although Local 804 had always negotiated its own contract with UPS, the national union forced the local to participate in the national master contract in 1979. Carey was named a negotiator for the national master contract, but was not included in the Teamsters' national bargaining team. In 1987, Carey sued to overturn a provision of the union's constitution which permitted rejection of a proposed contract only by a two-thirds majority. The union changed the provision to permit a majority to reject a proposed contract.
During his tenure as Local 804 president, Carey took two years of correspondence courses at home, two years of courses at the Xavier Institute for Labor Management Relations (a highly influential Catholic labor school), and six months of labor management courses at Cornell University.
Steven Brill devoted an entire chapter to Carey in his 1978 book, The Teamsters, which drew attention to the local leader and launched his national career within the Teamsters.
The Road to the Teamster General Presidency
Election campaign
In 1989, Carey announced that he would run for president of the Teamsters union. Carey was highly critical of the UPS contract that the Teamsters, led by interim General President William J. McCarthy, had negotiated in 1990. Carey's local represented more than 6,600 members at UPS, making it largest Teamsters local within the company, and Carey's criticism of the contract carried great weight within the international union. Carey also criticized McCarthy for refusing to call for a strike vote prior to ratification, for not adequately communicating the "concessionary" nature of the contract to Teamster members, and for helping oversee the loss of nearly 800,000 Teamsters members in the past decade. In mid-October 1990, McCarthy, suffering from health problems and losing support within the union for his handling of various contract negotiations, announced he would not seek a full term as Teamsters president. Endorsed by Teamsters for a Democratic Union (TDU), a member-led reform caucus, Carey ran for General President on a pledge to eliminate corruption and organized crime's influence in the union. Utilizing TDU's national mailing list, he raised $200,000 in mostly small contributions from Teamsters members and criss-crossed the country by car to meet with the union's membership.
The December 1991 election was the first in which Teamsters members elected the General President by direct secret ballot rather than through delegates hand-picked by local leaders. Other candidates in the election included: R.V. Durham, leader of the Teamsters in North Carolina and generally considered the front-runner in the campaign (he had the backing of a majority of the union's executive board); Walter Shea, a veteran union staffer from Washington, D.C.; and Carey. Although James P. Hoffa, son of disappeared Teamsters president Jimmy Hoffa and a long-time Teamsters union attorney, tried to enter the race for president, a federal official ruled that he did not qualify under the union's eligibility rules. Carey and his slate (which included a candidate for secretary-treasurer and 13 vice presidencies) swept the election. Carey won with 48.5 percent of the vote to Durham's 33.2 percent and Shea's 18.3 percent. But turnout was low: Less than half the membership voted, and only 16 percent of the union's total membership voted for Carey. Carey vowed to reduce the general president's salary, end the practice of permitting union officers to draw multiple salaries, no longer endorse Republicans for president, and seek federal legislation mandating universal health care.
First term
Changes and challenges came quickly during Carey's first term. Within days of his inauguration as union president, he replaced a large number of top staff at the union's headquarters, and within a few weeks sold the union's two airplanes and started charging staff for lunches in the union cafeteria. He twice ordered his own salary cut, from $225,000 in 1991 to $175,000 in 1994. In his first few months in office, Carey defeated a disaffiliation attempt by flight attendants working for Northwest Airlines (and later refused to agree to a contract in which the Teamsters would win a 30 percent ownership stake in Northwest in return for $886 million in contract concessions), renegotiated a contract for truck drivers (carhaulers) who ferried automobiles from ports and factories to dealers, and defeated an attempt by the Safeway grocery store chain to contract out its trucking operations. Carey was also active politically. He was the first Teamsters president to testify widely in front of Congress. He vigorously opposed the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), and pledged political retaliation against members of Congress who did.
Despite Carey's pledge to eliminate corruption and the influence of organized crime in the Teamsters, there were many who claimed that he did little in his first term to tackle the problem. Federal investigators accused Carey of engaging in "halfhearted" reforms, permitting a Teamster with known organized crime links to oversee a corrupt local, hindering court-appointed trustees reforming locals, and setting up an ethical practices committee which did nothing to stop corruption. One organized crime figure, Alphonse "Little Al" D'Arco, former acting boss of the Lucchese crime family, even said he had had a relationship with Carey in the 1960s and 1970s—statements Carey vigorously denied. U.S. Department of Justice officials began an investigation into the accusations in June 1994. There were also claims that Carey had improperly intervened in a jurisdictional dispute between two Teamster locals. Carey was also accused of a conflict of interest for not disclosing that he had received UPS stock from his deceased father's estate. Joseph Carey bought eight shares of stock in 1935 for $320, which over the years (including stock splits) grew to 112,000 shares worth $1.9 million. The stock was sold back to the company by the estate in August 1992, and Carey was cleared of the charges. In May 1994, Carey was accused of corruption regarding a number of real estate deals. The Independent Review Board (IRB), a three-member panel created under a Federal court order in 1989 designed to help supervise the union's elections and rid it of corruption, began an investigation into how Carey was able to finance hundreds of thousands of dollars in real estate investments and into who may have forged Carey's estranged wife's signature on several documents. Carey later admitted he had forged his wife's signature but claimed he did so with her permission. Carey said he financed all the investments though savings, loans from relatives, and his $1.9 million inheritance. Carey was cleared by the IRB of all charges in July 1994. The IRB said no fraudulent activity had occurred in the financing of the deals. Although Carey did forge his wife's signature and asked a union employee to lie about it, the IRB concluded that Carey's wife had given him permission to sign her name and that the forgeries were unrelated to union activities.
Carey did take extensive measures to clean up the union, however. In September 1992, he trusteed 18,000-member Local 237 in New York City for corruption, which led to an extensive battle for control of the local. In January 1994, he trusteed Local 732 to remove it from the influence of the Lucchese crime family, and trusteed Local 851 (which represented workers at John F. Kennedy International Airport) for being under the influence of organized crime as well. He investigated the Local 819 health plan for selling policies to non-members and denying reimbursement to members to fund the scheme; trusteed the local representing workers at the Jacob K. Javits Convention Center for corruption and nepotism; trusteed Local 97 in Union, New Jersey, for being under the control of the Genovese crime family; trusteed Local 875 after federal investigators found that more than $8 million had vanished from the union's pension fund; and trusteed Local 1205 after finding that the union put non-members into its health plan, engaged in nepotism, and had violated federal pension regulations. By mid-August 1995, Carey had trusteed 51 of the union's 651 local unions (mostly on the recommendations of the Independent Review Board). The number had risen to 67 by July 1996. The changes did not come without a backlash. Carey received a number of death threats during his first term, and hired bodyguards to protect himself and his family.
Carey also significantly restructured the union's finances. He undertook two initiatives in this area. The first was to close the international union's four regional headquarters in the U.S. Carey depicted the regional headquarters as little more than a mechanism for union officers to engage in corruption and receive multiple salaries, but his opponents claimed that the move was retaliation against Carey's political opponents (who were officers in and drew income from the regional headquarters). The fight to close the offices was a bitter one, and Carey eventually sought a federal preliminary injunction to enforce his right to physically enter and take charge of the offices. The Teamsters' executive board gave him permission to close the offices by a vote of 14 to 3, and the regional headquarters were shuttered in June 1994—saving the international union $15 million in salaries and expenses. His second major initiative was to seek a 25 percent dues increase. Carey proposed the dues hike in February 1994. The union's executive board had voted to raise strike benefits from $55 a week to $200, but made no provision for funding the higher benefits. A dues hike was essential, Carey said, because the strike fund anticipated running out of money in mid-1994 (and did just that during the national trucking strike in June 1994). Carey also said that the union's budget was significantly out of balance. The union had lost 500,000 members since 1979 and assets had fallen to $45 million from almost $200 million in 1990. But Teamsters members turned down the dues hike proposal by a 3-to-1 majority in March 1994, and as Carey predicted the union was forced to borrow money from other unions to continue operating. Carey balanced the union's budget in 1996, but did so (in part) by reducing strike benefits back to $55 a week and warned that the union would have to use its general fund to pay strike benefits in the future.
Carey negotiated two major contracts in his first term (for UPS and freight drivers), and both included concessions. He led the Teamsters through national strikes against UPS and the trucking industry, and neither strike ended well. Carey called a one-day strike on February 6, 1994, against UPS after the carrier doubled the allowable weight limit on packages. Many locals did not establish picket lines (although company operations in the Northeast were heavily disrupted), and the company refused to enforce to the lower weight limit. It was the first national strike against UPS. Carey was strongly criticized by union members and leaders for mishandling the strike, and UPS eventually sued the union for $50 million in damages. A month later, Carey led the union through a long strike against the national trucking industry. Trucking Management Inc., a negotiating group representing 23 major trucking companies (including Consolidated Freightways, Yellow Freight, Roadway Express, and Carolina Freight), and the union fought over the use of part-time workers during peak freight periods and an increase in the use of rail rather than trucks to haul freight. The strike was considered a major test of Carey's credibility and his control of the union. But after 17 days the strike began to slowly die, and Carey agreed to federal mediation in order to win a new contract.
Carey also beefed up the union's organizing efforts, and stanched the loss of members. By 1996, the union had reversed years of membership decline, recording a net gain of 4,000 new members.
Within the AFL-CIO, Carey was considered a reformer, and he supported challenger John Sweeney's run for president of the AFL-CIO in 1996.
Carey's Second Term
Re-election campaign
James P. Hoffa began seeking support for a run at the Teamsters' presidency in February 1994. Hoffa formally announced his candidacy on September 4, 1995.
Carey and Hoffa battled fiercely at the Teamsters' convention in July 1996. Hoffa introduced a resolution to deny convention voting rights to 80 delegates from the union's staff, although this right had been given to all previous presidents. Carey ordered a voice vote on the motion, announced that the motion was defeated, and ignored calls for a division of the house. Throughout the convention, Hoffa and his supporters introduced resolutions and constitutional amendments intended to transfer authority from the president and give it to local and regional offices. Hoffa's supporters were well-organized and highly disciplined, and they defeated Carey on several minor votes. But once it became clear that Hoffa had a slim majority of the 1,900 delegates, Carey used the power of parliamentary procedure to delay or defeat the proposals, and his supporters brought the convention to a halt by offering amendment after amendment to Hoffa's proposals.
Shortly after the convention ended, Carey trusteed 10,000-member Local 714 in Chicago, Illinois. The IRB had concluded that Carey supporter William Hogan was running the local for his own benefit, but Carey's action led Hogan to endorse Hoffa—a serious blow to Carey's re-election chances.
Carey's re-election campaign was an exceptionally bitter and close one. Hoffa drew strong support from Teamsters members in the Midwest and the West (with New York state a battleground), and from union leaders unhappy with Carey's anti-corruption drive and his attempt to dismantle regional and local bases of power. Hoffa attacked Carey for being a "chicken" and a "scaredy cat", and blasted Carey's campaign literature as "slimy pieces of half-truths". Carey derogatorily referred to Hoffa as "Junior," and denounced him as a "flunky" of the "old guard", "the same old mobbed-up, on-the-take teamster his daddy was", an "imposter," and all "smoke and mirrors." The war of words became so heated that in late September Carey filed a libel suit against Hoffa. Carey repeatedly tried to link Hoffa to organized crime, and publicized the criminal past and mob ties of Hoffa associates and business partners. Hoffa accused Carey of overseeing the loss of 40,000 members, mismanaging the union's finances, agreeing to concessionary contracts, and corruption. Carey countered by claiming he had reversed the union's membership decline, balanced the union's budget for the first time in 10 years, defeated a trucking industry proposal to use part-time temporary drivers, and rooted out corruption in the union. The election was the most expensive in Teamsters history: Hoffa raised $1.3 million in contributions, while Carey raised $1.8 million and incurred $200,000 in debt.
On December 16, 1996, federal election overseers announced that Carey had defeated Hoffa, 52 percent to 48 percent. More than 475,000 ballots were cast in the election. The vote count proceeded very slowly, leading to protests from both candidates the vote-counting rules had been violated. Carey declared victory on December 15, 1996. Hoffa, however, refused to concede, claiming 31,000 challenged ballots remained to be counted. Federal officials overseeing the election confirmed the victory the next day, and certified the election on January 10, 1997. Later analyses showed that Carey drew most of his support from Teamsters locals in the East and Deep South and Canada, Hoffa led in the Midwest, and the two candidates were neck and neck in the West. Despite the victory, many observers noted that Hoffa ran a much stronger campaign than expected. Many union members were attracted by the Hoffa name, while others (particularly in the Midwest) felt Carey had negotiated weak contracts. But federal officials and labor movement insiders pointed out that Carey had undermined the power, income, prestige, and perks of hundreds of local union officials through his anti-corruption drive. Hoffa had the support of a large majority of these local leaders, and they ensured that the Hoffa message reached the rank and file and the Carey message did not.
Accusations of financial impropriety
Ron Carey served less than a year of his second term. He was accused of engaging in financial improprieties during his re-election campaign in March 1997. As an investigation by federal officials continued, Carey led the union in a nationwide strike against UPS in August 1997 which led to significant contracts gains. But just three months later, Carey took a leave of absence as president due to the ongoing investigation into his 1996 re-election campaign. Carey was barred from running for president the same day he announced his leave of absence, and he was permanently ejected from the union in July 1998. James P. Hoffa was elected president of the Teamsters in December 1998.
The scandal which unseated Ron Carey as president of the Teamsters began when Hoffa accused Carey of illegal re-election campaign activities on March 19, 1997, three months after the election. Hoffa asserted that, at the direction of President Carey, the Teamsters union had paid $97,000 to Michael Ansara, owner of a Massachusetts-based direct mail firm, for get-out-the-vote work in the 1996 Presidential and Congressional elections—work which was not done. Ansara's wife, Barbara Arnold, then made a $95,000 contribution to the Carey re-election effort days later. The deal, Hoffa alleged, had been brokered by Martin Davis, owner of another direct mail business which had done work for the union and the Carey campaign. Hoffa claimed the donation was pivotal because it permitted the Carey campaign to make a last-minute anti-Hoffa mailing. The use of union funds in a race for union office is prohibited by federal law, and it is also illegal for employers or their family members to contribute to union elections. Carey dismissed the allegations, claiming that it was mere "serendipity" that the donation came on the heels of the payment. Nonetheless, Carey returned the donation, and a day later returned another $126,000 in donations to other contributors without explanation. The refunds constituted nearly 10 percent of Carey's total campaign fund-raising. On March 26, a Federal grand jury in Manhattan began investigating the allegations. On June 6, 1997, the U.S. Department of Justice indicted Davis on charges of conspiracy, embezzlement, and violations of federal labor law for masterminding the kickback scheme. Ansara pleaded guilty to conspiracy and admitted he had used the union's money to reimburse his wife for her donations to the Carey re-election effort. The Carey campaign tried to shield its internal documents from federal investigators, arguing they were protected by attorney–client privilege, but this claim was dismissed by the United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit.
UPS strike
As the financial scandal worsened, Carey faced a major strike against UPS.
Carey had ordered Teamsters staff and local leaders to begin preparing for a strike against UPS a year before the contract expiration deadline. A questionnaire was sent to all Teamster-represented workers at UPS asking them what their key contract issues were, and the union made those issues the centerpiece of its negotiation strategy and strike effort. The union also circulated a petition which obtained 100,000 member signatures supporting its negotiating strategy, held numerous small rallies four months ahead of the strike deadline to identify and overcome problems with member mobilization, distributed 50,000 whistles for use at rallies, distributed hundreds of thousands of pro-union stickers, and forced local unions to build effective communications networks. Shop stewards at UPS received a seven-minute video about the negotiations, and delegates to the Teamsters convention in July 1996 received a "Countdown to Contract" booklet which outlined the union's negotiating and strike strategy and suggested ways locals could put pressure on the company. The union also established a strike Web site which it updated every few hours, established a system for faxing negotiating and strike bulletins to locals, set up a toll-free hot line for striking workers, and worked to ensure that part-timer workers supported full-timer workers and vice versa.
The UPS strike preparations also fed into Carey's effort to rebuild the union's organizing capacity. Carey proposed tripling the union's organizing budget to 10 percent from 3 percent, getting 10,000 union members to be volunteer organizers, and securing a commitment from 150 of the union's 651 locals to hire full-time organizers and set aside 15 percent of their budgets for recruiting new members. If the union could win most of its negotiating goals at the bargaining table, Carey intended to use the new UPS contract to help organize workers at Federal Express and Overnite Transportation.
As the August 1, 1997, strike deadline approached, the talks broke down. On July 30, the company presented its final offer, which the union rejected. Officials with the Federal Mediation and Conciliation Service met with the two sides on July 31: Both sides agreed to return to the bargaining table, and the union agreed to extend its strike deadline by four days. Carey presented a new proposal to the company on August 2, but UPS officials rejected it. Talks resumed on the evening of August 3. UPS officials later said they offered to make significant compromises similar to those contained in the eventual contract (including withdrawal of its pension proposal), but Carey disputed that account and said the company's last proposal contained little that was new.
Carey's strike preparation efforts paid off when talks between the company and union broke down and 185,000 union members struck on August 4, 1997. The strike involved more workers than any other strike in the 1990s. Carey focused on just a handful of contract issues: That UPS create full-time positions rather than part-time positions in the future, convert several thousand part-time workers to full-time, increase part-time pay significantly, and remain in the union's multi-employer pension plan rather than create its own. UPS executives asked President Bill Clinton to invoke the Taft-Hartley Act, which would force the union back to work, but the President said that the conditions required by the Act had not been met. Some Hoffa supporters claimed that Carey had forced a strike to draw attention away from his legal troubles, but most observers concluded that the union could not accept the company's final offer (which included a 1.5 percent raise for full-time workers, no raise for part-timers, and withdrawal from the Teamsters' multiemployer pension plan). Because the Teamsters' strike fund had run out in 1994, UPS officials believed that the union could not sustain a strike for more than a week. But on August 12, the AFL-CIO announced it would loan the Teamsters $10 million a week until the strike ended.
Pressure on UPS to end the strike increased swiftly. The company lost $30 million to $50 million a day as it continued to pay non-striking workers to keep the company running. On August 13, Secretary of Labor Alexis Herman privately intervened in the strike with the support of President Clinton, and was able to get the two sides talking again. Carey and the Teamsters also undertook a sophisticated public relations effort. They depicted the union members as average people (the union's spokespeople were often rank and file Teamsters), and mobilized the public's sympathy for UPS drivers by having strikers drive their regular delivery routes to give their customers information about the strike. They also made strategic use of the Internet, using the union's Web site to issue updates and put pressure on Congress. UPS also engaged in a strong public relations effort (using full-page newspaper advertisements and pressuring customers to ask the President to invoke Taft-Hartley), but most observers as well as some UPS officials agreed that the union had the better P.R. effort. A Gallup poll found that 55 percent of respondents supported the union.
UPS had seriously underestimated the union's capacity to wage a strike. Most importantly, UPS officials simply did not believe a strike would occur. But company officials also did not realize the importance of the union's early mobilization efforts, believed the union was too divided between the Carey and Hoffa camps to wage an effective strike, and believed thousands of Teamsters would cross the picket line to return to work. As the strike began, many UPS executives felt they could pressure Carey into offering the company's final offer to the Teamster membership and that the members would accept this offer.
Carey won a major contract victory on August 18, 1997. Talks had resumed on August 7 but ended two days later. After five days of silence, talks began again on August 14 under the personal supervision of Labor Secretary Herman at the Hyatt Regency Washington hotel across the street from the Teamsters' headquarters. After two days of nearly continuous bargaining, UPS withdrew its pension demand. President Clinton personally spoke to both parties over the weekend to encourage them to continue bargaining, and a final tentative contract emerged on Monday afternoon, August 18. The pact included several major concessions by the employer: Starting pay of part-time workers would increase for the first time since 1982, 10,000 part-time jobs would be converted into full-time jobs, UPS would stay in the union's multi-employer pension plan, most workers would see significant benefit increases, and five-sixths of all new full-time jobs would be filled by existing part-timers. The union agreed to a five-year contract rather than the proposed four-year deal. The company had lost more than $600 million in business during the strike, and fears of even larger losses had finally led it to concede. The 50-person Teamsters bargaining committee and conference of 200 UPS locals ratified the agreement on August 19.
The UPS strike was a major boost for Ron Carey. His opponents agreed that he had emerged politically stronger from the battle. Carey quickly announced plans to boost organizing efforts at Federal Express, using the gains won in the UPS contract as a major selling point for the union.
Re-election financial scandal and expulsion from Teamsters
The donation kickback scheme which led to Carey's eventual expulsion from the Teamsters was created in July 1996. Early internal Carey re-election campaign polls showed Carey losing badly to Hoffa. Hoffa was also out-raising Carey in funds by more than 4-to-1, and the Carey campaign and outside fund-raising consultants were convinced much of Hoffa's funds were coming from organized crime sources. Carey re-election campaign aides, however, were confident Carey could win if he could bypass the local leadership (which supported Hoffa) and get his message directly to Teamsters members. In late July, Carey campaign manager Jere Nash met with Martin Davis, who owned The November Group (a direct-marketing company). Nash and Davis concluded a direct mail and phone bank effort would cost $700,000, money the Carey campaign did not have. Nash agreed to raise $300,000 and Davis agreed to raise the rest. Davis sought out fund-raiser Michael Ansara to brainstorm ways to raise the funds. On October 6, Ansara went to California and met with 300 wealthy donors to liberal causes. One of those donors was a major fund-raiser for Citizen Action, a coalition of left-wing public interest organizations with chapters in 24 states. The donor and Ansara hatched a plan: In exchange for a $475,000 donation to Citizen Action, the Carey campaign would get a $100,000 donation from Citizen Action and Citizen Action would pay $75,000 to Ansara. Meanwhile, Davis contacted AFL-CIO secretary-treasurer Richard Trumka and allegedly concocted a scheme whereby the Teamsters would donate $150,000 to the AFL-CIO for spurious get-out-the-vote efforts and the AFL-CIO would pay the same amount to Citizen Action. Citizen Action would then pay $100,000 to The November Group, which would use the cash to finance Carey's direct marketing effort. Davis also met with members of the Clinton-Gore campaign, and suggested that the Teamsters would make major donations to Democratic state parties if wealthy donors (who, for whatever reason, might be prohibited by law from donating to political parties) would make donations to the Carey re-election bid. The Teamsters donated $236,500 to Democratic state parties, but when no acceptable donations were made to the Carey campaign by the wealthy donors the scheme fell apart and no donation exchanges were made.
Five days after Carey's historic victory at the bargaining table in the UPS strike, details of the donations kickback scheme were unveiled by the court-appointed federal official overseeing the union's elections. The report revealed that the donations kickback scheme included Citizen Action. The report said that Carey had approved a $475,000 donation to Citizen Action, and that Citizen Action had donated $75,000 of this money to the Carey re-election effort. The August 23 report also indicated that the Democratic National Committee (DNC) had been approached by Carey campaign officials. The report did not, however, conclude that Carey knew of the transactions and referred the matter to federal prosecutors for further investigation. Based on the report's findings, federal officials overturned the 1996 Teamsters presidential election, and called for new rules that would bar non-Teamsters from contributing to union election campaigns and establish a $1,000 contribution limit. The Independent Review Board opened its own inquiry into the financial scandal on August 27.
The scandal widened throughout September and October. Although Carey had not been disqualified from being a candidate in the re-run election, new evidence and witnesses had caused federal officials to reconsider that opinion by mid-September. As Carey kicked off his second re-election bid, a federal grand jury began investigating whether the Teamsters' donations to the Democratic Party violated federal law. Four days later, Carey accused the Hoffa campaign of also engaging in improper fund-raising in 1996, and federal investigators agreed to look into those charges. Carey repeated the charge several times over the next few months. Hoffa said all his donations had come in sums of less than $100, which did not have to be reported. On August 17, federal prosecutors said that they had evidence that the AFL-CIO may have contributed $150,000 to Citizen Action for spurious get-out-the-vote efforts in an attempt to get Citizen Action to give $100,000 to the Carey campaign, and that AFL-CIO secretary-treasurer Richard Trumka was implicated in the scheme. On September 19, Martin Davis pleaded guilty to mail fraud and embezzlement, and conspiracy to commit fraud, to make false statements, and to embezzling funds. Jere Nash, Carey's 1996 re-election campaign manager, also pleaded guilty to making false statements and conspiracy. During their plea hearing, Davis, Ansara, and Nash revealed in court that leaders of several other unions had given $20,000 to the Carey campaign in violation of federal laws barring union leaders from contributing to the election campaigns of candidates in other unions, and that Carey campaign officials had lied about these donations. Three staff members at the Teamsters testified in mid-October that they were pressured to give more than $1,000 to the Carey campaign or lose their jobs. On October 22, the IRB accused William Hamilton, the union's former political director, of conspiring with Nash, Davis, Ansara, and others in the donation kickback scheme.
Carey contended he knew nothing of the donation kickback scheme. He said that he had approved the large political donations to Citizen Action, the AFL-CIO, and other groups, but that he had relied too heavily on the advice of his aides and did not notice that the donations were much larger than in the past or were being made to some groups the Teamsters did not have long-standing relationships with. He testified before a grand jury in August and October 1997 that he knew nothing of the kickbacks, only the donations.
In late September, the re-run of the Teamsters presidential election was set for January 1998, albeit with much stricter limits on campaign contributions and greater disclosure requirements.
On November 17, 1997, a federal official overseeing the Teamsters disqualified Ron Carey from seeking elective office in the union, concluding that Carey knew of and approved the donation kickback scheme. Three Teamsters began to vie for the nomination to oppose Hoffa: Tom Leedham, director of the union's warehouse division; Ken Hall, Carey's chief strategist during the UPS strike; and George Cashman, president of a Boston-area truck drivers' local. Although Teamsters for a Democratic Union continued to support Carey as he fought the disqualification, they also debated what strategy to pursue in the event that the disqualification was upheld. Meanwhile, Carey and the Justice Department signed an agreement in which a federal monitor would oversee the union's spending to prevent any additional improper expenditures. Carey sued to have the disqualification overturned, but a U.S. district court and the Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit both refused his request.
Carey's accusations against Hoffa, however, led federal officials to seek a delay in the Teamster election to investigate these charges. A 45-day delay was granted. A second delay was sought and granted in January 1998. Hoffa was cleared of all major wrongdoing in late April 1998.
On November 25, 1997, Ron Carey took a leave of absence from the Teamsters, just hours before the Independent Review Board accused him of illegally using union money to fund his 1996 re-election campaign and failing to meet his fiduciary duties. Carey staunchly defended himself before the IRB, claiming that the accusations against him were based on the testimony of a single person (Jere Nash) who was trying to avoid prison time by implicating Carey. He directly contradicted testimony by his former executive secretary, who said Carey knew of the kickbacks to his campaign. Carey's attorney pointed out that the executive secretary had changed her testimony several times the past year, and that it had been undermined by testimony from another secretary and a mail clerk who both testified that the executive secretary admitted forging Carey's initials on donation approvals. However, Carey admitted that he had not adequately overseen the union's finances, and did not know that the union had spent close to $1 million in political contributions during a 10-day period in October 1996. The Independent Review Board expelled Ron Carey for life from the Teamsters union on July 27, 1998. The IRB concluded Carey breached his fiduciary duty, but that there was insufficient evidence to conclude that he approved or knew about the donation kickback scheme. "A fair inference to be drawn from all the facts is that Carey closed his eyes because he knew or suspected that those contributions were to generate a personal benefit for him, i.e., benefits to his campaign," the Board concluded.
James P. Hoffa won election as President of the Teamsters union on December 5, 1998. He defeated Tom Leedham, 55 percent to 39 percent (with a third candidate garnering 6 percent).
Post-Teamsters life and death
The Teamsters sued Carey for unspecified damages in 2000 for approving $885,000 in political donations in exchange for contributions to Carey's re-election campaign.
Carey was indicted on federal perjury charges in January 2001. He was accused of making false statements to the grand jury in his August and October 1996 testimonies, and for lying to federal officials overseeing the Teamsters election and to the Independent Review Board. Carey pleaded not guilty. Carey's trial began in August 2001, and he was found not guilty on all charges on October 12, 2001.
Carey continued to protest the lifetime ban on Teamster membership for many years. He argued that his court vindication had proven the IRB wrong for expelling him, and that a lifetime ban should be applied only to those Teamsters associated with organized crime—not officials who may have engaged in other sorts of wrongdoing.
In 2007, Carey was researching and writing a book based on his experiences. He was critical of the policies of his successor, particularly the centralization of authority in the international headquarters, business-model organizing, and giving Teamsters officials permission to draw multiple salaries again.
Ron Carey died of lung cancer at New York Hospital Queens in New York City at age 72 on December 11, 2008.
Other activities
A Roman Catholic, Carey coached softball at Queen of Peace Roman Catholic Church in Queens, New York City, in the 1960s and 1970s. He was also very active in the American Parkinson Disease Association (he was elected its national vice president in 1971), and sat on the boards of the American Cancer Society and Boys Clubs.
References
Further reading
Early, Steve and Wilson, Rand. "A Teamster Apart: Ron Carey Remembered." The Nation. December 16, 2008.
Kumar, Deepa. Outside the Box: Corporate Media, Globalization, and the UPS Strike. Urbana, Ill.: University of Illinois Press, 1997.
Kumar, Deepa. "Ron Carey: Working Class Hero." Monthly Review. December 16, 2008.
External links
Labor Notes. October 31, 2007.
"Ron Carey: Visionary Teamster Leader Dies at 72." Teamsters for a Democratic Union
Center for the Study of Working Class Life. SUNY-Stony Brook. 1997. (Ron Carey speaks about the 1997 UPS strike 10 years later)
Center for the Study of Working Class Life. SUNY-Stony Brook. 1997. (Ron Carey speaks about the 1997 UPS strike 10 years later)
1936 births
2008 deaths
American trade union leaders
Deaths from lung cancer in New York (state)
Financial scandals
People from Kew Gardens, Queens
Presidents of the International Brotherhood of Teamsters
Haaren High School alumni
Activists from New York (state)
Catholics from New York (state)
People from Astoria, Queens
People from Long Island City, Queens
International Brotherhood of Teamsters people
Vice presidents of the AFL–CIO |
4421780 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foreign%20exchange%20risk | Foreign exchange risk | Foreign exchange risk (also known as FX risk, exchange rate risk or currency risk) is a financial risk that exists when a financial transaction is denominated in a currency other than the domestic currency of the company. The exchange risk arises when there is a risk of an unfavourable change in exchange rate between the domestic currency and the denominated currency before the date when the transaction is completed.
Foreign exchange risk also exists when the foreign subsidiary of a firm maintains financial statements in a currency other than the domestic currency of the consolidated entity.
Investors and businesses exporting or importing goods and services, or making foreign investments, have an exchange-rate risk but can take steps to manage (i.e. reduce) the risk.
History
Many businesses were unconcerned with, and did not manage, foreign exchange risk under the international Bretton Woods system. It was not until the switch to floating exchange rates, following the collapse of the Bretton Woods system, that firms became exposed to an increased risk from exchange rate fluctuations and began trading an increasing volume of financial derivatives in an effort to hedge their exposure. The currency crises of the 1990s and early 2000s, such as the Mexican peso crisis, Asian currency crisis, 1998 Russian financial crisis, and the Argentine peso crisis, led to substantial losses from foreign exchange and led firms to pay closer attention to their foreign exchange risk.
Types of foreign exchange risk
Economic risk
A firm has economic risk (also known as forecast risk) to the degree that its market value is influenced by unexpected exchange-rate fluctuations, which can severely affect the firm's market share with regard to its competitors, the firm's future cash flows, and ultimately the firm's value. Economic risk can affect the present value of future cash flows. An example of an economic risk would be a shift in exchange rates that influences the demand for a good sold in a foreign country.
Another example of an economic risk is the possibility that macroeconomic conditions will influence an investment in a foreign country. Macroeconomic conditions include exchange rates, government regulations, and political stability. When financing an investment or a project, a company's operating costs, debt obligations, and the ability to predict economically unsustainable circumstances should be thoroughly calculated in order to produce adequate revenues in covering those economic risks. For instance, when an American company invests money in a manufacturing plant in Spain, the Spanish government might institute changes that negatively impact the American company's ability to operate the plant, such as changing laws or even seizing the plant, or to otherwise make it difficult for the American company to move its profits out of Spain. As a result, all possible risks that outweigh an investment's profits and outcomes need to be closely scrutinized and strategically planned before initiating the investment. Other examples of potential economic risk are steep market downturns, unexpected cost overruns, and low demand for goods.
International investments are associated with significantly higher economic risk levels as compared to domestic investments. In international firms, economic risk heavily affects not only investors but also bondholders and shareholders, especially when dealing with the sale and purchase of foreign government bonds. However, economic risk can also create opportunities and profits for investors globally. When investing in foreign bonds, investors can profit from the fluctuation of the foreign-exchange markets and interest rates in different countries. Investors should always be aware of possible changes by the foreign regulatory authorities. Changing laws and regulations regarding sizes, types, timing, credit quality, and disclosures of bonds will immediately and directly affect investments in foreign countries. For example, if a central bank in a foreign country raises interest rates or the legislature increases taxes, the return on investment will be significantly impacted. As a result, economic risk can be reduced by utilizing various analytical and predictive tools that consider the diversification of time, exchange rates, and economic development in multiple countries, which offer different currencies, instruments, and industries.
When making a comprehensive economic forecast, several risk factors should be noted. One of the most effective strategies is to develop a set of positive and negative risks that associate with the standard economic metrics of an investment. In a macroeconomic model, major risks include changes in GDP, exchange-rate fluctuations, and commodity-price and stock-market fluctuations. It is equally critical to identify the stability of the economic system. Before initiating an investment, a firm should consider the stability of the investing sector that influences the exchange-rate changes. For instance, a service sector is less likely to have inventory swings and exchange-rate changes as compared to a large consumer sector.
Contingent risk
A firm has contingent risk when bidding for foreign projects, negotiating other contracts, or handling direct foreign investments. Such a risk arises from the potential of a firm to suddenly face a transnational or economic foreign-exchange risk contingent on the outcome of some contract or negotiation. For example, a firm could be waiting for a project bid to be accepted by a foreign business or government that, if accepted, would result in an immediate receivable. While waiting, the firm faces a contingent risk from the uncertainty as to whether or not that receivable will accrue.
Transaction risk
Companies will often participate in a transaction involving more than one currency. In order to meet the legal and accounting standards of processing these transactions, companies have to translate foreign currencies involved into their domestic currency. A firm has transaction risk whenever it has contractual cash flows (receivables and payables) whose values are subject to unanticipated changes in exchange rates due to a contract being denominated in a foreign currency. To realize the domestic value of its foreign-denominated cash flows, the firm must exchange, or translate, the foreign currency for domestic.
When firms negotiate contracts with set prices and delivery dates in the face of a volatile foreign exchange market, with rates constantly fluctuating between initiating a transaction and its settlement, or payment, those firms face the risk of significant loss. Businesses have the goal of making all monetary transactions profitable ones, and the currency markets must thus be carefully observed.
Applying public accounting rules causes firms with transnational risks to be impacted by a process known as "re-measurement". The current value of contractual cash flows are remeasured on each balance sheet.
Translation risk
A firm's translation risk is the extent to which its financial reporting is affected by exchange-rate movements. As all firms generally must prepare consolidated financial statements for reporting purposes, the consolidation process for multinationals entails translating foreign assets and liabilities, or the financial statements of foreign subsidiaries, from foreign to domestic currency. While translation risk may not affect a firm's cash flows, it could have a significant impact on a firm's reported earnings and therefore its stock price.
Translation risk deals with the risk to a company's equities, assets, liabilities, or income, any of which can change in value due to fluctuating foreign exchange rates when a portion is denominated in a foreign currency. A company doing business in a foreign country will eventually have to exchange its host country's currency back into their domestic currency. When exchange rates appreciate or depreciate, significant, difficult-to-predict changes in the value of the foreign currency can occur. For example, U.S. companies must translate Euro, Pound, Yen, etc., statements into U.S. dollars. A foreign subsidiary's income statement and balance sheet are the two financial statements that must be translated. A subsidiary doing business in the host country usually follows that country's prescribed translation method, which may vary, depending on the subsidiary's business operations.
Subsidiaries can be characterized as either an integrated or a self-sustaining foreign entity. An integrated foreign entity operates as an extension of the parent company, with cash flows and business operations that are highly interrelated with those of the parent. A self-sustaining foreign entity operates in its local economic environment, independent of the parent company. Both integrated and self-sustaining foreign entities operate use functional currency, which is the currency of the primary economic environment in which the subsidiary operates and in which day-to-day operations are transacted. Management must evaluate the nature of its foreign subsidiaries to determine the appropriate functional currency for each.
There are three translation methods: current-rate method, temporal method, and U.S. translation procedures. Under the current-rate method, all financial statement line items are translated at the "current" exchange rate. Under the temporal method, specific assets and liabilities are translated at exchange rates consistent with the timing of the item's creation. The U.S. translation procedures differentiate foreign subsidiaries by functional currency, not subsidiary characterization. If a firm translates by the temporal method, a zero net exposed position is called fiscal balance. The temporal method cannot be achieved by the current-rate method because total assets will have to be matched by an equal amount of debt, but the equity section of the balance sheet must be translated at historical exchange rates.
Measuring risk
If foreign-exchange markets are efficient—such that purchasing power parity, interest rate parity, and the international Fisher effect hold true—a firm or investor need not concern itself with foreign exchange risk. A deviation from one or more of the three international parity conditions generally needs to occur for there to be a significant exposure to foreign-exchange risk.
Financial risk is most commonly measured in terms of the variance or standard deviation of a quantity such as percentage returns or rates of change. In foreign exchange, a relevant factor would be the rate of change of the foreign currency spot exchange rate. A variance, or spread, in exchange rates indicates enhanced risk, whereas standard deviation represents exchange-rate risk by the amount exchange rates deviate, on average, from the mean exchange rate in a probabilistic distribution. A higher standard deviation would signal a greater currency risk. Because of its uniform treatment of deviations and for the automatically squaring of deviation values, economists have criticized the accuracy of standard deviation as a risk indicator. Alternatives such as average absolute deviation and semivariance have been advanced for measuring financial risk.
Value at risk
Practitioners have advanced, and regulators have accepted, a financial risk management technique called value at risk (VaR), which examines the tail end of a distribution of returns for changes in exchange rates, to highlight the outcomes with the worst returns. Banks in Europe have been authorized by the Bank for International Settlements to employ VaR models of their own design in establishing capital requirements for given levels of market risk. Using the VaR model helps risk managers determine the amount that could be lost on an investment portfolio over a certain period of time with a given probability of changes in exchange rates.
Managing risk
Transaction hedging
Firms with exposure to foreign-exchange risk may use a number of hedging strategies to reduce that risk. Transaction exposure can be reduced either with the use of money markets, foreign exchange derivatives—such as forward contracts, options, futures contracts, and swaps—or with operational techniques such as currency invoicing, leading and lagging of receipts and payments, and exposure netting. Each hedging strategy comes with its own benefits that may make it more suitable than another, based on the nature of the business and risks it may encounter.
Forward and futures contracts serve similar purposes: they both allow transactions that take place in the future—for a specified price at a specified rate—that offset otherwise adverse exchange fluctuations. Forward contracts are more flexible, to an extent, because they can be customized to specific transactions, whereas futures come in standard amounts and are based on certain commodities or assets, such as other currencies. Because futures are only available for certain currencies and time periods, they cannot entirely mitigate risk, because there is always the chance that exchange rates will move in your favor. However, the standardization of futures can be a part of what makes them attractive to some: they are well-regulated and are traded only on exchanges.
Two popular and inexpensive methods companies can use to minimize potential losses is hedging with options and forward contracts. If a company decides to purchase an option, it is able to set a rate that is "at-worst" for the transaction. If the option expires and it's out-of-the-money, the company is able to execute the transaction in the open market at a favorable rate. If a company decides to take out a forward contract, it will set a specific currency rate for a set date in the future.
Currency invoicing refers to the practice of invoicing transactions in the currency that benefits the firm. It is important to note that this does not necessarily eliminate foreign exchange risk, but rather moves its burden from one party to another. A firm can invoice its imports from another country in its home currency, which would move the risk to the exporter and away from itself. This technique may not be as simple as it sounds; if the exporter's currency is more volatile than that of the importer, the firm would want to avoid invoicing in that currency. If both the importer and exporter want to avoid using their own currencies, it is also fairly common to conduct the exchange using a third, more stable currency.
If a firm looks to leading and lagging as a hedge, it must exercise extreme caution. Leading and lagging refer to the movement of cash inflows or outflows either forward or backward in time. For example, if a firm must pay a large sum in three months but is also set to receive a similar amount from another order, it might move the date of receipt of the sum to coincide with the payment. This delay would be termed lagging. If the receipt date were moved sooner, this would be termed leading the payment.
Another method to reduce exposure transaction risk is natural hedging (or netting foreign-exchange exposures), which is an efficient form of hedging because it will reduce the margin that is taken by banks when businesses exchange currencies; and it is a form of hedging that is easy to understand. To enforce the netting, there will be a systematic-approach requirement, as well as a real-time look at exposure and a platform for initiating the process, which, along with the foreign cash flow uncertainty, can make the procedure seem more difficult. Having a back-up plan, such as foreign-currency accounts, will be helpful in this process. The companies that deal with inflows and outflows in the same currency will experience efficiencies and a reduction in risk by calculating the net of the inflows and outflows, and using foreign-currency account balances that will pay in part for some or all of the exposure.
Translation hedging
Translation exposure is largely dependent on the translation methods required by accounting standards of the home country. For example, the United States Federal Accounting Standards Board specifies when and where to use certain methods. Firms can manage translation exposure by performing a balance sheet hedge, since translation exposure arises from discrepancies between net assets and net liabilities solely from exchange rate differences. Following this logic, a firm could acquire an appropriate amount of exposed assets or liabilities to balance any outstanding discrepancy. Foreign exchange derivatives may also be used to hedge against translation exposure.
A common technique to hedge translation risk is called balance-sheet hedging, which involves speculating on the forward market in hopes that a cash profit will be realized to offset a non-cash loss from translation. This requires an equal amount of exposed foreign currency assets and liabilities on the firm's consolidated balance sheet. If this is achieved for each foreign currency, the net translation exposure will be zero. A change in the exchange rates will change the value of exposed liabilities to an equal degree but opposite to the change in the value of exposed assets.
Companies can also attempt to hedge translation risk by purchasing currency swaps or futures contracts. Companies can also request clients to pay in the company's domestic currency, whereby the risk is transferred to the client.
Strategies other than financial hedging
Firms may adopt strategies other than financial hedging for managing their economic or operating exposure, by carefully selecting production sites with a mind for lowering costs, using a policy of flexible sourcing in its supply chain management, diversifying its export market across a greater number of countries, or by implementing strong research and development activities and differentiating its products in pursuit of less foreign-exchange risk exposure.
By putting more effort into researching alternative methods for production and development, it is possible that a firm may discover more ways to produce their outputs locally rather than relying on export sources that would expose them to the foreign exchange risk. By paying attention to currency fluctuations around the world, firms can advantageously relocate their production to other countries. For this strategy to be effective, the new site must have lower production costs. There are many factors a firm must consider before relocating, such as a foreign nation's political and economic stability.
See also
Privatized foreign currency risk
References
Further reading
Market risk
Foreign exchange market
International finance |
4422313 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second%20Malaysia%20Plan | Second Malaysia Plan | The Second Malaysia Plan (Malay: Rancangan Malaysia Kedua) was an economic development plan introduced by the government of Malaysia with the goal of implementing the Malaysian New Economic Policy (NEP). It lasted from 1971 to 1975 and aimed to "restructure" the society of Malaysia and reduce Malaysian Chinese and foreign dominance in the economy of Malaysia so as to improve the economic position of the Malays. It was the successor to the First Malaysia Plan, which was also intended to specifically tackle the problem of poverty among the Malays. However, the First Malaysia Plan had limited success, which may have been a factor in the 13 May Incident in 1969 when race riots broke out in Kuala Lumpur. The Second Malaysia Plan had been regarded as excessive in its zeal to increase Malay participation in the economy, and the government accordingly scaled back the emphasis on restructuring the economy when the plan ended.
Background
Although the Malays have nearly always comprised a majority of the Malaysian population, their economic power has rarely been commensurate. In 1970, the Bumiputra controlled only 1.9% of the Malaysian economy, while the non-Malays (mostly Chinese) held 37.4%, with the rest in foreign hands. Due to this wide disparity, Article 153 of the Constitution requires the government to set quotas for the dispensation of scholarships, employment in the civil service, etc. targeted at improving the economic status of the Malays.
However, the First Malaysia Plan—whose approach had been dependent on the Malays "availing themselves of these facilities and services and putting them to good use"—failed in addressing the economic imbalance. Its policies also resulted in discontent among the non-Malays, who mostly supported the opposition parties that favoured reducing or eliminating affirmative action for the Bumiputra in the 1969 general election. A victory parade held on 12 May 1969 by supporters of the opposition led to a retaliatory rally on 13 May by the United Malays National Organisation (UMNO), a major party in the governing Alliance coalition. However, the rally soon turned into a riot which lasted two days, an incident later known as the 13 May Incident. Officially, around 200 people died—although others have given much larger estimates—with thousands left homeless, the majority of them Chinese. A state of emergency was declared, and Parliament was suspended. The National Operations Council (NOC) governed until 1971, when Parliament reconvened.
The Second Malayan Five Year Plan (1961–1965) was an economic development plan launched by the government of Malaya, and continued by the government of Malaysia (a new nation comprising Malaya, Singapore, Sabah and Sarawak). This plan followed the First Malayan Five Year Plan, which ran from 1956 to 1960. The Second Malayan Five Year Plan increased expenditure for the development of agriculture and rural areas. Funding was markedly increased for land development schemes, physical infrastructure, and social services. The Plan's stated objective was "to provide facilities and opportunities for the rural population to improve its level of economic and social wellbeing." Some have attributed the greater expenditure of the Plan to the governing Alliance political coalition's political woes; the coalition had only narrowly won the 1969 general elections due to discontent among the rural Malay electorate over the lack of economic progress.
While it held the reins of power, the NOC set out the NEP, with the ultimate aim of eradicating poverty and eliminating "the identification of race with economic function" through a "rapidly expanding economy"; the NEP aimed for a Bumiputra share of 30% of the economy within 20 years. The Outline Perspective Plan was also approved, with similar goals to the NEP. Both the NEP and the Outline Perspective Plan were set to expire in 1990, and the Second Malaysia Plan was passed by Parliament to implement the goals of these policies.
Economic restructuring
The Second Malaysia Plan stepped up government involvement in the economy, with the main goal of increasing Malay economic interests, especially in the areas of manufacturing and mining. To avoid directly hurting Chinese economic interests, the plan focused on huge economic growth, with the goal of expanding both the Malay and non-Malay shares of the economy in absolute terms, while increasing the Malay share in relative terms as well.
A sum of M$7.25 billion in total was allocated for the Second Malaysia Plan. Although this constituted a decrease from the First Malaysia Plan's allocation of M$10.5 billion, the Second Malaysia Plan hoped to achieve greater reduction in poverty and increase the involvement of the Malays in the private sector by imposing certain restrictions on private firms that would benefit Malay employment and economic ownership.
At the time the plan was announced, the non-Malays had, in the words of one commentator, "a virtual monopoly of private industrial and commercial employment", and were concentrated in the urban areas. However, foreign interests controlled most modern industries, including manufacturing, banking, finance, rubber, and tin. The Malays were largely involved in rural occupations such as rice farming, fishing, tending to rubber or oil palm smallholdings, and so on. They were conspicuously absent from even minor white collar jobs, such as clerical work, and only in the civil service, where they were guaranteed 80% of all government jobs, were they present in the upper portion of the hierarchy. Most members of some professions, such as medicine and law, were non-Malay. Ironically, government policies, such as those set out by Article 153, appeared to hinder Malay involvement in the private sector by giving them preference in only the public sector. Unemployment among all races was also rampant, largely due to poor education, with about 70% of the 275,000 unemployed in 1970 being aged between 15 and 25 years. It was all this that the NEP and the Second Malaysia Plan set out to change.
Industrialisation
Several government agencies that had been established prior to the advent of the Second Malaysia Plan increased their participation in the economy during the Second Malaysia Plan. These agencies included the Malaysian Industrial Development Authority (MIDA) and Majlis Amanah Rakyat (MARA). Several more were also established under the plan, including the Perbadanan Nasional (PERNAS, or the National Trading Corporation), State Economic Development Corporation and the Urban Development Authority (UDA).
PERNAS was established to purchase businesses and participate in joint ventures with private companies, as well as to develop nascent industries to be held in trust until the Malays held sufficient capital to take them over. By the end of the plan's tenure, PERNAS owned 100% of eight companies involved in insurance, trading, construction, properties, engineering, securities, and mining. Joint ventures had also been formed with the private sector to develop the mining, containerisation, tourism and consulting industries.
Parliament passed the Industrial Coordination Act during the Second Malaysia Plan, which required all new manufacturing enterprises with M$100,000, or twenty-five or more workers, to be licensed by the Minister of Trade and Industry. To obtain such a licence, each firm had to meet certain conditions set by the Ministry, which could vary. Malaysian Chinese manufacturers were concerned about the act, as they had operated with minimal control from the government before. Nevertheless, the government stated the act was not meant to be detrimental towards any group, and went ahead with its implementation. Under the act, firms were divided into three categories: firms approved after 1 January 1972, firms approved before then, and firms operating without approval from the Ministry. All firms subject to the act were required to submit a proposal to the Ministry stating how they planned to achieve the long-term target of achieving 30% Malay and 70% non-Malay Malaysian ownership in the company. Proposals that were accepted then became the guidelines for how the relevant company would operate.
Until the Second Malaysia Plan, industry was concentrated on the west coast of Peninsular Malaysia. The plan thus moved to establish new industrial estates on the east coast, in order to curb rural-urban migration—the east coast was considerably less urbanised than the west coast.
By 1975, manufacturing activities constituted 16% of the Malaysian Gross Domestic Product (GDP), one per cent short of the target of the Second Malaysia Plan. Manufacturing grew negligibly in 1975, attributed by the government to the global recession that year. This contrasted with the 15% growth achieved in 1974, which well exceeded the target of 12.5% growth per year during the Second Malaysia Plan. Food, wood products, and chemical products made up the majority of the manufacturing sector. The substantial growth in manufacturing during this period has been attributed to the government's establishment of free trade zones, where any goods brought in would not be subject to customs duties, and goods could be freely exported abroad or transferred to another free trade zone. In 1974, such zones were declared in the states of Penang, Selangor, and Malacca. The industries located in these zones were mostly electronics-, rubber product- and textile-based.
Mining
Until the late 1970s, Malaysia was the world's foremost producer of tin, supplying roughly 40% of the non-communist world's tin. Nevertheless, tin reserves were declining; mining's contribution to the GDP was projected to fall 13% over the course of the Second Malaysia Plan, due to the exhaustion of tin and iron reserves. However, bauxite and copper continued to contribute to the mining sector in the early 1970s. Malay participation in the mining sector was minimal, and as much as 70% of the industry remained under foreign control. This was a legacy of the British colonial era; many British firms, which had arrived in the 19th century to exploit Malaysian mineral resources, had not departed yet. Malay participation in the mining sector—especially in tin—was further hampered by the British tendency in the 19th century to bring in cheap Chinese labour; most of those employed in mining were still Chinese as late as 1970.
Petroleum or crude oil began to significantly contribute to the Malaysian economy in the 1970s, as new oil rigs and refineries were set up. By 1975, total production of crude oil stood at , most of it produced by Shell. In 1974, the exclusive right to own, explore and exploit petroleum in Malaysia was vested in the government enterprise of Petronas. The following year, Petronas was granted sole rights over the marketing and distribution of all petroleum products and a provision to control other companies without taking an ownership stake in them, through the issuance of management shares to Petronas.
The number of Malays employed in the mining sector soared from 1970 onwards, as the government's restructuring policies came into force. When the Second Malaysia Plan began, less than 200,000 Malays were employed in the mining industry. By 1990, they numbered nearly a million, well ahead of the target numbers originally outlined. Licences for mining operations were specially reserved for Malays as part of the drive to increase their ownership level in the mining industry. The government also ostensibly increased Bumiputra ownership by nationalising several formerly foreign mining companies—by 1989, state corporations controlled 60% of the mining industry. The government was also aided by the fact that petroleum soon eclipsed other minerals in the mining sector—as Petronas was a state-owned corporation, it was also considered a Bumiputra enterprise. However, the government has been criticised for this practice, as it is argued nationalised corporations belong to the public at large, and not only to the Bumiputra.
Agriculture
The Second Malaysia Plan continued the initiatives that previous five year plans, such as the First Malayan Five Year Plan, had taken. Although expenditure on other development increased substantially, by about M$1 million, funding for rural development was also increased. The Second Malaysia Plan focused on diversifying crops grown in Malaysia; the 1974 Green Book Program aimed to make Malaysia self-sufficient in food production by encouraging farmers to grow vegetables, such as long beans, chilies, etc., and rear livestock—the Veterinary Department going as far as to distribute cattle. Fertilisers, seedlings, insecticides and herbicides were subsidised. Double-cropping of rice was encouraged, so farmers could harvest twice in one year and effectively double their output. The Farmers' Organization Authority was established in 1973 with the goal of co-ordinating agricultural cooperatives, farmers' associations, and government agricultural agencies.
Growth in small-scale agriculture was viewed as crucial to creating jobs and reducing rural poverty, and government agencies such as FELDA (the Federal Land Development Authority) vastly increased the scope and size of their development programs. RISDA (Rubber Industries Smallholder Development Agency) was given the task of diversifying smallholder estates; RISDA set itself the ambitious goal of developing during the Second Malaysia Plan. The main aim was to diversify into palm oil through the planting of oil palms. The Malaysian economy relied heavily on rubber at the time—at its peak, Malaya (Peninsular Malaysia) alone produced more than half of the world's rubber. However, the Great Depression, which depressed rubber prices, greatly set back the Malayan economy. The Malaysian government thus aimed to avert another incident by diversifying the agriculture sector. However, RISDA over-reached itself in attempting to so quickly reappropriate land; by the end of the Second Malaysia Plan, only had been developed, with only half this number comprising oil palm estates.
The land development and resettlement policies instituted by the government, however, failed to make an impact on rural poverty. The government managed to resettle only 40,000 people, despite an estimated 535,000 families engaged in agriculture living below the poverty level. Due to inefficiencies in the program, the beneficiaries of resettlement and development were not always those with the greatest need. It was also alleged by some that there had been too much emphasis on the difficult process of resettlement and development of new areas, instead of increasing productivity in existing farms. Matters were complicated by the Constitution, which gave the states much control over land development, and thus requiring the federal government to negotiate with individual state governments. Non-Malay rural families also did not benefit much due to this, as the Constitution reserved portions of land for the Malays, and state governments were not anxious to receive destitute non-Malays.
Although the Second Malaysia Plan greatly modernised the "rice bowl" states of Kedah and Perlis—virtually eliminating the water buffalo by replacing it with tractors—most smallholders and individual farmers did not benefit technology-wise. In the corporate agriculture sector, the Malays held only a 0.3% stake, as opposed to 70.8% held by foreign interests. In the noncorporate sector, the Malays held 47.1%. Due to limited capital, many Malays were still engaged in "lower productivity activities" as the Second Malaysia Plan ended.
Health
The Second Malaysia Plan continued past initiatives in raising nutritional levels through a number of programs. These included incentives to grow nutritious food, instruction in nutrition and menu planning, and provision of food for groups with the highest rates of malnutrition. However, these programs were hindered by a lack of trained medical personnel.
Although family planning was established as a national goal in 1964, efforts during the Second Malaysia Plan to promote it were hampered by government neglect. Much of the success achieved by the National Family Planning Board occurred during the years of the First Malaysia Plan (1966–1970). The Second Malaysia Plan hoped to add 600,000 new users of family planning techniques, but the facilities and personnel provided were inadequate. The topic was viewed as rather sensitive by the government, and thus family planning was mostly ignored. Ironically, in 1984 Malaysian Prime Minister Mahathir bin Mohamad effectively eliminated family planning as a government policy by announcing the National Population Policy, which targeted a 70 million population by 2100—up from 12.6 million in 1984.
Education
Although education was mostly sidelined in favour of socioeconomic restructuring programs during the Second Malaysia Plan, some important initiatives were taken during its tenure. In 1970, Malay, the national language, became the major medium of instruction from primary to tertiary level, replacing English. British standardised examinations were replaced with local ones, and new Malay-language textbooks were introduced. By the end of the plan, most formerly English-based schools had converted the first four years of instruction entirely to the new Malay-medium curriculum.
In 1973, the Curriculum Development Centre was established. Its goal was to co-ordinate projects to reform the curriculum that had previously been handled by varying government departments. It also began revamping the curriculum for science and mathematics, and began a new program to review the various social science curricula.
The Second Malaysia Plan also hoped to increase the availability of vocational and technical training. Despite some attempts, little progress was made in improving the curriculum, which focused on providing a general education and made little room for vocational or technical training. Several new technical and vocational schools were built under the Second Malaysia Plan, with seven institutions alone completed in 1975. It was hoped this would alleviate the problem of unemployment, especially among the youth.
Transportation
The Second Malaysia Plan aimed to modernise Malaysian railroads, which the government regarded as crucial to development and industry. All trains were converted to use the more efficient diesel fuel, and the government increased allocations for maintenance and modernisation of the rail infrastructure. In particular, emphasis was placed on upgrading existing rolling stock, roadbeds, and repair facilities.
Air service was expanded under the plan, which paid for the purchase of all-weather and night traffic control equipment, as well as the training of staff to handle the equipment. The Second Malaysia Plan also saw Malaysia-Singapore Airlines split into the Malaysia Airline System (MAS) and Singapore Airlines (SIA).
The Second Malaysia Plan also saw the introduction of containerisation in Malaysia to better facilitate transportation. The plan called for the establishment of a national haulage company to handle inland transport; in August 1971, Kontena Nasional Berhad (National Containers Limited) was established by the government. In December, M.V. Benavon became the first container vessel to dock in Malaysia, at the North Terminal of Port Klang in Selangor.
At the time of the Second Malaysia Plan, there were only two sea ports in Malaysia; one in Penang, and one in Klang. The plan called for the construction of two new ports, both in peninsular Malaysia; one would be in Johor, and another would be in Kuantan, a major town in Pahang. The two main objectives of these projects were to meet increasing demand for sea transportation of freight, and to bring development to underdeveloped states. Johor Port was completed in 1977, while Kuantan Port began full operations in 1984.
Legacy
At the end of the Second Malaysia Plan, the poverty rate was found to have declined from 49% to 43%. Unemployment improved slightly, decreasing from 7.5% to 7.4%. Great strides were made in increasing Bumiputra involvement in the private sector, however; the employment rate of Bumiputra in the manufacturing sector increased from 29% to 33%, and from 24% to 34% in the commercial sector. Bumiputra equity ownership more than doubled from 3% to 7.8%. However, this was considered unsatisfactory by many, especially as much of the progress had been made by government enterprises holding the equity in trust. Although the plan had initially targeted a GDP growth rate of 12.5% a year, only an average of 11% was managed. The growth was extremely uneven; while in 1973 GDP grew by 27%, in 1975, it grew a paltry 3% due to the global recession at the time. Despite the government's efforts to tackle unemployment, creating 600,000 new jobs during the Second Malaysia Plan, the number of unemployed actually increased between 1970 and 1975; in 1970, there were 275,000 unemployed, but by 1975, the number stood at 324,000.
The Second Malaysia Plan was also forced to confront an unexpected problem: inflation. Between 1972 and 1975, the consumer price index (CPI) unexpectedly increased by 40%. In 1974, the inflation rate averaged 18%, although it was reduced to 7% by 1975. This new conundrum was therefore considered by the government when it set out the Third Malaysia Plan (1976–1980).
Another overarching consequence of the Second Malaysia Plan was its efforts in crop diversification. Despite RISDA failing to meet its targets, the palm oil industry in Malaysia continued to grow. By 1998, palm oil was the second-largest contributor towards Malaysia's GDP, second only to electronics products.
Overall, the Second Malaysia Plan made much more substantial progress towards reducing the inequity in the economy than its predecessor had. However, the emphasis on improving the lot of the Malays greatly worried the non-Malays, and when the Third Malaysia Plan was launched, the government toned down its rhetoric on affirmative action and emphasised greater economic growth, which would benefit all.
See also
First Malaysia Plan
Malaysian New Economic Policy
Notes
References
Henderson, John William, Vreeland, Nena, Dana, Glenn B., Hurwitz, Geoffrey B., Just, Peter, Moeller, Philip W. & Shinn, R.S. (1977). Area Handbook for Malaysia. American University, Washington D.C., Foreign Area Studies. LCCN 771294.
Five-year plans of Malaysia |
4422465 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Velo-city | Velo-city | Velo-city is a series of cycle planning conferences that started in 1980 in Bremen. The name Velo-city is a small play on word using the French for bicycle – vélo, and Velo-city can also be read as velocity or speed. European Cyclists’ Federation owns the series name, and the ECF Board is the decision-making body for Velo-city.
At the beginning, the conference guests and speakers were mainly bicycle advocates, but today Velo-city is known for gathering people who are involved in the policy, promotion and provision for cyclists. This mixture of people, professions, skills and experience is a valuable component of the events' success. Velo-city is a forum, with people such as stakeholders from local, regional and national authorities, politicians, academics, consultants, industrials, and bicycle users.
Velo-city is an occasion for a city to show continuous and lasting efforts to improve cycling in its city. For instance Paris, inspired by the Velo-city 2003 conference, launched Velib in 2007, thereby creating world-wide attention.
Objectives
The objectives of the Velo-city series are:
Spread high quality knowledge, good new information about cycling, and transport planning at the international level.
Cities with good cycling policies showcase the benefits they provide to their citizens, businesses and others through the conference generated publicity.
Encourage the recognition of cycling as an efficient, healthy, environmentally-friendly mode of transport, and to promote its greater use.
Integration of cycle planning into transport, land-use planning and other relevant policy sectors where cycling plays an important role.
Seek involvement from all relevant stakeholders.
Hosting the conference
The conference is hosted by a different city each year. Before the corona pandemic, it was held with odd-numbered years held in Europe and even-numbered years held outside of Europe. Cities bid to host the conference and are selected by the ECF Board.
Conferences have been held in these locations with the following themes:
1980 – Bremen, Germany
1984 – London, United Kingdom
1987 – Groningen, Netherlands, "Planning for the urban cyclist"
1989 – Copenhagen, Denmark, "How to make people use the bicycle"
1991 – Milano, Italy, "The bicycle: improving mobility and the environment in our cities"
1992 – Montreal, Canada
1993 – Nottingham, United Kingdom
1995 – Basel, Switzerland, "The bicycle, symbol of sustainable transport"
1996 – Ferrara, Italy
1997 – Barcelona, Spain
1999 – Graz, Austria and Maribor, Slovenia
2001 – Edinburgh and Glasgow, Scotland
2003 – Paris, France
2005 – Dublin, Ireland, "Delivering the vision"
2007 – Munich, Germany
2009 – Brussels, Belgium
2010 – Copenhagen, Denmark
2011 – Seville, Spain
2013 – Vienna, Austria
2014 – Adelaide, Australia
2015 – Nantes, France
2016 – Taipei City, Taiwan
2017 – Arnhem and Nijmegen, Netherlands "Freedom of Cycling"
2018 – Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
2019 – Dublin, Ireland, "Cycling for the Ages"
2021 – Lisbon, Portugal "Cycle Diversity"
2022 – Ljubljana, Slovenia "Smart Cycling Inclusion"
2023 – Leipzig, Germany, "Leading the transition"
Next conferences:
2024 – Ghent, Belgium "Connecting through Cycling"
2025 – Gdańsk, Poland, "Energising Solidarity"
Velo-city 2017
Velo-city returns to the Netherlands with Velo-city 2017 in Arnhem-Nijmegen region. With the theme "Freedom of Cycling", this edition of Velo-city will focus on 5 subthemes:
Infrastructure: Learn, experience, and put it into practice
People: Different people, different ideas, different choices
Bikenomics: Cycling saves and generates money
Urban planning: Cycling in a digitalizing world
Governance: How do they do it?
Important dates
Velo-city Global 2016
Taipei, Taiwan Velo-city Global 2016 makes its first visit to Asia, in the Bicycle Kingdom – Taiwan.
Themes
Evolution of Cycling
Velo-city Global 2014
Adelaide Velo-city Global 2014 celebrated what is great about bike riding. This was explored by conference delegates through three key themes and greater depth was achieved by looking at these themes through four key lenses.
Themes
Setting the stage – places and spaces
Tales worth celebrating – people, communities and journeys, and
Celebrations to come – cultural change.
Lenses
Lens 1 – The Facts
Lens 2 – Leadership
Lens 3 – Policy, strategy, planning and partnerships
Lens 4 – Creativity and Innovation
Conference venue
Opened in June 1987, the Adelaide Convention Centre was the first purpose-built convention centre in Australia. The last day of the conference was held at the Adelaide Town Hall.
Program
The full conference program for Velo-city Global Adelaide 2014 had a mix of key note speakers, concurrent session topics involving more than 170 presenters, social activities, tours and workshops.
Keynote and plenary speakers included: Bojun Bjorkman-Chiswell, Ethan Kent, Florian Lennert, Glen Koorey, Jan Garrard, Janette Sadik-Khan, Jennifer Bonham, Lawrence Frank, Manfred Neun, Maria Vassilakou, Mikael Colville-Andersen, Niels Hoé, Per Ankersjö, Peter Eich, Steven Fleming, Timothy Papandreou, Tim Blumenthal.
Fellow bike enthusiast, comedian, radio host, mathematician and author Adam Spencer was the master of ceremonies at the Velo-city Global conference.
Key dates
Velo-city 2013
More than 1400 delegates gathered from all continents for the largest cycling-themed conference, the Velo-city 2013, held in Vienna, Austria from 11 to 14 June. Building on established Velo-city discourse topics such as mobility, ecology and climate, health, the economy, resources, time and space, and social policy, the motto of the Velo-city 2013 conference, which took place in the Rathaus, was framed as “The Sound of Cycling – Urban Cycling Cultures“ with three main themes: cycling cultures, cycling cities, and cycling benefits.
Aims
Vienna is a growing cycling city that aims to raise the bicycle's modal share from the current 6% (2011) to 10% by 2015. Hosting the premier international cycling planning conference, Velo-city was therefore considered to be of great importance to reach this goal. In addition, the City Government of Vienna has declared 2013 the Year of Cycling in order to improve public opinion on cycling, to make urban cycling more attractive, and to convince more people in Vienna of the advantages of cycling as everyday mode of transport. Moreover, the Vienna Cycling Week took place in the week of the conference, offering various side events not only for Velo-city participants but also for the wider public.
Program
Amongst the subsessions such as lectures, podium discussions, round tables, lightning talks, and workshops participants were offered several inspiring plenary sessions and panel discussion as well as the so-called Speed Dating – Dating Cycle.
Monika Jones, international journalist and presenter at Germany's global TV broadcaster ‘Deutsche Welle’ was not only the Master of Ceremony but also chaired numerous sessions during the conference.
Plenary and panel discussion speakers included: Maria Vassilakou, Michael Häupl, Amanda Ngabirano, Stephen Yarwood, Dave Horton, Alain Flausch, Lenore Skenazy, Mikael Colville-Andersen, Shipra Narang Suri, Ulrich Syberg, Manfred Neun, Georg Hauger, Milan Ftacnik, Morten Kabell, Jacques Garreau, Randy Neufeld, Alec Hager, Michael Cramer, Hep Monatzeder, Sabine Kubesch, Per Ankersjö, Bernhard Ensink, Niki Berlakovich, Mathieu Grosch, Siim Kallas, Marijke van Haaren, Philippe Crist, Ursula Zechner, Roman Bartha, Doris Bures.
Memorandum of Mayors’ Cycling Summit
Mayors and Vice Mayors of 16 cities signed the Vienna Cycling Summit Memorandum on 12 June 2013 in order to promote smart and intelligent cities, good places for people to live in, and to call for actions to promote inspiration, participation and interaction of citizens of all ages and walks of life in issues of sustainable urban development. Mayors and Vice Mayors aim to meet common urban trends such as individualization, digitalization, increasing diversity, new lifestyles as well as public health, climate protection and energy efficiency. One related key feature in their cities therefore is intermodal mobility and cycling as are discovered mobility culture.
Velo-city 2013 EXPO
The Velo-city 2013 EXPO was an integral part of the conference with the booths completely integrated into the congress venue. The exhibitors varied from cycling policy, cycling infrastructure planning and expertise centers to bicycle industry, other cycling friendly businesses and cities or other authorities related to cycling policy.
Velo-city Global 2012
The Velo-city Global 2012 took place in Vancouver, Canada from 26 to 29 June 2012 at the Sheraton Vancouver Wall Center Hotel. After Copenhagen in 2010, this was the second Global Edition of the Velo-city conference series. The Conference brought together around 950 participants including 150 speakers and 155 exhibitors.
The City of Vancouver has been voted as the World's Most Liveable City by The Economist three years in a row, from 2008 to 2010 and the city itself has displayed a steady commitment to making Vancouver a cycle-friendly city. According to its Greenest City Action Plan, Vancouver has a vision of being the greenest city in the world by 2020. Green Transportation is one of the 10 goal areas, with two main targets:
make over 50% of trips on foot, bicycle and public transit
reduce distance driven per resident by 20%
The conference was held under the motto “Cities in Motion”, following the ambition to bring together cycling cities from all around the world in order to share best practices for becoming cycling-friendly cities.
Aims
The City of Vancouver and European Cyclists' Federation, as organizers of Velo-city Global 2012, sought to highlight the achievements of Vancouver as a cycling ‘starter’ city and bring forward European cycling experience, including its fast growth as a mode of transportation, to North America, to the Pacific Rim countries and globally. The primary goal was to bring all relevant stakeholders to Vancouver in order to share best practices for encouraging cycling as a means of transport.
To this effect, Velo-city Global 2012 was held with the following goals:
Spread knowledge of quality, positive, evolving information about cycling and transport planning
Provide valuable publicity for cities that have good cycling provision networks
Encourage the recognition of cycling as an efficient, healthy, environmentally friendly means of transport and recreation
Further the integration of cycling planning into transport and land-use planning, and other relevant sectors
Seek involvement from all relevant stakeholders, including environment, health and business sectors
Provide a wide range of real-world examples of cycling as form of transportation, with benefits to the environment, personal health and economy.
Program
The program of Velo-city Global 2012 was spread over four days and included plenaries, sub-plenaries and concurrent presentations in different formations: lectures, symposiums, workshops, roundtables or Pecha Kucha sessions. Cycling guru Gil Penalosa was the Master of Ceremonies while significant stakeholders and cycling advocates were among the keynote speakers.
The full list of keynote speakers is: Gil Penalosa, Alain Ayotte, Ayfer Baykal, Chang Hsin-Wen, Jerry Dobrovolny, Bernhard Ensink, Aske Wieth-Knudsen, Suzanne Lareau, Manfred Neun, Bob Paddon, Mayor Wan-Su Park, Gordon Price, Mayor Gregor Robertson, Niels Tørsløv, Paul Tranter, Maria Vassilakou, Mayor Stephen Yarwood, Rick Antonson, Adam Bodor, Dale Bracewell, S. K. Jason Chang, Rodney Ellis, Joop Goos, Michel Labrecque, Kevin Mayne, Randy Neufeld, Sten Møller, Gabriel Lagos, Brent Toderian.
Velo-city Global 2012 Vancouver was launched with central theme "Cities in Motion", which expressed the idea of gathering all those cities and regions around the world with great cycling records in Vancouver and having share their stories, inspirations and successes. The program was developed within nine themes in mind.
Core themes
1. Leadership – the politics of change
2. How cycling achieves community aspirations and addresses global problems
3. Essential elements – increasing cycling and safety
4. Empowering people and inclusivity
5. Emerging technologies
Pivotal themes
1. Public Bike Sharing Systems
2. Combined mobility – Cycling integration with Transit, Rail and other Modes
3. Cycling logistics – Movement of goods by bicycle
4. Cycling Tourism
Part of the program was a bike parade of a 9 km route in the heart of the City of Vancouver starting from and ending at the Sheraton Vancouver Wall Centre by going around False Creek through the Burrard Bridge and the Olympic Village. A series of side events were held in the Museum of Anthropology at the University of British Columbia, at Cecil Green Park House, on Salt Spring Island while an evening event was offered to all the delegates at the Law Courts building in the neighbourhood of the venue.
During Velo-city Global Vancouver, the Cycling Embassy of Denmark announced its yearly “Cycling Leadership Award”, this year going to Randy Neufeld, Director of SRAM Cycling Fund for his dedication to cycling promotion. It was the third time that the Danish Cycling Embassy awarded high-profile figures of cycling advocacy. Mayor Michael Bloomberg and Lake Sagaris have received the award the previous two years.
Velo-city Global 2012 Expo
The Velo-city Global 2012 Exhibition was an integral part of the conference with the booths installed in the foyer of the venue among the session rooms where lunch and beverages were offered during the breaks. The exhibitors varied from cycling policy, cycling infrastructure planning and expertise centers to bicycle industry, other cycling friendly businesses and cities or other authorities related to cycling policy.
The Charter of Vancouver
The City of Vancouver and European Cyclists’ Federation launched the Charter of Vancouver on Children and Cycling with the expectation that the Charter serve as a legacy for the city and the Velo-city Global 2012 conference. The Charter is based on the United Nations 1990 Convention on the Rights of the Child and outlines the important connection between children and cycling. It recognizes children's rights worldwide, the special capability that cycling has to enshrine these universal rights and a commitment from the signatories to call for the adoption of goals, policies, and practices toward promoting cycling as a means to further recognize and promote the rights of children. It is addressed to the Secretary-General of the United Nations calling upon him to adopt targets in order to promote active and safe mobility for people of all ages and abilities, especially children. The Charter remains open to signatures by institutions who are interested in using it as a tool for the promotion of children's right to safe cycling.
Velo-city 2011
The Velo-city 2011 took place in Seville, Spain from 23 to 25 March 2011 at the Barceló Renacimiento hotel. The conference gathered over 900 participants, and 120 speakers. It featured prominent speakers, such as Gro Harlem Brundtland (former Prime-Minister of Norway, author of the UN's influential ‘Brundtland Report), and also saw the unveiling of the Charter of Seville.
The Velo-city 2011 Seville was the first Mediterranean Velo-city conference in a Spanish-speaking country. So, it set its main focus on the Mediterranean area, North Africa as well as Latin America. The city of Seville, being Spain’s second hottest place, turned out to be a connection to countries with high temperatures where people cycling in such a climate have to face different challenges as ECF has documented in its work.
The central theme of Velo-city 2011 Seville “The Cycle Of Life – El Ciclo De La Vida” referred to the bicycle as a part of everyday life and a source of well-being for people of any age in more inhabitable cities and regions.
Aims
As the moto of the conference (The Cycle of Life) declares, Velo-city Seville primarily aimed at advancing the role of bicycle as part of everyday life and a source of well-being for people of any age in more inhabitable cities and regions.
The Velo-city 2011 in Seville intended to show how a city in the southernmost area in Europe is also possible to invert priorities in favour of sustainable transport and make a significant contribution to the necessary battle against climate change.
Last but not least, the Velo-city 2011 in Seville aimed at drafting and launching the Charter of Seville in preparation for the International Transport Forum 2011 in Leipzig, Germany.
Program
The program of Velo-city 2011 Seville was spread in four days and included both plenary and sub-plenary sessions in different formation: presentations, round tables or workshops. The plenary sessions hosted significant keynote speakers like Gro Harlem Brundtland and Gil Peñalosa who was the Master of Ceremonies.
A full list of keynote speakers is: Francesca Racioppi, Enrique Jacoby, Francesco Tonucci, Lynn Sloman, Pilar Vega, Eva Willumsen, Patrick Kayemba, Joaquín Nieto.
Theme areas of Velo-city 2011 Seville:
By Bike, Towards A Healthier City: Cycling as a healthy means of transport – improving the health of citizens and cities alike
Learning About Non-Motorised Cities: Lifelong learning – improving our mobility habits
Public Investment For A Better Life: The efficiency of cycling investments on sustainable transport and mobility
Economy And Employment: Cycling As A Livelihood – the social component of the economics of cycling, a source of employment and development.
A car-free day and a bike parade followed in the end of the conference, inspired by the Latin American car-free Sunday “Ciclovida”.
The Ciclovida programme was organised in the framework of Velo-city Seville and included a series of 5 bicycle events from November 2010 until March 2011 (7 November, 12 December, 16 January, 20 February, 27 March). Ciclovida consists of temporal opening of city streets to its inhabitants, so that they can make the most of a safe, free and lay place for recreation and sport, providing full access to pedestrians and cyclists. By providing the opportunity to exercise, it is considered to prevent illness, to recover and enjoy public spaces, to promote peaceful co-existence, respect, social cohesion and environmental awareness, and to help citizens to acquire healthy habits, to improve air quality and to reduce noise in cities. Thus, it was connected to the theme area of “Healthier City” and the conference's moto “The Cycle of Life”.
Velo-city 2011 Expo
The Exhibition during the Velo-city conference was an integrated part of the conference. The parties presented at the exhibition space were from the different fields of cycling policy, cycling infrastructure planning & expertise centers, bicycle industry and other cycling friendly businesses and networks.
The Charter of Seville
The Charter of Seville was launched during Velo-city 2011 in preparation for the International Transport Forum held in Leipzig, Germany in May 2011. The document aimed at the national and transnational level underlining the benefits of cycling as a daily mode of transport, citing improved health, reduced traffic congestion, significantly cheaper infrastructure, and lowered transport emissions among many other advantages. Rather than setting targets, it demanded an overarching and broad political commitment from recognizing the bicycle as a viable mode of transport. The charter specifically called upon all Ministers of Transport convening at the ITF “to promote cycling at international level and to invest substantially in cycling in their own countries during the years to come”.
Velo-city Global 2010
The Velo-city 2010 was the first Velo-city Series conference in its global edition and it took place in Copenhagen, Denmark on 22 – 25 June 2010 at the Øksnehallen and CPH CONFERENCE. It was organised by the European Cyclists' Federation, the City of Frederiksberg and the City of Copenhagen. ECF celebrated the 30 years of the Velo-city Series by initiating the biennial global edition of the conference. The Velo-city Global 2010 gathered 1100 participants and highlighted the bicycle's potential to enhance the quality of life around the world and to solve global challenges such as congestion, obesity and climate change. It was connected with the brand of Copenhagen as the climate change city following the 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference.
The overall theme of Velo-city 2010 Copenhagen was “Different Gears, Same Destination” expressing the main idea of the conference that despite our differences, we are all heading in the same direction: people from different backgrounds, at different stages and different all share the same goal – getting more people cycling throughout the world. The different background of the participants from all around the world was seen by the organisers as a driving force behind the conference to join forces across continents, regions and cities.
Aims
The Velo-city Global 2010 aimed to show and develop the potential of cycling as an obvious choice on urban transport and a concrete measure in combatting climate change. Additionally it provided inspiration and ideas to concrete actions, whatever the challenges to cycling were. It also aimed to create a platform for the exchange of ideas and experiences across borders and across disciplines. The more than 1100 participants came from very different backgrounds, were at different stages with very different challenges, but the vision for all was clear: getting more people to cycle. All in all, Velo-city Global 2010 in Copenhagen brought together urban planners, politicians, NGOs and bicycle professionals from around the world to discuss the potential and challenges of cycling.
Program
The program of Velo-city Global 2010 was spread over four days and included both plenary and sub-plenary sessions. Each day of the conference started and ended with a plenary session in order to ensure common ground across the variety of backgrounds and experiences. The total 180 sub-plenary sessions ranged in a variety of formats: roundtables, workshops.
The speakers ranged from politicians and experts to Urban Planners to PR Officers with much international experience in local NGOs. Coming from big cities like Shanghai, Santiago, New York to smaller ones like Malmö, Girona and Varde.
A full list of the keynote speakers is: Bo Asmus Kjeldgaard, Connie Hedegaard, Ciarán Cuffe, Frank Jensen, Gil Peñalosa, Jan Gehl, Janette Sadik-Khan, John Whitelegg, Lake Sagaris, Mikael Colville-Andersen, Pan Haixiao, Vandana Shiva.
Each plenary session dealt with one of the following themes:
Cycling as quality of life
Co-benefits of cycling
Social status of cycling
Cycling as democracy and freedom
Global status of cycling initiatives
Creative cycling innovations
Collaboration for the Future
Cycling and global responsibility
The third day of Velo-city Global 2010, a Bike Parade took place which attracted almost 2000 cycling conference goers and Copenhageners. The parade concluded an impressive sight of many people in all forms, shapes and colours moving slowly through the streets of Copenhagen on their bicycles.
Velo-city Global 2010 Expo
The exhibition was an integrated part of the Velo-city Global 2010. It was based around the plenary room, accessible by the participants during track-free moments, lunch and coffee breaks. Some exhibitors used the chance to get bigger booths while a new trend was developed: more and more cities stated the wish to be present at the next Velo-city's Expo.
Velo-city 2009
The Velo-city 2009 took place in Brussels, Belgium on 12 – 15 May 2009 at Tour & Taxis. The site is a former industrial storage depot which has been fully restored and is now used for all sorts of events from major fairs through music festivals to exclusive parties. The Conference was organized by ECF and Brussels Capital Region and gathered more than 750 participants.
Aims
By organizing this event, ECF aimed at gathering a large range of cycling stakeholders such as local authorities, politicians, industrials, professionals and bicycle users. Being in Brussels added a European value with the implication of European authorities and thus bring cycling on the European Agenda.
The Brussels-Capital Region's main aims for Velo-city are to present a high-quality cycling infrastructure and to obtain renewed recognition for the role of the bicycle within a sustainable intermodal transport policy (cycling in combination with public transport and journeys on foot), along with the positive impact of cycling on health and the environment.
On a regional level, the authorities intended Velo-city 2009 to increase the number of cyclists in Brussels by getting as many of the city's inhabitants to participate in the conference as possible. To do this, several high-profile campaigns and events were organised to accompany the conference.
Program
Velo-city 2009 had a promising program to offer. Beside 4 plenary and 28 sub-plenary sessions with well-known national and international speakers, there were two excursions to Liège and Ghent. A permanent exhibition named Velo-city Expo was organized and then on Sunday took place the Brussels traditional bicycle festival, Dring Dring.
Theme-titles of the plenary sessions:
Visions to transport in future cities
Intermodal urban transport
A forerunner city
A climber city
Health and cycling
Climate change and urban transport
Peak oil and cycling
Economy and cycling
City planning and communication
Successful marketing of cycle use
Cycling to school
What can we learn from the advertising world?
Role of Europe
Debate with Members of EU Parliament
Plenary speakers:
Antonio Tajani, Pascal Smet, Manfred Neun, Prof. David Banister, George Amar, Jean-Luc de Wilde d’Estmael, Tjeerd Herrema, Mayor Alain Juppé, Mayor Sam Adams, Francesca Racioppi, Prof. J-P Van Ypersele, Jörg Schindler, Philip Darnton, Helle Søholt, Frank van den Eeden, Paul Robison, Guillaume Vanderstichelen, Siim Kallas, Mayor Klaus Bondam, Antonio Rodriguo Torrijo, Margus Hanson, Michael Cramer, Saïd El Khadraoui, Reinhard Rack
Dring Dring
Dring Dring is a cycling event that has been organized for the Brussels-Capital Region since 1995 by Pro Velo, bringing together all the Brussels cycling associations (Gracq, Fietsersbond, les Ateliers de la rue Voot, Cyclo). The objectives of this all-bicycle week, taking place in May, are to encourage people to use bicycles more regularly, even inordinately, when travelling in Brussels, and to ensure better standing for cyclists in the city.
The organization of Dring Dring 2009 was connected with the Velo-city Brussels and took place from 11 to 17 May. It was the last Dring Dring to be organized as the event was replaced by the Bike Experience.
Velo-city 2009 Expo
The Velo-city Expo and the Velo-city Conference 2009 in Brussels gave an overall idea of all the topics worldwide, with regard to the cycling world. The exhibitors, speakers and participants formed a large forum for all cycling issues. The exhibition was the biggest demonstration of the members of the cycling world, with representatives from the industry, urban and transport planning institutions, volunteers and politicians.
The Expo was divided into four sections:
Products
Cycling infrastructure, expertise + information
Cycling friendly world
Cycling policy – European bodies, umbrella federations and alliances
The Charter of Brussels
During Velo-city's 2009 last day in the European Parliament, several European cities signed the Charter of Brussels. By signing the charter, cities commit themselves to invest in bicycle policy as an integrated part of urban mobility. At the same time, the charter is a call on the European Union to promote urban cycling. Among the key demands are a 15% bicycle modal share by 2020 and reducing bicycle road fatalities by 50%.
The cities of Helmond (Netherlands), Seville (Spain), Copenhagen (Denmark), Brussels (Belgium), Reggio Emilia (Italy), Varna (Bulgaria), Tartu (Estonia), Budapest (Hungary) and Munich (Germany) were the first signatories of the Charter. Up to date, more than 60 cities have signed the Charter of Brussels while the process remains open for interested authorities.
References
External links
Velo-city Global 2014
Velo-city Global 2016 – CI/VI
Velo-city Global 2016 – website
Cycling conferences
International conferences |
4422831 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slaven%20Bili%C4%87 | Slaven Bilić | Slaven Bilić (; born 11 September 1968) is a Croatian professional football manager and former player. He is the current manager of Saudi Professional League side Al-Fateh.
Bilić, who played as a defender, began his career in 1988 with his hometown club Hajduk Split, later having successful spells with Karlsruher SC in Germany, and West Ham United and Everton in England before retiring from active football in 2001. At the international level, Bilić served as one of Croatia's most consistent defenders during the tenure of coach Miroslav Blažević, earning 44 caps between 1992 and 1999, and playing in UEFA Euro 1996 and the 1998 FIFA World Cup, helping the team to the third place at the latter tournament.
Following his playing retirement in 2001 at Hajduk Split, Bilić coached the team in the second half of the 2001–02 season. Between 2004 and 2006, he managed the Croatia national under-21 team before taking over the senior national side. He led the team to the quarter-finals of the 2008 European Championship and left after the next edition four years later. He was praised for his long-standing service to the national side and credited with successfully overseeing the introduction of a series of young players from the under-21 squad to the senior side. He left for the Russian club Lokomotiv Moscow in 2012 and then spent two years apiece managing Turkish club Beşiktaş and West Ham United. During the 2018–19 season he was the head coach of Al-Ittihad, and on 13 June 2019 he became the manager of West Bromwich Albion. After this he became manager of Chinese team Beijing Guoan, before becoming manager of Watford in 2022.
Club career
Early life and Hajduk Split
Almost all Hajduk juniors went to the economics school, so Bilić wanted to go as well. There were no classical grammar schools in Split, so he enrolled in information, journalism and documentary studies (INDOK). All throughout high school, Bilić ended up with the highest grades, so he graduated with Matura. His favorite subjects were maths and history. When he was choosing where to enroll in college, he already knew he would be a footballer. After graduating from high school, he completed his law faculty in Split, where his father was the dean.
As a Hajduk player, he was on loan for half a year at NK Primorac from Stobreč, and for one and a half a year in HNK Šibenik, which fought for the first place spot in the Yugoslav Second League. Bilić, as centre half, scored seven goals and played for the national team. Petar Nadoveza called him up for three matches: in Skopje, Niš and Mostar. He scored two goals and was declared man of the match in all three matches.
Bilić became the target of clubs such as Dinamo Zagreb, Red Star Belgrade and Partizan, which all wanted to acquire the young defender. He helped his club win the 1990–91 Yugoslav Cup before the dismantling of the Yugoslav First League. During the first season of the newly founded Croatian First League, Hajduk won the league and Super Cup. One season later, they also secured the Croatian Cup.
West Ham United
In January 1996, Harry Redknapp, manager of Premier League club West Ham United, brought him to the club for a fee of £1.3 million, setting the club's record for highest fee paid for an incoming player. He made his debut on 12 February 1996 in a 0–1 away win against London rivals Tottenham Hotspur. Bilić's shot was saved by Tottenham goalkeeper Ian Walker only for West Ham's Dani, another debutant, to divert the ball into the Tottenham goal.
Bilić scored three goals in his time with West Ham: two in the Premier League, against Liverpool and Sunderland, and one in the League Cup against Barnet, heading-in from a Stan Lazaridis corner, his first for the club. He played 13 games in the 1995–96 season and 41 in the 1996–97 season, a season which also saw him voted a runner-up, to Julian Dicks, for the Hammer of the Year award.
In March 1997, Everton manager Joe Royle brokered a £4.5 million move, with Bilić claiming he had a debt of loyalty to West Ham to stay with the club until the end of the season to ensure they were not relegated. West Ham finished in 14th place, two points above the relegation places.
Everton
Bilić turned out for Everton in August 1997 after assuring himself of new manager Howard Kendall's full support. He initially brought some class to the Toffees' backline, but his season was marred by bookings that saw him miss several games through suspension.
After his exertions in the 1998 World Cup, Bilić revealed a nagging groin strain that required rest and treatment, which he took back home in Croatia. After missing the first quarter of the season, Bilić was left wondering if he would get back into the Everton side managed by Walter Smith. He did so and showed some good form but could never fully establish himself due to injuries and suspensions.
Everton released Bilić in July 1999.
Hajduk Split
Two days after being released by Everton, Bilić signed up with his home club Hajduk Split, where he briefly played until retiring. He led Hajduk as team captain to their first trophy in five years winning the Croatian Cup.
International career
Bilić made his international debut on 5 July 1992 in a friendly match against Australia, in which they lost 1–0 at Olympic Park Stadium.
Bilić went into the 1998 World Cup with Croatia, where the team was the surprise package of the tournament, falling in the semi-finals to hosts France. Croatia finished in third place after winning the play-off game.
Bilić was involved in controversy during the tournament for the role he played in the dismissal of Laurent Blanc in the semi-final with France. With Croatia behind, a free kick was awarded, which saw Bilić marking the French defender. He held Blanc and to free himself, Blanc pushed Bilić, making contact with his chin and chest. Bilić fell to the ground clutching his forehead. Bilić later admitted that he was acting, and went down only after encouragement from teammate Igor Štimac. Blanc was sent off and missed the World Cup final through suspension. Bilić did not apologize but did say, "I swear if I could change that so Blanc could play in the final, I would."
Managerial career
Early days
As a shareholder in his hometown club, Hajduk Split, he temporarily agreed to manage them until the club found a replacement manager. Having admitted that the adrenaline inspired him, he reportedly received guidance after travelling Europe and visiting Arsène Wenger and Marcello Lippi.
Croatia
Bilić was appointed head coach of the senior national team on 25 July 2006, succeeding Zlatko Kranjčar after the unsuccessful 2006 World Cup. His assistants included former teammates Aljoša Asanović, Robert Prosinečki, Nikola Jurčević and Marjan Mrmić. One of his first actions in charge of the squad was the promotion of three players from the under-21 squad: Eduardo, Luka Modrić and Vedran Ćorluka, who would all eventually enjoy impressive success and make transfers to the Premier League. The team's first official game under Bilić was the 0–2 friendly win in Livorno against Italy, while Bilić's first competitive game was the goalless draw in Moscow against Russia in the opener for their Euro 2008 qualifying campaign. Many criticized this result due to Bilić's suspension of Darijo Srna, Ivica Olić and Boško Balaban, who escaped from camp three days before the match and went to the night club Fontana in Zagreb. It is likely that no one would have found out, but there was a gunfight and a police intervention.
Further in the Euro 2008 qualifiers, he led Croatia to a very successful campaign in a group consisting of England, Russia, Israel, Macedonia, Estonia, and Andorra. Bilić managed to lead Croatia to a first-place finish in Group E, most notably masterminding home and away victories against England, who consequently did not qualify and sacked their manager Steve McClaren.
At the Euro 2008 tournament itself, where he was the youngest coach, Bilić and the rest of his squad had to participate with a "handicap", as they were without their star striker Eduardo, who sustained a serious injury a few months earlier. Nonetheless, Bilić led his side to an outstanding achievement, as they won all three group stage games of the competition, taking maximum points in the group for the first time in their history, which included an impressive 2–1 victory over eventual finalists Germany. Even his side's second string reserve side was seen to be too strong for their final group opponents Poland, who they beat 1–0 due to an Ivan Klasnić goal. Croatia soon became labelled as favourites for the tournament, but suffered an exit in the quarter-finals against Turkey, and he admitted that the defeat would haunt him and his squad for the rest of their lives.
Croatia opened UEFA Euro 2012 with a 3–1 victory over the Republic of Ireland, with striker Mario Mandžukić scoring twice, and Mandžukić also scored an equaliser in the 1–1 draw against Italy. After a 1–0 defeat to Spain, Croatia exited the tournament in the group stage. However, the team subsequently garnered widespread domestic praise for their performance, and were greeted by a large crowd upon their return. Upon his formal departure, Bilić was also praised for his long-standing service to the national side. Domestic media outlet Jutarnji list labelled him as Croatia's only manager to depart on such positive terms and credited him for his strong revival of the national side during his six-year tenure.
Lokomotiv Moscow
On 14 May 2012, it was confirmed that Bilić had signed a coaching contract with the Russian club Lokomotiv Moscow. Upon the confirmation of signing, Lokomotiv chairman Olga Smorodskaya stated that Lokomotiv had tough competition in signing Bilić, as he was targeted by many clubs around Europe who wanted to sign him as their new manager. Bilić took over the team after the Euro 2012 tournament had finished. His assistants included former teammates and former assistants during his tenure as manager in the national team, Aljoša Asanović and Nikola Jurčević. Upon his arrival he made his first big signing for the team, signing his ex-Croatian international player Vedran Ćorluka from Tottenham Hotspur for a fee of £5.5 million. His first official match as the new Lokomotiv manager came on 20 July 2012 in away match against Mordoviya Saransk, ending in 3–2 win for Lokomotiv. Bilić's first season as a manager ended with the Lokomotiv's worst league result, ninth place, since the establishment of Russian championship in 1992. Bilić accepted responsibility for Lokomotiv's failure and was sacked on 18 June 2013.
Beşiktaş
After leaving Lokomotiv, Bilić entered talks to take over as Beşiktaş manager. The deal was confirmed on 26 June 2013 after an agreement to a three-year contract worth €4.8 million. Bilić signed the contract on 28 June. On 22 September, Bilić was sent-off from the bench by referee Fırat Aydınus during the İstanbul Derby against Galatasaray, after Bilić had complained about the amount of time added by the referee. Beşiktaş president Fikret Orman announced on 21 May 2015 that Bilić would leave the club at the end of the 2014–15 season.
West Ham United
On 9 June 2015, Bilić was appointed manager of former club West Ham United in the English Premier League on a three-year contract. Bilić had previously been linked with the managerial role at West Ham in September 2008, following the resignation of Alan Curbishley. In his first Premier League game on 9 August, his team beat Arsenal 2–0 at the Emirates Stadium. Three weeks later, he became the first manager to lead West Ham to victory against Liverpool at Anfield since 1963. On 19 September, Bilić led West Ham to a third successive 1–2 away win against Manchester City. It was the first time the Hammers had won three successive Premier League away games since September 2007, and only three other sides had recorded away wins at Arsenal, Liverpool and Manchester City in the same Premier League season. In Bilić's first season as manager, West Ham finished seventh in the Premier League and towards the end of the season, they beat Manchester United 3–2 in May and significantly lowered United's hope of finishing in top 4 for qualification for the UEFA Championship League place. The team broke several records for the club in the Premier League era, including the highest number of points with 62, the highest number of goals in a season with 65, a positive goal difference for the first time in the Premier League with +14, the fewest games lost in a season with eight and the fewest away defeats with five.
Following Manchester United's win in the 2016 FA Cup Final, West Ham took their UEFA Europa League place and qualified for the third qualifying round of the 2016–17 UEFA Europa League. For the second season in a row they were eliminated in the qualifying rounds by Romanian side FC Astra Giurgiu. In his second season in charge West Ham finished 11th in the Premier League in a challenging debut season at the London Stadium following the acrimonious departure of star player, Dimitri Payet.
After a run of poor results in the Premier League, culminating in a 4–1 home loss to Liverpool on 4 November 2017, Bilić was sacked. The announcement, made two days after the game, stated that "West Ham United can confirm that Slaven Bilic has today left his position with the club. West Ham United believe a change is now necessary in order for the club to move forward positively and in line with their ambition." He left the team with a record of 1.33 points per Premier League game, which is the best of any previous West Ham manager.
Al-Ittihad
On 27 September 2018, Bilić joined Al-Ittihad of the Saudi Professional League. On 24 February 2019, after five months as manager of Al-Ittihad and after winning only 6 of his 20 matches, Bilić got sacked from the position.
West Bromwich Albion
On 13 June 2019, Bilić was named as head coach of West Bromwich Albion on a two-year contract. On 22 July 2020, he led the club to promotion back to the Premier League, finishing as runner-up in the 2019–20 EFL Championship.
On 22 September, Bilić was charged with 'improper conduct' by the FA, after remonstrating with referee Mike Dean during his team's 5–2 defeat to Everton a few days before.
On 16 December, despite a surprise 1–1 draw against Manchester City, Bilić was sacked by the club after a poor start to the season. His fellow coaching staff were also dismissed. At the time, West Brom were 19th in the league, having taken just seven points from 13 games.
Beijing Guoan
On 6 January 2021, Bilić was named as head coach of Chinese Super League side Beijing Guoan on a two-year contract.
On 8 January 2022, Bilić parted ways with Beijing Guoan.
Watford
On 26 September 2022, Bilić became manager of Watford on an 18-month contract. In his first game in charge, on 2 October, Watford won 4–0 away to Stoke City.
On 7 March 2023, Bilić was sacked with the club sitting in ninth position, four points below the play-offs places. In a statement the club noted the Hornets had won just once in the last eight Championship games.
Al-Fateh
On 8 July 2023, Bilić was appointed as manager of Saudi Pro League side Al-Fateh.
Coaching style
Bilić has said in a post tournament interview that he and his players compiled and studied many games of their opponents to become very well prepared for tough matches.
Known to be a big fan of music, Bilić relates his teams motivation to such, often encouraging them to listen to inspiring music before and after games.
Personal life
Along with his native Croatian, Bilić is fluent in German, Italian and English, while he also holds a degree in law. As a big fan of rock music, he plays rhythm guitar with his favoured red Gibson Explorer and is a member of Rawbau, a Croatian rock band. In 2008, the band recorded a song for Croatia's performance at Euro 2008 called "Vatreno ludilo" (Fiery Madness).
He stutters.
Career statistics
Club
International
Source:
Results list Croatia's goal tally first.
Managerial
Honours
Player
Hajduk Split
Croatian First League: 1992
Yugoslav Cup: 1990–91
Croatian Cup: 1992–93, 1999–2000
Croatian Super Cup: 1992
Croatia
FIFA World Cup third-place: 1998
Manager
West Bromwich Albion
EFL Championship runner-up: 2019–20
Individual
Prva HNL Player of the Year: 1992
Best Croatian footballer of 1997 by Novi list
Best Croatian footballer of 1997 by Sportske novosti
Ivica Jobo Kurtini Award: 1997
Franjo Bučar State Award for Sport: 1998 (as player), 2007 (as manager)
Media Servis person of the year: 2007
Vatrena krila heart of the supporters Award: 2014
Saudi Professional League Manager of the Month: January 2019
Orders
Order of Danica Hrvatska with face of Franjo Bučar – 1995
Order of the Croatian Trefoil – 1998
References
External links
Slaven Bilić at ToffeeWeb.com
1968 births
Living people
Footballers from Split, Croatia
Yugoslav men's footballers
Croatian men's footballers
Men's association football central defenders
NK Primorac 1929 players
HNK Šibenik players
HNK Hajduk Split players
Karlsruher SC players
Everton F.C. players
West Ham United F.C. players
Yugoslav First League players
Croatian Football League players
Bundesliga players
Premier League players
Croatia men's international footballers
UEFA Euro 1996 players
1998 FIFA World Cup players
Croatian expatriate men's footballers
Croatian expatriate sportspeople in Germany
Croatian expatriate sportspeople in England
Expatriate men's footballers in Germany
Expatriate men's footballers in England
Croatian football managers
HNK Hajduk Split managers
Croatia national under-21 football team managers
Croatia national football team managers
FC Lokomotiv Moscow managers
Beşiktaş J.K. managers
West Ham United F.C. managers
Al-Ittihad Club (Jeddah) managers
West Bromwich Albion F.C. managers
Beijing Guoan F.C. managers
Watford F.C. managers
Al Fateh SC managers
Croatian Football League managers
Russian Premier League managers
Süper Lig managers
Premier League managers
Saudi Pro League managers
English Football League managers
Chinese Super League managers
UEFA Euro 2008 managers
UEFA Euro 2012 managers
Croatian expatriate football managers
Croatian expatriate sportspeople in Russia
Croatian expatriate sportspeople in Turkey
Croatian expatriate sportspeople in Saudi Arabia
Croatian expatriate sportspeople in China
Expatriate football managers in Russia
Expatriate football managers in Turkey
Expatriate football managers in England
Expatriate football managers in Saudi Arabia
Expatriate football managers in China
Franjo Bučar Award winners
University of Split alumni
Croatian socialists |
4423468 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Testament%20of%20Arkadia | The Testament of Arkadia | "The Testament of Arkadia" is the twenty-third episode of the first series of Space: 1999. The screenplay was written by Johnny Byrne; the director was David Tomblin. The final shooting script is dated 5 February 1975, with a revised final shooting script dated 25 February 1975. Live-action filming took place Tuesday 11 February 1975 through Tuesday 25 February 1975.
Story
Late into the simulated Alpha 'night', John Koenig sits alone in his office, updating the official log. As he reviews the past several days, the viewer can hear his thoughts courtesy of a voice-over narration. He reflects on how their struggle to survive in a hostile universe had long erased casual recollection of the cataclysm that hurled the Moon out of Earth orbit; however, recent events on the planet Arkadia have revived this painful memory, as the Alphans were forced to reconsider their purpose in space. The Commander's solemn words lead into an extended flashback...
Days earlier, an off-duty Koenig is in the gymnasium when an urgent summons to Main Mission interrupts his Kendo work-out with resident martial-arts enthusiast Luke Ferro. The Moon has suddenly and inexplicably changed course; it is now heading directly for a solar system containing what may be habitable planet. Long-range scanners are activated—and immediately malfunction; a sudden five-percent power loss is the cause of the failure. The next minute, all personnel are hurled forward by a colossal lurch. Incredibly, their forward motion is slowing. Once in range of the planet, the Moon comes to a dead stop...
At an emergency meeting, Victor Bergman muses that, while gravity or magnetic forces could alter the Moon's speed or trajectory, neither could completely halt its progress. Koenig is certain a third force, emanating from the planet, is responsible. Reports come in on the mounting power loss: diagnostics of the generators reveal no faults, but the energy output continues to drop. To Koenig's frustration, Computer identifies the cause as 'external forces'. If this trend continues, Moonbase Alpha will suffer a complete power failure in thirty-eight hours; a programme of power-conserving economies may provide an additional ten hours.
Their only chance for survival may be the planet. With forty-eight hours of life-support remaining, Koenig quickly organises a survey mission. The team will consists of himself, Bergman, Helena Russell, Alan Carter, two Security guards and two mission specialists to be selected by Computer. These individuals will be chosen for having the widest range of relevant qualifications. With the long-range systems affected, the survey team will have no access to Alpha's resources; all necessary equipment must be brought with them.
As the power loss climbs to thirteen percent, Eagle One departs. Computer's additions to the team are aerospace engineer Luke Ferro and research supervisor Anna Davis. An expert photographer, the Italian extrovert playfully snaps pictures of Anna as he tries to chat her up. Not interested, the prim English girl tries to ignore him. Later, she is embarrassed when she wakes from a nap with her head resting on his shoulder. After a fifteen-hour flight, Eagle One arrives at the planet. The preliminary data shows this world was devastated by a nuclear holocaust sometime in the distant past.
A low-altitude reconnaissance reveals no sign of life on the barren and inhospitable surface. Though discouraged, Koenig and company touch down and make camp. Keenly aware their very survival depends on any answers found, the Alphans then set off in teams of two across the desolate landscape. While taking photo-scans of charred, leafless trees, Ferro experiences a growing trepidation—as if they were trespassing on sacred ground. Anna has gathered some petrified leaf remnants; as she consults a botanical text, her excitement is seen to grow with each sample she examines.
Bergman and Helena's assessment of the environment is encouraging; the radiation levels are tolerable and the soil can be rejuvenated by introducing the proper bacteria and fungi. Returning to camp, they come across a narrow cave opening. The interior is oppressively silent but, as it may contain answers to their dilemma, they enter. The two are shocked when their hand-torches illuminate a grisly tableau—a rough wooden table and benches occupied by a party of skeletons.
As the others assemble in the de facto crypt, Bergman makes another discovery. Text inscribed on the rock wall resembles Sanskrit, an ancient Indo-European root language. Helena recalls that polymath Anna is a trained philologist. On arrival, Anna instantly forgets her undisclosed botanical discovery as she, too, recognises the text as Sanskrit—but a different, perhaps earlier form. As she begins the herculean task of translating the passage without access to the reference library, Ferro is drawn to a skull at the head of the table. He stares into the empty eye sockets as if mesmerised.
Forensic analysis of the skeletons shows these beings were virtually human, dying 25,000 years ago from radiation poisoning. The team then adjourns to the cave to hear Anna's translation. Finding the lyrical prose difficult, the girl haltingly recites the 'Testament of Arkadia'. The ancient text reveals this civilisation annihilated itself in a nuclear war, but, in spite of the destruction, it affirms that Arkadia will live on—in the hearts of an enlightened few who fled before the end, carrying the seeds of a new beginning into the depths of space. The passage ends with a plea for those guided here to make this world live again.
Overwhelmed, the Alphans cannot reconcile the presence of human skeletons and an ancient human language uncountable light-years from Earth. Humans could not have travelled here over 25,000 years ago. With a strange intensity, Ferro astounds everyone by asserting it was the Arkadians who travelled to Earth. He reveals Anna's untold discovery: the petrified remains of forty varieties of tree thought native to Earth. As stated in the inscription, the Arkadian survivors took the seeds with them...when they settled Earth and became Mankind.
Shaken by the implications of Ferro's conclusion, they move outside to discuss their situation: Alpha will be powerless in twenty-four hours and the team is no closer to discovering what force is holding the Moon a static prisoner. Should they migrate to the planet, it will take two years to reclaim the soil and begin growing crops. The overwhelming problem is that, even with strict rationing, three hundred Alphan settlers will exhaust the current supply of food in six months' time. Koenig reckons the planet buys them time...enough to hope for a miracle.
In the cave, Ferro and Anna are packing their gear. They are distracted by a prolonged, eerie chord, building in intensity. Though frightened, the pair is drawn to the skeletons—which they briefly perceive as flesh-and-blood men. A long-dormant intelligence has been activated, choosing this man and woman to be the agents of its will. During a silent dialogue, the couple's fear turns to understanding and elation. After the communion concludes, Ferro and Anna are empowered by a new purpose. The pair joyfully embrace when Koenig calls with the news he has decided to abandon Alpha.
As the party breaks camp and departs for home, the power situation on Moonbase becomes desperate. Most activities and services are severely curtailed, if not cancelled. Lighting and heat are radically reduced and all personnel wear cold-weather gear. With the power loss at forty-five percent, Paul Morrow argues with Bob Mathias that the extra heating allocated to the Medical Section must be withdrawn. Once in radio range, Koenig calls to order Operation Exodus put into action. As Morrow complies, Sandra Benes interrupts with unexpected news—the power loss has stabilised at fifty percent.
Koenig suspends the evacuation, pending his return. Ferro and Anna are disturbed by this development and its potential effect on their new agenda. Once on Alpha, Koenig questions their chances of survival with a permanent fifty-percent power loss. When the experts confirm the food-production and life-support systems can cope with the situation, Koenig cancels Operation Exodus. After the announcement, Ferro and Anna confront the overstressed Commander. Citing that destiny has carried them here to revitalise this planet, they request permission to settle on Arkadia...just the two of them.
Koenig refuses; they would need to take half the current food supply with them to survive—condemning Alpha to starvation. When they persist, he harshly dismisses them. However, the fanatical pair have a back-up plan. Anna makes for the Supply Section as Ferro casually approaches David Kano. Unseen by the Main Mission staff, Ferro jams his gun into Kano's ribs, threatening to kill everyone in the room unless he is given the access code to the protein store.
Kano complies, and Ferro relays the sequence to his waiting accomplice. After stunning the sentries, Anna uses the code to gain entry to the food stores. Kano shoves Ferro off him and sounds the red-alert klaxon. Making his way to an exit, Ferro encounters Helena and takes her hostage. Bargaining with the doctor's life, Ferro demands an Eagle, a moon buggy and provisions sufficient for three years time. Obsessed with the need to 'return life to its place of origin', Ferro and Anna reject all appeals to reason.
Unexpectedly, Koenig agrees to their demands. He alone recognises the danger of the two fanatics—not to mention that of the alien force motivating them. However, when boarding the Eagle, Ferro refuses to release Helena; she will stay with them to prevent any acts of reprisal. The unarmed survey Eagle will accompany them to Arkadia. Once safely out of range, the two will dock and Helena will be transferred to the other ship. Any sign of pursuit and the doctor dies. Again, Koenig acquiesces. The Commander is shunned by Bergman and the others, as his apparent 'cowardice' has condemned them to starvation.
The two ships, with Carter piloting Reconnaissance Eagle Two, set off for Arkadia. During the flight, Helena attempts to make Ferro and Anna see reason. The fugitives, in turn, try to convince the doctor that they are neither mad nor brainwashed puppets. Profoundly affected by their experience on the planet, they are willing servants of a higher destiny. The return of life to Arkadia gives purpose to the Moon's odyssey...and if Alpha's role is that of sacrificial lamb, so be it.
After establishing orbit around Arkadia, the two ships dock and the exchange is made. As Ferro descends to the surface, Carter sets course for home. Once in radio range of Alpha, the astronaut reports that Helena is aboard and safe. With that fact certain, Koenig redeems himself. He reveals his secret order to place a homing transmitter on Ferro's Eagle. In addition, Eagles Three and Five are standing by to lift off; their mission is to locate the fugitive ship and retrieve the supplies.
As Ferro touches down on Arkadia, the Moon unexpectedly lurches into motion. Not coincidentally, the power loss begins to lessen. Koenig cancels the pursuit mission; with full power returning, the lost supplies are irrelevant. He immediately calls Carter, ordering him to hit the throttle so as not to be left behind. On Arkadia, as Ferro and Anna unload the Eagle, they are shocked to see the Moon in motion. The couple holds each other, watching the Moon dwindle in size. Though completely alone on a barren world, they are comforted by the knowledge of having come home.
After Helena's safe return to Alpha, she and Koenig speculate on the role of the mysterious unknown force of Arkadia and its influence on Ferro and Anna. The viewer returns to the present as Koenig concludes that, with Earth settlers returning life to Arkadia, events have come full circle. While destiny may have been fulfilled with Luke Ferro and Anna Davis becoming a 21st-century Adam and Eve, he writes, the Alphans must keep faith that the Moon's ongoing journey has a greater purpose...
Regular cast
Martin Landau — Commander John Koenig
Barbara Bain — Doctor Helena Russell
Barry Morse — Professor Victor Bergman
Prentis Hancock — Controller Paul Morrow
Clifton Jones — David Kano
Zienia Merton — Sandra Benes
Anton Phillips — Doctor Bob Mathias
Nick Tate — Captain Alan Carter
Suzanne Roquette — Tanya (uncredited)
Music
In addition to the regular Barry Gray score (drawn from "Breakaway" and "Another Time, Another Place"), excerpts from Paul Bonneau and Serge Lancen's composition Suite Appassionata—Andante are featured throughout the episode and Jack Arel and Pierre Dutour's 'Picture of Autumn' is used during Ferro and Anna's encounter with the Arkadian intelligence.
Production Notes
Script editor Johnny Byrne and director David Tomblin worked closely together to craft this final episode—mostly, Byrne recalls, as there was little money left in the series' budget. The idea of the 'ancient astronaut' was popularised by Swiss author Erich von Däniken in his book Chariots of the Gods? published in 1968. Melding this premise with the spirituality of the Adam and Eve story of Creation excited Tomblin, but Byrne felt it was a little too 'on the nose' with the imposed religious context. Though enjoying the story, he felt it was let down by the time limitations of the one-hour episode format and the necessary under-budgeting. Fan response was positive, as the episode is seen to bring the (unintended) story arc of the Moon's predestined journey through space to a conclusion.
Orso Maria Guerrini was the last of four Italian artists employed by the series as per an agreement with RAI, the Italian production company and series financial partner. Guerrini's English proved difficult to understand and his dialogue was dubbed by renowned voice artist Robert Rietty. Tony Allyn and Quentin Pierre had played unnamed Security guards throughout the series. The script for this episode listed their surnames as 'Irwin' and 'N'Dole', though these were never spoken aloud. Koenig's voice-over narration throughout the story was a last-minute addition, used to clarify several abstract plot points.
Producer Sylvia Anderson felt that 'we were really just getting into our stride in this episode—episode twenty-four. It was probably a little slower than some of the other episodes, but quite profound. I think Johnny Byrne was taking a very interesting concept, and more to the point...we learned about the characters.' However, her personal and professional partnership with husband Gerry Anderson came to an end soon after the conclusion of filming. Before the wrap party, he made known his intentions of asking for a legal separation. Afterwards, she resigned as both the programme's producer and a partner in the Group Three production company.
It was decided hiring an American head writer would end the time-consuming necessity of ITC New York vetting the scripts (plus bring a more American outlook to the programme). Experienced writer/producer Fred Freiberger would be selected for this position, mainly due to his position as show runner for the final season of Star Trek. With the producer's chair now vacated by Sylvia Anderson, he would assume the dual position of head writer and producer.
Though the programme was an international success, Sir Lew Grade was disappointed by the series' failure to secure an American network sale. This was coupled with its lukewarm reception in Britain (due to the lack of a coordinated network showing on ITV and having been labelled an 'American import'). In the autumn of 1975, as work progressed on the second series, ITC Entertainment announced to the production team that, unless the format was drastically retooled (specifically favouring American viewers), Space: 1999 would be cancelled.
Novelisation
The episode was adapted in the sixth Year One Space: 1999 novel Astral Quest by John Rankine, published in 1975.
References
External links
Space: 1999 - "The Testament of Arkadia" - The Catacombs episode guide
Space: 1999 - "The Testament of Arkadia" - Moonbase Alpha's Space: 1999 page
1976 British television episodes
Space: 1999 episodes |
4424066 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Londa%20Schiebinger | Londa Schiebinger | Londa Schiebinger ( ; born May 13, 1952) is the John L. Hinds Professor of History of Science, Department of History, and by courtesy the d-school, Stanford University. She received her Ph.D. from Harvard University in 1984. An international authority on the theory, practice, and history of gender and intersectionality in science, technology, and medicine, she is the founding Director of Gendered Innovations in Science, Medicine, Engineering, and Environment. She is an elected member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. Schiebinger received honorary doctorates from the Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Belgium (2013), from the Faculty of Science, Lund University, Sweden (2017), and from Universitat de València, Spain (2018). She was the first woman in the field of History to win the prestigious Alexander von Humboldt Research Prize in 1999.
Over the past thirty years, Schiebinger has analyzed what she calls the three “fixes”:
"Fix the Numbers of Women" focuses on increasing the underrepresented groups participating in science and engineering; "Fix the Institutions" promotes equity in careers through structural change in research organizations; and "Fix the Knowledge" or "gendered innovations" stimulates excellence in science and technology by integrating sex, gender, and intersectional analysis into research design. As a result of this work, she was recruited in a national search to direct Stanford University's Clayman Institute for Gender Research, a post she held from 2004 to 2010. Her job was to promote and support research on women and gender across Stanford University—from engineering, to philosophy, to medicine and business. In 2010 and 2014, she presented the keynote address and wrote the conceptual background paper for the United Nations' Expert Group Meeting on Gender, Science, and Technology. The UN Resolutions of March 2011 call for “gender-based analysis ... in science and technology” and for the integrations of a “gender perspective in science and technology curricula.” Again in 2022, she prepared the background paper for the United Nations 67th session of the Commission on the Status of Women’s priority theme, Innovation and Technological Change, and Education in the Digital Age for Achieving Gender Equality and The Empowerment of all Women and Girls.
In 2013 she presented the Gendered Innovations project at the European Parliament. Gendered Innovations was also presented to the South Korean National Assembly in 2014. In 2015, Schiebinger addressed 600 participants from 40 countries on Gendered Innovations at the Gender Summit 6—Asia Pacific, a meeting devoted to gendered innovations in research. She speaks globally on gendered innovations—from Brazil to Japan, and her work was recently presented in a Palace Symposium for the King and Queen of the Netherlands at the Royal Palace in Amsterdam. In 2018-2020, she led a European Commission Expert Group to produce Gendered Innovations 2: How Inclusive Analysis Contributes to Research and Innovation.
Schiebinger's work is highly interdisciplinary. In recognition of her creative work across academic fields of research, she was awarded the Interdisciplinary Leadership Award in the Stanford Medical School in 2010, the Linda Pollin Women's Heart Health Leadership Award from the Cedars-Sinai Medical Center in Los Angeles in 2015, the Impact of Gender/Sex on Innovation and Novel Technologies Pioneer Award in 2016, and the American Medical Women's Association President's Recognition Award in 2017. She has held prestigious Fellowships at the Max Planck Institute for the History of Science in Berlin (1999–2000) and at the Stanford Humanities Center (2010/2011, 2017/2018, 2022/2023). She served as an advisor to the Berlin University Alliance, 2022/23.
Major works
Gendered Innovations in Science, Health & Medicine, Engineering, and Environment (2009-)
Schiebinger coined the term “gendered innovations” in 2005. In 2009, she launched Gendered Innovations in Science, Health & Medicine, Engineering, and Environment, a field of research and methodology, at Stanford University. The project was joined by the European Commission in 2011, by the U.S. National Science Foundation in 2012. Gendered Innovations received funding from the European Commission again in 2018/20 and from the U.S. National Science Foundation (2020/22 to expand methodologies and case studies. This project has brought together over 220 natural scientists, engineers, and gender experts in a series of collaborative workshop that drew talent from across the US, Europe, Canada, Asia, and, more recently, South Africa and Latin America. The project served as the intellectual foundations for the “gender dimension in research” requirements in the European Commission's Horizon 2020 funding framework. A Center for Gendered Innovations in Science and Technology Research was founded in Seoul, Republic of Korea, 2016; and the Institute for Gendered Innovation was created at Ochanomizu University, Tokyo, Japan, 2022.
Gendered Innovations has developed practical methods of sex, gender, and intersectional analysis for STEM, and provided case studies as examples of how this type of analysis leads to discovery and innovations. The project highlights case studies, ranging from stem cell research, to osteoporosis research in men, to inclusive crash test dummies, social robots, machine learning, menstrual cups, nutrigenomics, marine science, medical technologies, and assistive technology for the elderly.
Of special note is the case study of Google Translate. In 2012, the gendered innovations team discovered that Google Translate defaults to the masculine pronoun because “he said” is more commonly found on the web than “she said.” Although this bias is unconscious, it has serious consequences. Unconscious gender bias from the past amplifies gender inequality in the future. When trained on historical data (as Google Translate is), the system inherits bias (including gender bias). In other words, past bias is perpetuated into the future, even when governments, universities, and companies, such as Google, themselves have implemented policies to foster equality. The goal of Gendered Innovations is to provide methods of analysis to help scientists and engineers can get the research right from the beginning.
Schiebinger has also worked to create infrastructure for gender-responsible science across the three pillars of academic infrastructure: funding agencies, peer-reviewed journals, and universities. She advises funding agencies, including the German Science Foundation and the U.S. National Science Foundation, on policies for integrating sex, gender, and diversity analysis into research. She and colleagues published guidelines for editors of medical journals to evaluate sex and gender analysis in manuscripts submitted for publication. She also seeks to help universities integrate social analysis into core natural science and engineering curricula. Finally, she advises industry on develop products that meet the needs of complex and diverse user groups.
Has Feminism Changed Science? (1999)
Schiebinger's book, Has Feminism Changed Science?, has been split into three sections: 'Women in Science', 'Gender in the Cultures of Science', and 'Gender in the Substance of Science'. Throughout the book, she describes the factors that led to the inequality between male and female in the science field. In addition, she gave examples of different types of women in the society. An important idea brought up in the book was the private versus the public, where the private sphere is seen as the domain of women and public sphere as an area refers for men. Another important point she brought up was that the idea of including women in the fields of science does not mean that the sciences will adopt a more feminist view point. A simple increase in the number of women in a given field does not change the culture of that field. The construction of gender and science is a cycle in that ideas of gender are brought to the table already when practicing science and can inform what evidence people look for or areas they choose to study, and that whatever is found then influences theories of gender. The various contradictions shown through the achievements and silencing of women in science throughout history shows how nature and the society can influence gender and science. Schiebinger not only addresses the gender in the context of science, she also describes the feminism is changed through the history and culture. It is important to note that the book is written from a Western perspective and that the culture she discusses is that of the Western World, and in many cases, more specifically, the United States.
The first of the book's three sections takes a look at the impacts of some of the first women to be known to have participated in science, such as Christine de Pizan and Marie Curie. The section also examines the numerical count of women in the various fields of science in academics in the late 20th century United States, as well as looking at the breakdown of other factors, such as pay rates and the level of degree held, in relation to gender. The section goes on to theorize that the cultural reinforcement of gender roles may play a factor as to why there are fewer women in science.
The second section, 'Gender in the Cultures of Science', argues that science has been gendered as being a masculine field and that women report a distaste for the excessive competition fostered by academic science. The section also argues that the splitting of gender roles in personal life, where women still take on a majority of domestic responsibilities, may be a reason that is hindering women in scientific fields from accomplishing more.
The third section of the book, 'Gender in the substance of Science' details the perspectives that women have brought to fields such as medicine, primatology, archeology, biology, and physics. In fact, Schiebinger states that as of the writing of the book, that women earned nearly 80 percent of all Ph.D.s in primatology, and yet, despite this, having a large number of women scientists in a field does not necessarily lead to a change in the assumptions of science, or the culture of science.
The Mind Has No Sex? Women in the Origins of Modern Science (1989)
Using a theory coined by François Poullain de la Barre, Schiebinger's prize-winning historical work focuses on eighteenth-century history of science and medicine. The Mind Has No Sex? Women in the Origins of Modern Science (1989) is one of the first scholarly works to investigate women and gender in the origins of modern Western science. The Mind Has No Sex? exposed the privileged first-born twins of modern science: the myth of the natural body, and the myth of value-neutral knowledge. As Schiebinger demonstrates, the claim of science to objectivity was the linchpin holding together a system that rendered women's exclusion from science invisible, and made this exclusion appear fair and just. She argues that women were ready and willing to take their place in science in the early modern period in astronomy, physics, mathematics, anatomy, and botany. But it was not to be.
Schiebinger first identifies these women and the structures of early modern European society that allowed them a place in science. Of note is her work on German women working in guild-like sciences—Maria Sibylla Merian and Maria Margarethe Winkelmann. Schiebinger uncovered the story of Winkelmann, a noted astronomer, and described important paths not taken with respect to women in science in the eighteenth century. Winkemann, for example, applied to be the astronomer of the royal academy of sciences in Berlin when her husband died in 1710. Despite the great philosopher Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz’s support, she was rejected. With that, the door slammed on women astronomers for the next several centuries.
Not only were women, such as Merian and Winkelmann, excluded from modern science but something called “femininity” was also excluded. The best known part of this book is Schiebinger's chapter on “Skeletons in the Closet,” where she tells the story of the first illustrations of female skeletons in European anatomy. Schiebinger argues that it was the attempt to define the position of women (especially white middle-class women) in European society at large and in science in particular that spawned the first representations of the female skeleton. Great debate arose over the particular strengths and weakness of these female skeletons, focusing in particular on depictions of the skull as a measure of intelligence and pelvis as a measure of womanliness. After the 1750s, the anatomy of sex difference provided a kind of bedrock upon which to build natural relations between the sexes. The seemingly superior build of the male body (and mind) was cited to justify his social role. At the same time, the particularities of the female body justified her natural role as wife and mother. Women were not to be men's equals in science and society, but their complements.
This internationally acclaimed book has been translated into Japanese, German, Chinese, Portuguese, Spanish, Korean, and Greek.
Nature's Body: Gender in the Making of Modern Science (1993)
This book, written immediately after The Mind has No Sex?, focuses on how knowledge is gendered. It explores how gender structured important aspects of the content of early modern science, with case studies exploring the sexing of plants, the gender politics of taxonomies and nomenclatures, the gendering of apes, and the agency ascribed to women in shaping racial characters. Her chapter on the “Private Lives of Plants,” focuses on Carl Linnaeus and how his taxonomies contributed to naturalizing the role of “woman” in modern culture. Quaint hyperbole of plants celebrating steamy nuptials on softly perfumed pedaled beds surrounded the discovery of plant sexuality. Plant sexuality was strongly assimilated to heterosexual models of human affections, even though the majority of the flowers are hermaphroditic. Here Schiebinger reveals how Linnaean taxonomy recapitulated social hierarchies by setting the taxon defined by the male stamens above that defined by female pistils.
Best known is her chapter “Why Mammals are Called Mammals.” recounting the torrid history of the breast in eighteenth-century Europe. More importantly, this chapter zeroes in on how notions of gender formed scientific taxonomies, and how these taxonomies buttressed gender roles in science and society. By emphasizing how natural it was for females—both human and nonhuman—to suckle their own children, Linnaeus's newly coined Mammalia helped to legitimize the restructuring of European society in an age of cultural upheaval and revolution.
This book also contains chapters on the eighteenth-century origins of scientific studies of sex and race, and their relation to questions about who should be included and who excluded from newly emerging scientific institutions.
Nature's Body won the 1995 Ludwik Fleck Book Prize from the Society for Social Studies of Science, and her article, “Why Mammals are Called Mammals,” featured on the cover of the American Historical Review, won the 1994 History of Women in Science Prize from the History of Science Society.
Plants and Empire: Colonial Bioprospecting in the Atlantic World (2004)
Shifting attention from Europe to the Atlantic World, Schiebinger published Plants and Empire in 2004. Developing a new methodology, ”agnotology” (defined as the cultural history of ignorance), she explores the movement, triumph, suppression, and extinction of the diverse knowledges in the course of eighteenth-century encounters between Europeans and the inhabitants of the Caribbean—both indigenous Amerindians and African slaves. While much history of colonial science has focused on how knowledge is made and moved between continents and heterodox traditions, Schiebinger explores instances of the nontransfer of important bodies of knowledge from the New World into Europe.
Schiebinger tells the remarkable story of Maria Sibylla Merian, one of the few European women to voyage for science in the eighteenth century. In a moving passage in her magnificent 1705 Metamorphosis insectorum Surinamensium, the German-born naturalist Merian recorded how the Indian and African slave populations in Surinam, then a Dutch colony, used the seeds of a plant she identified as the flos pavonis, literally ‘peacock flower’, as an abortifacient to abort their children so they would not become slaves like themselves. This book reveals how gender relations in Europe and its West Indian colonies influenced what European bioprospectors collected—and failed to collect—as they entered the rich knowledge traditions of the Caribbean. As Schiebinger tells, abortifacients were a body of knowledge that did not circulate freely between the West Indies and Europe. Trade winds of prevailing opinion impeded shiploads of New World abortifacients and knowledge of their use from ever reaching Europe.
This book won the prize in Atlantic History from the American Historical Association in 2005, the Alf Andrew Heggoy Book Prize from the French Colonial Historical Society in 2005, and the J. Worth Estes Prize for the History of Pharmacology from the American Association for the History of Medicine in 2005. These prizes demonstrate her ability to win the admiration of scholars across a wide-variety of disciplines.
Secret Cures of Slaves: People, Plants, and Medicine in the Eighteenth-Century Atlantic World (2017)
From 1932 to 1972, 600 impoverished Alabamian African-American sharecroppers were exploited by the U.S. Public Health Service in its Tuskegee Syphilis Study (1932–1972). This book explores the eighteenth-century background of medical experimentation with humans, asking in particular if the large populations of enslaved people, concentrated on American plantations, were used as human guinea pigs.
A major finding of Secret Cures of Slaves is that, in many instances, European physicians in the British and French West Indies did not—as might be expected—use enslaved people as guinea pigs. Enslaved laborers were considered valuable property of powerful plantation owners whom doctors were employed to serve. The master's will prevailed over a doctor's advice, and colonial physicians did not always have a free hand in devising medical experiments to answer scientific questions.
Yet, enslaved people were exploited in eighteenth-century. Schiebinger tells those stories, and also sets these findings firmly in the context of slavery, colonial expansion, the development of drug testing, and medical ethics of the time. It seeks to answer questions about sex and race in medical testing. Specifically, how were human subjects in this period chosen for experiments, and how were notions of uniformity and variability across living organisms developed? Did physicians imagine a natural human body that once tested held universally? Were tests done on white bodies thought to hold for Black bodies (and vice versa)? Were male and female bodies considered interchangeable in this regard? These questions are today still key to the mission of protecting and improving human health.
Schiebinger also expands our knowledge of African and Amerindian contributions to health and medicine. Europeans, from the sixteenth through to the end of the eighteenth century, tended to value medical knowledge of the peoples they encountered around the world, especially those who were experienced in what we today call tropical medicine. In the Caribbean, Europeans tested many of these medical techniques. Schiebinger explores what was thought of at the time as “slave medicine” (often a fusion of Amerindian and African cures) in the eighteenth-century West Indies in order to gather and evaluate African and American contributions to health and healing. She argues that proper care of enslaved people as well as soldiers and sailors was a matter of moral concern in this period to be sure, but also a means to secure the wealth of nations. Schiebinger analyzes the circulation of medical knowledge between Africa, Europe, and the Americas, and emphasizes that knowledge created in this period did not respond to science for its own sake, but was fired in the colonial crucible of conquest, slavery, violence, and secrecy.
Personal life
Her partner is Robert N. Proctor, and her children are Geoffrey Schiebinger, now professor of mathematics and computational biology, and Jonathan Proctor, now professor of environmental economics. She and her husband each gave their name to one of their two children.
Selected bibliography
A Framework for Sex, Gender, and Diversity Analysis in Research: Funding Agencies Have Ample Room to Improve Their Policies (Science, 2022) doi:10.1126/science.abp977
Sex and Gender Analysis Improves Science and Engineering (Nature, 2019) doi:10.1038/s41586-019-1657-6
AI can be Sexist and Racist— It’s Time to Make it Fair (Nature, 2018) doi:10.1038/d41586-018-05707-8
Secret Cures of Slaves: People, Plants, and Medicine in the Eighteenth-Century Atlantic World (Stanford University Press, 2017)
Women and Gender in Science and Technology, 4 vols. (London: Routledge, 2014),
Gendered Innovations: How Gender Analysis Contributes to Research, ed. with Ineke Klinge (Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union, 2013)
"Changing Assumptions", American Scientist, September–October 2008
Selected media coverage
"Londa Schiebinger: Inclusive Design Will Help Create AI That Works for Everyone", by Prabha Kannan, Stanford Human-Centered AI Institute, July 2022.
"Women in STEM Need More Than a Law", by Caitlin McDermott-Murphy, Harvard Gazette, June 22, 2022
"The Researcher Fighting to Embed Analysis of Sex and Gender into Science", by Elizabeth Gibney, Nature, November 2020
"Academics 'Need Training' on Sex and Gender in Research", by Ellie Bothwell, Times Higher Education, November 7, 2019
"Gender Diversity is Linked to Research Diversity, Stanford Historian Says", by Amy Adams, Stanford News, October 4, 2018
"Why Gendered Medicine Can Be Good Medicine", by Rena Xu, The New Yorker, November 6, 2017
Peer-reviewed website
Gendered Innovations in Science, Health & Medicine, Engineering, and Environment.
Prizes and awards
Schiebinger's awards have included
Global Navigation Board Member, University of Tokyo, Japan, 2023
Berlin Falling Walls Breakthrough Winner in Science & Innovation Management, 2022
Honorary Doctorate, Universitat de València, Spain, 2018
Honorary Doctorate, Faculty of Science, Lund University, Sweden, 2017
Medical Women's Association President's Recognition Award, 2017
Impact of Gender/Sex on Innovation and Novel Technologies Pioneer Award, 2016
Linda Pollin Women's Heart Health Leadership Award, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, 2015
Elected to the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, 2014
Honorary Doctorate, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, 2013
Distinguished Affiliated Professor, Technische Universität, Münichen, 2011-
Board of Trustees, Institute for Advanced Studies, Technische Universität, Munich, 2011-
Interdisciplinary Leadership Award, 2010, Women's Health, Stanford School of Medicine
2007-2009 Board of Trustees, RWTH Aachen, Germany
2006 Maria Goeppert-Meyer distinguished Visitor, Oldenburg University, Germany
2005 Prize in Atlantic History, American Historical Association, for Plants and Empire
2005 Alf Andrew Heggoy Book Prize, French Colonial Historical Society, for Plants and Empire
2005 J. Worth Estes Prize for the History of Pharmacology, American Association for the History of Medicine, for Feminist History of Colonial Science
2005 Jantine Tammes Chair, Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences, University of Groningen, the Netherlands
1999 Alexander von Humboldt Research Prize, Berlin
2001-2004 National Science Foundation Grant
2002-2004 National Science Foundation Scholars Award
1999-2000 Max-Planck-Institut für Wissenschaftsgeschichte, Berlin Senior Research Fellow
1998 National Institutes of Health, National Library of Medicine Fellowship
1994 Margaret W. Rossiter History of Women in Science Prize
1991–1993, 1996 National Science Foundation Scholars Award
1995 Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft
1991–1992 Guggenheim Fellow
1988–1989 Rockefeller Foundation Humanist-in-Residence
1986–1987 National Endowment for the Humanities Fellowship
1985-1986 Rockefeller Foundation Fellowship
Summer 1985 Deutscher Akademischer Austauschdienst Grant
1983–1984 Charlotte W. Newcombe Doctoral Dissertation Fellowship, Woodrow Wilson Foundation
Summer 1982 Marion and Jasper Whiting Fellowship, Paris
1980–1981 Fulbright-Hayes Graduate Scholar in Germany
References
External links
Interview for KanaalZ, Belgian television
TEDx CERN
"Housework is an Academic Issue," profiled on ABC News.
Michelle R. Clayman Institute for Gender Research
"Londa Schiebinger", The Economist
"Sex, Knowledge and Society", Australian Broadcasting Corporation
"Londa Schiebinger talks Gender and Science", Stanford University Press
Gendered Innovations: Designing Better Research"
"Tuve hijos tarde para poder pagar una asistenta" El Pais
Gender News Clayman Institute, Stanford University
Inside Higher Education
Sex in Science Yields Gendered Innovations on MyScienceWork
Stanford Daily, Stanford University
Sister Ape, London Review of Books, April 19, 1990
Science from Women's Lives. Better Science? How Gendered Studies Improve Science and Lives, Methode
STEM—the acronym for science, technology, engineering and math—has sparked a nationwide debate about education, gender, immigration and the future of the U.S. economy, CNN Money
Gendered Innovations: Making Research Better
Why It's Crucial to Get More Women Into Science, National Geographic
Det kan bli umulig å publisere i Science eller Nature hvis artikkelen din ikke har et kjønnsperspektiv, sier Stanford-professor
Technology's Man Problem
L’innovazione di genere è migliore
Maeil Business News Korea
The Kukmin Daily, Seoul
Living people
Stanford University Department of History faculty
Harvard University alumni
University of Nebraska–Lincoln alumni
Historians of science
21st-century American historians
American women historians
1952 births
21st-century American women writers |
4424314 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North%20Irish%20Horse | North Irish Horse | The North Irish Horse was a yeomanry unit of the British Territorial Army raised in the northern counties of Ireland in the aftermath of the Second Boer War. Raised and patronised by the nobility from its inception to the present day, it was one of the first non-regular units to be deployed to France and the Low Countries with the British Expeditionary Force in 1914 during World War I and fought with distinction both as mounted troops and later as a cyclist regiment, achieving eighteen battle honours. The regiment was reduced to a single man in the inter war years and re-raised for World War II, when it achieved its greatest distinctions in the North African and Italian campaigns. Reduced again after the Cold War, the regiment's name still exists in B (North Irish Horse) Squadron, the Scottish and North Irish Yeomanry and 40 (North Irish Horse) Signal Squadron, part of 32 Signal Regiment.
History
Background
The raising of Militia units in Ireland commenced with the "Militia Act 1793", which in Ireland was used in conjunction with the compulsory disbandment of Lord Charlemont's Irish Volunteers, who had become a political entity and "out of the scope of official influence". The scope of the Militia was broadened by an act of the Dublin Parliament in 1796, which led to the raising of forty-nine troops of cavalry, later renamed yeomanry. A troop normally consisted of a captain, two lieutenants (commissioned by the Lord Lieutenant of Ireland) and forty men, along with a permanent sergeant and trumpeter. Troops were grouped together under the command of a regular army brigade major. The force was known collectively as the "Irish Yeomanry". Each man provided his own horse. The falling need for this force eventually led to its disbandment in 1834.
With the advent of the Boer War, a parliamentary decision was taken to raise squadrons of Yeomanry Cavalry under the "Militia and Yeomanry Act 1901" for service in South Africa. Because of the pressing need to raise this force quickly, normal cavalry training with swords or lances (known as the arme blanche) was dispensed with and the new yeomanry was issued only with rifles in a break with cavalry tradition. This new force was called the Imperial Yeomanry. Six companies were quickly raised in Ireland, including the 46th (1st Belfast), 54th (2nd Belfast), 60th (North Irish), and the 45th (Dublin) (known as the Dublin Hunt Squadron) commanded by Captain the Earl of Longford. The 45th, 46th, 47th and 54th formed the 13th (Irish) Battalion Imperial Yeomanry. The 47th (Duke of Cambridge's Own) was raised from rich "men-about-town" in London by the Earl of Donoughmore and paid £130 each for their horses and equipment. The officers of the battalion included the Earl of Leitrim, Sir John Power (of the Powers whiskey family) and James Craig (later Lord Craigavon), and was known as the "Millionaires Own".
Formation
Following the South African war, sixteen new yeomanry regiments were formed, two of these in Ireland. King Edward VII approved the formation of the North of Ireland Imperial Yeomanry and the South of Ireland Imperial Yeomanry in 1901. Their formation was sanctioned and gazetted on 7 January 1902. Recruiting for the North of Ireland Imperial Yeomanry did not begin until 1903, with four squadrons being raised:
RHQ and A Squadron at Skegoneill Avenue in Belfast,
B Squadron in Derry/Ballymena,
C Squadron in Enniskillen
D Squadron in Dundalk.
The first training camp was held at Blackrock Camp, Dundalk in 1903; thereafter, camps were held every third year at the Curragh and other years at Ballykinlar, Dundrum, Magilligan and Bundoran.
The regiment became part of the special reserve in 1908 and its name was changed to the North Irish Horse as part of the Haldane Reforms, the formation of the Territorial Force, which created the Special Reserve of Militia and Yeomanry regiments in Ireland. The North Irish Horse, along with the other Militia battalions, remained on the Special Reserve list until 1953. This arrangement gave the Irish units precedence in the line over the Territorial Army regiments just after the Cavalry of the Line, but also guaranteed the use of the Militia and Yeomanry in overseas conflicts.
The first commander was the Earl of Shaftesbury, whose adjutant was Captain RGO Bramston-Newman, 7th (Princess Royal's) Dragoon Guards, from Cork. Senior NCOs from regular Cavalry of the Line units became the permanent staff instructors (PSIs). On 7 December 1913, the Duke of Abercorn was appointed as the regiment's first honorary colonel.
The First World War
The declaration of war against Germany in August 1914 found the North Irish Horse at summer camp, as was its sister regiment, the South Irish Horse. The Expeditionary Force squadron (designated A Squadron) under the command of Major Lord Cole, consisting of 6 officers and 154 other ranks, along with its counterpart in the South Irish Horse (designated B Squadron) was assigned to the British Expeditionary Force. Both squadrons sailed from Dublin on the SS Architect on 17 August 1914. They were the first non-regular troops to land in France and be in action in the First World War. They were joined shortly afterwards by C Squadron of the North Irish Horse under the command of Major Lord Massereene and Ferrard DSO. Three more squadrons of the 'Horse' were to join the regiment in France landing on 2 May 1915, 17 November 1915 and 11 January 1916. A total of 70 officers and 1,931 men of the regiment went to war between 1914 and 1916.
The North Irish Horse did not stay together as a unit, but squadrons were attached to different formations in the BEF as and when required:
A Squadron – attached to GHQ until 4 January 1916, transferred to 55th (West Lancashire) Division. On 10 May 1916, along with D and E Squadrons, it was attached to VII Corps, forming the 1st North Irish Horse . Together they constituted VII Corps Cavalry Regiment. 1 NIH was transferred to XIX Corps in July 1917, and then to V Corps, September 1917. In March 1918, it was reroled as V (North Irish Horse) Corps Cyclist Battalion until the end of the war.
B Squadron – was attached to the 59th (2nd North Midland) Division, August 1915. In June 1916, it formed, along with C Squadron and the Service Squadron of the 6th (Inniskilling) Dragoons, the 2nd North Irish Horse. This battalion was attached to X Corps until August 1917, then disbanded. The men were sent to be trained as infantry and more than 300 of them joined the 9th (Service) (North Irish Horse) Battalion, Royal Irish Fusiliers.
C Squadron – moved to France on 22 August 1914 and was attached to GHQ before being detached to 5th Division as the divisional cavalry squadron to replace A Sqn of the 19th Hussars. On 14 April 1915, it was transferred to the 3rd Division, and in June 1916 was sent to join B Sqn in the 2nd North Irish Horse which was later disbanded.
D Squadron – was attached to the 51st (Highland) Division in early 1915, but in June 1916 joined A Sqn in the 1st North Irish Horse.
E Squadron – was attached to 34th Division as part of the divisional mounted contingent from early 1915, and in June 1916 joined A Sqn in the 1st North Irish Horse.
F Squadron – was attached to the 33rd Division from early 1915 until April 1916, before being briefly attached to 1st Cavalry Division, 49th (West Riding) Division, and 32nd Division, before joining X Corps in June 1916. It was redesignated B Squadron 1 North Irish Horse in May 1916.
On 25 May 1916, 2nd North Irish Horse was formed. This regiment included, as A Sqn, the Service Squadron of the 6th Inniskilling Dragoon Guards, which had been formed on 2 October 1914 from volunteers of the Inniskilling Horse of the Ulster Volunteer Force. This squadron did not welcome the change and maintained its Inniskilling identity; being allowed to keep its precedence in the line coming just after the dragoons until 1919.
Records indicate that a third regiment was being formed at the depot in Antrim and it has been speculated that this had unofficially adopted the title "3rd North Irish Horse" but no official records exist to support this.
Cyclist Corps
As the war in France and the Low Countries stagnated into trench warfare, the mobility of cavalry and other mounted troops was restricted leading to many cavalry regiments being dismounted and deployed on a range of tasks from that of infantry to menial tasks, including burying the dead. The loss of some of the squadrons' war diaries for the early part of the war means that much information is no longer available, but enough remains to know that some men were deployed on fatigues, enough to render the squadrons non-existent from a "military or fighting point". The historian of the British Cavalry, the Earl of Anglesey, noted that "the cavalry were being used for every odd job where there was no-one else to carry it out". This led to many officers and men transferring to other arms because they felt they were not taking an active part in the war. The vast majority of "Horse" casualties in the Great War were when serving with other units during this period.
After conversion to a cyclist battalion, the regiment became part of the "Great Retreat of 1918" during the Operation Michael phase of the German Kaiserschlacht (or Spring Offensive). Following the Armistice, on 13 November a supply of boot blackening and button polish was made available in the other ranks canteen and the regiment began handing in stores in preparation for moving back to Ireland. The regiment's location was close to le Cateau, not far from where it had started the war. During the Great War, the "Horse" won 18 battle honours, and lost 27 officers and 123 men. One officer, Captain Richard West, was awarded the Victoria Cross, Distinguished Service Order and Bar, and Military Cross.
The Inter-war years
By 31 January 1919, the regiment was preparing to reduce to a cadre of three officers, five senior ranks and twenty-seven other ranks who would oversee the rundown of the regiment and its departure from France. On 13 May 1919, the rear party left Vignacourt en route for Pembroke Dock; in Antrim, the regimental depot was closed and the remaining men there were transferred to the Curragh Camp prior to being demobbed. The regiment's horses were transferred to the 8th King's Royal Irish Hussars and the regiment was classed as "disembodied", which in British Army parlance meant that it no longer existed except as a name on the Army List with a complement (in this case) of an Honorary Colonel, Honorary Chaplain, a Brevet Colonel (EA Maude), six majors, six subalterns and the quartermaster although these officers had no peacetime training commitments.
The naming conventions changed as the commitment of the Territorial Force in Great Britain was rewarded by its renaming as the Territorial Army. The Special Reserve in Ireland was renamed "the Militia" on 1 October 1921. The Army List contained a section headed, "Cavalry Special Reserve – Irish Horse, North Irish, South Irish". In 1922, this changed to "Cavalry Militia" with precedence following the 17th/21st Lancers. By this time, however, the South Irish Horse had been disbanded on 31 July 1922, as a result of the partition of Ireland. Following the disbandment of King Edward's Horse in 1924, the North Irish Horse became the sole cavalry militia regiment on the army list and also the only militia regiment that had not been placed in suspended animation.
On 28 February 1924, the regiment held its first reunion in Thompson's Restaurant in Belfast, where it was agreed that a memorial to the dead of the Great War should be commissioned. The sum of £500 was allocated and a memorial window was unveiled by the Earl of Shaftesbury and dedicated by the Right Reverend RW Hamilton MA, the Moderator of the Presbyterian Church on 25 April 1925 on the occasion of the 2nd Regimental Reunion.
The "One Man Regiment"
Retirement and death eventually reduced the regimental strength in 1934 to just one combatant officer, Major Sir Ronald D Ross Bt, MC. This became a source of amusement in society and the North Irish Horse was given the sobriquet of the "One Man Regiment". This state of affairs continued until 1938, when the British Government decided to increase the number of available regiments to meet the possible threat of war from the emergent Nazi regime in Germany.
The Second World War
Prelude to war
On 31 August 1939, the War Office ordered the reconstitution of the regiment as a wheeled armoured car unit under the command of Sir Basil Brooke (formerly 10th Hussars) with Lord Erne as his second in command, although Brooke was shortly to leave the position as his political commitments took precedence. Ultimately to be replaced, after several temporary officers, by Lt Col David Dawnay, grandson of the 8th Viscount Downe. Recruiting commenced and instructors were brought in from other RAC and Yeomanry units to raise the Horse from its "One Man Regiment" status from scratch. On 11 September, a Special Army Order transferred the regiment from the Cavalry of the Line to the Royal Armoured Corps (RAC). By November, 50 recruits had been trained and a further 30–40 were due to start training immediately. In the same month, the regiment also moved its base to Enniskillen Castle. By January 1940, the regiment had received its vintage Rolls-Royce armoured cars fitted with Vickers machine guns and No 11 radio sets and was able to form three sabre squadrons plus HQ Sqn. The officer cadre was again heavily filled by members of the nobility with the squadrons being commanded by:
HQ Squadron – Captain Newton commanding with the Marquess of Ely as second in command, based at Castle Barracks
A Squadron – Captain Lord O'Neill, based at County Hall
B Squadron – Captain Booth, based at the McArthur Hall
C Squadron – Captain Sir Norman Stronge Bt, based at the Orange Hall
Training was interrupted on 24 May 1940 when an Irish Republican Army (IRA) bomb exploded close to the officers' mess, which was in the Main Street in Enniskillen, but before any further incidents occurred the regiment was moved to Portrush.
Training exercises continued along the north coast, which caused a certain amount of boredom amongst the officers and men who by now had expected to be fighting. On 19 April 1941, the regiment moved to Abercorn Barracks at Ballykinlar and re-equipped as an armoured regiment with Mk I Valentine tanks.
On 18 October 1941, the Horse left Northern Ireland and took up new accommodation at Westbury, Wiltshire with the squadrons billeted in the surrounding villages. The role was changed again at this point and the regiment handed in its Valentines to receive Churchill I – Mk IV's; it was assigned to the 34th Army Tank Brigade under the command of JN Tetley, son of the English brewing magnate.
Tank names
At this point, the tanks were given markings that corresponded to the formation, regiment and squadrons to which they belonged and, in a practice that was to become customary with all Irish units of the RAC, each tank was named after an Irish town or place beginning with the letter of the squadron designation:
The regiment continued to be moved around the Home Counties and also spent time in Wales, exercising and becoming familiar with its Churchill tanks. On 6 September 1942, it was transferred from the 34th Tank Brigade to the 25th Army Tank Brigade, which was attached to the 43rd (Wessex) Infantry Division, joining the 51st (Leeds Rifles) Royal Tank Regiment (formerly the 7th (Leeds Rifles) Battalion, West Yorkshire Regiment) and the 142nd Regiment RAC (formerly the 7th Battalion, Suffolk Regiment).
As Christmas leave was drawing to a close, those still away from the unit were recalled by telegram and ordered to get ready to deploy for overseas service, although oddly, they were then given six days "embarkation leave" (with an extra day to allow the Irishmen to travel home). On their return, the regiment's tanks were sheeted down so that all markings were hidden and all ranks had to divest themselves of identifying badges to prevent knowledge of their deployment becoming known. All were then entrained for Liverpool, where they embarked on the troopship Duchess of York.
Tunisia
On 2 February 1943, the North Irish Horse landed in Algiers and marched 17 miles on foot to their new camp.
Its first job was to create a defensive force around Le Kef. The regiment was not up to strength at this time as many of its tanks and much of its equipment had been delayed by logistical difficulties. The regiment was ordered to leave Le Kef at speed to counter the Axis Offensive – Operation Ochsenkopf in late February 1943. It made best speed with all 27 available tanks towards Béja, some 90 miles away – one of the longest "on track" journeys ever made by Churchill tanks. In the ensuing 60-hour action, mostly against elements of the German 10th Panzer Division, the Horse took its first casualties of the war and lost a number of tanks to enemy artillery and direct tank-on-tank actions. It also received its first decoration, with Captain Griffith being awarded the Military Cross.
The regiment continued to support other elements of the invasion force in troop or squadron formations, taking heavy casualties and losing tanks but continuing to press forward all the time until, in early April moving to Oued Zarga where the entire regiment came together for the first time since landing at Algiers. In the further advance north while attached to the 38th (Irish) Brigade, which was under the command of Brigadier Nelson Russell, the Horse showed the agility of the often underestimated Churchills by climbing heights regarded as safe from tanks and surprising the Germans occupying them, a fact noted by Spike Milligan in his account of the Tunisian Campaign in his book "Rommel?" "Gunner Who?" The most notable of these feats of tank hill climbing was the attack on Djebel Rhar (also known as Longstop Hill) in support of the 5th Buffs. The German infantry did not expect tanks to be able to make the crest of the Djebel and as a result were thrown into panic when the Churchills of B Sqn appeared in their midst. On 16 June, the Belfast Telegraph carried a report of the action:
It was very slow and therefore a most impressive assault with steel. At times the tanks almost 'stood on their heads', twisting to avoid mounds of rock and to get at right angles to the huge cracks and shell holes, but always getting nearer and nearer. Like beetles trying to climb an inverted ice-cream cone, they slipped a little, hung suspended and then went onwards towards the top. The behaviour of these tanks upset the Germans. Such tactics were untanklike, and no answer was contained in their military textbooks. Too late now to shift the anti-tank guns from their positions, too late to make alternative arrangements to deal with the new menace. There was only one answer – retreat, and that's what the Germans did – leaving the British tanks and infantry in possession of the first slope up the heights of Longstop. So ended 23 April.
One German prisoner was heard to remark that the tanks were "Iron Mules".
On 6 May, the final attack was launched against Tunis and, after severe street fighting and the capture of six 88 mm guns by C Sqn (in support of the Indian Brigade), the town was finally occupied. This effectively ended the campaign in Tunisia.
The Italian Campaign
The Horse were allowed to rest and receive replacement vehicles and men for several months after the Tunisian actions. It has been surmised that this is because General Montgomery did not believe the Churchill tank to be a practical vehicle for the Italian campaign. Nevertheless, the regiment embarked on 16 April for Naples, coming under air attack as it entered the harbour two days later. Vesuvius could be seen just a few miles away with fire and smoke pouring from its brim, having erupted just several weeks earlier on 19 March.
The Hitler Line
At Afragola the regiment received 18 Sherman tanks and then loaded all tanks onto trains to be taken across country to Foggia and from there moved into a brigade harbour area near the village of Lucera. By now, Lord O'Neill had been given command of the regiment, with Colonel Dawnay moving on to brigade staff. After a week in harbour, the regiment was sent on tank transporters to Mignano near Monte Cassino, which had fallen some days earlier along with the rest of the Gustav Line. The fighting was not over, however, as the Adolf Hitler Line, now renamed the Senger Line, lay just six miles north, and it would be the next objective. The Horse was briefed for Operation Chesterfield, which was an assault by the 1st Canadian Division supported by tanks of the North Irish Horse and the 51st Royal Tanks. H Hour was to be at 6 am on 23 May. The plan required the 2nd and 3rd Canadian Infantry Brigades, supported by the two tank regiments, to break through the Hitler Line on a 3,000-yard front. The assaulting troops came under a withering hail of fire on the well-prepared killing grounds of the heavily defended German positions. The Horse took heavy casualties and had to regroup by merging depleted squadrons together. One tank slipped off a track and fell 50 feet into a ravine, rolling over on its turret and then back onto its tracks. The crew were shaken but unhurt, and the incident gave them another chance to display the marvellous climbing skills of the Churchill as they crawled slowly up the almost sheer walls of the ravine to re-enter the battle. During this battle, Major Griffiths again displayed great heroism and was later awarded the only bar to the MC that an officer of the regiment received. The total cost to the Horse in the engagement was 36 men killed in action and 32 tanks lost. This represented 60% of the regimental strength. The date of 23 May was later chosen as a "Regimental Day" to commemorate the bloodiest day in the history of the North Irish Horse, which lost more men than on any other day in two world wars. The breakthrough happened, however, and the German defenders began evacuating the position on the night of 23 May. Meanwhile, the allied advance continued.
As a result of the breaking of the Hitler Line and in "appreciation of the support they received" the regiment was asked by the Canadians to wear the Maple Leaf insignia of the Canadian Military. In the battles of the Hitler Line was a Donegal born Lieutenant Pat Reid MC, who in later life would emigrate to Canada and would chair the committee selected by the Canadian Prime Minister that would choose the Maple Leaf design for the new national Flag of Canada.
On 4 May, the regiment, along with the rest of the 25th Tank Brigade, was transferred to the 4th Division in support of the 28th Brigade, but remained in reserve. After news of the D Day Landings was heard, the regiment was again transferred and came under command of the 17th Indian Infantry Brigade. This brief period of respite allowed a number of the men to visit Rome. Many visited the Basilica San Pietro and marvelled at the undamaged splendour of such an edifice.
The regiment was then tasked to put together a composite unit of Shermans to relieve the 142nd RAC Regt's composite group with the 8th Indian Infantry Division, and the advance began westwards to Perugia, which fell on 20 June. On 16 June, the Horse again relieved the 142nd, this time at Bastia Umbra. In the days and actions that followed, new upgunned Churchill tanks arrived, with their Besa machine guns.
The Gothic Line
Advancing again though mountainous countryside, another tank slid off the track and rolled six times down a 200-foot slope. The crew were not so lucky this time, as one was killed and the rest injured. The tank was a write-off. The race was on, however, to drive the Germans back, and the North Irish Horse was rushed in again to relieve the hard-pressed 142nd RAC Regt at Maria del Monte. On 3 September, it crossed the Conca river, followed by an attack on Coriana to secure the bridges crossing the Marano river. On 8 September, the regiment was withdrawn to a safer area in the knowledge that the Gothic Line had been broken.
On 29 November, the regiment was advancing north to Monte Cavallo supporting the Mahratta infantry. Lt Col Lord O'Neill arrived and took up a position of observation at a small stone barn. A heavy shell impacted nearby and he was killed.
By this time, the autumn rains had arrived, which slowed the Allied advance but did not stop it. On 2 October, the regiment was ordered to move to Poggio Berni to relieve the 6th Royal Tank Regiment. Action continued until 3 November, when the Horse were pulled out of the line and local leave granted after a memorial service for those killed in action.
The end of the Italian Campaign
On 7 November, Lt Col Llewellen-Parker took command, and the advance northwards quickly continued. The Churchills once again proved their worth in their ability to cross natural obstacles such as rivers, mountains and the thick glutinous mud, which formed on the arable farmland during the rains and after it had been churned up by thousands of men and machines. Eventually, the regiment was granted an extended period of maintenance and rest at Riccione. On 4 December, it was again transferred, this time to the 21st Tank Brigade under the command of Brigadier David Dawnay, the former regimental commander. On 12 January, it moved into Ravenna in support of the Italian Gruppo Cremona, which was now fighting on the side of the allies.
In late March, the regiment was involved in the action south of the Senio river and by 2 April was facing the enemy's defences along the flood-banks and engaging them at close range. The last of the German resistance crumbled as more tanks made it into position to engage them, and they surrendered, with the Horse taking 40 prisoners.
Following Operation Buckland and the crossing of the River Po, the regiment was ordered to stand down on 30 April 1945 for the last time in the Second World War. Two days later, all German forces in Italy surrendered.
The North Irish Horse lost 73 men killed in action during the Second World War, including a commanding officer, two squadron leaders and several troop leaders.
Post war
In the immediate aftermath of the German surrender, the regiment fell into a routine of guard duties and time off. Eventually, most of the tanks were handed in except for three per squadron, and a move was made into Austria, where the Horse took on the role of armoured reconnaissance regiment for the 78th Division. In January 1946, another move was effected into Germany, where the Horsemen carried out internal security duties in the Wuppertal area until 7 June, when these duties were handed over to the 14th/20th Hussars and the North Irish Horse was disbanded.
In 1947, however, it was reformed as part of the extension of the Territorial Army Yeomanry into Northern Ireland. In 1956, the TA lost its tanks, and the Horse became an armoured reconnaissance regiment, again in armoured cars. It avoided disbandment at this point and did so again in 1961.
Further cuts to the TA in 1967 saw the Horse disbanded and re-established as D Squadron The Royal Yeomanry. In 1969, 'B' Squadron in Derry was re-badged as 69 (NIH) Signal Squadron and became part of 32nd (Scottish) Signal Regiment.
During Options for Change in 1992, the Horse was re-established as an independent Reconnaissance Squadron, equipped with Land Rovers and working under the command of the Royal Irish Rangers. The signal squadron survived and became part of 40th (Ulster) Signal Regiment. In 1999, the no-longer independent North Irish Horse joined an expanded Queen's Own Yeomanry as B Squadron. The Land Rovers were replaced by Spartan armoured personnel carriers as B Sqn took on the role of providing support troopers. During the post-1956 period, the regiment was equipped with a variety of armoured vehicles such as Spartan APCs.
The unit's name survives in the modern Army Reserve as B (North Irish Horse) Squadron, Queen's Own Yeomanry – a squadron equipped with CVR(T) Scimitar and Spartan based at Dunmore Park Camp, Antrim Road, Belfast, with RHQ in Newcastle upon Tyne. Personnel have been deployed to Kosovo, Bosnia, Iraq and Afghanistan.
On 22 October 2009, in the early morning, a device was thrown over the front gate of Dunmore Park Camp in Ashfield Crescent. It was suspected that dissident republicans carried out the attack.
Under the Army 2020 re-organisation B (North Irish Horse) Squadron came under command of the Scottish and North Irish Yeomanry, while 69 (North Irish Horse) Signal Squadron became 40 (North Irish Horse) Signal Squadron, part of 32 Signal Regiment.
Sponsorship
Every yeomanry regiment has a regular regiment to sponsor it and supply it with a series of permanent staff instructors (PSIs). In the case of the North Irish Horse, it had been the 1st King's Dragoon Guards from the outset, but these ties were broken in 1958 when the KDG amalgamated with the 2nd Dragoon Guards (Queen's Bays) to form the 1st The Queen's Dragoon Guards. From that point onwards, sponsorship was given by two of the remaining cavalry regiments of the time, which were the 5th Royal Inniskilling Dragoon Guards and the Queen's Royal Irish Hussars, both of whom had also had to endure amalgamation in past reforms.
Guidon & Memorial
On 15 May 1960, the regiment was presented its guidon by Princess Alexandra of Kent at a parade held on the Balmoral Showgrounds in Belfast. On 28 October 1962, a second memorial window was unveiled in Belfast City Hall to commemorate the fallen of the 2nd World War. This was placed beside the World War I window. It was unveiled by General Dawnay and dedicated by the Archdeacon of Raphoe, the Reverend Louis Crooks (Regimental Chaplain), who himself was a veteran of World War II with the 9th (Londonderry) HAA Regiment.
Uniform
The unusual review order uniform worn by the regiment prior to the First World War included a wide brimmed black felt hat with a long flowing black plume of cocks feathers. This headdress was modeled on that of the Italian Bersaglieri and was unique in the British Empire. A dark green "lancer" style tunic was worn with white facings and chain mail epaulettes, together with dark blue "overalls" (tight fitting cavalry breeches) with white stripes.
Battle honours
Further battle honours were awarded to the Horse for its distinguished service in a number of actions from 1943 to 1945. Those in bold type are emblazoned on the regimental guidon.
Attached to
34th Army Tank Brigade — 1 December 1941 – 3 September 1942
25th Army Tank Brigade — 3 September 1942 – 3 December 1944
21st Tank Brigade — 4 December 1944 – 10 June 1945
21st Armoured Brigade — 11 June 1945 – 31 August 1945
Notable personalities
:Category:North Irish Horse officers
Captain Sir Basil Brooke Bt., KG, CBE, MC, PC, HML
Captain Richard Annesley West VC, DSO & Bar, MC
Thomas Pakenham, 5th Earl of Longford
Major The Earl of Erne
Major The Lord Cole
Major The Lord Loftus
Robert Grosvenor, 5th Duke of Westminster
Gerald Grosvenor, 6th Duke of Westminster
James Craig, 2nd Viscount Craigavon
Charles Clements, 5th Earl of Leitrim
Anthony Ashley-Cooper, 9th Earl of Shaftesbury
James Hamilton, 3rd Duke of Abercorn
Colonel Sir Michael McCorkell
Major Lord Massereene & Ferrard
Sir Ronald Ross, 2nd Baronet
Viscount Downe
Shane Edward Robert O'Neill, 3rd Baron O'Neill
Sir Norman Stronge
References
Bibliography
External links
North Irish Horse
Military units and formations established in 1902
Ireland in World War I
Regiments of the British Army in World War I
Cavalry regiments of the British Army
Yeomanry regiments of the British Army
Company sized units of the British Army
Regiments of the British Army
Royal Armoured Corps
Irish regiments of the British Army
Royal Irish Regiment (1992)
1903 establishments in the United Kingdom
Regiments of the British Army in World War II
Irish regiments |
4424476 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Space%20Battleship%20Yamato%20characters | List of Space Battleship Yamato characters | This list of Space Battleship Yamato characters is a list, with biographical details, of major characters appearing in the anime series Space Battleship Yamato and its American dubbed version, Star Blazers, as well as the 2010 live-action film remake. Not all the American voice artists are known for the first two seasons (owing to their non-union status they were not credited in the shows' closing titles), and a different group of actors provided voices in the third season.
Yamato Crew
First season
Captain (Captain Abraham Avatar): The stern captain of the Yamato, utterly devoted to his mission to save Earth from the Gamillas threat, even at the cost of his own life. He is in fact dying, and becomes increasingly ill during the course of the first season, but remains convinced that he will live to see his home world again. He regards Susumu Kodai almost as a replacement for the son he lost in battle, and sorely regrets his son's death in battle at Pluto, along with the apparent death of Kodai's older brother, Mamoru. Even when his illness leaves him bedridden, he remains a source of advice to the crew, and to Kodai in particular. In the movie Final Yamato, it is revealed that he was kept in cryogenic suspension for some time until the Earth physicians could revive him and cure his sickness. He then went on to lead the Star Force again in its fight against the Deingillians. In the English edition, it was revealed that he was revived from death by residual energy from the Cosmo DNA's cleansing of Earth, but was bereft of nearly all of his memories as a result. He was kept in hiding by Doctor Sane until later in the series. In Final Yamato it became partially true, as he was shown to be held into a cryogenic sleep to be cured from his otherwise fatal disease.
In Space Battleship Yamato 2199 Admiral Okita is revealed to have been a senior naval commander for some time having led a United Nations fleet in a war with human colonists of Mars before headquarters got him suspended from his command after he refused an order to fire upon the Garmilans at their first encounter at Pluto, and ordered forward commander Commander Daigo Shima instead to do it. This results in the Garmilans fighting until near Mars, where Okita engineers a costly victory which included the death of his son who was also a naval officer. Garmilas pulls back to their base on Pluto and intensify their bombardment of Earth with irradiated asteroids. Okita leads an assault on the Pluto base, where his fleet was decimated by a far superior force, but managed to distract the Garmilans from noticing the arrival of a ship from the distant planet of Iscandar piloted by Princess Sasha, who perished while delivering the warp core that powered up Okita's new battleship, the Yamato. Okita is known for his aggressive head-on tactics, and it saw the Yamato through several battles. He also uses terrain with his ferocity to his advantage, frequently upsetting opponents with unexpected tactics. He would also be diplomatic when called for, making alliances more than once with Garmilans when necessary. He formed a bond with Susumu Kodai, reminding him strongly of his elder brother Mamoru whom he had mentored. He encouraged Kodai to think independently, giving Kodai the confidence to disobey orders. During the course of the series he had to contend with his illness, which caused him to collapse a few times, one of which required emergency surgery while battling the dimensional submarine at a protoplanet; but he even overrode the objections of his friend and immediate superior Admiral Hijikata before the voyage, just to be on it. He led the ship all the way to the Garmilan homeworld (revealed to be Iscandar's twin planet), smashing their way to the heart of the empire at Desler's palace. Okita then chose to use the Wave Motion Gun to save the people of the Garmilan capital Baleras when Desler attempted to sacrifice it just to destroy the Yamato. Okita was unable to leave the ship upon arriving at Iscandar, and became increasingly bedridden on the return journey, even during their encounter with the Celestial Ark and a Gatlantean expeditionary force and a final confrontation with Desler within the warp gate dimension. Okita died as the Yamato came into Earth orbit having achieved his mission and seeing his home planet again, his spirit being captured by the Cosmo Reverse System, left vacant by Mamoru Kodai's spirit when he prematurely activated the system. Thus it was Okita's spirit and memories that directed the Cosmo Reverse System's restoration of Earth to a healthy world.
The character is modelled on Leiji Matsumoto's father. and the characters names is based on the Japanese science fiction writer Unno Juza and Okita Sōji.
Japanese voice artist: Gorō Naya (original), Takayuki Sugō (2199)
American voice artist: Gordon Ramsey (original), Brian Mathis (2199)
Live-action actor: Tsutomu Yamazaki
(Derek Wildstar, also known as Jason Kodai in the English dub of the first Yamato movie): A young orphan, it was the death of his parents during a Gamillas planet bomb attack on the Miura Peninsula that drove him to follow in his older brother Mamoru's footsteps and join the Earth Defense Force. He is initially hot-headed and prone to bursts of anger, and at first blames Captain Okita for the death of his brother in battle. However, he matures during the first season thanks to his responsibility as the Yamato battle chief, and ultimately Okita nominates him acting captain when he is unable to continue. Kodai continues commanding the Yamato and its crew for most of the rest of the franchise (although he is not formally promoted to captain until Yamato III), only relinquishing command twice: to Yamanami in Be Forever Yamato, and to a revived Okita during Final Yamato. He is also a talented pilot, flying his own Cosmo Zero fighter as the leader of the Black Tigers, and in the second season frequently joining the Cosmo Tigers in battle. His Japanese given name means "to go forward, to improve". He remains the lead character throughout the original timeline serving as the Yamato's commander until Final Yamato when a revived Okita retakes command. He retires from the military afterwards, joining the merchant fleet raising a daughter with Yuki Mori although the relationships become estranged as he spend more time away from Earth. Sanada recalls Kodai to command a rebuilt Yamato in Resurrection after Mori's ship goes missing. In the 2010 live-action film, his story begins as a scavenger who left the Earth Defense Force five years prior. He blamed himself for redirecting a Garmilas bomb toward a space station, killing his parents and Daisuke Shima's wife. He re-enlists prior to the launching of the Yamato as the ship's gunner before eventually being promoted by Okita as acting captain. Though the Yamato succeeds in retrieving the means to restore Earth's surface, the remaining Garmilas ship cripples it before preparing a missile to destroy the planet. After ordering all surviving crew to abandon ship, Kodai sacrifices himself and the ship to destroy the missile and save Earth.
In the 2199 series Kodai is depicted as a young, freshly graduated cadet officer and is promoted suddenly to command the tactical division of the Yamato when most of the junior officers are killed by Garmilas aircraft bombs immediately prior to boarding the Yamato. He matures quickly as one of the bridge crew on the Yamato and is the first to fire the Wave Motion Gun. After an initial confrontation with Okita over his brother's death, he forms a bond with him, who was his brother Mamoru's former mentor. Okita encourages Kodai's independent streak and he takes on Okita's aggressive tendencies in battle tactics, most notably disobeying Sanada's orders and developing anti-submarine tactics during their first confrontation with the Garmilan dimensional submarine. He and Operations Officer Yuki Mori become romantic partners over the course of the series and become engaged before the start of the 2202: Warriors of Love series. After the Yamato crew are summoned to Telezart by Teresa, Kodai gather the crew to rebel against the Cosmo Navy and steal the Yamato from dry dock where the ship had been rebuilt. Sanada gives Kodai command of the Yamato, noting that Kodai is a leader where he is not. Kodai struggles with command as he is still in his mid-twenties and placed under great strain which is only relieved when Admiral Hijikata accepts Kodai's offer of command as the ship approaches Telezart. Later when Yamato crashes onto Zemuria, Kodai is one of the few left behind when the crew abandons ship and is devastated when Mori loses her memories of their time together. Kodai offers his life to end the conflict during a confrontation with Dessler and Mir but Mori takes the shot intended for Kodai. After the Yamato is rebuilt it becomes the spearhead of the final assault on the Comet Empire. Hijikata is killed during the assault and Kodai takes command, storming Emperor Zworder's throne room with Yamamato and the Marines. Surviving this personal encounter with Zworder, Yamato is abandoned once again. Kodai and Mori use the Yamato's failing wave motion engine to destroy the Ark of Destruction and Zworder. Months later the Yamato reappears within the time-displaced Time Vault. The missing Yamato is found on board revealing Kodai and Mori are alive within the higher dimensions. Kodai feels no desire to rejoin humanity and is seemingly willing to walk aimlessly in eternity and Mori is unable to convince him to return until, the potential future of having a child with Mori is revealed. As Kodai and Mori reconcile by having regained a sense of responsibility to life, a refurbished Yamato arrives, penetrating this dimension and retrieving Kodai and Mori and returning them to Earth.
Japanese voice artist: Kei Tomiyama, Kōichi Yamadera (PlayStation 2 games, Rebirth), Daisuke Ono (2199)
American voice artist: Kenneth Meseroll (seasons 1 & 2), John Bellucci (season 3), Christopher Wehkamp (2199)
Live-action actor: Takuya Kimura
(Alex Wildstar, also known as Alex Kodai in the English dub of the first Yamato movie): The older Kodai/Wildstar brother and captain of Missile Ship 17, the Yukikaze (Paladin in Star Blazers), Mamoru appears to die in the first episode while holding off enemies so Okita's stricken flagship may escape the battlefield. In the original, Mamoru was insisting he could not face the souls of his dead comrades if he fled whereas in Star Blazers he dies for the sole purpose of providing cover for Okita's ship. In fact, it emerged his ship had crash-landed—in one piece—on Titan, and he had been captured alive by the Garmilans, but the ship in which he was a prisoner crashed on Iscandar, where Queen Starsha healed him. He fell in love with his rescuer and decided to stay on Iscandar, fathering a daughter named Sasha. His Japanese given name means "to protect". He sacrificed his life in Be Forever, Yamato in order to save Admiral Heikuro Todo from execution. The character of Mamoru Kodai was originally planned to have appeared midway through the series as a scarred space pirate under the guise of Captain Harlock. When the series' episode count was cut, these plans had to be scrapped and his storyline was quickly wrapped up with his appearance on Iscandar. However, this space pirate angle still remains in Leiji Matsumoto's Space Battleship Yamato manga.
In 2199 Kodai is best friends with Shiro Sanada in college and is in a relationship with Sanada's research partner Kaoru Niimi in the early stages of the war. By 2199 Mamoru Kodai has risen to rank of Lieutenant Commander and captains the missile destroyer Yukikaze when as the only other ship surviving the battle of Pluto he sacrifices himself and his ship to cover the retreat of the Kirishima, Earth's last battleship. He survives the ship's crash into the Saturnian moon Enceladus and is captured by Garmilan forces and sent as a biological sample of Earth to the homeworld when the destroyer crashes at Iscandar. Queen Starsha hides him from the Garmilans who recover the wrecked warship. He lives on for a few months with Starsha developing a close friendship while being the only two people on the planet but eventually succumbs to his wounds, leaving behind a message for the Earth ship approaching Iscandar and his brother Susumu. Starsha recovers Mamoru's spirit within the Cosmo Reverse Device which will restore the Earth. Mamoru, watching his brother's grief over the death of Yuki Mori and sensing Captain Okita's death, charges the Cosmo Reverse Device and revives Mori, leaving the Device dead until it captures Okita's departing spirit, re-initialising the system for use in restoring Earth.
Japanese voice artist: Taichirō Hirokawa (Original), Mitsuru Miyamoto (2199)
American voice artist: Z Charles Bolton (2199)
Live-action actor: Shinichi Tsutsumi
(Nova Forrester): Initially Dr. Sado's nurse, Yuki gained the additional responsibilities aboard Yamato such as operating the radar, performing computer calculations, taking care of the crew's morale and, along with Kaoru Niimi, searching planets for food sources. She is from the outset attracted to Susumu, but conceals her true feelings with girlish glee. As the only significant female crew member, she was occasionally the subject of fan service in the form of skirt-flippings by Analyzer, though only in early episodes before the tone of the series becomes generally more serious. Her Japanese name means "forest snow", creator Matsumoto being fond of female characters with "Yuki" (snow) as part of their name. She serves faithfully aboard the Yamato throughout the series run and finally is married to Susumu Kodai at the conclusion of Final Yamato. She and Kodai raise a daughter Miyuki who becomes a vet nurse working with Dr. Sado. Mori rises to the rank of Captain and is commander of a vessel supporting the Earth Federation battleship Blue Noah when the ship goes missing at the start of Resurrection. It is implied that she survive but, with the two planned sequel films cancelled, her ultimate fate is uncertain. In the 2010 live-action film, Yuki is an Earth Defense Force ace pilot who initially is at odds with Susumu, even after he saves her when debris from a destroyed Garmilas ship cripples her Cosmo Tiger fighter and ruptures her oxygen supply. Upon arriving at Iscandar/Garmilas, her body becomes the host of Iscandar's power to restore Earth's atmosphere.
In 2199 Mori is a staff officer at UN Cosmo Force headquarters serving under Admiral Hijikata, who has been her guardian since her parents were killed in a car crash which also gave her amnesia. It is later revealed she had been acting as a guide to Princess Yurisha of Iscandar, who had brought plans for the faster-than-light Wave Motion Engine. She was assigned to the Yamato as the Operations Officer and is in charge of the radar on the ship's bridge. She often clashes with Kodai, though the two develop a mutual attraction as Kodai quickly adjusts to his role as Tactical Officer. She, mistaken for Yurisha, is kidnapped from the Yamato by Garmilan operatives and brought to the heart of the Garmilan empire by Desler, who uses her as a hostage against Queen Starsha. She plays along although Desler knows who she really is. She eventually manages to sabotage the engine of Desler's ship before being ejected from the ship by her Zaltzi guard, eventually reuniting her with Kodai and the Yamato. Desler's personal guards shot her when he boarded the Yamato, and despite Dr. Sado's efforts, dies just as the Earth ship reaches the solar system a few weeks later; but is restored to life by the Cosmo Reverse Device.
By the start of 2202: Warriors of Love Mori and Kodai are engaged and she is again working at UNCF headquarters. Mori breaks off her engagement to Kodai when he insists she remain behind on Earth when the Yamato veterans re-unite to steal the ship for the journey to Telezart. She embarks with the crew in hiding and becomes a nurse until Kodai encounters her. She then returns to her former role as Operations Officer and radar operator and reconciles with Kodai. Mori receives a head injury attempting to save Toko Katsuragi/Sabera during Yamato's crash onto Zemuria and regains her lost pre-2199 memories at the cost of all memories since, losing all connection with Kodai. Despite losing memories of Kodai she takes a bullet intended for Kodai fired by Mir during Kodai and Keyman's confrontation with Desler and Mir. Subsequently Mori stays behind on the Yamato when it is abandoned a second time, joining Kodai on the bridge, sensing a connection with him and a purpose that Earth can still be saved. When the wave motion engine chambers fails the Yamato falls into another dimension. Mori regains all her memories in this new space and seeks out Kodai, finding him having lost all will to live. A vision of a child Kodai and Mori might have together rekindles their commitment to life and each other as the Yamato with all her crew on board arrives to rescue them.
Japanese voice artist: Yōko Asagami, Noriko Yume (Yamato Rebirth), Houko Kuwashima (2199)
American voice artist: Amy Howard Wilson (seasons 1 & 2), Corinne Orr (season 3), Mallorie Rodak (2199)
Live-action actress: Meisa Kuroki
(Mark Venture, also known as Shane O'Toole in the English dub of the first Yamato movie): A quieter and more level-headed complement to his best friend Kodai, Shima becomes chief navigator and helmsman of the Yamato. He suffers from a lack of self-confidence in his ability to control the mighty vessel, despite skillfully saving it on many occasions. Shima and Kodai have frequent arguments in the first series, some of which escalated into physical brawls, but the end results only made their friendship stronger. In the second season, he falls in love with Teresa (Trelaina) of Telezart by interstellar radio, and is heartbroken when she elects to remain on her world in the face of the Comet Empire, though he vows to carry on the fight in her name. He was blown into space by Gamillas troops but was rescued and revived by Teresa. He loses his life in the line of duty in Final Yamato. In the 2010 live-action film, Shima is a widower, having lost his pregnant wife in the first year of the war after a Garmilas missile destroyed the space station where she had lived. Their son was saved, but was rendered mute.
In 2199, like Kodai, he begins the series as a freshly graduated cadet officer and is suddenly promoted to command the Navigation division aboard the Yamato and acts as the ship's helmsman. He and Kodai remain close friends despite several disputes. Shima is recruited by Kaoru Niimi and Shinya Ito, members of a faction whose plans were scrapped by the Yamato's launch, to mutiny and return home with the plan to abandon Earth and resettle the human population on Beemela 4. Ito installs Shima as commander with the intention of killing Okita and Sanada and leaving Kodai behind on Beemela 4. Shima is instrumental in dismantling that mutiny as he is recruited by Ito's deputy Toru Hoshina, who himself was planted aboard the ship by Director Todo as an undercover investigator, aware that there might be rebels aboard the ship planning to sabotage the mission to Iscandar.
In the sequel series 2202: Warriors of Love Shima has left the military and is captain of a transport ship when he receives the call from Teresa of Telezart. He is reluctant to commit to Kodai's plan to steal the Yamato and only boards the ship as it appears the plan will succeed. Shima is restored to the helm and pilots the Yamato to Telezart and back, abandoning the ship after the engine failed during the Battle of Saturn and it crashes into Zemuria. Shima joins the rescued crew aboard the Ginga, taking the helm again. Shima with Sanada and the other Yamato survivors convinces Captain Todo to abandon plans for Ginga to flee Earth as a gene bank to re-establish humanity on another world and recommit to the battle to save Earth. Shima reboards the repaired Yamato for the final battle against the Ark of Destruction and subsequently is forced to abandon Yamato again and is distressed to see Kodai still on the bridge as the shuttles depart. With the war over, Shima, with Sanada and Captains Yamanami and Todo seek to convince military command to use Yamato to rescue Kodai and Mori.
Japanese voice artist: Shūsei Nakamura, Isao Sasaki (Final Yamato), Hideyuki Tanaka (PlayStation 2 games), Kenichi Suzumura (2199)
American voice artist: Tom Tweedy (seasons 1 & 2), Peter Fernandez (season 3), Ricco Fajardo (2199)
Live-action actor: Naoto Ogata
(Jordy Venture): Shima's pre-pubescent younger brother who remains on Earth during the series. He remains confident in the ability of Yamato to save the world, particularly with his older brother at the helm, and even in the face of public doubt. His Japanese given name means "second son". He re-appears in Resurrection as a Cosmo Navy officer working as adjutant to Admiral Sanada.
Japanese voice artist: Junko Sakata (season 1), Noriko Ohara (season 2), Chika Sakamoto (Final), Ryōtarō Okiayu (Rebirth)
(Stephen Sandor): The science officer aboard Yamato, Sanada is earnest and dedicated, his ideas frequently saving the ship from destruction. His limbs are bionic, the result of a childhood accident which claimed the life of his sister and left him bitterly resentful of science's arrogance. He was a classmate of Mamoru Kodai, and blames himself for not having repaired the Yukikaze properly before it went into battle. When Susumu Kodai becomes acting captain, Sanada is frequently a source of advice. Sanada is the elder spokesperson for the crew after the deaths of Okita and Engineer Tokugawa. Along with Kodai, Mori and Sado he is a rare survivor all the way to the end of the original series in Resurrection where he has risen to a command rank in the military. In the 2010 live-action film, Sanada sacrifices his life while detonating a bomb that destroys the Gamillas power supply on the planet Iscandar/Gamillas.
In 2199, Sanada is often seen with an anthology of Chūya Nakahara's poems, a gift from Mamoru. The "bionic limbs" subplot was removed, and is depicted as having been Mamoru Kodai's closest friend from school. He is a scientist having been pivotal in adapting Wave Motion Energy to the Yamato and developing the Wave Motion Gun independently from Iscandarian science. He is older than most of the bridge officers and serves as the Yamato's executive officer as leader of the Technology division, taking command during Okita's bouts of illness. He eventually confides to Kodai his guilt over not warning Mamoru Kodai of the dangers of the battle of Pluto and how it was only being fought to cover the secret arrival of Princess Sasha's arrival on earth with the Yamato's warp core. Sanada was intending at the time to sacrifice his life to activate the warp gateway allowing Yamato to take over a month off their journey to Iscandar, but survives after finding a way to hide from the neutrino radiation bombardment that would have killed him. Out of that a friendship is formed between Sanada and Kodai and a mutual respect. In Odyssey of the Celestial Ark, Sanada's increasing trust on Kodai allows him to give Kodai command during the first encounter with Gatlantean warships. When the rebellion to steal the Yamato begins Sanada gives Kodai command of the Yamato noting he is much better suited to the role and remains the ship's Executive Officer. Sanada joins Kodai and Hajime Saito on Telezart to meet Teresa.
Japanese voice artist: Takeshi Aono (Original), Hōchū Ōtsuka (2199)
American Voice Artist: Phil Parsons (2199)
Live-action actor: Toshirō Yanagiba
Dr. (Dr. Sane): The most humorously drawn character in the series, Dr. Sado is frequently a source of comic relief, usually through pratfalls resulting from his love of Japanese wine (sake). Though originally a vet (albeit an unsuccessful one), he becomes the ship's surgeon. He is good humored and always willing to give advice, but he can become deadly earnest when chiding others' behavior. His Japanese given name is written with the same kanji as the word shuzo ("sake brewing"), though his drinking habits were significantly toned down for Star Blazers, his sake given as spring water or soy milk. Along with Kodai, Mori and Sanada, he survives through to the series end in Resurrection where he has returned to veterinary science running an animal sanctuary with Kodai and Mori's daughter Miyuki Kodai. For the 2010 live-action film, Dr. Sado is rewritten as a female character who only occasionally drinks sake.
In 2199 Sado, despite his sake-swilling ways retained, is portrayed as a respected surgeon whose part of his resume is being involved with treating Yuki Mori and Princess Yurisha of Iscandar after a car crash. He is assigned to the Yamato as Medical Officer, as a warship on such a journey is likely to need a surgeon. In addition Sado goes on orders as additional safeguard against Captain Okita's failing health. He is both a cheerful and irascible presence aboard the Yamato and is seen on numerous occasions berating Sanada for exposing Okita to stressful situations as the two are among the very few onboard who is aware of Okita's health. Along with Hikozaemon Tokugawa, he is one of Okita's confidants and friends and is the last to see Okita alive when the Captain asks he to step outside his cabin so he can die having accomplished his goal of seeing the Yamato return to Earth. He has been retired from military service in 2202 when he gathers the crew together on the third anniversary of Okita's death at a statue erected in his honor. It is at this gathering that the crew discussing the summoning from Teresa and begin to plan their response. Sado joins the crew in stealing the Yamato. He helps Yuki Mori in hiding from Kodai after he prevented her from joining the crew. He spends time with the wounded Admiral Hijikata after the rescue of the Planet 11 survivors and the two discuss with Mori how best to support Kodai's command.
Japanese voice artist: Ichirō Nagai (original), Shigeru Chiba (2199)
American voice artist: Frank Pita (original), Kenny Green (2199)
Live-action actress: Reiko Takashima
(Mimi): Dr. Sado's pet cat, apparently the closest he has to family. Left behind on Earth during the first season, he is brought aboard the Yamato in the second season. He is based on Leiji Matsumoto's own cat Mī-kun. Note that in Star Blazers Mimi is female. Mi-kun has also appeared in other Leijiverse stories such as Captain Harlock where he was Doctor Zero's cat.
Japanese voice artist: Kōichi Yamadera (PlayStation games)
(IQ-9): A squat, human-sized robot who originally worked in the EDF's hospital, Analyzer joins the Yamato crew on his own request, believing it to be the only place he can truly prove himself. He is capable of extending his arms, separating into independently moving pieces, lifting and throwing enemy tanks, withstanding force fields and sensing various forms of energy, but is unable to restrain himself from sexually harassing Yuki on several occasions (not shown in Star Blazers). He is in fact in love with her, but when she proves unable to return his affections, he settles for friendship. Something of a wisecracker, he frequently forms a double-act with Dr. Sado. He is also capable of becoming intoxicated, narrowly avoiding disaster on one occasion (though in Star Blazers he states that he has programmed himself to emulate human hiccups). In the 2010 live-action film, Analyzer is Susumu's robot assistant in a smartphone-like device carried by the latter. His physical body is stored in Susumu's Cosmo Zero unit, and is deployed in combat during the raid of Iscandar/Garmilas. Analyzer is ultimately destroyed by the overwhelming number of Garmilan troops. In 2199, Analyzer is illustrated just like the original, but the robot is portrayed as the purpose built autonomous sub-computer of the Yamato, and is more behaved and a bit of a deadpan. Analyzer is equipped with a "suit" that expands his capabilities, though used only once in Beemela-4. He is later often seen with Dr. Sado pouring sake for him.
Japanese voice artist: Ken'ichi Ogata (original), Chō (2199)
American voice artist: Sonny Strait (2199)
Chief (Chief Patrick Orion): The middle-aged, balding chief engineer aboard Yamato and an old comrade of Okita. He left behind a grandchild on Earth of whom he is extremely fond. Determined to remain at his post no matter what happens, he suffocates in the last episode of the second season as the engine room fills with fumes. His death was not shown in Star Blazers. In the 2010 live-action film, he is killed during the attack by Desler's ship upon the Yamato's arrival near Earth. He made it to the end in 2199, him being the man Okita can trust with the Yamato's engine. He, owing to their seniority (he is actually two months away from retirement when he was called to the Yamato), is also one of a few people aboard the Yamato with strong influential power other than Captain Okita, the others being XO Sanada, Dr. Sado, and Engineer Yamazaki.
Japanese voice artist: Ichirō Nagai (original), Mugihito (2199)
American voice artist: Gordon Ramsay (original), R Bruce Elliot (2199)
Live-action actor: Toshiyuki Nishida
(Travis Sparks): Tokugawa's portly assistant engineer. He believes the Yamato is doomed to fail in its mission to save Earth, and thus decides that humanity should make a new home on Iscandar; hence he and nine other mutineers kidnapping Yuki (their "Eve") to a crystal island, where a tsunami and volcanic eruption killed them, though Yuki is rescued. His death and the deaths of the other mutineers is not shown in Star Blazers, but indicated from later dialogue. In 2199 the mutiny occurs much earlier at Beemela 4, as he is part of a faction that supports their stay on Beemela, though they were overcome and arrested. Yabu is one of two mutineers to survive after the brig is damaged in a subsequent battle and is accidentally left behind on the Garmilas prison planet Leptapoda. Assumed to be of the Zaltzi race, he joins Captain Flakken's ragtag crew aboard the Garmilas dimensional submarine UX-01, who later helped sink General Goer's fleet.
Japanese voice artist: Michihiro Ikemizu (episode 14), Ken'ichi Ogata (episode 25), Chō (2199)
American voice artist: Ben Phillips (2199)
(Homer Glitchman): Chief communications officer, Aihara becomes homesick for his native Kitakami, Iwate during the journey to Iscandar after discovering his father on Earth was dying. In his madness, he steals a spacesuit and attempts to float home before being rescued by his comrades. Note that in Japanese, the kanji for his given name can be read in two ways; the reading "Yoshikazu" is used in episode 10 of the first season, but (owing to an error) he gives his name as "Giichi" in the third season. For the 2010 live-action film, Aihara is rewritten as a female character. In 2199 he is a cheerful character and serves as Mori's deputy as communications officer. In 2202 he has joined Kodai and Nanbu.
Japanese voice artist: Shinji Nomura (original), Masato Kokubun (2199)
American voice artist: Michael Bertolini (original), Aaron Roberts (2199)
Live-action actress: Maiko
(Dash): Bespectacled sub-chief of ship's defenses, operating the gun turrets in Kodai's absence, in 2199 he falls in love with Yuki, however is disappointed when he finds Kodai speaking to her instead.
Japanese voice artist: Kazuo Hayashi (original), Kenji Akabane (2199)
American voice artist: Eddie Allen (original), Stephen Fu (2199)
Live-action actor: Toshihiro Yashiba
(Christopher Eager): Portly, freckled radar operator, frequently heard identifying missile attacks on the Yamato.
Japanese voice artist: Yoshito Yasuhara, Hirotaka Suzuoki (season 3), Yūki Chiba (2199)
Live-action actor: Kensuke Ōwada
(Peter 'Pete' Conroy): The leader of the Black Tiger fighter squadron (second in authority to Kodai), Kato is a gifted though level-headed pilot, often putting his life on the line for his comrades. In the second season he is leader of the first squadron of the Cosmo Tigers, piloting a later model of fighter craft and stationed on the Moon; he and his men volunteer to join the Yamato under Kodai's command. He dies flying Kodai and Sanada back to the Yamato safely; however, this was covered up in Star Blazers, and indeed the original Japanese makers appeared to regret killing the character, as they later introduced his identical twin. In 2199, Kodai and Shima ran afoul of him when he punched them for stealing and crashing his personal Cosmo Zero. The beef between him and Kodai went as so far as warning Kodai that, even if he is his commanding officer, he will never forgive him if he sends any of his men to a needless death. Kato's disdain for Kodai slowly disappeared as Kodai gradually earned his respect throughout the course of the series. He is portrayed as the son of a priest, and he is sometimes heard chanting whenever he is aboard his plane or playing darts in their waiting room. He is also portrayed as a traditional guy, preferring that he and Makoto wear traditional clothing during their wedding (which she vetoed).
Japanese voice actor: Akira Kamiya, Keaton Yamada (eps 8-10 only), Yoshimasa Hosoya (2199)
American voice actor: Mike McFarland (2199)
Live-action actor: Kazuki Namioka
(Jefferson Davis Hardy): One of the Black Tiger pilots, recognizable by the lock of hair covering his eyes, Yamamoto has only one appearance in the first season, in which his fighter is shot down just before the Yamato undergoes a major warp speed test. Almost left behind, he is waved into the hangar by Kodai, and is injured in a crash-landing. He has a more significant presence in the second season, as commander of the Cosmo Tigers' second squadron; his plane is also stolen by the space marine Saito, who towers over him. He is killed in the final attack on the Comet Empire when his plane is shot down and crashes (not shown in Star Blazers). In 2199, Yamamoto is seen as a female fighter pilot with a brother who was KIA. Yamamoto has more appearances fighting alongside Kodai in a Cosmo Zero (Alpha 2). In Star Blazers he was given a southern United States accent, and in his single first season appearance, he was mistakenly referred to as Conroy.
Japanese voice artist: Kazuyuki Sogabe, Rie Tanaka (2199)
American voice artist: Jeannie Tirado (2199)
Live-action actor: Takumi Saito
Admiral (Earth Commander Charles Singleton): Mustached leader of the Earth Defense Force, who in the first season sends the Yamato on its voyage to Iscandar to save the world, and reports to it via long-distance communication (though, in 2199, the Yamato only communicated with him whenever the ship is within the heliosphere). In the second season, he attempts to stop Kodai and the other crew from stealing the Yamato, but becomes convinced by their faith that he must let them go, as they are "Okita's children". His Japanese name is believed to come either from Tōdō Heisuke of the Shinsengumi, or Admiral Heihachiro Togo.
Japanese voice artist: Masatō Ibu (original), Shinji Ogawa (2199)
American voice artist: Bradley Campbell (2199)
Live-action actor: Isao Hashizume
Cook (Mel "Slops" Mulligan): Chief cook of the Yamato galley. He tells Captain Okita to get out of the kitchen in episode 10. Based on Leiji Matsumoto's assistant Kaoru Shintani who eventually became a manga artist and creator of Area 88. Matsumoto would more directly base another character on Shintani in the form of Yattaran from the Captain Harlock series.
Japanese voice artist: Akira Kimura
(Frederick Lance): One of the Yamato's Commandos, he accompanies Kodai on the mission to destroy the Reflection Satellite Gun on Pluto. He is electrocuted when he steps into an electrified corridor. His death was covered up in Star Blazers, and his survival is further implied by an off-hand reference to "Lance" in a subsequent episode.
(Harold Kato): Another commando on the mission to destroy the Reflection Satellite Gun on Pluto, he is shot by guards protecting the gun. His death was edited out of Star Blazers.
(Merrill Ryder): A member of the Navigation Group, he is seen on the 2nd Bridge during the coffee break in episode 15.
Second season
Captain (Captain Draco Gideon): A famous captain whose battle tactics are legendary, and is given command of the new super-battleship Andromeda. Kodai comes to his attention when the Yamato refuses to give way to the larger ship; initially dismissing the acting captain as an upstart, he is charged with preventing Kodai from stealing the Yamato, but the younger man's confidence inspires him to let him leave. Hijikata later leads the EDF's battle against the Comet Empire's fleet, and it is only his inspired thinking that defeats them. He is ultimately killed battling against the Comet Empire's space station, Gatlantis, when he rams the Andromeda into it in order to give the Yamato time to escape. Before he does so, he tells Kodai Gatlantis' weak point is its lower hemisphere. In the alternate version of the story presented in Farewell to Space Battleship Yamato, Hijikata is the captain of a crippled spaceship at the edge of the Solar System who assumes command of the Yamato when rescued, but dies during the battle against the Comet Empire. He appears earlier in 2199 as Yuki Mori's guardian and a comrade of Captain Okita, who tried convincing him that he should go in his place, given his condition.
Japanese voice artist: Akira Kimura (original), Unshō Ishizuka (2199)
American voice actor: Bill Jenkins (2199)
(General Stone): Staff officer at EDF HQ under the command of Heikuro Todo. He is enraged by the Yamato crew's insubordination and uses every tool at his disposal to stop the Yamato from leaving Earth for Telezart. This includes using magnetic missiles and the Battle Satellite.
Japanese voice artist: Mahito Tsumura
Company Commander (Sergeant Webb Knox): The commander of the Space Cavalry (空間騎兵隊 Kūkan Kiheitai) 1st Armored Division stationed on Planet 11, rescued by the Yamato after a fierce Comet Empire attack. Uncouth and belligerent, he and his men refuse to respect the crew of their new home and frequently get into fights, frustrated at their reduced role as "passengers". However, on the surface of planet Telezart, inside Desler's flagship and within the Comet Empire's own space station, Saito and his men prove their worth in ground combat. Saito is the last surviving member of the team, and sacrifices himself to detonate explosives in the Comet Empire's power centre (though in Star Blazers it was indicated that he escaped). In the 2010 live-action film, Saito is briefly possessed by Desler, who uses his body to tell the Yamato crew of Garmilas' true motives of bombarding Earth. Saito wears a Hachiman amulet, as his mother believes it will shield him from physical harm. Ultimately, he is killed while covering for Sanada during the raid of Iscandar/Gamillas.
Japanese voice artist: Isao Sasaki
American voice artist: Chris Latta
Live-action actor: Hiroyuki Ikeuchi
(Corporal Kane): Second-in-Command of the Space Marines. He was likely killed inside the White Comet Gatlantis in the final battle.
Japanese voice artist: Toshihiko Kojima
: Cosmo Tiger 3rd Squadron commander. Tsurumi got little screen time. His fate is unknown, but he was likely killed in the final battle with the Comet Empire with the other Cosmo Tigers.
Japanese voice artist: Shigeru Chiba
(William Peale): Yamato's interrogator. He tortured Mazor in a futile attempt at extracting intelligence from him.
Japanese voice artist: Rokurō Naya
(Neville Q. Royster): An extremely nerdy (and comically drawn) scientist cadet, addressed by all but Kodai—including his superior officer and senpai Sanada—as shinmai (meaning "newbie" or "boot", but also being a different reading of the kanji in his family name). Despite his clumsiness, he proves his worth as a scientist and engineer, and in one episode comes up with an idea to use the wave motion gun as propulsion to save the ship that even Sanada did not think of. He is killed in the final battle against the Comet Empire shortly after locating Gatlantis's power centre (not shown in Star Blazers).
Japanese voice artist: Yūji Mitsuya
Yamato: The New Voyage
(Orion): Son of the late Chief Tokugawa, he is a cadet training to follow in his father's footsteps. He later becomes Yamazaki's assistant engineer aboard the Yamato and is the Chief Engineer in Yamato Rebirth.
Japanese voice artist: Tōru Furuya
("Chief"): Chief engineer aboard the Yamato from Yamato: The New Voyage until Final Yamato.
Japanese voice artist: Mikio Terashima
: An ace fighter pilot who joins the training mission. A born hot-dogger, his stunts earn him a slap in the face from acting captain Kodai. He is not seen again after The New Voyage, although he does appear in the PlayStation 2 games.
Japanese voice artist: Toshio Furukawa
: A trainee navigator, he is put in charge of ship's weapons during a battle simulation, but when he panics and fires too soon, he nearly destroys the fighter squadron. He is later punished along with Sakamoto to run a lap in the ship with only underwear on. He is not seen again after The New Voyage, although he does appear in the PlayStation 2 games.
Japanese voice artist: Makio Inoue
Be Forever, Yamato
Captain : 2nd captain of the Yamato, and a former colleague of Okita and Hijikata.
Japanese voice artist: Osamu Kobayashi
(Cory Conroy): Cosmo Tiger pilot and younger brother of the late Saburo Kato. When he appears in the English translation of Space Battleship Yamato III (Season 3 of Star Blazers), Saburo and Shiro, who look identical, are for all intents and purposes regarded as the same "Conroy" character since Saburo's death was edited out of the preceding Comet Empire series of Star Blazers.
Japanese voice actor: Akira Kamiya
: Introduced as Sanada's niece , she substitutes for Yuki aboard the Yamato. It emerges that she is actually the half-human daughter of Mamoru Kodai and Starsha, and like all Iscandarians has grown into the equivalent of a human teenager in the space of a year.
Japanese voice artist: Keiko Han
Third season
(Jason Jetter): A new recruit assigned to the Kitchen. Originally resentful of his position, he quickly learns to accept it. A focal character in Series 3, he often becomes involved in missions outside of his kitchen duty.
Japanese voice artist: Hideyuki Tanaka
(Michael "Flash" Contrail): A new member of the Cosmo Tigers. His father did not support his decision to become a pilot, but allowed him to remain with the Yamato at his wife's insistence.
Japanese voice artist: Toshio Furukawa
(Alan Hardy): A veteran member of the Kitchen crew, he serves as a mentor to new recruit Domon. He is killed in the Yamato's first battle against the Galmans when the ship is infiltrated by enemy soldiers.
Japanese voice artist: Kazuyuki Sogabe
(Greg): Yamato 1st Cannon Gunner; very short.
Japanese voice artist: Shigeru Chiba
(Goro "Buster" Block): A very tall, hulking member of the Navigation group.
Japanese voice artist: Shingo Kanemoto
(Heiji "Beaver" Bando): A new recruit assigned to the Science group.
Japanese voice artist: Kaneto Shiozawa
(Ace "Toughy" Diamond): Works in Engine Room. Former space trucker.
Japanese voice artist: Daiki Takayama
(Ben "String" Bean): A 1st Cannon gunner. He is a friend of fellow gunner Sakamaki.
Japanese voice artist: Akira Murayama
(Tsutumu "Whizzer" Makunouchi): A husky, bespectacled member of the Kitchen crew.
Japanese voice artist: Satoru Inagaki
(Wendy Singleton): Granddaughter of Heikuro Todo and works as his secretary. Has a mutual attraction with Aihara.
Japanese voice artist: Kazuko Sugiyama
Space Battleship Yamato: Resurrection
: After retiring form the military, Kodai becomes the captain of a cargo vessel as a means of escaping Earth after the destruction of the original Yamato. When two Emigration Fleets are destroyed and his wife Yuki is presumed killed by an unknown new enemy, he takes command of the Third Emigration Fleet, and becomes captain of its lead ship, the newly rebuilt Yamato.
Japanese voice artist: Kōichi Yamadera
: Years after the sinking of the Yamato on Aquarius, Yuki becomes the captain of an escort battleship with the First Emigration Fleet, presumed lost in action.
Japanese voice artist: Noriko Yume
: Daughter of Susumu Kodai and Yuki Mori. She is Dr. Sado's veterinary assistant, and has grown distant from her father due to his never being home, as well as his attachment to the Yamato.
Japanese voice artist: Ayumi Fujimura
: In this movie, the former Science officer of the Yamato is now Secretary of Science for the Earth Federation. He especially wanted Kodai to lead the Third Emigration Fleet.
Japanese voice artist: Takeshi Aono
: Head of the Earth Federation's Migration Fleet.
Japanese voice artist: Ryōtarō Okiayu
Dr. : Head of a Safari Park in Africa. Stays on Earth rather than joining the crew, and even stays behind when the Yamato sent a rescue craft to evacuate him and Miyuki.
Japanese voice artist: Ichirō Nagai
: Dr. Sado's assistant at the Safari Park.
Japanese voice artist: Ken'ichi Ogata
: Executive officer, killed on a suicide mission aboard the auxiliary space battleship Shinano against the SUS mothership. He is one of Captain Kodai's crew aboard the freighter he captained.
Japanese voice artist: Chafurin
: Battle chief. He survived the SUS attack on the Blue Noah and was rescued by Captain Kodai's crew.
Japanese voice artist: Kentarō Itō
: Chief Navigator and in-charge of the Yamato's onboard computer. She is known as "The Child of the ECI."
Japanese voice artist: Ryōka Yuzuki
: She is the Yamato's doctor, but she prefers flying a Cosmo Pulsar.
Japanese voice artist: Fuyuka Ōura
: Chief Pilot. Hot-headed and at first, he came into conflict with a few personnel, notably Ryo. Spends most of his time trying to impress Miharu-sensei.
Japanese voice artist: Daisuke Namikawa
: Radar Operator.
Japanese voice artist: Kenji Nojima
: Communications Officer.
Japanese voice artist: Kappei Yamaguchi
: Science Officer.
Japanese voice artist: Kōsuke Toriumi
: Chief Gunner.
Japanese voice artist: Akimitsu Takase
Tasuke Tokugawa: Former Engineer of the Yamato, leaves his position as a commanding officer at the Earth Defense Force's Moonbase to become Chief Engineer of the Yamato. He is the son of the Yamato's first chief engineer, Hikozaemon Tokugawa, whom he briefly mentioned in the 2199 series.
Japanese voice artist: Tōru Furuya
: Engineering Maintenance.
: Engineering Maintenance.
These twins are also responsible for rebuilding the Yamato's engine room.
Japanese voice artist: Daisuke Sakaguchi
Space Battleship Yamato 2199
Master Chief Petty Officer : Boatswain. He is revealed to be Susumu Kodai's naval academy trainor.
Japanese voice artist: Keiji Fujiwara
American voice artist: Bryan Massey
Lieutenant : Technology Department, Information Chief. She is also part of the faction that attempted to mutiny aboard the Yamato; however she was later pardoned after some time in the brig. Also, Mamoru Kodai broke up with her before heading for Pluto into battle.
Japanese voice artist: Aya Hisakawa
American voice artist: Mikaela Krantz
Ensign : Assigned to Accounting, but she desires to be a pilot to avenge her brother, a pilot (and a former comrade of Saburo) who was KIA against the Garmilans. Because of this, she was, at first, at odds with the Garmilan pilot named Melda Ditz; but would later become good friends. She is a Marsinoid, a human born on the planet Mars.
Japanese voice artist: Rie Tanaka
American voice artist: Jeannie Tirado
: Civilian Health Officer, and is Saburo Kato's love interest.
Japanese voice artist: Rina Satō
American voice artist: Felecia Angelle
Warrant Officer : Operations Specialist Cadet. Born with minor psychic abilities, she sensed something special in the Yamato's automatic navigation system. Drawn to investigating the central core, she allowed within her the consciousness of Yurisha Iscandar, whose body was being transported home in cold sleep due to Yurisha's comatose state as a result of a traffic accident on Earth. When necessary, Yurisha's personality dominates, then allows Yuria to resurface. The two personalities can be distinguished both by behavior and by hair style. Yuria wears her hear bound in twin pig-tails, Yurisha wears her hair loose. The association proves to be anywhere from useful to life-saving starting from episode 14. She is in charge of running the onboard radio station.
Japanese voice artist: Aya Uchida
American voice artist: Sarah Wiedenheft
Second Lieutenant : Pilot of a Cosmo Falcon, he flies a captured Garmilas interceptor into the heart of the gathering at the base at Balun. He is a friend of Akira Yamamoto and names the captured interceptor "sword 3" in favor of Yamamoto's brother who was killed in action.
Japanese voice artist: Daisuke Hirakawa
American voice artist: Eric Vale
Lieutenant J.G. : Security Chief. He is actually the leader of the pro-Izumo faction that infiltrated and then mutinied aboard the Yamato in favor of staying on Beemela-4. Killed on the prison planet Leptapoda.
Japanese voice artist: Toshihiko Seki
Warrant Officer : Security Officer. Working under orders from Director Todo, He alerted a few personnel aboard the Yamato of a few pro-Izumo faction members infiltrating the Yamato crew, and helped quell the mutiny. He becomes Yuria's love interest.
Japanese voice artist: Motoki Takagi
American voice artist: Justin Briner
Petty Officer 1st Class : Radar operator who occasionally fills in for Yuki Mori.
Japanese voice artist: Satomi Moriya
Petty Officer 3rd Class : Third Deck operator
Japanese voice artist: Kōki Harasawa
Leading Seaman : Third Deck operator
Japanese voice artist: Kōji Yusa
Engineer Susumu Yamazaki: Assistant Engine Room Chief Engineer. He revealed to Daisuke Shima who really fired the first shot in the war between the humans and the Garmilans.
Japanese voice artist: Hiroshi Tsuchida
American voice artist: Robert McCollum
Allies of humanity
: Queen of the dying planet Iscandar, and one of its last survivors, Starsha reaches out to the endangered people of Earth in the first season, offering a device called Cosmo-Cleaner-D (Cosmo-DNA in Star Blazers, and Cosmo Reverse System in 2199), which would cleanse the planet of deadly radiation. She sends her sister Sasha to the Solar System bearing this message, together with plans for a faster-than-light space drive. However, when the Yamato arrives, she confesses that she had actually possessed the means to send the device to Earth, but had wanted to test humanity's worthiness to survive, an action she regrets. Though willing to help Earth, she chooses to remain on her homeworld and face its ultimate fate with dignity. She has also rescued and healed Mamoru Kodai, who chooses to remain with her. In Yamato: The New Journey she sends her husband and child (also named Sasha) away from Iscandar before detonating the planet's doomsday bomb in order to defeat the plans of the Black Nebula and prevent Desler from sacrificing himself. Her spirit appears to her daughter in Be Forever, Yamato. She and Sasha are nearly identical in appearance to Yuki (albeit longer-haired), though this is a coincidence. In 2199, she did not only give the Cosmo-Cleaner-D/Cosmo Reverse System, but also reworked the Yamato to be the device itself (which involved sealing the Wave Motion Gun port). It is also implied that before Mamoru Kodai died, they may have fallen in love with each other and left Starsha with a child (episode 24). The character of Starsha does not appear in the 2010 live-action film, but Miyuki Ueda does the voice of the spiritual embodiment of Iscandar.
Japanese voice artist: Michiko Hirai (season 1), Miyuki Ueda (New Voyage and Be Forever), Kikuko Inoue (2199)
American voice artist: Lydia Leeds (original), Monica Rial (2199)
(Astra): Starsha's identical sister, also of royal blood. Sasha travels to the Solar System to deliver Starsha's message to Earth, but her ship is shot down and crashes on Mars. After leaving her escape pod she suffocates in the Martian atmosphere before being found by Kodai and Shima. In 2199, the last active earth fleet distracted the Garmilans from noticing the arrival of her ship (codenamed Amaterasu). Her ship encounters engine failure just before landing on Mars and, despite using an escape pod, she perished when Kodai and Shima found her.
Yurisha: In the 2199 series, she is the second Iscandarian princess who went ahead of Sasha to deliver the blueprints for the Wave Motion Engine. She met an accident on Earth which involved Yuki Mori and became comatose. She was loaded on board the Yamato in that state in a capsule as the core of the ship's Automatic Navigation System, as they need her memories as the humans even don't know where Iscandar is despite having maps supplied to them—a kept secret until Captain Okita revealed it to the crew. She possessed Yuria Misaki at first to manifest her presence and her consciousness until she awakens from her coma, and remained as an observer who reported to Queen Starsha later. She reveals to Yuki that the Yamato actually making it to Iscandar is a requirement for the Cosmo Reverse System to work. She stayed on Iscandar with Melda Ditz as her aide in helping the people of Garmilas. She considers Yuki as her "one-time other self," as they are nearly identical in looks.
Japanese voice artist: Houko Kuwashima (2199)
American voice artist: Mallorie Rodak (2199)
(Trelaina): A telepathic young woman living on the planet Telezart in a hovering palace, who has mastered anti-matter (according to the English dub) and whose prayers generate a powerful energy. She watched her world, an interstellar hub, degenerate into all-out war, but prayed so fervently that she destroyed all life forms. When the Comet Empire threatens our Galaxy, she sends messages to Earth attempting to warn them of the danger, bringing the Yamato to her world; during the Earth ship's journey she falls in love with Shima over radio. However, though she refuses to leave her world and become a part of Earth, her love for Shima overcomes her pacifism and she uses her psionic power to transform Telezart into pure energy and detonates it directly in the path of the Comet Empire in an attempt to destroy it. While the Comet Empire's plasma shield keeps them from being destroyed, Teresa's efforts blow it off its flight path and causes it heavy damage, enabling the Yamato to arrive in the Milky Way ahead of it. She survives in her spacecraft and travels to the Solar System, where she discovers Shima's corpse floating in space and resuscitates him using her own blood. With her last remaining power, she then destroys Zwordar's dreadnaught and saves Earth from destruction. What becomes of her after this is unclear. While some fans believe Teresa sacrificed her life to destroy Zwordar, others believe she is still alive somewhere in the universe, given that she easily survived the destruction of Telezart. In the alternate version of the story told in the movie Farewell to Space Battleship Yamato, Teresa plays a similar role, but she is composed entirely of anti-matter (and naked), and does not fall in love with Shima. Moreover, at the end of the movie she does not destroy Zwordar's ship, but instead her spirit urges Kodai to do so using the Yamato.
Japanese voice artist: Mari Okamoto, (Miyuki Ueda (Arrivederci, Yamato)
American voice artist: Lydia Leeds (original)
Princess (Mariposa)
Japanese voice artist: Keiko Han
American voice artist: Corinne Orr
Lord Desler: See below.
Garmilas
The Garmilans (originally Gamilans, Gamilons in the Star Blazers dub) are a race of humanoids from the planet Garmilas in the Large Magellanic Cloud, 50 kiloparsecs (≈160,000 light-years) from Earth. They are biologically indistinguishable from humans aside from their blue skin (although, owing to early series production decisions, they were given human-colored skin for the first ten episodes of the original series). Many of those who appear in the series are named after high-ranking members of the Nazi party. Garmilan civilians seldom appear in the original series implying that it is a highly militarized society, and the few female Garmilans who appear in the series are invariably concubines. In the remake, the Garmilan society is shown with more detail, depicting most Garmilan soldiers as family men, and some females are featured as part of the military as well.
In the 2010 live-action film, the Garmilans are depicted as a more alien-like race with a hive mind.
(Leader Desslok): Leader of the militant people of the dying planet Garmilas, Desler intends to wipe out the human "barbarians" and migrate his people to Earth. Initially contemptuous of humanity and its struggles to survive, he comes to respect the Yamato as it surpasses endless trials on its journey to Iscandar. He even attempts to use his dying, volcanically active planet as a weapon against the Earth ship, but the ensuing battle results in the near-total destruction of his civilization, and he swears revenge. Apparently killed at the end of the first season when his own Desler cannon backfires and destroys his flagship, he re-emerges in the second season having been resuscitated by the advanced medicine of the Comet Empire. Emperor Zordar grants him the chance to destroy the Yamato, but ultimately he comes to realize that his desire for revenge has made him no better than the Comet Empire, who live solely for conquest; it is Yuki's attempt to protect a wounded Kodai that convinces him that humans are capable of the same love he feels for his people, and he withdraws from battle, aiming to rebuild his civilization (which becomes known as the Galman-Garmillas Empire). Before departing, in the Comet Empire series, he shares an important detail about a potential weakness in the White Comet fortress.
Although initially an enemy to Earth, he informs Earth Defense Force of the dire situation planet Iscandar was in when he returned to Garmilas to find the Black Nebula Force mining for resources to fuel their war machine. He later becomes an ally of the Yamato when Iscandar was plunged into deep space after Garmilas exploded, and the Black Nebula forces pursued the planet and threatened Starsha. Working together with the crew of Yamato, his bitterness lifted and he acclaimed his love for Starsha. Starsha however sacrifices herself and her planet to stop the giant Black Nebulan battle fortress sent to secure the planet's resources for war purposes. Because of her sacrifice, Desler had a renewed sensation of love and peace which he had never realized was inside his heart. He departs at the end of the battle on good terms with Earth and Yamato.
A couple of years after the destruction of Garmilas, Desler wanders the Milky Way Galaxy, and finds his ancestral home planet Galmania which is occupied by the Bolar Federation. He quickly mounts a counter-attack to free his people, and in doing so proclaims himself as the new Emperor, set on ridding the galaxy of the cruel Bolars. However, because of his quick quest to secure the entire Milky Way Galaxy, his officers become war-mongers who would use planet-destroying hyperion missiles to eliminate any enemy or resistance. One such missile had gone astray and struck Earth's Sun causing accelerated nuclear fusion to the point that the Sun was to explode in less than a year. In response to Earth's dire situation, and unaware that Desler's empire is responsible for it, Yamato was sent to search for a new planet suitable for human habitation. The Yamato was attacked by Galman forces when they intervened in a conflict in a neighboring system, Berth. Because of the intervention, Galman officers and generals made it a top priority to destroy or capture the ship. Yamato was trapped inside the hangar of a mobile super fortress of the Galman Eastern Task Force fortress, and taken to be presented to Desler. Upon presentation, Desler flew into a rage at his generals' failure to obey his order to stay far from Earth's solar system, and apologized to the crew of Yamato. He then learned that his empire was the cause of Earth's plight. He offered to help Earth by dispatching a fleet of the empire's best scientists to restore the proper nuclear fusion to the Sun. This however proved to be futile, and the Sun worsened from their manipulation. Out of scientific ideas, he provides coordinates to a planet like Earth called Phantom. Phantom however turned out to be a unsuitable planet, as it was a living organism able to telepathically camouflage itself as a planet to protect Queen Mariposa from the Bolars. Upon Yamato's discovery of this fact, Queen Mariposa is escorted and protected by the crew of Yamato to her home planet, Guardiana, where she offers the Hydro-Cosmogen cannon to correct the Sun's erratic nuclear fusion. Desler, following Yamato, learns of the Queen's home planet, and decides to peacefully add planet Guardiana to his empire so as to sway all people of the galaxy (Galman and Bolar) towards peace as her people's culture are pacifists and peace-talkers. Stability and peace is spread throughout the Milky Way Galaxy.
It is, however, not until the film, Final Yamato, when the people of Dinguil try to conquer Earth by using Aquarius to bring massive floods, that Desler performs one last act of assistance for Earth. The Denguilan fleet surrounds the Yamato which, having been converted into an H-bomb to block the column of water hurling towards Earth, was unable to fight. Desler launches a surprise attack on the fleet, and destroys its capitol ship using his Desler cannon. The attack comes as a surprise to the Yamato's crew as well, as they had assumed that Desler had been killed when Galmania had collided with another planet earlier in the film. In the last scene, when Yamato detonates to stop the 10-trillion-ton water column from hitting Earth, Desler is seen atop his ship silently watching the Yamato settle in an ocean in space.
For the live-action film, Desler has no physical form; instead, he appears as one or more multiple crystals and initially possesses Hajime Saito's body to tell the Yamato crew the true motive of his race's attack on Earth.
His Japanese name is believed to come from Nazi Germany's Adolf Hitler, and Desler's title is the Japanese translation of führer. Leiji Matsumoto has claimed this similarity is in fact a coincidence, and that Desler comes from "Death-Ra" (also written as デスラー in Japanese).
Japanese voice artist: Masato Ibu (Season 1), Kouichi Yamadera (2199)
American voice artist: Eddie Allen (seasons 1 & 2), Chris Rager (2199)
Vice Leader /General (General Krypt): Desler's toadying right-hand man, Hiss tries his best to please his leader, apologizing for every embarrassing mistake and passing his anger on to his underlings. However, during the climactic battle on Garmilas he implores Desler to make peace with the humans, earning him a bullet in the chest (not shown in Star Blazers, in its place is a reuse of dialogue footage between Desler and Hiss where Desslok now merely reprimands Krypt for engaging in defeatist talk). In the first ten episodes, Hiss has the title of Vice Leader (副総統). With episode eleven, his title changes to General (将軍).
Japanese voice artist: Keisuke Yamashita (Season 1), Yousuke Akimoto (2199)
American voice artist: Ray Gestaut (2199)
Commanders and (Colonel Ganz and Major Bane): The leaders of the Garmilans' frontline base on Pluto, Valke Shultz and Gelf Gantz are among the first to encounter the dangerous new Earth ship Yamato. However, even armed with a powerful weapon, the Reflection Satellite Cannon (Reflex Gun in Star Blazers), the bumbling duo are unable to stop the Earth ship and are forced to abandon their base. Recognizing that they can never return home in disgrace, Shultz orders the entire fleet to launch an all-out attack on the Yamato, but they are destroyed; Shultz's command ship attempts a kamikaze run (though in Star Blazers this was toned down to an accidental near-collision) before being deflected into an asteroid.
Japanese voice artists: Takeshi Obayashi (Shultz) and Kenichi Ogata (Gantz); Yu Shimaka (Shultz) and Chō (Gantz) (2199)
American voice artists: Mark Stoddard (Shultz) and Tyson Rinehart (Ganz) (2199)
General (General Talan / Sergeant Masterson): One of Desler's most loyal generals, Talan appears only twice in the first season; however, in the second season he has a more significant presence, as commander of the scattered remnants of the Garmilan empire. He is more level-headed than his leader and is able to convince Desler to abandon his flagship when all is lost. He is also an extremely skillful pilot, rescuing Desler from the Comet Empire's pursuing ships. He was mistakenly renamed "Sgt. Masterson" in season 3 of Star Blazers.
Japanese voice artist: Kōji Yada (original), Yutaka Aoyama (as "Wielte Talan," 2199)
American voice artist: Chuck Huber (as "Wielte Talan," 2199)
General (General Lysis): A famed general with many victories under his belt, and a powerful physique to match his ego, Domel is put in charge of the campaign against Earth and offers to destroy the Yamato in his leader's name. However, despite using both outright force and psychological warfare, he too is defeated in battle time and again, culminating in a scheme to destroy the Earth ship on planet Balun which succeeds only in the destruction of the Garmilan base there. Offered one last battle for honor, he challenges the Yamato to meet him at the Rainbow Cluster; so meticulous is his planning that he very nearly succeeds, and it is only quick thinking (and luck) on the part of the Yamato crew that destroys his fleet. He then attaches his command ship to the underside of the Yamato and self-destructs in a vain attempt to complete his mission (though in Star Blazers it was indicated he planted a bomb on the Argo's underside and detached. This was followed by a reuse of dialogue footage between Lysis and Vulgar now indicating that because the bomb's blast didn't destroy the Argo they were returning to Garmilas in disgrace). He is credited with the invention of a device called the Instant Matter Transporter (Space Matter Instant Transforming Equipment, or SMITE, in Star Blazers), capable of teleporting whole battle fleets into the vicinity of an enemy vessel, which is used later by Desler himself.
Japanese voice artist: Osamu Kobayashi (Season 1), Akio Ohtsuka (2199)
American voice artist: J. Michael Tatum (2199)
(Volgar/Vulgar): Garemund Goer is one-time commander of the Garmilans' waypoint base on planet Balun, he reacts to his replacement by Domel angrily, getting drunk and trashing his decadently decorated room (this scene was cut from Star Blazers). Desperate to prove himself to Desler, he attempts to fight the Yamato on his own terms, but is defeated resoundingly; he also informs Desler of Domel's plan to sacrifice the base in an attempt to destroy the Yamato, leading to a critical delay which enables the Earth ship to escape. However, he comes to admire Domel's loyalty to the Garmilan cause, and assists him in his battle for honor. In 2199, he served under General Herm Zoellick, and then under General Domel; and is once the superior to everyone in Pluto Base. He himself killed General Zoellick upon knowing that he plotted to assassinate Desler. He and his fleet was destroyed by Captain Flakken's dimensional submarine as he tried lure the Yamato into the hyperspace gate.
Japanese voice artist: Osamu Saka (Season 1), Masashi Hirose (2199)
American voice artist: Mike Czechopoulos (original), Barry Yandell (2199)
Captains , , and : Captains who serve under Domel in the battle at the Rainbow Cluster, having earned great acclaim at, respectively, the Ruby, Sapphire, Diamond and Omega war fronts. The first three command space carriers and their respective fighter, dive-bomber, and torpedo plane air groups, while the last commands a battle carrier launching a single heavy bomber which carries a drill missile designed by Domel. All four captains fly into battle themselves alongside their men, though Kreuz is not shown (due to an oversight by the animators).
Japanese voice artists: Kōji Yada (Heidern), Takeshi Aono (Berger), Ichirō Nagai (Getto), Isao Sakuma (Kreuz)
(Garrat): Commander of a Garmillan battle carrier in season 2, he sends a fleet of dive-bombers to attack the Yamato when it is paralyzed by a swarm of corrosive bacteria. However, before he can destroy the Earth ship, his own vessel is similarly rendered powerless, and he is forced to retreat in disgrace. His humiliation earns him a bullet from Deslar (not shown in Star Blazers).
Japanese voice artist: Hidekatsu Shibata
Generals , , , : Deslar's remaining generals in Season 2.
Japanese voice artists: Eken Mine (Action), Yoshito Yasuhara (Frage), Kazuo Hayashi (Lugens), Kenichi Ogata (Meiser)
Galman Empire
(Smeerdom) (v.a. Hidekatsu Shibata): Eastern District Army Commander.
(v.a. Mugihito): A very skilled Galman fleet commander.
(Smellen) (v.a. Mikio Terashima)
(v.a. Yoshito Miyamura): Imperial Army Chief of Staff.
(Luchner Von Ferrell) (v.a. Tamio Ōki). The Galman Empire's top submarine commander, nicknamed "The Galman Wolf". He appears earlier in 2199 as a redesigned character.
(Nayzmayo) (v.a. Masaru Ikeda)
(v.a. Eiji Kanie)
(Cranshaw) (v.a. Shojiro Kihara): Technology Major Cranshaw is one of the more likable Galmans. He is scholarly and reserved. He is commissioned by Desler to find a way to restore the normal conditions of Earth's Sun. Failing in this, he cannot return to Desler honorably, and so crashes his ship into the Sun.
(v.a. Shingo Kanemoto)
(v.a. Hajime Koseki)
Space Battleship Yamato 2199
Abelt Desler
Voice actors: Kouichi Yamadera (Japanese), Chris Rager (English)
Miezela Cerestella: Last survivor of the Jirel race, and Desler's minister of propaganda. She is fiercely loyal to him, but he accidentally killed her when he infiltrated the Yamato.
Voice actor: Minori Chihara (Japanese)
Melda Ditz: A Garmilas fighter pilot (rank: Lower Storm Leader) who is held in custody aboard the Yamato for a short time; to the crew's dismay, she reveals that Earth drew first blood in the conflict. After a period of animosity, she befriends Akira Yamamoto. She is later released and returns to the homeworld to take part in an uprising. She later becomes a liaison for the rebel Garmilan forces aboard the Yamato until she stayed on Iscandar to help Princess Yurisha with the Garmilans.
Voice actors: Shizuka Itou (Japanese), Katelyn Barr (English)
Elk Domel: In this series, he is depicted just like in the original, but he is much more serious and was realistically close to defeating the Yamato. However, despite openly avoiding it, he is eventually dragged into Garmilan politics when, just as he's about to finish the Yamato, he lets them go because he and his fleet were recalled to their homeworld so that he could stand trial for the attempted assassination of Desler. He is also depicted in the series as a soldier who praises his opponents, and just as tenacious as Captain Okita.
Voice actors: Akio Otsuka (Japanese), J. Michael Tatum (English)
Elsa Domel: In the series, Elk is married to her, who is part of an anti-government group and got herself incarcerated on a prison planet, only to join Admiral Ditz's rebel forces later.
Voice actors: Chiaki Takahashi (Japanese), Kate Oxley (English)
Wolf Flakken: Captain of the extra-dimensional submarine UX-01. A skilled hunter and a loose cannon, he stalks the Yamato extensively even after it detects and damages his ship. He is even considered by his peers as an uncontrollable captain loyal only to Desler. He joined the rebels when Desler was presumed dead when Second Baleras was destroyed.
Voice actors: Nakata Jouji (Japanese), David Wald (English)
Herm Zoellick: Loudmouthed Inspector-General of the Garmilas Central Army, who plotted to assassinate Desler and take control of the Empire. An enraged General Goer shot him in the back.
Voice actors: Norio Wakamoto (Japanese), Jim Johnson (English)
Saleluya Lareta: Commander of the Garmilas base on the floating continent above Jupiter; dies when the Yamato destroys the continent during a test of the Wave Motion Gun.
Voice actor: Hiro Yuuki (Japanese)
Valus Lang: The commander of a Garmilas ship that was lost in the fourth dimension. His ship was destroyed by General Goer.
Voice actor: Tooru Ookawa (Japanese)
Paren Nerge: An Imperial Guard officer who is posted to Valus Lang's ship. He tried to interfere with the rescue mission involving the Yamato, causing momentary confusion and even led Melda and Akira into a scuffle. He was killed before he could proceed any further.
Voice actor: Takashi Onozuka (Japanese)
Redof Hiss: Otherwise Desler's accommodating right-hand, he was outraged by his actions when Desler tried to sacrifice the people of its capital by plunging part of his orbiting "new capital" in an effort to destroy the Yamato. He eventually ordered a stop to all Garmilan resistance against the Yamato when Desler was presumed dead. He also vouched for the Yamato when Queen Starsha evaluated its performance because of its use of the Wave Motion Gun.
Voice actors: Yousuke Akimoto (Japanese), Ray Gestaut (English)
Hilde Shultz: Brigadier Valke Shultz's daughter. A second-class Garmilan (her status is a reward due to her father's death), she ends up as a servant girl in Desler's palace.
Voice Actor: Ayano Miura (Japanese)
Valke Shultz: Commander of the Pluto Forward Base that sends the planet bombs. He is portrayed in the series as a more competent commander who actually nearly defeated the Yamato, though he and the rest of his Zaltzi crew are also preoccupied with their place in Garmilan society, to a point that they bypassed regular channels (that is, by avoiding to mention anything to General Goer) just to report their "victory" to Desler. He and his remaining crew were killed trying to pursue the Yamato out of revenge.
Voice actors: Yu Shimaka (Japanese), Mark Stoddard (English)
Gelf Ganz: Shultz's assistant.
Voice actors: Chō (Japanese), Tyson Rinehart (English)
Wol Jarletora: Another of Shultz's men who was with Shultz since his days under General Domel's command. He covered Shultz's retreat after the destruction of Pluto Base, only for him to be killed after the Yamato destroyed his ship.
Voice actors: Daisuke Egawa (Japanese), Hunter Scott (English)
Ghader Talan: Vice Chief of General Staff and brother of Velte Talan, the head of weapons research.
Voice actors: Koutarou Nakamura (Japanese), Brad Jackson (English)
Mirenel Linke: Along with Cerestella, a survivor of the telepathic Jirels until her consciousness is destroyed in an attempt to stop the Yamato.
Voice actor: Akemi Okamura (Japanese)
Liber Droppe
Voice actor: Akira Harada (Japanese)
Hydom Gimleh: Information officer of the Imperial Guard. He is just as ruthless in implementing Desler's policies, ranging from sending dissidents to prison planets to wiping out a rebelling civilization.
Voice actors: Junpei Morita (Japanese), John Gremillion (English)
Gul Ditz: Supreme Commander of Astrofleets, and Melda's father. He is incarcerated on Leptapoda for being a co-accused in the attempted assassination of Desler, only to be freed by his daughter Melda and eventually becoming the leader of the Garmilan rebels and taking over the prison planet.
Voice actors: Katsunosuke Hori (Japanese), Ben Bryant (English)
Garemund Goer: A loudmouthed yet seemingly cowardly Garmillan general who is fond of Garmilan politicking and trying to impress Desler. He is the commander of the Milky Way Theater of Operations (thus the commander of Pluto Base) until General Domel replaced him for failing to stop the Yamato. Despite his behavior, he is still a capable commander and soldier, even shooting General Zoellick upon knowing of his treachery. He was killed when, while on a mission to lure the Yamato into the hyperspace corridor, General Flakken's submarine sunk his and his fleet's ships.
Voice actors: Masashi Hirose (Japanese), Barry Yandell (English)
Norran Ortschett: A Zaltzi in charge of escorting Yuki while under the custody of the Garmilans. He develops a crush on her.
Voice actors: Tetsuya Kakihara (Japanese), Justin Pate (English)
White Comet Empire Gatlantis
The people of the White Comet Empire Gatlantis (白色彗星帝国ガトランティス Hakushoku Suisei Teikoku Gatorantisu) appear in the second season; like the Gamilons they are identical to humans aside from their green skin.
Emperor (Prince Zordar): Zwordar V of Gatlantis the undisputed leader of the Comet Empire, Zwordar's sole aim in life is to conquer and subjugate the Universe. To this aim, he travels space in an enormous city-planet, Gatlantis, surrounded by a powerful plasma shield which resembles a gigantic comet, capable of annihilating planets in its path, and launching fleets of warships to conquer any useful worlds—or destroy them if they resist. Having subjugated the entire Andromeda Galaxy, his next target is Earth. Frustrated time and again by the incompetence of his minions—and interference from the mysterious Teresa of Telezart—he takes matters into his own hands at the end of the second season, launching a massive dreadnaught from the shattered remains of Gatlantis with the intent of destroying all life on Earth. His Japanese name is based on the word "sword".
Japanese voice artist: Osamu Kobayashi
Italian Voice Artist: Ivano Staccioli
Lady (Princess Invidia): Zwordar's mistress (his daughter in Star Blazers), though unlike other citizens of the Comet Empire she has pink skin. She has great ambition and is jealous of the favor Desler has in Zwordar's eyes; In which she works on plotting against him and Zwordar to keep her place in the Empire. It is her treachery that ruins the Gamilon leader's plan to destroy the Yamato and the main reason the Comet Empire falls. In turn the Emperor never forgives his mistress:
in the Japanese version Zwordar leaves her behind in the destruction with Goenitz and Razela, while in the English version he only threatens to leave them behind.
Japanese voice artists: Noriko Ohara (Kazue Komiya in Arrivederci, Yamato)
American voice artist: Morgan Lofting, Melanie McQueen (Farewell Yamato: Voyager Entertainment Dub)
(General Dyre) and (General Gorse): Members of Zwordar's court and co-conspirators with Sabera to destroy Desler's reputation, a plan which earns their Emperor's anger. When their plans enable the Yamato crew to cripple Gatlantis, Zwordar abandons them to destruction aboard the doomed space station (not shown in Star Blazers).
Japanese voice artists: Ichiro Murakoshi and Kazuyuki Sogabe
(Morta): A political commissar placed aboard Desler's flagship, he reports to Sabera and her conspirators.
Japanese voice artist: Osamu Ichikawa
Admiral (General Naska): Young leader of the Comet Empire's vanguard force to conquer the Solar System; initially scornful of the aging Earth ship Yamato, when defeated he begs Desler for help, only to be turned away. Likely named after the Nazca Lines.
Japanese voice artist: Hiroya Ishimaru
Admiral (General Torbuck): Sadistic leader of the Comet Empire's missile fleet and famous hunter of dinosaurs. Despite being placed under Desler's command at Telezart, he violates orders and engages the Yamato head-on, but his arrogance leaves him at the mercy of the Earth ship's wave motion gun.
Japanese voice artist: Shōzō Iizuka (Osamu Saka in Arrivederci, Yamato)
General (General Scorch): Scar-faced commander of a tank contingent stationed on planet Telezart to meet the Yamato, he faces Saito's space marines in intense ground combat. Fighting to the last man, he is killed in a pistol fight with Saito himself (toned down to simply being knocked out in Star Blazers). His Japanese name is based on the word "survival".
Japanese voice artist: Kosei Tomita
: A pilot captured by the Yamato, he refuses to answer questions—even under torture—but loosens up when Dr. Sado introduces him to sake. However, it is but a ruse to enable him to escape and return to his fleet, but they spurn him as a former captive. Such is his loyalty to the Comet Empire that he makes a kamikaze run into the Yamato, killing himself, rather than join the Earth crew.
Japanese voice artist: Ikuo Nishikawa
: A sub-commander in Goland's missile fleet, he refuses to allow the former captive Mazor to return and orders him to his death. This provokes a deadly attack from the Yamato which destroys him and his ships.
Japanese voice artist: Masaru Ikeda
(General Manic): Commander of the Comet Empire's carrier fleet. In the final assault on the Solar System he is stationed too far away from Valsey's battle fleet and is caught unawares by a full-scale attack by Earth fighter-bomber squadrons; unable to devise a strategy to resist the assault, he commits suicide in shame shortly before his ship explodes (the act of suicide is not shown in Star Blazers).
Admiral (General Bleak): In charge of the Comet Empire's main warfleet, stationed at Procyon and Sirius and thus missed by the Yamato during its journey to planet Telezart. As Gatlantis approaches our Galaxy, Valsey's fleet begins its advance on the Solar System, routing Earth's defences and very nearly driving home the invasion thanks to the main weapon of Valsey's flagship, the Flame Direct-Hit Gun ("Magma-Flame Gun" in Star Blazers), a wave motion gun which fires into a teleportation field. However, Hijikata leads them into the rings of Saturn, where the weapon proves to be a liability, and Valsey and his fleet are destroyed.
Japanese voice artist: Chikao Ohtsuka
Dark Star Cluster Empire
The people of the Dark Star Cluster Empire (暗黒星団帝国 Ankoku Seidan Teikoku) live on the metal planet Dezarium in the Dark Star Cluster, a double-galaxy 200,000 light years from Earth. Although humanoid, they are in fact bionic, having given up the pleasures of human flesh in exchange for longevity. They appear in the movies Yamato: The New Voyage and Be Forever, Yamato.
: commander of the flagship Pleiades. When the Gamillas fleet attacks the Black Nebula forces mining their homeworld and cause the planet's destruction, Deider in turn attacks them and pins them down in the seas of Iscandar. When the Yamato attacks, he attempts to position his ship between the Earth vessel and Iscandar to discourage use of the Wave Motion Gun, but is destroyed when Iscandar moves to safety due to volcanic eruptions.
Japanese voice artist: Kōsei Tomita
: Supreme commander of the Black Nebula Empire's forces in the Large Magellanic Cloud, leading from his massive space fortress, the Autostar Goruba, which fights off both the Yamato and Desler's fleet.
Japanese voice artist: Kōji Nakata
2nd Lt. : An intelligence and technology officer in the Dark Star Cluster Empire's invasion of Earth, he gains his own quarters on the conquered planet, and saves the life of a wounded Yuki, with whom he falls in love. When she proves unable to return his affections, he releases her to join a human resistance movement, and vows that if she defeats him next time they meet, he will help her to stop the invasion. In fact he is mortally wounded by another soldier, but he dies in Yuki's arms, confessing to her that life has been empty and meaningless for his people since their conversion to bionics.
Japanese voice artist: Nachi Nozawa
Great Emperor : Leader of the Dark Star Cluster Empire.
Japanese voice artist: Tōru Ōhira, Banjō Ginga (PS2 games)
Japanese voice artist: Yumi Nakatani
Japanese voice artist: Mugihito
Commodore : Commander of the Gorba fleet.
Japanese voice artist: Banjō Ginga
Bolar Federation
The people of the Bolar Federation appear in the third season.
(v.a. Junpei Takiguchi): Prime Minister of the Bolar Federation.
(v.a. Tesshō Genda)
(v.a. Shōzō Iizuka)
(v.a. Masaru Tanaka)
Governor-General (v.a. Masaru Ikeda)
(v.a. Tomomichi Nishimura)
(v.a. Akira Kimura)
Dingirians
The people of the planet Dingir, who appear in the movie Final Yamato, are descendants of Sumerians rescued from Earth by unknown aliens (whom they now regard as gods) during The Great Flood 10,000 years ago. They developed an advanced empire (as well as grey skin) on their new homeworld they named Dingir and have become extremely arrogant and militant. Most of them were wiped out when their homeworld was flooded by the planet Aquarius.
: Supreme leader of the Dingirians, he escapes his drowning homeworld aboard the enormous space station Uruk. He is impassive when told his wife and younger son perished, believing that only the strong should survive, and decides that Earth should become the new home of his people, planning to use Aquarius to flood it. Spurning the very idea of "charity", he sets about exterminating the human race, ensuring it cannot even leave Earth before flooding. He kills his own elder son when the latter fails to destroy the Yamato, shows no concern when he accidentally shoots his younger son, and self-destructs Uruk—killing all living within its city—when its purpose has been served. He is also seen to ride into battle (aboard a mechanical horse) alongside his troops. The word Lugal is Sumerian for "king".
Japanese voice artist: Taro Ishida
: Elder son of the Dingirian leader, a young military commander who shows no mercy to his enemies, and has no qualms about firing on unarmed civilian transports, or even rescue ships tending to the wounded. However, when defeated by the Yamato (as well as a fleet of Earth warships) he is humiliated before his father, and becomes ever more determined to destroy the Earth ship, but when the rest of his fleet is destroyed, he turns tail and flees the battlefield, only to crash into the Neutrino Beam Shield of Uruk.
Japanese voice artist: Masane Tsukayama
: The younger son of the Dingirian leader, and the only survivor of the drowned homeworld rescued by the Yamato crew. He stows away aboard the Earth ship when it sets off to fight deZahl's fleet, hoping to learn more about humanity. He learns the alien concept of self-sacrifice when he sees another warship take a deadly missile hit for the Yamato; he is so impressed that he jumps in front of Kodai and is shot by his own father. His real name is never given and is just called Bōya.
Japanese voice artist: Kazue Ikura
Great Urup United Star Systems
Great Urup United Star Systems (大ウルップ星間国家連合軍 Dai Uruppu Seikan Kokka Renpō Gun)
SUS
The Spacemen United Systems (異星人連合 Iseijin Rengō) are the antagonists in Space Battleship Yamato: Resurrection.
: Metzler is at the head of the SUS, which is technically the leader of the Interstellar Alliance. He systematically deceived all members of the Interstellar Alliance into thinking the Earth is into invading their territories. One member sees through his deception, and, with help from members, the Yamato found a way to defeat the SUS. He later appears to the crew of Yamato as an interdimensional being responsible for the black hole that threatened Earth.
Voice actor: Hiroshi Yanaka
: Metzler's second-in-command.
Voice actor: Shōzō Iizuka
Amarl
アマール星 (Amaaru-sei)
: Queen Iliya is the reigning monarch of the planet Amarl, the planet that gave the fleeing citizens of Earth refuge. They were caught in double jeopardy since they are a member of the Interstellar Alliance, but only because of the protection the Interstellar Alliance offers in exchange for resources only available on their planet. Inspired by the Yamato, they declared themselves independent, triggering a war against the SUS-led Interstellar Alliance.
Voice actor: Atsuko Tanaka
: Admiral Pascal is the leader of Amarl's space naval forces. After advising Captain Kodai and the Yamato to leave in order to avoid angering the Interstellar Alliance under the SUS, he was inspired to support Queen Iliya and the Yamato in open revolt against them.
Voice actor: Kazuhiko Inoue
Etos
エトス星 (Etos)
: Admiral Gorui is the leader of the space naval forces of the planet Ethos, a member-planet of the Interstellar Alliance. Seeing the senseless massacre of the First and Second Earth Emigration Fleets on orders of the SUS, he began to doubt the motives of Metzler. His suspicions are confirmed during his first encounter with Captain Kodai and the Yamato, and, despite threats of wiping out the entire planet Ethos, helped them and the kingdom of the planet Amarl in open revolt against the SUS. He used his flagship in a kamikaze attack on Metzler's own flagship in an attempt to kill him.
Voice actor: Masatō Ibu
: He is captain of Gorui's flagship.
Voice actor: Takehito Koyasu
References
Space Battleship Yamato characters
, Space Battleship Yamato
Space Battleship Yamato |
4424567 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georgia%20Tech%20Research%20Institute | Georgia Tech Research Institute | The Georgia Tech Research Institute (GTRI) is the nonprofit applied research arm of the Georgia Institute of Technology in Atlanta, Georgia, United States. GTRI employs around 2,400 people, and is involved in approximately $600 million in research annually for more than 200 clients in industry and government.
Initially known as the Engineering Experiment Station, (EES) the organization was proposed in 1929 by W. Harry Vaughan as an analog to the agricultural experiment stations; the Georgia General Assembly passed a law that year creating the organization on paper but did not allocate funds to start it. To boost the state's struggling economy in the midst of the Great Depression, funds were found, and the station was finally established with US$5,000 (equivalent to $ in ) in April 1934.
GTRI's research spans a variety of disciplines, including national defense, homeland security, public health, education, mobile and wireless technologies, and economic development. Major customers for GTRI research include United States Department of Defense agencies, the state of Georgia, non-defense federal agencies, and private industry. Overall, contracts and grants from Department of Defense agencies account for approximately 84% of GTRI's total research funding. Since it was established, GTRI has expanded its engineering focus to include science, economics, policy, and other areas that leverage GTRI's partnership with Georgia Tech. GTRI researchers are named on 76 active patents and 43 pending patents.
History
Establishment
After being founded in 1885, Georgia Tech grew from a trade school into a university over several decades. However, there was little state initiative to see the school expand significantly until 1919. That year, in a move similar to the Hatch Act of 1887's establishment of agricultural experiment stations, the federal debate over whether to create engineering experiment stations similarly spurred the Georgia General Assembly to pass an act titled "Establishing State Engineering Experiment Station at the Georgia School of Technology." This station was established with the goal of the "encouragement of industries and commerce" within the state. The federal effort ultimately failed and the state did not finance the organization.
In 1929, some Georgia Tech faculty members belonging to Sigma Xi started a Research Club at Tech that met once a month. One of the monthly subjects, proposed by W. Harry Vaughan, was a collection of issues related to Georgia Tech, such as library development, and the development of a state engineering station. This group investigated the forty existing engineering experiment stations at universities around the country, and a report was compiled by Harold Bunger, Montgomery Knight, and Vaughan in December 1929. Their report noted that several similar organizations had been opened across the country at other engineering schools and were successful in local economic development.
In 1933, S. V. Sanford, president of the University of Georgia, proposed that a "technical research activity" be established at Georgia Tech in order to boost the state's struggling economy in the midst of the Great Depression. The Georgia Board of Regents provided the new Engineering Experiment Station with $5,000 (equivalent to $ in ), and Georgia Tech provided infrastructure and personnel. The station started operation in April 1934.
Early years
Vaughan was selected as the Engineering Experiment Station's acting director in April 1934 and hired 13 part-time faculty and a few graduate assistants. The station's initial areas of focus were textiles, ceramics, and helicopter engineering. The early work of the station was conducted in the basement of the Old Shop Building next to Tech Tower, and Vaughan's office was in the Aeronautical Engineering Building. The station's name was technically the State Engineering Experiment Station, but it was generally referred to as the Engineering Experiment Station (EES) or simply "the research station".
By 1938, the Engineering Experiment Station was producing useful technology, and the station needed a method to conduct contract work outside the state budget. Consequently, the Industrial Development Council (IDC) was formed. The IDC was created as a non-profit contract organization for the EES, which allowed the EES to receive federal contracts while still retaining its relationship with Georgia Tech and the State of Georgia. It was created by the Chancellor of the University System and the president of Georgia Power Company, and the Engineering Experiment Station's director was a member of the council. The IDC later became the Georgia Tech Research Corporation, which currently serves as the sole contract organization for all Georgia Tech faculty and departments. In addition, the contract organization manages the intellectual property that results from research.
Examples of projects undertaken under Vaughan's directorship include Montgomery Knight's helicopter research, the Georgia Economic Survey, $6,000 (equivalent to $ in ) in aeronautical research for the Guggenheim Foundation, and textile research that created cotton roving and spinning processes that were three to five times faster than contemporary practices. Vaughan was instrumental in securing a permanent building for the station, initially known as the Research Building; several years later it was expanded and named the Thomas Hinman Research Building, after Atlanta dentist and university donor Thomas Hinman. After Vaughan left for the Tennessee Valley Authority in 1940, Harold Bunger (head of the Chemistry Department) took over as acting director. However, Bunger died not long thereafter in August 1941. Bunger's successor was Gerald Rosselot, who had been appointed assistant director by Georgia Tech's president in 1940.
World War II
The number and value of contracts coming to the station significantly increased during World War II; the 1943–1944 budget was the first in which industry and government contracts exceeded the station's other income, most notably, its state appropriation. Director Vaughan had initially prepared the faculty for fewer incoming contracts as the Georgia General Assembly had cut the station's appropriation by 40%, but increased support from industry and government eventually compensated for lower state funding. World War II is credited with GTRI's entry into electronics, especially telecommunications and electronic warfare; the electronics and communications work that Director Rosselot attracted is still a mainstay of GTRI research. Two of the larger projects were a study on the propagation of electromagnetic waves, and United States Navy–sponsored radar research.
At the end of World War II, Georgia Tech had about $240,000 (equivalent to $ in ) annually in sponsored research. Important investments during Rosselot's administration at the Engineering Experiment Station included the purchase of an electron microscope in 1946 for $13,000 (equivalent to $ in ), the first such instrument in the Southeastern United States and one of few in the United States at the time. The Research Building was expanded, and a $300,000 (equivalent to $ in ) Westinghouse A-C network calculator was given to Georgia Tech by Georgia Power in 1947.
Rosselot's administration included the 1946 establishment of the Industrial Development Council, renamed to the Georgia Tech Research Institute in 1948 and its present name, the Georgia Tech Research Corporation, in 1984. The Georgia Board of Regents had ruled that all money received in a year had to be spent that year, which was problematic because most government contracts the EES had received spanned multiple years. Georgia Tech president Blake Van Leer and vice president Cherry Emerson solution was to create the Industrial Development Council, a non-profit corporation that would manage contracts for research services and subsequently hire the Engineering Experiment Station to perform the research. It would handle patents garnered through research, and distribute funds garnered from contracts and patents as needed. The new organization was almost immediately used to weather a severe drop in state support (from $89,000 to $3,000) during the recession of 1949.
Scientific Atlanta
Glen P. Robinson and six other Georgia Tech researchers (including Robinson's former professor and future EES director Jim Boyd and EES director Gerald Rosselot) each contributed $100 (equivalent to $ in ) and founded Scientific Associates (later known as Scientific Atlanta) on October 31, 1951, with the initial goal of marketing antenna structures being developed by the radar branch of the EES. Robinson worked as the general manager without pay for the first year; after the fledgling company's first contract resulted in a $4,000 loss, Robinson (upon request) refunded five of the six other initial investors.
From 1950 to 1952, there were a series of disputes between EES director Rosselot and Georgia Tech vice president Cherry Emerson over the station's finances and Rosselot's hand in founding Scientific Associates. When it was founded in October 1951, Rosselot was president and CEO of Scientific Associates; at issue was the potential conflict of interest with his role at Georgia Tech, and what, if any, role Georgia Tech should have in technology transfer to the marketplace. Emerson later instituted a policy requiring EES employees wishing to work with Scientific Associates to make a written request to the president of Georgia Tech. However, Rosselot's participation in Scientific Associates' founding and early operations ensured the eventual success of Scientific Atlanta and facilitated subsequent technology transfer by Georgia Tech's VentureLab and the Advanced Technology Development Center.
In September 1952, the Board of Regents requested an audit of EES's financial operation. Of primary concern was the reporting of overhead income, which the Board suspected was inadequate. The audit found discrepancies in the accounts receivable that were attributed to EES's practice of delaying reporting information on receivables by a month, a tactic that had become common to ensure working capital due to the regents' failure to adequately fund the station. Though Rosselot denied malfeasance, the practice nonetheless did not conform to the University System of Georgia's established procedures for budget reporting. As a result, Rosselot went on leave from his post at Georgia Tech in November 1952, pending the acceptance of his resignation by the chancellor, which became effective March 1, 1953. Following his resignation, Rosselot soon accepted a position with the Bendix Corporation's aviation division.
Cold War era
In March 1950, Herschel H. Cudd was appointed head of EES's Chemical Sciences division. After Gerald Rosselot went on leave pending his resignation, Cudd was named acting director of EES in November 1952, then named director in July 1953, and resigned in November 1953 to accept a much higher-paying position at the American Viscoe Corporation. Although he was in the post for only a year, Cudd made far-reaching changes to the station. Under Rosselot, research had been increasingly concentrated on a few researchers; Cudd reversed this trend to the extent that EES's 1952–53 Annual Report stated that 66 faculty in 15 schools performed research at the station that year. Cudd created a new promotion system for researchers that is still in use to this day. Many EES researchers held the rank of professor despite lacking a doctorate (or a comparable qualification for promotion as determined by the Georgia Board of Regents), something that irritated members of the teaching faculty. The new system, approved in the spring of 1953, used the Board of Regents' qualifications for promotion and mirrored the academic tenure track.
Cudd spent a significant amount of the EES operating budget on improving laboratory facilities. Cudd's successor Paul K. Calaway, previously director of the School of Chemistry, made a last-minute request to the contract organization in May 1954 to cover the resulting $20,000 (equivalent to $ in ) deficit. In 1954, a faculty committee appointed to do a comprehensive study of Georgia Tech, "The Aims and Objectives of the Georgia Institute of Technology", noted that of EES's budget of $2 million for 1953–1954 (equivalent to $ million in ), about 83% was sponsored by governmental agencies, and about two thirds of that was classified. In 1955, the Rich Electronic Computer Center, a new wing on the Hinman Research Building, was dedicated; the project was paid for by $85,000 (equivalent to $ in ) from the Rich Foundation and a matching grant from the EES's contract organization.
This period saw a significant expansion in Georgia Tech's postgraduate education programs, which received substantial support from the EES. Despite its slow start, with the first Master of Science programs in the 1920s and the first doctorate in 1946, the program became firmly established. In 1952 alone, around 80 students earned graduate degrees while working at EES.
James E. Boyd was promoted to Assistant Director of Research at the station in 1954, and succeeded Calaway as the director on July 1, 1957. While at Georgia Tech, Boyd wrote an influential article about the role of research centers at institutes of technology, which argued that research should be integrated with education, and Boyd correspondingly involved undergraduates in his research. Boyd was known for recruiting faculty capable of both teaching and performing notable research; one such example is his recruitment of noted physicist and nuclear scientist Earl W. McDaniel.
Under Boyd's purview, the Engineering Experiment Station gained many electronics-related contracts, to the extent that an Electronics Division was created in 1959; it would focus on radar and communications. Boyd championed the establishment of research facilities. In 1955, Georgia Tech president Blake Van Leer appointed Boyd to Georgia Tech's Nuclear Science Committee. The committee recommended the creation of a Radioisotopes Laboratory Facility and a large research reactor on campus. The former was built and dedicated on January 7, 1959, and could receive, store, and process radioactive materials. The Frank H. Neely Research Reactor was completed in 1963 and was operational until 1996, when it was defueled due to safety concerns related to the nearby 1996 Summer Olympics events. The reactor was permanently decommissioned in 1999.
Throughout the Cold War era, radar and antenna related applications remained a prominent research activity in EES' contracts with the Defense Department. Millimeter wave radar research, in particular, was prominent in EES' defense activities from the late 1950s, when the first military-designation millimeter-wave radar was built at Georgia Tech, to the 1980s, when GTRI developed what was then the world's highest frequency microwave radar. EES' high-frequency radar research found applications in radio astronomy, meteorology and climate studies, which improved weather forecasting and climate models and assisted in NASA's planning of the Cassini and Galileo missions. Expansion of EES' antenna research in the 1970s, in particular, the development of an air defense antenna for the U.S. Army Missile Command, resulted in the establishment of the Huntsville Research Laboratory, GTRI's oldest off-campus research center.
In 1980, EES developed a TEMPEST-approved version of the Apple II Plus for U.S. Army FORSCOM, and used it as a component in the earliest versions of the Microfix system. Fielded in 1982, the Microfix system was the first tactical system using video disk (Laserdisk) map technology providing zoom and scroll over map imagery coupled with a point database of intelligence data such as order of battle, airfields, roadways, and bridges. President Ronald Reagan's Strategic Defense Initiative resulted in the largest research contract in Georgia Tech's history in 1985. The $21.3 million contract (equivalent to $ million in ) was divided between GTRI and the School of Electrical Engineering. GTRI landed its own largest-ever contract in 1986—$14.7 million (equivalent to $ million in ) to create a Soviet surface-to-air missile system simulator. In 1989, as part of a project with the U.S. Army, and using technology it had been developing since the late 1960s, GTRI completed the largest outdoor compact antenna range at Fort Huachuca, Arizona.
On April 10, 1989, GTRI announced that one of its research groups, led by James Mahaffey, had duplicated the results of a controversial University of Utah experiment that had allegedly achieved cold fusion in a jar of water. Four days following the announcement, the researchers discovered that the instrument used to measure neutrons was damaged by the heat of the liquid and gave false, elevated readings. GTRI immediately retracted its support of the Utah researchers' findings, citing the flawed measurement. Director Donald J. Grace referred to the mistake as "embarrassing", recalling that he and Mahaffey "blushed the whole time".
Expansion and reorganization
The Georgia General Assembly amended EES' charter in the early 1960s, authorizing an "industrial extension service to meet the technical, informational and other needs of industry and local development groups". This led to an expansion of some of EES' activities that it had been involved in since the 1940s. In particular, EES began providing additional services as a technological incubator during this time frame, and began an international development initiative that improved infrastructure and facilitated technology transfer in over 40 developing nations. The station's expanded mission bolstered its traditional research strengths, resulting in work on projects that improved radar operation on the Saturn rocket and in the invention of the compact antenna range by Richard C. Johnson. Throughout the 1960s, these changes brought about an increased focus on research that sought to solve societal problems rather than research for the sake of pure scientific knowledge. This came at a time when director Maurice W. Long began placing an emphasis on graduate education and multidisciplinary research.
The late 1960s saw a period of student unrest, and university research centers that worked on contracts for the Department of Defense were often the site of student protests. Neither Georgia Tech nor EES became the focus of protests, and Long attributed this to the school's "conservative student body". For other reasons, however, EES became embattled financially and politically as a result of cuts in federal and state spending as well as cuts to the space program. Georgia Tech's academic units were similarly affected by these cuts, which helped rekindle the debate over EES' relationship with the school.
Georgia Tech president Arthur G. Hansen's "bold and controversial" solution to both entities' problems was to completely absorb the station into Georgia Tech's academic units. On paper, this would dramatically increase Georgia Tech's stated research funding (as all of it would be performed through the academic units), and it would increase options and financial aid for graduate students. Another, less publicized, reason was that Georgia Tech would gain access to the contract organization's reserve fund, which was said to be over $1 million (equivalent to $ million in ). Thomas E. Stelson, Dean of the College of Engineering at Georgia Tech, was named to "reorganize" the station. Publicly, Stelson's task was simply to recommend a plan for reorganization, but the administration clearly intended for Georgia Tech and the Engineering Experiment Station to be closely integrated. Maurice W. Long, who was director of the station at the time, viewed the move as a violation of the EES's charter as legislatively established by the Georgia General Assembly in 1919, and asserted that Georgia Tech did not have the authority to merge the two institutions. EES employees and business executives involved with the station appealed to the Georgia Board of Regents and to Governor of Georgia (and future United States president) Jimmy Carter (himself a Georgia Tech alumnus); the controversy received coverage in both The Technique and the Atlanta Constitution.
When former EES director James E. Boyd was appointed as interim president of Georgia Tech following the departure of Hansen, he stopped the plan for complete absorption of the station, but did allow plans for closer control and more aggressive contract solicitation to proceed. Among these measures were increased resource-sharing, including increased sharing of physical assets and research staff. The latter was evidenced by the increase in joint faculty appointments between the EES and Georgia Tech. The move paid off, and the fiscal year 1970–1971 saw EES win new contracts and grants, totaling a record $5.2 million (equivalent to $ million in ). Stelson was left in charge of the station's reorganization and was named interim director upon Long's departure in 1975. During his tenure, Stelson reorganized the station into eight semi-autonomous laboratories in order to allow each to develop a specialization and clientele, a model it retains (with slight modifications) to this day.
The Engineering Experiment Station was renamed the Georgia Tech Research Institute in 1984. A separate organization originally called the Industrial Development Council, changed its name to the Georgia Tech Research Institute in February 1946, and finally to the Georgia Tech Research Corporation in 1984. There are legal difficulties when an American university wishes to accept contracts from some entities, especially the federal government, so the second organization is a contracting organization. Most importantly, it allows the university to perform multi-year contracts that are not possible under state law, which requires that money received must be spent in the same fiscal year. The name change coincided with a shift in focus toward obtaining industrial research contracts in addition to its contracts with the federal government. GTRI expanded its footprint in the mid to late 1980s: the Centennial Research Building opened on the north end of the Georgia Tech campus in 1985, providing expanded lab and office space, and the electromagnetic radiation measurement range was established at GTRI's Cobb County research facility.
Recent history
From 1992 to 1997, retired Vice Admiral Richard H. Truly was GTRI's director. Truly helped GTRI survive a recession and the end of the Cold War despite its dependence on United States Department of Defense (DOD) contracts. During his tenure the percentage of GTRI's budget from the DOD did experience a small decrease (from 76 percent to 70 percent), but this was balanced by increased research in other fields. In 1997, GTRI passed $100 million in research contracts, with 546 awards for $103,061,780 (equivalent to $ in ). One of GTRI's more widely used (and ongoing) products, FalconView, was initially developed in the early 1990s; it is a geographic information system that allows pilots to plot flight paths while integrating real-time military intelligence.
Truly was replaced by Edward K. Reedy, who served from 1998 to 2003. Reedy encouraged funding researchers who had ideas that needed support, and introduced a new cost accounting standard for recovering indirect expenditures. Reedy was particularly influential in securing the $7.3 million in funding required to build the Food Processing Technology Building. Under his leadership, GTRI's first endowed chair was established in March 1998 in honor of Glen P. Robinson, the $1.5 million Glen P. Robinson Chair in Electro-Optics.
GTRI and Georgia Tech played host to sitting president George W. Bush in March 2002; a mock disaster was staged during the visit, demonstrating new technologies. At the end of Reedy's tenure, GTRI had $115 million in research contracts (equivalent to $ in ), a new high. Much new funding came as an indirect result of the September 11 attacks and the resulting War on Terrorism as the DOD increased related research.
Stephen E. Cross was selected as director in late 2003. In March 2010, Cross was named Executive Vice President for Research, a newly created position within Georgia Tech with oversight over all research at the university, including GTRI, the Georgia Tech Research Corporation, the school's interdisciplinary research centers, and the Enterprise Innovation Institute; and will "work closely with" academic researchers. He began his new role on May 1, 2010, and was replaced as director by Robert McGrath.
Some recent notable projects have included the Deployable Joint Command and Control System and ULTRA AP, a concept combat vehicle. In 2010, researchers developed microfabricated planar ion traps using VLSI techniques for use in a trapped ion quantum computer. Also in 2010, researchers developed a method of using GPGPU to crack passwords, coming up with a minimum secure password length of 12 characters. Researchers are investigating the use of radar as a possible concussion detection tool.
GTRI is the primary contractor of the Homeland Open Security Technology program, which aims to promote the creation and use of open security and open-source software in the United States government and military, especially in areas pertaining to computer security. GTRI personnel are involved in DARPA's Anomaly Detection at Multiple Scales project through the Proactive Discovery of Insider Threats Using Graph Analysis and Learning system.
In 2018 the U.S. Army renewed a 10-year contract with GTRI worth $2.35 Billion for the Department of Defense. The following year in 2019 Georgia Tech won a U.S. Airforce engineering contract worth up to $491 Million with the condition of meeting certain criteria after 5 years.
Description
Employees and financials
In fiscal year 2022, GTRI employed 2,927 people and totaled $735 million in revenue. Also in fiscal year 2022, the United States Department of Defense consisted of 89% of GTRI's awards by value; the remainder was composed of federal (2%); non-DOD (2%) state and local (4%); and university, business, or nonprofit (6%).
Facilities
In total, the organization has at least of laboratory and facility space. GTRI is headquartered on the Georgia Tech campus in Midtown Atlanta, Georgia, where five of its seven research laboratories are located. Some major buildings are the Centennial Research Building, the Baker Building, and the GTRI Headquarters. The GTRI Headquarters contains the GTRI Conference Center, which has of space and hosts over 300 events a year.
Other notable Atlanta buildings include the Food Processing Technology Building and the GTRI Machine Services Building. Two GTRI laboratories operate at an off-campus research facility, the Cobb County Research Facility, approximately fifteen miles north of Atlanta in Cobb County adjacent to the Dobbins Air Reserve Base. Additionally, GTRI operates the Applied Systems Laboratory in Huntsville, Alabama.
GTRI opened an international office in Athlone, Ireland in June 2006. This effort was expanded when Georgia Tech, the National University of Ireland, Galway and the University of Limerick partnered in June 2010 to create a joint translational research institute. GTRI has several field offices that help with nearby on-site research and needs. These are in Dallas, Texas, Dayton, Ohio, Shalimar, Florida (near Eglin Air Force Base), Huntsville, Alabama, Jacksonville, Florida, Orlando, Florida, Panama City, Florida, Quantico, Virginia, San Diego, California, Tucson, Arizona, Warner Robins, Georgia (near Robins Air Force Base), and Arlington, Virginia/Washington, DC.
Organization
Structure
GTRI is composed of eight laboratories organized by technical focus into three research and development directorates. Each lab is further subdivided into divisions. Labs frequently collaborate with one another and outside groups (both academic units and external companies) based on the requirements of each project. GTRI performs research for clients at the local, regional, national, and international level, and employees are encouraged to publish their work and present it at conferences and consortia.
GTRI is an operating unit of Georgia Tech although it performs research under commercial cost principles for non-profit organizations. For that reason, it uses a separate contracting entity, the Georgia Tech Applied Research Corporation (GTARC). Although GTARC is the contracting entity, the Georgia Tech Research Corporation (GTRC) owns the intellectual property created by all Georgia Tech researchers and manages technology protection and licensing. GTRI reports to the Georgia Tech Executive Vice President of Research (as of 2013, Stephen E. Cross) who currently serves as the President of GTARC.
GTRI's project directors are responsible for the direction of all aspects of projects, including marketing, contract development, research, and fulfillment. Most projects are conducted on a cost-reimbursable basis and are negotiated by Georgia Tech's Office of Sponsored Programs with terms and conditions appropriate for contracts specific to the operation of a university research organization.
The organization is led by the Director, who is also considered a vice president of Georgia Tech. Five people report to the director: the Deputy Director and Associate Vice Provost for Research; the Deputy Director for Support Operations; and the three deputy directors in charge of each research and development directorate. The eight lab directors report to their respective deputy director of research and development. The business strategist, financial operations director, and chief scientist all report to the Deputy Director/Vice Provost. Business services, human resources, information systems, machine services, and other support services report to the Deputy Director for Support Operations.
GTRI, like many traditional boards of directors, has an External Advisory Council, which consists of individuals who are notable in related fields of industry, government or academia and who provide advice about research direction, strategy, and markets, although they do not govern the organization. Members of the Board of Trustees of the contracting agency, GTARC, are not necessarily members of the External Advisory Council, although there is sometimes overlap between them.
University affiliation
GTRI contributes to the Georgia Tech research environment for faculty and students by conducting externally sponsored, applications-oriented research programs that benefit the state, region, and nation. These programs, led by GTRI research faculty, contribute to national security, civilian needs, and industrial competitiveness, and provide students with career experience through graduate research assistantships, cooperative education programs, and undergraduate assistantships. Since 1995, GTRI (and in particular, its Huntsville Laboratory) has been a University Affiliated Research Center, a designation by the United States Department of Defense intended to maintain what it calls "essential engineering and technology capabilities".
GTRI is the largest single employer of Georgia Tech graduate and undergraduate students; as of 2013, GTRI employed 186 graduate co-ops and research assistants and 128 undergraduate co-ops. GTRI's contributions to the Georgia Tech community include collaborative research with academic faculty, courses originated by GTRI faculty, and joint service efforts. Collaboration is strong between the faculties of GTRI and the academic schools and departments. Many GTRI researchers hold appointments as adjunct faculty members in Georgia Tech academic departments, serve on thesis advisory committees, and teach both academic and continuing education courses.
GTRI reaches out to Georgia Tech's academic and research departments for collaboration on many research activities, building interdisciplinary teams that take advantage of the broad expertise within Georgia Tech's highly ranked programs. One such collaboration is with the Georgia Tech Information Security Center to create GTRI's newest laboratory, the Cybersecurity, Information Protection, and Hardware Evaluation Research Laboratory (CIPHER).
Laboratories
GTRI conducts its research programs through eight laboratories organized into three research and development directorates that focus on specific subjects:
Interdisciplinary research centers
Like many research universities, Georgia Tech has many smaller organizational units dedicated to interdisciplinary research, which combines two or more academic fields into one single discipline. The following centers are based out of the Georgia Tech Research Institute:
See also
References
Works cited
External links
Research Institute
Defense companies of the United States
Multidisciplinary research institutes
Research institutes established in 1934
1934 establishments in Georgia (U.S. state) |
4424711 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cuban%20Giants | Cuban Giants | The Cuban Giants were the first fully salaried African-American professional baseball club. The team was originally formed in 1885 at the Argyle Hotel, a summer resort in Babylon, New York. Initially an independent barnstorming team, they played games against opponents of all types: major and minor league clubs, semiprofessional teams, even college and amateur squads. They would go on to join various short-lived East Coast leagues, and in 1888 became the "World Colored Champions". Despite their name, no Cubans played on the team. The "Cubes" remained one of the premier Negro league teams for nearly 20 years, and served as a model that future black teams would emulate.
History
Name
Early newspaper accounts mention John Lang (the team's early financial backer) and refer to the team alternately as "Lang's colored giants" or "Lang's Cuban Giants", emphasizing the size of the players, with one newspaper noting that "nearly every man is six feet in height". Jerry Malloy, a baseball journalist and researcher, believes that the team was likely named after the National League's New York Giants; while Michael E. Lomax theorizes that they may have considered themselves "giants among the black independents" of the era because they were born out of a merger of three separate teams. Opinions also differ on how the word "Cuban" came to be used. There were no Cubans on the team, although a handful of players had played in Cuba prior to the creation of the team. The team would go on to play in Cuba, but the name predates those eventual trips. Malloy states that "avoiding the opprobrium of hostile white Americans by 'passing' as Cubans may have been a factor in naming the team" and that it might have been easier for management to schedule games if the team was seen as being composed of Cubans rather than African Americans. Lomax finds this reasoning to be problematic since it was widely known at the time that the team was made up of black players; according to him this reasoning "suggests that the Cubans were cowards and ashamed of their cultural heritage." Rather, Lomax believes the key to understanding "Cuban" lies in the team's status as both competitors and entertainers, as well as their skin color: In terms of skin color, virtually every player, not to mention the ones who played in organized baseball, was a light-skinned black. Thus, the name 'Cuban' could have referred to their mulatto status, a stage name exemplifying their vaudevillian flair on the diamond instead of signifying their racial or ethnic heritage.
In 1896, unhappy with the ownership of J. M. Bright, several players left the team and were signed by E. B. Lamar Jr. of Brooklyn. This new team of ex-Cuban Giants was christened the "Cuban X-Giants". After the split, Bright's team would often be referred to as the Genuine Cuban Giants or Original Cuban Giants.
Early years
In July 1885, the Keystone Athletics of Philadelphia (an independent black semipro team formed by hotelman Frank P. Thompson) were hired by the Argyle Hotel on Long Island to play baseball for the hotel's guests. Later in August the team merged with two other semipro teams: the Orions of Philadelphia, and the Manhattans of Washington D.C. The new team was dubbed the Cuban Giants. S. K. Govern a native of St. Croix, Virgin Islands (formerly of the Manhattans) became the new team's field manager, while John Lang (a white businessman and former owner of the Orions) provided the financial backing. Together, Thompson and Govern developed a plan to keep the team financially secure: play all year. The two men leveraged their personal connections to schedule games during the winter months in Cuba and the newly forming resort hub of St. Augustine, Florida. Playing in Florida was already a well worn practice for Thompson's Athletics: they had played in St. Augustine at the San Marco Hotel during the winter of 1884; and, while evidence is limited, Govern's Manhattans may have played in Cuba as early as 1881 or 1882. The team's future seasons would follow this cycle: from April to October the Giants would implement a "'stay-at-home' travel schedule, playing games in New York, Connecticut, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania"; then they would head to Cuba for December and part of January, followed by Florida just in time for the "peak of the hotels' festive winter season."
By the time the Argyle closed for the season on October 1, 1885, the Cuban Giants had won six out of nine games played, losing two and tying one. They headed out on the road and faced their first major league opponent, the New York Metropolitans of the American Association, losing 11–3. On October 10, they faced off against another major league team: the Philadelphia Athletics. Once again the Giants fell short, losing 13–7, but the final score had little to do with the quality of play according to a correspondent with the Sporting Life:Had it not been for Johnny Ryan, who officiated as umpire, the Athletics would have stood a good chance of being defeated by nine colored players, or the Cuban Giants as they are called. Lack of experience, weak attempts at running the bases, and the umpire's very partial decisions contributed to the defeat of the colored aggregation.
The Giants may, or may not, have played in Cuba their first year, but they did make it to Florida; and as they made their way back north that first spring they "played a series of games in every large city from St. Augustine to Philadelphia" winning forty straight, according to an article in the New York Age. That first road trip ended in Trenton, New Jersey. At the time, Trenton was without a representative in organized baseball: the Trenton Club of the Eastern League had recently relocated to Jersey City. John Lang had decided not to finance the Cuban Giants for the 1886 season, and in April a number of them were signed to the Trenton Browns by Harry Simpson. Through this reorganization of his independent club, Simpson hoped to both renew Trenton's interest in professional baseball and "capitalize on the novelty of a black team playing at a high caliber." His plan paid off almost immediately when his new club beat the Jersey Blues of Hoboken 8–7 at the Chambersbourg Grounds on May 3, 1886. Simpson's ownership of the team, however, would be short-lived: their success caught the eye of Walter I. Cook. Later in May, Cook (along with his partner John M. Bright) assumed control of the team with Govern acting as manager. Cook came from a wealthy family and was generous to the team with his money, especially when it came to illness or injuries. Cook was so well-liked that Govern and the players arranged a benefit game for him in which they played for free. According to Heaphy, it was Cook who first established salaries for the players; Sol White describes what the players could expect each week: At that time salaries were according to position. Mr. Cook gave pitchers and catchers, $18.00 per week and expenses; infielders, $15.00 per week and expenses; outfielders, $12.00 per week and expenses.
Although Cook financed the team, S. K. Govern (and club secretary George Van Sickle) ran the day-to-day operations. Govern "signed players to one-year contracts, utilized the press to schedule games, and was even responsible for selling season tickets." On May 28, 1886 the Cuban Giants played the St. Louis Browns of the American Association at the Chambersbourg Grounds in front of a "good-natured, wildly enthusiastic assemblage of over two thousand people." Despite losing 9–3, the game marked the first time the Giants played for a sold out crowd. Unfortunately, attendance figures like these were the exception, not the rule. As an independent team the Giants could not rely on a fixed schedule of league games, instead Govern booked games himself, offering large guarantees to major league clubs and smaller guarantees to minor league, local, or college teams. Scheduling games with lesser opponents often resulted in lopsided scores and uninteresting games, leading to sporadic home attendance and fluctuating gate receipts. This in turn led the Giants to schedule more road games, often playing weekend games in New York City and Hoboken, New Jersey. Their status as an independent club also meant the Giants were subject to player raids. In June 1886, Govern signed pitcher George Washington Stovey to a short term contract. Stovey struck out eleven batters in the only game he would play as a Cuban Giant: a 4–3 loss to the Bridgeport team of the Eastern League. Unbeknownst to Govern, it seems Stovey had also signed a contract with the Eastern League's Jersey City Blues. Patrick Powers, manager of the Jersey City Blues, offered Stovey two hundred dollars per month in an attempt to lure him to the team and break his contract with the Giants; Stovey refused. A few days later, Powers went to Trenton with a notice from the Eastern League's president demanding that Stovey report to Jersey City the next day. Powers and the Eastern League essentially coerced the Giants into giving up their claim on Stovey: if they tried to enforce their contract with him, Eastern League clubs would refuse to schedule games with them. Unwilling to sacrifice future lucrative bookings with Eastern League teams the Giants relented.
In July 1886, the Meriden team of the Eastern League disbanded and withdrew from the league mid-season. The Cuban Giants applied to take their spot, hoping that league membership would provide a steady slate of quality opponents as well as protection from player raids. It appeared that the team's application would be accepted, and according to Govern, the only thing that needed to be worked out was whether the Giants would assume the Meriden team's schedule and low position in the standings or be given the opportunity to start fresh. Unfortunately, they were not given the chance: on July 20, the Eastern League rejected the Cuban Giants' application and continued the season with only five teams. Despite the fact that the league already counted black stars like George Stovey, Fleet Walker, and Frank Grant among its ranks, race was a driving factor in barring the Cubes entry. According to the Meriden Journal "the dread of being beaten by the Africans had something to do with the rejection of the application of the Cuban Giants." However, other factors were also at play: the Eastern League's 1886 season was a financial disaster brought on by "bad management, and an entire lack of harmony among the clubs" Indeed, two other teams had already withdrawn from the league by the time the Meriden squad dropped out in July. Moreover, because the Eastern League was a party to the National Agreement
its members had to abide by the National League's rule forbidding league clubs from scheduling games on Sundays. The Cuban Giants were reluctant to give up their profitable weekend bookings in Hoboken and New York, so this also played a part in the Eastern League's decision to reject their application.
J. M. Bright purchased the Cuban Giants from Cook in June 1887. Bright was able to get them into the Middle States League in 1889, as joining a league was something the team had been trying to do for some time. However, Bright was not nearly as well-liked as Cook, and had to deal often with renegade players. This would be the team's last year in Trenton. In 1890 the entire team fled and played as the Colored Monarchs of York, Pennsylvania. In 1891, the heart of the team fled to their rival, Ambrose Davis’ Gorhams of New York City, then called the Big Gorhams. This dismantling and reassembling of the team became routine year after year until 1896, when E.B. Lamar Jr. from Brooklyn bought the team from Bright, renaming them the Cuban X-Giants. Bright responded by putting together an inferior team calling them the "Genuine Cuban Giants" or the "Original Cuban Giants". The Cuban X-Giants had a successful ten-year run as one of the best black teams in the East.
Ponce de Leon Hotel
In the summer of 1885, around the same time the Cuban Giants were being formed, Henry Flagler made the decision to build the Ponce de Leon Hotel in St. Augustine. Flagler, a founder of Standard Oil, envisioned the hotel as a place where "he and his wealthy friends could find princely shelter from the harsh winters of the North." The hotel opened three years later on January 10, 1888. Osborn D. Seavey was the manager of the hotel, and had previously been the manager of the San Marco where he likely crossed paths with Frank Thompson. Through this connection with Seavey, Thompson was able to incorporate the Cuban Giants and black baseball into the "integrated network of leisure activities" offered by the hotel. The players were hired as waiters (just as the Athletics had been at the San Marco), but "their primary responsibility was to entertain the guests with their skills on the diamond". An 1889 article from the St. Augustine Weekly News puts it this way: The colored employees of the Hotel Ponce de Leon will play a game today at the fort grounds with a picked nine from the Alcazar. As both teams possess some of the best colored baseball talent in the United States [,] being largely composed of the famous Cuban Giants, the game is likely to be an interesting one. On one occasion, unable to schedule a game with a local club, the team played a squad made up of tennis players staying at the hotel. On another occasion, a game played against some of the hotel's guests was attended by ex-President Grover Cleveland at the invitation of Govern. If they could not find a worthy opponent the Giants would play intra-squad games amongst themselves.
In 1889 while at the Ponce de Leon, Thompson put together an organization called the Progressive Association of the United States of America (PAUSA). Thompson was elected president of the organization, and Govern was elected secretary. Ben Holmes, the team's third baseman, was also an active member of the group. Thompson used his position to preach against "the unpardonable sin of racial prejudice practiced in the dining room of the Ponce de Leon" and the Cuban Giants served as an example of the doctrine of racial solidarity and self-help that the group espoused. The racially integrated PAUSA also promoted the idea of black-white cooperation for practical, as well as ideological, reasons: Thompson and Govern's efforts to eliminate racial barriers simultaneously created jobs for their players during the winter, while also promoting "the black game to the white spectator."
Cuba
"The Giants … played a number of winters in Havana, Cuba". The Giants had discovered that the key to being financially stable was to play baseball all year round. Cuba was a perfect place for them to play their winter seasons, because they could avoid the cold temperatures that were common in New Jersey in the winter, and they drew huge crowds when they played in Havana. They were so popular in fact that they played "in front of as many as 15,000 fans". By comparison, the average attendance per game for the Philadelphia Baseball Grounds, a popular baseball venue at the time, in 1890 was 2,231 per game.
Players
Some of the prominent players were:
Ben Boyd
Frank Grant, infield
Abe Harrison, shortstop
Andrew Jackson
Oscar Jackson
William Jackson
John Nelson, pitcher
John "Pat" W. Patterson, third base
William Selden, pitcher
Arthur Thomas
Sol White, infield
Clarence Williams, catcher
George Williams, infielder and captain
Among them Boyd, Harrison, Selden, Thomas, Williams, and Williams were members of the team by 1886, its first full season.
Timeline
May 1885: Keystone Athletics formed in Philadelphia.
July 1885: Keystone Athletics relocated to Babylon, Long Island.
August 1885: The Keystone Athletics join the Manhattans of Washington, D.C., and Philadelphia Orions, creating the Cuban Giants.
Fall 1885: Giants recorded as playing the major league New York Metropolitans (lost 11–3) and Philadelphia Athletics (lost 13–7). Both games are pitched by Shep Trusty
Winter 1885-86: Cuban Giants play in Cuba
Spring 1886: The team is bought by Walter E. Simpson who sets up home base at the Chambersburg Grounds in Trenton, New Jersey. The Cuban Giants win the first 40 games, losing 9-3 to the St. Louis Browns, a major league team (May 28, 1886).
Summer 1886: Team sold to Walter I. Cook. First full season of summer baseball for the Giants begins.
June, 1886: S.K. Govern signs George Washington Stovey to the Cuban Giants. On the 25th, in his first and only game with the Giants, he struck out eleven batters from Bridgeport of the Eastern League, losing 4–3.
July 21, 1886: Shep Trusty pitches a 9-4 win over the Cincinnati Reds. Five days later, he beats the Kansas City Cowboys 3–2, and next loses to the same team 13–4.
August 13, 1886: The first meeting between the New York Gorhams and the Cuban Giants ends with a Cuban Giants victory, 25–4.
December 1886 – January 1887: Cuban Giants play in Cuba again.
June 1887: J.M. Bright buys the Cuban Giants from Walter Cook.
1888: The Cuban Giants join the Middle States League. They were briefly associated with the Hudson River League (as were the 'colored' New York Gorhams); the league folded less than two weeks later.
August 1888: The Cuban Giants win the round-robin Colored Championship Series over the Pittsburgh Keystones, New York Gorhams and the Norfolk Red Sox.
1889: The team's last year in Trenton, the Cuban Giants join the Middle States League.
1890: Entire team leaves and plays as the Colored Monarchs of York, Pennsylvania.
1891: The Cuban Giants join the Connecticut State League.
1891: Mid-season, a good portion of the Cuban Giants, under J.M. Bright's control, leave for the Gorhams managed by S.K. Govern, now called the Big Gorhams. The Giants reassemble annually under Bright.
1894: The Cuban Giants were Eastern champions.
Notes
References
Works cited
Negro league baseball teams
Baseball teams established in 1885
Baseball teams disestablished in 1915
1885 establishments in New Jersey
1915 disestablishments in New Jersey
Sports in Trenton, New Jersey
Defunct baseball teams in New Jersey |
4424771 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Point%20system%20%28driving%29 | Point system (driving) | Many countries have adopted a penalty point or demerit point system under which a person’s driving license is revoked or suspended based on the number of points they’ve accumulated over a specific period of time, points are given for traffic offenses or infringements committed by them in that period. The demerit points schemes of each jurisdiction varies. These demerit schemes are usually in addition to fines or other penalties which may be imposed for a particular offence or infringement, or after a prescribed number of points have been accumulated.
Under these schemes, a driver licensing authority, police force, or other organization keeps a record of the demerit points accumulated by drivers. When the prescribed point threshold is reached, the person’s license would usually be automatically revoked or suspended. Points may either be added or subtracted, depending on the rules of each scheme. A major offence may lead to more than the maximum allowed points being issued. Points are typically applied after a driving offense has been committed, and the license is revoked for a defined time, or after other conditions are met. If the total exceeds the threshold, the offender may be disqualified from driving for a time, or the driving license may be revoked. After the license suspension period has expired, the previous demerit points are cancelled.
The primary purpose of such point systems is to identify, determine, and penalize repeat traffic offenders, while streamlining the legal process.
Description
This article discusses point systems in the abstract and treats points as demerits; in some jurisdictions, points may instead be measures of merit which are subtracted when a traffic offense is committed.
In jurisdictions which use a point system, the police or licensing authorities maintain a record of the demerit points accumulated by each driver. Traffic offenses, such as speeding or disobeying traffic signals, are each assigned a certain number of points, and when a driver is determined to be guilty of a particular offence, the corresponding number of points are added to the driver's total. When the driver's total exceeds the prescribed threshold, the driver may face additional penalties, be required to attend safety classes or driver training, be subject to re-examination, or lose his/her driving privileges.
The threshold(s) to determine additional penalties may vary based on the driver's experience level, prior driving record, age, educational level attained, and other factors. In particular, it is common to set a lower threshold for young, inexperienced motorists.
In some jurisdictions, points can also be added if the driver is found to be significantly at fault in a traffic accident. Points can be removed from a driver's score by the simple passage of time, by a period of time with no violations or accidents, or by the driver's completion of additional drivers' training or traffic safety training.
Major traffic offenses, such as hit and run or drunk driving may or may not be handled within the point system. Such offenses often carry a mandatory suspension of driving privileges, and may incur penalties such as imprisonment.
Jurisdictions that use a point system
Australia
Traffic laws are the responsibility of the Australian state and territory governments. Demerit points schemes have been adopted by all states and territories, and road authorities share information about interstate offenses.
In all states, drivers holding a full, unrestricted license will be disqualified from driving after accumulating 12 demerit points or more within a three-year period, except in New South Wales, where drivers are allowed 13 points in a three-year period. Those who can prove they are professional drivers are allowed an additional point. The licence suspension period is three months, plus one further month for every extra four points beyond the threshold, with a cap in most states of five months (for 8 points or more over the threshold; e.g. 20 points or more on a full license). As an alternative to accepting immediate suspension, a driver can apply for a "good behavior" period of 12 months. In most states, drivers under a good behavior period who accumulate one or two further points (except in Victoria, which does not allow any further offences) have their licence suspended for double the original period.
Most states also provide for immediate suspension of a licence, instead of or in addition to demerit points, in certain extreme circumstances. These generally include offences for driving under the influence (DUI) of alcohol or other drugs, or for greatly excessive speed.
New South Wales
Provisional licence holders are allowed to incur different numbers of points, depending on their licence class, before their licence is suspended for three months. Holders of a P1 licence, which lasts 12–18 months (which can be renewed), can incur 4 points, and P2 licence holders can incur 7 points in a 24- to 30-month period (which can be renewed). Speeding offences for provisional licence holders incur 4 points, meaning that P1 holders will be suspended after one speeding offence of any speed.
During holiday periods, double demerit points apply for speeding, seatbelt and helmet-related offences. Offences in school zones attract more points than in other areas. Automatic suspensions apply for all drink- and drug-driving offences, as well as speeding by more than 30 km/h.
Victoria
A demerit points scheme was introduced in Victoria in 1970. Learner and probationary drivers who accumulate 5 points or more in a 12-month period may accept a three-month licence suspension or may opt for a 12-month bond. If a driver breaches the bond by incurring 1 point in the 12-month bond period, their licence is suspended for six months. Full licence holders can accumulate 12 points in a 3-year period and are entitled to the same bond option. The list of traffic offences and their respective points is in schedule 3 of the Road Safety (Drivers) Regulations 2009.
In Victoria, drunk-driving offences only result in immediate licence cancellation for unrestricted drivers with a blood alcohol concentration of 0.05 or higher. Readings lower than this have the option of a 10-point penalty being imposed or being taken immediately to court; this option still results in a 4-month suspension for novice drivers. Automatic suspensions apply for higher level charges, and re-licensing may require an order to install an interlocking device onto the vehicle. Automatic suspension periods of at least 3 months also apply for speeding by greater than 25 km/h over the speed limit, or any speed greater than 130 km/h. Penalty points are no longer accrued for excessive speeding offences as of 1 November 2018.
South Australia
In South Australia, if a traffic offence is committed against the Road Traffic Act 1961 or the Australian Road Rules 1999, points may be incurred against a driver’s licence. The number of points incurred depends on the offence and how likely it is to cause a crash. If 12 or more points are accumulated in any 3-year period, a driver will be disqualified from holding or obtaining a driver’s licence or permit. Each 3-year period is calculated based on the dates that offences were committed.
If a driver accumulates:
12 to 15 points, a driver loses their permission to drive for 3 months.
16 to 20 points, a driver loses their permission to drive for 4 months.
20 points or more, a driver loses their permission to drive for 5 months.
Demerit points are incurred whether the offence is committed in South Australia or interstate.
Northern Territory
A demerit points scheme was introduced into the Northern Territory on 1 September 2007. Offences that accrue points include speeding, failing to obey a red traffic light or level crossing signal, failing to wear a seatbelt, drink driving, using a mobile phone, failure to display L or P plates, street racing, burnouts and causing damage.
Learner and provisional drivers are subject to suspension for accumulating 5 points or more over a 12-month period. The 3-year limit of 12 points still applies.
Queensland
In Queensland, provisional or learner drivers may accumulate up to 4 demerit points in a one-year period, and open licence holders 12 demerit points in a three-year period, before receiving a sanction. A driver who exceeds their point threshold may choose between a license suspension for a period of 3 months, or to enter into a 12-month good driving behaviour bond. If a driver incurs more than one point while subject to a good driving behaviour bond, their license is suspended for a period of 6 months.
Europe
Bulgaria
Bulgaria has implemented a penalty point system with a total of 34 points, introduced in 1999. In 2017, this was increased to 39 points.
Denmark
Denmark has a penalty point system that penalizes drivers with a klip ("cut/stamp") for certain traffic violations. The term klip refers to a klippekort ("punch card ticket"). If a driver with a non-probationary license accumulates three penalty points, then police conditionally suspend the driver's license. To get a new license, suspended drivers must pass both written and practical drivers examinations. Drivers who have been suspended and first-time drivers must avoid collecting two penalty points for a three-year probationary period; if the driver has not accumulated any penalty points, then the driver is allowed an extra penalty point so they can have three maximum. Penalty points are deleted from the police database three years after they were assessed. Police can also unconditionally ban people from driving.
Spain
United Kingdom
England and Wales
In England and Wales, penalty points are given by courts for some of the traffic offences listed in Schedule 2 of the Road Traffic Offenders Act 1988. Where points are given, the minimum is 3 points for some lesser offences and the maximum 11 points for the most serious offences; some incidents can result in points being given for multiple offences or for multiple occurrences of the same offence (typically for having more than one defective tyre); the majority of applicable offences attract 3 or more penalty points. The giving of points is obligatory for most applicable offences, but the number of points, and the giving of points for some of several offences, can be discretionary.
Points remain on the driver's record, and an endorsement is made upon the driver's licence, for four years from conviction (eleven years for drink- and drug-related convictions). 12 points on the licence within 3 years make the driver liable to disqualification; however this is not automatic, but must be decided by a law court.
Since the introduction of the Road Traffic (New Drivers) Act 1995, if a person, in the 2 years after passing their first practical test, accumulates 6 points, their licence is revoked by the DVLA, and the driver has to reapply and pay for the provisional licence, drive as a learner, and pay for and take the theory and practical tests before receiving a full licence again. In the case of egregious offences, the court may order the driver to pass an extended driving test before the licence is returned, even beyond the 2-year probation period.
Since 11 October 2004, there has been mutual recognition of driver disqualification arising from the penalty points given in England and Wales (and/or Scotland) with Northern Ireland; before that date, disqualification in England and Wales would only have extended to Scotland by virtue of the driver registration system covering only Great Britain.
Northern Ireland
The driver registration system is separate from that of Great Britain with different laws covering penalty points and the offences to which they apply. In other respects, the application of the system is similar to that in England and Wales. Offences to which points apply are indicated in Schedule 1 of the Road Traffic Offenders (Northern Ireland) Order 1996.
Scotland
Road traffic laws are mostly shared with, or similar to those of, England and Wales, although Scotland is a separate jurisdiction. The driver registration system currently covers all of Great Britain, and the Road Traffic Offenders Act 1988 currently governs the penalty points system in Scotland. The main differences in the penalty points provisions of the 1988 Act are the theft and homicide offences attracting penalty points indicated in Schedule 2 Part II ("Other Offences"), which are not common between Scots Law and English Law.
Germany
The Federal Motor Transport Authority (Kraftfahrt-Bundesamt) located in Flensburg, operates an 8-point system for committed traffic offences. This system was introduced in May 2014, replacing the previous 18-points system that dates back to 1974. Colloquially, these points are usually referred as "Punkte in Flensburg" (Points in Flensburg). They expire after 2.5 to 10 years, depending on the type and severity of each offence. Under certain circumstances, points can be reduced by attending formal training events. Obtaining 8 or more points will result in a revocation of the driving licence; once revoked, the licences will only be reinstated after a Medical-psychological assessment following the ban.
Ireland
In the Republic of Ireland, twelve points accrued results in six months' disqualification. 38 regulatory offences notified by post incur 1-2 point penalties on payment of a fine. 10 more serious offences require a mandatory court appearance and incur 3-5 point penalties. The most serious offences are outside the penalty point system and incur automatic driving bans, and in some cases imprisonment.
Italy
In Italy, the driver has 20 points by default, and receives a bonus of 2 points for every 2 years of correct behavior, with a maximum of 30 points.
Each traffic violation incurs a specific point penalty (for example, ignoring a traffic light involves a penalty of 6 points). If the driver loses all points, the driving license is revoked.
In case of the second alcohol abuse in 2 years, the driving license will be revoked.
A suspension is effective from when the driver is personally served with the suspension notice and they must surrender their driving license to the person giving them the notice.
Netherlands
Since March 30, 2002, The Netherlands has a point system for starting drivers (5 years starting from the moment you first passed a driving test, or 7 years if you passed before reaching the age of 18). A driver reaching 2 points in 5 years will lose the driving licence and has to pass a driving test again in order to be regain the licence. On October 1, 2014, this limit was lowered from 3 to 2 points. Drivers can get a point for:
Dangerous behaviour in traffic,
Causing an accident resulting in death or injury
Tailgating
Exceeding the speedlimit by more than 40 km/h (motorways), or 30 km/h (all other roads)
Any violation of the law which resulted in injury or damage
Some of these violations could also directly result in loss of the licence. However, when a driver has 2 points, the licence is automatically revoked and a driving test has to be passed again, whereas normally, the violation would only result in the licence being suspended for several months. However, in Dutch media, the effectiveness has been doubted, it was said that points were being given but not always correctly registered.
Norway
The system is called "prikkbelastning" with prikk(er) meaning point(s). Points are assessed to a driver's license for traffic violations which do not by themselves result in immediate revocation of the license.
After July 1, 2011, the normal penalty for most traffic violations, such as failing to yield or failing to stop at red lights, is three points in addition to the fine. Speeding violations of between 10 and 15 km/h (where the speed limit is 60 km/h or less), or between 15 and 20 km/h (where the speed limit is 70 km/h or more) result in two points, for speeding violations below this no points are assessed. Young drivers between 18 and 20 are penalized with twice the number of points.
A driver reaching 8 points in three years loses his or her driving license for 6 months. Each point is deleted when three years have passed since the violation took place. When the driving privileges are restored after the six-month ban, the points which caused the suspension are deleted.
North America
Canada
Alberta
When a driver accumulates 15 or more points within a two-year period, their licence is automatically suspended for one month.
Ontario
Ontario uses a 15-point system where points are "added" to a driver's record following a conviction, though Ontario's point system is unrelated to safe driving behaviour (a lone driver using a high-occupancy vehicle lane in Ontario will earn three demerit points).
Ontario drivers guilty of driving offences in other Canadian provinces, as well as the States of New York and Michigan, will see demerit points added to their driving record just as if the offence happened in Ontario.
New Brunswick
New Brunswick uses a 10-point system where points are "removed" from a driver's record following a conviction, when a driver reaches 0 points they lose their license. New drivers begin with only 4 points on their license and gain two additional points each year of safe driving to a maximum of 10 points. For example; if you are caught driving while distracted while using a cellphone or GPS in New Brunswick, You will be fined as well as lose 3 points from your license. if you (or any passengers under the age of 16) are caught not wearing a seatbelt in New Brunswick, You will be fined as well as lose 2 points from your license.
United States
The point system is applied in different ways, or not at all, in different states. If a red light running traffic violation is captured by a red light camera, no points are assessed. Aspects of a motorist's driving record (including points) may be reported to insurance companies, who may use them in determining what rate to charge the motorist, and whether to renew or cancel an insurance policy.
Arizona
Arizona uses a point system where your license will be suspended if 8 points are accumulated in one year. Offenses that lead to this are the following:
DUI (blood alcohol concentration (BAC) of 0.08% or higher): 8 points
Extreme DUI: 8 points
Reckless driving: 8 points
Aggressive driving: 8 points
Leaving the scene of an accident: 6 points
Running a stop sign or traffic signal or failing to yield, accident causing death: 6 points
Running a stop sign or traffic signal or failing to yield, accident causing serious injury: 4 points
Speeding: 3 points
Driving or parking over area where one or more lanes diverge to go in different directions (gore area): 3 points
All other driving violations: 2 points
There are other offenses that can count toward this (e.g. HOV lane misuse is a 3-point offense)
California
Drivers who accumulate tickets for moving violations may be considered negligent operators and can lose their driving privilege. Major offenses, such as hit and run, reckless driving, and driving under the influence, earn 2 points and remain on record for 13 years. Less serious offenses earn 1 point which remain for 39 months (3 years, 3 months).
A driver is considered negligent if they accumulate:
4 points in 12 months, or
6 points in 24 months, or
8 points in 36 months
Suspension or Revocation by Department of Motor Vehicles (DMV)
Negligent drivers can be put on probation for one year (including a six-month suspension) or lose their privilege to drive. At the end of the suspension or revocation period, drivers need to re-apply for a license to drive.
The California DMV will revoke a license after conviction for hit-and-run or reckless driving.
Suspension by Judge
A judge may suspend license following conviction for:
Breaking speed laws or reckless driving.
Driving under the influence of alcohol or drugs.
Hit-and-run driving.
Engaging in lewd conduct and prostitution in a vehicle within 1000 feet (300 m) of a residence.
Assaulting a driver, passenger, bicyclist, or pedestrian when the offense occurs on a highway (road rage).
Failure to stop as required at a railway grade crossing.
Felony or misdemeanor offense of recklessly fleeing a law enforcement officer.
When a driver is cited for a traffic violation, the judge may offer the driver the opportunity to attend a Traffic Violator School, this would include any online traffic school if the court allows. Drivers may participate once in any 18-month period to have a citation dismissed from their driving record this way. Upon dismissal of the citation, all record of the citation is removed and no points are accumulated.
Regardless of the number of points accumulated, many serious offenses involving a vehicle are punishable by heavy fines or imprisonment.
Colorado
Colorado uses an accumulating point system according to the Colorado Division of Motor Vehicles Point Schedule. Suspension of driving privileges can result from as few as 6 points in 12 months by a driver under 18 years old. Points remain on the driver's motor vehicle record for 7 years. Some motor vehicle offenses carry 12 points per incident, which could result in immediate suspension of the drivers license. Multiple traffic violation convictions can also result in a suspension of the drivers license if a sufficient number of points are accumulated during a 12- or 24-month period.
Florida
Florida uses a point system similar to that of Colorado. The Florida Department of Highway Safety and Motor Vehicles is the department responsible for the issuance of Driver's Licenses in the state and will also track points issued to drivers who are licensed within the state. The following are point values assigned for the following infractions.
Speeding
14 mph or less over the speed limit = 3 points
15 mph or more over the speed limit = 4 points
Speeding which results in a crash = 6 points (enacted to curtail street drag racing)
Speeding Fines are doubled when the infraction occurs within an active school zone or a construction zone.
Moving Violations
Moving violation (includes driving during restricted hours and parking on a highway outside the limits of a municipality) = 3 points
Moving violation resulting in a crash = 4 points
Failing to stop at a traffic signal = 4 points
Passing a stopped school bus = 4 points
Reckless driving = 4 points
Leaving the scene of a crash resulting in property damage of more than US$50 = 6 points
Improper lane change = 3 points
Violation of a traffic control sign/device = 4 points
Open container as an operator = 3 points
Child restraint violation = 3 points
Littering = 3 points
Violation of curfew = 3 points (a licensed driver who is under the age of 17 may not operate a motor vehicle between 11:00 p.m. and 6:00 a.m., unless accompanied by a driver who is 21 years of age or older and holds a valid driver license, or the operator is driving to or from work. A licensed driver who is 17 years of age may not operate a motor vehicle between 1:00 a.m. and 5:00 a.m., unless accompanied by a driver who is 21 years of age or older and holds a valid driver license, or the operator is driving to and from work.)
Any person who collects a certain number of points within a given time frame will have their license automatically revoked by the state for the length of time listed.
12 points earned within 12 months results in a 30-day suspension.
18 points earned within 18 months results in a 3-month suspension.
24 points earned within 36 months results in a 12-month suspension.
Any driver under the age of 18 who accumulates six or more points within a 12-month period is automatically restricted for one year to driving for business purposes only. If additional points are accumulated the restriction is extended for 90 days for every additional point received.
If a driver license was suspended in the state of Florida for points or as a habitual (but not DUI) traffic offender, or by court order, the holder must complete an advanced driver improvement course before driving privileges are reinstated.
Points issued against a driver's license in Florida remain on the license for at least 10 years.
The state of Florida issues its citizens points against their driver's license for infractions occurring anywhere in the United States.
Massachusetts
In Massachusetts point system is known as Safe Driver Insurance Plan (SDIP). This encourages safe driving with lower premiums for drivers who do not cause accidents or commit traffic violations, and by ensuring that high-risk drivers pay a greater share of insurance costs. The points are accumulated over a six-year period, and reduced for sustained periods of safe driving.
The number of surcharge points assigned to each surchargeable incident is determined by the incident classification defined in the Safe Driver Insurance Plan:
Minor Traffic Law Violation - 2 points
Minor At-Fault Accident - 3 points
Major At-Fault Accident - 4 points
Major Traffic Law Violation - 5 points
The incident count is the number of surchargeable incidents. However, if more than one surcharge comes from one incident, it only counts as one surchargeable incident.
New Jersey
The Motor Vehicle Commission of New Jersey has a point system. If the motorist receives 6 points or more within a period 3 years or more, they will be forced to pay a surcharge annually for three years, which does include court fees and other penalties. If 12 points or more are accumulated on the motorist's license, then their license will be suspended. Other offenses that lead to automatic suspension of the motorist's license are the following:
Driving while intoxicated (DWI)
Operating a vehicle without a license
Driving a vehicle without insurance
Failure to pay child support
Failure to make a court-ordered appearance
Drug-related charges.
Drinking alcohol if under the age of 21
The points range from 2 to 8 points, depending on the severity of the offense. Red light camera violations are not worth any points. The motorists can deduct points from their driving records. 3 points may be deducted one year after either the motorist's last moving violation and no violations for at least one year before. The motorist must also complete an approved driver improvement program. 2 points may be deducted if the motorist completes a defensive driving course. However, the motorist may receive point reductions every five years for every course they take.
New York
Under the New York points system, a driving license is suspended after 11 points or 3 speeding tickets are accumulated in 18 months. Points are counted from the date of the incident (usually the date of the ticket) rather than the date of conviction. After a driver accrues 6 or more points in an 18-month period they will be fined a "NY driver responsibility assessment fee" of $100 per year for 3 years, plus an additional $25 per year for each additional point received. This means 1 extra point costs $75 (since the assessment lasts for 3 years).
For out-of-state offenses, New York State Department of Motor Vehicles does not record point violations, with the exception of violations from Quebec and Ontario.
North Carolina
North Carolina operates two parallel point systems: one for DMV license suspension purposes and one for insurance purposes.
The DMV point system assigns 2 to 4 points upon conviction or an admission of guilt for most moving violations; non-moving violations carry no points. A driver's license is suspended for 60 days on the first suspension if twelve points are assessed against the license within a three-year period. Serious offenses, such as DWI and excessive speeding (more than 15 mph over the limit at a travelled speed of greater than 55 mph), result in an immediate suspension on conviction. Points are not assessed for up to two granted Prayers for Judgment Continued (PJC) within a five-year period, though some serious offenses (such as DUI, passing a stopped school bus, and speeding in excess of 25 mph over the posted speed limit) are ineligible for a PJC.
The insurance point system assigns points differently, assigning points to incidences of at-fault accidents and moving violations. Rather than using the points for a license suspension, the points lead to insurance surcharges of approximately 25-35% per point assessed. Notably, points are assessed for insurance purposes even if the license is suspended. Only points within the three years preceding the policy purchase date are considered, and a single PJC per household within the three-year period does not result in points assigned.
Incidents from out-of-state are treated as though they occurred in North Carolina for point assessment purposes.
Pennsylvania
The Pennsylvania Department of Transportation (PennDOT) has a point system that follows:
If the motorist accumulates 6 or more points on their license, they are in danger of losing their license. If the motorist is under 18 years of age and has 6 points or more on their license or receives a ticket for speeding 26 miles (or more) over the posted speed limit, then their license will be suspended. For every one-year period (from the date of the most recent violation) that a motorist has no point related violations, PennDOT will remove a maximum of 3 points from their record.
Violations range from 2 to 5 points (possibly with a mandatory departmental hearing), depending on the severity of the offense. PennDOT has the right to immediately suspend a motorist's license if any one of the following occurs:
DUI (One-year suspension)
Speeding 31 miles over the posted speed limit (15-day suspension)
Accumulating 11 or more points on their license
Causing the death of another due to the motorist's fault
Point system suspensions are as follows:
First suspension: 5 days per 1 point
Second suspension: 10 days per 1 point
Third suspension: 15 days per 1 point
All subsequent suspensions: 1 year
South Carolina
In South Carolina, if a motorist has six or more points on his/her driving record, a warning letter will be sent to the motorist's home address. If the motorist accumulates 12 or more points, then the license will be suspended. Motorists may reduce their points by taking a Defensive Driving Course. This course cannot be taken online and it must be taken in the state of South Carolina. In addition, the course must be taken after the motorist has been assessed points on his/her license. However, point reductions may be made within a three-year period. If by any chance the motorist's license is in danger of being suspended, the course must be taken prior to the suspension start time. The points range from 2 to 6 points, depending on the severity of the offense. If a motorist receives a ticket for a DUI, then the license is automatically suspended.
Texas
The Driver Responsibility Program point system in Texas, enacted in 2003, was repealed in 2019.
South America
Brazil
In Brazil, all traffic violations incur a certain number of demerit points, depending on their severity, according to the 1997 Brazilian Traffic Code. If a driver accumulates more than 20 points (5 points for provisional drivers), the driving license is suspended and the driver has to take a traffic education course in order to regain the right (privilege) to drive. However, some infractions incur in immediate license suspension regardless of current point tally, such as drunk driving, engaging in street racing and others. It is also notable that many offenses that only apply to pedestrians also incur in demerit points.
{| class="wikitable"
|Infraction
|Points
|Examples
|-
|Light
|3 points
|Driving while using a mobile phone
|-
|Medium
|4 points
|Parking where is not allowed, Stop on a crosswalk or intersection
|-
|Severe
|5 points
|Not wearing a seatbelt, Failure to signal before turning or changing lanes, Speeding
|-
|Very Severe
|7 points
|Disrespecting traffic lights, Driving a vehicle without the appropriate license, Excessive Speeding
|}
Caribbean
Trinidad and Tobago
The Motor Vehicle and Road Traffic Bill 2016, which was launched in September 2019, governs the points system, which is referred to as the Demerit Points System.
Drivers holding a permit for over a year may have their driving license suspended if they receive more than 10 points within a three-year period.
- Drivers who receive 10-14 points (over three years) can be disqualified from holding or obtaining a driving permit for a period of six months.
- Drivers who receive 14-20 points (over three years) can be disqualified from holding or obtaining a driving permit for up to one year.
- Drivers who receive over 20 points (over three years) can be disqualified from holding or obtaining a driving permit for up to two years.
Drivers can receive point by the following offenses:
1. Using a wireless communication device to view, send or compose an electronic message while driving or having charge of a vehicle carries a fixed penalty fine of $1,000 and the award of six demerit points.
2. Driving while disqualified from holding or obtaining a driving permit will see the award of 14 demerit points
3. Offences of driving instructor carries a fine of $2000 and nine demerit points
4. Exceeding the specified speed limit by 31 km or more per hour carries a fixed penalty fine of $3000 and six demerit points
5. Motor racing and speed trials between motor vehicles without permission carries a $1000 and six demerit points
6. Driving when under the influence of drug will attract nine demerit points
7. Driving or being in charge of a vehicle while blood alcohol levels exceed prescribed limit – nine demerit points
8. Failure to provide a specimen of breath or blood – 14 demerit points
9. Failure to submit breath analysis or willful alternation of concentration of alcohol in his breath or blood – 14 demerit points
10. Careless driving – six demerit points
11. Failure to produce a vehicle for inspection/Driving a vehicle without a valid inspection sticker and certificate - $1000 fine – six demerit points
12. Use of Priority Bus Route by unauthorised vehicle - $2000, six demerit points
It can take up to two years for points to be expunged from your record, but points expire a year after the date of the violation.
Other jurisdictions
The following jurisdictions also apply point systems:
People's Republic of China - see also Road Traffic Safety Law of the People's Republic of China
Republic of China (Taiwan)
France
Hong Kong
Malaysia - see also KEJARA System
Morocco
New Zealand
Philippines
Serbia
Singapore
Slovenia
Spain
Poland
See also
Driver's license
Traffic ticket
Traffic violations reciprocity
References
External links
Penalty points (endorsements)UK points for various driving offences].
Understanding demerit points, Ontario, Canada point system.
Traffic law
Scots law
English law
Road safety |
4425018 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/From%20Langley%20Park%20to%20Memphis | From Langley Park to Memphis | From Langley Park to Memphis is the third studio album by English pop band Prefab Sprout. It was released by Kitchenware Records on 14 March 1988. It peaked at number five on the UK Albums Chart, the highest position for any studio album released by the band. Recorded in Newcastle, London and Los Angeles, it has a more polished and commercial sound than their earlier releases, and features several guest stars including Stevie Wonder and Pete Townshend. The album's simpler songs, big productions and straight-forward cover photo reflect frontman Paddy McAloon's wish for it to be a more universal work than their more cerebral earlier work.
The album received mixed reviews upon release with several criticising the elaborate production style, while McAloon's songwriting received praise. The album's commercial performance was bolstered by the success of its single "The King of Rock 'n' Roll", which became the band's only top 10 hit on the UK Singles Chart when it peaked at No. 7. The four other singles released from the album, "Cars and Girls", "Hey Manhattan!", "Nightingales" and "The Golden Calf", failed to make the top 40.
Background and recording
After the critical and commercial success of Prefab Sprout's Thomas Dolby-produced second album, 1985's Steve McQueen, Paddy McAloon felt under pressure to deliver a worthy follow-up. McAloon resolved to quickly record and release a new album using limited production values. Titled Protest Songs, the album was recorded over two weeks in Newcastle and intended for a limited release in late 1985. However, "When Love Breaks Down", a single from Steve McQueen, became a transatlantic hit in October 1985, and Protest Songs was put on hold by CBS so as not to confuse new fans and stunt sales of Steve McQueen.
Starting work on a new follow-up to Steve McQueen in 1987, the band considered rerecording songs from Protest Songs, but decided to leave the album untouched and start anew. From Langley Park to Memphis was recorded sporadically over a year in Newcastle, London and Los Angeles. Steve McQueen producer Thomas Dolby was unable to commit to producing the entire album due to his work on the soundtrack for George Lucas's Howard the Duck, ultimately a critical and commercial flop. Instead, Dolby produced the four tracks he liked the most out of 16 demos sent to him by McAloon. McAloon produced most of the remaining tracks in collaboration with Jon Kelly, while Andy Richards took Kelly's place for "Hey Manhattan!" and "The Golden Calf" was produced by McAloon alone. McAloon did not want the album's sound to be as uniform as Steve McQueens, and initially planned to use 10 different producers. This was ultimately deemed a logistical impossibility.
The album features guest appearances from Pete Townshend, Stevie Wonder and the Andraé Crouch singers – McAloon felt the latter two's contributions proved the band's music was not exclusively British.
Composition
Musical and lyrical style
In contrast to Prefab Sprout's previous work, most of the album's songs were written on keyboard and the album's sound has been described as "sonically soft". McAloon's home recording and composing setup at the time included a Roland JX-3P, a Roland JX-10, a Yamaha DX7, an Ensoniq Mirage and a Casiotone. McAloon was most comfortable with the JX-3P for composing while a Fostex B16 was used for recording demos. He aimed to write more accessible songs than those on the band's earlier records, stating "I've realised that a good simple song is better than a half-successful complicated one." McAloon also sought to expand the band's sound to incorporate his favourite elements of popular music, including gospel music and Broadway, and to reach an audience "seduced by the overall glamour and romanticism". According to Sam Sodomsky of Pitchfork, From Langley Park to Memphis includes an eclectic mix of styles including alternative rock ("The Golden Calf"), standards ("Nightingales") and Broadway-style singalong ("Hey Manhattan!"). Several songs feature American themes, reflected in the album's title. McAloon explained in a 1988 interview that he often drew inspiration from America for his songs because "America remains an inexhaustible source of myths and the extreme."
Songs
Of the album's ten tracks, Thomas Dolby produced "The King of Rock 'n' Roll", "I Remember That", "Knock on Wood" and "The Venus Of The Soup Kitchen". "The King of Rock 'n' Roll" was written in 1985. The lyrics are written from the perspective of a washed-up singer who had a one-hit wonder in the 1950s with a novelty song featuring the chorus "Hot dog, jumping frog, Albuquerque". McAloon was aware of the song's commercial potential early on, and felt it would surprise fans used to the band’s earlier, more cerebral material. Musically, "I Remember That" is, according to Nils Johansson of NSD, a gospel ballad. McAloon considered the song's nostalgic mood a lighter lyrical theme than that of a love song, with the title phrase being "close to romanticism without actually being sloppy". He tried to sing the song with a "lightness of feeling". In a 1997 interview, McAloon named "I Remember That" "the best song I've ever written". "Knock on Wood" has been described by David Stubbs of Melody Maker as a "song about breakdown, how the man who jilts will himself be jilted, couched in a beautifully adhesive reggae lilt." "The Venus of the Soup Kitchen" closes the album. McAloon wanted the song's melody to be far-reaching and resonant, with the chorus expressing "the emotional participation of everyone listening to it". He described the song's meaning in a 1988 interview "Venus travels along the road from Langley Park to Memphis. I have imagined it full of troubled people, people who need a Venus who can cook soup for them." The song features the Andraé Crouch Singers, who recorded their contribution in Stevie Wonder's studio in Los Angeles.
Jon Kelly produced "Cars and Girls", "Enchanted", "Nightingales" and "Nancy (Let Your Hair Down for Me)". "Cars and Girls" was written in 1985, and played by the band during live appearances that year. Lyrically, the song is a comment on Bruce Springsteen's use of romantic metaphors in his songs. McAloon has denied that the song indicates a personal distaste for Springsteen, telling NME "I think a lot of his audience get into him on a patriotic level that he doesn't intend. They misinterpret him, their enjoyment of him is inaccurate, all very imperialist American. I wanted to write a song about someone who was thick white trash, listening to Springsteen, and saying 'But our lives aren't like that'." Paddy McAloon has described "Enchanted" as being about "finding something to be excited about, year after year". Thomas Dolby suggested Prince should produce the track, but the album's sound engineer David Leonard failed to find Prince at Sunset Sound Recorders to approach him. McAloon sampled the opening bass run of Glen Campbell's recording of "Wichita Lineman" for the song's bassline.
McAloon wrote "Nightingales" with Barbra Streisand – whose The Broadway Album he was engrossed by – in mind. He considered it as "the purest song" the band had recorded since "When Love Breaks Down". McAloon originally envisioned the song featuring a horn solo, but ultimately composed a complex harmonica solo and wrote a letter to Stevie Wonder asking for him to play it. Wonder hadn't heard of Prefab Sprout but nevertheless obliged, adding his own melodic lines to the song. McAloon would later describe his contribution as "so breathtakingly good and precise, even though he said himself it was quite complicated". McAloon has described "Nancy (Let Your Hair Down for Me)" as "a modern love story". The song is about a married couple who work together, with the wife being the husband's boss.
Andy Richards produced "Hey Manhattan!", a song McAloon wrote on piano. McAloon originally wanted an American, Isaac Hayes, to sing it. The proposed collaboration was quashed when Hayes' manager wanted more than was offered. The song is about an enthusiastic teenager who arrives in a big city, with the theme of dreams and ambitions. Pete Townshend provided acoustic guitar for the song during the mixing stage at his studio. McAloon was nervous about the song's production during recording, having not worked with Andy Richards before, but ultimately approved of his work. Nevertheless, he'd describe "Hey Manhattan!" as "the one song I'm dissatisfied with the way we realised it. It's pretty but it's a failure."
"The Golden Calf" was self-produced by Paddy McAloon. It is among the earliest-written songs Prefab Sprout have released, having been composed in 1977 when the band was a guitar-based trio who made what McAloon would describe as "heavy metal meeting disco". The Langley Park version felt "like doing a cover version" for McAloon due to the lapse of time, and he used a less breathy singing voice than usual on the track, something he felt Thomas Dolby would not have allowed and considered more in line with his vocals from Swoon. "The Golden Calf" has been described by Andreas Hub of Fachblatt as "a real rocker" and has garnered comparisons to the work of Pete Townshend, Marc Bolan and Del Amitri.
Release
From Langley Park to Memphis was released by Kitchenware Records on 14 March 1988. The album's title comes from a line from "The Venus of the Soup Kitchen" - "Maybe it hurts your brothers too, from Langley Park to Memphis" - a lyric about universal emotions. Langley Park is a village in County Durham near where the band originated. Memphis was chosen as it was where Elvis Presley began his career. The title has been construed as a reference to Presley's album From Memphis to Vegas / From Vegas to Memphis. The album cover, designed by Nick Knight, is a straight-forward image of the four band members, intended to reflect how the album is clearer and more direct than its predecessors. The album was the Prefab Sprout's first to chart in the top 20, entering the UK Albums Chart at number 5 and remaining in the chart for 23 weeks. It remains the band's highest-charting studio album. It was certified gold by the British Phonographic Industry in April 1988. By 1997, From Langley Park to Memphis was estimated to have sold 330,000 units in the UK.
"Cars and Girls" was released as the album's lead single but failed to reach the top 40 of the UK Singles Chart, reaching a peak of number 44 over five weeks on the chart. Speaking in 1992, McAloon described himself as "shocked and stunned" at the song not being a hit, commenting "I woke up then and I’ve never had such high expectations since." In August 1988, the band were reported to have persuaded CBS to rerelease the single but this ultimately didn't happen. The second single "The King of Rock 'n' Roll" remains Prefab Sprout's greatest success in their native UK. Their only top ten hit, the song peaked at No. 7 and spent 11 weeks on the chart. The band promoted the single with mimed performances of the song on Top Of The Pops and Wogan. McAloon would later point out the irony of a song about a one-hit wonder being his only top ten single. "Hey Manhattan!" was issued as the album's third single, reaching number 72, while its fourth "Nightingales" charted at number 78. Having been offered to American album-oriented rock radio stations by Epic in advance promotion of the album, "The Golden Calf" was the fifth and final single. It was promoted by the band with performances on the children's television programmes Going Live! and Get Fresh. It charted at number 82 in the UK. "I Remember That" was released as a single in 1993 to promote the compilation album A Life of Surprises: The Best of Prefab Sprout but failed to chart.
Critical reception
From Langley Park to Memphis received mixed reviews. Rolling Stones Peter Wilkinson described the album as "overreaching", elaborating "McAloon tries leavening disjointed talk with instrumental gimmickry. Songs built around McAloon's guitar are lost in a swirl of strings and the noodlings of no less than five engineers and four producers." Dave Rimmer of Q considered it "probably their best album yet" but found "The King of Rock 'n' Roll" "a mite irritating". He felt that "the only true duff part is the overblown imagery of "The Golden Calf"." NMEs Len Brown was not enamoured with the album's production style, calling it "sickly" and "cluttered". He considered the album "a largely bland affair", but praised "Cars and Girls" and "Nancy (Let Your Hair Down for Me)". Creems Kurt B. Riley was critical of the album, feeling that the songwriting was "done a great disservice by ill-fitting arrangements". Melody Makers David Stubbs felt it was "less strong" than Steve McQueen but "more ambitious". Vogues Barney Hoskyns commented "at least seven of its 10 songs are more accessible, more ravishingly beautiful than anything McAloon has written." Both Record Mirror and Hot Press ranked the album number 5 in their "Albums of the Year" list. Additionally, the album was included in "Albums of the Year" lists in Q, The Village Voice, Musikexpress, Spex and Rockdelux. Dave DiMartino of Billboard ranked the album his fifth favourite of the year, commenting "Paddy McAloon has seen the future of rock and roll - and has returned bearing the names of Jimmy Webb, Cole Porter and absolutely no songs about cars 'n' girls." In 1991, Melody Maker'''s Paul Lester described From Langley Park to Memphis as "a hyper-modern dazzling white pop LP that ranks alongside Dare, The Lexicon of Love and Colour by Numbers."
Among retrospective reviews, Jason Ankeny of AllMusic gave the "ambitious" album 4 stars out of 5, calling it "Prefab Sprout's spiritual journey into the heart of American culture", though he felt it paled in comparison to Steve McQueen. Writing in Italy's Ciao Magazine in 1990, Paolo Battigelli described it as a "not entirely convincing record" but added "Cars and Girls" confirmed McAloon as a composer with a rare talent, albeit one hiding himself behind allegories and tortuous references." Writing for Pitchfork upon the album's reissue in 2019, Sam Sodomsky considered the album as "catchy and complex" as its best known songs "The King of Rock 'n' Roll" and "Cars and Girls" and described the music as "colourful and hopeful and alive - everything seems to sparkle, right down to the glossy band photo on the album cover". "Nancy (Let Your Hair Down for Me)" was among the ten tracks listed in NMEs "Alternative Best of Prefab Sprout" in 1992.
Aftermath and legacy
The album's commercial success caused an uncomfortable level of recognition for Paddy McAloon, who would later recollect "I was asked for autographs, girls wanted to put their hands in my hair, touch me... ...the glamorous aspect of our music has always been for me a way of showing how we as individuals are the opposite of this glittering world." Despite demand from fans and CBS, Prefab Sprout did not tour the album as McAloon did not want to sacrifice what he described as "the best time of my life for writing", stating "I know that if I go on the road I'll just end up writing in the same way as everyone else." In interviews surrounding the album's release, McAloon alluded to two new projects he was working on – a Christmas album called Total Snow and a musical about the fictional masked vigilante Zorro called Zorro the Fox''. As of 2022, neither of these projects have materialised. Regarding "The King of Rock 'n' Roll", McAloon has described himself as "reconciled to being remembered for that song" and "aware that it's a bit like being known for "Yellow Submarine" rather than "Hey Jude"." A remastered edition of the album, overseen by Paddy and Martin McAloon, was issued by Sony Music on 27 September 2019.
Track listing
Personnel
Credits adapted from liner notes.
Prefab Sprout
Neil Conti
Martin McAloon
Paddy McAloon
Wendy Smith
Additional musicians
Thomas Dolby – keyboards (1, 3, 7, 10)
Gary Moberley – keyboards (2, 4, 5)
Paul "Wix" Wickens – keyboards (2, 4, 5, 9)
Andy Richards – keyboards (6)
Luís Jardim – percussion (2, 4, 5, 6)
Lenny Castro – percussion (10)
Stevie Wonder – harmonica (5)
Pete Townshend – acoustic guitar (6)
The Andraé Crouch Singers – vocals (3, 10)
Gavin Wright – strings lead (5, 6, 9)
Robin Smith – string arrangement, conduct (5, 9)
John Altman – string arrangement, conduct (6)
Technical personnel
Thomas Dolby – production (1, 3, 7, 10)
Jon Kelly – production (2, 4, 5, 9)
Paddy McAloon – production (2, 4, 5, 6, 8, 9)
Andy Richards – production (6)
David Leonard – mixing (1, 3, 7, 10)
Richard Moakes – mixing (2, 4, 9)
Mike Shipley – mixing (5)
Tony Philips – mixing (6)
Michael H. Brauer – mixing (8)
Tim Young – mastering
Stephen Male – design
Nick Knight – photography
Charts
Weekly
Year-end
Certifications and sales
Notes
References
External links
Die 80 größten Alben der 80er: Prefab Sprout: "From Langley Park To Memphis"
1988 albums
Prefab Sprout albums
Albums produced by Jon Kelly
Albums produced by Thomas Dolby
Kitchenware Records albums
Langley Park, County Durham |
4425599 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North%20River%20Tunnels | North River Tunnels | The North River Tunnels are a pair of rail tunnels that carry Amtrak and New Jersey Transit passenger lines under the Hudson River between Weehawken, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania Station in Manhattan, New York City, New York. Built between 1904 and 1908 by the Pennsylvania Railroad (PRR) to allow its trains to reach Manhattan, they opened for service in late 1910.
The tunnels allow a maximum of 24 crossings per hour each way and operate near capacity during peak hours. The tunnels were damaged by flooding in 2012, causing frequent delays in train operations. In May 2014, Amtrak stated that within 20 years one or both of the tunnels would have to be shut down. In May 2021, the U.S. Department of Transportation (USDOT) approved construction of two new tunnels. The new tunnels are scheduled to open in 2035, with rehabilitation of the old tunnels completed by 2038.
History
Context
The PRR had consolidated its control of railroads in New Jersey with the lease of United New Jersey Railroad and Canal Company in 1871, extending its network from Philadelphia northward to Jersey City. Crossing the Hudson River remained an obstacle; to the east, the Long Island Rail Road (LIRR) ended at the East River. In both situations, passengers had to transfer to ferries to Manhattan. This put the PRR at a disadvantage relative to its arch competitor, the New York Central Railroad, which already served Manhattan.
After unsuccessfully trying to create a bridge over the Hudson River, the PRR and the LIRR developed several proposals for improved regional rail access in 1892 as part of the New York Tunnel Extension project. The proposals included new tunnels between Jersey City and Manhattan, and possibly one to Brooklyn; a new terminal in midtown Manhattan for both the PRR and LIRR, completion of the Hudson Tubes (later called PATH), and a bridge proposal. These proposals finally came to fruition at the turn of the century, when the PRR created subsidiaries to manage the project. The Pennsylvania, New Jersey and New York Railroad, incorporated on February 13, 1902, was to oversee construction of the North River Tunnels. The PNJ&NY would also be in charge of the Meadows Division, which would handle the construction of the North River Tunnel approaches on the New Jersey side.
The original proposal for the PRR and LIRR terminal in Midtown, published in June 1901, called for the construction of a bridge across Hudson River between 45th and 50th Streets in Manhattan, and two closely spaced terminals for the LIRR and PRR. This would allow passengers to travel between Long Island and New Jersey without changing trains. In December 1901, the plans were modified so that the PRR would construct the North River Tunnels under the Hudson River, instead of a bridge over it. The PRR cited costs and land value as a reason for constructing a tunnel rather than a bridge, since the cost of a tunnel would be one-third that of a bridge. The North River Tunnels themselves would consist of between two and four steel tubes with the diameter of . The New York Tunnel Extension quickly gained opposition from the New York City Board of Rapid Transit Commissioners, who objected that they would not have jurisdiction over the new tunnels, as well as from the Interborough Rapid Transit Company, which saw the New York Tunnel Extension as a potential competitor to its as-yet-incomplete rapid transit service. The project was approved by the New York City Board of Aldermen in December 1902, on a 41–36 vote. The North and East River Tunnels were to be built under the riverbed of their respective rivers. The PRR and LIRR lines would converge at New York Penn Station, an expansive Beaux-Arts edifice between 31st and 33rd Streets in Manhattan. The entire project was expected to cost over $100 million.
Design and construction
Led by Chief Engineer Charles M. Jacobs, the tunnel design team began work in 1902. The contract for building the North River Tunnels was awarded to O'Rourke Engineering Construction Company in 1904. Originally, the tunnel would have comprised three tubes, but this was later downsized to two tubes. The first construction work comprised the digging of two shafts: one just east of 11th Avenue a few hundred yards east of the river's eastern shore; and a larger one in Weehawken, a few hundred yards west of the river's western shore. Construction on the Weehawken Shaft started in June 1903. It was completed in September 1904 as a concrete-walled rectangular pit, at the bottom and deep.
When the shafts were complete, O'Rourke began work on the tunnels proper. The project was divided into three parts, each managed by a resident engineer: the "Terminal Station" in Manhattan; the "River Tunnels", east from the Weehawken Shaft and under the Hudson River; and the Bergen Hill tunnels, west from the Weehawken Shaft to the tunnel portals on the west side of the Palisades. The tunnels were built with drilling and blasting techniques and tunnelling shields, which were placed at three locations and driven towards each other. The shields proceeded west from Manhattan, east and west from Weehawken, and east from the Bergen portals.
Under the river itself, the tunnels started in rock, using drill and blast, but the strata under the river was pure mud for a considerable depth. As a result, this part was driven under compressed air, using 194-ton shields that met about from the Weehawken and Manhattan portals. The mud was such that the shield was shoved forward without taking any ground; however, it was found that the shield was easier to steer if some mud was taken in through holes at the front, since the mud had the consistency of toothpaste. After the tubes had been excavated, they were lined with segmental cast-iron rings, each weighing 22 tons. The segments were bolted together and lined with of concrete. The two ends of the northern tube under the river met in September 1906; at that time it was the longest underwater tunnel in the world.
Meanwhile, the John Shields Construction Company had begun in 1905 to bore through Bergen Hill, the lower Hudson Palisades; William Bradley took over in 1906 and the tunnels to the Hackensack Meadows were completed in April 1908.
Opening and use
The tunnels opened November 27, 1910, when the New York Tunnel Extension to New York Penn Station opened. Until then, PRR trains used the PRR main line to Exchange Place in Jersey City, New Jersey. The New York Tunnel Extension branched off from the original line two miles northeast of Newark, then ran northeast across the Jersey Meadows to the North River Tunnels and New York Penn. The tunnel project included the Portal Bridge over the Hackensack River and the Manhattan Transfer interchange with the Hudson and Manhattan Railroad (now PATH). The opening of the North River Tunnels and Penn Station made the PRR the only railroad with direct access to New York City from the south.
In 1967 the Aldene Plan was implemented, allowing trains of the floundering Central Railroad of New Jersey (CNJ) and Reading (RDG) to run to Newark Penn Station, connecting to PRR and PATH trains to New York. The PRR merged into Penn Central Transportation in 1968. Penn Central went bankrupt in 1970 and in 1976 its suburban trains were taken over by Conrail, then by NJ Transit in 1983. Penn Central long-distance service (including part of today's Northeast Corridor and Empire Corridor) had been taken over by Amtrak in 1971. Amtrak took control of the North River Tunnels in 1976, and NJ Transit started running trains through the tunnels under contract with Amtrak.
Operation
Portals
The west portals are in North Bergen, at the west edge of the New Jersey Palisades near the east end of Route 3 at U.S. Route 1/9 (). They run beneath North Bergen, Union City, and Weehawken, to the east portals at the east edge of 10th Avenue at 32nd Street in Manhattan. When the top of the Weehawken Shaft was covered is a mystery; the two tracks may have remained open to the sky until catenary was added circa 1932. The two portals on the Manhattan side fanned out into 21 tracks just east of 10th Avenue, serving the platforms at Penn Station. 450 West 33rd Street (now Five Manhattan West), on the east side of 10th Avenue, was built above the east portals in 1969.
Except for a curve west of the west end of Pier 72 that totals just under a degree, the two tracks are straight (in plan view). They are apart from west of 11th Avenue to the Bergen Hill portals. The third rail now ends just west of the Bergen Hill portals.
Capacity and useful life
The North River Tunnels allow a maximum of 24 crossings per hour each way. Since 2003, the tunnels have operated near capacity during peak hours. The number of NJ Transit weekday trains through the North River Tunnels increased from 147 in 1976 to 438 in 2010. Trains ordinarily travel west (to New Jersey) through the north tube and east through the south. During the busiest hour of morning rush, about 24 trains are scheduled through the south tube, and the same number travel through the north tube in the afternoon.
The tubes run parallel to each other underneath the river; their centers are separated by . The two tracks fan out to 21 tracks just west of Penn Station.
Expansion and restoration proposals
Beginning in the 1990s several proposals were developed to build additional tunnels under the Hudson, both to add capacity for Northeast Corridor traffic and to allow repairs to be made to the existing deteriorated tunnels. A plan to repair the tunnels and add new tubes was approved in 2021.
Access to the Region's Core
Access to the Region's Core (ARC), launched in 1995 by the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey (PANYNJ), NJ Transit, and the Metropolitan Transportation Authority, was a Major Investment Study that looked at public transportation ideas for the New York metropolitan area. It found that long-term goals would best be met by better connections to and in-between the region's major rail stations in Midtown Manhattan, Penn Station and Grand Central Terminal. The East Side Access project, which includes tunnels under the East River and the East Side of Manhattan, would divert some LIRR traffic to Grand Central; it was completed in January 2023.
The Trans-Hudson Express Tunnel or THE Tunnel, which later took on the name of the study itself, was meant to address the western, or Hudson River, crossing. Engineering studies determined that structural interferences made a new terminal connected to Grand Central or the current Penn Station unfeasible and its final design involved boring under the current rail yard to a new deep cavern terminal station under 34th Street. Amtrak had acknowledged that the region represented a bottleneck in the national system and had originally planned to complete work by 2040.
The ARC project, which did not include direct Amtrak participation, was cancelled in October 2010 by New Jersey governor Chris Christie, who cited potential cost overruns. Amtrak briefly engaged the governor in attempt to revive the ARC Tunnel and use preliminary work done for it, but those negotiations soon broke down. Amtrak said it was not interested in purchasing any of the work. New Jersey Senator Robert Menendez later said some preparatory work done for ARC may be used for the new project. Costs for the project were $117 million for preliminary engineering, $126 million for final design, $15 million for construction and $178 million real estate property rights ($28 million in New Jersey and $150 million in New York City). Additionally, a $161 million partially refundable pre-payment of insurance premiums was also made. Subsequently, Amtrak's timetable for beginning its trans-Hudson project was advanced. This was in part due to the cancellation of ARC, a project similar in scope, but with differences in design.
Gateway Program and Hurricane Sandy
Amtrak's plan for a new Trans-Hudson tunnel, the Gateway Program, was unveiled on February 7, 2011, by Amtrak CEO Joseph Boardman and New Jersey Senators Menendez and Frank Lautenberg. The announcement also included endorsements from New York Senator Charles Schumer and Amtrak's Board of Directors. Officials said Amtrak would take the lead in seeking financing; a list of potential sources included the states of New York and New Jersey, the City of New York, the PANYNJ, and the MTA as well as private investors. As of 2017, the Gateway Program is expected to cost $12.9 billion.
In October 2012, a year after the Gateway Program was announced, the North River Tubes were inundated by seawater from Hurricane Sandy, marking the first time in the tunnel's history that both tubes had been completely flooded. The surge damaged overhead wires, electrical systems, concrete bench walls, and drainage systems. As a result of the storm damage and the tunnels' age, component failures within the tubes increased, resulting in frequent delays. One report in 2019 estimated that the North River Tubes and the Portal Bridge, two components that the Gateway Program will replace, contributed to 2,000 hours of delays between 2014 and 2018. After the North River Tunnels were flooded, the Gateway Program was prioritized. In May 2014, Boardman told the Regional Plan Association that there was less than 20 years before one or both of the tunnels would have to be shut down. In July 2017, the draft Environmental Impact Study for the project was issued.
Funding for the Gateway Project had been unclear for several years due to a lack of funding commitments from New Jersey officials and the federal government. In 2015, a Gateway Development Corporation, consisting of members from Amtrak, the Port Authority and USDOT, was created to oversee construction of the Gateway Project. The federal government and the states agreed to split the cost of funding the project. The administration of President Donald Trump cast doubts about funding for the project, and in December 2017, a Federal Transit Administration official called the previous funding agreement "nonexistent". In March 2018, up to $541 million for the project was provided in the Consolidated Appropriations Act. On June 24, 2019, the state governments of New York and New Jersey passed legislation to create the bi-state Gateway Development Commission, whose job it is to oversee the planning, funding and construction of the rail tunnels and bridges of Gateway Program. In February 2020, Amtrak indicated that it would go forward with the renovation of the North River Tunnels regardless of the Gateway Program's status.
On May 28, 2021, the project was formally approved by USDOT, with funding still to be determined. On August 31, 2022, the Gateway Development Commission announced that the new tunnels would be completed in 2035 and that the existing North River Tunnels will be rehabilitated by 2038. The project will use federal funding from the Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act, with the balance provided by the states of New Jersey and New York.
Service and repair plans
When the new Gateway Program tunnels are built, the two North River Tunnels will close for repairs, one at a time, with the existing level of service maintained. The North River Tubes and the Gateway Program tunnels would both be able to carry a maximum of 24 trains per hour. Capacity on the line will be doubled after rehabilitation of the old tunnels is complete. The Hudson Tunnel Project will improve resiliency on the Northeast Corridor, making service along the line more reliable with redundant capacity.
The existing North River Tunnels can carry a maximum of 24 trains per hour in each direction. If the new Hudson Tunnel is not built, the North River Tunnels will have to be closed one at a time, reducing weekday service below the existing level of 24 trains per hour. Due to the need to provide two-way service on a single track, service would be reduced by over 50 percent. In the best-case scenario, with perfect operating conditions, 9 trains per hour could be provided through the existing North River Tunnels, or a 63% reduction in service. During the duration of construction, passengers would have to use overcrowded PATH trains, buses, and ferries to get between New Jersey and New York. On the other hand, if the new Gateway tunnel is built, it would allow an additional 24 trains per hour to travel under the Hudson River, supplementing the 24 trains per hour that could use the existing North River tubes.
See also
Bergen Hill
Bergen Tunnels
East River Tunnels
List of bridges, tunnels, and cuts in Hudson County, New Jersey
List of ferries across the Hudson River in New York City
List of fixed crossings of the Hudson River (bridges and tunnels)
Uptown Hudson Tubes (PATH transit tunnels, opened 1908)
References
External links
Includes numerous construction photos.
Animated graphic of North River Tunnel construction technique - The New York Times
"Tunnel to Terminus: The Story of Penn Station" - National Public Radio
Amtrak tunnels
Tunnels in Hudson County, New Jersey
Tunnels in Manhattan
Railroad tunnels in New Jersey
Railroad tunnels in New York City
Crossings of the Hudson River
Pennsylvania Railroad tunnels
Tunnels completed in 1910
NJ Transit Rail Operations
Historic American Engineering Record in New Jersey
New York Tunnel Extension |
4425884 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20bascule%20bridges | List of bascule bridges | A list of bascule bridges by country:
Australia
Birkenhead Bridge carries traffic across the Port River at Port Adelaide
Tom 'Diver' Derrick Bridge - Port Adelaide, South Australia, single leaf road bascule
Mary MacKillop Bridge - Port Adelaide, South Australia, single leaf rail bascule
Batemans Bay Bridge, Batemans Bay, New South Wales, over the Clyde River - replaced by new bridge in 2021
Spit Bridge - Sydney
Grafton Bridge (New South Wales) - Grafton, New South Wales rail lower deck, road upper deck - lift span out of use
Narooma Bridge - Narooma, still in use in 2023
Carrathool Bridge - Carrathool, New South Wales, across the Murrumbidgee River - the last surviving example of a particular type of bascule lift span
Broadwater Bridge, across the Richmond River - built using the renovated bascule span from the demolished Barneys Point Bridge on the Tweed River (New South Wales), converted from counterweight to hydraulic ram lift.
Bridge on Franklin Wharf, Constitution Dock, Hobart
Marina Bridge - Bridge over Auckland Creek, on Bryan Jordan Dr, West Gladstone
Belgium
Berendrecht Bridge, Antwerp, 68 m long span across the Berendrecht Lock at Port of Antwerp
Oudendijk Bridge, Antwerp, 68 m long span across the Berendrecht Lock at Port of Antwerp
Zandvliet Bridge, Antwerp, 57 m long span across the Zandvliet Lock at Port of Antwerp
Frederik Hendrik Bridge, Antwerp, 57 m long span across the Zandvliet Lock at Port of Antwerp
Van Cauwelaert Bridge, Antwerp, 35 m long span across the Van Cauwelaert Lock at Port of Antwerp
Kruisschans Bridge, Antwerp, 35 m long span across the Van Cauwelaert Lock at Port of Antwerp
Wilmarsdonk Bridge, Antwerp, 35 m span at Port of Antwerp
Farnese Bridge, Beveren, across the Kallo Lock at Port of Antwerp
Melsele Bridge, Beveren, across the Kallo Lock at Port of Antwerp
Boulevard Bridge (Willebroek), Willebroek, 57 m span
Nijverheid Bridge, Puurs
Scheldt Bridge Bornem-Temse, Temse, 50 m span
Scheldt Bridge Temse-Bornem, Temse, double bascule bridge, span 50m
Herders Bridge, Bruges, 25.5 m span
Dampoort Bridges, Bruges, both spans 20 m
Boudewijn Bridge, Bruges
Zelzate Bridge, Zelzate, double bascule bridge
Schuitenier Bridge, Leuven, 12 m span
Canada
Barra Strait Bridge, crossing the Barra Strait of Bras d'Or Lake in Nova Scotia
Johnson Street Bridge, across the Victoria Harbour Victoria, British Columbia
Jackknife Bascule Bridge, over the Kaministiquia River in Thunder Bay, Ontario
Bridges 1 (Lakeshore Road Bridge), 3A (Carlton Street Bridge), 4 (Homer Bridge [Queenston Road]), 6 (Flight Locks Railway Bridge for Canadian National Railways), 19 (Main Street Bridge [Port Colborne]) and 19A (Mellanby Avenue Bridge) on the Welland Canal. Save for Bridges 3A and 19A, all of these were built during the late 1920s as part of the Fourth Canal expansion project (1913-1932). Bridge 3A was built to replace the original Bridge 3, which was destroyed in an accident. Bridge 19A was constructed in the 1980s to alleviate traffic on Bridge 19 (both bridges lie on either end of Lock 8). Bridge 4 is a twin-leaf, Chicago-type bascule bridge, with its counterweights located under the road deck. All the other bascule bridges on the Welland Canal are single-leaf Rall-type bridges, with counterweights suspended on a frame structure over the roadway.
La Salle Causeway lift bridge - Kingston, Ontario
Cherry Street Strauss Trunnion Bascule Bridge, in Toronto
Cherry Street lift bridge over the Keating Channel, in Toronto
CN Bridge, across the Red River, Winnipeg, Manitoba (non functional)
Murray Street Bridge, Sydenham River, Wallaceburg, Ontario
Dundas Street Bridge, Sydenham River, Wallaceburg, Ontario
Lord Selkirk Bridge, Sydenham River, Wallaceburg Ontario
King George VI lift Bridge, Kettle Creek, Port Stanley, Ontario
Canadian National Railway, over Rideau Canal, Abbott Street, Smiths Falls, Ontario (National Historic Site)
China
, across Hai River in Tianjin
Croatia
Osor Bridge in Osor
Trogir Bridge in Trogir
Denmark
Guldborgsund Bridge in Guldborg
Knippelsbro in Copenhagen
Langebro in Copenhagen
Jernbanebroen over Limfjorden in Aalborg
Limfjordsbroen in Aalborg
Finland
Lauttasaari bridge in Helsinki, connecting the island of Lauttasaari to the mainland
France
Pegasus Bridge, Ouistreham, Normandy
Sadi-Carnot Bridge, Sète, Hérault
Germany
Bascule bridge, Potshausen, Lower Saxony, Germany
Wolgast-Usedom Bridge, Wolgast, Mecklenburg-Vorpommern, Germany
Wiecker Bridge, Greifswald, Mecklenburg-Vorpommern, Germany
Lindaunis Bridge, Boren, Schleswig-Holstein, Germany
Ireland
East-Link, Dublin
India
Pamban Bridge, Rameswaram, Tamil Nadu
Bascule bridge Kidderpore Kolkata (Calcutta), 127 years old.
Bascule bridge at Kochi, Kerala
Indonesia
Batu Rusa II Bridge, Merawang, Bangka
Japan
Blue Wing Moji, Kitakyūshū
Nagahama Ohashi Bridge, Ōzu
Korea
Yeongdo Bridge, Yeongdo, Busan
Malaysia
Kuala Terengganu Drawbridge, Kuala Terengganu, Terengganu
Netherlands
Note that in Dutch basculebrug only refers to bascule bridges that have their counterweight rigidly connected to the bridge deck. If there is a hinged connection, it's referred to as ophaalbrug (literally "drawbridge"). This list lists both, and is incomplete as there are many such bridges in the Netherlands.
Erasmusbrug, Rotterdam
Ketelbrug, Flevoland
Koninginnebrug, Rotterdam
Koningin Julianabrug (Alphen aan den Rijn)
Magere Brug, Amsterdam
Nieuwe Amstelbrug, Amsterdam
Overtoomse Sluis, Amsterdam (bridge no. 199)
Scharrebiersluis, Amsterdam
:nl:Schinkelbrug, Amsterdam (bridge no. 176P, consisting of 5 parallel bridges for road, rail, and metro)
Slauerhoffbrug, Leeuwarden
Spinozabrug, Utrecht
:nl:Brug 360, (Théophile de Bockbrug)
Torontobrug, Amsterdam
Van Brienenoordbrug, Rotterdam
:nl:Westerkeersluis, Amsterdam (brug 346)
New Zealand
Te Matau ā Pohe, Whangarei
Wynyard Crossing, Auckland
Norway
Skansen Bridge, Trondheim
Tønsberg Canal Bridge, Tønsberg
Portugal
Ponte móvel de Leça
Russia
Volodarsky Bridge in Saint Petersburg
Finland Railway Bridge in Saint Petersburg
Alexander Nevsky Bridge in Saint Petersburg
Peter the Great Bridge in Saint Petersburg
Liteyny Bridge in Saint Petersburg
Trinity Bridge in Saint Petersburg
Palace Bridge in Saint Petersburg
Blagoveshchensky Bridge in Saint Petersburg
Exchange Bridge in Saint Petersburg
Tuchkov Bridge in Saint Petersburg
Sampsonievsky Bridge in Saint Petersburg
Grenader Bridge in Saint Petersburg
Kantemirovsky Bridge in Saint Petersburg
South Africa
At the Victoria & Alfred Waterfront in Cape Town
Spain
Puente de Deusto, Bilbao
Puente del Ayuntamiento, Bilbao
Puente de Alfonso XIII, Seville
Puente de San Telmo, Seville
José León de Carranza Bridge, Cádiz
Sweden
Danviksbron, Stockholm
Klaffbron, Malmö
Järnvägsbron (järnvägen Herrljunga-Uddevalla) Vänersborg
Thailand
Memorial Bridge, Bangkok
Krungthep Bridge, Bangkok
Turkey
Galata Bridge, Istanbul
United Kingdom
Egerton Bridge, Birkenhead, Wirral
Duke Street Bridge, Birkenhead Wirral
Tower Road Bridge, Birkenhead, Wirral
Corporation Bridge, Grimsby
Bridgwater bascule bridge, Bridgwater, Somerset
Sutton Road Bridge, Kingston upon Hull
Drypool Bridge, Kingston upon Hull
North Bridge, Kingston upon Hull
Tower Bridge, London
White Cart Bridge, popularly called the Renfrew Swing Bridge (misnomer) over River Cart, Renfrew
Breydon Bridge, Great Yarmouth
Haven Bridge, Great Yarmouth
Lowestoft Bascule Bridge, Waveney
Gull Wing Bridge, Lowestoft (due for completion 2023)
Pero's Bridge, Bristol
Redcliffe Bascule Bridge, Bristol
Poole Bridge
Twin Sails bridge, Poole, Dorset
Town Bridge, across Weymouth Harbour, Dorset
Countess Wear Bascule Bridge, Exeter Canal, Exeter
River Bann Rail Bridge, Coleraine, Northern Ireland
King George V Bridge, Keadby
Walney Bridge, Barrow-in-Furness
Stanley Dock, Liverpool
Shadwell Basin Bridge, Shadwell, London
Greenland Dock Bridge, Rotherhithe, London
Surrey Basin Bridge, Rotherhithe, London
The "White" Bridge, Carmarthen [Railway Bridge]
Bann Bridge, Coleraine, County Londonderry, Northern Ireland
Michaelson Road Bridge
United States
(Alphabetical by state)
Isleton Bridge, near Isleton, California
Lefty O'Doul Bridge, San Francisco, California
Park Street Bridge, Oakland, California
High Street Bridge, Oakland, California
Mystic River Bascule Bridge, Mystic, Connecticut
Pequonnock River Railroad Bridge, Bridgeport, Connecticut
Niantic River Railroad Bridge, East Lyme & Waterford, Connecticut
Mianus River Railroad Bridge, Greenwich, Connecticut
Housatonic River Railroad Bridge, Milford & Stratford, Connecticut
Washington Bridge, US Route 1, Milford & Stratford, Connecticut
Thames River Railroad Bridge, New London, Connecticut (bascule replaced by lift span 2008)
Connecticut River Railroad Bridge, Old Saybrook & Old Lyme, Connecticut
Saugatuck River Railroad Bridge, Westport, Connecticut
Market Street Bridge, Wilmington, Delaware
Highway 204 Bridge (or Skidaway Bridge), Isle of Hope, Georgia
Causton Bluff Bridge, Savannah, Georgia
Norfolk and Southern train trestle over the Savannah River, Augusta Georgia
Various bridges across the Intracoastal Waterway in Florida
FEC Strauss Trunnion Bascule Bridge in Jacksonville, Florida
Various bridges across the Miami River in Miami, Florida
Almost 40 in Chicago, Illinois, mostly across the Chicago River (and its north branch), but a few crossing the Calumet River. Examples include the following, among others:
Deering Bridge over North Branch of the Chicago River
Ashland Avenue Bridge over North Branch of the Chicago River
Webster Avenue Bridge over North Branch of the Chicago River
Cortland Street Bridge over North Branch of the Chicago River
Z-6 Railroad Bridge over North Branch of the Chicago River
Z-2 Cherry Avenue Railroad Bridge over North Branch of the Chicago River
Division Street Bridge over North Branch of the Chicago River
North Halsted Street Bridge over North Branch of the Chicago River
Chicago Avenue Bridge over North Branch of the Chicago River
Ohio Street Bridge over North Branch of the Chicago River
Grand Avenue Bridge over North Branch of the Chicago River
Kinzie Street Bridge over North Branch of the Chicago River
Kinzie Street C&NW Railroad Bridge over North Branch of the Chicago River
Franklin-Orleans Avenue Bridge over Main Stem of the Chicago River
Wells Street Bridge over Main Stem of the Chicago River
LaSalle Street Bridge over Main Stem of the Chicago River
Clark Street Bridge over Main Stem of the Chicago River
Dearborn Street Bridge over Main Stem of the Chicago River
State Street Bridge over Main Stem of the Chicago River
Wabash Avenue Bridge over Main Stem of the Chicago River
Michigan Avenue Bridge over Main Stem of the Chicago River
Columbus Drive Bridge over Main Stem of the Chicago River
Lake Shore Drive Bridge over Main Stem of the Chicago River
Lake Street Bridge over South Branch of the Chicago River
Randolph Street Bridge over South Branch of the Chicago River
Washington Boulevard Bridge over South Branch of the Chicago River
Madison Street Bridge over South Branch of the Chicago River
Monroe Street Bridge over South Branch of the Chicago River
Adams Street Bridge over South Branch of the Chicago River
Jackson Boulevard Bridge over South Branch of the Chicago River
Van Buren Street Bridge over South Branch of the Chicago River
Congress Parkway Bridge over South Branch of the Chicago River
Harrison Street Bridge over South Branch of the Chicago River
Roosevelt Road Bridge over South Branch of the Chicago River
B&O Railroad Chicago Terminal Bridge over South Branch of the Chicago River
St. Charles Air Line Railroad Bridge over South Branch of the Chicago River
18th Street Bridge over South Branch of the Chicago River
Canal Street Railroad Bridge (aka Railroad Bridge #458) over South Branch of the Chicago River
Canal Street Bridge over South Branch of the Chicago River
Cermak Road Bridge over South Branch of the Chicago River
South Halsted Street Bridge over South Branch of the Chicago River
Loomis Street Bridge over South Branch of the Chicago River
Chicago & Alton Railroad Bridge over South Branch of the Chicago River
Ashland Avenue Bridge over Chicago Sanitary & Ship Canal
Western Avenue Bridge over Chicago Sanitary & Ship Canal
8 Track Railroad Bridge over Chicago Sanitary & Ship Canal
California Avenue Bridge over Chicago Sanitary & Ship Canal
Chicago & Illinois Western Railroad Bridge over Chicago Sanitary & Ship Canal
Chicago Madison & Northern Railroad Bridge over Chicago Sanitary & Ship Canal
Santa Fe Railroad Bridge over Chicago Sanitary & Ship Canal
BRC Sanitary & Ship Canal Bridge over Chicago Sanitary & Ship Canal
Cicero Avenue Bridge over Chicago Sanitary & Ship Canal
Harlem Avenue Bridge over Chicago Sanitary & Ship Canal
Elgin Joliet & Eastern Railroad Bridge#710 over Calumet River
Ewing Avenue Bridge over Calumet River
95th Street Bridge over Calumet River
Pittsburgh Fort Wayne & Chicago Railroad Bridge#1 over Calumet River
Pittsburgh Fort Wayne & Chicago Railroad Bridge #2 over Calumet River
Lake Shore & Michigan Southern Railroad Bridge#1 over Calumet River
Lake Shore & Michigan Southern Railroad Bridge#2 over Calumet River
Baltimore & Ohio Chicago Terminal Railroad Bridge over Calumet River
100th Street Bridge over Calumet River
106th Street Bridge over Calumet River
Chicago & Western Indiana Railroad Bridge over Calumet River
Torrence Avenue Bridge over Calumet River
Nickel Plate Road Railroad Bridge over Calumet River
Indiana Harbor Belt Bridge over Grand Calumet River
Six movable bridges are found in Joliet, Illinois:
Ruby Street Bridge, [Chicago Style Bascule]
Jackson Street Bridge, [Scherzer Rolling Lift Bascule]
Cass Street Bridge, [Scherzer Rolling Lift Bascule]
Jefferson Street Bridge, [Scherzer Rolling Lift Bascule]
McDonough Street Bridge, [Scherzer Rolling Lift Bascule]
Brandon Road Bridge, [Rail Height Bascule]
Joe Page Bridge over Illinois River, Calhoun County, Illinois
Franklin Street Bridge, Michigan City, Indiana
St. Claude Avenue Bridge, New Orleans, Louisiana
Maestri Bridge, between New Orleans, Louisiana and Slidell, Louisiana
Lake Pontchartrain Causeway on Lake Pontchartrain in Louisiana
Million Dollar Bridge (Maine), Portland, Maine (demolished, replaced by next entry)
Casco Bay Bridge, Portland, Maine
Hanover Street Bridge, Baltimore, Maryland
Knapp's Narrows Drawbridge, Tilghman Island, Maryland
Commuter Rail Bridge, Boston, Massachusetts
Congress Street Bascule Bridge, Boston, Massachusetts, a Strauss bascule over the Fort Point Channel
Brightman Street Bridge, Fall River, Massachusetts
Veterans Memorial Bridge, Fall River, Massachusetts
Eel Pond Bridge, Woods Hole, Massachusetts
Independence Bridge, Bay City, Michigan
Lafayette Avenue Bridge, Bay City, Michigan
Liberty Bridge, Bay City, Michigan
Veterans Memorial Bridge, Bay City, Michigan
Bicentennial Bridge connecting Benton Harbor and St. Joseph, Michigan
Blossomland Bridge connecting Benton Harbor and St. Joseph, Michigan
US 31–Island Lake Outlet Bridge, Charlevoix, Michigan
Cheboygan Bascule Bridge, Cheboygan, Michigan
US-31 Bascule Bridge spanning the Grand River connecting Grand Haven and Spring Lake
Maple Street Bridge, Manistee, Michigan
Cypress Street Bridge, Manistee, Michigan
Pere Marquette Railroad Bridge, Port Huron, Michigan
CN Ranier Bridge, Rainy River, Ranier, Minnesota
Bascule Bridge, John C. Stennis Space Center, Mississippi
Bascule Bridge, Pascagoula River, Mississippi
Neil Underwood Bridge, Hampton, New Hampshire
Ferry Street Bridge, Buffalo, New York
Bruckner Boulevard and Expressway (I-278), Bronx, New York City, New York (With separate northbound and southbound spans for the boulevard and for I-278, this "bridge" is in reality four double-leaf bascule bridges.)
Pelham Bay Railroad Bridge, Bronx, New York City, New York
Pelham Bridge, Bronx, New York City, New York
Col. Patrick O'Rorke Bridge in Rochester, New York
Alfred Cunningham Memorial Bridge, New Bern, North Carolina
Pasquotank River Bridge, Elizabeth City, North Carolina
CSX Transportation Bridge, Wilmington, North Carolina
Ashtabula lift bridge, Ashtabula, Ohio
Charles Berry Bridge, Lorain, Ohio
Port Clinton Lift Bridge, Port Clinton, Ohio
Craig Memorial Bridge, Toledo, Ohio
Lewis and Clark River Bridge, near Astoria, Oregon
Old Youngs Bay Bridge, Astoria, Oregon
Siuslaw River Bridge, Florence, Oregon
Broadway Bridge, Portland, Oregon
Burnside Bridge, Portland, Oregon
Morrison Bridge, Portland, Oregon
Passyunk Avenue Bridge, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
Tacony–Palmyra Bridge, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
University Avenue Bridge, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
Crook Point Bascule Bridge, Providence, Rhode Island
Washington Bridge, Providence, Rhode Island
Wappoo Creek Bridge, James Island, South Carolina
John Ross Bridge (Commonly called Market Street Bridge), Chattanooga, Tennessee.
Berkley Bridge, Norfolk, Virginia
First Avenue South Bridge, Seattle, Washington
Montlake Bridge, Seattle, Washington
University Bridge, Seattle, Washington
Fremont Bridge, Seattle, Washington
Ballard Bridge, Seattle, Washington
Salmon Bay Bridge, Seattle, Washington
Ray Nitschke Memorial Bridge, Green Bay, Wisconsin
Main Street Bridge, Racine, Wisconsin
Sturgeon Bay Bridge (Michigan Street Bridge), Sturgeon Bay, Wisconsin
Arlington Memorial Bridge, Virginia – Washington D.C.
Woodrow Wilson Bridge, Alexandria, Virginia – Washington, D.C. - Prince George's County, Maryland
References
Bascule bridges |
4425950 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Times%20Square%20Theater | Times Square Theater | The Times Square Theater is a former Broadway and movie theater at 217 West 42nd Street in the Theater District of Midtown Manhattan in New York City, near Times Square. Built in 1920, it was designed by Eugene De Rosa and developed by brothers Edgar and Archibald Selwyn. The building, which is no longer an active theater, is owned by the city and state governments of New York and leased to New 42nd Street.
The Times Square Theater was designed simultaneously with the now-demolished Apollo Theatre immediately to the north and west. The theaters shared a symmetrical facade on 42nd Street, which is made of limestone and contains a central colonnade. The Times Square Theater took up most of the facade, though the western section was occupied by the Apollo Theatre's entrance. Inside, the Times Square Theater had a fan-shaped auditorium that could seat 1,155 people. The auditorium was designed in a silver, green, and black color scheme and had a shallow balcony, box seats, and murals. As part of a renovation proposed in 2018, the theater building will be substantially expanded with a glass annex, the original facade will be raised, and some of the interior elements will be preserved.
The Times Square opened on September 30, 1920, with Edgar Selwyn's play The Mirage. The theater mostly hosted legitimate shows in its first decade, but it briefly screened films in 1926 and 1928. Notable shows included The Front Page (1928), Strike Up the Band (1930), and Private Lives (1931). The theater staged its last show in 1933, and the theater became a cinema the next year. The Brandt family operated the Times Square for the next five decades, showing westerns and action films. There were several proposals to redevelop theaters along 42nd Street in the 1980s. New 42nd Street took over the Times Square and several neighboring theaters in 1990, but the theater building was difficult to lease out because of its lack of a rear entrance. Among the unsuccessful bids were those by MTV, Marvel Mania, Livent, Ecko Unltd., and a 4D theater company. Stillman Development International leased the building in 2017 and hired Beyer Blinder Belle to renovate it.
Site
The Times Square Theater is at 215 West 42nd Street, on the northern sidewalk between Eighth Avenue and Seventh Avenue, at the southern end of Times Square in the Midtown Manhattan neighborhood of New York City. The building occupies a nearly square land lot covering , with a frontage of on 42nd Street and a depth of . The theater is surrounded to the east and north by the Lyric Theatre. It also shares the block with the Hotel Carter building and the American Airlines Theatre to the west, as well as the New Victory Theater and 3 Times Square to the east. Other nearby buildings include 255 West 43rd Street, the St. James Theatre, the Hayes Theater to the northwest; 229 West 43rd Street and 1501 Broadway to the north; 5 Times Square and the New Amsterdam Theatre to the southeast; and the Candler Building to the south.
The surrounding area is part of Manhattan's Theater District and contains many Broadway theaters. In the first two decades of the 20th century, eleven venues for Legitimate theatre were built within one block of West 42nd Street between Seventh and Eighth Avenues. The New Amsterdam, Harris, Liberty, Eltinge, and Lew Fields theaters occupied the south side of the street. The original Lyric and Apollo theaters (combined into the current Lyric Theatre), as well as the Times Square, Victory, Selwyn (now American Airlines), and Victoria theaters, occupied the north side. These venues were mostly converted to movie theaters by the 1930s, and many of them had been relegated to showing pornography by the 1970s.
Design
The Times Square Theater, along with the Apollo Theatre immediately to the north and west, was developed by brothers Edgar and Archibald Selwyn in 1920. Both theaters were built simultaneously and designed by Eugene De Rosa. Architectural Plastering Co. performed the theater's exterior sgraffito work, while L. S. Fischl's Sons was the interior decorator.
Facade
The theater's original facade, shared with the former Apollo Theatre, is made of limestone and is symmetrical. The layout is similar to that of the still-extant Music Box Theatre. The westernmost section served as an entrance to the Apollo Theatre, whose auditorium was originally on 43rd Street. There was a marquee overhanging the entrance to the Apollo. Above that was a vertical sign advertising the two theaters. The Apollo's name was placed on the western face of the sign, while the Times Square's name was placed on the eastern face. In addition, there were entrances to the Times Square Theater to the east, separated by rusticated limestone piers. The two theaters' entrances were otherwise identical in design.
At the second floor is a colonnade of six columns between a pair of outer bays. The New York Times described the columns as being in the Doric order. There were originally seven wrought-iron screens, one between each set of columns. The auditorium facade is slightly recessed behind the colonnade, creating a gallery. The outermost bays in the second floor contained sash window panes, flanked by pilasters that support a round arch. The pilasters in the corners of the arches were carved. A cornice ran above the facade. Unlike the four neighboring theaters, the Times Square Theater did not have any access from 43rd Street. Instead, its auditorium and stage house were both on 42nd Street. This allowed the auditorium to be positioned parallel to the street, facing eastward.
, Beyer Blinder Belle is planning to substantially reconfigure the Times Square Theater building. The proposed renovation includes increasing the building's height to six stories, with its roof high. Four stories will be built above the existing building. The existing facade will be raised by to accommodate higher ceilings on the ground floor. The second story will have a glass enclosure in front of the colonnade, allowing passersby to view the former theater's interior. The enclosure, measuring tall, will partially cantilever above the sidewalk on 42nd Street. LED signs are also planned to be installed on the building's exterior. An open-air restaurant will also be placed on the roof.
Interior
Original theater
The Times Square Theater had a fan-shaped layout. A contemporary account said the theater could accommodate 1,127 people; meanwhile, The Broadway League and Playbill both cite a capacity of 1,055, and theater historian Mary C. Henderson gives a figure of 1,035. The interior was originally decorated in the Empire style with some Adam style ornamentation. The original color scheme was silver and green against a black background. In later years, the green decorations faded to gray.
The theater had two levels of seating: a ground-floor orchestra level, as well as a balcony with a slightly higher seating capacity. The first four rows of the orchestra were designed with armchairs instead of typical theater seats. At balcony level was a crossover aisle with several entrances, reducing the distance that patrons had to climb compared to in older theaters. Near the front of the auditorium, on either side of the balcony level, was a wall section with two box seats. Each wall section had black velvet curtains and was topped by a plaster half-dome. The theater contained an "air cushion" facing 42nd Street to the south, which dampened noise from outdoors. On either side of the auditorium were emergency exits leading to passageways; the New-York Tribune said these were capable of emptying the theater "in a matter of seconds". The ceiling had a dome measuring wide.
A black velvet curtain separated the audience from the stage, which was wide. A grand staircase connected the orchestra and balcony levels. There was also a women's lounge and smoking room on balcony level, as well as a men's lounge in the basement. The men's lounge was decorated in the Tudor style and contained wooden paneling. To the west of the Times Square's auditorium was the Apollo's entrance, which consisted of a corridor with paneled walls and several types of marble. The old Apollo entrance from 42nd Street, with bas-relief sculptures and black-and-white marble decorations, was retained when the current Lyric Theatre was built in 1998. To the east of the auditorium is the lobby from the original Lyric Theatre.
Proposed conversion
The building is proposed to be converted into over of mixed-use space . Most of the building, about , is planned to be used as storefronts. The third and fourth stories are both planned to have double-height ceilings, as well as many of the historical features relocated from the auditorium. Both stories are to have outdoor terraces. A spiral staircase would connect the second through fourth floors, and the dome would be reinstalled above the staircase.
Use as theater
Development
Times Square became the epicenter for large-scale theater productions between 1900 and the Great Depression. Manhattan's theater district had begun to shift from Union Square and Madison Square during the first decade of the 20th century. From 1901 to 1920, forty-three theaters were built around Broadway in Midtown Manhattan. The Selwyn brothers, developed several Broadway theaters on 42nd Street. Before the Times Square Theater was developed, the brothers operated the Harris and Selwyn (now American Airlines) theaters. The Selwyn Theatre had opened on an adjacent site in 1918. Even before that theater was completed, the Selwyn brothers had asked their partner Crosby Gaige to search for sites where they could build additional theaters. The brothers bought two sites just east of the Selwyn Theatre: a plot on 42nd Street, which contained George Sturges's unprofitable Bryant Theatre, as well as a plot on 43rd Street, which was vacant.
As construction proceeded on the Selwyn Theatre in September 1917, the Selwyn brothers announced two additional theaters. Originally, the two theaters were to be named after actress Margaret Illington and producer Margaret Mayo. The following February, the Shubert family acquired a partial interest in the three theaters that the Selwyns were constructing. By this time, the planned Illington Theatre was to be known as the Times Square Theater. The Selwyn brothers leased the eastern site from Sperry and Hutchinson Co. in July 1918, after the plot had already been excavated. In May 1919, the New York City Department of Buildings approved the Selwyn brothers' plans for a 1,100-seat theater on 42nd Street and a 1,200-seat theater on 43rd Street. The O'Day Construction Company was hired to erect both theaters. The Selwyn brothers intended to use the two theaters exclusively for their own productions.
Legitimate use
Selwyn years
The Times Square opened on September 30, 1920, with Florence Reed starring in Edgar Selwyn's play The Mirage. The production was a relative hit, lasting for 192 performances through March 1921. During that play's run, G.K. Chesterton spoke on the topic "Shall We Abolish the Inevitable?" at the theater. This was followed by the musical comedy The Right Girl, as well as the mhort-lived usical revue The Broadway Whirl. The plays The Demi-Virgin, Honors Are Even, and Love Dreams had short runs at the Times Square in late 1921. That November, the Clemence Dane play A Bill of Divorcement moved from George M. Cohan's Theatre to the Times Square; it was one of the first hits that featured actress Katharine Cornell. The theater also hosted recitals by actress Ruth Draper, who continued her performances there for several years. In 1922, the Times Square hosted plays such as The Charlatan, as well as The Exciters with Tallulah Bankhead.
The Fool, by Channing Pollock, opened in October 1922 and ran for over 200 performances through the next year. As an experiment, the Selwyn brothers brought over several visiting companies in mid-1923 to perform The Fool in place of the usual actors. Each company performed for three days before being performing the production at other theaters. The play Helen of Troy, New York, transferred from the Selwyn Theatre in October 1923; this was followed in December by Pelléas and Mélisande with Jane Cowl, which flopped after 13 performances. During early 1924, André Charlot presented his eponymous musical revue, featuring Gertrude Lawrence, Beatrice Lillie, and Jack Buchanan. Charlot's revue transferred to the Selwyn Theatre in April 1924, swapping houses with the musical Battling Buttler. The theater also hosted a dance recital by Albertina Rasch in May 1924, though the Sabbath Committee ruled that the recital could not be staged on Sundays. That September, the theater hosted Jerome Kern and Howard Dietz's musical Dear Sir, featuring Oscar Shaw and Walter Catlett. It was followed in November by Clifford Grey, Clare Kummer, and Sigmund Romberg's musical Annie Dear, which featured Billie Burke.
Decline
The Selwyn brothers dissolved their firm in 1925. The same year, the theater hosted the play Mismates, the namesake of the film Mismates. The musical Kosher Kitty Kelly also ran for 166 total performances at the Times Square Theater and Daly's 63rd Street Theatre, in spite of negative critical reception. Pollock's play The Enemy opened in late 1925 and ran for 202 performances. The Times Square Theater then showed a variety of films in early 1926, including The Volga Boatman and a double feature of Silence and The Prince of Pilsen. The theater's next legitimate show was Love 'Em and Leave 'Em, which relocated from the Apollo in May 1926.
The Anita Loos play Gentlemen Prefer Blondes opened in September 1926 and ran for 199 total performances across two theaters. During the play's run, the theater also hosted a speech by explorer Richard E. Byrd, a documentary presented by aviator Alan Cobham, and a ballet show. After Blondes relocated from the Times Square in March 1927, A. H. Woods planned to move his production of the play Crime into the theater. Instead, the Times Square screened silent films for the 1927–1928 season. The silent film Sunrise opened at the Times Square in September 1927, and the theater screened the film Dawn in May 1928. Although other theaters on 42nd Street were already struggling to book long-running shows by the late 1920s, the Times Square was still able to secure some hits. Jed Harris leased the theater in mid-1928 and presented the original Broadway production of Ben Hecht and Charles MacArthur's comedy The Front Page, which opened in August 1928. The Front Page ran for 276 performances through April 1929.
Several shows had short runs in 1929, including The Middle Watch and Other Men's Wives. The next hit was George and Ira Gershwin's musical Strike Up the Band, which opened at the theater in January 1930 and ran for 191 performances over the next five months. At the onset of the Great Depression, many Broadway theaters were impacted by declining attendance, leading to many flops. The 1930–1931 season alone had six shows, including a revival of The Merchant of Venice. The season ended with Noël Coward's Private Lives, starring Coward and Gertrude Lawrence, which lasted 256 performances. In the 1931–1932 season, four successive plays closed within one month. The 1932–1933 season, with three shows, was the Times Square's final season as a live venue. The season's shows included Clear All Wires!, Foolscap, and Forsaking All Others. The play Angel, with Lenore Ulric, was supposed to have opened at the Times Square in June 1933 but never did so.
Movies
The theater remained dark for the 1933–1934 season, even though the play Ragged Army had been planned to open there in February 1934. The theater's owner Burgwyn Realty Corp. leased the theater to the Brandt family for use as a cinema in May 1934. The Brandts planned to operate the theater under a grindhouse format, with films running continuously. This was part of a decline in the Broadway theater industry in the mid-20th century; from 1931 to 1950, the number of legitimate theaters decreased from 68 to 30. The lease originally ran for five years. The following year, Burgwyn lost the theater in a foreclosure proceeding. The Times Square and Apollo theaters were auctioned off; Timap Inc. acquired them in June 1935 for $110,000 and assumed responsibility for the existing $800,000 mortgage. The proscenium arch was infilled in 1939 when the former stage house was converted to a haberdashery, since the theater no longer needed these facilities after its conversion into a cinema.
By the mid-1940s, the ten theaters along 42nd Street between Seventh and Eighth Avenues were all showing movies; this led Variety to call the block the "biggest movie center of the world". The Brandts owned seven of these theaters, while the Cinema circuit operated the other three. The Brandt theaters included the Selwyn, Apollo, Times Square, Lyric, and Victory theaters on the north side of 42nd Street, as well as the Eltinge and Liberty theaters on the south side. The Times Square Theater showed action films and Westerns, and the Brandt changed the bill three times a week. Several producers offered to stage legitimate productions in the Brandt theaters, but none of the offers were successful. William Brandt indicated in 1946 that he might replace the theaters on the north side of 42nd Street with a skyscraper. By then, there was a shortage of new films in the theaters along 42nd Street, which led to decreased attendance.
William Brandt said in 1953 that any of his 42nd Street theaters could be converted to a legitimate house within 24 hours' notice, but producers did not take up his offer. By the late 1950s, the Times Square was classified as a "western and action outlet", displaying films that related to that genre. Tickets cost 25 to 65 cents apiece, the cheapest admission scale for any theater on 42nd Street. The Times Square and the other 42nd Street theaters operated from 8 a.m. to 3 a.m., with three shifts of workers. The ten theaters on the block attracted about five million visitors a year between them.
The 42nd Street Company was established in 1961 to operate the Brandts' seven theaters on 42nd Street. By the early 1960s, the surrounding block had decayed, but many of the old theater buildings from the block's heyday remained, including the Times Square. Martin Levine and Richard Brandt took over the 42nd Street Company in 1972. The Times Square still operated as an action house. The other six theaters showed a variety of genres, though Levine said none of the company's 42nd Street theaters showed hardcore porn. The Brandts' theaters had a combined annual gross of about $2 million and operated nearly the entire day. However, the area was in decline; the Brandts' theaters only had three million visitors by 1977, about half of the number in 1963. The area had also become dangerous and rundown as well. Patrons were fatally shot in separate incidents in 1977 and 1980. The Brandts' movie theaters on 42nd Street continued to operate through the mid-1980s, at which point the Times Square was showing "obscure horror/action triple-bills".
Redevelopment
The 42nd Street Development Corporation had been formed in 1976 to discuss plans for redeveloping Times Square. The same year, the City University of New York's Graduate Center hosted an exhibition with photographs of the Times Square Theatre and other theaters to advocate for the area's restoration. Another plan, in 1978, called for restoring the Selwyn, Apollo, and Harris for opera and dance, rather than for theatrical purposes. Other nearby buildings, including possibly the Times Square Theater, would have been razed to create a park.
Preservation attempts
Another plan, called the City at 42nd Street, was announced in December 1979 as part of a proposal to restore West 42nd Street around Times Square. Under the plan, the Times Square Theatre would have been preserved, and some of the other theaters would have been modified. Mayor Ed Koch wavered in his support of the plan, criticizing it as a "Disneyland on 42nd Street". Subsequently, Hugh Hardy conducted a report on 42nd Street's theaters in 1980. His report, in conjunction with a movement opposing the demolition of the nearby Helen Hayes and Morosco theaters, motivated the New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission (LPC) to survey fifty of Midtown Manhattan's extant theaters in the early 1980s.
The LPC started to consider protecting theaters, including the Times Square Theater, as landmarks in 1982, with discussions continuing over the next several years. While the LPC granted landmark status to many Broadway theaters starting in 1987, it deferred decisions on the exterior and interior of the Times Square Theater. Further discussion of the landmark designations was delayed for several decades. In late 2015, the LPC hosted public hearings on whether to designate the Times Square and six other theaters as landmarks. The LPC rejected the designations in February 2016, as the theaters were already subject to historic-preservation regulations set by the state government.
Early redevelopment proposals
The Urban Development Corporation (UDC), an agency of the New York state government, then proposed redeveloping the area around a portion of West 42nd Street in 1981. The plan centered around four towers that were to be built at 42nd Street's intersections with Broadway and Seventh Avenue, developed by Park Tower Realty and the Prudential Insurance Company of America. The Brandt family planned to submit a bid to redevelop some of the theaters they owned on 42nd Street. In June 1982, the Brandts' five theaters on the north side of 42nd Street, including the Times Square, were added to the redevelopment plan. In August 1984, the UDC granted Jujamcyn Theaters the right to operate the Selwyn, Apollo, and Lyric theaters; as part of the same project, the Times Square Theater would have become retail space. In response, Brandt and Cine Theater Corp. sued the UDC, claiming that the moves shut out independent theatrical operators. Michael J. Lazar would have renovated the four theaters for Jujamcyn, but the city and state removed him from the project in 1986 following a parking scandal. The Brandts also leased all their movie theaters on 42nd Street, including the Times Square, to the Cine 42nd Street Corporation in 1986.
From 1987 to 1989, Park Tower and Prudential hired Robert A. M. Stern to conduct a study on the Apollo, Lyric, Selwyn, Times Square, and Victory theaters on the north side of 42nd Street. Stern devised three alternatives for the five theaters. City and state officials announced plans for the five theaters, along with the Liberty Theatre on the south side of 42nd Street, in September 1988. Stern presented a model of his plan the next month. The plan called for reducing the size of the Selwyn Theatre to accommodate "intimate drama", as well as replacing the Selwyn Building with a structure containing rehearsal studios. The UDC opened a request for proposals for six of the theaters that October. The Liberty and Victory were to be converted into performing-arts venues for nonprofit organizations, while the Selwyn, Apollo, Lyric, and Times Square were to be converted to commercial use. By the end of the year, the plans were threatened by a lack of money.
In early 1989, several dozen nonprofit theater companies submitted plans to the UDC for the takeover of six theaters. Most of the bids were for the Liberty and Victory, but the Selwyn, Apollo, Lyric, and Times Square theaters received 13 bids between them. That year, the Durst Organization acquired the leases to eight theaters in Times Square, including the Selwyn. It subsequently announced plans to renovate the eight theaters in February 1990. The theaters closed when the New York state government acquired the theater sites that April via eminent domain. The city had planned to buy out the theaters' leases but withdrew after the 42nd Street Company indicated it would lease the theaters to another developer. Although Durst protested the move, a New York Supreme Court judge ruled that the condemnation could occur.
New 42nd Street control
1990s proposals
A nonprofit organization, New 42nd Street, was formed in September 1990 to restore six of the theaters and find uses for them. Government officials hoped that development of the theaters would finally allow the construction of the four towers around 42nd Street, Broadway, and Seventh Avenue. In 1992, New 42nd Street received a $18.2 million grant for restoring the six theaters as part of an agreement with Prudential and Park Tower. Donna Dennis used the vacant theater's facade in 1993 for an art exhibition that included old playbills. That year, officials proposed opening the New York Information Center, which would occupy the Times Square Theater and either the Apollo or Lyric theaters. After Disney committed to restoring the New Amsterdam Theatre in 1994, most of the other theaters around 42nd Street were quickly leased. Garth Drabinsky, president of Canadian company Livent, signed a long-term lease for the Apollo and Lyric theaters in July 1995, and the present Lyric Theatre (then known as the Ford Center for the Performing Arts) opened in 1998.
In September 1994, MTV took an option on the Apollo, Lyric, and Times Square theaters, which it planned to convert into a production studio. However, the negotiations with MTV fell through. Marvel Entertainment signed a letter of intent to build a Marvel Mania restaurant inside in May 1996. These plans were placed on hold after Marvel Entertainment Group filed for bankruptcy protection at the end of the year. In mid-1997, Billboard Live International was negotiating to renovate the Times Square into a live-concert venue. Had this plan been successful, the theater building would have been expanded to to accommodate live concerts, and much of the theater's architectural details would have been preserved. After Billboard Live reneged, CBS considered leasing the theater as a broadcast studio by late 1997. Ultimately, CBS never signed a lease. Yet another themed restaurant, operated by WrestleMania, was proposed for the theater in early 1998, though WrestleMania also did not sign a lease.
New 42nd Street leased the theater in August 1998 to Livent, which proposed an entertainment complex with a 500-seat auditorium and a themed restaurant. Livent encountered major accounting issues within a week of the lease. By November 1998, Livent had filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection, and the company canceled its plans to redevelop the Times Square Theater. New 42nd Street Inc. president Cora Cahan said she had received several proposals for potential uses of the theater, though most bidders said they did not want to build a performance space there. Producer Stewart F. Lane had proposed converting the theater for live use, but Cahan rejected the plan in January 1999. In the meantime, advertising firm TDI installed seven advertisement panels between the theater's columns. Cahan said that, in three months, the ads could raise $100,000 for New 42nd Street's adjacent rehearsal studios. By then, the popularity of theme restaurants was decreasing, and most sites in the neighborhood had already been redeveloped.
2000s and early 2010s
The Times Square Theater remained empty in 2000, after every other theater on the block had been renovated. Part of the issue was that it was not viable as a theater, as its only entrance was on 42nd Street, making it more difficult to load scenery and props. In addition, the Times Square was old, had a small lobby, and suffered from noise issues. The 42nd Street Development Project had its offices on the former stage until 2004. Construction workers removed seat cushions and dismantled the project's offices before the theater was marketed for commercial use. That year, New 42nd Street agreed to lease to Ecko Unltd., which planned to convert it into a hip-hop store. Ecko planned to build a or store across four floors. The firm of Janson-Goldstein was hired to renovate the space; at the time, the store would have been completed in 2006. The project stalled after the planning process, even though Ecko had continued to pay rent, and the theater was covered in plywood. In 2009, the company abandoned its lease, and Cahan considered filing a lawsuit against Ecko.
A mural by Sofia Maldonado was placed on the empty theater in 2010. The Observer reported in early 2011 that a 4D theater was being planned for . The next year, a group called Broadway 4D Theaters, LLC signed a long-term lease for the theater. The Times Square would have been renovated to accommodate a 4D film presentation dedicated to the history of Broadway, Broadway Sensation, to be produced by lawyer Robert Kory and producer/director Gary Goddard. The attraction was expected to open in early 2015. The Times Square had proven so hard to lease that the Real Estate Board of New York granted an award to the brokers who had arranged the deal. The media reported in 2014 that the project had been canceled due to financial troubles. In August 2015, Elie Samaha and Donald Kushner announced they purchased the assets of Broadway 4D Theaters and would continue the project. Singaporean company Oracle Projects International reportedly leased the theater in March 2016 for use as an event space.
Renovation
Stillman Development International LLC signed a 73-year lease for the Times Square Theater in 2017. The following year, Stillman and its partner announced a $100 million renovation of the building. Colliers International was also hired to market the building. At the time of the announcement, the project was supposed to take two years. Stillman hired Beyer Blinder Belle to design the renovation, add several stories, and raise the facade by five feet. The facade would be separated from the interior structure and raised using hydraulic jacks. In addition, Stillman would remove the proscenium arch, dome, and boxes for restoration. Even though the LPC had not designated the Times Square Theater as a landmark, parts of the building were still subject to preservation guidelines. The New York City Economic Development Corporation and the 42nd Street Development Project's Historic Preservation Committee both supported the plans.
In early 2019, Stillman's executive vice president Armen Boyajian expressed hope that the theater's restoration would be completed by early 2021. John Tiedemann had removed an iron gate on the facade for restoration, while contractor Shawmut had removed some of the interior decorative elements. The developers filed partial demolition plans for the Times Square Theater with the New York City Department of Buildings in July 2019. The developers then submitted construction plans in February 2020. Though the renovation had been slated for completion in 2020, the renovation was still incomplete at the beginning of 2021, and the developers did not give an updated timeline. Work on the Times Square had stalled by January 2023 because no tenants had shown interest in occupying the theater.
Notable productions
Productions are listed by the year of their first performance. This list only includes Broadway shows; it does not include films screened there.
1920: The Mirage
1921: The Demi-Virgin
1921: A Bill of Divorcement
1923: Pelleas and Melisande
1924: Andre Charlot's Revue of 1924
1924: Battling Buttler
1925: Mismates
1925: Kosher Kitty Kelly
1926: Gentlemen Prefer Blondes
1928: The Front Page
1929: The Middle Watch
1929: Other Men's Wives
1930: Strike Up the Band
1930: The Merchant of Venice
1931: Private Lives
1932: Clear All Wires!
1933: Forsaking All Others
References
Notes
Citations
Sources
External links
Cinema Treasures page
Museum of the City of New York drawing
1920 establishments in New York City
42nd Street (Manhattan)
Former theatres in Manhattan
Theater District, Manhattan
Theatres completed in 1920 |
4425997 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Under%20Western%20Eyes%20%28novel%29 | Under Western Eyes (novel) | Under Western Eyes (1911) is a novel by Joseph Conrad. The novel takes place in St. Petersburg, Russia, and Geneva, Switzerland, and is viewed as Conrad's response to the themes explored in Fyodor Dostoevsky's Crime and Punishment; Conrad was reputed to have detested Dostoevsky. It has also been interpreted as Conrad's response to his own early life; his father was a Polish independence activist and would-be revolutionary imprisoned by the Russians, but, instead of following in his father's footsteps, at the age of sixteen Conrad left his native land, only to return briefly decades later. Indeed, while writing Under Western Eyes, Conrad suffered a weeks-long breakdown during which he conversed with the novel's characters in Polish.
This novel is considered to be one of Conrad's major works and is close in subject matter to The Secret Agent. It is full of cynicism and conflict about the historical failures of revolutionary movements and ideals. Conrad remarks in this book, as well as others, on the irrationality of life, the opacity of character, the unfairness with which suffering is inflicted upon the innocent and poor and the careless disregard for the lives of those with whom we share existence.
The book's first audience read it after the failed Russian Revolution of 1905. A later audience reading it after the Russian Revolutions of 1917 perceived the author's insights differently. Writing to Edward Garnett in 1911, Conrad said "...in this book I am concerned with nothing but ideas, to the exclusion of everything else".
Plot summary
Part First
The narrator, an English teacher of languages living in Geneva, is narrating the personal record of Kyrilo Sidorovitch Razumov. Razumov is a student in the University of St. Petersburg in the early 1910s. Razumov never knew his parents and has no family ties. He is trusted by his fellow students, many of whom hold revolutionary views, but Razumov takes no clear position on any of the great questions of his time because he considers all of Russia his family. (A better view, perhaps, would be to say that Razumov has no family to fall back on, feels isolated from his contemporaries, takes no interest in the "great issues" of the day, and merely seeks a middle-class secure position within the Czarist system – thus, very ironically, he sees "all Russia" as his "family.")
One night, Mr. de P—, the brutal Minister of State, is assassinated by a team of two, but the bombs used also claim the lives of his footman, the first assassin and a number of bystanders. Razumov enters his rooms to find Victor Haldin, a fellow student. Haldin tells Razumov that he was the one who murdered Mr. de P—, but that he and his accomplice did not make a proper escape plan. He requests Razumov's help because he trusts him, even though he realises that they do not quite belong in the same camp. Razumov agrees to help, if only to get Haldin out of his flat. Haldin tasks him with finding Ziemianitch, who was supposed to help Haldin escape.
Haldin's request launches Razumov into a deep identity crisis. He feels that his life will be destroyed by the authorities simply because of his association with Haldin. Consequently he becomes intensely aware of his social isolation and lack of family ties. Harbouring no sympathy for Haldin's actions or his ideals, Razumov is brought closer to conservatism out of the simple fear to survive. He seeks out Ziemianitch and, when he finds him, drunk and incapacitated, beats him. Afterwards he makes up his mind to betray Haldin to save his own life and turns to his university sponsor, Prince K. They go to the chief of police, General T—. Then a trap is laid for Haldin.
Razumov returns to his apartment and attempts to explain his predicament to Haldin while concealing the fact that he has just betrayed him. Haldin leaves and, later that night, is caught. Razumov is distressed for days after Haldin's capture. In his apartment, he writes down a set of political principles which paint him as a reformist and not a revolutionary. Finally, he receives a summons to the police headquarters and meets Privy Councillor Mikulin. In a scene reminiscent of Crime and Punishment, Razumov is highly paranoid that Mikulin suspects him of being a revolutionary. Mikulin reveals that Haldin was interrogated, sentenced and hanged the same day without implicating Razumov. Mikulin also reveals that he supervised a search of Razumov's quarters and was impressed by his manifesto. Razumov attempts to leave, but Mikulin makes him pause.
Part Second
The narrative shifts to Haldin's sister, Natalia, and their mother, Mrs Haldin, who live in Switzerland after Haldin persuaded them to sell their house in Russia and move. Having lived in Zurich for a while, they then settle in Geneva, which has a vibrant Russian community. There, they wait for Haldin. Natalia has been friendly with the narrator for some time from whom she receives English lessons.
One day, the narrator chances upon the news of Haldin's arrest and execution in an English newspaper, and tells Natalia and her mother. Natalia takes the news stoically but her mother is deeply distressed. Peter Ivanovitch, a leader in the revolutionary movement, having learnt of Haldin's execution, meets with Natalia and attempts to recruit her, but Natalia is sceptical and noncommittal. He also tells her that Razumov is about to arrive in Geneva, which excites Natalia, as Haldin had described him in glowing terms in his letters.
Natalia is invited to the Chateau Borel, a big, neglected house that Madame de S— rents from the widow of an Italian banker, and meets Tekla, the abused companion of Madame de S— and secretary to Peter Ivanovitch. Tekla recounts her life story. Afterwards, they come upon Peter Ivanovitch and Razumov. Peter Ivanovitch leaves and Natalia introduces herself to Razumov, who feels compassion for her. Tekla, like most of the characters whom Razumov encounters, misinterprets his taciturn cynicism – which is in fact motivated by his hatred for the entire situation he has fallen into – as the expression of a true revolutionist, and pledges her help to him, even to the point of leaving Madame de S— and Peter Ivanovitch.
Part Third
The narrative shifts back to a few weeks earlier and describes how Razumov arrived in Geneva, having first stayed in Zurich for three days with Sophia Antonovna, the right hand of Peter Ivanovitch. Razumov did not further seek Peter Ivanovitch after their first meeting but instead took long walks with Natalia, where she took him into her confidence and asked about her brother's last hours, to which Razumov gave no definite answer. Razumov is abrasive towards the narrator, who detects a deep distress under Razumov's exterior. He is invited to the Chateau Borel, where he is received on friendly terms, as Madame de S— and Peter Ivanovitch think that he was a collaborator of Haldin. In fact, Razumov has gone to Geneva, working as a spy for the Russian government.
His taciturnity and reserve are interpreted by each character in their own way. The revolutionaries reveal some of their plans to Razumov and he is given his first assignment: to bring Natalia to Peter Ivanovitch so he can convert her, as Peter Ivanovitch cherishes female followers above everything else.
Razumov then meets Sophia Antonovna and comes to see her as his most dangerous adversary because of her single-mindedness and perception. Suppressing his distress, he manages to deceive her. Sophia Antonovna reveals that Ziemianitch hanged himself soon after Haldin's execution, which makes the revolutionaries believe that he was the one who betrayed Haldin.
Part Fourth
The narrative shifts back to Razumov's initial interview with Mikulin. Mikulin admits having read Razumov's private notes but reassures him that he is not suspicious of him. After telling Razumov that some of the best Russian minds ultimately returned to them (referring to Dostoevsky, Gogol and Aksakov), he lets him go. Razumov spends the next few weeks in an increasing state of malaise where he alienates his fellow students and professors. In the meantime, Mikulin has received a promotion and sees an opportunity to use Razumov. He summons him to further interviews where he recruits him, with the blessings of Prince K., to act as a secret agent for the Czarist authorities of the Russian Empire.
The narrative shifts to Geneva, where Razumov is writing his first report to Mikulin. On his way to the post office, the narrator comes upon him, but Razumov takes no notice of him. The narrator goes to Natalia's flat, only to learn that Natalia must find Razumov urgently and bring him to her distraught mother, as she needs to meet the only friend of Haldin that she knows. The professor and Natalia go to the Cosmopolitan Hotel to ask Peter Ivanovitch where Razumov stays. There, they find the revolutionaries preparing an insurgency in the Baltic provinces. They visit Razumov's lodgings but do not find him. They then return to Natalia's quarters where Razumov has unexpectedly visited her mother. After a long conversation with Natalia in which Razumov makes several obscure and cryptic remarks, and Natalia asks how her brother spent his last hours, Razumov implies that he was the one who betrayed him.
Razumov retires to his quarters where he writes his record. He explains to Natalia that he fell in love with her as soon as she took him into her confidence, that he had never been shown any kind of love before, and that he felt he had betrayed himself by betraying her brother.
He mails the record to Natalia and goes to the house of Julius Laspara where a social gathering of revolutionaries is taking place. Razumov declares to the crowd that Ziemianitch was innocent and explains his motives only partially, but confesses that he was the one who betrayed Haldin. Some revolutionaries, led by Necator, attack him and smash his eardrums. A deaf Razumov is crushed by a tramcar and crippled. Tekla finds him and stays by his side at the hospital.
A few months pass and Mrs Haldin has died. Natalia has returned to Russia to devote herself to charity work after giving Razumov's record to the narrator. Tekla has taken the invalid Razumov to the Russian countryside, where she looks after him.
Major characters
Kyrilo Sidorovitch Razumov: Razumov is a student in the University of St. Petersburg, a hotbed of revolutionary activity at the time. He is described as a serious young man, studious and hard working. He survives on a modest allowance provided by Prince K., his sponsor. Having known no family, he considers all of Russia his family. Handsome and aristocratic in appearance, he inspires trust in people by his obliging manner and attentive listening. His ultimate ambition before de P—'s assassination was to become a professor or a Privy Councillor. Deeply aware of the fact that he has no meaningful connections to anyone, he relies on his hard work as a means of advancement. Razumov is held in high esteem by the Geneva revolutionaries because they think he was a collaborator of Haldin. In fact, after Haldin's arrest, Razumov is nerve-wracked and paranoid. He holds the revolutionaries in contempt and often makes sarcastic sneers, something that confuses them. He falls in love with Natalia Haldin but having never known neither love nor family, his identity crumbles, and he finally confesses to her that he betrayed her brother.
Victor Victorovich Haldin: A fellow student of Razumov, he assassinates Mr de P., but several innocent bystanders are killed as well. With his escape plan compromised, he breaks into Razumov's rooms and asks for his help. Haldin is highly idealistic but has mistaken Razumov's studiousness and thoughtfulness for trustworthiness. He does not realise that placing Razumov into an impossible situation can have unpredictable consequences for him. Haldin mentions an uncle who was executed under Nicholas I.
Natalia Victorovna Haldin: The independent-minded and sincere sister of Victor Haldin, she is not impressed by Peter Ivanovitch. She is described as "full-figured" with "trustful eyes". She has a confident manner and a reputation for liberalism. She was educated in an institute for women (women were not easily allowed to study at university) where she was looked upon unfavourably because of her views. Both mother and daughter were later placed under surveillance in their country place. Natalia thinks that by befriending Razumov, she will stay faithful to the spirit of her brother, as he had described Razumov in his letters as possessing a "lofty, unstained and solitary" existence. She is suspicious of the circumstances of Haldin's capture, as she thinks he would have had an escape plan.
Peter Ivanovitch: The bombastic leader of the revolutionaries, Ivanovitch served in the Guards when he was young. He is very popular in Russia but lives in Geneva sponsored by Madame de S— and constantly flatters her. In his autobiography, he recounts how he was imprisoned in Russia and made a dramatic escape to the Pacific coast with the help of a woman. He is considered a revolutionary feminist but regularly mistreats Tekla and is a profligate author of numerous books. In the end, Peter Ivanovitch is portrayed as ineffectual, having allowed not one but two informers in his circle. When Madame de S— dies, she leaves none of her fortune to Peter Ivanovitch, who marries a peasant girl and moves back to Russia, but he is still deeply admired by his believers. Peter Ivanovitch is mainly based on Mikhail Bakunin, while his feminist theories seem inspired from Fyodor Dostoevsky (in his "Notes from the Underground" (1864), part 2, chapter 1, there is a reference to this name). Also in Tolstoi's "The Death of Ivan Ilyich" (1886) there is a character with the same name, referred since the first page. Actually there was a Russian ambassador for the US, from 1817 to 1822, named Pyotr Ivanovich Poletika (1778–1849).
Sophia Antonovna: The right hand of Peter Ivanovitch, Antonovna is an old revolutionary who is held in high regard because she is being trusted by Peter Ivanovitch with carrying out "certain most important things". She is the daughter of a clever but unlucky artisan, who was brutally exploited by his masters and died at fifty. She, therefore, became a revolutionary despite her youth. She is quick to see that Razumov is not particularly impressed with them. Razumov views her as "the true spirit of destructive revolution" because she is devoid of the mysticism and rhetoric of Ivanovitch. He makes serious efforts in deceiving her and takes pleasure when he succeeds. In the end, Antonovna admits to the narrator that she bears a grudging respect for Razumov because he confessed of his own volition and from a position of safety.
Tekla: The dame de compagnie of Madame de S—, Tekla was the daughter of a clerk in the Finance Ministry. Distressed by seeing her family living on a government salary when half of Russia was starving, she left them at a young age to live with revolutionaries where she went through great hardship. As a result, she has sustained a hatred of Finance Ministries and has done odd jobs for revolutionaries. She takes dictation from the psychologically abusive Ivanovitch. Razumov notes that Tekla is perpetually terrified in the presence of Madame de S— and Peter Ivanovitch. At the end of the novel, she takes a crippled Razumov back to Russia and looks after him. It has been suggested that Conrad was influenced by the legend of Saint Thecla to create Tekla.
Minor characters
The narrator: A passive, obscure teacher of languages. Conrad often uses that device to elaborate his views on Russia. He wishes to advise Natalia but because he is old and a Westerner, he feels the gap between them is too big for Natalia to listen to him.
Mrs Haldin: The world-weary old mother of Victor and Natalia, she becomes suspicious when she does not receive news of Victor for some time after Mr. de P—'s assassination. After she learns of his execution, she falls ill. When she learns of Razumov, she wants to meet him. In the end of the novel, she dies. She is described as having had a fine, lucid intellect in her youth.
Prince K.: A Russian aristocrat and ex-Guardsman who acts as Razumov's sponsor, it is also implied he is Razumov's father. Before P’s assassination Razumov had met him only once, when he was summoned to the office of an obscure attorney, and Prince K. encouraged him to do well in his studies and shook his hand. He is married to an aristocratic lady, who has a temper and is rumoured to beat him. Razumov turns to Prince K. for help after he finds Haldin in his room, having no other person to rely on. Prince K is angry at first but afterwards takes Razumov to General T— and clarifies that Razumov is not involved in revolutionary activity.
Privy Councillor Gregory Gregorievitch/Matvievitch Mikulin: The subtle Head of Department at the Secretariat General, he is the right hand of General T—. He subjects Razumov to several interviews, successfully trying to recruit him to act as an informer for the Czarist authorities against the revolutionaries. He does this partly for his own reasons, as he views Razumov as a tool that he can use after he receives a promotion to general supervisor over European operations. A hedonistic and greatly influential official. He meets his end a few years after the events of the novel as the consequence of a state trial.
General T—: Modelled after Fyodor Trepov, General T— is a high official in the Secretariat General of the Ministry of Interior of the police secretariat, to whom Razumov betrays Haldin's escape plan. General T— is initially suspicious of Razumov, but his mind is set at ease by Prince K., who vouches for Razumov's character. He believes that the structure of society is based on fidelity to institutions, and he has a deep hatred of revolutionaries that he describes as natural.
Mr de P—: The brutal and repressive Minister of State in the Czarist government. Fanatical and single-minded, he imprisoned, exiled or condemned to execution revolutionaries of every age and gender. He does not believe in liberty and justifies this using religion. He is assassinated by Haldin in a scene based on the real-life assassination of Vyacheslav von Plehve.
Baroness Eleanora Maximovna de S—: The pretentious widow of a Russian diplomat, she left Russia some years before the events of the novel because she was suspected of having had foreknowledge of the assassination of Alexander II of Russia. She is an ardent believer in Ivanovich and met him when he was serving in the Guards as a young man, and she supports him financially in Geneva. Razumov describes her as looking like a "galvanised corpse". She is described as greedy, avaricious and unscrupulous by the narrator.
Nikita Necator: A brutal revolutionary assassin, Necator is responsible for numerous murders and has a fearsome reputation. Fat to the point of obesity, he is greatly excited by violence. He cripples Razumov near the end of the novel by smashing his eardrums. In the end, Councillor Mikulin informs Ivanovitch in a chance meeting in Russia that Necator had been a double agent all along, providing information to the Russian authorities. Razumov was apparently aware of this as he taunted Necator before he was attacked. He bears many similarities to the historical double agent Yevno Azev.
Publication history
The novel was initially published in 1911, when the failed revolution of 1905 in Russia was history. Conrad started work on the novel soon after his fiftieth birthday. In this version "Razumov", the story that would become Under Western Eyes, over the next two years, was intended to extend and rework ideas in the plot of The Secret Agent. When Conrad finally delivered the completed manuscript to his agent at the end of January 1910, the occasion itself proved explosive and led to a breach in relation that lasted two years. J.B. Pinker, to whom Conrad was very heavily in debt, seems to have lost patience with his author's pace of work and precipitated a quarrel. Shortly after a heated exchange, Conrad collapsed, his doctor diagnosing "a complete nervous breakdown" that had "been coming for months".
Describing her husband's breakdown, Jessie Conrad wrote: "he lives mixed up in the scenes and hold converse with the characters" of Under Western Eyes. Elsewhere she recalls how Conrad, in delirium, "spoke all the time in Polish, but for a few fierce sentences against poor J.B. Pinker" His delusions apparently included symptoms of persecution mania.
In 1920, Conrad wrote an Author's Note for this novel, reflecting on its changed perception due to events of history, specifically the Russian Revolution of 1917. He said "It must be admitted that by the mere force of circumstances Under Western Eyes has become already a sort of historical novel dealing with the past."
The novel is fundamentally connected to Russian history. Its first audience read it against the backdrop of the failed Revolution of 1905 and in the shadow of the movements and impulses that would take shape as the revolutions of 1917. Despite Conrad's protestations that Dostoevsky was "too Russian for me" and that Russian literature generally was "repugnant to me hereditarily and individually", critics have long discerned the influence of Crime and Punishment on this work.
Adaptations
The novel was adapted into a film in 1936; and into a full-length opera by John Joubert in 1969, first performed by New Opera Company at Sadler's Wells Theatre in London.
It was also adapted into a stageplay that premiered at Teatr Polski in Warsaw on June 8, 2018.
References
External links
1911 British novels
Novels by Joseph Conrad
Novels set in Saint Petersburg
Novels set in Geneva
Novels about revolutionaries
British novels adapted into films
Methuen Publishing books |
4426268 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zoroastrianism%20in%20Iran | Zoroastrianism in Iran | Zoroastrianism is the oldest remaining religion in Iran. Founded around the middle of the second millennium BCE, the religion spread through the Iranian area through conversions and eventually became state religion in the Achaemenian Empire in the 6th century BCE. The religion still survives to this day in small communities, mostly located in present Iran and India. The Zoroastrians in India are called Parsis.
According to the Iran's official census, there were 25,271 Zoroastrians in the country as of 2011, but several unofficial accounts suggest higher figures growing within the country.
Background and the religion
The Zoroastrian religion is credited to the prophet Zoroaster, who is also known as Zarathushtra and the religion is named after him. Zoroaster was supposedly the one that founded this religion around the middle of the second millennium BCE. In contemporary times, it is stated that Zoroastrianism is a religion whose followers worship one God. The God’s name is Ahura Mazda, which is the good divine. He has sacred beings alongside him, like individual deities but also natural phenomena. In opposition, there is also an embodiment of evil, that wants to bring disorder and destruction. This evil comes in the form of Angra Mainyu in the Avestan and in the form of Ahreman in Middle Persian.
The belief in a good and bad divine seems to be part of a dualistic religion. The Zoroastrian religion can therefore be seen as a dualistic or polytheistic religion. There is however a lot of resistance against this idea. Modern scholars have tried to label the religion as monotheistic. More so, the only monotheistic religion of Indo-European origin. Even though these terms are used frequently, there is no indication that these terms were known in ancient times and the Zoroastrians themselves did not put a label on their religion, at least not until the early Islamic period.
The reason for this is because there are not many old written records about the religion. There are for example no impartial written records from Zarathushtra's time. The earliest surviving written references to Zarathushtra (from non-Iranians) seem to be those of Greek writers. Zarathushtra and his first followers were Iranians that lived between the Bronze Age and Iron Age (est. 1200-600 BC).
The time of the Iranian peoples' migration to Iran can be mainly estimated through Assyrian records. Also, Herodotus (I, 101) recalled one of the Mede tribes to be called "Magoi", better known as "Magis", a tribe known to have included many priests, who served both Medes and Persians. By the time of the Median empire (est. 612 BC), Zoroastrianism is known to have been well established in both the Pars region (later capital of Persia) as well as in the Eastern regions.
Scholarship on Zoroastrianism in Iran
The Europeans ‘’discovered’’ Zoroastrianism in Iran, when they started to explore the world and went to Iran. This happened somewhere in the seventeenth century. The present and influence of the Europeans goes beyond dynasties. When the Europeans arrived in Iran, they felt surprisingly good about this land. It had a cultural sophistication, that they had not found in other places that they had visited. Initially, they did not know much about Zoroastrianism, but the fascination of the Europeans for the land and the religion turned into academic study of the Orient.
The Europeans did not have good relations or history with the religion Islam, which was dominantly present in the area at that time. Zoroastrianism however, is a pre-Islamic religion that survived, so this made it extra interesting for them. The first European scholars who researched Zoroastrianism in Iran, were mainly from the Christian religion. The Christian religion is seen as monotheistic and superior by Europeans. Since the Europeans were fascinated by and positive about Zoroastrianism in Iran, they were the first to try to label this religion with concepts they knew, like monotheistic.
The Zoroastrians themselves were probably involved with the studies of their religion as well. We know this, because modern scholarship has stated that Orientalist studies did not emerge in isolation. In fact, they resulted from interaction and intellectual exchange between the scholars and the people that they study. So, chances are big that the Zoroastrians shaped the ideas about their religion as well. These first studies set the tone for our ideas about Zoroastrianism in Iran. Discussions about the origin and nature of the religion still continue, both in Western and in Iranian studies.
Achaemenid dynasty
Persians led by Cyrus the Great soon established the second Iranian dynasty, and the first Persian empire by defeating the Medes dynasty in 549 BC. As Persians expanded their empire, Zoroastrianism was introduced to Greek historians such as Hermodorus, Hermippus, Xanthos, Eudoxus and Aristotle; each giving a different date regarding the life of Zoroaster but naturally believed him to be a Persian prophet and called him "Master of the magi"
Although there are no inscriptions left from the time of Cyrus about his religion, the fire-altars found at Pasargadae, as well as the fact that he called his daughter Atossa, name of the queen of Vishtaspa (Zoroaster's royal patron), suggests that he indeed may have been a Zoroastrian.
It is suggested that by the time of Darius the Great (549 BC– 485/486 BC), the empire was Zoroastrian. This is due to one of Darious' inscriptions which goes as follow:
This leads to the belief that the Zoroastrian religion is the oldest religion of Iran. More importantly, it is suggested to be the original religion of Iran. Besides the inscription above, there is however not necessarily any notion or evidence for these statements.
Persepolis
Persepolis (or Parsa) was one of the four capitals of the Achaemenid empire, built by Darius the Great and his son Xerxes; it was a glorious city known to the world as the "richest city under the sun". It was also the trading capital of the Near East.
One of the main functions of Persepolis was to serve as the host of the ancient Zoroastrian festival, Norouz. Therefore, every year representatives from each country under the rule of Persia would bring gifts to Persepolis to show their loyalty to the king and the empire.
Arsacid dynasty
Sassanid dynasty
The Sassanid dynasty (224-651 AD) declared Zoroastrianism as the state religion and promoted a religious revival of Zoroastrianism.
During the period of their centuries long suzerainty over the Caucasus, the Sassanids made attempts to promote Zoroastrianism there with considerable successes, and it was prominent in the pre-Christian Caucasus (especially modern-day Azerbaijan).
Due to its ties to the Christian Roman Empire, Persia's arch-rival since Parthian times, the Sassanids were suspicious of Roman Christianity, and after the reign Constantine the Great sometimes persecuted it. The Sassanid authority clashed with their Armenian subjects in the Battle of Avarayr (451 CE), making them officially break with the Roman Church. But the Sassanids tolerated or even sometimes favored the Christianity of the Nestorian Church of Persia. The acceptance of Christianity in Georgia (Caucasian Iberia) saw the Zoroastrian religion there slowly but surely decline, but as late the 5th century AD it was still widely practised as something like a second established religion.
Prophet Mani
The prophet Mani was an Iranian of noble Parthian roots who established Manichaeism which contained many elements of Zoroastrianism as well as Gnosticism, however it saw the experience of life on earth by humans as miserable, which was a contrast to the Zoroastrian view which was to celebrate life through happiness.
Mani was received kindly by king Shapur I and spent many years at his court where he was protected during all of Shabuhr's reign. However Mani wrote in a semitic language (Syriac Aramaic), and all his work had to be translated into Middle Persian by his followers, who rendered the name of Mani's supreme god as Zurvan and called him the father of Ohrmazd (Ahuramazda, God of Wisdom, main deity of Zoroastrianism).
Zurvanism
Although the origins of Zurvanite Zoroastrianism are unclear, it was during the Sassanid period that it gained widespread acceptance, and many of the Sassanid emperors were at least to some extent Zurvanites. Zurvanism enjoyed royal sanction during the Sassanid era but no traces of it remain beyond the 10th century.
Unlike Mazdean Zoroastrianism, Zurvanism considered Ahura Mazda not the transcendental Creator, but one of two equal-but-opposite divinities under the supremacy of Zurvan. The central Zurvanite belief made Ahura Mazda (Middle Persian: Ohrmuzd) and Angra Mainyu (Ahriman) twin brothers that had co-existed for all time.
Non-Zoroastrian accounts of typically Zurvanite beliefs were the first traces of Zoroastrianism to reach the west, which misled European scholars to conclude that Zoroastrianism was a dualist faith.
The Zoroastrian cult of Zurvan should not be confused with the Manichaeism's use of the name Zurvan in Middle Persian texts to represent the Manichean deity of light. Mani had himself introduced this practice (for perhaps political reasons) in his Shapurgan, which he dedicated to his patron Shapur II. For much of the rest of the Sassanid era, the Manichaens were a persecuted minority, and Mani was sentenced to death by Bahram I.
Calendar reforms
Sacred fires
The three great sacred fires of Persia at the time of the Sassanids were the Adur Farnbag, Adur Gushnasp and the Adur Burzen-Mihr which burnt in Pars, Media and Parthia respectively. Of these three the Adur Burzen-Mihr was the most sacred fire as it was linked to the prophet Zarathustra himself and king Vishtaspa.
Mazdakite movement
Avesta
Middle Ages
Arab conquest and under the Caliphate
The Muslim conquest of Persia, also known as the Arab conquest of Iran led to the end of the Sasanian Empire in 651 and the eventual decline of the Zoroastrian religion in Iran. Arabs first attacked the Sassanid territory in 633, when general Khalid ibn Walid invaded Mesopotamia (what is now Iraq), which was the political and economic center of the Sassanid state. Following the transfer of Khalid to the Roman front in the Levant, the Muslims eventually lost their holdings to Iranian counterattacks. The second invasion began in 636 under Saad ibn Abi Waqqas, when a key victory at the Battle of Qadisiyyah led to the permanent end of Sasanian control west of Iran. The Zagros mountains then became a natural barrier and border between the Rashidun Caliphate and the Sassanid Empire. Owing to continuous raids by Persians into the area, Caliph Umar ordered a full invasion of the Sasanian Iranian empire in 642, which was completed with the complete conquest of the Sasanians around 651 The quick conquest of Iran in a series of well coordinated multi-pronged attacks, directed by Caliph Umar from Medina several thousand kilometres from the battlefields in Iran, became his greatest triumph, contributing to his reputation as a great military and political strategist.
Iranian historians have sought to defend their forebears by using Arab sources to illustrate that "contrary to the claims of some historians, Iranians, in fact, fought long and hard against the invading Arabs." By 651, most of the urban centers in Iranian lands, with the notable exception of the Caspian provinces and Transoxiana, had come under the domination of the Arab armies. Many localities in Iran staged a defense against the invaders, but in the end none was able to repulse the invasion. Even after the Arabs had subdued the country, many cities rose in rebellion, killing the Arab governor or attacking their garrisons, but reinforcements from the caliphs succeeded in putting down all these rebellions and imposing the rule of Islam. The violent subjugation of Bukhara after many uprisings is a case in point. Conversion to Islam was, however, only gradual. In the process, many acts of violence took place, Zoroastrian scriptures were burnt and many mobads executed. Once conquered politically, the Persians began to reassert themselves by maintaining Persian language and culture. Regardless, Islam was adopted by many, for political, socio-cultural or spiritual reasons, or simply by persuasion, and became the dominant religion.
Mongol rule
The Mongol invasion of Iran resulted in millions of deaths and ruined many cities. The early Mongol invaders were, however, pagans or Buddhists so their persecution was not as targeted against Zoroastrians as before. However, within half a century of the conquest, the leader of the Il-Khanate, Ghazan Khan, converted to Islam, which did not help the status of Zoroastrians in Iran. However, by the time that the Mongols were expelled, Pars province had escaped major damage and the Zoroastrians moved to the North of Pars mainly in the regions of Yazd and Kerman, where even today the main Zoroastrian communities are found.
Modern history
Safavid Dynasty
The Shiite Safavid dynasty destroyed what was once a vibrant community of Zoroastrians. As per official policy, Safavids wanted everyone to convert to the Shia sect of Islam and killed hundreds of thousands of Zoroastrians and other minorities when they refused.
The majority of Zoroastrians also left for India though about 20% remained, most of whom had to migrate in the late 19th century as the Qajar dynasty imposed greater restrictions on them.
Qajar Dynasty
During the Qajar dynasty, religious persecution of Zoroastrians was rampant. Due to the increasing contacts with influential Parsi philanthropists such as Maneckji Limji Hataria, many Zoroastrians left Iran for India. There, they formed the second major Indian Zoroastrian community known as the Iranis.
Pahlavi Dynasty
Starting from the early twentieth century, Tehran, the nation's capital, experienced rapid migrations from all Iranian minorities. The Zoroastrian population increased from about 50 merchants in 1881 to 500 by 1912.As a minority, the Zoroastrians regularly faced discrimination over the years. They were still a minority in Iran in the Twentieth Century, but their status was about to change. In 1906, the state declared a new Constitution. This Constitution did not mention Zoroastrianism as a religion, but it did grant the Zoroastrians fundamental individual rights. They got these rights, because they were now viewed as people of the Iranian Empire. In practice however, they were still not as equal as a Muslim and they were still facing difficulties
When the Pahlavi Reign in Iran started in the 1920s, the Zoroastrians started to experience more equal treatment. It was also during this time that nationalism in Iran started to come up and Iran as a nation state was born. For this new nation state, the Pahlavi’s chose a narrative where the pre-Islamic era was glorified and they actively promoted this narrative. The new nation-state and the people now started to view the ancient history with pride. Since Zoroastrianism is an ancient pre-Islamic religion, it was now glorified as the historic and original Iranian religion. This changed the status of Zoroastrians from being one of the most persecuted minorities in Iran to a symbol of Iranian nationalism. This notion would carry on all the way through until the 1979 Islamic Revolution.
Islamic Republic
Rights in the Islamic Republic
After the Islamic Revolution in 1979 in Iran, there also came a new Constitution. This new Constitution acknowledges the rights of recognized religious minorities, like the Armenian, Assyrian and Persian Jewish communities, Zoroastrianism is therefore still recognized as a religion in Iran and the followers have certain rights. In the new Constitution, it is for example stated that they are free to perform their religious rites and ceremonies. Zoroastrians are also politically involved. On the grounds of the 1906 Constitution, they are allocated one seat in the Iranian Parliament. This one is currently held by Esfandiar Ekhtiari Kassnavieh. Locally, they are also active. In 2013 for example, Sepanta Niknam was elected to the city council of Yazd and became the first Zoroastrian councillor in Iran.
Population and Faith
Out-marriage and low birth rates affect the growth of Iran's Zoroastrian population which, according to Iran's 2012 census results stood at 25,271, though this represented an increase of 27.5% on the 2006 population.
A June 2020 online survey found a much smaller percentage of Iranians stating they believe in Islam, with half of those surveyed indicating they had lost their religious faith. The poll, conducted by the Netherlands-based GAMAAN (Group for Analyzing and Measuring Attitudes in Iran), using online polling to provide greater anonymity for respondents, surveyed 50,000 Iranians and found 7.7% identified as Zoroastrians. However, some researchers have argued that most respondents identifying as Zoroastrian were expressing "Persian nationalism and a desire for an alternative to Islam, rather than strict adherence to the Zoroastrian faith".
Notable Iranian Zoroastrians in the 20th century
Rostam Giv.
Jamshid Bahman Jamshidian, also known as Arbob Jamshid.
Farhang Mehr.
Keikhosrow Shahrokh, also known as Arbob Keikhoshrow.
See also
Firooz Bahram Zoroastrian high school in Iran
Persian people
Religious minorities in Iran
Zoroaster
Sarv-e Abarkuh
References
Citations
Sources
Further reading
Niechciał, P. (2015) "The Key Content of Contemporary Zoroastrian Identity in the Islamic Republic of Iran: a Socio-Anthropological Approach," in Krasnowolska, A. and Rusek-Kowalska, R. (eds) Studies on the Iranian World: Medieval and Modern. Jagiellonian University Press, pp. 149–156.
Images of modern Zoroastrianism in Iran
Ethnic groups in Iran
Ethnic groups in the Middle East
History of Iran
Religion in Iran
Zoroastrianism by country |
4426443 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard%20Carrier | Richard Carrier | Richard Cevantis Carrier (born December 1, 1969) is an ancient historian. He is long-time contributor to skeptical websites, including The Secular Web and Freethought Blogs, Carrier has published a number of books and articles on philosophy and religion in classical antiquity, discussing the development of early Christianity from a skeptical viewpoint, and concerning religion and morality in the modern world. He has publicly debated a number of scholars on the historical basis of the Bible and Christianity. He is a prominent advocate of the theory that Jesus did not exist, which he has argued in a number of his works. Carrier's methodology and conclusions in this field have proven controversial and unconvincing to most ancient historians, and he and his theories are often identified as fringe.
Background
In his autobiographical essay, "From Taoist to Infidel", Carrier discusses his upbringing in a benign Methodist church, his conversion to Taoism in early adulthood, his confrontation with Christian fundamentalists while in the United States Coast Guard, and his deeper study of religion, Christianity, and Western philosophy, which eventually led to his embrace of naturalism. From 1995 to 2015, he was married to Jennifer Robin Carrier. Announcing their divorce, Carrier revealed that he is polyamorous, and that after informing his wife of his extramarital affairs, the last two years of their marriage had been an open relationship.
In 2008, Carrier received a doctorate in ancient history from Columbia University, where he studied the history of science in antiquity. His thesis was entitled "Attitudes Towards the Natural Philosopher in the Early Roman Empire (100 B.C. to 313 A.D.)." He has published several articles and chapters in books on the subject of history and philosophy.
For a number of years, Carrier was editor of and a substantial contributor to The Secular Web, where he wrote on the topics of atheism and metaphysical naturalism; these later formed the basis for his book Sense and Goodness without God. He also authored a regular column on the web site Freethought Blogs; this was suspended in 2016 amid allegations of sexual misconduct. Carrier has frequently been a featured speaker at various skeptic, secular humanist, freethought and atheist conventions, such as the annual Freethought Festival in Madison, Wisconsin, the annual Skepticon convention in Springfield, Missouri, and conventions sponsored by American Atheists.
Carrier strongly advocated for a movement in atheism called "Atheism Plus," through which he argued that the atheist community ought to also share certain particular political agendas, not just lack a belief in God. Philosopher Massimo Pigliucci criticized Carrier for being very intolerant of people who disagreed with him or his atheistic views and for radicalizing the "Atheism plus" agenda. Pigliucci also quoted the originator of the "Atheism plus", Jen McCreight, criticizing Carrier: "Finally had time 2 read Richard Carrier's #atheismplus piece. His language was unnecessarily harsh, divisive & ableist. Doesn't represent A+."
In recent years, Carrier has been accused of engaging in unwanted sexual advances at skeptic and atheist conventions. Carrier has both apologized for and denied the alleged misconduct.
Public debates and other media
Carrier has engaged in several formal debates, both online and in person, on a range of subjects, including naturalism, natural explanations of early Christian resurrection accounts, the morality of abortion, and the general credibility of the Bible. He debated Michael R. Licona on the Resurrection of Jesus at the University of California, Los Angeles on April 19, 2004. Carrier debated atheist Jennifer Roth online on the morality of abortion. He has defended naturalism in formal debates with Tom Wanchick and Hassanain Rajabali. He has debated David Marshall on the general credibility of the New Testament. His debates on the historicity of Jesus have included professor of religious studies Zeba A. Crook, Christian scholars Dave Lehman and Doug Hamp.
The March 18, 2009 debate Did Jesus Rise from the Dead? with William Lane Craig was held at the Northwest Missouri State University and posted online in two parts by ReasonableFaithOrg (YouTube channel). Prior to the debate, Carrier commented that "I originally insisted we first debate [on the topic] Are the Gospels Historically Reliable? for the simple reason that you can't honestly debate the former until you've debated (and in fact settled) the latter." In his post debate commentary, Carrier argued that Craig "focused almost entirely on protecting the Gospels as historical sources, and it was there that his shotgun of arguments got well ahead of my ability to catch up." Another debate with Craig was broadcast on Lee Strobel's television show Faith Under Fire.
The October 25, 2014 debate Did Jesus Exist? with Trent Horn was held in San Diego, California, and posted online by the "MABOOM Show" (YouTube channel).
A debate with Craig A. Evans, entitled Did Jesus Exist? was held at Kennesaw State University on April 13, 2016, and posted online by KSUTV.
In 2006, Carrier was the keynote speaker for the Humanist Community of Central Ohio's annual Winter Solstice Banquet, where he spoke on defending naturalism as a philosophy. Carrier appears in Roger Nygard's 2009 documentary The Nature of Existence, in which persons of different religious and secular philosophies are interviewed about the meaning of life.
In 2007, famed English philosopher Antony Flew, who had long advocated atheism in the absence of empirical evidence of divinity, published his final book with co-author Roy Varghese, There Is a God: How the World's Most Notorious Atheist Changed His Mind. Flew espoused the position that there was an intelligent creator, thereby embracing the concept of deism. Carrier wrote to Flew, and discussed the philosopher's supposed conversion on The Secular Web. In Carrier's analysis he came up with an incorrect theory that There Is a God was authored primarily by Varghese, and misrepresented Flew's opinion regarding religion. Without addressing Carrier directly, Flew released a rebutting statement through his publisher: "My name is on the book and it represents exactly my opinions. I would not have a book issued in my name that I do not 100 percent agree with. I needed someone to do the actual writing because I'm 84 and that was Roy Varghese's role. This is my book and it represents my thinking."
Publications
Carrier's best-known works concern the development of early Christianity and atheism as well as modern views of religion and philosophy.
Criticism of Hitler's Table Talk
In collaboration with Reinhold Mittschang, Carrier challenged several quotes attributed to Adolf Hitler, which were found in a collection of monologues known as Hitler's Table Talk in which he scorns Christianity. Carrier's paper argues that the French and English translations are "entirely untrustworthy", and suggests that translator François Genoud doctored portions of the text to enhance Hitler's views. Carrier put forward a new translation of twelve quotations, based on the German editions of Henry Picker and Werner Jochmann, as well as a fragment of the Bormann-Vermerke preserved at the Library of Congress, challenging some of the quotations frequently used to demonstrate Hitler's contempt for Christianity. Carrier concludes that Hitler's views in Table Talk "resemble Kant's with regard to the primacy of science over theology in deciding the facts of the universe, while remaining personally committed to a more abstract theism." Carrier also maintains that throughout the monologues, Hitler only derides Catholicism while "voicing many of the same criticisms one might hear from a candid (and bigoted) Protestant."
In a new foreword to Table Talk, Gerhard Weinberg comments that "Carrier has shown the English text of the table-talk that originally appeared in 1953 and is reprinted here derives from Genoud's French edition and not from one of the German texts." Derek Hastings cites Carrier's paper for "an attempt to undermine the reliability of the anti-Christian statements." Carrier's thesis that the English translation should be dispensed with entirely is rejected by Richard Steigmann-Gall, who while acknowledging the controversies raised by Carrier, "ultimately presume[d] its authenticity." Johnstone writes that Carrier only purports to show that four of the forty-two comments in Table Talks have been misrepresented, without discussing the rest and that for this reason, Johnstone contends that Carrier has been far from successful in demolishing the view of Hitler a non-Christian.
The empty tomb
In "The Spiritual Body of Christ and the Legend of the Empty Tomb", Carrier argues that the earliest Christians probably believed that Jesus received a new spiritual body in the resurrection, and that stories of his original body disappearing from his tomb were later embellishments. Alternatively, he suggests the possibility that Jesus' body was stolen or misplaced. Carrier's analysis was criticized by philosophy professor Stephen T. Davis and Christian theologian Norman Geisler.
Science education in the Early Roman Empire
This was Carrier's dissertation with some expansion. Here he attempts to describe the Roman education system that pertained to the sciences and how Jews and Christians held different views, which set the stage for dark ages. Michiel Meeusen, in his review, states the work had issues such as "whiggism employed in dealing with ancient science and scientists."
The scientist in the Early Roman Empire
This book is a follow-up to his dissertation "Science Education In The Early Roman Empire". Carrier argues that science in the Roman world was very advanced and progressive and would have reached a scientific revolution in a few more centuries had Christians not stepped in. In it he argues that Christians held back science for over a thousand years while ignoring or forgetting the scientific advancements of pagans. In Cristian Tolsa's review of the book, he notes that Carrier's view of science as essentially unaltered since Aristotle is a reductionist view that is inaccurate of the time period and that the book has "serious anachronisms". He also observes that Carrier fails to demonstrate the supposed stagnation of science from the Roman period to the modern period, but mainly assumes such is the case and relies on focusing on the advances made by pagans as enough to show that science really would have continued to grow indefinitely.
Historicity of Jesus
Earlier in his career, Carrier was not interested in the historicity of Jesus. His first thought was that it was a fringe theory, not worthy of academic inquiry; but a number of individuals requested that he investigate the subject, and raised money for him to do so. Since then, Carrier has become a vocal advocate of the theory that Jesus was not a historical person.
In Not the Impossible Faith: Why Christianity Didn't Need a Miracle to Succeed (2009), Carrier writes on the social and intellectual context of the rise and early development of Christianity. Despite his initial skepticism of Christ myth theory, since late 2005 Carrier has considered it "very probable Jesus never actually existed as a historical person." In a blog entry from 2009, he writes "though I foresee a rising challenge among qualified experts against the assumption of historicity [of Jesus], as I explained, that remains only a hypothesis that has yet to survive proper peer review."
In Proving History: Bayes's Theorem and the Quest for the Historical Jesus (2012), Carrier describes the application of Bayes' theorem to historical inquiry in general, and the historicity of Jesus in particular. According to Carrier, Bayes’ theorem is the standard to which all methodology for any historical study must adhere in order to be logically sound. In his Bayesian analysis, the ahistoricity of Jesus is "true": that is, the "most probable" Bayesian conclusion. By the same methodology, Carrier posits that Jesus originated in the realm of mythology, rather than as a historical person who was subsequently mythologized. Carrier argues that the probability of Jesus' existence is somewhere in the range of 1/3 to 1/12000, depending on the estimates used for the computation. A number of critics have rejected Carrier's ideas and methodology, calling it "tenuous", or "problematic and unpersuasive". Simon Gathercole writes that Carrier's arguments "are contradicted by the historical data."
In On the Historicity of Jesus: Why We Might Have Reason for Doubt (2014), Carrier continues to develop his Bayesian analysis of the historicity of Jesus. Carrier described his work as "the first comprehensive pro-Jesus-myth book ever published by a respected academic press and under formal peer review." The essence of his argument is that there is insufficient evidence, in the context of Bayesian probability, to believe in the historicity of Jesus. Furthermore, Carrier posits that as a celestial figure, Jesus was probably known originally only through private revelations and hidden messages in scripture, which were then elaborated into an allegorical person, communicating the claims of the gospels. The allegorical aspect of Jesus was then lost during the struggle for control of the Christian churches during the first century. Noting that the gospels were written decades after Jesus' death, Carrier claims that the gospels are "wildly fictitious", and proposes that the Gospel of Mark is really an extended meta-parable. He further claims that post-biblical writings mentioning Jesus should not be regarded as independent sources for his existence, since they may have relied on the gospels for their information. Apart from the hero archetype pattern, Carrier contends that nothing else in the Gospels is reliable evidence for or against the historicity of Jesus.
Celestial Jesus
In 2002, Carrier reviewed the work of Earl Doherty, who posited that Jesus was originally a mythological being who subsequently came to be regarded as a historical person. Carrier concluded that Doherty's theory was plausible, although at the time he had not yet concluded that this hypothesis was more probable than the historical Jesus. He also criticized some of Doherty's points, which he considered untenable, although he regarded the basic concept as coherent and consistent with the evidence. Over time, Carrier's views shifted to the point that he accepted Doherty's premise as the most likely explanation of Jesus. He wrote, "It does soundly establish the key point that Jesus was regarded as a pre-existent incarnate divine being from the earliest recorded history of Christianity, even in fact before the writings of Paul, and that this was not even remarkable within Judaism."
Elaborating on this hypothesis, Carrier asserts that originally "Jesus was the name of a celestial being, subordinate to God, with whom some people hallucinated conversations", and that "The Gospel began as a mythic allegory about the celestial Jesus, set on earth, as most myths then were." Stories developed placing Jesus on Earth, and placing him in context with historical figures and places. Subsequently, his worshipers came to believe that these allegories referred to a historical person.
Carrier asserts that the idea of a pre-Christian celestial being named "Jesus" is known from the writings of Philo of Alexandria on the Book of Zechariah. He argues that Philo's angelic being is identical to the Apostle Paul's Jesus: he is God's firstborn son, the celestial 'image of God', and God's agent of creation. However, Larry Hurtado contends that the figure named "Jesus" in Zechariah is a completely distinct figure, and that the Logos Philo discusses is not an angelic being at all.
In Carrier's view, Paul's reference in Romans 1:3 to Jesus being the "seed" of David describes his incarnation from a "cosmic sperm bank", rather than the usual interpretation of Jesus as a descendant of David. In Carrier's interpretation of Paul, Jesus possessed a surrogate human body, and thus the religious requirement of a blood sacrifice was fulfilled by his crucifixion by demons. Gathercole, however, notes that Paul's reference in Romans 1:3 is a common expression in the Septuagint, which simply refers to a "descendant", and that the theme of the descendants of David is common throughout the Old Testament. Carrier argues that like the school of early Jewish mysticism (100 BC– AD 1000), known as Merkabah mysticism, together with its views on the heavens and firmaments of creation, "Mythicism places the incarnation of Jesus below the heavens... being the whole vast region between the earth and the moon [the firmament], was well-established in both Jewish and pagan cosmology (see Element 37, Chapter 4, OHJ, pp. 184–193)."
Jewish and Hellenistic syncretism
Carrier notes four major trends in religion, occurring prior to the formation of Christianity: syncretism, the development of monotheism, the transformation of agricultural salvation cults into personal salvation cults, and cosmopolitanism.
Carrier writes that "Mithraism was a syncretism of Persian and Hellenistic elements; the Mysteries of Isis and Osiris were a syncretism of Egyptian and Hellenistic elements. Christianity is simply a continuation of the same trend: a syncretism of Jewish and Hellenistic elements. Each of these cults is unique and different from all the others in nearly every detail—but it's the general features they all share in common that reflect the overall fad that produced them in the first place, the very features that made them popular and successful within Greco-Roman culture." Furthermore, Carrier says;
Christianity, as a Jewish sect, began when someone (most likely Cephas, perhaps backed by his closest devotees) claimed this [celestial deity] "Jesus" had at last revealed that he had tricked the Devil by becoming incarnate and being crucified by the Devil (in the region of the heavens ruled by Devil), thereby atoning for all of Israel's sins... It would be several decades later when subsequent members of this cult, after the world had not yet ended as claimed, started allegorizing the gospel of this angelic being. By placing him in earth history as a divine man, as a commentary on the gospel and its relation to society and the Christian mission.
Reception and criticism
On the Historicity of Jesus was positively reviewed by collaborator and fellow mythicist Raphael Lataster in the Journal of Religious History, who concurs that according to the gospels, "Jesus fits almost perfectly" the Rank-Raglan mythotype, and claims that there is "not a single confirmed historical figure" that conforms to the mythotype.
However, most contemporary scholarship has been critical of Carrier's methodology and conclusions. According to James F. McGrath, Carrier misuses Rank and Raglan and stretches their scales to make Jesus appear to score high on mythotype. According to Christopher Hansen, Carrier misuses and manipulates Raglan's scale to make Jesus appear more aligned with a mythotype by scoring him high, thus more mythical, when other scholars have scored Jesus as low, thus more historical. He argues that other scholars have assessed Jesus to be low on Raglan's scale and when Hansen looks at multiple other examples of historical figures he notes that "Historical figures regularly become Raglan heroes. They often score twelve or more points on the Raglan archetype" which casts doubts on the usefulness of the Raglan scale for historicity.
Both classicists and biblical scholars agree that there is a historical basis for a person called Jesus of Nazareth. Writing in 2004, Michael Grant stated, "In recent years, 'no serious scholar has ventured to postulate the non-historicity of Jesus' or at any rate very few, and they have not succeeded in disposing of the much stronger, indeed very abundant, evidence to the contrary." More recently, Patrick Gray posited, "That Jesus did in fact walk the face of the earth in the first century is no longer seriously doubted even by those who believe that very little about his life or death can be known with any certainty." For this reason, the views of Carrier and other proponents of the belief that a historical Jesus did not exist are frequently dismissed as "fringe theories" within classical scholarship.
Aviezer Tucker, previously an advocate of applying Bayesian techniques to history, expressed some sympathy for Carrier's view of the gospels, stating: "The problem with the Synoptic Gospels as evidence for a historical Jesus from a Bayesian perspective is that the evidence that coheres does not seem to be independent, whereas the evidence that is independent does not seem to cohere." However, Tucker argues that historians have been able to use theories about the transmission and preservation of information to identify reliable parts of the gospels. He says that "Carrier is too dismissive of such methods because he is focused on hypotheses about the historical Jesus rather than on the best explanations of the evidence."
New Testament scholar Bart Ehrman writes that Carrier is one of only two scholars with relevant graduate credentials who argues against the historicity of Jesus. Discussing Carrier's theory that some Jews believed in a "humiliated messiah" prior to the existence of Christianity, Ehrman criticizes Carrier for "idiosyncratic" readings of the Old Testament that ignore modern critical scholarship on the Bible. Ehrman concludes by saying "[w]e do not have a shred of evidence to suggest that any Jew prior to the birth of Christianity anticipated that there would be a future messiah who would be killed for sins—or killed at all—let alone one who would be unceremoniously destroyed by the enemies of the Jews, tortured and crucified in full public view. This was the opposite of what Jews thought the messiah would be." Ehrman has also publicly addressed Carrier's use of Bayes' Theorem, stating that "most historians simply don't think you can do history that way." He said he only knows of two historians who have used Bayes' Theorem, Carrier and Richard Swinburne, and noted the irony of the fact that Swinburne used it to prove Jesus was raised from the dead. Ehrman rejected both Carrier and Swinburne's conclusions, but conceded that he was unqualified to assess specifics about how they applied the theorem. "I'm not a statistician myself. I've had statisticians who tell me that both people are misemploying it, but I have no way of evaluating it."
Reviewing On the Historicity of Jesus, Daniel N. Gullotta says that Carrier has provided a "rigorous and thorough academic treatise that will no doubt be held up as the standard by which the Jesus Myth theory can be measured"; but he finds Carrier's arguments "problematic and unpersuasive", his use of Bayesian probabilities "unnecessarily complicated and uninviting", and he criticizes Carrier's "lack of evidence, strained readings and troublesome assumptions." Furthermore, he observed that using Bayes theorem in history seems useless, or at least unreliable, since it leads to absurd and contradictory results such as Carrier using it to come up with low probability for the existence of Jesus and scholar Richard Swinburne using it to come up with high probability that Jesus actually resurrected. Gullotta also says that there is absolutely no evidence whatsoever, either documentary or archaeological, that there was a period when Jews or Christians believed that Jesus only existed in heaven as a celestial being, which is Carrier's "foundational" thesis, rather than living as a human being on earth. Carrier is observed to constantly misinterpret and stretch sources and he also uses extensively fringe ideas like those of Dennis MacDonald on Homeric epics paralleling some of the Gospels, while downplaying the fact that MacDonald is still a historicist, not a mythicist. Gullotta also observes that Carrier relies on outdated and historically useless methods like Otto Rank and Lord Raglan's hero myth archetype events lists, which have been criticized and rejected by most scholars of folklore and mythology, in which Carrier alters the quantity and wording of these lists arbitrarily to his favor. Gullotta describes the belief that a historical Jesus never existed as a "fringe theory" that goes "unnoticed and unaddressed within scholarly circles".
Concerning the same book, Christina Petterson of the University of Newcastle writes, "Even if strictly correct, the methodology is tenuous. In addition, the numbers and the statistics seem like a diversion or an illusionary tactic which intentionally confuse and obfuscate". Unlike Gullotta, Petterson describes On the History of Jesus as somewhat amateurish: "Maths aside, nothing in the book shocked me, but seemed quite rudimentary first year New Testament stuff." With respect to Carrier's argument that the later tales of a historical Jesus should be studied for their literary and rhetorical purpose, and not for their historical content, Petterson says that this "reveals Carrier's ignorance of the field of New Testament studies and early Christianity."
M. David Litwa of Australian Catholic University, in a discussion of Carrier's work with a focus on On the Historicity of Jesus, notes that Carrier portrays himself "as a kind of crusader fighting for the truth of secular humanism", whose mission it is "to prove Christianity (or Carrier's understanding of it) wrong." He also notes that "Carrier's cavalier dismissal of the Bible and animosity toward the biblical deity would not seem to predispose him for careful biblical scholarship." Litwa describes Carrier as "on the fringes of the academic guild", although he is a trained scholar and does employ scholarly methods. Litwa goes on to argue against several arguments made by Carrier in On the Historicity of Jesus. Litwa writes that Carrier's application of the Rank-Raglan mythotype to Jesus relies on forced similarities and that "the pattern ignores major elements of [Jesus's] life." He also criticizes Carrier's attempts to derive Jesus from James Frazer's theory of the Near-Eastern dying-and-rising fertility god as relying on a "largely defunct" category in religious scholarship. He notes that few gods die and rise, usually staying dead in some way. Although Litwa acknowledges a parallel between the suffering experienced by dying deities and Jesus's suffering, he argues that pagan dying deities do not choose to die as Jesus does. Regarding Carrier's appeals to other ancient religious figures such as Romulus and the prophet Daniel who appear not to have existed, Litwa argues that Jesus is attested only twenty years after his death by Paul: "A name and a human character to go with it could not have been invented in this short period without invoking suspicion." Litwa dismisses Carrier's hypothesis that Paul's Jesus was an angelic being crucified on the celestial plane as relying on "baseless" speculation that the second-century Ascension of Isaiah was available to Paul and that its mention of Jesus's birth on earth and his crucifixion in Jerusalem are later additions, despite scholarship to the contrary.
Christopher Hansen observed that Carrier believes Jews already believed in a preexisting a supernatural son of God named Jesus based Philo's interpretation Zech. 6.12. However, Hansen argues that his argument relies on weak arguments and no evidence. He states, following Daniel Gullota, "there is not a single instance of a recorded celestial angel or Logos figure named Jesus/Joshua in ancient Jewish literature."
Professor Emeritus Larry Hurtado of the University of Edinburgh writes that, contrary to Carrier's claims, Philo of Alexandria never refers to an archangel named "Jesus". Hurtado also states that the Apostle Paul clearly believed Jesus to have been a real man who lived on earth, and that the deities of pagan saviour cults, such as Isis and Osiris, were not transformed in their devotees' ideas from heavenly deities to actual people living on earth.
Similar criticisms were voiced by Simon Gathercole of Cambridge, who concludes that Carrier's arguments, and more broadly, the mythicist positions on different aspects of Paul's letters, are contradicted by the historical data, and that Paul's description of Jesus' life on Earth, his personality and family, tend to establish that Paul regarded Jesus as a natural person, rather than an allegorical figure. According to Christopher Hansen, Carrier's understanding of Romans 1:3 as meaning that Jesus was born in heaven by God from a "cosmic sperm bank" is not supported by the Jewish or Christian sources and not supported even by the scholars that Carrier cites to make his argument.
In addition, Carrier's counter-consensus thesis that the early reference to Christ in the Roman historian Tacitus was a Christian interpolation has been recently rejected by Willem Blom, who finds that Carrier's thesis relies on unconvincing silences and mistaken understandings of the 1st and 2nd centuries.
Bibliography
Gesù resistente Gesù inesistente. Due visioni a confronto (with Fernando Bermejo-Rubio, Franco Tommasi & Robert M. Price, in Italian) (Manni, 2022)
Jesus from Outer Space: What the Earliest Christians Really Believed about Christ (Pitchstone Publishing, 2020)
On the Historicity of Jesus: Why We Might Have Reason for Doubt (Sheffield Phoenix Press, 2014)
Hitler Homer Bible Christ: The Historical Papers of Richard Carrier 1995–2013 (Richmond, CA: Philosophy Press, 2014)
Proving History: Bayes's Theorem and the Quest for the Historical Jesus (Amherst, NY: Prometheus Books, 2012)
Chapter: "How Not to Defend Historicity", in Bart Ehrman and the Quest of the Historical Jesus of Nazareth, (Cranford, NJ: American Atheist Press 2013)
Why I Am Not a Christian: Four Conclusive Reasons to Reject the Faith (Philosophy Press, 2011)
Chapters: "Christianity's success was not incredible", "Neither life nor the universe appear intelligently designed", "Moral facts naturally exist (and science could find them)" in The End of Christianity edited by John W. Loftus (Amherst, NY: Prometheus Books 2011) .
Not the Impossible Faith, Why Christianity Didn't Need a Miracle to Succeed Lulu.com (2009)
Sense and Goodness without God: A Defense of Metaphysical Naturalism. AuthorHouse (2005) .
See also
Criticism of the Bible
Criticism of Christian origins
List of atheist activists and educators
Footnotes
References
Sources
External links
Richard Carrier's writings at Internet Infidels
Westar Fellow
1969 births
Living people
21st-century American historians
21st-century American male writers
American former Protestants
American Taoists
American atheism activists
Christ myth theory proponents
Columbia Graduate School of Arts and Sciences alumni
Historians of antiquity
Former Methodists
University of California, Berkeley alumni
20th-century atheists
21st-century atheists
American male non-fiction writers
Polyamorous people
American conspiracy theorists |
4427446 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aubrey%20McClendon | Aubrey McClendon | Aubrey Kerr McClendon (July 14, 1959 – March 2, 2016) was an American businessman and the founder and chief executive officer of American Energy Partners, LP. He also co-founded Chesapeake Energy, serving as its CEO and chairman. He was an outspoken advocate for natural gas as an alternative to oil and coal fuels, and a pioneer in employing fracking.
McClendon was a part-owner of the National Basketball Association (NBA)'s Oklahoma City Thunder franchise, and was part of the ownership group that moved the Seattle SuperSonics to Oklahoma City in 2008.
On March 1, 2016, McClendon was indicted by a federal grand jury on charges of conspiring "to rig bids for the purchase of oil and natural gas leases in northwest Oklahoma". He died the following day, March 2, 2016, in a single-vehicle collision.
Early life and education
McClendon was born July 14, 1959, in Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, the son of Carole Kerr and Joe Connor McClendon. He was the great-nephew of Robert S. Kerr, a governor of Oklahoma and U.S. senator from the state.
McClendon spent his childhood in Belle Isle, a neighborhood in Oklahoma City and attended Belle Isle Elementary School, a public school. He graduated from Heritage Hall School in 1977 as senior class president and co-valedictorian. As a teenager, McClendon started a lawn mowing business, through which he had an early encounter with Shannon Self, who later became a founding board member of Chesapeake Energy Corporation.
McClendon graduated from Duke in 1981 with a B.A. in history. His favorite area of study was the post-Civil War Reconstruction Era. McClendon minored in accounting and was a member of Sigma Alpha Epsilon fraternity. He also met his wife, the former Kathleen Upton Byrns, while at Duke.
McClendon's first job after Duke was as an accountant. He was inspired to move from accounting to the energy business after reading an article in The Wall Street Journal about two men selling their Anadarko Basin well stake for $100 million. McClendon worked as a landman at Jaytex Oil and Gas, a public company in Oklahoma City founded by his uncle, Aubrey M. Kerr, Jr. McClendon left Jaytex in November 1982 to pursue his own business in the oil and natural gas industry.
Business career
Chesapeake Energy Corporation
In 1983, McClendon and Tom L. Ward "threw in together" in their initial venture into oil and natural gas. Together, they co-founded Chesapeake Energy Corporation in 1989. McClendon and Ward were both 29 at the time. McClendon began as chairman and chief executive officer of Chesapeake, while Ward served as president and chief financial officer. The company began drilling its first two wells in Garvin County, Oklahoma, in May 1989.
With Chesapeake, McClendon focused on drilling wells into unconventional reservoirs such as fractured carbonates and shales and was an early adopter of horizontal drilling and hydraulic fracturing techniques, which helped accelerate the company's fast early growth. His focus on these new and unconventional techniques later led to him being called a "visionary leader" in the oil and natural gas industry.
He took the firm public in 1993, and in the following three years its stock was the most successful in the country, rising 274% in value from 1994 to 1997, according to The Wall Street Journal.
In 2005, Forbes Magazine named McClendon one of the country's top-performing executives for his role at Chesapeake. A few years later, he was the highest paid CEO of all the S&P 500 companies in 2008, receiving a compensation package totaling $112 million.
In 2008, McClendon was notified that his shares were no longer valuable enough to back a margin loan with Goldman Sachs and other banks. In response, McClendon was forced to sell a majority of his 31.5 million shares, comprising 94% of his stake in Chesapeake and 6% of the company. The following year, Chesapeake offered McClendon a five-year retention contract, including a $75 million bonus.
In 2011, Forbes called McClendon "America's most reckless billionaire" in a cover story on his career. The profile noted his high risk tolerance and cited the sale of his shares in 2008 as a reckless move. The same year, the magazine named McClendon to its 20-20 Club, comprising the eight CEOs of public companies who had delivered annualized returns of more than 20% over a 20-year period. McClendon dismissed those who described him as a risk-loving wildcatter. "If I wanted to always do the most popular thing, then I'd be a follower," he said in 2012. "The funny thing is that I don't consider myself a gambler at all. A gambler is somebody who just closes their eyes and rolls the dice. We don't do that".
Chesapeake continued to grow its gas production under McClendon from 5 million to 2.5 billion cubic feet per day from 2009 to 2013. Chesapeake's discovery of large reserves of natural gas was reported to have helped reduce natural gas prices to consumers in the U.S.
In a 2012 opinion piece discussing the development of the domestic oil and natural gas industry of the U.S. in the first decade of the 21st century, the former United States Secretary of Energy and Houston mayor Bill White described McClendon as "at the forefront of those heroes" of the American natural gas industry.
According to allegations reported in Reuters in April 2012, McClendon took out more than $1 billion in personal loans, to finance drilling costs, from firms that were lenders to Chesapeake. This raised the potential for conflicts of interest and prompted questions on the corporate governance and business ethics of Chesapeake's senior management.
On February 20, 2013, Dow Jones reported that a Chesapeake board review found no improper conduct, no improper benefit to McClendon and no increased cost to the company.
On June 7, 2012, Reuters alleged that McClendon had used Chesapeake employees to perform $3 million of personal work, including engineering and accounting support and the repair of his house, in 2010. He had also used corporate planes for non-business-related travel for the McClendons' family and friends. According to Chesapeake's proxy statement filed with the SEC on May 11, 2012, McClendon reimbursed the company for all but $250,000 of the employee costs. His employment agreement authorized the personal use of company aircraft by McClendon, his immediate family members and guests, "for safety, security and efficiency" reasons.
In June 2012, Chesapeake shareholders voted to reject two board members and approve increased proxy access. McClendon relinquished his chairman title in June 2012, remaining in his role as CEO. McClendon stepped down from his position as CEO at Chesapeake on April 1, 2013. At the time, the company was estimated to be the second largest producer of natural gas in the United States, following only ExxonMobil.
Since 1992, through an initiative called the Founder Well Participation Program (FWPP), McClendon was allowed to invest in wells drilled by Chesapeake. The FWPP was first formalized and incorporated into the founders' employment agreements in connection with Chesapeake's IPO in February 1993.
Following his departure from the company, McClendon retained the option to continue investing in Chesapeake wells through July 2014.
In February 2015, Chesapeake filed a lawsuit against McClendon, accusing him of misappropriating company data on available land during his departure. McClendon and American Energy Partners responded that he had the right to all information in his possession under his various separation agreements with Chesapeake. In April 2015, American Energy – Utica, LLC reached a settlement with Chesapeake, giving them of land and $25 million. As of April 2015, McClendon had been in arbitration with Chesapeake regarding the lawsuit against him.
American Energy Partners, LP
On April 2, 2013, McClendon founded American Energy Partners, LP (AELP), a private oil and natural gas company based in Oklahoma City.
During 2013 and 2014, McClendon hired more than 600 employees and raised equity and debt commitments of approximately $15 billion. AELP is an oil and natural gas company comprising several affiliated companies, including American Energy Utica LLC and American Energy Marcellus LLC, American Energy – Permian Basin, LLC, American Energy – Woodford, LLC, American Energy – NonOp, LLC, American Energy – Minerals, LLC, and American Energy – Midstream, LLC.
Natural gas advocacy
McClendon was a founding member of America's Natural Gas Alliance (ANGA), a trade association and lobbying group for independent natural gas producers, based in Washington, D.C. He was an advocate for the greater use of natural gas in the United States and he funded a campaign in 2007 to draw clean-energy activists' attention to a Texas utility's plan to build 11 new coal plants. He also made a donation to the Sierra Club to fund its "Beyond Coal" campaign, which had blocked more than 150 new coal plants in the United States, as of October 2013.
McClendon was a public proponent of natural gas, fracking and shale drilling throughout his career. In an appearance on 60 Minutes in 2010, McClendon argued a case for natural gas as a clean fuel and a significant job-creating industry. He defended the natural gas and oil industry's use of hydraulic fracturing techniques for well completion. Later that year, he was quoted saying, "We have found something that can liberate us from the influence of OPEC, that can put several million Americans back to work, liberate us from four-dollar gasoline."
Federal indictment for violating antitrust laws
On March 1, 2016, a federal grand jury indicted McClendon for violating antitrust laws, with conspiring to suppress prices paid for oil and natural gas leases by allegedly rigging the bidding process. The indictment says he orchestrated a conspiracy in which two oil and gas companies colluded not to bid against each other for the purchase of leases in northwestern Oklahoma. The conspiracy he is suspected of was orchestrating a scheme between two large energy companies, which are not named in the indictment, that was conducted from December 2007 through March 2012. According to the indictment, the companies would decide ahead of time who would win bids, with the winner then allocating an interest in the leases to the other company, eliminating open competitive bidding with landowners. One of the unnamed companies in the indictment turned out to be SandRidge Energy, Inc. according to Bloomberg News. The United States Justice Department said this was the first case resulting from a continuing federal antitrust investigation into price fixing, bid rigging and other anticompetitive conduct in the oil and natural gas industry. In 2015, Chesapeake Energy settled charges of antitrust, fraud, and racketeering violations out of court, by agreeing to pay $25 million as compensation to landowners with leases.
After his indictment McClendon released a statement denying all charges, arguing that for 35 years he has worked to create jobs and help Oklahoma's economy while providing plentiful energy for the entire country. "The charge that has been filed against me today is wrong and unprecedented, I have been singled out as the only person in the oil and gas industry in over 110 years since the Sherman Act became law to have been accused of this crime in relation to joint bidding on leasehold." William Baer, then Assistant Attorney General of the United States Justice Department Antitrust Division in the Obama administration, said "His actions put company profits ahead of the interests of leaseholders entitled to competitive bids for oil and gas rights on their land. Executives who abuse their positions as leaders of major corporations to organize criminal activity must be held accountable for their actions."
McClendon maintained his innocence, but died the next day, March 2, 2016, in a single-occupant single-vehicle crash when he drove his SUV at 88 mph into a concrete bridge embankment.
Business ventures and investments
McClendon held a stake in various food service companies and restaurants, including Jamba Juice. He also held stakes in several Oklahoma City restaurants, including Irma's Burger Shack, Deep Fork Grill, The Coach House, Republic Gastro Pub, Metro Wine Bistro & Bar, Provision Kitchen and Pops. McClendon opened Pops, a burgers and soda restaurant on the historic Route 66 highway in Arcadia, Oklahoma, in 2007.
From 2004 to 2008, McClendon ran a $200 million hedge fund, Heritage Management Company LLC, with Tom Ward. He invested $35 million in ProCure Treatment Centers Inc., a company with three proton-therapy based cancer treatment centers, in 2008.
From 2004 to 2006, McClendon bought almost of mostly undeveloped dunes on the east coast of Lake Michigan and the Kalamazoo River for $39.5 million. He had previously secured a half-interest on the land in 2004. In 2006, the five-member Township Board representing Saugatuck, Michigan voted unanimously to rezone the land, making development more difficult. The Township Board supported the views of local citizens and the Saugatuck Dunes Coastal Alliance, who argued that McClendon's plans for development would irrevocably damage the property. He continued with the land purchase, and in 2007, his legal team began discussions of scaling back the legal restrictions on the land with township officials.
In 2009, McClendon sold of the land to the Western Michigan Land Conservancy. In December 2010, McClendon filed a federal lawsuit attempting to overturn the zoning laws and a settlement was reached in 2012 which voided Saugatuck's 2006 rezoning.
From 2008 to 2013, McClendon was one of the U.S.'s largest landowners, owning more than .
Oklahoma City Thunder
McClendon was an original member of the Professional Basketball Club LLC, which owns the National Basketball Association (NBA)'s Oklahoma City Thunder franchise. He was a part of the team that moved the Seattle SuperSonics to Oklahoma City in 2008, where they were renamed the Oklahoma City Thunder. At the time the team moved, McClendon owned 20 percent of the franchise.
Prior to the move, in 2007, McClendon was quoted in The Journal Record (an Oklahoma City newspaper) as saying "we (the ownership group) didn't buy the Seattle SuperSonics to keep them in Seattle". The NBA fined McClendon $250,000 in response, as his statement contradicted the organization's publicized intentions at the time. In April 2014, he purchased more shares in the Oklahoma City Thunder franchise from G. Jeffrey Records Jr.
Philanthropy and community involvement
McClendon made sizable donations to and served on the board of directors for many municipal and private organizations in Oklahoma City, including the Boathouse District and Boathouse Foundation, The McClendon Family Boys and Girls Club of OKC, the Oklahoma City Chamber of Commerce, Oklahoma State Fair and Oklahoma City Public Schools. He donated to Oklahoma City arts organizations, including the Lyric Theatre, Oklahoma City Ballet, Oklahoma Museum of Art, Arts Council of Oklahoma City, the Oklahoma Heritage Foundation and the Oklahoma City Philharmonic.
From 2011 on, McClendon hosted an annual event for local Boy Scouts at his Arcadia Farm property. He donated approximately $15 million to Duke University and $12.5 million to the University of Oklahoma.
Honors and awards
McClendon was inducted into the Oklahoma Heritage Foundation's Oklahoma Hall of Fame in 2007, and in 2009, he was a top finalist for CEO of the Year at the Platts Global Energy Awards.
In 2010, U.S. Steel Tubular Products, Inc., a subsidiary of United States Steel Corporation, gave McClendon the Chief Roughneck Award, which honors the lifetime achievements of petroleum industry leaders.
In 2011, he was awarded the Ernst & Young National Entrepreneur of the Year in Energy, Cleantech and Natural Resources. In 2013, the Heritage Hall Alumni Association named McClendon, who graduated in 1977, the recipient of its Distinguished Alumni Award.
Personal life and interests
McClendon lived in Oklahoma City with his wife, the former Kathleen Upton Byrns. They have three adult children named Jack, Callie, and Will. By his wife, he was related to Sports Illustrated supermodel Kate Upton.
McClendon's personal wine collection was estimated at one time to include more than 100,000 bottles. He also held an extensive collection of antique maps of Oklahoma and had collected a number of vintage motor boats.
McClendon, an Episcopalian, would sometimes quote scripture in workplace emails. He also employed chaplains while heading Chesapeake.
McClendon was a known associate of, and contributed funding to, convicted fraudster Billy McFarland, co-founder of the ill-fated Fyre Festival.
Death
McClendon died in a solo-occupant, single-vehicle crash at 9:12 a.m. on March 2, 2016. According to police reports, he died instantly when his 2013 Chevrolet Tahoe SUV, traveling at 88 mph, crashed into a concrete overpass for the Turner Turnpike on Midwest Boulevard in Oklahoma City.
McClendon's body was badly burned, making identification difficult. A forensic odontologist was brought in, and positively identified McClendon by his teeth on March 4, 2016. The medical examiner's office reported McClendon died from multiple blunt force trauma. On March 3, 2016, less than 48 hours after McClendon was charged, the Justice Department filed motions and dismissed McClendon's indictment. On June 8, 2016, the Oklahoma medical examiner officially ruled the crash which killed shale pioneer McClendon was an accident. According to the autopsy report, no alcohol was involved in the accident, but an unspecified amount of the over the counter first-generation antihistamine and short-term sedative drug Doxylamine (which is used as an antihistamine or to treat insomnia) was found in Mr. McClendon's system.
Background
The event occurred one day after McClendon's indictment by a federal grand jury accusing him of violating antitrust laws from 2007 to 2012 while the CEO of Chesapeake Energy. A spokesman for the U.S. Attorney in Oklahoma City disputed initial reports that McClendon was en route to the courthouse when the crash occurred. The spokesman said no arraignments or meetings were scheduled with McClendon on the day of his car accident.
Discussion and investigation
Oklahoma City Police spokesman Paco Balderrama said of McClendon's actions, "He pretty much drove straight into the wall. The information out there at the scene is that he went left of center, went through a grassy area right before colliding into the embankment. There was plenty of opportunity for him to correct and get back on the roadway, and that didn't occur." On June 9 the medical examiner classified the death as an accident.
On the day of the incident, local police indicated that it was too early to determine if the collision was intentional or if McClendon may have suffered a medical emergency. He was not wearing a seat belt at the time of the crash but this was not unusual. Two weeks later, Oklahoma City investigators announced that the collision occurred at , later ruled 88 mph with no evidence of a health emergency, although several additional weeks would be required for toxicology tests and an official cause of death. Two months later, with the medical examiner's final report still pending, Balderrama announced that the police investigation found no evidence of suicide, including no emails or messages implying this, but neither could it be ruled out: "Had he slept at all? It's very possible he suffered a medical event... We may never know one-hundred percent what happened."
The medical examiner classified the death as an accident.
McClendon was regarded as an optimistic person, with an appetite for risk beyond most people's comfort level, by several people who knew him well.
References
External links
American Energy Partners
Federal indictment for violating antitrust laws (2016)
American energy industry executives
Businesspeople from Oklahoma City
1959 births
2016 deaths
American chief executives
American billionaires
Duke University Trinity College of Arts and Sciences alumni
Oklahoma City Thunder owners
Road incident deaths in Oklahoma
20th-century American businesspeople
21st-century American businesspeople
20th-century American Episcopalians
Sigma Alpha Epsilon members |
4427981 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noravank | Noravank | Noravank (, ) is a 13th-century Armenian monastery, located 122 km from Yerevan in a narrow gorge made by the Amaghu River, near the town of Yeghegnadzor in Armenia. The gorge is known for its tall, sheer, brick-red cliffs, directly across from the monastery. The monastery is best known for its two-storey Surb Astvatsatsin (Holy Mother of God) Church, which grants access to the second floor by way of a narrow stone-made staircase jutting out from the face of building.
The monastery is sometimes called Noravank at Amaghu, with Amaghu being the name of a small and nowadays abandoned village above the canyon, in order to distinguish it from Bgheno-Noravank, near Goris. In the 13th–14th centuries the monastery became a residence of Syunik's bishops and, consequently, a major religious and, later, cultural center of Armenia closely connected with many of the local seats of learning, especially with Gladzor's famed university and library.
History
Noravank was founded in 1105 by Bishop Hovhannes, a former abbot of Vahanavank near the present-day city of Kapan in Syunik. The monastic complex includes the church of S. Karapet, S. Grigor chapel with a vaulted hall, and the church of S. Astvatsatsin (Holy Mother of God). Ruins of various civil buildings and khachkars are found both inside and outside of the compound walls. Noravank was the residence of the Orbelian princes. The architect Siranes and the miniature painter and sculptor Momik worked here in the latter part of the thirteenth and early fourteenth century.
Noravank Complex
The fortress walls surrounding the complex were built in the 17th–18th centuries.
Surb Astvatsatsin Church
The grandest structure is Surb Astvatsatsin (Holy Mother of God), also called Burtelashen (Burtel's construction) in the honour of Prince Burtel Orbelian, its financier. It is situated to the south-east of the Surb Karapet church. Surb Astvatsatsin was completed in 1339, a masterpiece of the talented sculptor and miniaturist Momik, who designed it, and was also his last work. Near the church there is his tomb khachkar, small and modestly decorated, dated the same year. In recent times the fallen roof had been covered with a plain hipped roof. In 1997 the drum and its conical roof was rebuilt, with the form based on existing fragments. However, it has been criticized as being a "fantasy reconstruction".
The ground floor contained elaborate tombs of Burtel and his family. Narrow steps projecting from the west façade lead to the entrance into the church/oratory. There is fine relief sculpture over the entrance, depicting Christ flanked by Peter and Paul.
Burtelashen is a highly artistic monument reminiscent of the tower-like burial structures of the first years of Christianity in Armenia. It is a memorial church. Its ground floor, rectangular in plan, was a family burial vault; the floor above, cross-shaped in plan, was a memorial temple crowned with a multi-columned rotunda.
Burtelashen is the dominant structure in Noravank. The original three-tier composition of the building is based on the increasing height of the tiers and the combination of the heavy bottom with the divided middle and the semi-open top. Accordingly, decoration is more modest at the bottom and richer at the top. Employed as decorative elements are columns, small arches, profiled braces forming crosses of various shapes, medallions, interlaced banding around windows and doors.
The western portal is decorated with special splendour. An important role in its decoration is played by the cantilevered stairs that lead to the upper level, with profiled butts to the steps. The doorways are framed with broad rectangular plaitbands, with ledges in the upper part, with columns, fillets and strips of various, mostly geometrical, fine and intricate patterns. Between the outer plathand and the arched framing of the openings there are representations of doves and sirens with women's crowned heads. Such reliefs were widely used in fourteenth-century Armenian art and in earlier times in architecture, miniatures and works of applied art, on various vessels and bowls. The entrance tympanums are decorated with bas-reliefs showing, on the lower tympanium, the Holy Virgin with the Child and Archangels Gabriel and Michael at her sides, and, on the upper tympanium, a half-length representation of Christ and figures of the Apostles Peter and Paul. As distinct from the reliefs of Noravank's vestry, these ones are carved on a plain surface, which gives them greater independence. The figures are distinguished by their plasticity of form, softness of modeling, and accentuation of certain details of clothing.
A group of the founders of Burtelashen is depicted on three columns of the western part of its rotunda. The picture consisted of relief figures of the Holy Virgin with the Child, sitting on a throne, and two standing men in rich attire, one of them holding a model of the temple.
Surb Karapet Church
The second church is the Surb Karapet, a cross within square design with restored drum and dome built in 1216–1227, just north of the ruins of the original Surb Karapet, destroyed in an earthquake. The church was built by the decree of Prince Liparit Orbelian.
In 1340 an earthquake destroyed the dome of the church which in 1361 was reconstructed by the architect Siranes. In 1931 the dome was damaged during another earthquake. In 1949, the roof and the walls of the church were repaired. In 1998 the roof and drum was rebuilt with the aid of an Armenian-Canadian family.
Forming the western antechamber is an impressive gavit of 1261, decorated with splendid khachkars and with a series of inscribed gravestones in the floor. Note the famous carvings over the outside lintel. The church houses Prince Smbat Orbelian's mausoleum. The gavit was probably a four-pillar one. In 1321 the building, probably destroyed by an earthquake, was covered with a new roof in the shape of an enormous stone tent with horizontal divisions, imitating the wooden roof of the hazarashen—type peasant home. This made the structure quite different from other Armenian monuments of the same kind. The ceiling has four rows of brackets forming stalactite vaulting with a square lighting aperture at the top. A broad protruding girth over the half-columns, the deep niches with khachkars and the low tent-like ceiling almost devoid of decoration give the dimly lit interior a gloomy look.
The exterior decoration focus' mainly on the western facade where the entrance to the building is. Framed in two rows of trefoils and an inscription, the semi-circular tympanum of the door is filled with an ornament and with a representation of the Holy Virgin seated on a rug with the Child and flanked by two saints. The ornament also has large letters interlaced by shoots with leaves and flowers. The Holy Virgin is sitting in the Oriental way with Child. The pattern of the rug is visible with drooping tassels. In Syunik temples of the thirteenth-fourteenth centuries the cult of the Holy Virgin was widely spread. She was depicted in relief, and many churches were dedicated to her.
The pointed tympanum of the twin window over the door is decorated with a unique relief representation of the large-headed and bearded God the Father with large almond shaped eyes blessing the Crucifix with his right hand and holding in his left hand the head of John the Baptist, with a dove — the Holy Spirit — above it. In the right corner of the tympanum there is a seraph dove; the space between it and the figure of the Father is filled with an inscription.
Surb Grigor Chapel
The side chapel of Surb (Saint) Grigor was added by the architect Siranes to the northern wall of Surb Karapet church in 1275. The chapel contains more Orbelian family tombs, including a splendid carved lion/human tombstone dated 1300, covering the grave of Elikum son of Prince Tarsayich Orbelian. The modest structure has a rectangular plan, with a semi-circular altar and a vaulted ceiling on a wall arch. The entrance with an arched tympanum is decorated with columns, and the altar apse is flanked with khachkars and representations of doves in relief.
Khachkars
The complex has several surviving khachkars. The most intricate of them all is a 1308 khachkar by Momik. Standing out against the carved background are a large cross over a shield-shaped rosette and salient eight-pointed stars vertically arranged on its sides. The top of the khachkar shows a Deesis scene framed in cinquefoil arches symbolizing a pergola as suggested by the background ornament of flowers, fruit and vine leaves.
Nature
The area is a part of the Gnisheek Prime Butterfly Area and the Noravank Important Bird Area. A wide variety of animals and plants can be found here, such as the Bezoar Goat, Bearded Vulture, Alexanor butterfly, and others.
Before the 9th century - According to historian Stepanos Orbelian a church dedicated to St. Pokas stands on the monastery site.
800-900 - A church was built: sources call it St. Karapet's or Church of Svag Khoradzor. The name will later be transformed into Noravank (nor = new, vank = monastery), in 1221.
989 - Hovhannes the Scribe copies a Gospel for the priest Stepanos. It is so called Gospel of Etchmiadzin that contains some miniated pages of an earlier date which are some of the oldest and most famous examples of Armenian miniature art.
1105 - According to historian Stepanos Orbelian Bishop Hovhannes, abbot of the monastery of Vahanavank, moves to Noravank and helps to found the first nucleus of monks at the monastery. His brother, Prince Hamtum, then comes to the monastery and helps to develop it. The monastery is to become rich: it will own the two fortresses of Anapat and Hraseka, along with twelve farms.
1154 - Bishop Hovhannes dies and is buried in the monastery. According to the historian Stepanos Orbelian, this bishop had founded a church and connected buildings; there is not trace of this complex left today.
1168 - Bishop Grigoris of Syunik dies and is buried in the monastery.
1170 - Bishop Stepanos, son of Bishop Grigoris, settles in Noravank, choosing it as the seat of the bishopric. Hs is to obtain the Valley of Agarak and fortress of Anapat as donation to the monastery from Mongol Sultan Yelkduz, along with exception from taxes on church property.
1201 - This date is found on a khachkar at the southern entrance of the Church of St. Karapet.
1216 - Bishop Stepanos dies and is buried in the monastery. Father Sargis, his successor, shares the monastery's property with Tatev.
1216-1221 - Prince Liparit Orbelian and Bishop Sargis build a church in the monastery: sources refer to it as the Church of St. Stepanos Noravank (the protomartyr).
1221 - Bishop Sargis, grandson of Archbishop Stepanos, builds the Church of St. Karapet as the burial chapel for the family. According to the historian Stepanos Orbelian, the church was built by the will of Liparit Orbelian, founder of the dynasty, and building work lasted seven years, ending in 1228. A khachkar in the west wall of the gavit is dedicated Nazar and Nazlu.
1222 - A memorial to Vasak, who died of a premature death, is inscribed on a khachkar on the south wall of the gavit.
1223 - A Church of St. Stepanos is consecrated and Prince Bupak donates the village of Aghberis to the monastery to commemorate the occasion.
1223-1261 - A gavit is built in the monastery.
13th century - Khatun, daughter of Khalkhashah, donates 300 pieces of silver and an orchard to the monastery.
1232 - A certain Gorg makes various donations to the monastery.
1240 - This date in on a khachkar inside the gavit.
1256 - A certain Shatluys donates an orchard to the monastery.
1260 - Bishop Ter-Stepan of Syunik dies and is buried in the monasteries gavit.
1261 - Prince Smbat Orbelian restores the monasteries gavit, perhaps with the aid of Bishop Sargis and architect Siranes. There are two inscriptions on the gavit walls bearing the dates 1232 and 1256: this indicates that there was previously another building on the site, and its stones were used for the gavit. In this same year, Prince Smbat donates various goods to the monastery for the salvation of the soul of his brother, Prince Burtel. Near the khachkar in the gavit there is another, erected in memory of Burtel, son of Elikum, grandson of Liparit. Another khachkar recalls Burtel, son of "prince of princes" Smbat.
1270-1290 - This is the date on a khachkar inside the refectory-hospice that has now partially collapsed.
1271 - A Noravank inscription mentions the name "hovatun" as being a building of unknown purpose.
Before 1273 - An inscription reveals that the "prince of princes" Smbat has donated lands and orchards to the monastery.
1273 - King Smbat dies: he was the elder brother of Prince Tarsaich and is buried in the monastery.
1273-1290 - Bishop Sargis builds a hospice close to the monastery and donates various goods to it: the proceeds are used to provide pilgrims with food and drink.
1275 - Prince Tarsaich builds a burial chapel for his brother Smbat and building, the work of architect Siranes, will subsequently house all family tombs.
1277 - A khachkar is erected on the tomb of Prince Mahevan, son of Senekerim, King of Syunik.
1285 - Kukor erects khachkar on the tombs of his brother Palka and his mother Aspi.
1287 - Stepanos Orbelian becomes metropolitan of Syunk. He is one of the most prestigious men of culture and politics in medieval Armenia. He is to leave numerous works of poetry and essays on history. He finally succeeds in uniting the monasteries of Tatev and Noravank.
2nd half of 13th century - A bridge is built to connect the monastery with the region.
1290 - An inscription mentioning the death of the "prince of princes" Tarsaich can be seen at the east entrance of the chapel.
1291 - Amira, grandson of Djurdj, buys an orchard for 4000 pieces of silver and donates it to the monastery.
1292 - The architect-scribe Momik transcribes a beautiful Gospel for the brothers Hovhannes and Tadeos Princess Mina Khatun, daughter of King Djala of the Aghuank and wife of Tarsaich, donates many goods to the monastery.
1298 - Ter Sargis, bishop of Syunik, dies and is buried in the monastery. Stepanos, bishop of Syunik and son of "prince of princes" Tarsaich, makes an important donation to the monastery. Princess Mina Khatun is buried in the monastery.
1299 - In the monastery of Noravank, metropolitan and historian Stepanos Orbelian finishes his great work entitled History of the Province of Syunik ().
1300 - Prince Elikum Orbelian dies and is buried in the monastery, in the Chapel of St Grigor; the tomb of the prince, son of Tarsaich, bears a human representation with a lion's tail and paws: these characteristics were attributed to him for his courage in war. Stepanos Orbelian finishes his poem "Lament on Behalf of the Cathedral" ("").
1302 - The architect-scribe Momik writes and miniates a Gospel for Stepanos Orbelian.
1303 - Metropolitan Stepanos Orbelian dies and is buried in the monastery. Sandjar, son of Tankarghul, donates an orchard to the monastery on the birth of his son.
1303-1324 - The abbot of monastery is Hovhannes-Orbel, nephew of Prince Liparit. By his will, the architect Momik is to build the Church of St. Astvatsatsin at Areni. Also by his will, numerous codices are written in manuscript.
1304 - Momik erects a khachkar to the memory of metropolitan Stepanos Orbelian.
1305 - An inscription on his tomb mentions the death of Bishop Grigor of Syunik.
1307 - Momik and Poghos "vardapet" write and miniate a Gospel.
1308 - Tamta Khatun, mother of Prince Burtel, erects a beautiful khachkar made by the architect Momik.
1312 - Tamta Khatun, mother of Prince Burtel, is buried in the chapel of King Smbat. Grigor, nephew of Prince Dop, donates various orchards to the monastery.
1318 - Bughta, brother of Burtel, is buried in the chapel of King Smbat and a khachkar is erected in his memory.
1320-1322 - The priest Sargis, nephew of Archbishop Stepanos of Syunik, builds the church of Noravank.
1321 - St. Karapet's building is probably damaged by an earthquake.
1324 - Hovhannes-Orbel, metropolitan of Syunik, dies and is buried in the monastery.
1324-1331 - Stepanos Tarsaich Orbelian becomes abbot of the monastery. A student of chief vardapet Esayi Nshetsi of University of Gladzor, he is to build the Zorats church in the region of Yeghegis.
1331-1339 - Prince Burtel, as is mentioned in the inscription on the west entrance, builds the Church of St. Astvatsatsin, the so-called "Burtelashen", in the monastery.
1333 - The architect-sculpture-painter Momik dies and is buried in the monastery. The scribe Kiuron re-copies a manuscript by order of Grigoris.
1345 - Gontse, daughter of Paron Khosrovik, donates Khangah orchard to the monastery for salvation of the soul of Amad.
15th century - The architectural model of the two-story funerary chapel spreads throughout Syunik and all monasteries build chapel of the same type.
1476 - The scribe Poghos re-copies a Gospel.
1486 - Davit Darbin erects a khachkar in the monastery to the memory of Tukhik.
1569 - Bishop Eghishe erects a khachkar to the memory of his uncle Bishop Arakel.
1628 - Tuma Abegha writes Gospel in the monastery.
1600-1700 - Fortified walls, a hospice and various other buildings are constructed in the monastery.
1755 - A battle is fought between Hadji Pasha, who has taken over the monastery, and the armies of Isa Ashag.
1813 - The Persian King, Shah Fatail, hands the monastery to Petros Bek Orbelian and orders the proceeds from the village of Amaghu be given to the monastery for its running and maintenance.
1840 - An earthquake damages the monastery.
1948-1949 - The Committee for the Conservation of Monuments in Soviet Armenia begins restoration works on the monastery. A. Balasanyan draws up the projects.
1982-1983 - Renewed consolidation, restoration and excavation works at the monastery begin.
1995 - Because of its over restoration, Noravank is denied entry to UNESCO's World Heritage List.
1997 - The drum and conical dome of the Surb Astvatsatsin church is rebuilt.
Archaeological Data
Name
Noravank
Other nomination
Noravank Amaghu
Monument type
Monastery complex
Region
Vayots Dzor
Community
Areni
Residence
Amaghu village (abandoned)
Location
3 km north-east of the now abandoned village of Amaghu, the right side of Gnishikadzor, on a small hill
Preservation
Standing
Coordinates
39°41'03.6"N 45°13'58.2"E
Elevation
1500 m
Era and chronology
XII-XVIII centuries, High Middle Ages
Research history
The first information about the monument was reported by the XIX century topographical researchers. Various problems referring to the role and significance of Noravank have been studied by many benefactors of Armenology. In the framework of the restoration projects, excavations were carried out in 1947, in the 1980s and 1990s (E. Ayvazyan, Z. Mugdusyan).
Archaeological description
Stratigraphy: According to the XIII century historian and Syunyats Metropolitan Stepanos Orbelyan, in 1105, after the destruction of the Kingdom of Baghk, Bishop Hovhannes Kapantsi, the leader of Vahanavank, came and settled in the valley of Noravank where St. Karapet Church and Pokas Patriarch's Chapel were located.
The Noravank congregation and economy expanded in the XIII-XIV centuries, during the reign of the Orbelians, who sponsored the construction of other monument group structures. During their reign, Noravank became the metropolitan center of Syunik, as well as the family cemetery of the Orbelyans. In 1297 Stepanos Orbelyan completed his history in Noravank.
The monastery continues its existence in later centuries as well. The monument group was damaged by the 1840 earthquake, after which it was abandoned. Restoration and improvement works were carried out in 1948, 1982-1989 and 1996-1998. (A. Balasanyan, H. Gasparyan).
Architecture. The monastic complex consists of the four churches, the vestibule, the chapels, and the buildings of economic importance located in the enclosed courtyard. The ruins of the monastic buildings and guest houses can be seen outside the wall, on the eastern and north-eastern sides. The sculptural khachkars made by Momik and other masters are also included in the monument group.
St. Karapet church is the earliest single-nave structure of the monastery built with semi-cultured stones, the ruins of which were excavated adjacent to the southern wall of St. Stepanos in 1982-83.
The main building of the monument group is St. Stepanos Nakhavka church built by Liparit Orbelyan at the time of Archbishop Sargis’ leadership (1216-1221). It is an externally rectangular and internally cross-shaped domed composition with double-story vaults in the four corners. The only entrance on the western side opens into the vestibule.
Gavit (the vestibule) was built by Smbat Orbelyan in 1261. It is a large pillarless hall, the semi-arches rising from the walls intersect diagonally and form the square crowned with an arch. The floor is covered with tombstones of Orbelians and monastery leaders. On the north-eastern side of the ceiling is a bas-relief depicting a hunting scene. It has two entrances on the western and south-eastern sides.
The western facade stands out in the exterior decoration. On the front stone of the door, on a small sculptural niche, Mother of God is depicted sitting on a throne covered with a carpet, holding baby Jesus in her arms, with one prophet on each side. The pediment is fringed by an inscription band and a double arch decorated with amethyst carvings. Above the entrance, a broad mullioned bay window terminates in a pointed pediment, the wide arched frame of which finishes with a zigzag band and alabaster moldings. In the center of the facade there is an impressive bust of Father-God, unique in Armenian sculpture, holding Adam's head in his hand, revived by the Holy Spirit Dove. To the right is the Crucifixion scene, to the left is a winged angel. In addition to the plot high sculptures, the internal and external decoration of the vestibule is completed by cross-stones.
St. Grigor Tomb-Church adjacent to St. Stepanos from the north is a one-nave vaulted building built by the Orbelians palace architect Siranes in 1275, by Tarsayich Orbelyan's order, on the grave of his brother Smbat Orbelyan. Later, other representatives of the Orbelian dynasty were buried here.
"Burtelashen" (Burtel's construction) St. Astvatsatsin Church is designed by architect Momik. It is one of the rare two-story churches in Armenia. The construction was completed in 1339. The first floor is externally a quadrangular structure, and internally it is a cross-shaped structure, which used to be a tomb. The second floor is internally and externally a cruciform structure with vaults on the eastern side, crowned by a colonnaded rotunda.
Externally, the western facade stands out among the ones decorated with sculptures of animals, birds, plant and geometric ornaments. Cantilevered stairs lead up to the second floor porch on either side. On the headstone of the first floor Mother of God with baby Jesus in her arms is depicted flanked by archangels Michael and Gabriel; on the second floor is the bust of Christ accompanied by apostles Peter and Paul.
There is a thematic sculpture on the third floor columns of the rotunda: Virgin Mary with the Child and the patrons of the church, Burtel holding the church icon and the sons.
Findings: Architectural details, khachkars, tombstones, lithographs, pottery findings.
Significance
Noravank was the Metropolitan Prefect of Syunik from the end of the XIII century to the middle of the XIV century. It is important not only for its history, but it is also considered as an exclusive encyclopedia of the Armenian cultural heritage due to its architecture, sculptural, writing and miniature art. It is one of the unique monument groups with the names of more than one architect preserved in the inscriptions.
Traditional legends
Master Momik falls in love with the beautiful daughter of Syunyats Prince. The girl also likes Momik. The Prince of Syunik calls Momik and says: "I will marry my daughter to you if you build a new, beautiful monastery for me in three years." The young master accepts the prince's condition and starts working. By cutting and chopping stones from the rocks, he is about to finish the construction of the monastery in due time. Knowing this, the prince sends a servant, who by the order of his master, climbs the dome of the monastery and pushes Momik down. The last stone cut by the Momik becomes his tombstone.
Sources
- Stepanos Orbelyan 1986, History of Syunik (translated by A. Abrahamyan), Yerevan, "Soviet writer", 615 pages.
- Yeghiazaryan H. 1955, Cultural monuments of Azizbekov region, Yerevan, "Haypethrat", 111 pages.
- Ghanalanyan A. 1969, Avandapatum, Yerevan, "Publication of the USSR Academy of Sciences", 530 pages.
- Matevosyan K. 2017, Noravank lithographs and memorials, Yerevan, "Mughni", 244 pages.
- Kajberuni 2003, Travel notes, Yerevan, "Mughni", 498 pages.
Gallery
References
Additional sources
"Architectural Ensembles of Armenia", by O. Khalpakhchian, published in Moscow by Iskusstvo Publishers in 1980.
"Rediscovering Armenia Guidebook", by Brady Kiesling and Raffi Kojian, published online and printed in 2005.
History of the Province of Syunik (Patmut'yun Nahangin Sisakan), by Stepahnos Orbelian, 1297.
External links
Noravank
Noravank monastery at Armenica.org
Armeniapedia.org
Program about Noravank Monastery by Vem Radio
Christian monasteries in Armenia
Tourist attractions in Vayots Dzor Province
1205 establishments in Europe
Christian monasteries established in the 13th century
Oriental Orthodox congregations established in the 13th century
Buildings and structures in Vayots Dzor Province |
4428062 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tree%20shaping | Tree shaping | Tree shaping (also known by several other alternative names) uses living trees and other woody plants as the medium to create structures and art. There are a few different methods used by the various artists to shape their trees, which share a common heritage with other artistic horticultural and agricultural practices, such as pleaching, bonsai, espalier, and topiary, and employing some similar techniques. Most artists use grafting to deliberately induce the inosculation of living trunks, branches, and roots, into artistic designs or functional structures.
Tree shaping has been practiced for at least several hundred years, as demonstrated by the living root bridges built and maintained by the Khasi people of India. Early 20th-century practitioners and artisans included banker John Krubsack, Axel Erlandson with his famous circus trees, and landscape engineer Arthur Wiechula. Several contemporary designers also produce tree-shaping projects.
History
Some species of trees exhibit a botanical phenomenon known as inosculation (or self-grafting); whether among parts of a single tree or between two or more individual specimens of the same (or very similar) species. Trees exhibiting this behavior are called inosculate trees.
The living root bridges of Cherrapunji, Laitkynsew, and Nongriat, in the present-day Meghalaya state of northeast India are examples of tree shaping. These suspension bridges are handmade from the aerial roots of living banyan fig trees, such as the rubber tree. The pliable tree roots are gradually shaped to grow across a gap, weaving in sticks, stones, and other inclusions, until they take root on the other side. This process can take up to fifteen years to complete. There are specimens spanning over 100 feet, some can hold up to the weight of 50 people. The useful lifespan of the bridges, once complete, is thought to be 500–600 years. They are naturally self-renewing and self-strengthening as the component roots grow thicker.
Living trees were used to create garden houses in the Middle East, a practice which later spread to Europe. In Cobham, Kent there are accounts of a three-story house that could hold 50 people.
Pleaching is a technique used in the very old horticultural practice of hedge laying. Pleaching consists of first plashing living branches and twigs and then weaving them together to promote their inosculation. It is most commonly used to train trees into raised hedges, though other shapes are easily developed. Useful implementations include fences, lattices, roofs, and walls. Some of the outcomes of pleaching can be considered an early form of what is known today as tree shaping. In an early, labor-intensive, practical use of pleaching in medieval Europe, trees were installed in the ground in parallel hedgerow lines or quincunx patterns, then shaped by trimming to form a flat-plane grid above ground level. When the trees' branches in this grid met those of neighboring trees, they were grafted together. Once the network of joints were of substantial size, builders laid planks across the grid, upon which they built huts to live in, thus keeping the human settlement safe in times of annual flooding. Wooden dancing platforms were also built and the living tree branch grid bore the weight of the platform and dancers.
In late medieval European gardens through the 18th century, pleached allées, interwoven canopies of tree-lined garden avenues, were common.
Methods
There are a few different methods of shaping trees. There is aeroponic culture, instant tree shaping and gradual tree shaping.
Aeroponic culture uses aeroponics, a process of growing tree roots in a nutrient rich mist. Once the roots are of a desired length for the pre-determined design they are shaped as they are planted. This technique may be used in part to help form large permanent structures, such as eco-architecture.
The oldest known root shaping are the living root bridges built by the ancient War-Khasi people of the Cherrapunjee region in India.
Instant tree shaping is a method that uses flexible thin trees 2 to 4 m (6.6 to 13.1 ft). The trees are bent and woven into different designs and held until cast. Bends are then held in place for several years until their form is permanently cast. With this method it is possible to perform initial bending and grafting on a project in an hour, as with Peace in Cherry by Richard Reames.
Girdling, also called ring-barking, may be employed to help balance a design should one part of the design outgrow the other, creating a loss of symmetry. Creasing is performed by folding trees such as willow and poplar over upon themselves without breaking.
Gradual tree shaping starts with designing and framing. Young seedlings or saplings 3–12 in. (7.6–30.5 cm) long are planted. The growth is guided along predetermined design pathways; this may be a wooden jig or a complex wire design. The shaping zone is a small area just behind the growing tip that forms the final shape.
This zone requires day to day or weekly guiding of the new growth. To achieve a finished piece takes longer with this method. A chair design might take 8 to 10 years to reach maturity. Some of Axel Erlandson's trees took 40 years to assume their finished shapes.
Common techniques
Some techniques are common to all the above methods though sometimes they are used differently for each.
Framing might consist of a combination or any one of several materials, including the tree itself, living or dead.
Grafting is a commonly employed technique that exploits the natural biological process of inosculation. A branch is cut and held in place, it can be of the same plant or another cultivar of the plant. Grafting is applied to create permanent connections and joints.
Pruning can be used to balance a design by controlling and directing growth into a desired shape.
Timing is used as part of the construction and is intrinsic to achieving this art form.
Structure
Living grown structures have a number of structural mechanical advantages over those constructed of lumber and are more resistant to decay. While there are some decay organisms that can rot live wood from the outside, and though living trees can carry decayed and decaying heartwood inside them; in general, living trees decay from the inside out and dead wood decays from the outside in. Living wood tissue, particularly sapwood, wields a very potent defense against decay from either direction, known as compartmentalization. This protection applies to living trees only and varies among species.
Growing structures is not as easy as it would seem. Quick growing willows have been used to grow building structures, they provide support or protection. A young group of German architects are in the process of such a structure and they are continually monitored and checked. Once the trees are of age to be able to take on load-bearing weight they are tested for stability and strength by a structural engineer. Once this is approved the supporting framework is removed. Projects are limited to the trees' weight loading ability and growth. This is being studied and the load capacity will be proved by testing on prototypes.
Design options
Designs may include abstract, symbolic, or functional elements. Some shapes crafted and grown are purely artistic; perhaps cubes, circles, or letters of an alphabet, while other designs might yield any of a wide variety of useful shapes, such as clothes hangers, laundry and wastepaper bins, ladders, furniture, tools, and tool handles. Eye-catching structures such as living fences and jungle gyms can also be grown, and even large architectural designs such as live archways, domes, gazebos, tunnels, and theoretically entire homes are possible with careful planning, planting, and culturing over time. The Human Ecology Design team (H.E.D.) at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology is designing homes that can be grown from native trees in a variety of climates.
Suitable trees are installed according to design specifications and then cultured over time into intended structures. Some designs may use only living, growing wood to form the structures, while others might also incorporate inclusions such as glass, mirror, steel and stone, any of which might be used either as either structural or aesthetic elements. Inclusions can be positioned in a project as it is grown and, depending on the design, may either be removed when no longer needed for support or left in place to become fixed inclusions in the growing tissue.
The befit of using trees to grow a design which is then harvested for furniture, is that these pieces are stronger than the results of conventional manufacturing process. As the grain of the timber flows through the design instead of being chopped into smaller pieces then glued back together to form the design. All the joins of a shaped tree are grafted forming a stronger bond than a manufactured piece.
Environmental benefits
Shaped tree projects can play a role in mitigating the imbalance of carbon dioxide-oxygen that happens in cities, creating a microclimate that could be soothing to human habitation. The types of projects that could work in this environment would be playground equipment, road furniture, walkways with over-bridges and bus shelters. This increased growth of trees would improve the shade and create a fresh wind channel. When choosing the trees to use a fruit tree would have the added use of giving food as well. It can be renewable in the long run and when they die they can be used as fertilizer.
The trees and shaped roots can hold the soil preventing soil erosion and forestalling landslides. In the right circumstances the trees could be planted over landfills and garbage dumps. Biodegradable waste could be used to help the trees remain healthily.
Chronology of notable practitioners
War-Khasi people
The ancient War-Khasi people of India worked with the aerial roots of native banyan fig trees, adapting them to create footbridges over watercourses. Modern people of the Cherrapunjee region carry on this traditional building craft. Roots selected for bridge spans are supported and guided in darkness as they are being formed, by threading long, thin, supple banyan roots through tubes made from hollowed-out trunks of woody grasses. Preferred species for the tubes are either bamboo or areca palm, or 'kwai' in Khasi, which they cultivate for areca nuts. The Khasi incorporate aerial roots from overhanging trees to form support spans and safety handrails. Some bridges can carry fifty or more people at once. At least one example, over the Umshiang stream, is a double-decker bridge. They can take ten to fifteen years to become fully functional and are expected to last up to 600 years.
John Krubsack
John Krubsack was an American banker and farmer from Embarrass, Wisconsin. He shaped and grafted the first known grown chair, harvesting it in 1914. He lived from 1858 to 1941. He had studied tree grafting and become a skilled found-wood furniture crafter. The idea first came to him to grow his own chair during a weekend wood-hunting excursion with his son.
He started box elder seeds in 1903, selecting and planting either 28 or 32 of the saplings in a carefully designed pattern in the spring of 1907. In the spring of 1908, the trees had grown to six feet tall and he began training them along a trellis, grafting the branches at critical points to form the parts of his chair. In 1913, he cut all the trees except those forming the legs, which he left to grow and increase in diameter for another year, before harvesting and drying the chair in 1914; eleven years after he started the box elder seeds. Dubbed The Chair that Lived; it is the only known tree shaping that John Krubsack did. The chair went on tour via several exhibitions around the US and was featured in Ripley's Believe It or Not!. The chair is on permanent display in a Plexiglas case at the entrance of Noritage Furniture; the furniture manufacturing business now owned by Krubsack's descendants, Steve and Dennis Krubsack.
Axel Erlandson
Axel Erlandson was a Swedish American farmer who started training trees as a hobby on his farm in Hilmar, California, in 1925. He was inspired by observing a natural sycamore inosculation in his hedgerow. In 1945, he moved his family and the best of his trees from Hilmar to Scotts Valley, California, and in 1947, opened an horticultural attraction called the Tree Circus.
Erlandson lived from 1884 to 1964; training more than 70 trees during his lifetime. He considered his methods trade secrets and when asked how he made his trees do this, he would only reply, "I talk to them." His work appeared in the column of Ripley's Believe It or Not! twelve times. 24 trees from his original garden have survived transplanting to their permanent home at Gilroy Gardens in Gilroy, California. His Telephone Booth Tree is on permanent display at the American Visionary Art Museum in Baltimore, Maryland and his Birch Loop tree is on permanent display at the Museum of Art and History in Santa Cruz, California. Both of these are preserved dead specimens.
Arthur Wiechula
Arthur Wiechula was a German landscape engineer who lived from 1868 to 1941. In 1926, he published Wachsende Häuser aus lebenden Bäumen entstehend (Developing Houses from Living Trees) in German. In it, he gave detailed illustrated descriptions of houses grown from trees and described simple building techniques involving guided grafting together of live branches; including a system of v-shaped lateral cuts used to bend and curve individual trunks and branches in the direction of a design, with reaction wood soon closing the wounds to hold the curves. He proposed growing wood so that it constituted walls during growth, thereby enabling the use of young wood for building. Weichula never built a living home, but he grew a 394' wall of Canadian poplars to help keep the snow off of a section of train tracks.
Dan Ladd
Dan Ladd is a Northampton, Massachusetts based American artist who works with trees and gourds. He began experimenting with glass, china, and metal inclusions in trees in 1977 in Vermont and started planting trees for Extreme Nature in 1978. He became inspired by inosculation he noticed in nature and by the growth of tree trunks around man-made objects such as fences and idle farm equipment. He shapes and grafts trees, including their fruits and their roots, into architectural and geometric forms. Ladd calls human-initiated inosculation 'pleaching' and calls his own work 'tree sculpture'. Ladd binds a variety of objects to trees, for live wood to grow around and be incorporated, including teacups, bicycle wheels, headstones, steel spheres, water piping, and electrical conduit. He guides roots into shapes, such as stairs, using above-ground wooden and concrete forms and even shapes woody, hard-shelled Lagenaria gourds by allowing them to grow into detailed molds. A current project at the DeCordova and Dana Museum and Sculpture Park in Lincoln, Massachusetts incorporates eleven American Liberty Elm trees grafted next to each other to form a long hillside stair banister. Another of his installations, Three Arches, consists of three pairs of 14-foot sycamore trees, which he grafted into arches to frame different city views, at Frank Curto Park in Pittsburgh.
Nirandr Boonnetr
Nirandr Boonnetr is a Thai furniture designer and crafter. He became inspired as a child, both by a photograph of some unusually twisted coconut palms in southern Thailand and by a living fallen tree he noticed, which had grown new branches along its trunk, forming a kind of canopied bridge. His hobby began in 1980 because of his concern the Thailand forests are being ravaged by woodcarvers to the point that one day the industry would eventually carve itself out of existence. He began his first piece, a guava chair, . Originally intended as something for his children to climb and play on, the piece evolved into a living tree chair. In fifteen years he created six pieces of "living furniture", including five chairs and a table. The Bangkok Post dubbed him the father of Living Furniture. Shortly thereafter, he presented a chair as a gift to her Royal Highness, Princess Sirindhorn. Nirandr Boonnetr has written a detailed, step-by-step booklet of instructions hoping his hobby of living furniture will spread to other countries. One of his chairs was exhibited in the Growing Village pavilion at the World's Fair Expo 2005 in Nagakute, Aichi, Japan.
Peter Cook and Becky Northey
Peter Cook and Becky Northey of Pooktre are Australian artists who live in South East Queensland. Cook began to grow his first chair in 1987 with 7 willow cuttings. He was inspired by three fig trees on his property. They were the featured artists at the Growing Village pavilion showing 8 pieces of grown art at the World's Expo 2005 in Nagakute, Aichi Prefecture, Japan.
Their methods involve guiding the tree's growth along predetermined wire design pathways over a period of time. They shape growing trees both for living outdoor art and for intentional harvest. They most often use Myrobalan Plum for shaping.
Richard Reames
Richard Reames is an American nurseryman and author based in Williams, Oregon, where he owns and manages a nursery, and design studio collectively named Arborsmith Studios. He was inspired by the works of Axel Erlandson, and began sculpting trees in 1991 or 1992. He began his first experimental grown chairs in the spring of 1993.
In 1995, Reames wrote and published his first book, How to Grow a Chair: The Art of Tree Trunk Topiary. In it, he coined the word arborsculpture. His second book, Arborsculpture: Solutions for a Small Planet was published in 2005.
Christopher Cattle
Christopher Cattle is a retired furniture design professor from Oxford England. He started his first planting of furniture in 1996. According to Cattle, in the late 1970s he developed an idea to train and graft trees to grow into shapes in response to questions from students asking how to build furniture using less energy. Using various species of trees and wooden jigs to shape them, he has grown 15 three-legged stools to completion.
He hopes to inspire others to grow their own furniture, and envisions that, "One day, furniture factories could be replaced by furniture orchards." He calls his works "grown up furniture", "grown stools", and "grown furniture", calling them "the result of mature thinking."
Mr. Wu
Mr. Wu is a Chinese pensioner who designs, crafts and grows furniture in Shenyang, Liaoning, China. He's been practicing this from 2000.
He enjoys some worldwide fame. He has patented his technique of growing wooden chairs and as of 2005, had designed, grown, and harvested one chair, in 2004. He had six more growing in his garden. Wu uses young elm trees, which he says are pliant and do not break easily. He also says that it takes him about five years to grow a tree chair. He now uses his finished chairs within his home. With the hope of inspiring others to grow furniture.
Gavin Munro
Gavin Munro is a designer who grows chairs, lamps, mirror frames and tables by training trees in his chair orchard located at Wirksworth, in Derbyshire, England. Munro co-founded Full Grown in 2005.
Related practices
Other artistic horticultural practices such as bonsai, espalier, and topiary share some elements and a common heritage, though a number of distinctions may be identified.
Bonsai
Bonsai is the art of growing trees in small containers. Bonsai uses techniques such as pruning, root reduction, and shaping branches and roots to produce small trees that mimic full-sized mature trees. Bonsai is not intended for production of food, but instead mainly for contemplation by viewers, like most fine art.
Espalier
Espalier is the art and horticultural practice of training tree branches onto ornamental shapes along a frame for aesthetic and fruit production by grafting, shaping and pruning the branches so that they grow flat, frequently in formal patterns, against a structure such as a wall, fence, or trellis. The practice is commonly used to accelerate and increase production in fruit-bearing trees and also to decorate flat exterior walls while conserving space.
Pleaching
Pleaching is a technique of weaving the branches of trees into a hedge commonly, deciduous trees are planted in lines, then pleached to form a flat plane on clear stems above the ground level. Branches are woven together and lightly tied. Branches in close contact may grow together, due to a natural phenomenon called inosculation, a natural graft. Pleach also means weaving of thin, whippy stems of trees to form a basketry affect.
Topiary
Topiary is the horticultural practice of shaping live trees, by clipping the foliage and twigs of trees and shrubs to develop and maintain clearly defined shapes, often geometric or fanciful. The hedge is a simple form of topiary used to create boundaries, walls or screens. Topiary always involves regular shearing and shaping of foliage to maintain the shape.
Plantings for the future
The Fab Tree Hab
Three MIT designers – Mitchell Joachim, Lara Greden and Javier Arbona – created a concept of a living tree house which nourishes its inhabitants and merges with its environment. The project of Fab Tree Hab is expected to take a minimum of five years to grow the home. The plans are for the interior to be lined with clay and plastered to keep the weather outside and to look normal. The exterior is to be all natural.
The Patient Gardener
A Swedish architectural firm VisionDivision took part in a week-long workshop at the Italian university Politecnico di Milano with the students. The result was an 80-year plan of a living cherry tree dome in an hourglass shape and grown furniture. Nov 8 2011,10 Japanese cherry trees were planted with the Framing for the dome, table and a lawn chair were built. Ten Japanese cherry trees were planted in a diameter of eight-meter circle. Four of these trees are to be living staircases to a future top level. The stair trees will have their branches grafted into each other to form the rungs. VisionDivision's architects helped the students and instructors to create an easy maintenance plan for future gardeners of the university.
Baubotanik Tower
Ferdinand Ludwig designed this tower as part of his doctoral thesis with the help of Prof. Dr. Speck. "Speck become the botanical co-supervisor" said Ferdinand. Growing at the University of Stuttgart is a three-storey tower of living white willows (Salix alba). This nine-meter-tall construction is almost fully grown, with a base area of around eight square meters.
The framing is made up of mainly steel scaffolding which is supporting the growing trees, while keeping them to the correct form. They started with 400 white willow (Salix alba) grown in baskets on multiple levels with one row of willows planted into the ground. Once the trees were two meters tall, they were planted at the different levels of the tower. These plants are then trained to the design.
The root system of the bottom level of willows needs to develop large enough to support the willows on the above levels, so that the scaffold becomes obsolete and then it and the watering and fertilising baskets can be removed altogether.
The trees are grafted together with the objective of all the different plants eventually becoming a single organism. The overall aim is to have a living structure with the strength to support itself and to carry a working load. Ferdinand predicts the tower will be stable enough to support itself in five to ten years. Ferdinand does state "However, these are only estimates."
Assessment
The advantages are trees can improve the habitation by generating more oxygen, giving shade and reuse of waste water creating a micro climate. Living trees are less prone to rot than timber via a process called compartmentalization. The joins are stronger than man made joinery. Mostly resistant to earthquakes and tsunamis.
Some issues are the lack of working knowledge of how trees grow by architects and others. The speed of growth is unpredictable and they can grow in unwanted ways - thus creating a need to make plans adjustable. Trees can only reach a specific height and size dictated by their species. The environment can have a large impact on the growth and health of the trees.
Alternative names
The practice of shaping living trees has several names. Practitioners may have their own name for their techniques, so a standard name for the various practices has not emerged. "Arborsculpture", "tree sculpture", "living furniture", and other names have been used.
The following names are also encountered:
Arbortecture
Biotecture/Biotechture
Grown furniture
Living Art
Pleaching
Tree training
Baubotanik
In fiction and art
In 1516, Jean Perréal painted an allegorical image, La complainte de nature à l'alchimiste errant, (The Lament of Nature to the Wandering Alchemist), in which a winged figure with arms crossed, representing nature, sits on a tree stump with a fire burning in its base, conversing with an alchemist in an ankle-length coat, standing outside of his stone-laid shoreline laboratory. Live resprouting shoots emerge from either side of the tree stump seat to form a fancifully twined and inosculated two-story-tall chair back.
In 1758, Swedish scientist, philosopher, Christian mystic, and theologian Emanuel Swedenborg published Earths in the Universe, in which he wrote of visiting another planet where the residents dwelled in living groves of trees, whose growth they had planned and directed from a very young stage into living quarters and sanctuaries.
In the late 19th century, Styrian Christian mystic and visionary Jakob Lorber published The Household of God. In it, he wrote about the wisdom of planting trees in a circle, because once grown together, the ring of trees would be a much better house than could be built.
In J. R. R. Tolkien's popular fiction, The Lord of the Rings, elves were able to shape trees by singing, and in Lothlórien, a forest described therein, trees were shaped into homes and walkways.
There are also tree-shaping elves in the 1978 comic book series Elfquest. They created homes, bows, animal forms, and other things to grow instantly from living trees. Most notable of these elves are Redlance and Goodtree.
See also
Land art
Landscaping
References
Horticulture
Trees
Sculpture techniques |
4428406 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DADVSI | DADVSI | Loi DADVSI (generally pronounced as dadsi) is the abbreviation of the French Loi relative au droit d’auteur et aux droits voisins dans la société de l’information (in English: "law on authors' rights and related rights in the information society"). It is a bill reforming French copyright law, mostly in order to implement the 2001 Information Society Directive, which in turn implements a 1996 WIPO treaty.
The law, despite being initially dismissed as highly technical and of no concern to the average person, generated considerable controversy when it was examined by the French Parliament between December 2005 and June 30, 2006, when it was finally voted through by both houses.
Most of the bill focussed on the exchange of copyrighted works over peer-to-peer networks and the criminalizing of the circumvention of digital rights management (DRM) protection measures. Other sections dealt with other matters related to copyright, including rights on resale of works of art, copyright for works produced by government employees and exceptions to copyright for education and the handicapped, among other issues.
The law was controversial within France because of fears that it could significantly hamper free software and might also significantly restrict the right to make copies of copyrighted works for private use.
Some amendments to the bill, not present in the original version, would potentially require manufacturers to share their proprietary digital music formats with other software developers (by way of the need to provide the documentation necessary for interoperability). Because of this, a controversy arose with Apple Computer and associated US industry groups, who loudly protested in the US press; therefore, the DADVSI bill was sometimes referred to as the iTunes law or iPod law in the English-language press (see Interoperability and Apple controversy), although the law is not referred to in this way in France.
Legal background
The title of the DADVSI law refers to droit d'auteur et droits voisins (authors' rights and related rights). Authors' rights, in French law, have two components:
economic rights (droits patrimoniaux): the exclusive right of the author of a work of the mind to reveal this work according to his or her conditions (that is, for instance, by ceding this right to a publisher);
moral rights (droits moraux), such as: the right for the author to obtain redress against others claiming to be the author of the work; these rights cannot be ceded.
This concept is reflected in the Berne Convention on Copyright.
Copyright is a related concept, but pertains to Anglo-American common law; one notable difference is that copyright does not generally involve moral rights.
The legal clauses governing authors' rights and related rights form the first book of the French Code of Intellectual Property (CPI). This article will thus refer to articles from this code as CPI Lnnn.
The notion of 'author' extends to that of composer (of music), playwright, painter, photographer, etc., though the law makes it a requirement that the work should be original (or show some supplemental originality, in the case of a derived work) in order to be protected. In practice authors often cede their rights to publishers, who then enforce the "exclusive right" and some are members of societies that enforce their rights on their behalf. The latter is de facto nearly compulsory in case of songwriters and composers, almost all of whom are members of Sacem.
Performers and publishers of audio recordings enjoy "related rights". These follow different rules and have a shorter duration than the rights of authors. In practice performers often cede their rights to publishers, or have them enforced by societies.
The exclusive right of the author is not absolute. According to WIPO treaties, local legislation may make exceptions to exclusive copyrights only if these exceptions fulfill a "three-step test": limitations and exceptions
should only concern special cases;
should not conflict with a normal exploitation of the work;
should not unreasonably prejudice the legitimate interests of the right holder.
This is how the US doctrine of fair use is justified with respect to copyright treaties for instance. The 2001 European Directive on Copyright proposes a list of 10 exceptions to copyright that member states can choose to implement or not, in addition to one whose implementation is compulsory (this makes an exception for temporary technical copies, meant to address Web caches and similar systems).
Exceptions to copyright in French law are defined in CPI L122-5. Among them is the notable exception for private copies: French residents may freely make copies of works (except software) for their private use, and freely display those works within their family circle (which is interpreted to include friends), without the agreement of the copyright holder. However, French law includes a "tax on private copies" meant to address the losses incurred by copyright holders; this tax is levied on blank media (audio and video cassettes, CD's, DVD's, as well as memory and hard drives in portable media players). Normally taxation is reserved for legislation, a prerogative of the French Parliament, but a statute endowed an ad hoc commission to set the rates and conditions for this tax.
European directives are generally not directly enforceable in EU member states. They first have to be transposed into local law, generally by an act of the legislature of the member state. While they give a general framework and impose some options they may leave significant leeway: in the case of EUCD, for instance, the directive gives a list of optional copyright exceptions, and mandates appropriate legal protection for DRMs, without defining what constitutes an appropriate protection. Member states have to transpose directives within reasonable delays, or they face action by the European Commission. There may be subsequent litigation before the European Court of Justice if subsequent the implementation is deemed to be inadequate.
In March 2006, the Cour de cassation, France's highest court in civil and criminal matters, ruled in a decision nicknamed Mulholland Drive (from the name of a DVD involved). It quashed a decision by the appeals court of Versailles that ruled that Digital rights management techniques that contradicted the "right to private copy" were illegal. Legal scholars noted the following:
the manner in which the decision was presented indicated that it was a decision meant to establish doctrine (following the civil law tradition, French courts are theoretically prohibited from judging in the general case so as to establish case law, but in practice the Cour de cassation does so in certain decisions).
the decision cited the "test in three steps" and the yet untransposed European directive on copyright as source of doctrine, whereas, some legal scholars argue, it is up to the legislature to decide how to apply such principles when making law, not to the courts.
In response an amendment was added to the DADVSI law by the National Assembly, which established a "right to the exception for private copy." However, the scope of this right is unclear, since it was to be decided by a "college of mediators", but it was suppressed from the final text of the law.
The crux of the discussion on private copy is the nature of this so-called "right". One can interpret it weakly, as an exception to the general possibility for copyright holders to prevent any unauthorized distribution of their work, or strongly, as a prohibition for copyright holders to use technical means to prevent private legal copies.
The "three-step test" was also copied into article "1 bis" of the draft law, which updates CPI L122-5. See Copyright exceptions.
Politics
The DADVSI law unexpectedly rose as a somewhat well-publicized topic in national French politics in December 2005 with the vote of the so-called "global license". Two major presidential candidates personally intervened in the controversy while others made declarations.
Legislative process
The initial draft of the law was proposed in 2003 by then Minister of Culture Jean-Jacques Aillagon (Union for a Popular Movement, UMP). Because of various circumstances, including the replacement of Aillagon by Renaud Donnedieu de Vabres (UMP), the bill was presented very late to the French Parliament and was initially to be examined in the National Assembly on December 20, 21 and 22, 2005 just before the Christmas holidays. The government (the cabinet of ministers, as represented by the Minister of Culture) had declared the law to be urgent, which means, under the Constitution of France, that the law would be examined only once by each house of Parliament; the reason given by the minister was that France was threatened by the European Commission with sanctions if it failed to implement the directive.
Despite being initially presented as a technical text the law became hotly controversial. It became perceived as criminalising Internet users for sending files of copyrighted works to each other, as well as being a threat to free software. It was also feared that it would mean, in practice, the end to the right of creating a "private copy": for instance, making a copy of a record onto digital magnetic tape for the private use of the owner of the record, which is currently authorized by CPI L122-5.
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The examination of the draft law by the National Assembly, initially seen as a quick matter preceding the Christmas break, was marred by several incidents, the best known being the vote on the first amendment of the "global license" (see below). Supplemental sittings of the Assembly had to be allotted in March in order for the law to be fully examined. An important factor was that the schedule of full sittings of the Assembly or the Senate is almost entirely decided by the executive.
Prior to the examination of the law by the assembly in session, the draft bill had been sent to the Commission of Law, without any review by the Commission of Cultural Affairs, as would have been expected of a text presented by the Minister of Culture pertaining to artistic works; this procedure was deplored by some deputies. Deputy Christian Vanneste was commissioned to report on the law.
Deputies from the opposition (French Socialist Party, PS, French Communist Party, PCF, Greens) as well as the junior majority coalition partner Union for French Democracy (UDF) expressed their opposition to such a highly complex law being rushed through Parliament. On December 21 they supported a motion sending the draft law back for examination in parliamentary commission. However, the Minister of Culture opposed the move stating that he hoped that the "solid parliamentarians from UMP" would not vote for the motion — a move interpreted as a quasi-order to the deputies from his party not to vote for the motion.
An amended draft law was approved by the National Assembly on March 21, 2006, by 296 votes for, 193 against. The UMP (right-wing), which has the absolute majority at the National Assembly, voted in favour, while the left voted against it. MPs of the center-right UDF voted either against the text or abstained.
The Senate sent the bill before the Commission of Cultural Affairs who commissioned Senator Michel Thollière to report on it. The Commission heard Minister de Vabres on April 4 and recommended a number of amendments. The Senate then examined the law in session on May 4, 9 and 10, 2006, and adopted a number of amendments.
There was still considerable uncertainty on the future of the bill. Prime Minister Dominique de Villepin had the choice between letting the text go back before the National Assembly, then before the Senate for another round of examination or maintaining that the text was urgent and sending it before a mixed commission from both houses of the French Parliament to draft a compromise version to be sent to both houses to be voted upon, with the Assembly being able to have a final say. Minister of Culture Donnedieu de Vabres had promised that he would have the law sent for another reading by both houses if the differences between the texts adopted by the Assembly and the Senate were too great. He contended that those differences between the texts were small enough that the text could be sent before a mixed commission; however, some members of Parliament disagreed. The bill was rumored to be scheduled to be examined by the mixed commission on May 30, but in the end it was not.
On June 15, 2006, despite the request by 20 UMP deputies that the text should be sent to the National Assembly again, the government announced that it would send the bill before the mixed commission on June 22. The text will then be sent before both houses for final approval.
On June 22, in the morning, the mixed commission met. However, the Socialist members soon quit, claiming that the commission was a parody of democracy after discovering during the meeting 55 amendments hardening the Senate text.
Both houses of Parliament finally approved the bill on June 30, the last day of the Parliamentary session. UMP voted in favour, the Communists and Socialists against, and UDF split over it between those voting against and those abstaining from voting. Socialist deputy Patrick Bloche defended a motion of inadmissibility, claiming that the law was unconstitutional and thus that the Assembly had to refuse it; Communist deputies and president of the UDF François Bayrou announced that they supported the motion. The motion was voted down, predictably, because the UMP ruling party had an absolute majority in the Assembly.
On July 7, 2006, the Socialist deputies, 3 Green deputies, 4 Communist deputies, 2 UDF deputies (François Bayrou, president of UDF, and Hervé Morin, head of the UDF group in the Assembly) filed a recourse before the Constitutional Council. This recourse blocked the signing of the law: the council has one month to decide on the constitutionality of the law except if the Government claims urgency, in which case it has eight days. The recourse included the following claims of lack of constitutionality, based on the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen:
the clarity and sincerity of the legislative process were jeopardized by
the government withdrawing article 1 after amendments that it disapproved were voted down;
the mixed parliamentary commission significantly introducing amendments that were neither in the Assembly nor in the Senate text;
a number of clauses of the law that infringed on the rights of citizens:
the definition of some crimes being unclear, whereas citizens should be able to understand what is a crime and what is not:
exceptions to copyright were restricted by the Berne three-step test in a vague manner. These were now part of French law but ordinary citizens could only guess how to interpret this test, though copyright infringement was a crime;
computer programs "manifestly designed for spreading copyrighted works" were criminalized, but no definition was given as to what this means, and the exceptions to this prohibition were also vaguely defined, thus citizens could not know whether such and such program was illegal or not;
the voted text of the law admits "interoperability" as a valid goal for exemption from the prohibition of circumvention of DRM protection measures, but, unlike earlier drafts, did not define the word;
no guarantee was given as to the modes of proof and investigation of the crimes defined in the law.
After the decision of the Constitutional Council the law was submitted to President Jacques Chirac for signature on August 1, 2006.
Political importance
At first sight, the DADVSI law was not meant to be a disputed legal text: it dealt with fairly technical legal points. It was, however, turned into a political hot topic featured in major newspapers and on national television.
The first draft of the DADVSI law criminalized peer-to-peer exchanges of copyrighted works (or, more precisely, copyrighted works whose licenses did not allow such exchanges). The case was made in Parliament that millions of French Internet users, especially among the young, currently traded files on computer networks and that it was thus unrealistic to turn them into felons. Since subsequent reading coincided with the examination of a controversial youth workforce clause known as the CPE, the opposition argued that the government was at war with the youth.
The DADVSI law was used as a platform for various groups or parties for demonstrating opposition to the government policies:
Deputies for the opposition French Socialist Party supported an alternative scheme known as the "global license", despite the party's divisions on the issue. They denounced the government as repressive, especially against the younger population.
François Bayrou, president of the center-right party Union for French Democracy (UDF), formerly inside the ruling coalition, used the opportunity to distance itself from the policies of the Union for a Popular Movement (UMP) ruling party. He denounced the parliamentary process that produced the law, which, he claimed, was forced through Parliament under the influence of the executive and lobbies.
Nicolas Dupont-Aignan, a eurosceptic member of the UMP majority party, distanced himself from the policies of the government and opposed an "unenforceable law".
Christine Boutin, a member of the UMP majority party and former presidential candidate (2002 French presidential election), with a political platform oriented towards "family values", claimed that it was absurd to turn millions of young people (and possibly, 'some parliamentarians') into criminals.
Lobbying
Some members of the French parliament, as well as other observers, publicly decried the intense lobbying by various groups and industries. Bernard Carayon, UMP deputy for the Tarn département, denounced lobbying, pressures and even blackmail on the part of certain groups on national TV. A number of parliamentarians said they had never seen such intense lobbying from all sides, including a grassroot effort from Internet users and free software advocates which inundated them with letters and emails. At one point, Senator Michel Charasse demanded that parliamentary staff clean out corridors of loitering lobbyists.
Alain Suguenot, a supporter of the global license, UMP deputy for the Côte-d'Or département, hinted that some groups or societies supporting events had threatened to withdraw their support for events in the constituencies of deputies voting in favour of the global license. Suguenot, who is also mayor of the town of Beaune, indicated that his town would no longer support a cinema festival and would replace it by something related to computing and Internet technologies.
Minister of Culture Renaud Donnedieu de Vabres was criticized for being too close to some industry groups.
At the beginning of the DADVSI discussion in December, Donnedieu de Vabres organised a demonstration of commercial music download platforms inside a room of the National Assembly, where deputies were given a free account with a €10 credit. Opposition deputy Christian Paul denounced this action and the demonstration was shut by president of the Assembly Jean-Louis Debré, who indicated that though he had authorized the demonstration he had not authorized it to go in this manner.
According to the Odebi league, a pressure group defending French Internet users, some aides of Donnedieu de Vabres had strong links to industry groups. In response, some, such as Pascal Rogard from SACD, denounced the League as a specialist in ad hominem attacks.
Some amendments to the law (150/151, 267) were labeled by some parliamentarians and others as the "Vivendi Universal amendments", because they were allegedly inspired by the entertainment giant. The free software advocate group EUCD.info denounced the fact that the lobbyist for an industry group was allowed into the "four column hall", a room in the Assembly building whose access is normally restricted to deputies and journalists.
Confusion
Minister Donnedieu de Vabres was criticized by parliamentarians for lack of preparation. For instance, François Bayrou, head of the center-right UDF party, criticised how the minister submitted a last minute pair of amendments of seven pages completely changing the criminal penalty system applicable to illegal copies of copyrighted material, and for creating a de facto "police of the Internet". He pointed out that modifications of such an importance should be examined in commission.
On January 3, 2006, in his yearly speech of wishes addressed to the President of the Republic, president of the National Assembly Jean-Louis Debré (UMP) denounced the usage by the government of the procedure of urgency, which he claimed was used excessively often. He also denounced how the government frequently sent hastily redacted draft laws to Parliament then had to send amendments in order to correct its own texts. Specifically mentioning DADVSI he deplored how the government had sent two four-page amendments in the middle of the examination of the text, alluding to the same amendments that Bayrou had denounced.
In its March 15, 2006, edition, the Canard Enchaîné investigative weekly reported that Debré had complained that Donnedieu de Vabres was "a zero, who put us in the shit and, from the start, dragged us into an adventure".
Protests and Internet actions
The EUCD.info group ran an Internet petition, which, by June 2006, garnered more than 170,000 signatures.
Groups opposed to clauses in the law organised a variety of protests. The StopDRM group organised flash mobs. Various groups organized a march against new French copyright law on May 7, 2006, as the bill was at the Senate; the March ended with flowers being laid in memory of authors' rights.
On June 9, 2006, a delegation including Richard M. Stallman, president of the Free Software Foundation, went to the Hotel Matignon to meet prime minister Dominique de Villepin, however, the prime minister and his advisors refused to meet them. The delegation protested the fact that they were turned away while business leaders such as Bill Gates from Microsoft got official reception. They laid down the list of 165,000 signatories of the EUCD.info petition in the gutter, as a sign of what they saw as contempt for the concerns of ordinary citizens.
On June 26, Stallman spoke against DADVSI at a free software business meeting organized by the City of Paris (Paris, capitale du Libre); on June 28, he met presidential candidate Ségolène Royal.
The Odebi league campaigned against politicians who they claim supported the positions of the "major" record corporations. A campaign of Google bombing was made against Minister Donnedieu de Vabres: searching Google for ministre (minister) or blanchisseur (launderer) resulted in a news article about the conviction of Donnedieu de Vabres for money laundering.
Repression of Internet copying of copyrighted works
The DADVSI law contains a number of articles meant to suppress the copying of copyrighted music or videos through peer-to-peer networks over the Internet.
The initial version of the bill punished most acts related to illegal copying of copyrighted material, including working around anti-copy systems, as a felony counterfeiting, with a maximum sentence of 3 years in prison and/or a €300,000 fine. However, a number of parliamentarians contended that this was equivalent to criminalizing millions of Internet users, especially the young, and Minister Donnedieu de Vabres immediately introduced amendments known as "escalation": peer-to-peer users who copy files illegally would first be warned, then fined, with stronger penalties for repeat offenders.
Finally, the choice was made to criminalize authors and publishers of software capable of unlocking copy protection system or copying copyrighted works over the Internet, while users would receive much softer penalties.
Sharing of copyrighted works over peer-to-peer networks
In the current state of the law, CPI L335-2 and L335-5 punish as counterfeiting the act of publishing copyrighted works without the authorization of the rights holders, with a maximum sentence of 3 years in prison and/or a €300,000 fine.
Whether or not sharing files over a peer-to-peer network falls within the scope of this prohibition has been controversial. Some groups, such as the Audionautes, have contended that the act of receiving copyrighted works from Internet sites or peer-to-peer networks is an act of private copying, which is a valid exemption from copyright rules, following from CPI L122-5. Courts have ruled in both directions, some convicting peer-to-peer users, others acquitting them.
Article 14 bis of the DADVSI law explicitly exempts from this regime the act of downloading a copyrighted work on a peer-to-peer network. This exemption is further extended to the act of making some copyrighted work available to the public without any commercial purpose, when this is an automatic result of the use of a peer-to-peer network for obtaining it; this clause was added because many peer-to-peer networks automatically make downloaded content available to other users, thus merely exempting downloads from the counterfeiting felony would not have been sufficient.
These acts, exempted from the counterfeiting felony charge, would still fall under a lesser charge, with a fine to be defined by a decree (executive decision). Minister Donnedieu de Vabres has announced a €38 fine for downloading acts, but it is yet unknown whether this would apply to any single file (thus a person with 1000 songs downloaded illegally could in theory owe a fine of €38,000) or whether several downloads could be punished with a single fine.
Supporters of the global licence such as Patrick Bloche have pointed out that fines would go into the state budget and would thus not benefit artists financially.
The "global license"
In 2005, an alternative proposal to the original draft law was proposed. Instead of criminalising peer-to-peer file sharing, the proposal would have made peer-to-peer exchanges legal, in exchange for a fee on broadband Internet subscriptions. The fee would go have gone to fund the artists and authors. This is known as the "global license" or "legal license".
The "legal license" was promoted by the alliance public-artistes ("public / artists alliance"), composed of:
consumers' associations (UFC Que Choisir and others)
Internet users associations (Association des audionautes...)
family associations
musical performer rights societies (ADAMI, SPEDIDAM)
musical performer associations
other artists' associations.
It was backed by a number of politicians, both on the left (members of the French Socialist Party such as Patrick Bloche and Christian Paul) and on the right (members of the UMP such as Christine Boutin and Alain Suguenot), who defended it in the National Assembly. It was defended in the National Assembly, but not the Senate, by parliamentarians from the French Socialist Party, the Greens, and the French Communist Party.
No specific amount of fee was discussed in the law, but it was meant to be approximately €7 per month for a broadband connection. French broadband connections typically cost €30 a month for rates up to 16 megabits per second, digital TV and unlimited VoIP phone calls.
Proponents of the law contended that:
The global license is a realistic measure in the long run. Internet users will use peer-to-peer networks anyway and there are already millions of peer-to-peer users so it's unreasonable to claim that they will be prosecuted. Instead of trying to revert this trend it would be better to tax it.
The alternative to this is heavy-handed enforcement and intrusive Digital rights management (DRMs).
The global license would provide a steady stream of revenue to authors and artists.
Opponents contended that:
The global license is a communist measure, while DRMs allow fine-grained, individual, remuneration of artists.
There is no reliable method for apportioning the money raised through this method to artists. If polling methods are used, they may miss smaller artists.
The global license is contrary to the "test in three steps" that must be verified by every exception to copyright.
The global license would fail to provide enough revenue to authors and artists.
In the evening sitting of the Assembly on December 21, the first of the series of amendments establishing the global license (identical amendments 153 as proposed by UMP deputy Alain Suguenot and 154 as proposed by deputies from the French Socialist Party) was voted by a 30-to-28 margin, much to the dismay of Culture Minister Donnedieu de Vabres. This was the first time that a legislature anywhere had supported an alternative compensation system to broadly legalize P2P file sharing.
The global license proved difficult to handle for the government. It was initially thought that the minister would request another examination of the controversial amendment by the Assembly; however, the head of the UMP group in the assembly, Bernard Accoyer, stated that the French Parliament had demonstrated that it was not a chambre d'enregistrement (a chamber for registering the wishes of the executive) and pointed out that the text was only at the beginning of its examination by Parliament, which has two houses, which seemed to suggest that he expected the amendment to be struck down in the Senate.
The examination of the text by the National Assembly resumed in March. The Minister of Culture announced that the government would use its prerogative to withdraw its own draft law in order to withdraw article 1 of the law, which was the article to which amendments 153/154 applied, and propose in its stead a "1 bis" article. This move was supported by President of the National Assembly Jean-Louis Debré, who exceptionally presided the sitting; Debré cited precedent for such actions to deputies questioning the constitutionality of the action. However, the next day, the government announced that it would not withdraw the article, following from a communication by president of the Constitutional Council Pierre Mazeaud that the move's constitutionality was unclear. The Assembly then proceeded with the remaining amendments to article 1, then, expectedly, voted down article 1, then examined article "1 bis". The "global license" was thus removed from the text, and did not make it into the final version of the law that was put into place.
However, an Internet access provider named 9 Telecom did implement a similar idea, by providing unlimited downloadable music, protected by DRM, from the Universal catalog to its subscribers; without legal problems as 9 Telecom belongs to Universal.
Criminalisation of DRM circumvention
Articles 13 and 14 of the law introduced a variety of criminal penalties for those working around DRM technical measures:
A fine up to €3,750 is applicable for those who knowingly work around a DRM technical measure for reasons other than research, if this is not done using means procured from others.
Prison sentences up to 6 months and/or fines up to €30,000 are applicable for those who supply others with means to work around technical measures, or who knowingly propose such means.
Lesser fines will be subsequently introduced by an executive decree.
However, none of these penalties apply when the purpose of circumvention was computer security or research. This last clause, exempting circumvention from penalties when it is done for certain purposes, was kept by a narrow 11-10 margin in the Senate.
Interoperability and Apple controversy
The DADVSI law grants legal protection to digital rights management "technical protection methods" (defined in article 7); that is, it contains clauses criminalizing circumvention of DRMs (articles 13 and 14).
The initial draft law was heavily criticized for the vagueness and wide scope of the anti-circumvention clauses. It was feared that:
These clauses could potentially outlaw any free software capable of reading DRM-using formats (music, video, or even text content); the fear was that free software implementing DRM would be construed as facilitating circumvention. Designers of software knowingly facilitating circumvention would, with the initial draft, face felony charges of counterfeiting with a maximum penalty of a €300,000 fine and/or three years in prison. Free software advocates thus concluded that the law would have a chilling effect on the development of free software in France, since any modern desktop system is supposed to be able to read music and video content, and their designers could not be sure whether they would face felony charges.
These clauses would allow designers of DRM systems to have competitors prosecuted by claiming that these competitors' systems facilitated circumvention of DRMs. This would, in effect, create a new kind of intellectual property in addition to copyright and patents. However the purpose of the law was to protect the copyright of composers, artists, film-makers etc. and not grant new legal protections to DRM companies.
These clauses would tie people to the provider of the music, since the DRM system of a music provider would only work with the players from this provider. This would in turn be an annoyance to customers, since content from one device would not be playable on another.
The clauses would prevent investigation of possible security lapses in DRM systems, such as when Sony's Extended Copy Protection system was found to create computer security problems.
Since the personal computing software industry in France is heavily dominated by a few companies (such as Microsoft and Apple Computer), which also provide DRM systems, it was feared that the law would reinforce these dominant positions and prevent competition from free software. Politicians across all French political parties have declared free software to be important for France, since it provides competition in a field dominated by extra-European corporations. It is officially considered instrumental in controlling the IT expenses of public administrations.
Accordingly, a number of free software organizations (Free Software Foundation France, EUCD.info, Framasoft, APRIL, AFUL...) lobbied that the DADVSI law should not act as a de facto prohibition on making free software capable of reading formats protected by DRMs, including video and music, and thus making free operating systems unsuitable for personal use. They also noted that copyrighted works also include text, that formats such as PDF also have DRMs, and thus that the law could well exclude free software from desktop processing, since it could perhaps not read the same file formats as the main desktop suites.
Those associations argued that criminal law should not reinforce network effects and the practice of tying sales (vente liée), that is, making it compulsory to buy one good or service to be able to buy another good of service, without a legitimate motive, which is prohibited by French law (Consumption code, L122-1). They argued that music and electronic equipment capable of playing it are separate products and that the sale of one should not be tied to that of the other.
Politicians from several parties (among whom Alain Carayon and Richard Cazenave from the ruling right-wing UMP, François Bayrou, president of the center-right UDF) pushed amendments aimed at ensuring interoperability of DRM systems. These amendments were adopted by the Assembly at the very end of its reading of the law, on the night of March 16 to March 17.
These amendments stated that:
Providers of DRM systems should provide the necessary technical documentation to any party needing it to ensure that interoperability. In practice, this would mean that makers of software or hardware players could request information from providers of DRM-protected music or video in order for that music or video to be playable on their systems.
The publication of the source code or technical documentation of systems implementing DRMs is not prohibited by the protection granted to DRMs.
It is unclear, though, whether these clauses would apply to DRM providers who not choose to avail themselves of the specific legal protection that the law grants to DRMs. That is, it is unknown at this point whether a licence agreement clause claiming that no part of a system, format or protocol is deemed to implement a DRM could exempt DRM providers from having to provide interoperability information.
These clauses proved controversial, mostly in the US press, where analyses provided by various interest groups claimed that they were directed at Apple's iTunes platform and their iPod players; some news sources even went as far as to nickname the DADVSI law the "French iTunes law". Some analysts claimed that they could force Apple to shut down iTunes for French customers, because Apple's business model ties iTunes content to the iPod player using the DRM system and the French market comprises a relatively small portion of Apple's overall sales. Apple claimed that the French copyright law amounted to "state-sponsored piracy". According to Apple, the proposed legislation would increase copyright piracy by making it easier for copyright pirates to download songs from iTunes in a generic format and then endlessly copy them for other users (the iTunes format, being proprietary, is more difficult to transfer to other media).
This declaration supported the claims by free-software advocates and politicians who said that the protection of DRM initially envisioned would benefit makers of DRM systems by enabling them to prosecute competitors as facilitating piracy. Finally, US Secretary of Commerce Carlos Gutierrez declared that it would look at the law closely and support intellectual property rights, a comment widely interpreted to be supportive of Apple.
The reaction from Apple and the US government was highly controversial in France. The Odebi league, a citizen's action group defending the rights of Internet users, told Apple to "mind its business and not meddle into the French legislative process" and pointed out that "if Apple wishes to do business in France, it has to respect the rights that the French enjoy"; the league also issued a communiqué titled Guterriez go home.
Deputy Christian Paul published a communiqué meant to explain the intents of French lawmakers to Americans, without the media filtering. Christian Paul criticized the French government for making so much effort to please Apple:
When Apple coughs, we now know that Paris sneezes [...] Apple has assured itself control over channels of distribution and sales by imposing a proprietary format.
Representatives from Apple were heard by the Senate Commission for Cultural affairs. The Commission subsequently recommended that the interoperability provisions should be substantially reworked, and proposed amendments, most of which were adopted by the Senate. A notable exception is that the Senate rejected (by 11 votes against 10) an amendment from the Commission which suppressed the right to work around DRMs for reasons of interoperability. The text from the Senate introduces an administrative authority capable of adjudicating the possibility of reading DRM contents in order to achieve interoperability.
Article 7 bis A introduced a loophole for designers of technical measures of protection who do not desire to share them for interoperability. It states that the mission of this administrative authority is to prevent lack of interoperability and other limitations when these are not desired by the copyright holder. It thus seems possible that designers of technical measures can work around the interoperability requirement by showing that lack of interoperability was desired by the copyright holders.
The "Vivendi Universal" amendments
Some amendments, adopted by both houses of Parliament, introduce civil and criminal responsibility for authors of software used for illicit copying of protected works. These amendments are widely known as the "Vivendi Universal" or "VU" amendments; that terminology was used by some members of Parliament, the reason for it being that, allegedly, these amendments were strongly pushed by Vivendi Universal, a major entertainment corporation. According to the Odebi League and EUCD.info, these amendments were unofficially supported by president of the ruling UMP party and presidential candidate Nicolas Sarkozy. They ended up making up articles 12 bis and 14 quarter of the text adopted by the Senate.
Article 12 bis introduced criminal penalties (up to 3 years in prison and/or a fine of up to €300,000) for people who knowingly make available software "manifestly" meant to transmit copyrighted works illegally, or who knowingly incite to the use of such software. A number of commentators doubt the constitutionality of this article, because of the uncertainty introduced by the word "manifestly" for defining an incrimination; they also contend that this article amounts to making authors of software criminally responsible for the actions of others (users) that they do not control.
Article 14 quarter made it possible for right holders to obtain court injunctions ordering makers of software mainly used for illegal transmissions of copyrighted works to implement whatever technical measures that can prevent this usage, as long as they do not change the nature of the software. A register of copyrighted works is made available in order to help in the effective implementation of those measures. This article could make it mandatory to implement technologies such as SNOCAP into peer-to-peer transmission programs, as proposed by Sylvie Forbin from Vivendi Universal.
A related amendment, making up article 14 ter A, mandated that Internet users should "secure" their Internet connection so that it is not used for transmitting copyrighted works illegally; Internet service providers are supposed to provide users with the suitable technology. This measure may be targeted at peer-to-peer users claiming that their WiFi connection was hijacked, but it may also result in forcing all users to install anti-virus and filtering software on their machines.
Copyright exceptions
Droit d'auteur (the Author's rights) is an exclusive right of the author. However, there exist in French law a number of legal exceptions to this exclusive right, somewhat similar to the US notion of fair use. These are listed in CPI L122-5, and article 1/1 bis of the DADVSI law alters these exceptions.
The law first expands the exceptions:
It introduces an exception for education, starting from January 1, 2009: it allows the representation or the reproduction of short works or extracts of works not meant for commercial use if the following conditions are meant:
these are used solely for purposes of illustration of analysis within education and research, excluding all recreational activity
the public is strictly restricted to a majority of pupils, students, teaching and research staff directly concerned
no commercial use is made
a negotiated remuneration compensates these uses for copyright holders.
It explicitly allows for transitory and technical reproductions, e.g. web caches.
It allows specialized facilities for the handicapped to freely reproduce and represent works, e.g. by making audio recordings, Braille versions. The electronic files used for such works may be deposited at an administration for safekeeping.
It allows public libraries, museums and archives to freely reproduce works for purposes of conservation or preservation of onsite consultation.
It allows the information press to freely show a reproduction of a work of art (sculpture, painting, architecture...)
for purposes of immediate information,
if the work of art is directly in relation with the information
provided that the author is clearly identified
excluding works that themselves aim at reporting information (so a newspaper cannot claim to be able to copy freely press photographs)
within reasonable bounds (number of illustration, format).
However, article 1/1 bis also introduces the Berne three-step test directly into French law:
The exceptions enumerated within this article cannot hamper the normal exploitation of the work, neither can they cause an undue loss to the legitimate interests of the author.
This clause is highly controversial. Members of the opposition such as Patrick Bloche have argued that the Berne three-step test may be imposed onto states, so that their legislation conforms to the test, but not onto individual citizens. They argue that the vagueness of this test makes it impossible for citizens to know what is allowed and what is disallowed, whereas counterfeiting of copyright works may be a felony offense, and thus that the law is unconstitutional because it is unintelligible. (In December 2005, the Constitutional Council of France declared clauses in a tax bill to be unconstitutional because they were unintelligible. )
A notable exception has been raised by the General Prosecutor of Paris, who allowed bank FINAMA (part of the French insurer GROUPAMA) to scupper a $200 million software piracy trial for the sake of bank secrecy.
In France, the Cour de Cassation and an Appeal Court have dismissed a €520 million software piracy case, ruling that U.S. Copyright certificates were not providing any protection and that software sold by its author during a decade in more than 140 countries does not deserve the "originality" criteria because it was "banal", prior art in the market segment being already available.
In the light of this judicial decision, the jurisprudence is unclear as there is little software able to claim being the first of its kind.
Other contents of the law
The main focus of the law is DRMs and repression of peer-to-peer usage, but some other issues related to copyright were also included:
Title II of the law clarifies the copyright regime over works of employees of the State or local governments;
Title III toughens regulations over societies collecting money on behalf of copyright holders, and creates some tax credit for record companies;
Title IV changes procedures for the "legal deposit" of works;
Title V changes certain rules pertaining to the resale of works of art and remuneration of the artist, known as droit de suite.
Notable individuals and groups
Notable characters in the political debate included:
Minister of culture Renaud Donnedieu de Vabres. He presented the initial draft of the text, as well as numerous amendments, on behalf of the gouvernement. Donnedieu de Vabres' personal character became an issue with some critics of the law, who underlined the incongruity of having a politician convicted of money laundering give lessons of morality and enact criminal penalties against Internet users.
Deputies (members of the French National Assembly):
UMP (centre-right; absolute majority - voted for the text on March 21, 2006, and on June 30, 2006)
Christian Vanneste. He was, on behalf of the Commission of Laws, responsible for drafting the report on the proposed law. He represented the Commission in the debates.
Christine Boutin. She opposed several clauses of the text, including the criminalisation of Internet users and measures perceived to be harmful to free software, and supported the "global license".
Bernard Carayon. He famously remarked on TV that legislators were put under tremendous strain by powerful lobbies, up to the point of outright blackmail such as threatening to withdraw support for art in the deputy's constituency.
Alain Suguenot
Richard Cazenave
UDF (centrist - opposed or abstained on June 30, 2006)
François Bayrou. President of the UDF party, he famously stood against the creation of a "police of the Internet", against measures decried as harmful to free software, and in favour of the right to make private copies. The press commented that this was a way for Bayrou and the UDF to distance itself from the ruling UMP party, despite not formally being in the opposition.
Jean Dionis du Séjour and Christophe Baguet were the reporters for the UDF party on the proposed law; they had a somewhat different perspective than Bayrou's.
PS (centre-left / left - opposed on the March 21, 2006 and June 30, 2006, votes)
Christian Paul
Patrick Bloche
Didier Mathus
Greens (left - opposed on the March 21, 2006 and June 30, 2006, votes)
Martine Billard
PCF (left - opposed on the March 21, 2006 and June 30, 2006, votes)
Frédéric Dutoit
Other personalities
Prime Minister Dominique de Villepin (UMP): declared the law to be urgent, convene the mixed commission, and proposed the bill for a final vote.
President of the UMP party Nicolas Sarkozy — following from the disagreements inside his own party, organized a "round table" so as to decide on a common position for his party. Some groups, including EUCD.info and the Odebi League, contend that he has effectively pushed in favour of the law and the so-called "Vivendi Universal" amendments.
Pressure groups:
Software:
Free software
EUCD.info
Free Software Foundation France
AFUL and APRIL
Proprietary software and DRMs
BSA
Authors' and artists' societies
Opposed to the "global license" and supporting DRMs.
Sacem
SACD
In favour of the "global license".
ADAMI
SPEDIDAM
Consumers and Internet users
Audionautes
UFC Que Choisir
Ligue Odebi
Entertainment industry
Vivendi Universal
Lobbyist Sylvie Forbin (received the National Order of Merit on June 20, 2006 )
Timeline
November 12, 2003: draft bill proposed by then minister of culture Jean-Jacques Aillagon to the National Assembly
May 31, 2005: examination of the bill by the Commission of Laws of the Assembly
December 20–22, 2005: examination in session by the National Assembly, minister of culture Renaud Donnedieu de Vabres defending the bill; the "global license" is voted
March 7–9, 14 - 16, 2006: examination in session by the National Assembly (continued); the "global license" is repealed
March 16, 2006: the interoperability / "free software" amendments are voted by the National Assembly
March 21, 2006: the National Assembly votes the full law
May 4, May 9–10, 2006: examination in session by the Senate; "interoperability" clauses largely reworded
June 22, 2006 : mixed Assembly/Senate commission; mostly keeps the Senate version of interoperability
June 30, 2006 : final votes by the Assembly and the Senate
August 4, 2006 : law took effect
See also
Copyright
HADOPI law
Ley Sinde
Notes
References
Final text of the act, after the remarks from the Constitutional council, as signed into law by president Chirac and published in the Journal Officiel
Final text of the act as voted by Parliament on June 30, 2006
Recourse before the Constitutional Council, July 7, 2006
Official site of the law project on the French National Assembly's web site, containing:
Original text of the projected law, as proposed by the government
Proposed amendments
Text approved by the National Assembly
Announcement of the convocation of the mixed commission
Transcripts of the debates: analytical (summarized) and full
Official site of the law project on the French Senate's web site
Text sent to the Senate
Works of the Commission of Cultural Affairs
Report in the name of the Commission of Cultural Affairs by Senator Michel Thiollière
Proposed amendments
Announcement of the convocation of the mixed commission
2005 Report on Internet "piracy" and filtering solutions by A. Brugidou and Gilles Kahn
SACD's Web Site (Société des Auteurs et Compositeurs Dramatiques)
Analyses
EUCD.info's analyses
Wikinews, French Parliament adopts controversial copyright bill
Apple Gets French Support in Music Compatibility Case, Thomas Crampton, The New York Times, July 29, 2006
La France v. Apple: who’s the dadvsi in DRMs?, Nicolas Jondet (University of Edinburgh), SCRIPT-ed, December 2006
French Visual Studies, or the Authorized Scholarship, January 12, 2008. On the consequences of DADVSI for French research (specifically visual history)
French copyright law
Copyright legislation
Computing legislation
Copyright law of the European Union
2006 in law
2006 in France
ITunes
IPod |
4428596 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edwin%20Cameron | Edwin Cameron | Edwin Cameron (born 15 February 1953 in Pretoria) is a retired judge who served as a Justice of the Constitutional Court of South Africa. He is well known for his HIV/AIDS and gay-rights activism and was hailed by Nelson Mandela as "one of South Africa's new heroes". President Ramaphosa appointed him as Inspecting Judge of Correctional Services from 1 January 2020 and in October 2019 he was elected Chancellor of Stellenbosch University.
Early life
Cameron was born in Pretoria. His father was imprisoned for car theft and his mother did not have the means to support him. He therefore spent much of his childhood in an orphanage in Queenstown. His elder sister was killed when Cameron was seven.
Cameron won a scholarship to attend Pretoria Boys High School, one of South Africa's best state schools, and reinvented himself, he says, "in the guise of a clever schoolboy". Thereafter he went to Stellenbosch University, studying Latin and classics. Here he stayed at Wilgenhof Mens Residence. After this he attended Oxford University as a Rhodes Scholar. There he switched to law and earned a BA in Jurisprudence and the Bachelor of Civil Law, winning the Vinerian Scholarship. When he returned to South Africa he completed an LLB at the University of South Africa and was its best law graduate.
Cameron's early career combined academia and legal practice. In 1982, he famously wrote a scathing critique of the late Chief Justice L. C. Steyn, then a darling of the apartheid establishment. And, in 1987, Cameron argued that three senior South African judges, including its former Chief Justice, Pierre Rabie, ought to resign to preserve the legitimacy of the judiciary. Cameron practised at the Johannesburg Bar from 1983 to 1994. From 1986 he was a human rights lawyer at Wits's Centre for Applied Legal Studies, where in 1989 he was awarded a personal professorship in law. Cameron's practice included labour and employment law; defence of African National Congress fighters charged with treason; conscientious and religious objection; land tenure and forced removals; and gay and lesbian equality. In 1992 he became a co-author (with Tony Honoré, one of his mentors at Oxford) of Honoré's South African Law of Trusts. Cameron took silk in 1994.
Judicial career
High Court
In October 1994, President Nelson Mandela appointed Cameron as an acting judge of the High Court to chair a commission of inquiry into illegal arms sales by Armscor, operating as the sales arm of the SANDF, to Yemen. Cameron's report was described as a "hard-hitting" critique of Armscor's conduct, but was quickly eclipsed by myriad other allegations about the South African government's illegal arms trades.
Cameron was appointed permanently to the Witwatersrand Local Division in 1995. His best-known judgment in this capacity is Holomisa v Argus Newspapers Ltd, where Bantu Holomisa had brought a defamation suit against The Star for alleging that he had been "directly involved" in the infiltration into South Africa of an Azanian People's Liberation Army "hit squad" aimed at "killing whites". Cameron's judgment was described as a "most rigorous exposition" of the Constitution's application to private disputes and a "landmark" defence of free speech. Others, while acknowledging the judgment had departed importantly from apartheid-era law, said it should have gone further in protecting journalists. Cameron's position was substantially confirmed, in subsequent cases, by the Supreme Court of Appeal.
Supreme Court of Appeal
In 1999, Cameron was given an acting stint on the Constitutional Court, during which he partook in its seminal judgments in Pharmaceutical Manufacturers and Grootboom and wrote the Liquor Bill judgment on provincial legislative powers — the first, and still the only, case to be referred to the Court by the President of South Africa under section 79 of the Constitution. The Judicial Service Commission had recommended that Cameron be permanently appointed, but Sandile Ngcobo was ultimately preferred due to the late intercession of Thabo Mbeki, then Deputy President, who felt the appointee should be black. Cameron has said there is "no doubt" this was the correct decision.
Cameron was instead appointed to the Supreme Court of Appeal (at the same time as Mahomed Navsa and Robert Nugent), where he served for eight years. There he wrote leading judgments on legal causation, hearsay evidence, public contracts and contempt of court. In Minister of Finance v Gore, Cameron co-authored a judgment with Fritz Brand that held the state could be delictually liable for causing pure economic loss by fraud.
Constitutional Court
On 31 December 2008 President Kgalema Motlanthe appointed Cameron to the Constitutional Court, taking effect from 1 January 2009. He was considered a crucial member of the Court's progressive wing. He has been described as a "jurist of the highest order", "the greatest legal mind of his generation" and "in a league of his own".
Cameron's judgment in Glenister v President, co-authored with Deputy Chief Justice Dikgang Moseneke, struck down amendments to the National Prosecuting Act and South African Police Service Act on the basis that they failed to create an "adequately independent" anti-corruption unit. This was praised as an "imaginative" and "brilliant" judgment by commentators and means South Africa must have an independent corruption-fighting agency notwithstanding the ruling ANC's controversial disbanding of the Scorpions.
Also well-known are Cameron's judgments on defamation law and free speech:
In The Citizen v McBride, Cameron's majority judgment enlarged the scope of the fair comment defence and substantially excused The Citizen from liability to Robert McBride for calling him a "murderer" unsuited for public office, even though McBride had received amnesty for the murders in question.
Le Roux v Dey, handed down in 2012, concerned three schoolboys who had superimposed an image of their deputy principal's face on the naked body of one man masturbating alongside another. The Constitutional Court's majority judgment held the image was defamatory of the deputy principal. Cameron, however, in a judgment co-authored with Justice Froneman, dissented on this point, saying it could not be actionable to imply someone is gay. Leading commentators praised this conclusion. Others, however, criticised Cameron's "schizophrenic" judgment for holding that the picture had nevertheless actionably harmed the plaintiff's dignity by suggesting he engaged in "sexually promiscuous or exhibitionist" conduct.
In Democratic Alliance v African National Congress, handed down in 2015, Cameron's majority judgment, co-authored with Justices Froneman and Khampepe, dismissed the ruling ANC's claim against the opposition Democratic Alliance for stating in a bulk SMS that Public Protector Thuli Madonsela's report shows how President Zuma "stole" taxpayers' money to build his Nkandla home. The judgment was "hailed as a victory for freedom of expression during election campaigns", though some thought it risked conceptual muddiness.
Cameron retired on 20 August 2019, the 25th anniversary of his appointment to the bench.
Activism
LGBTIQ+ rights
Cameron has been openly gay since the early 1980s. He addressed the crowd in the first pride parade in South Africa held in Johannesburg on 13 October 1990. Thereafter he oversaw the gay and lesbian movement's submissions to the drafters of the South African Constitution and was instrumental in securing the inclusion of an express prohibition on discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation. He is one of 29 signatories to the Yogyakarta Principles. He also was a founding member of the Society for Homosexuals on Campus, a student organization at the University of the Witwatersrand, which later became known as Activate Wits.
1995 saw the publication of Defiant Desire: Gay and Lesbian Lives in South Africa, "a celebration of the lives of gay men and lesbians in South Africa" which Cameron co-edited with Mark Gevisser.
HIV/AIDS
From 1988 Cameron advised the National Union of Mineworkers on HIV/AIDS, and helped draft and negotiate the industry's first comprehensive AIDS agreement with the Chamber of Mines. While at the Centre for Applied Legal Studies, he co-drafted the Charter of Rights on AIDS and HIV, co-founded the AIDS Consortium (a national affiliation of non-governmental organizations working in AIDS), which he chaired for its first three years, and founded and was the first director of the AIDS Law Project.
Cameron had himself contracted HIV in the 1980s and became extremely ill with AIDS when working as a High Court judge. His salary allowed him to afford anti-retroviral treatment, which saved his life. Cameron's realisation that he owed his life to his relative wealth caused him to become a prominent HIV/AIDS activist in post-apartheid South Africa, urging its government to provide treatment to all. He has strongly criticised President Thabo Mbeki's AIDS-denialist policies. Cameron was the first, and remains the only, senior South African official to state publicly that he is living with HIV/AIDS.
His prize-winning first memoir, Witness to AIDS, is about his struggle with the illness. It has been published in South Africa, the UK, the US and in translation in Germany and in China. His second memoir, Justice: A Personal Account, urges that the best path forward to a more just society in South Africa is through the Constitution and the rule of law. Justice has been translated into Chinese, and has been published in translation in Korean and Italian.
Decriminalization of sex work
Cameron has been a staunch supporter of the full decriminalization of sex work. His advocacy and activism has sought to link criminalization, discrimination and stigma, and more recently how these link to Sustainable Development Goal 16. In 2008, at the 17th International AIDS Conference held in Mexico, Cameron called for a sustained and vocal campaign against HIV criminalization. At the 21st International Aids Conference, held in 2016 in Durban, South Africa, Cameron expanded on the call for decriminalization of HIV, stating "[t]he biggest problem is stigma. Stigma, stigma, stigma, stigma. Stigma remains a barrier to prevention, it remains a barrier to behavior change, it remains a barrier to people accessing treatment." During the same speech, Cameron invited any sex workers present to join him on stage and indicated that sex work is "one of the most dangerous and despised occupations, and one that deserves our support and our respect and our love." He further stated "Sex workers are perhaps the most reviled group in human history - indispensable to a portion of mostly heterosexual males in society, but despised, marginalized, persecuted, beaten up and imprisoned. Sex workers work. Their work is work with dignity."
In July 2019, at a UNAIDS Press Conference, Cameron linked activism against criminalization, discrimination and stigma, to achieving Sustainable Development Goal 16 where he stated "Almost all countries have some form of criminal prohibition on sex work. [...] criminalization has severe consequences taking people outside of areas of protection. It declares [the criminalized group's] actions or identity illegitimate, and increases stigma. It excludes them from protections that our judicial, social and economic systems may provide. UNAIDS data indicates that criminalized groups often experience high rates of violence. If you suffer criminal violence and you yourself are criminalized, in most cases you simply cannot go to the police."
Judicial Inspectorate for Correctional Services
After he retired from the Constitutional Court, President Ramaphosa appointed him as Inspecting Judge of Correctional Services. The Judicial Inspectorate of Correctional Services (JICS) is an watchdog body created during the Mandela Presidency to inspect and report on conditions in prisons, with a view to safeguarding inmates' dignity. Cameron has been active in advocating for reform of South Africa's penal and carceral system, as well as for greater independence of JICS.
Dealing with litigants' "Stalingrad" tactics
Cameron has been a vocal critic of the use of "Stalingrad" tactics in litigation. Stalingrad tactics involve "a well-resourced accused, over a protracted period, postponing or frustrating the trial process... by deploying every possible legal argument and stratagem to thwart the prosecution." Cameron has argued that these tactics harm the administration of justice and exacerbate overcrowding in the prison system. Cameron has proposed a range of solutions, including firmer institutional discipline and, in exceptional cases, the imposition of time limits on the start and finalisation of criminal trials.
Awards
Cameron's awards include the Nelson Mandela Award for Health and Human Rights (2000); Stellenbosch University's Alumnus Award; Transnet's HIV/AIDS Champions Award; and the San Francisco AIDS Foundation Excellence in Leadership Award. In 2008 he served as a member of the Jury of the Red Ribbon Award, a partnership of the UNAIDS Family. He is the 20092010 winner of the Brudner Prize from Yale University, awarded annually to an accomplished scholar or activist whose work has made significant contributions to the understanding of LGBT issues or furthered the tolerance of LGBT people. In 2019, Cameron was awarded the Asijiki Award for Service and Humanity from the Asijiki Coalition, which advocates for the decriminalization of sex work in South Africa.
In 2002 the Bar of England and Wales honoured him with a Special Award for his contribution to international jurisprudence and human rights. He is an honorary fellow of the Institute of Advanced Legal Studies, London, and Keble College, Oxford; and was a visiting fellow of All Souls College, Oxford in 2003–04, researching "Aspects of the AIDS Epidemic, examining in particular the denialist stance supported by SA President Mbeki". In 2009 Cameron was appointed as an Honorary Master of the Bench of the Honourable Society of the Middle Temple. Cameron is also an Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences (2016). He has seven honorary doctorates (King's College London (2008), Wits University (2009), University of Oxford (2011), University of St Andrews (2012), Stellenbosch University (2015), University of Sussex (2016) and Stetson University, Florida (2021).
Cameron was, until 2015, the general secretary of the Rhodes Scholarships in Southern Africa and is a patron of the Oxford University Commonwealth Law Journal. Between 1998 and 2008, Cameron chaired the Council of the University of the Witwatersrand. He has been an active and involved patron of the Guild Cottage Children's Home since 1997, and is also patron of the Soweto HIV/AIDS Counselors' Association and Community AIDS Response. In January 2020 he became the Chancellor of Stellenbosch University.
In 2021 he was awarded the Order of the Baobab (Gold), South Africa's highest civilian honour, for his contribution to the judicial system, as well as his "tireless campaigning against the stigma of HIV and AIDS, and the rights of lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, queer, intersex and asexual (LGBTQIA+) communities".
Media
Cameron's critical role in the battle for access to antiretroviral treatment in Africa and other parts of the global south is portrayed in the award-winning documentary Fire in the Blood.
Controversies
Cameron was the subject of a complaint to the Judicial Service Commission, alleging that he had failed to declare a potential conflict of interest in relation to a case before the Constitutional Court. Cameron was approached in 2019 by the vice chancellor of Stellenbosch University to offer him the position of university chancellor while a case was pending before the Court on the university's language policy. Cameron declined the offer and offered the parties full disclosure of all pertinent correspondence and contacts. The offer of disclosure was not taken up by either party until after the ruling on the matter, when the losing party belatedly sought and was granted access. The Court ruled unanimously in favour of Stellenbosch University in a judgment written by Cameron. The Judicial Service Commission dismissed the complaint against Cameron in 2020, finding that the complaint lacked substance. Cameron subsequently accepted and took up the post of Chancellor.
In 2023, Cameron appeared before Parliament during enquiries into the May 2022 escape of convicted rapist and murderer Thabo Bester. When DA MP Glynnis Breytenbach asked Cameron why JICS had not informed the public of Bester's escape, Cameron revealed that he had provided publicly available information relating to the matter to GroundUp, a public interest, not-for-profit news agency. Cameron indicated that he approached GroundUp after becoming frustrated with the slow pace of the investigations and lack of urgency to apprehend Bester. He provided GroundUp with a High Court interdict launched by Bester's alleged accomplice, Nandipha Magudumana, and a High Court judges' report which mentioned the results of the post-mortem of the body found in Bester's cell. This was confirmed by GroundUp editor, Nathan Geffen, in an editorial for News24. GroundUp later obtained post mortem results from public court documents. Cameron was a board member of GroundUp at the time, which is an unpaid position with no role in editorial decisions, and the editor Nathan Geffen was one of his close friends.
Publications
Defiant Desire: Gay and Lesbian Lives in South Africa (ed), Routledge, London: 1993 (with Mark Gevisser).
Witness to AIDS, Tafelberg, Cape Town: 2005 (with two chapters co-written by Nathan Geffen).
Justice: A Personal Account , Tafelberg, Cape Town: 2014.
Honore's South African Law of Trusts: 2018 (sixth edition).
Cameron, E (2020). Comment and analysis: The crisis of criminal justice in South Africa. South African Crime Quarterly, 69: 1–15.
References
1953 births
Alumni of Pretoria Boys High School
Alumni of Keble College, Oxford
Fellows of All Souls College, Oxford
Fellows of Keble College, Oxford
People with HIV/AIDS
South African LGBT rights activists
LGBT judges
South African gay writers
Living people
Recipients of the Order of the Baobab
Stellenbosch University alumni
South African people of Scottish descent
White South African people
South African Rhodes Scholars
Judges of the Constitutional Court of South Africa
20th-century South African judges
People from Pretoria
21st-century South African judges
South African LGBT lawyers
Lawyers with disabilities
South African activists with disabilities |
4428615 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Cavil | John Cavil | John Cavil (Number One) is a fictional character and the main antagonist from the re-imagined Battlestar Galactica television series. He is portrayed by Dean Stockwell. In the fourth-season episode "Six of One", Cavil's model number was revealed as Number One.
Background
John Cavil, aka Number One, is a humanoid Cylon model that appears as a highly rational, eccentric man in his late-sixties. The Cavils have a heavy sarcastic demeanor and a sense of humor. They take neither religion nor death seriously and are the only atheist Cylon model. A Cavil is first seen aboard the Galactica assuming the role of a priest, offering spiritual guidance, and going by the name "Brother Cavil". A unique characteristic of the Cavils is the sadistic, cruel and Machiavellian streak in their personalities. The Cavils openly mock their fellow Cylons every time they attempt contact with humans, even when it is necessary.
Even though they view death as a nuisance, the Cavils are extremely displeased with pain (placing the blame on the Final Five). This view fuels the idea that the Cavils wanted death to the humans to be as quick as possible but were unprepared for the aftermath. Their attitude towards human mortality, rather than irrational hatred, derives from their ignorance about death and its consequences. As revealed on Battlestar Galactica: The Plan, the Cavil that was stationed in Caprica learned from Samuel Anders the motives for the resistance; that humans do not leave anyone behind, even their dead. Respecting their resilience, the Caprica Cavil agrees with Caprica Six and Sharon Valerii (Boomer) to abandon the Colonies. Disappointed with the other Cylon models after failing to accomplish anything through boycott and sabotage, the Galactica Cavil fails to learn any lesson. As they are discovered and airlocked from Galactica, Galactica Cavil swears to "box" Caprica Cavil for his insubordination and is indicated to be the same Cavil that is the main enemy of season four, given his plans to destroy humanity once and for all when he resurrects.
It is later implied in the series that the Cavils, akin to their creators, lack superhuman strength and are the least able to defend themselves. It is also implied that the Cavil who led the Civil War and who killed himself in the CIC when he realized he was losing and had no chance of winning, is the resurrected Galactica Cavil. Like the Simons and Number Threes and in contrast to Leobens, Dorals, Number Sixes and Number Eights, Cavils appear to be rare and seldom appear in large groups, though in the third-season episode "Rapture" a large number were seen presumably taking care of the boxing of the three line of Cylons.
The Cavils' superior awareness of all situations (attributable to their being the only human model Cylon with full knowledge of their origin) and uncanny manipulative traits make their series the de facto leaders of the Cylons. Their vast superiority and manipulations over their fellow Cylons goes beyond comprehension, as they manage to annihilate the Twelve Colonies, repeatedly attack the survivors without hurting the Final Five and ensure their survival only to make them 'the ones who suffer the most', carrying on with the annihilation of billions only to teach their creators a lesson.
A comment made by Sharon "Boomer" Valerii indicates the Cavils are against the idea of the Cylons reproducing biologically, which makes sense given their distaste for human traits as well as lack of faith in the Cylon god, whose commandments include, "Be fruitful". Ellen Tigh mentions that the idea that the only hope for the future of the Cylon race might be 'messy biological reproduction' is too much for Cavil.
Cavil is insistent the Cylons not seek out or discuss the Final Five models and tries to prevent D'Anna from learning their identities, even threatening her at gunpoint in "Rapture". After she sees their faces, he boxes her before she can tell anyone, while claiming support from the other Cylons. The reason is he knows the identities of the Final Five and doesn't want them exposed (he's waiting until they've learned their "lesson").
Character biography
Two versions of Cavil appear at the end of the second season – in the two-part episode "Lay Down Your Burdens." His first appearance is as a religious counselor provided by the fleet, with whom Chief Tyrol meets after he physically attacks deck hand Cally Henderson when she awakens him from a recurring nightmare. Tyrol states he dreams of killing himself, and Cavil suggests Tyrol subconsciously believes he is a Cylon sleeper agent like his former girlfriend Sharon "Boomer" Valerii.
Cavil assures Tyrol he is no Cylon, joking "I've never seen you at any of the [Cylon] meetings." Despite posing as a priest, Cavil is critical of the Lords of Kobol, telling Tyrol praying to them will not help. Cavil states humans have been given the choice to decide their own destinies, and the Lords play no part in their affairs. Cavil later meets with President Laura Roslin, and offers prayers to the Lords of Kobol for Roslin's success in her presidential campaign against Gaius Baltar.
A second version of Cavil appears among the survivors from Caprica after Kara "Starbuck" Thrace leads a rescue mission to the planet. During a Cylon attack, the Cylons suddenly cease fire and withdraw. The Cavil among the group announces the Cylons have left Caprica, and that the group has been spared. Upon their return to the fleet, Chief Tyrol spots the second Cavil disembarking from a Raptor, and alerts the guards he is a Cylon. Caprica Cavil admits to being a Cylon with a message for their leader. Admiral Adama has the man taken to the brig. Meanwhile, Galactica Cavil is arrested, and emphatically protests his innocence until he sees another copy of himself in the brig. He simply says "Oh, well...okay then," and calmly enters the cell.
Caprica Cavil gives a message to Roslin, stating the Cylon attack on the Colonies, as well as pursuit of the fleet, was an error. Cavil further explains two Cylon heroes, the Number Six model known as Caprica Six and Number Eight (that version of Sharon "Boomer" Valerii that was stationed on Galactica and shot Admiral Adama), have convinced them the war is futile. He states though the Cylons are machines, they strive to be the best machines possible, and believe they will one day rise above their creators. Their first step had been to replace the humans, and they believed they could do this by hijacking their lives and taking their places. They have determined, however, they have become no better than the creators they despise, and offer a reprieve from the genocide, suggesting that human and Cylon go their separate ways.
Adama and Roslin furiously reject the idea, stating they simply cannot walk away after the Cylons have destroyed their home worlds. Adama asks the two Cavils whether the new plan comes from their God, and Cavil says "there is no God. Supernatural divinities are the primitive's answer to why the sun goes down at night...or at least that's what we've been telling the others for years," although he acknowledges neither position can be proven. Despite the apparent sincerity of the message, and the offer of truce, Roslin orders both Cavils to be airlocked, suggesting they will rapidly discover whether or not God exists. The actual disposal through the airlock is not shown on screen, but is shown in the film The Plan. Galactica Cavil reveals that there is a Resurrection Ship nearby and, given his comments, his resurrected self is likely the one that leads the Civil War.
At least two Cavil versions are present on planet New Caprica during the Cylon occupation. The New Caprica Cavils display particularly venomous anti-human sentiments, taking great pleasure in taunting human prisoners and shrugging off the human casualties of insurgent suicide bombings. One Cavil in particular takes pleasure in blackmailing Ellen Tigh for sexual favors in exchange for releasing her husband Saul from captivity and not killing him. Saul Tigh is eventually released, having lost his right eye.
Later in the season, Cavil is one of three Cylons to board Galactica to meet with William Adama and Laura Roslin about the Eye of Jupiter artifact. He is willing to hand Gaius Baltar over to the humans as part of a deal for the relic, "to sweeten the pot." Upon returning to his Basestar, Cavil feels that the annihilation of Galactica is the best option, given the standoff, because Cylons are machines, and can wait out the human fleet.
In "Rapture, Cavil finds D'Anna in the temple on the Algae Planet, and, realizing she has come to discover the identities of the Final Five, he orders her at gunpoint not to proceed any further. However, Baltar shoots him from behind, and D'Anna finally sees their faces, but she loses consciousness and dies shortly thereafter.
Cavil is present as D'Anna resurrects. He states all members of her line, the Number Threes are fundamentally flawed, and suffer from messianic delusions. He claims he and the other Cylon models agree the Number Threes must all be "boxed" – deactivated, with their memories placed into cold storage. The boxing is carried out by Cavil.
Cavil takes a major role in Season Four, as the leader and head negotiator of one of the two warring Cylon factions. In "Six of One," Natalie, the leader of the opposing faction, demands he stop lobotomizing the Raiders, and reveals that she has restored free will to the Centurions. The Centurions then slaughter Cavil and the other Cylons in the room.
Cavil resurrects in "The Ties That Bind," and claims that, although he does not agree with Natalie and her followers, he will respect their wishes. The Number Twos, Number Sixes and Number Eights (except Boomer) demand the Threes be unboxed to end the deadlock. Cavil seemingly acquiesces but, in reality, sets a trap to destroy Natalie and her followers. Boomer starts to have second thoughts about going against her fellow Eights. However, Cavil, who has developed a relationship with her, encourages her to embrace her true nature as a machine, and abandon her emotions.
Natalie survives the attack, and a civil war ensues. D'Anna is unboxed by Cavil in "The Hub". Cavil hopes she will be able to mediate peace between the warring Cylon factions, but she kills him and escapes with Helo and a Number Eight.
In "No Exit", it is revealed Ellen Tigh was involved in the creation of Cavil, modelling him after the image of her own father, John. Cavil was the first of a new generation of Cylons, and he assisted in the creation of models Two to Eight. Because Ellen Tigh favored the Number Seven (Daniel) model, Cavil's jealousy grew and he had the entire line destroyed by tampering with the amniotic fluid housing the Daniel copies. Cavil was also responsible for the Final Five being banished to live as humans. His rage fueled in part by the Final Five condemning him to an existence complete with all of humanity's weaknesses, and realizing the Five would try to avert another war against the humans, he killed them and when they resurrected, he erased their memories and left them among the humans so they could witness the eventual genocide of the human race. Cavil manipulated his "parents", the Final Five, to be among those who suffered the most.
It was also speculated (although never explicitly stated) Cavil was the one who programmed models Two to Eight not to seek out or discuss the Final Five. This theory has been confirmed in an interview with writer Ryan Mottesheard:
After Ellen Tigh is poisoned by her husband, she resurrects aboard one of Cavil's ships and is held prisoner there for 18 months (No Exit). In the process of downloading to a new body, Ellen regains the memories Cavil had erased. Later, when the Cylons' resurrection capability is destroyed, Cavil attempts to acquire Ellen's knowledge of the technology (she and the other Final Five being the ones who developed the ability to resurrect). Cavil plans to kill Ellen and recover the information from her brain. Boomer seemingly rebels against him and helps Ellen escape. It is later revealed, however, Ellen's escape was orchestrated by Cavil to sneak Boomer onto Galactica in order to kidnap Hera Agathon.
It is stated by Ellen in No Exit that Cavil is a sadist who enjoys playing mind games with the Final Five as evidenced by him taking Galen Tyrol's confession, a copy following Sam Anders in the resistance, torturing Tigh on New Caprica as well as extorting Ellen for sexual favors. He is also responsible for her being placed on a ship as it was leaving a destroyed Colony as part of his manipulations of the Final Five.
Cavil fully embraces his identity as a machine and believes humans are inherently lesser than Cylons, dismissing Ellen's arguments that humans, for all their imperfections, have something real and precious: Love, compassion, creativity, emotion.
The character of Cavil has echoes of the story of Oedipus. Alan Sepinwall of The Star-Ledger sees Cavil as "a cruel hybrid of the Biblical Cain (he murdered his brother, and his mother is fond of apples), Oedipus (has sex with his mother, though the eye he puts out belongs to his father) and a kind of Pinocchio in reverse."
Cavil wants Hera, as he sees her as the only chance for the Cylon race to continue, following the destruction of Resurrection. After Boomer helps Hera escape, Cavil personally leads a boarding party onto Galactica to retrieve her. In Galactica CIC, Cavil is captured, while a Simon and Doral with him are killed by the bridge crew. Cavil takes advantage of an explosion to take a gun from a Colonial Marine guard, after knocking him down, and takes Hera hostage. Baltar lowers his side arm, and tries to convince Cavil to end the cycle of violence, and end the standoff on the bridge. Cavil begins to waver from Baltar's speech, but he refuses – without Hera, he believes his race will end.
Tigh offers Cavil Resurrection technology if he releases Hera and stops pursuing humanity. Cavil agrees, and calls off his troops, saying he's a man of his word. Cavil becomes impatient, and sarcastically tells the Final Five Cylons to "hurry up" their discussions, as they are "keeping two civilizations waiting." As the Final Five come together to generate the data necessary for Resurrection technology, Tyrol, discovering Tory was responsible for the death of his wife Cally, breaks the link and kills her. Cavil realizes that, since each of the Final Five possessed part of the secret to Resurrection, that in killing one, then the secret of Resurrection has effectively been lost with the death of Tory.
At that very moment, the Cylon Colony is hit by a barrage of Galactica remaining nuclear warheads fired by Racetrack's Raptor, which knocks the Colony out of orbit, and dooms it to be swallowed by the black hole. The surviving Simon and Doral, deciding the whole process has been a trick, recommence the battle with the humans, and are gunned down. Cavil shouts "Frak!", puts his gun into his mouth, and commits suicide.
In "Battlestar Galactica: The Plan," the history of the Cavils found in the fleet and on Caprica during "Lay Down Your Burdens" is expanded upon. The fleet version of Cavil is revealed to have been with Ellen Tigh when the attack on the Colonies commenced, having wanted to see just how much suffering she had undergone and what she had learned about the evils of humanity. Instead, Cavil discovers that, to his mind at least, Ellen had learned nothing. Cavil saved Ellen after the attacks as he wanted her to continue to suffer and accompanies Ellen to the fleet where Cavil takes command of the Cylon agents, ordering various acts of sabotage. However, each attempt is thwarted, causing Cavil to grow increasingly frustrated. During this time, he reluctantly befriends a young orphan named John, but murders the boy after he explicitly calls them friends.
On Caprica, Anders and the Caprica resistance discover the other Cavil copy who is overseeing a body disposal crew that is attacked by the resistance. Cavil is able to hide amongst the bodies, pretending to have been a survivor amongst the corpses. Cavil is surprised to be reunited with Anders as well as a Number Four model amongst the resistance, but delays acting in order to study Anders whose care for the humans comes to intrigue the Cylon. Cavil's interactions with Anders and the resistance greatly humanize Cavil who realizes that the Final Five will love the humans even if they are gone. After Anders angrily rebukes him, Cavil changes, deciding not to kill Starbuck and Anders when he has a shot. After the Cylons suddenly stop their attack, Cavil learns of the truce from a Number Six model and decides to convey the message himself despite his model voting against it.
When the Caprica copy of Cavil reaches Galactica, both Cavils are exposed as Cylons with "The Plan" making it clear that the Caprica Cavil purposefully did this to stop his other self. Arguing their differing points of view, the two Cavils are led to an airlock where the Caprica Cavil continues to try to convince his brother that they were wrong to try to destroy humanity. The Galactica Cavil reveals that there is a Resurrection Ship in range and that he intends to lead the destruction of humanity personally once he resurrects, suggesting that he is the same John Cavil encountered multiple times throughout the series. However, he intends to box the other Cavil, effectively putting him into cold storage to prevent him from spreading his heretical ideas to the rest of the Cylons. Despite their differences, the two Cavils hold hands as Admiral Adama personally blows them into outer space, the Caprica Cavil meeting his fate with eyes wide open while the Galactica Cavil shuts his eyes.
Reception
According to Jon D. Bohland, Cavil has been described as the Cylon who best "fits the cinematic genocide perpetrator profile as the stereotypical remorseless killer with a lust for power and violence". Bohland compares him to "nationalists leaders such as Milosevic, Hitler and Pol Pot", noting that his strength, just like theirs, comes from being able to manipulate their followers by exploiting their grievances against other ethnicities (in this case, Cylon grievances versus the "humans"). While an atheist himself, even described as the Cylon who "exhibits the most resistance to religion", Cavil, in one of his forms masquerading as a human priest, is able to use it to manipulate those who are more religious, convincing them that they are acting as part of God's will. Bohland, as well Patrick Thaddeus Jackson remarked that Cavil's mentality is warped by his loathing of his creators, a form of an Oedipal complex.
References
External links
Cavil at Battlestar Wiki
Cavil at Syfy
Cylons
Fictional dictators
Fictional priests and priestesses
Fictional mass murderers
Fictional cyborgs
Fictional clones
Fictional sleeper agents
Television characters introduced in 2006
Fictional characters with death or rebirth abilities
Fictional suicides |
4429175 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mixed-use%20development | Mixed-use development | Mixed use is a type of urban development, urban design, urban planning and/or a zoning classification that blends multiple uses, such as residential, commercial, cultural, institutional, or entertainment, into one space, where those functions are to some degree physically and functionally integrated, and that provides pedestrian connections. Mixed-use development may be applied to a single building, a block or neighborhood, or in zoning policy across an entire city or other administrative unit. These projects may be completed by a private developer, (quasi-) governmental agency, or a combination thereof. A mixed-use development may be a new construction, reuse of an existing building or brownfield site, or a combination.
Use in North America vs. Europe
Traditionally, human settlements have developed in mixed-use patterns. However, with industrialization, governmental zoning regulations were introduced to separate different functions, such as manufacturing, from residential areas. Public health concerns and the protection of property values stood as the motivation behind this separation.
In the United States, the practice of zoning for single-family residential use was instigated to safeguard communities from negative externalities, including air, noise, and light pollution, associated with heavier industrial practices. These zones were also constructed to exacerbate racial and class divisions.
The heyday of separate-use zoning in the United States came after World War II when planner and New York City Parks Commissioner, Robert Moses, championed superhighways to break up functions and neighborhoods of the city. The antithesis to these practices came from activist and writer, Jane Jacobs, who was a major proponent of mixed-use zoning, believing it played a key role in creating an organic, diverse, and vibrant streetscape. These two figures went head-to-head during much of the 1960s. Since the 1990s, mixed-use zoning has once again become desirable as it works to combat urban sprawl and increase economic vitality.
In most of Europe, government policy has encouraged the continuation of the city center's role as a main location for business, retail, restaurant, and entertainment activity, unlike in the United States where zoning actively discouraged such mixed use for many decades. In England, for example, hotels are included under the same umbrella as “residential,” rather than commercial as they are classified under in the US. France similarly gravitates towards mixed-use as much of Paris is simply zoned to be “General Urban,” allowing for a variety of uses. Even zones that house the mansions and villas of the aristocrats focus on historical and architectural preservation rather than single family zoning. Single family zoning is also absent in Germany and Russia where zoning codes make no distinction between different types of housing.
America’s attachment to private property and the traditional 1950s suburban home, as well as deep racial and class divides, have marked the divergence in mixed-use zoning between the continents. As a result, much of Europe's central cities are mixed use "by default" and the term "mixed-use" is much more relevant regarding new areas of the city where an effort is made to mix residential and commercial activities – such as in Amsterdam's Eastern Docklands.
Contexts
Expanded use of mixed-use zoning and mixed-use developments may be found in a variety of contexts, such as the following (multiple such contexts might apply to one particular project or situation):
as part of smart growth planning strategies
in traditional urban neighborhoods, as part of urban renewal and/or infill, i.e., upgrading the buildings and public spaces and amenities of the neighborhood to provide more and/or better housing and a better quality of life—examples include Barracks Row in Washington, D.C., and East Liberty, Pittsburgh
in traditional suburbs, adding one or more mixed-use developments to provide a new or more prominent "downtown" for the community–examples include new projects in downtown Bethesda, Maryland, an inner suburb of Washington, D.C., and the Excelsior & Grand complex in St. Louis Park, Minnesota, an inner suburb of Minneapolis
greenfield developments, i.e., new construction on previously undeveloped land, particularly at the edge of metropolitan areas and in their exurbs, often as part of creating a relatively denser center for the community—an edge city, or part of one, zoned for mixed use, in the 2010s often labeled "urban villages" (examples include Avalon in Alpharetta, Georgia, and Halcyon in Forsyth County, Georgia, at the edge of the Atlanta metropolitan area)
the repurposing of shopping malls and intensification of development around them, particularly as many shopping malls' retail sales, and ability to rent space to retailers, decrease as part of the 2010s retail apocalypse
Any of the above contexts may also include parallel contexts such as:
Transit-oriented development—for example in Los Angeles and San Diego, where the cities made across-the-board zoning law changes permitting denser development within a certain distance of certain types of transit stations, with the primary aim of increasing the amount and affordability of housing
Older cities such as Chicago and San Francisco have historic preservation policies that sometimes offer more flexibility for older buildings to be used for purposes other than what they were originally zoned for, with the aim of preserving historic architecture
Benefits
Economic
Mixed-use developments are home to significant employment and housing opportunities. Many of these projects are already located in established downtown districts, meaning that development of public transit systems is incentivized in these regions. By taking undervalued and underutilized land, often former heavy industrial, developers can repurpose it to increase land and property values. These projects also increase housing variety, density, and oftentimes affordability through their focus on multifamily, rather than single-family housing compounds. A more equal balance between the supply and demand of jobs and housing is also found in these districts.
Social
This development pattern is centered around the idea of “live, work, play,” transforming buildings and neighborhoods into multi-use entities. Efficiency, productivity, and quality of life are also increased with regards to workplaces holding a plethora of amenities. Examples include gyms, restaurants, bars, and shopping. Mixed-use neighborhoods promote community and socialization through their bringing together of employees, visitors, and residents. A distinctive character and sense-of-place is created by transforming single use districts that may run for eight hours a day (ex. commercial office buildings running 9am - 5pm) into communities that can run eighteen hours a day through the addition of cafes, restaurants, bars, and nightclubs. Safety of neighborhoods in turn may be increased as people stay out on the streets for longer hours.
Environmental
Mixed-use neighborhoods and buildings have a strong ability to adapt to changing social and economic environments. When the COVID-19 pandemic hit, New York retailers located on long, commercially oriented blocks suffered severely as they were no longer attracting an audience of passersby. By combining multiple functions into one building or development, mixed-use districts can build resiliency through their ability to attract and maintain visitors.
More sustainable transportation practices are also fostered. A study of Guangzhou, China, done by the Journal of Geographical Information Science, found that taxis located in regions where buildings housed a greater variety of functions had greatly reduced traveling distances. Shorter traveling distances, in turn, support the use of micro-mobility. Pedestrian and bike-friendly infrastructure are fostered due to increased density and reduced distances between housing, workplaces, retail businesses, and other amenities and destinations. Additionally, mixed-use projects promote health and wellness, as these developments often provide better access (whether it be by foot, bicycle, or transit) to farmer's markets and grocery stores. However, hybrid metropolises, areas that have large and tall buildings which accommodate a combination of public and private interests, do not show a decrease in carbon emissions in comparison to metropolitan areas that have a low, dense configuration. This is possibly because hybrid metropolises are prone to attract car traffic from visitors.
Drawbacks
Equity
Due to the speculative nature of large scale real estate developments, mega-mixed-use projects often fall short on meeting equity and affordability goals. High-end residential, upscale retail, and Class A office spaces appealing to high-profile tenants are often prioritized due to their speculative potential. There is also a trend towards making residential spaces in mixed-use developments to be condominiums, rather than rental spaces. A study done by the Journal of the American Planning Association found that a focus on homeownership predominantly excludes individuals working in public services, trades, cultural, sales and service, and manufacturing occupations from living in amenity-rich city centers. Despite incentives like density bonuses, municipalities and developers rarely put a significant focus on affordable housing provisions in these plans.
Financing
Mixed-use buildings can be risky given that there are multiple tenants residing in one development. Mega-mixed-use projects, like Hudson Yards, are also extremely expensive. This development has cost the City of New York over 2.2 billion dollars. Critics argue that taxpayer dollars could better serve the general public if spent elsewhere. Additionally, mixed-use developments, as a catalyst for economic growth, may not serve their intended purpose if they simply shift economic activity, rather than create it. A study done by Jones Lang LaSalle Incorporated (JLL) found that "90 percent of Hudson Yards' new office tenants relocated from Midtown."
Types of contemporary mixed-use zoning
Some of the more frequent mixed-use scenarios in the United States are:
Neighborhood commercial zoning – convenience goods and services, such as convenience stores, permitted in otherwise strictly residential areas
Main Street residential/commercial – two to three-story buildings with residential units above and commercial units on the ground floor facing the street
Urban residential/commercial – multi-story residential buildings with commercial and civic uses on ground floor
Office convenience – office buildings with small retail and service uses oriented to the office workers
Office/residential – multi-family residential units within office building(s)
Shopping mall conversion – residential and/or office units added (adjacent) to an existing standalone shopping mall
Retail district retrofit – retrofitting of a suburban retail area to a more village-like appearance and mix of uses
Live/work – residents can operate small businesses on the ground floor of the building where they live
Studio/light industrial – residents may operate studios or small workshops in the building where they live
Hotel/residence – mix hotel space and high-end multi-family residential
Parking structure with ground-floor retail
Single-family detached home district with standalone shopping center
Examples of cities' mixed-use planning policies
Canada
One of the first cities to adopt a policy on mixed-use development is Toronto. The local government first played a role in 1986 with a zoning bylaw that allowed for commercial and residential units to be mixed. At the time, Toronto was in the beginning stages of planning a focus on developing mixed-use development due to the growing popularity of more social housing. The law has since been updated as recently as 2013, shifting much of its focus outside the downtown area which has been a part of the main city since 1998. With the regulations in place, the city has overseen the development of high-rise condominiums throughout the city with amenities and transit stops nearby. Toronto's policies of mixed-use development have inspired other North American cities in Canada and the United States to bring about similar changes.
One example of a Toronto mixed-use development is Mirvish Village by architect Gregory Henriquez. Located at Bloor and Bathurst Street, a significant intersection in Toronto, portions of the Mirvish Village project site are zoned as "commercial residential" and others as "mixed commercial residential." Within the City of Toronto's zoning by-laws, commercial residential includes "a range of commercial, residential and institutional uses, as well as parks." Mirvish Village's programmatic uses include rental apartments, a public market, and small-unit retail, while also preserving 23 of 27 heritage houses on site. The project is notable for its public consultation process, which was lauded by Toronto city officials. Architect Henriquez and the developer had previously collaborated on mixed-use projects in Vancouver, British Columbia, including the successful Woodward's Redevelopment.
United States
In the United States, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) collaborates with local governments by providing researchers developing new data that estimates how a city can be impacted by mixed-use development. With the EPA putting models in the spreadsheet, it makes it much easier for municipalities, and developers to estimate the traffic, with Mixed-use spaces. The linking models also used as a resource tool measures the geography, demographics, and land use characteristics in a city. The Environmental Protection Agency has conducted an analysis on six major metropolitan areas using land usage, household surveys, and GIS databases. States such as California, Washington, New Mexico, and Virginia have adopted this standard as statewide policy when assessing how urban developments can impact traffic. Preconditions for the success of mixed-use developments are employment, population, and consumer spending. The three preconditions ensure that a development can attract quality tenants and financial success. Other factors determining the success of the mixed-use development is the proximity of production time, and the costs from the surrounding market.
Portland
Mixed-use zoning has been implemented in Portland, Oregon, since the early 1990s, when the local government wanted to reduce the then-dominant car-oriented development style. The Metropolitan Area Express, Portland's light rail system, encourages the mixing of residential, commercial, and work spaces into one zone. With this one-zoning-type planning system, the use of land at increased densities provides a return in public investments throughout the city. Main street corridors provide flexible building heights and high density uses to enable "gathering places".
Hudson Yards, NYC
Hudson Yards is the largest private real estate development in the history of the United States. The project commenced in 2005 when the New York City Council approved the rezoning of the district from low-density manufacturing to high-density mixed use. The once deteriorated piers, located on the West Side of Midtown, are being refashioned into commercial office space, a mix of affordable and luxury housing, restaurants and retail space, a high-end Equinox hotel and fitness center, and multiple public parks. Set to be completed in 2024, the development is expected to accommodate 125,000 workers, visitors, and residents daily. Related Companies and Oxford Properties are the primary developers on this plan.
This project is also the US's largest project to ever be financed by TIF (tax increment financing) subsidies. It did not require voter approval, nor did it have to go through the city’s traditional budgeting process. Rather, the project is financed by future property taxes and the EB-5 Visa Program. This program provides VISAs to overseas investors in exchange for placing a minimum of $500,000 into US real estate.
See also
Notes
Further reading
Reclaiming the City, 1997, Andy Coupland
"Mixed use development, practice and potential", Department for Communities and Local Government, UK Government
What is functional mix?, Planning Theory and Practice 18(2):249-267 · February 2017
External links
Commercial real estate
Residential real estate
Sustainable urban planning
Sustainable transport
Urban design
Zoning
Shopping malls by type
New Urbanism |
4429235 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North%20Dakota%20Fighting%20Hawks%20men%27s%20ice%20hockey | North Dakota Fighting Hawks men's ice hockey | The North Dakota Fighting Hawks men's ice hockey team (formerly The North Dakota Fighting Sioux) is the college ice hockey team at the Grand Forks campus of the University of North Dakota. They are members of the National Collegiate Hockey Conference (NCHC) and compete in National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Division I ice hockey. North Dakota is widely regarded as a premier college hockey school and has one of the most storied programs in NCAA history. UND has made over 30 appearances in the NCAA tournament, appeared in the Frozen Four 22 times, and has won 8 NCAA Division I Championships. The program has also achieved 15 WCHA Regular season Championships, 5 NCHC Regular season Championships, and 12 Conference Tournament championships. The school's former nickname was the Fighting Sioux, which had a lengthy and controversial tenure before ultimately being retired by the university in 2012 due to pressure from the NCAA. The official school nickname is now the Fighting Hawks, a name that was chosen by the university on November 18, 2015.
History
Early history
Varsity ice hockey at the University of North Dakota began in 1946 with John Jamieson as the first coach. The 1946–47 season was the first winning season in UND history with a record of 7 wins, 6 losses, and 0 ties. UND joined Michigan Tech, Colorado College, University of Denver, University of Michigan, Michigan State University, and University of Minnesota as founding members of the Midwest Collegiate Hockey League (MCHL) in 1951. In the program's first season in league play UND finished with a record of 13–11–1. After two seasons the MCHL became the Western Intercollegiate Hockey League (WIHL) and later in 1959 became the Western Collegiate Hockey Association. Artificial ice was installed in UND's Winter Sports Building, commonly known as "The Barn", in 1953.
Bob May became the 5th coach in UND history for the 1957–58 season and led the team to the 1957–58 WIHL Regular season Championship. UND also received a bid to the 1958 NCAA Division I Men's Ice Hockey tournament. The team advanced to the championship game with a 9–1 win over Harvard in the semi-final round. UND fell in their first championship and post season tournament appearance to University of Denver 2–6. Following the 1957–58 season the WIHL broke up, after Michigan, Michigan State, Michigan Tech, and Minnesota left the conference following a dispute over recruiting practices. Despite not violating the WIHL or the NCAA's rules of the period, the four exiting schools accused Denver, North Dakota and Colorado College of breaking a gentlemen's agreement by recruiting overage Canadians.
Thorndycraft era
Without a conference UND competed as an independent Division I team for the 1958–59 season. Barry Thorndycraft took over for May as head coach and continued the winning tradition established in the previous season. UND again reached the NCAA tournament for the second straight season and again advanced to the championship with a 4–3 overtime win over St. Lawrence. UND beat former WIHL member Michigan State with another 4–3 overtime victory to win the university's first ice hockey national championship. UND ended with a record of 20–10–1 on the season. 1959 marked the official founding of the Western Collegiate Hockey Association (WCHA) and after three seasons in the WCHA UND returned to the national stage for the 1963 NCAA tournament held in Chestnut Hill, Massachusetts at the McHugh Forum. North Dakota blew away the hometown Boston College Eagles 8–2 and won the school's second ice hockey championship with a 6–5 win over rival Denver. The team finished with a record of 22–7–3 and coach Thorndycraft was named WCHA Coach of the Year for 1962–63.
Peters, Selman, Bjorkman years
Thorndycraft left the program in 1964 and under new coach R.H. "Bob" Peters, UND won the MacNaughton Cup for the WCHA regular season championship in 1964–65. The team advanced to the 1965 NCAA tournament but lost 3–4 in the semi-final round to Boston College. Bill Selman became coach in 1966 and led the team to their third MacNaughton Cup in history and a spot in the 1967 NCAA tournament. UND's run ended with a loss to Cornell 0–1 but Selman received the 1966–67 WCHA Coach of the Year award. The following season UND received an at-large bid to the 1968 NCAA tournament. North Dakota beat Cornell 4–1 in a rematch of the 1967 semi-final game. UND advanced to the National Championship game for the first time since winning it 5 seasons earlier in 1963. UND again found themselves in the National Championship game matched up with conference rival Denver, North Dakota would fall to the Pioneers 0–4. Rube Bjorkman became the 9th coach in program history after previously serving as head coach at the University of New Hampshire. Over the 10 seasons as coach UND finished with two winning seasons, one in his first season as UND coach in 1968–69 and a second in 1971–72. During his tenure as UND coach Bjorkman compiled a record of 149–186–11.
Gasparini era
John "Gino" Gasparini was hired in 1978, Gasparini played for UND from 1964 to 1967 before a short stint in the International Hockey League then returning to UND under Bjorkman as an assistant coach. Gasparini's impact was immediate and UND finished the regular season winning the MacNaughton Cup and advancing to the 1979 NCAA tournament. North Dakota picked up a 4–2 victory of Dartmouth in the semi-final round but fell in the national championship game to Minnesota 3–4. North Dakota finished the season with a record of 30–11–1, the program's first 30-win season, as well as Gasparini being named WCHA Coach of the Year. The 30 wins of the 1978–79 season was eclipsed the following season when North Dakota picked up 31 wins and the programs third National Championship with a 5–2 win over Northern Michigan. North Dakota returned to the NCAA tournament in 1984. North Dakota swept Rensselaer two games to none in the quarter-final round but fell 1–2 in overtime to Minnesota-Duluth
The 1986–87 season UND swept through the WCHA winning the MacNaughton Cup and WCHA Final Five Tournament. UND advanced to the 1987 NCAA tournament sweeping St. Lawrence in two games by a combined score of 9–4 and advancing to the Championship with a 5–2 win over Harvard. North Dakota won their fifth NCAA Division I National Championship when UND defeated Michigan State Spartans in front of a Spartan crowd in Detroit, Michigan on March 28, 1987. The team would make the NCAA tournament one more time with Gasparini behind the bench in 1990 but fell in the regional round of the expanded NCAA tournament when the team lost to Boston University two games to one in the best of three series.
Blais era
After four quiet years, Dean Blais took over as head coach of North Dakota after John "Gino" Gasparini in 1994. In his third season as head coach, Blais led UND to the program's eighth MacNaughton Cup for WCHA regular season champions and fifth Broadmoor Trophy for WCHA playoff champions. UND advanced to the Frozen Four after a 6–2 victory over Cornell in the quarterfinal round. UND then advanced to the National Championship with a 6–2 win over Colorado College. Under Blais, UND won 6–4 over Boston University to win the school's Six National Championship. That same season Blais was named recipient of the Spencer Penrose Award for Division I College Coach of the Year.
North Dakota returned to the NCAA tournament in 1998 and 1999 but were plagued with early-round exits. In the 1999–2000 season, after again winning the WCHA Tournament, UND advanced through the 2000 NCAA tournament to the Championship against Boston College, looking for its first NCAA title since 1949. BC had a 2–1 lead entering the third period, but UND responded with three goals, with two by Lee Goren. Goren tied the game, assisted on Jason Ulmer's game-winning goal, and then scored into an empty Eagles net in the last minute of play to secure the game. It marked North Dakota's seventh national title overall and second since 1997, and was also the third time in three years that BC came up short in the Frozen Four. Boston College got its revenge over UND the following season when the two teams again faced each other in the National Championship. BC won its first national title since 1949 by defeating North Dakota, 3–2, in overtime on a goal scored by sophomore forward Krys Kolanos just 4:43 into OT.
In 2001, the team moved into the new $100 million, 11,500-seat Ralph Engelstad Arena, replacing the aging 6,000-seat Old Ralph Engelstad Arena that served as the home for UND hockey since 1972. After missing the NCAA post-season tournament in 2002, UND returned in 2003. North Dakota fell to Ferris State 2–5 in the opening round of the West Regionals. And in the 2004 NCAA tournament, UND shut out Holy Cross 3–0 before getting shut out 0–1 in the West Regional Final to Denver.
Hakstol era
On July 9, 2004, Dave Hakstol was announced as the 15th coach in program history, replacing Dean Blais who left UND when he was named associate coach of the Columbus Blue Jackets. Blais served as UND head coach for 10 seasons and placed first among active coaches with a record of 262–115–13 and a .733 winning percentage. With Hakstol behind the bench, UND continued their winning tradition that was prevalent under Blais. UND won 4–3 in overtime vs. Maine on October 8, 2004 to give Hakstol his first win as head coach. UND received an at-large bid to the 2005 NCAA tournament and found themselves in the Championship against long-time rival University of Denver. DU freshman goaltender Peter Mannino backstopped an offensive attack that included a 2-goal game by DU forward Paul Stastny to hand UND a 1–4 loss.
North Dakota made and advanced in the next three NCAA tournaments but came up with third-place finishes in the Frozen Four, losing to Boston College three seasons in a row. In 2006 losing 5–6 to the Eagles, in 2007 falling 4–6, and in 2008 losing 1–6. Despite the third consecutive loss to BC in the Frozen Four, the seasons ended on high notes in 2006–07 when sophomore forward Ryan Duncan became the second UND player to win the Hobey Baker Award and the first in 20 seasons after Tony Hrkac in 1986–87. The 2007–08 season was only the second time in UND Hockey history that North Dakota had two finalists for the Hobey Baker Award when junior forward T.J. Oshie and senior goalie Jean-Philippe Lamoureux; the other time in 2004 when Zach Parise, Brandon Bochenski were nominated.
In March 2009 UND won a WCHA-leading 14th league championship with a 2–1 win at Wisconsin. The team advanced to the 2009 NCAA tournament but fell in the Northeast Region semifinal to New Hampshire, 5–6 in overtime, after UNH's Thomas Fortney scored with :00.1 remaining in regulation to force OT and UNH's Josh LaBlanc scored 45 seconds into overtime. UND capped off the 2009–10 regular season and won the 2010 WCHA Men's Ice Hockey tournament to receive an automatic bid to the 2010 NCAA tournament. UND fell in the Northeast Regional semifinals to Yale 2–3 after The Bulldogs scored 3 goals in a span of 4:57 during the second period and Yale goaltender Ryan Rondeau stopped 34 UND shots.
In March 2011 UND captured its WCHA-leading 15th league championship with an 11–2 win at Michigan Tech. The team advanced as the #1 seed into the 2011 WCHA tournament by beating #12 seed Michigan Tech (8–0, 3–1). UND advanced to the 2011 WCHA Final Five to play Colorado College in the WCHA semi-final and won with a late 3rd period goal by Matt Frattin to advance them to the WCHA Championship. UND then faced rival Denver for the Broadmoor Trophy. Denver took to the early lead 1–0 at 5:06 of the first period, UND rallied at 2:32 of the second period and struck again at 8:18 of the second period. Denver tied it up at 17:47 of the third period to force the game into overtime. Frattin scored the game winner at 5:11 of the second overtime to claim North Dakota's 2nd as many seasons and 9th Broadmoor Trophy overall for UND. The team advanced to the 2011 NCAA tournament Midwest Regional in Green Bay, Wisconsin. At the Midwest Regional, UND faced off first against Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute (RPI), where they shut out the Engineers, 6–0, advancing to play WCHA rival Denver for the second straight weekend. UND defeated the Pioneers of Denver 6–1 in the Midwest Regional Final to advance to their fifth Frozen Four in 8 seasons under Dave Hakstol. In the NCAA Frozen Four, UND saw their highly anticipated season come to an end with a 0–2 shutout to the Michigan Wolverines.
In March 2012, UND captured its 10th Broadmoor Trophy with a 4–0 victory over rival Denver. With this victory, UND made history by being the first team in WCHA history to capture the Broadmoor three straight years (2010, 2011, 2012); this is the second time UND has won the tournament from a play in game and also holds a 13-game unbeaten streak in the WCHA tournament and an 8-game WCHA Final Five unbeaten streak. UND lost to rival Minnesota in the NCAA tournament.
Hakstol left the team in May 2015 to take the head coaching job with the Philadelphia Flyers of the National Hockey League, becoming the first college coach to jump to an NHL head coaching position since Herb Brooks was hired by the Minnesota North Stars in 1987.
National Collegiate Hockey Conference (NCHC)
On July 14, 2011, College Hockey Inc. announced the formation of a new hockey league, the National Collegiate Hockey Conference, which would begin play in the 2013–14 season. The league's six charter members were North Dakota, Colorado College, Denver, Miami (OH), Minnesota–Duluth, and Nebraska-Omaha. All were WCHA members except for CCHA member Miami. Two months after the announcement of the new league, the NCHC added a sixth WCHA member, St. Cloud State, and another CCHA member, Western Michigan. The NCHC has had no membership changes since starting play. The new league was made after the Big Ten Conference decided to sponsor hockey. This change caused widespread backlash due to the break-up of old rivalries that included Minnesota, North Dakota, and Wisconsin.
Berry Era (2015–present)
After Dave Hakstol obtained the head coaching job in Philadelphia, Brad Berry received a promotion to Head Coach on May 18, 2015. In his first year, he managed a decisive 34–6–4 record, building a line known as the CBS line (Caggiula, Boeser, Schmaltz).
In 2016, North Dakota once again won the NCHC Regular season Championship, but were defeated in the NCHC Tournament. UND finished the regular season as the #3 ranked team in the country and qualified for the NCAA tournament. For the third consecutive season, UND advanced to the 2016 Frozen Four, defeating Northeastern, and Michigan to get there. Following a dramatic 4–2 win over Denver, North Dakota had reached the Championship where they defeated Quinnipiac 5–1. This was their first championship since 2000, and their eighth overall. Only Michigan and Denver have more championships with nine.
2017 was an up and down year that resulted in the program's 15th consecutive postseason berth. North Dakota lost in double overtime against Boston University in the NCAA tournament, after having a goal disallowed in the first overtime due to an offsides review.
In 2018, inconsistency again plagued the North Dakota hockey team. Plenty of streaks ending, most notably the run of postseason NCAA national tournament appearances. North Dakota's streak of 20 wins in a season came to an end. It resulted in missing the postseason for the first time since the 2001–2002 season.
2019 was another inconsistent year for North Dakota. It resulted in the team finishing 5th in the 8th place NCHC standings. This snapped a streak dating back to the 2002–03 season in which North Dakota hosted and ultimately advanced in their conference tournament. Their season ended with a sweep to the hands of Denver in the first round of the NCHC playoffs.
2020 was a return to national prominence for UND. The team accomplished many feats that few North Dakota teams did before. The team won a series at rivals Denver for the first time in years by virtue of a win and a tie and swept both games against Minnesota at 3M arena at Mariucci for only the 2nd time in the previous 40-year history of games in Minneapolis. The team achieved a #1 ranking in both national polls and was PairWise #1 during the regular season for the first time since 2017. The team went on to win the Penrose Cup as regular season champions in the NCHC.
2020 Post-season Cancellation Due to COVID-19
In March 2020, before College hockey playoffs began, the NCAA cancelled the remainder of all college sports 2020 spring season. The team was due to host Colorado College for a first round series for the start of the postseason, however, the NCHC tournament was canceled due to the outbreak of the coronavirus (COVID-19). Very soon after, the NCAA tournament was canceled leaving the season over for North Dakota. North Dakota set a home record at 18–1, the best in UND hockey history with a win percentage of .947. UND finished the year ranked #1 in the Pairwise with a record of 26-5-4.
2021-Present
In 2021, as a result of the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic, it was determined to play only league games in the NCHC. The first ten games of league play would start in a "pod" in Omaha at Baxter Arena in a three-week period to maximize opportunity to play all games in a controlled situation. North Dakota finished the pod in first in the NCHC and continued to roll into the rest of the regular season and captured their second straight Penrose Cup as regular season champions of the NCHC. The postseason tournament, instead of being played in St. Paul at the Xcel Energy Center due to restrictions from COVID-19, was selected to be played at UND's Ralph Engelstad Arena. North Dakota won the NCHC postseason tournament for the first time in their history making them the first NCHC team to win both the regular season and postseason titles in the same year. UND's promising season ended in heartbreaking fashion in the NCAA regional final round with a loss to rival Minnesota-Duluth in 5 overtimes, making it the longest game in NCAA postseason history.
2022 brought continued success in the regular season for North Dakota. They captured the Penrose Cup for a third consecutive season. They entered the postseason playing host to Colorado College in the first round of the NCHC playoffs and swept the Tigers. A loss at the Frozen Faceoff to Western Michigan ended their NCHC tournament. They would be selected to play in the NCAA tournament but lose in the first round to Notre Dame ending their season.
2023 was a disappointment to the high expectations coming into the season. Inconsistencies in their play in the early part of the year plagued their season despite playing better towards the end of the year. The team would finish tied for 5th in the NCHC standings, and ultimately bowed out in the semifinals of the NCHC tournament. The team would not be selected for participation in the NCAA tournament, which is the 3rd time in 8 years under Brad Berry they have not qualified.
Season-by-season results
Source:
Championships
NCAA tournament championships
WCHA Final Five playoff record
Final Five playoffs (1988–2013) Record 64–34–0
WCHA Tournament championships/Broadmoor Trophy
WCHA Regular season Championships/MacNaughton Cup
NCHC Regular season Championships/Penrose Cup
NCHC Tournament championships
Historic record
As of Mar 20, 2023
Records vs. Western Collegiate Hockey Association (WCHA)
Record vs. National Collegiate Hockey Conference opponents
Record vs. all active opponents
Head coaches
All-time coaching records
As of October 13, 2023
Statistical leaders
Source:
Career points leaders
Career goaltending leaders
GP = Games played; Min = Minutes played; W = Wins; L = Losses; T = Ties; GA = Goals against; SO = Shutouts; SV% = Save percentage; GAA = Goals against average
minimum 40 games played
Statistics current through the start of the 2022–23 season.
Players
Current roster
As of July 24, 2023.
Olympians
This is a list of North Dakota alumni who have played on an Olympic team.
UND Hall of Fame
The following is a list of people associated with the men's ice hockey program who were elected into the UND Hall of Fame (induction date in parentheses).
Bill Reichart (1975)
John Noah (1976)
Bill Steenson (1976)
Ken Johannson (1977)
Cal Marvin (1977)
Reg Morelli (1977)
Fido Purpur (1977)
Ben Cherski (1978)
Gordon Christian (1980)
Milt Johnson (1981)
Buzz Johnson (1981)
Bob May (1981)
Jim Medved (1981)
Daniel McKinnon (1982)
Bartley Larson (1983)
John Marks (1985)
Bob Munro (1985)
Ralph Engelstad (1987)
Dennis Hextall (1987)
Mike Curran (1988)
Ken Purpur (1989)
Bill Selman (1993)
Mark Taylor (1993)
Doug Smail (1995)
Terry Abram (1996)
Guy LaFrance (1997)
Al McLean (1997)
Phil Sykes (1997)
Rick Wilson (1997)
Marc Chorney (1998)
Paul Chadwick (2001)
Jim Archibald (2002)
1947–48 Men's Team (2002)
1958–59 Men's Team (2002)
Jim Archibald (2002)
Troy Murray (2003)
1962–63 Men's Team (2003)
Dave Christian (2004)
Darren Jensen (2004)
1979–80 Men's Team (2004)
Bob Joyce (2005)
1986–87 Men's Team (2005)
Alan Hangsleben (2006)
Tony Hrkac (2006)
1981–82 Men's Team (2006)
Craig Ludwig (2008)
Dixon Ward (2009)
1996–97 Men's Team (2012)
Greg Johnson (2013)
Jason Blake (2016)
Steve Johnson (2017)
Dean Blais (2018)
1999–00 Men's Team (2018)
Lee Davidson (2019)
Fighting Hawks in the NHL
As of July 1, 2023.
WHA
Two players also were members of WHA teams.
Source:
Awards and honors
Hockey Hall of Fame
Ed Belfour (2011)
United States Hockey Hall of Fame
Source:
Dave Christian (2001)
Mike Curran (1998)
Cal Marvin (1982)
Fido Purpur (1974)
NCAA
Individual awards
Hobey Baker Award
Tony Hrkac: 1987
Ryan Duncan: 2007
Spencer Penrose Award
John Gasparini: 1987
Dean Blais: 1997, 2001
Brad Berry: 2020
Mike Richter Award
Zane McIntyre: 2015
NCAA Division I Ice Hockey Scoring Champion
Tony Hrkac: 1987
Steve Johnson: 1988
Jeff Panzer: 2001
Lowes' Senior CLASS Award
Jordan Kawaguchi: 2021
Tournament Most Outstanding Player
Reg Morelli; 1959
Al McLean; 1963
Doug Smail; 1980
Phil Sykes; 1982
Tony Hrkac; 1987
Matt Henderson; 1997
Lee Goren; 2000
Drake Caggiula; 2016
All-Americans
AHCA First Team All-Americans
1950-51: John Noah, D
1952-53: Ben Cherski, F
1953-54: Spike Schultz, G; Ben Cherski, F
1954-55: Bill Reichart, F
1956-57: Bill Reichart, F
1957-58: Bill Steenson, F
1958-59: Bill Steenson, F
1959-60: Reg Morelli, F
1962-63: Don Ross, D; Al McLean, F; Dave Merrifield, F
1964-65: Don Ross, D
1965-66: Terry Casey, F
1966-67: Jerry Lafond, D
1967-68: Terry Abram, D; Bob Munro, F
1968-69: John Marks, D; Bob Munro, F
1969-70: John Marks, D
1971-72: Alan Hangsleben, D
1978-79: Bob Iwabuchi, G; Kevin Maxwell, F
1979-80: Howard Walker, D; Mark Taylor, F
1980-81: Marc Chorney, D
1982-83: James Patrick, D
1983-84: Jon Casey, G
1986-87: Ian Kidd, D; Tony Hrkac, F; Bob Joyce, F
1987-88: Steve Johnson, F
1989-90: Russ Parent, D
1990-91: Greg Johnson, F
1992-93: Greg Johnson, F
1997-98: Curtis Murphy, F
1998-99: Brad Williamson, D; Jason Blake, F
1999-00: Karl Goehring, G; Jeff Panzer, F
2000-01: Travis Roche, D; Jeff Panzer, F
2003-04: Brandon Bochenski, F; Zach Parise, F
2006-07: Ryan Duncan, F; Jonathan Toews, F
2007-08: T. J. Oshie, F
2010-11: Chay Genoway, D; Matt Frattin, F
2012-13: Danny Kristo, F
2015-16: Brock Boeser, F
2016-17: Tucker Poolman, D
2019-20: Jordan Kawaguchi, F
2020-21: Shane Pinto, F
2021-22: Jake Sanderson, D
AHCA Second Team All-Americans
1949-50: Daniel McKinnon, D; Buzz Johnson, F
1956-57: Bill Steenson, F
1985-86: Scott Sandelin, D
1986-87: Ed Belfour, G
1990-91: Lee Davidson, F
1991-92: Greg Johnson, F
1995-96: Teeder Wynne, F
1996-97: Curtis Murphy, D; David Hoogsteen, F
1997-98: Karl Goehring, G; Jason Blake, F
1998-99: Jay Panzer, F
1999-00: Lee Goren, F
2000-01: Bryan Lundbohm, F
2006-07: Taylor Chorney, D
2008-09: Chay Genoway, D
2010-11: Aaron Dell, G
2012-13: Corban Knight, F
2014-15: Zane McIntyre, G
2015-16: Cam Johnson, G; Troy Stecher, D; Drake Caggiula, F
2020-21: Matt Kiersted, D; Jordan Kawaguchi, F
WCHA
Individual awards
Player of the Year
Gerry Kell, F: 1965
Phil Sykes, F: 1982
Tony Hrkac, F: 1987
Curtis Murphy, D: 1998
Jason Blake, F: 1999
Jeff Panzer, F: 2001
Ryan Duncan, F: 2007
Matt Frattin, F: 2011
Outstanding Student-Athlete of the Year
Steve Johnson, F: 1988
Mitch Vig, D: 1998
Karl Goehring, G: 2001
Chay Genoway, D: 2011
Brad Eidsness, G: 2012
Coach of the Year
Barry Thorndycraft: 1963
Bob Peters: 1965
Bill Selman: 1967
John Gasparini: 1979, 1982, 1987
Dean Blais: 1997, 1999, 2001
Dave Hakstol: 2009
Freshman/Rookie of the Year
Alan Hangsleben, D: 1972
Kevin Maxwell, F: 1979
James Patrick, D: 1982
Landon Wilson, F: 1994
Karl Goehring, G: 1998
Brandon Bochenski, F: 2002
Brady Murray, F: 2004
Danny Kristo, F: 2010
Sophomore of the Year
Bob Munro, F: 1967
Defensive Player of the Year
Matt Henderson, D: 1998
Brad Williamson, D: 1999
Chay Genoway, D: 2009
Most Valuable Player in tournament
David Hoogsteen, LW: 1997
Lee Goren, RW: 2000
Jordan Parise, G: 2006
Evan Trupp, LW: 2010
Matt Frattin, RW: 2011
Aaron Dell, G: 2012
All-Conference Teams
First Team All-WCHA
1952–53: Ben Cherski, F
1953-54: Ben Cherski, F
1954-55: Bill Reichart, F
1955-56: Bill Reichart, F
1956–57: Bill Steenson, D; Bill Reichart, F
1957-58: Bill Steenson, D
1959-60: Reg Morelli, F
1962-63: Don Ross, D; Dave Merrifield, F
1964–65: Don Ross, D; Gerry Kell, F
1965–66: Terry Casey, F; Dennis Hextall, F
1966-67: Jerry Lafond, F
1967-68: Mike Curran, G; Terry Abram, D; Bob Munro, F
1968-69: Terry Abram, D; Bob Munro, F
1969-70: John Marks, D
1971-72: Alan Hangsleben, D; Jim Cahoon, F
1977-78: Bill Himmelright, F
1978-79: Bob Iwabuchi, G; Kevin Maxwell, F
1979-80: Howard Walker, D; Mark Taylor, F
1980-81: Marc Chorney, D
1981-82: Jon Casey, G; Phil Sykes, F
1982-83: James Patrick, D
1983-84: Jon Casey, G; Dan Brennan, F
1984-85: Jim Archibald, F
1985-86: Scott Sandelin, D
1986-87: Ed Belfour, G; Ian Kidd, D; Tony Hrkac, F; Bob Joyce, F
1987-88: Steve Johnson, F
1989-90: Russ Parent, D
1990-91: Russ Romaniuk, F; Greg Johnson, F
1991-92: Greg Johnson, F
1992-93: Greg Johnson, F
1994-95: Nick Naumenko, D
1995-96: Nick Naumenko, D; Teeder Wynne, F
1996-97: Curtis Murphy, D; Jason Blake, F; David Hoogsteen, F
1997-98: Karl Goehring, G; Curtis Murphy, D; Jason Blake, F
1998-99: Brad Williamson, D; Jason Blake, F
1999-00: Karl Goehring, D; Jeff Panzer, F
2000-01: Travis Roche, D; Jeff Panzer, F; Bryan Lundbohm, F
2003-04: Brandon Bochenski, F; Zach Parise, F
2006-07: Ryan Duncan, F
2007-08: Taylor Chorney, D; T. J. Oshie, F
2008-09: Chay Genoway, D
2010-11: Aaron Dell, G; Chay Genoway, D; Matt Frattin, F
2012-13: Danny Kristo, F
Second Team All-WCHA
1951–52: Elwood Shell, D
1952–53: Elwood Shell, D
1953-54: Spike Schultz, G
1956–57: Tom Yurkovich, G
1957-58: Jim Ridley, F
1959-60: Guy LaFrance, D
1960-61: Bill Colpitts, F
1962-63: Joe Lech, G; Al McLean, F
1964–65: Joe Lech, G; Dennis Hextall, F
1968–69: John Marks, D; Dave Kartio, F
1971-72: Rick Wilson, D
1976-77: Roger Lamoureux, F
1979-80: Marc Chorney, D; Doug Smail, F
1980-81: Troy Murray, F
1981-82: James Patrick, D; Craig Ludwig, D; Troy Murray, F
1982-83: Jon Casey, G; Dave Tippett, F
1983-84: Rick Zombo, D
1988-89: Russ Parent, D
1989-90: Jason Herter, D; Lee Davidson, F
1990-91: Jason Herter, D; Dixon Ward, F
1991-92: Dixon Ward, F
1997-98: David Hoogsteen, F
1998-99: Karl Goehring, G; Trevor Hammer, D; Jay Panzer, F; Jeff Panzer, F
1999-00: Lee Goren, F
2000-01: Ryan Bayda, F
2001-02: Ryan Bayda, F
2002-03: Brandon Bochenski, F
2003-04: Matt Jones, F
2006-07: Taylor Chorney, D; Jonathan Toews, F
2007-08: Jean-Philippe Lamoureux, G; Chay Genoway, D; Ryan Duncan, F
2008-09: Ryan Duncan, F
2009-10: Brad Eidsness, G
2012-13: Corban Knight, F
Third Team All-WCHA
1996–97: Dane Litke, F
1998–99: Lee Goren, F
1999–00: Jason Ulmer, F
2002–03: Andy Schneider, D; David Hale, D; Zach Parise, F
2003–04: Brady Murray, F
2004–05: Matt Jones, F
2005–06: Jordan Parise, G; Matt Smaby, D; Drew Stafford, F
2006–07: T. J. Oshie, F
2007–08: Robbie Bina, D
2008–09: Brad Eidsness, G
2009–10: Chay Genoway, D
2010–11: Jason Gregoire, F
2011–12: Ben Blood, D; Brock Nelson, F
All-WCHA Rookie Team
1992–93: Nick Naumenko, D
1993–94: Toby Kvalevog, G; Landon Wilson, F
1997–98: Karl Goehring, G; Trevor Hammer, D; Jeff Panzer, F
1999–00: Travis Roche, D; Ryan Bayda, F
2001–02: Brandon Bochenski, F
2002–03: Zach Parise, F
2003–04: Brady Murray, F
2004–05: Travis Zajac, F
2005–06: Brian Lee, D; T. J. Oshie, F
2008–09: Brad Eidsness, G
2009–10: Danny Kristo, F
2012–13: Rocco Grimaldi, F
NCHC
Individual awards
Player of the Year
Shane Pinto; 2021
Rookie of the Year
Brock Boeser; 2016
Shane Pinto; 2020
Jackson Blake; 2023
Goaltender of the Year
Zane McIntyre; 2015
Adam Scheel; 2021
Forward of the Year
Jordan Kawaguchi; 2020
Shane Pinto; 2021
Defensive Forward of the Year
Mark MacMillan; 2015
Rhett Gardner; 2018
Shane Pinto; 2021
Connor Ford; 2022
Defensive Defenseman of the Year
Tucker Poolman; 2017
Colton Poolman; 2020
Jacob Bernard-Docker; 2021
Ethan Frisch; 2022
Scholar-Athlete of the Year
Nick Mattson; 2015
Ethan Frisch; 2023
Sportsmanship Award
Matt Hrynkiw; 2017
Mark Senden; 2022
Herb Brooks Coach of the Year
Dave Hakstol; 2015
Brad Berry; 2016, 2020, 2021, 2022
Frozen Faceoff MVP
Riese Gaber; 2021
All-Conference Teams
First Team All-NCHC
2013–14: Dillon Simpson, D
2014–15: Zane McIntyre, G; Mark MacMillan, F
2015–16: Brock Boeser, F; Drake Caggiula, F
2016–17: Tucker Poolman, D
2019–20: Jordan Kawaguchi, F
2020–21: Adam Scheel, G; Matt Kiersted, D; Shane Pinto, F; Jordan Kawaguchi, F
2021–22: Riese Gaber, F
2022–23: Chris Jandric, D
Second Team All-NCHC
2013–14: Jordan Schmaltz, D; Michael Parks, F
2014–15: Jordan Schmaltz, D; Drake Caggiula, F
2015–16: Cam Johnson, G; Troy Stecher, D
2017–18: Christian Wolanin, D
2019–20: Matt Kiersted, D
2020–21: Jacob Bernard-Docker, D
2021–22: Zach Driscoll, G; Jake Sanderson, D
2022–23: Jackson Blake, F; Riese Gaber, F
NCHC All-Rookie Team
2013–14: Paul LaDue, D
2014–15: Nick Schmaltz, F
2015–16: Brock Boeser, F
2016–17: Tyson Jost, F
2017–18: Grant Mismash, F
2018–19: Adam Scheel, D
2019–20: Shane Pinto, F
2020–21: Jake Sanderson, D
2021–22: Jakob Hellsten, G; Matteo Costantini, F
2022–23: Jackson Blake, F
In-season tournaments records
Badger Showdown 6 games: 4–2–0
Great Lakes Invitational 8 games: 5–3–0
Ice Breaker Invitational 6 games: 1–4–1
Lefty McFadden Invitational 2 games: 1–1–0
Pepsi Cola Tournament 2 games: 2–0–0
Kendell Hockey Classic 5 games: 4–0–1
Rensselaer Holiday Tournament 5 games: 4–1–0
Shillelagh Tournament 2 games: 1–1–0
Arenas
Winter Sports Building (The Old Barn) 1946–1972
Old Ralph Engelstad Arena 1972–2001 (Host of the 1983 NCAA Frozen Four)
Ralph Engelstad Arena 2001–present (Host of the 2006 NCAA West Regional and Host of the 2011 Icebreaker Invitational)
Program records
Career
Most games played in a career: Chris Porter, 175, (2003–2007) and Ryan Duncan, 175, (2005–2009)
Most goals in a career: Ben Cherski, 131, (1951–1955)
Most assists in a career: Greg Johnson, 198, (1989–1993)
Most points in a career: Greg Johnson, 272, (1989–1993)
Best career points per game (min. 75 games played): Tony Hrkac, 2.02 PPG (1984–1985, 1986–1987)
Most career power play goals: Mark Taylor, 43, (1976–1980)
Most career shorthanded goals: Russ Romaniuk, 12, (1988–1991)
Most career game winning goals: Mark Taylor, 18, (1976–1980)
Most penalty minutes in a career: Jim Archibald, 540, (1981–1985)
Most points in a career, defenseman: Bill Himmelright, 149, (1975–1979)
Most goals in a career, defenseman: Nick Naumenko, 38, (1992–1996)
Most assists in a career, defenseman: Bill Himmelright, 121, (1975–1979)
Most wins in a career: Karl Goehring, 80, (1997–2001)
Most shutouts in a career: Karl Goehring, 15, (1997–2001)
Best win percentage in a career: Karl Goehring, .765, (1997–2001)
Best goals against average in a career: Zane McIntyre, 2.10, (2012–2015)
Best save percentage in a career: Zane McIntyre, .926, (2012–2015)
Season
Players
Most goals in a season: Bob Joyce, 52, (1986–1987)
Most assists in a season: Tony Hrkac, 70, (1986–1987)
Most points in a season: Tony Hrkac, 116, (1986–1987)
Best points per game in a season (min. 20 games): Tony Hrkac, 2.42, (1986–1987)
Most power play goals in a season: Ryan Duncan, 17, (2006–2007) and Doug Smail, 17, (1979–1980)
Most shorthanded goals in a season: Tony Hrkac, 8, (1986–1987) and Doug Smail, 8, (1979–1980)
Most game winning goals in a season: T.J. Oshie, 9, (2005–2006)
Most penalty minutes in a season: Jim Archibald, 197, (1984–85)
Most points in a season, defenseman: Ian Kidd, 60, (1986–1987)
Most goals in a season, defenseman: Nick Naumenko, 13, (1994–1995) and Ian Kidd, 13, (1986–1987) and John Noah, 13, (1947–1948)
Most assists in a season, defenseman: Russ Parent, 50, (1989–1990)
Most wins in a season: Aaron Dell, 30, (2010–2011)
Most shutouts in a season: Karl Goehring, 8, (1999–2000)
Best goals against average in a season: Bob Peters, 1.27, (1957–1958)
Best save percentage in a season: Jean-Philippe Lamoureux, .932, (2007–2008)
Team
Most wins in a season: 40 (40–8–0 in 1986–1987)
Fewest losses in a season: 5 (11–5–0 in 1947–1948 and 15–5–0 in 1952–1953)
Most home wins in a season: 26 (26–2–0 in 1986–1987)
Fewest home losses in a season: 0 (14–0–3 in 1962–1963)
Most road wins in a season: 13 (13–3–3 in 2000–2001 and 13–3–1 in 2015–2016)
Fewest road losses in a season: 1 (7–1–0 in 1949–1950)
Most neutral site wins in a season: 8 (8–0–0 in 1999–2000)
Most overtime games in a season: 15 (2017–2018)
Most overtime wins in a season: 4 (1980–1981)
Longest overall unbeaten streak: 16 (2002–2003)
Most goals in a season: 264 (1986–1987)
Most assists in a season: 418 (1986–1987)
Most points in a season: 682 (1986–1987)
Most power play goals in a season: 71 (1989–1990)
Best power play percentage in a season: .302 (1977–1978)
Most shorthanded goals in a season: 18 (1986–1987)
Best penalty kill percentage in a season: .872 (2003–2004)
Most shutouts in a season: 9 (1999–2000)
Game
Player
Most goals in a game: Bill Sullivan, 8, (vs North Dakota State, 2/27/1948)
Most assists in a game: Bill Himmelright, 6, (vs Colorado College, 2/19/1977) and Doug Smail, 6, (vs Michigan State 11/5/1977)
Most points in a game: Bill Reichart, 9, (vs Minnesota-Duluth, 12/29/1954) and Bob Joyce, 9, (vs Michigan Tech 1/2/87)
Most power play goals in a game: Mark Taylor, 3, (vs Michigan State 11/23/1979) and Jeff McLean, 3, (vs Denver 10/18/1991)
Most penalty minutes in a game: Landon Wilson, 33, (vs Minnesota Duluth, 1/27/1995)
Most saves in a game: Darren Jensen, 56, (vs Minnesota, 11/31/1981)
Team
Most goals in a game: 18 (at Denver, 2/1/1950)
Most assists in a game: 24 (vs. Yale, 1/1/1960)
Most points in a game: 39 (vs. Yale, 1/1/1960)
Most power play goals in a game: 7 (at Denver, 10/18/1991)
Most shorthanded goals in a game: 3 (vs Michigan Tech, 2/16/1990)
Most penalty minutes in a game: 124 (vs Minnesota Duluth, 10/31/1998)
Largest margin of victory: 15 (vs. Yale, 15–0 on 1/1/1960)
Fastest 2 goals scored in a game: 0:02 (at Colorado College 1/30/1960)
Fastest 3 goals scored in a game: 0:20 (vs Colorado College 2/11/1953)
Fastest 4 goals scored in a game: 1:18 (vs University of Saskatchewan 12/30/76)
Longest game: 142:13 (vs Minnesota Duluth, 2-3 5OT Loss on 3/27/2021)
Period
Player
Most goals in a period: Cary Eades, 4, (vs Colorado College 11/14/1980)
Most points in a period: Milton "Prince" Johnson, 6, (vs Michigan State 2/10/1950)
Most saves in a period: Dave Murphy, 25, (vs US Olympic Team 11/07/1971)
Team
Most goals in a period: 11 (vs Manitoba, 12/28/1978)
Most assists in a period: 18 (vs Manitoba, 12/28/1978)
Most points in a period: 29 (vs Manitoba, 12/28/1978)
Most penalty minutes in a period: 70 (vs Minnesota Duluth, 10/31/1998)
Streaks
Player
Longest goal scoring streak: Ben Cherski and Gordon Christian, 12 games
Longest point scoring streak: Steve Johnson, 27 games
Team
Most consecutive winning seasons: 16 (2002–2003 to present)
Longest win streak: 15 (1979–1981)
Longest home win streak: 18 (1979–1980)
Longest road win streak: 8 (1967–1968)
Longest conference win streak: 14 (WCHA, 1986–1987)
Longest unbeaten streak: 16 (13–0–3 in 2002–2003)
Longest conference unbeaten streak: 19 (18–0–1 in 1998–1999)
Most consecutive shutouts: 4 (1953–1954 all vs Michigan Tech, 2015–2016 vs Denver, Minnesota-Duluth (2), and Alabama Huntsville)
See also
North Dakota Fighting Hawks women's ice hockey
References
External links
UND Men's Hockey website
SiouxSports.com – independent fansite with message boards
Ice hockey teams in North Dakota
1929 establishments in North Dakota
Ice hockey clubs established in 1929
Und hockey is the best hockey #sioux |
4429395 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eminem | Eminem | Marshall Bruce Mathers III (born October 17, 1972), known professionally as Eminem (; often stylized as EMINƎM), is an American rapper, songwriter, and record producer. He is credited with popularizing hip hop in Middle America and is frequently mentioned among the greatest rappers of all time. Eminem's global success and acclaimed works are widely regarded as having broken racial barriers for the acceptance of white rappers in popular music. While much of his transgressive work during the late 1990s and early 2000s made him a controversial figure, he came to be a representation of popular angst of the American underclass and has been cited as an influence by and upon many artists working in various genres.
After the release of his debut album Infinite (1996) and the extended play Slim Shady EP (1997), Eminem signed with Dr. Dre's Aftermath Entertainment and subsequently achieved mainstream popularity in 1999 with The Slim Shady LP. His next two releases, The Marshall Mathers LP (2000) and The Eminem Show (2002), were worldwide successes and were both nominated for the Grammy Award for Album of the Year. After the release of his next album, Encore (2004), Eminem went on hiatus in 2005, largely due to a prescription drug addiction. He returned to the music industry four years later with the release of Relapse (2009) and Recovery, which was released the following year. Recovery was the bestselling album worldwide of 2010, making it Eminem's second album, after The Eminem Show in 2002, to be the best-selling album of the year worldwide. In the following years, he released the US number one albums The Marshall Mathers LP 2 (2013), Revival (2017), Kamikaze (2018), and Music to Be Murdered By (2020).
Eminem's well-known hits include "My Name Is", "The Real Slim Shady", "The Way I Am", "Stan", "Without Me", "Lose Yourself", "Mockingbird", "Not Afraid", "Love the Way You Lie", "The Monster", "River", "Godzilla", and "Rap God", which broke the Guinness World Record for the most words in a hit single, with 1,560 words. In addition to his solo career, Eminem was a member of the hip hop group D12. He is also known for collaborations with fellow Detroit-based rapper Royce da 5'9"; the two are collectively known as Bad Meets Evil.
Eminem made his debut in the film industry with the musical drama film 8 Mile (2002), playing a dramatized version of himself. "Lose Yourself", a track from its soundtrack, topped the Billboard Hot 100 for 12 weeks, the most for a solo rap song, and won the Academy Award for Best Original Song, making Eminem the first hip hop artist ever to win the award. He has made cameo appearances in the films The Wash (2001), Funny People (2009), and The Interview (2014), and the television series Entourage (2010). Eminem has developed other ventures, including Shady Records, a joint venture with manager Paul Rosenberg, which helped launch the careers of artists such as 50 Cent, D12, and Obie Trice, among others. He has also established his own channel, Shade 45, on Sirius XM Radio.
Eminem is among the best-selling music artists of all time, with estimated worldwide sales of over 220 million records. He was the best-selling music artist in the United States of the 2000s and the bestselling male music artist in the United States of the 2010s, third overall. Billboard named him the "Artist of the Decade (2000–2009)". He has had ten number-one albums on the Billboard 200—which all consecutively debuted at number one on the chart, making him the first artist to achieve this—and five number-one singles on the Billboard Hot 100. The Marshall Mathers LP, The Eminem Show, Curtain Call: The Hits (2005), "Lose Yourself", "Love the Way You Lie", and "Not Afraid" have all been certified Diamond or higher by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA). Rolling Stone has included him in its lists of the 100 Greatest Artists of All Time and the 100 Greatest Songwriters of All Time. He has won numerous awards, including 15 Grammy Awards, eight American Music Awards, 17 Billboard Music Awards, an Academy Award, a Primetime Emmy Award, and an MTV Europe Music Global Icon Award. In November 2022, Eminem was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame.
Early life
Mathers was born on October 17, 1972, in St. Joseph, Missouri, the only child of Marshall Bruce Mathers Jr. and Deborah Rae "Debbie" (née Nelson). He is of Scottish, Welsh, English, Cherokee, German, Swiss, Polish, and possibly Luxembourgish ancestry.
His mother nearly died during her 73-hour labor with him. Eminem's parents were in a band called Daddy Warbucks, playing in Ramada Inns along the DakotasMontana border before they separated. His father abandoned his family when he was a year and a half old, and Marshall was raised only by his mother, Debbie, in poverty. His mother later had a son named Nathan "Nate" Kane Samara. At age twelve, he and his mother had moved several times and lived in several towns and cities in Missouri (including St. Joseph, Savannah, and Kansas City) before settling in Warren, Michigan, a suburb of Detroit. Eminem frequently fought with his mother, whom a social worker described as having a "very suspicious, almost paranoid personality". He wrote letters to his father, but Debbie said that they all came back marked "return to sender".
When he was a child, a bully named D'Angelo Bailey severely injured Eminem's head in an assault, an incident which Eminem later recounted (with comic exaggeration) on the song "Brain Damage". Debbie filed a lawsuit against the public school for this in 1982. The suit was dismissed the following year by a Macomb County, Michigan judge, who said the schools were immune from lawsuits. For much of his youth, Eminem and his mother lived in a working-class, primarily black, Detroit neighborhood. He and Debbie were one of three white households on their block, and Eminem was beaten several times by black youths.
Eminem was interested in storytelling, aspiring to be a comic book artist before discovering hip hop. He heard his first rap song ("Reckless", featuring Ice-T) on the Breakin' soundtrack, a gift from Debbie's half-brother Ronnie Polkingharn. His uncle was close to the boy and later became a musical mentor to him. When Polkingharn committed suicide in 1991, Eminem stopped speaking publicly for days and did not attend his funeral.
At age 14, Eminem began rapping with high-school friend Mike Ruby; they adopted the names "Manix" and "M&M", the latter evolving into "Eminem". Eminem sneaked into neighboring Osborn High School with friend and fellow rapper Proof for lunchroom freestyle rap battles. On Saturdays, they attended open mic contests at the Hip-Hop Shop on West 7 Mile Road, considered "ground zero" for the Detroit rap scene. Struggling to succeed in a predominantly black industry, Eminem was appreciated by underground hip hop audiences. When he wrote verses, he wanted most of the words to rhyme; he wrote long words or phrases on paper and, underneath, worked on rhymes for each syllable. Although the words often made little sense, the drill helped Eminem practice sounds and rhymes.
In 1987, Debbie allowed runaway Kimberly Anne "Kim" Scott to stay at their home. Several years later, Eminem began an on-and-off relationship with Scott. After spending three years in ninth grade due to truancy and poor grades, he dropped out of Lincoln High School at age 17. Although interested in English, Eminem never explored literature (preferring comic books) and he disliked math and social studies. Eminem worked at several jobs to help his mother pay the bills. One of the jobs he had was with Little Caesar's Pizza in Warren, Michigan. He later said she often threw him out of the house anyway, often after taking most of his paycheck. When she left to play bingo, he would blast the stereo and write songs.
Career
1988–1997: Early career, Infinite and family struggles
In 1988, he went by the stage name MC Double M and formed his first group New Jacks and made a self-titled demo tape with DJ Butter Fingers. In 1989, they later joined Bassmint Productions who later changed their name to Soul Intent in 1992 with rapper Proof and other childhood friends. They released a self-titled EP in 1995 featuring Proof. Eminem also made his first music video appearance in 1992 in a song titled, "Do-Da-Dippity", by Champtown. Later in 1996, Eminem and Proof teamed up with four other rappers to form The Dirty Dozen (D12), who released The Underground E.P. in 1997 and their first album Devil's Night in 2001. He was also affiliated with Newark's rap collective Outsidaz, collaborating with them on different projects.
Eminem was soon signed to Jeff and Mark Bass's F.B.T. Productions and recorded his debut album Infinite for their independent Web Entertainment label. The album was a commercial failure upon its release in 1996. One lyrical subject of Infinite was his struggle to raise his newborn daughter, Hailie Jade Scott Mathers, on little money. During this period, Eminem's rhyming style, primarily inspired by rappers Nas, Esham and AZ, lacked the comically violent slant for which he later became known. Detroit disc jockeys largely ignored Infinite and the feedback Eminem did receive ("Why don't you go into rock and roll?") led him to craft angrier, moodier tracks. At this time Eminem and Kim Scott lived in a crime-ridden neighborhood and their house was robbed several times. Eminem cooked and washed dishes for minimum wage at Gilbert's Lodge, a family-style restaurant at St. Clair Shores. His former boss described him as becoming a model employee, as he worked 60 hours a week for six months after Hailie's birth. He was fired shortly before Christmas and later said, "It was, like, five days before Christmas, which is Hailie's birthday. I had, like, forty dollars to get her something." After the release of Infinite, his personal problems and substance abuse culminated in a suicide attempt. By March 1997 he was fired from Gilbert's Lodge for the last time and lived in his mother's mobile home with Kim and Hailie.
1997–1999: Introduction of Slim Shady, The Slim Shady LP and rise to success
Eminem attracted more attention when he developed Slim Shady, a sadistic, violent alter ego. The character allowed him to express his anger with lyrics about drugs, rape and murder. In the spring of 1997 he recorded his debut EP, the Slim Shady EP, which was released that winter by Web Entertainment. The EP, with frequent references to drug use, sexual acts, mental instability and violence, also explored the more-serious themes of dealing with poverty and marital and family difficulties and revealed his direct, self-deprecating response to criticism. Hip hop magazine The Source featured Eminem in its "Unsigned Hype" column in March 1998.
After he was fired from his job and evicted from his home, Eminem went to Los Angeles to compete in the 1997 Rap Olympics, an annual, nationwide battle rap competition. He placed second and an Interscope Records intern in attendance called Dean Geistlinger asked Eminem for a copy of the Slim Shady EP, which was then sent to company CEO Jimmy Iovine. Iovine played the tape for record producer Dr. Dre, founder of Aftermath Entertainment and founding member of hip hop group N.W.A. Dre recalled, "In my entire career in the music industry, I have never found anything from a demo tape or a CD. When Jimmy played this, I said, 'Find him. Now. He would later state on the fourth and last episode of The Defiant Ones, "I was like: what the fuck!?, and who the fuck is that?" expressing his shock towards Mathers' rapping talent. Although his associates criticized him for hiring a white rapper, he was confident in his decision: "I don't give a fuck if you're purple; if you can kick it, I'm working with you." Eminem had idolized Dre since listening to N.W.A as a teenager and was nervous about working with him on an album: "I didn't want to be starstruck or kiss his ass too much ... I'm just a little white boy from Detroit. I had never seen stars let alone Dr. Dre." He became more comfortable working with Dre after a series of productive recording sessions.
Eminem released The Slim Shady LP in February 1999. Although it was one of the year's most popular albums (certified triple platinum by the end of the year), he was accused of imitating the style and subject matter of underground rapper Cage. The album's popularity was accompanied by controversy over its lyrics; in "'97 Bonnie & Clyde" Eminem describes a trip with his infant daughter when he disposes of his wife's body and in "Guilty Conscience" which encourages a man to murder his wife and her lover. "Guilty Conscience" marked the beginning of a friendship and musical bond between Dr. Dre and Eminem. The label-mates later collaborated on a number of hit songs ("Forgot About Dre" and "What's the Difference" while also providing uncredited vocals on "The Watcher" from Dr. Dre's album 2001, "Bitch Please II" from The Marshall Mathers LP, "Say What You Say" from The Eminem Show, "Encore/Curtains Down" from Encore and "Old Time's Sake" and "Crack a Bottle" from Relapse) and Dre made at least one guest appearance on each of Eminem's Aftermath albums. The Slim Shady LP has been certified quadruple platinum by the RIAA.
1999–2003: The Marshall Mathers LP and The Eminem Show
After Eminem released The Slim Shady LP, he started his own record label, Shady Records, in late 1999. Eminem looked for an avenue to release D12, and his manager Paul Rosenberg was keen to start a label, which led to the two teaming up to form Shady. Its A&R Marc Labelle has defined the record label as "a boutique label but [with] all the outlets of a major [and] Interscope backing up our every move."
Recorded from 1999 to 2000, The Marshall Mathers LP was released in May 2000. It sold 1.76 million copies in its first week, breaking US records held by Snoop Dogg's Doggystyle for fastest-selling hip hop album and Britney Spears' ...Baby One More Time for fastest-selling solo album. The first single from the album, "The Real Slim Shady", was a success despite controversies about Eminem's insults and dubious claims about celebrities (for example, that Christina Aguilera had performed oral sex on Carson Daly and Fred Durst). In his second single, "The Way I Am", he reveals the pressure from his record company to top "My Name Is". Although Eminem parodied shock rocker Marilyn Manson in the music video for "My Name Is", they are reportedly on good terms; Manson is mentioned in "The Way I Am", appeared in its music video and has performed a live remix of the song with Eminem. In the third single, "Stan" (which samples Dido's "Thank You"), Eminem tries to deal with his new fame, assuming the persona of a deranged fan who kills himself and his pregnant girlfriend (mirroring 97 Bonnie & Clyde" from The Slim Shady LP). The music magazine Q called "Stan" the third-greatest rap song of all time, and it was ranked tenth in a Top40-Charts.com survey. The song has since been ranked 296th on Rolling Stone's "500 Greatest Songs of All Time" list. In July 2000, Eminem was the first white artist to appear on the cover of The Source. The Marshall Mathers LP was certified Diamond by the RIAA in March 2011 and sold 21 million copies worldwide. In 2000 Eminem also appeared in the Up in Smoke Tour with rappers Dr. Dre, Snoop Dogg, Xzibit and Ice Cube and the Family Values Tour with Limp Bizkit, headlining the Anger Management Tour with Papa Roach, Ludacris and Xzibit.
Eminem performed with Elton John at the 43rd Grammy Awards ceremony in 2001, with the Gay & Lesbian Alliance Against Defamation (GLAAD, an organization which considered Eminem's lyrics homophobic) condemning John's decision to perform with Eminem. Entertainment Weekly placed the appearance on its end-of-decade "best-of" list: "It was the hug heard 'round the world. Eminem, under fire for homophobic lyrics, shared the stage with a gay icon for a performance of 'Stan' that would have been memorable in any context." On February 21, the day of the awards ceremony, GLAAD held a protest outside the Staples Center (the ceremony's venue). Eminem was also the only guest artist to appear on fellow rapper Jay-Z's critically acclaimed album The Blueprint, producing and rapping on the song "Renegade".
The Eminem Show was released in May 2002. It was another success, reaching number one on the charts and selling over 1.332 million copies during its first full week. The album's single, "Without Me", denigrates boy bands, Limp Bizkit, Dick and Lynne Cheney, Moby and others. The Eminem Show, certified Diamond by the RIAA, examines the effects of Eminem's rise to fame, his relationship with his wife and daughter and his status in the hip hop community, addressing an assault charge brought by a bouncer he saw kissing his wife in 2000. Although several tracks are clearly angry, Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic found The Eminem Show less inflammatory than The Marshall Mathers LP. L. Brent Bozell III, who had criticized The Marshall Mathers LP for misogynistic lyrics, noted The Eminem Shows extensive use of obscenity and called Eminem "Eminef" for the prevalence of the word "motherfucker" on the album. The Eminem Show sold 27 million copies worldwide and was the bestselling album of 2002.
2003–2007: Production work, Encore and musical hiatus
In 2003, Eminem, a lifelong fan of Tupac, provided production work for three tracks on the Tupac Resurrection soundtrack. He would follow this up the next year by producing 12 of the 16 tracks on Tupac's Loyal to the Game album. On December 8, 2003, the United States Secret Service said that it was "looking into" allegations that Eminem had threatened the President of the United States. The cause for concern was the lyrics of "We As Americans" ("Fuck money / I don't rap for dead presidents / I'd rather see the president dead / It's never been said, but I set precedents"), which was later released on a bonus CD with the deluxe edition of Encore.
Encore, released in 2004, was another success, but not as successful as his previous albums. Its sales were partially driven by the first single, "Just Lose It", which contained slurs directed toward Michael Jackson. On October 12, 2004, a week after the release of "Just Lose It", Jackson phoned Steve Harvey's radio show, The Steve Harvey Morning Show, to report his displeasure with its video (which parodies Jackson's child molestation trial, plastic surgery and the 1984 incident when Jackson's hair caught fire during the filming of a commercial). In the song, Eminem says, "That's not a stab at Michael / That's just a metaphor / I'm just psycho." Many of Jackson's friends and supporters spoke out against the video, including Stevie Wonder, who described it as "kicking a man while he's down" and "bullshit", and Steve Harvey (who said, "Eminem has lost his ghetto pass. We want the pass back"). The video also parodied Pee-wee Herman, MC Hammer and Madonna during her Blond Ambition period. "Weird Al" Yankovic, who parodied the Eminem song "Lose Yourself" on "Couch Potato" for his 2003 album Poodle Hat, told the Chicago Sun-Times about Jackson's protest: "Last year, Eminem forced me to halt production on the video for my 'Lose Yourself' parody because he somehow thought that it would be harmful to his image or career. So the irony of this situation with Michael is not lost on me." Although Black Entertainment Television stopped playing the video, MTV announced that it would continue to air it. The Source, through CEO Raymond "Benzino" Scott, called for the video to be pulled, the song removed from the album and Eminem to apologize publicly to Jackson. In 2007, Jackson and Sony bought Famous Music from Viacom, giving him the rights to songs by Eminem, Shakira, Beck and others.
Despite its lead single's humorous theme, Encore explored serious subject matter with the anti-war song "Mosh", which criticized President George W. Bush as "This weapon of mass destruction that we call our president", with lyrics including "Fuck Bush." On October 25, 2004, a week before the 2004 US Presidential election, Eminem released the video for "Mosh" on the Internet. In it, Eminem gathers an army (including rapper Lloyd Banks) of Bush-administration victims and leads them to the White House. When they break in, it is learned that they are there to register to vote; the video ends with "VOTE Tuesday November 2." After Bush's reelection, the video's ending was changed to Eminem and the protesters invading the White House during a speech by the president. Also in 2004 Eminem launched a satellite music channel, Shade 45, on Sirius radio, which was described by his manager as "essentially a destination to get and hear things that other people aren't playing."
Eminem began his first US concert tour in three years in the summer of 2005 with the Anger Management 3 Tour, featuring 50 Cent, G-Unit, Lil Jon, D12, Obie Trice and the Alchemist, but in August he canceled the European leg of the tour, later announcing that he had entered drug rehabilitation for treatment of a "dependency on sleep medication". Meanwhile, industry insiders speculated that Eminem was considering retirement, while rumors circulated that a double album titled The Funeral would be released. In July, the Detroit Free Press reported a possible final bow for Eminem as a solo performer, quoting members of his inner circle as saying that he would embrace the roles of producer and label executive. A greatest hits album, Curtain Call: The Hits, was released on December 6, 2005, by Aftermath Entertainment, and sold nearly 441,000 copies in the US in its first week, marking Eminem's fourth consecutive number-one album on the Billboard Hot 200, and was certified double platinum by the RIAA. However, Eminem suggested that month on WKQI's "Mojo in the Morning" show that he would be taking a break as an artist: "I'm at a point in my life right now where I feel like I don't know where my career is going ... This is the reason that we called it 'Curtain Call' because this could be the final thing. We don't know."
In April 2006, Proof, who was Eminem's childhood friend, was murdered. Eight months later, Eminem released a compilation album titled Eminem Presents: The Re-Up that featured Proof and other Shady Records artists.
2007–2009: Comeback and Relapse
In September 2007, Eminem called New York radio station WQHT during an interview with 50 Cent, saying that he was "in limbo" and "debating" about when (or if) he would release another album: "I'm always working – I'm always in the studio. It feels good right now, the energy of the label. For a while, I didn't want to go back to the studio ... I went through some personal things. I'm coming out of those personal things [and] it feels good."
Eminem appeared on his Shade 45 Sirius channel in September 2008, saying: "Right now I'm kinda just concentrating on my own stuff, for right now and just banging out tracks and producing a lot of stuff. You know, the more I keep producing the better it seems like I get 'cause I just start knowing stuff." Interscope confirmed that a new album would be released in spring 2009. In December 2008, Eminem provided more details about the album, entitled Relapse: "Me and Dre are back in the lab like the old days, man. Dre will end up producing the majority of the tracks on 'Relapse'. We are up to our old mischievous ways ... let's just leave it at that."
According to a March 5, 2009, press release, Eminem would release two new albums that year. Relapse, the first, was released on May 19; its first single and music video, "We Made You", had been released on April 7. Although Relapse did not sell as well as Eminem's previous albums and received mixed reviews, it was a commercial success and re-established his presence in the hip hop world. It sold more than five million copies worldwide. During the 2009 MTV Movie Awards, Sacha Baron Cohen descended on the audience in an angel costume. He landed buttocks-first on Eminem, who stormed out of the ceremony; three days later, Eminem said that the stunt had been staged. On October 30 he headlined at the Voodoo Experience in New Orleans, his first full performance of the year. Eminem's act included several songs from Relapse, many of his older hits and an appearance by D12. On November 19, he announced on his website that Relapse: Refill would be released on December 21. The album was a re-release of Relapse with seven bonus tracks, including "Forever" and "Taking My Ball". Eminem described the CD:
I want to deliver more material for the fans this year like I originally planned ... Hopefully, these tracks on The Refill will tide the fans over until we put out Relapse 2 next year ... I got back in with Dre and then a few more producers, including Just Blaze, and went in a completely different direction which made me start from scratch. The new tracks started to sound very different than the tracks I originally intended to be on Relapse 2, but I still want the other stuff to be heard.
2009–2011: Recovery and Bad Meets Evil reunion
On April 14, 2010, Eminem tweeted: "There is no Relapse 2". Although his followers thought he was not releasing an album, he had changed its title to Recovery and confirmed this by tweeting "Recovery" with a link to his website. He said:
I had originally planned for Relapse 2 to come out last year. But as I kept recording and working with new producers, the idea of a sequel to Relapse started to make less and less sense to me, and I wanted to make a completely new album. The music on Recovery came out very different from Relapse, and I think it deserves its own title.
Recorded from 2009 to 2010, Recovery was released on June 18. In the US, Recovery sold 741,000 copies during its first week, topping the Billboard 200 chart. Eminem's sixth consecutive US number-one album also topped the charts in several other countries. Recovery remained atop the Billboard 200 chart for five consecutive weeks of a seven-week total.
Billboard reported that it was the bestselling album of 2010, making Eminem the first artist in Nielsen SoundScan history with two year-end bestselling albums. Recovery is the bestselling digital album in history. Its first single, "Not Afraid", was released on April 29 and debuted atop the Billboard Hot 100; its music video was released on June 4. "Not Afraid" was followed by "Love the Way You Lie", which debuted at number two before rising to the top. Although "Love the Way You Lie" was the bestselling 2010 single in the United Kingdom, it did not reach number one (the first time this has happened in the UK since 1969). Despite criticism of its inconsistency, Recovery received positive reviews from most critics. , the album had US sales of three million copies. Recovery was the bestselling album worldwide in 2010, joining 2002's bestseller The Eminem Show to give Eminem two worldwide year-end number-one albums. With Recovery, Eminem broke the record for the most successive US number-one albums by a solo artist.
He appeared at the 2010 BET Awards, performing "Not Afraid" and "Airplanes, Part II" with B.o.B and Keyshia Cole. Later that year, he performed at the Activison E3 concert. In June, Eminem and Jay-Z announced they would perform together in Detroit and New York City, at concerts called The Home & Home Tour. The first two concerts quickly sold out, prompting an additional show in each city. BET called Eminem the number-one rapper of the 21st century. He opened the 2010 MTV Video Music Awards on September 12, performing "Not Afraid" and "Love the Way You Lie" with Rihanna singing the choruses. Due to the success of Recovery and the Home & Home Tour, Eminem was named the 2010 Hottest MC in the Game by MTV and Emcee of the Year by the online magazine HipHopDX. He and Rihanna again collaborated on "Love the Way You Lie (Part II)", the sequel of their hit single. Unlike the original, Rihanna is the lead vocalist and it is sung from the female perspective. In December 2010, the "Great Eminem Recovery" was number one on Billboards Top 25 Music Moments of 2010. He appeared at the 2011 Grammy Awards on February 13, performing "Love the Way You Lie (Part II)" with Rihanna and Adam Levine and "I Need a Doctor" with Dr. Dre and Skylar Grey. That month it was announced that "Space Bound" would be the fourth single from Recovery, with a music video featuring former porn actress Sasha Grey; the video was released June 24 on the iTunes Store.
In 2010, Eminem again began collaborating with Royce da 5'9" on their first EP as Bad Meets Evil; the duo formed in 1998. The EP, Hell: The Sequel, was released on June 14, 2011. Eminem was featured on Royce da 5'9s "Writer's Block", released on April 8, 2011. On May 3 they released the lead single "Fast Lane" from their upcoming EP and a music video was filmed. In March 2011, within days of each other, The Eminem Show and The Marshall Mathers LP were certified diamond by the RIAA; Eminem is the only rapper with two diamond-certified albums. With more than 60 million "likes" he was the most-followed person on Facebook, outscoring Lady Gaga, Justin Bieber, Rihanna and Michael Jackson. Eminem was the first artist in five years with two number-one albums (Recovery and Hell: The Sequel) in a 12-month period. Early in 2011 he leaked "2.0 Boys", on which Yelawolf and Slaughterhouse collaborated when they signed with Shady Records in January and performed it in April. Bad Meets Evil released their next single, "Lighters", on July 6 and its music video in late August. On August 6, Eminem performed several songs from throughout his career at Lollapalooza with the artists who had been featured on each song.
2012–2014: The Marshall Mathers LP 2
Eminem announced on May 24, 2012, that he was working on his next album, scheduled for release the following year. Without a title or release date, it was included on a number of "Most Anticipated Albums of 2013" lists (including MTV); Complex ranked it sixth and XXL fifth.
On August 14, "Survival", featuring Liz Rodrigues and produced by DJ Khalil, premiered in the multi-player trailer for the video game Call of Duty: Ghosts. According to a press release, the first single from Eminem's eighth album would be released soon. During the 2013 MTV Video Music Awards, it was announced that the album would be entitled The Marshall Mathers LP 2 (following The Marshall Mathers LP) and was scheduled for release on November 5. Its lead single, "Berzerk", was released on August 25 and debuted at number three on the Billboard Hot 100 chart. Three more singles followed: "Survival" (appearing on the Call of Duty: Ghosts trailer), "Rap God" and "The Monster" (with Rihanna).
The album was released on November 5, by Aftermath Entertainment, Shady Records and Interscope Records. Its standard version had 16 tracks and the deluxe version included a second disc with five additional tracks. The Marshall Mathers LP 2 was Eminem's seventh album to debut atop the Billboard 200 and had the year's second-largest first-week sales. He was the first artist since the Beatles to have four singles in the top 20 of the Billboard Hot 100. In the United Kingdom, The Marshall Mathers LP 2 debuted at number one on the UK Albums Chart. The first American artist with seven consecutive UK number-one albums, he is tied with the Beatles for second place for the most consecutive chart-topping UK albums. The album secured Eminem's position as Canada's bestselling artist and was 2013's bestselling album.
On November 3, Eminem was named the first YouTube Music Awards Artist of the Year, and a week later he received the Global Icon Award at the 2013 MTV Europe Music Awards. On June 10, it was announced that Eminem was the first artist to receive two digital diamond certifications – sales and streams of 10 million and above – by the RIAA (for "Not Afraid" and "Love the Way You Lie"). On July 11 and 12, Eminem played two concerts in Wembley Stadium. At the 57th Grammy Awards, he received Best Rap Album award for The Marshall Mathers LP 2 and Best Rap/Sung Collaboration (with Rihanna) for "The Monster".
2014–2016: Shady XV and Southpaw
In the summer of 2014, Eminem and Rosenberg began using the hashtag #SHADYXV on social networking sites and Eminem wore a T-shirt with the hashtag onstage. This was later revealed to be the name of an upcoming Shady Records compilation. Shortly afterwards the first single from the album ("Guts Over Fear", featuring singer-songwriter Sia) was released and the album's track list was released on October 29. Shady Records released a cypher to promote the album, in which Eminem did a seven-minute freestyle. "Detroit vs. Everybody" (the album's second single), with Eminem, Dej Loaf, Royce da 5'9", Danny Brown, Big Sean and Trick-Trick, was released on November 11. Shady XV, released on November 24 during Black Friday week, consists of one greatest-hits disc and one disc of new material by Shady Records artists such as D12, Slaughterhouse, Bad Meets Evil and Yelawolf. The album debuted at number three on the Billboard 200 chart, with first-week sales of 138,000 copies in the United States.
The Official Eminem Box Set, a career-spanning, 10-disc vinyl box set, was released on March 12, 2015. The set includes seven of Eminem's eight studio albums (excluding Infinite), the 8 Mile soundtrack, the compilation Eminem Presents: The Re-Up and the greatest hits collection Curtain Call: The Hits. Early in the year, it was announced that he would appear on Tech N9ne's "Speedom (Worldwide Choppers 2)". The song, also featuring Krizz Kaliko, was released on April 20. Eminem also appeared on Yelawolf's "Best Friend", the single from Love Story.
Eminem is the executive producer of the soundtrack on the sports drama Southpaw, with Shady Records. The first single from the soundtrack called 'Phenomenal' was released on June 2, 2015. Another single, "Kings Never Die" by Eminem featuring Gwen Stefani, was released on July 10, 2015, on YouTube via Eminem's Vevo account. Eminem was the first interview of Zane Lowe in Beats 1. The interview streamed online on the Beats 1 radio on July 1, 2015.
Eminem appeared on the public access show Only in Monroe, produced in Monroe, Michigan and was interviewed by guest host Stephen Colbert for an episode that aired July 1, 2015. In the episode Eminem sang snippets of Bob Seger songs at Colbert's prompting and briefly discussed Southpaw. In June 2015, it was revealed that he will serve as the executive producer and music supervisor on the TV series Motor City whose premise will be based upon the 2002 film Narc.
In September 2016, Eminem was featured on Skylar Grey's song, "Kill For You", which appears on her album, Natural Causes. On October 19, 2016, Eminem released a new song called "Campaign Speech", a political hip hop song and announced he was working on a new album. On November 17, 2016, Eminem released a remastered version of 'Infinite' on his YouTube VEVO channel. On November 22, 2016, Eminem released a trailer for a 10-minute short documentary called Partners in Rhyme: The True Story of Infinite.
2017–2019: Revival and Kamikaze
In February 2017, Eminem appeared on "No Favors", a track from Big Sean's album I Decided. In the song, Eminem calls the newly elected President Donald Trump a "bitch" and also raps about raping conservative social and political commentator Ann Coulter, who is a Trump supporter, with a variety of foreign objects. Coulter responded to the lyrics, stating, "I think it's unfortunate that the left, from Berkeley to Eminem with his rap songs, has normalized violence against women, as Eminem has done." Eminem participated in the 2017 BET Hip Hop Awards' annual cypher, using his verse, a freestyle rap called "The Storm", to further criticize Trump and the administration for, among other things, Trump's focus on National Football League players' protests during "The Star Spangled Banner" over Hurricane Maria recovery efforts and lack of gun control reform in the wake of the 2017 Las Vegas shooting. Eminem ended the cypher by giving an ultimatum saying that Trump supporters cannot be his fans. The verse received wide praise among other rappers following its release. In October 2017, Eminem appeared on "Revenge", a track from Pink's album Beautiful Trauma. It was reported that the Secret Service interviewed Eminem in 2018–2019, regarding threatening lyrics towards President Trump and daughter Ivanka.
Starting in late October 2017, Eminem and Paul Rosenberg began teasing what fans speculated was the title of a new album titled Revival, in the form of advertisements for a fake medication of the same name. Later in November, the first single "Walk on Water" was released, which featured Beyoncé. The song was first performed, by Eminem, at the 2017 MTV Europe Music Awards on November 12, featuring Skylar Grey. He appeared on Saturday Night Live on November 18, performing "Walk on Water", "Stan" and "Love the Way You Lie" with Skylar Grey. On November 28, Dr. Dre posted a video confirming the album's release date as December 15, 2017. On December 8, Eminem released a promotional single titled "Untouchable", which featured a sample from the duo Cheech & Chong. Despite an online leak of the album two days prior, Revival was released as planned on December 15. On January 5, 2018, the second single "River" was released, which featured Ed Sheeran. It became Eminem's eighth consecutive album to top the US Billboard 200 upon release with 197,000 copies sold in its first week. As a result, he became the first musical act to have eight entries in a row debut atop the chart. The album was met with mixed reviews from music critics and is generally considered his worst album. In 2018, an extended edition of "Nowhere Fast" with Kehlani and a remix of "Chloraseptic" featuring 2 Chainz and Phresher were released from Revival.
On August 31, 2018, Eminem released his tenth studio album and first surprise album Kamikaze, making it his second full-length studio album in 8 months. The album topped the Billboard 200, making it his ninth album in a row to do so, after selling 434,000 units in the first week. The album was released as a response to criticism of Revival, his worst rated album. The album was promoted with three singles: "Fall", "Venom", from the 2018 film of the same name and "Lucky You". During the October 15, 2018, episode of the late-night television show Jimmy Kimmel Live!, Eminem performed the song "Venom" at the 103rd floor of the Empire State Building in New York City as a promotion of the album.
On December 1, Eminem released an 11 minute freestyle to his YouTube channel titled 'Kick off'. Eminem collaborated with several artists throughout early 2019, including Boogie, Logic, Ed Sheeran, 50 Cent and Conway the Machine. On February 23, 2019, to celebrate its 20th anniversary, Eminem released a re-issue of The Slim Shady LP, including acapellas, instrumentals and radio edited versions of tracks from the album.
2020–present: Music to Be Murdered By and Curtain Call 2
On January 17, 2020, Eminem released another surprise album Music to Be Murdered By. Recorded from 2019 to 2020, the album features guest appearances by Young M.A., Royce da 5'9", Q-Tip, Denaun Porter, White Gold, Ed Sheeran, Juice WRLD, Skylar Grey, Anderson .Paak, Don Toliver, Kxng Crooked, Joell Ortiz and Black Thought. The album debuted at number one on the Billboard 200, selling 279,000 album-equivalent units in its first week. Subsequently, Eminem became the first artist to have ten consecutive albums debut at number one in the US and one of six artists to have released at least ten US number-one albums. Music critics praised Eminem's lyrical abilities and the improved production after Kamikaze, while criticism directed towards the album's formulaic song structure, lack of innovation and shock value.
The lyrics of "Unaccommodating", in which Eminem referenced the 2017 Manchester Arena bombing, drew significant criticism, with many critics finding the lyrics objectionable. The mayor of Manchester denounced the song's lyrics, describing them as "unnecessarily hurtful and deeply disrespectful". The lyrics also drew widespread criticism from victims' relatives and others involved in the attack. On February 9, 2020, Mathers performed "Lose Yourself" at the 92nd Academy Awards. On March 9, 2020, the music video for the song "Godzilla" was released on YouTube through Lyrical Lemonade's channel. The video features Mike Tyson and Dr. Dre. As of October 8, 2022, the music video has over 520.9 million views. On March 11, 2020, Music to Be Murdered By was certified Gold. On July 9, 2020, Kid Cudi's daughter Vada announced via social media that he was releasing a song with Eminem called "The Adventures of Moon Man & Slim Shady" the coming Friday.
A deluxe edition of the album, titled Music to Be Murdered By – Side B, was released on December 18, 2020. Similar to Eminem's previous two albums, it was released without any prior announcement. It contains a bonus disc with sixteen new tracks, with guest appearances by Skylar Grey, DJ Premier, Ty Dolla Sign, Dr. Dre, Sly Pyper, MAJ and White Gold. The album's release was accompanied by a music video for "Gnat", directed by Cole Bennett. Lyric videos for "Alfred's Theme" and "Tone Deaf" were also released, in the latter song Mathers pays tribute to the late Chicago rapper King Von. Music to Be Murdered By – Side B debuted on the Billboard 200 at number 3, with 70,000–80,000 album-equivalent units, including 25,000–30,000 in pure album sales. In the track "Zeus", he apologizes to Rihanna over a leaked song from his Relapse studio sessions in which he sided with Chris Brown, who pleaded guilty to felony assault involving her in 2009.
Eminem featured in a song with Polo G and Mozzy called "Last One Standing" by Skylar Grey for the soundtrack of the film Venom: Let There Be Carnage, released on September 30, 2021. He performed alongside LL Cool J at the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame ceremony on October 30. On February 13, 2022, Eminem performed at the Super Bowl LVI halftime show alongside Dr. Dre, Snoop Dogg, Kendrick Lamar, and Mary J. Blige, with surprise appearances from 50 Cent and Anderson. Paak.
Eminem and CeeLo Green collaborated on a new track titled "The King and I", produced by Dr. Dre for Baz Luhrmann's Elvis movie soundtrack. On June 24, 2022, Eminem and Snoop Dogg released a song entitled "From the D to the LBC" to squash their beef. Eminem announced his second greatest hits album on July 11, 2022, entitled Curtain Call 2, which is a sequel to his first compilation Curtain Call: The Hits. The album covers his albums from Relapse to Music to be Murdered By, as well as collaborations and songs from movie soundtracks. It was released on August 5, 2022, and also includes "The King and I", "From the D 2 the LBC", and an additional new track named Is This Love ('09) featuring 50 Cent.
On August 26, 2022, Eminem was featured alongside Kanye West on the remix of the song "Use This Gospel" on DJ Khaled's new album God Did. The remix was originally set to be released on West's shelved album Jesus Is King Part II. Eminem was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 2022. He was presented by Dr. Dre and had special guest appearances by Aerosmith lead vocalist Steven Tyler and Ed Sheeran during his performance.
Artistry
Influences, style and rapping technique
Eminem has cited several MCs as influencing his rapping style, including Esham, Kool G Rap, Masta Ace, Big Daddy Kane, Newcleus, Ice-T, Mantronix, Melle Mel (on "The Message"), LL Cool J, Beastie Boys, Run-D.M.C., Rakim and Boogie Down Productions.
In How to Rap, Guerilla Black notes that Eminem studied other MCs to hone his rapping technique: "Eminem listened to everything and that's what made him one of the greats". In the book, other MCs also praise aspects of his rapping technique: varied, humorous subject matter, connecting with his audience, carrying a concept over a series of albums, complex rhyme schemes, bending words so they rhyme, multisyllabic rhymes, many rhymes to a bar, complex rhythms, clear enunciation, and the use of melody and syncopation. Eminem is known to write most of his lyrics on paper (documented in The Way I Am), taking several days or a week to craft lyrics, being a "workaholic" and "stacking" vocals. Examples of hip hop subgenres that Eminem's music has been described as include horrorcore, comedy hip hop, and hardcore hip hop. Eminem also incorporates rap rock into his music and has cited rock acts during the 1970s and 1980s, such as Jimi Hendrix and Led Zeppelin, as influences in his music.
Alter egos
Eminem uses alter egos in his songs for different rapping styles and subject matter. His best-known alter ego, Slim Shady, first appeared on the Slim Shady EP and was in The Slim Shady LP, The Marshall Mathers LP, The Eminem Show, Encore, Relapse, The Marshall Mathers LP 2, Kamikaze and Music to Be Murdered By. In this persona, his songs are violent and dark, with a comic twist. Eminem downplayed Slim Shady on Recovery because he felt it did not fit the album's theme. Another character is Ken Kaniff, a gay man who pokes fun at Eminem's songs. Ken was created and originally played by fellow Detroit rapper Aristotle on the Slim Shady LP, where Kaniff makes a prank call to Eminem. An argument after the album's release prompted Eminem to use the Kaniff character on Marshall Mathers and later albums (except Encore and Recovery). Aristotle, angry with Eminem's use of his character, released a mixtape in his Kaniff persona ridiculing him.
Collaborations and productions
Although Eminem usually collaborates with Aftermath Entertainment and Shady Records rappers such as Dr. Dre, 50 Cent, D12, Obie Trice and Yelawolf, he has also worked with Redman, Kid Rock, DMX, Lil Wayne, Missy Elliott, Jay Z, Drake, Rihanna, Nas, Nicki Minaj, Xzibit, Method Man, Jadakiss, Fat Joe, Sticky Fingaz, T.I. and Young Jeezy. Eminem rapped a verse in a live performance of Busta Rhymes' "Touch It" remix at the 2006 BET Music Awards. He appeared on Akon's single "Smack That" from Konvicted, Lil Wayne's hit "Drop the World" and "My Life" (the lead single from 50 Cent's Street King Immortal).
Eminem was the executive producer of D12's first two albums (Devil's Night and D12 World), Obie Trice's Cheers and Second Round's on Me and 50 Cent's Get Rich or Die Tryin' and The Massacre. He has produced songs for other rappers such as Jadakiss' "Welcome To D-Block", Jay-Z's "Renegade" and "Moment of Clarity", Lloyd Banks' "On Fire", "Warrior Part 2" and "Hands Up", Tony Yayo's "Drama Setter", Trick-Trick's "Welcome 2 Detroit" and Xzibit's "My Name" and "Don't Approach Me". Most of The Eminem Show was produced by Eminem and his longtime collaborator, Jeff Bass, and Eminem co-produced Encore with Dr. Dre. In 2004, Eminem was co-executive producer of 2Pac's posthumous album Loyal to the Game with Shakur's mother, Afeni. He produced the UK number-one single "Ghetto Gospel", featuring Elton John; "The Cross", from the Nas album God's Son; and eight tracks on Obie Trice's 2006 album Second Round's on Me (also appearing on "There They Go"). Eminem produced several tracks on Trick-Trick's The Villain (appearing on "Who Want It") and produced four tracks on Cashis' 2013 album The County Hound 2.
Eminem has only produced for and appeared on one track with former Aftermath/Interscope labelmate The Game; "We Ain't" (a track from Game's January 2005 debut album, The Documentary). In 2022, Game would later release a ten-minute diss track towards Eminem titled "The Black Slim Shady".
Eminem is considered unusual in structuring his songs around the lyrics, rather than writing to beats. One exception was "Stan", which came from an idea and scratch track produced by the 45 King. After doing little production on Relapse and Recovery, Eminem produced a significant portion of The Marshall Mathers LP 2. He said about producing his own music, "Sometimes, I may get something in my head, like an idea or the mood of something that I would want, and I'm not always gonna get that by going through different tracks that other people have made. They don't know what's in my head. I think maybe it helps, a little bit, with diversity, the sound of it, but also, I would get something in my head and want to be able to lay down that idea from scratch." In 1998 when his beef with rapper Cage was still happening, New York rapper Necro (who had previously produced three songs for Cage) met Eminem and gave him a CD with the beat to what eventually became the beat for the song "Black Helicopters" by rap group Non-Phixion. Despite Eminem never using it, Necro still said positive things about Eminem and would appear on Shade45 years later.
Comparisons with other artists
As a white performer prominent in a genre influenced by black artists, Eminem has been compared, much to his chagrin, to Elvis Presley, and has lyrically been compared to Bob Dylan. Rapper Asher Roth has been compared to Eminem and Roth devoted a song on his album ("As I Em") to him, which he took offense to. The accomplished trumpeter Nicholas Payton has called Eminem "the Bix Beiderbecke of hip hop".
Other ventures
Shady Records
Following Eminem's multiplatinum record sales, Interscope offered him his own label; he and Paul Rosenberg founded Shady Records in late 1999. Eminem signed his Detroit collective, D12 and rapper Obie Trice to the label and signed 50 Cent in a 2002 joint venture with Dr. Dre's Aftermath label. In 2003, Eminem and Dr. Dre added Atlanta rapper Stat Quo to the Shady-Aftermath roster. DJ Green Lantern, Eminem's former DJ, was with Shady Records until a dispute related to the 50 Cent-Jadakiss feud forced him to leave the label. The Alchemist is currently Eminem's tour DJ. In 2005 Eminem signed another Atlanta rapper, Bobby Creekwater and West Coast rapper Cashis to Shady Records.
On December 5, 2006, the compilation album Eminem Presents: The Re-Up was released on Shady Records. The project began as a mixtape, but when Eminem found the material better than expected he released it as an album. The Re-Up was intended to introduce Stat Quo, Cashis and Bobby Creekwater. While he was recording Infinite, Eminem, Proof and Kon Artis assembled a group of fellow rappers now known as D12, short for "Detroit Twelve" or "Dirty Dozen", who performed in a style similar to Wu-Tang Clan. In 2001 D12's debut album, Devil's Night, was released. The first single from the album was "Shit on You", followed by "Purple Pills" (an ode to recreational drug use) and "Fight Music". "Purple Pills" was rewritten for radio and television, removing many of the song's references to drugs and sex and renamed "Purple Hills".
After their debut, D12 took a three-year break from the studio. They reunited in 2004 for their second album, D12 World, which included the hit singles "My Band" and "How Come". "American Psycho 2" featuring Cypress Hill member, B-Real, was another popular hit. According to D12 member Bizarre, Eminem was not featured on his album Blue Cheese & Coney Island because "he's busy doing his thing".
In January 2014, Bass Brothers announced that D12 had returned to record at F.B.T. Studio and they were working on an album with Eminem on at least three songs. Bizarre reported that he was still part of the group and that the album was scheduled for a 2014 release.
Shade 45
Eminem established his own satellite radio channel, Shade 45, that plays uncut hip hop. Eminem also established a new morning show, Sway in the Morning with Sway Calloway, a lively morning show that airs at 8:00 a.m., Monday–Friday.
Eminem promoted the station in a 2004 mock national convention (the "Shady National Convention") at the Roseland Ballroom in New York City, in which Donald Trump endorsed him. On his album Revival (2017), Eminem expressed his regret at having collaborated with Trump, rapping, "wish I would have spit on it before I went to shake his hand at the event".
Mom's Spaghetti Restaurant
On September 29, 2021, Eminem and Union Joints opened a spaghetti restaurant at 2131 Woodward Ave in Detroit. It is a reference to the lyrics "His palms are sweaty, knees weak, arms are heavy / There's vomit on his sweater already, mom's spaghetti" from the song "Lose Yourself" which became an internet meme. Mom's Spaghetti was previously a pop-up in Detroit in 2017 and at Coachella in 2018.
In 2023, Eminem announced the launch of a "Mom's Spaghetti" jarred pasta sauce.
Acting career
After small roles in the 2001 film The Wash and as an extra in the 1998 Korn music video for "Got the Life" (during which he gave the band a demo tape), Eminem made his Hollywood debut in the semi-autobiographical 2002 film 8 Mile. He said it was a representation of growing up in Detroit rather than an account of his life. He recorded several new songs for the soundtrack, including "Lose Yourself" (which won an Academy Award for Best Original Song in 2003 and became the longest-running No. 1 hip hop single in history). Eminem was absent from the ceremony and co-composer Luis Resto accepted the award.
Eminem voiced an aging, corrupt, Ebonics-speaking police officer in the video game 50 Cent: Bulletproof and guested on the Comedy Central television show Crank Yankers and a Web cartoon, The Slim Shady Show He was signed to star in an unmade film version of Have Gun – Will Travel, and was considered for the role of David Rice in the 2008 film Jumper. Eminem had a cameo appearance, arguing with Ray Romano, in the 2009 film Funny People. In a 2010 interview with Jonathan Ross, he stated "You know, I love music so much. This is my passion, this is what I want to do. Not saying that I won't do a movie ever again, but this is me."
He played himself in the Entourage season-seven finale "Lose Yourself" with Christina Aguilera. Although Eminem was offered the lead role in the 2013 science-fiction film Elysium, he turned it down because director Neill Blomkamp would not change its location from Los Angeles to Detroit. Eminem had a cameo appearance as himself in the 2014 film The Interview. During an interview with the main character, Dave Skylark (James Franco), Eminem satirically comes out as gay.
Charity work
Eminem established the Marshall Mathers Foundation to aid disadvantaged youth. The foundation works in conjunction with a charity founded by Norman Yatooma, a Detroit attorney. During the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020, he donated a pair of Air Jordan 4 Retro Eminem Carhartt shoes, which are rare, to be raffled off with proceeds going to COVID-19 relief. That same year, he donated "mom's spaghetti", a reference to a line in his song "Lose Yourself", to healthcare workers at Henry Ford Health System in Detroit.
Advertising
Eminem appeared in two commercials which were shown during Super Bowl XLV. In the first, a one-minute spot for Lipton's Brisk iced tea, he is a claymation figure. In the second, a two-minute ad – the longest in Super Bowl history at the time – for the Chrysler 200, Eminem drives through Detroit (with "Lose Yourself" as the soundtrack) to his show at the Fox Theatre.
Books and memoirs
On November 21, 2000, Eminem published Angry Blonde, a non-fiction book featuring a commentary of several of his own songs, along with several previously unpublished photographs.
On October 21, 2008, his autobiography The Way I Am was published. The book was first published on October 21, 2008, by Dutton Adult. It is a collection of Eminem's personal stories, reflections, photographs, original artwork, and original lyric sheets from "Stan" and "The Real Slim Shady". It details his struggles with poverty, drugs, fame, heartbreak, family and depression, along with stories about his rise to fame and commentary on past controversies. The book is illustrated with never before published photos of Eminem's life. It also contains original drawings, previously unpublished lyric sheets, and other rare memorabilia. The autobiography is named after the song of the same name.
An autobiography of Eminem's mother (My Son Marshall, My Son Eminem) was published the following month, in which Debbie Nelson describes her childhood and adolescence, meeting Eminem's father and her son's rise to (and struggles with) fame.
Personal life
Family and relationships
He was twice married to Kimberly Anne Scott; he met Scott in high school while he stood on a table with his shirt off rapping LL Cool J's "I'm Bad". Scott and her twin sister had run away from home; they moved in with Eminem and his mother when he was 15 and he began an on-and-off relationship with Scott in 1989.
Mathers and Scott were married in 1999 and divorced in 2001. Although Eminem told Rolling Stone in 2002, "I would rather have a baby through my penis than get married again", he and Scott briefly remarried in January 2006. He filed for divorce in early April, agreeing to joint custody of Hailie. Their daughter, Hailie Jade is a social media influencer, specifically for fashion and beauty.
Eminem legally adopted and was given custody of his sister-in-law's daughter, as well as Scott's child from an affair. He also raised his younger half-brother Nathan.
Eminem and actress Brittany Murphy dated in the 2000s. He stated in 2002 that he had been dating singer Mariah Carey, though she later denied it. In 2005, he played alleged voicemails of her during the Anger Management Tour and stated in 2006 that he had dated her for six to seven months, but the two broke up due to the differences in their personalities.
In early 2010, Eminem denied tabloid reports that he and Scott had renewed their romantic relationship; however, in the same statement, his representative also confirmed that they now maintain a friendly relationship.
In his 2013 song "Headlights", Eminem reiterated his love for his mother and apologized to her for some of the lyrics from his songs, Cleanin' Out My Closet was specifically named.
Health problems
Eminem has spoken publicly about his addiction to prescription drugs, including Vicodin, Ambien and Valium. According to friend and fellow D12 member Proof, Eminem first straightened out in 2002. During the production of 8 Mile, Eminem, working 16 hours a day, developed insomnia. An associate gave him an Ambien tablet which "knocked [him] out", encouraging him to obtain a prescription. This was Eminem's first experience of drug addiction, which would affect him for several years. Near the end of production on Encore, he would "just go into the studio and goof off [with] a pocketful of pills". Eminem began taking the drugs to "feel normal", taking a "ridiculous amount ... I could consume anywhere from 40 to 60 Valium [in a day]. Vicodin, maybe 30." The drugs would put him to sleep for no more than two hours, after which he would take more. Eminem's weight increased to and he was regularly eating fast food: "The kids behind the counter knew me — it wouldn't even faze them. Or I'd sit up at Denny's or Big Boy and just eat by myself. It was sad." Eminem became less recognizable due to his weight gain and once overheard two teenagers arguing about whether or not it was him: "Eminem ain't fat".
In December 2007, Eminem was hospitalized after a methadone overdose. He had first bought from a dealer who had told him it was "just like Vicodin, and easier on [your] liver". He continued to buy more until he collapsed in his bathroom one night and was rushed to the hospital. Doctors there told him he had ingested the equivalent of four bags of heroin and was "about two hours from dying". After missing Christmas with his children, Hailie, Alaina and Stevie, Eminem checked himself out of the facility, weak and not fully detoxed. He tore the meniscus in his knee after falling asleep on his sofa, requiring surgery; after he returned home, he had a seizure. His drug use "ramped right back to where it was before" within a month. Eminem began to attend church meetings to get clean, but after he was asked for autographs he sought help from a rehabilitation counselor. He began an exercise program that emphasized running. Elton John was a mentor during this period, calling Eminem once a week to check on him. Eminem has been sober since April 20, 2008.
Threats
In April 2020, Matthew David Hughes, a 26-year-old homeless man, broke into Eminem's house in Clinton Township, Macomb County, Michigan, breaking a kitchen window with a brick paver. Eminem woke up with Hughes standing behind him and he said that he was there to kill him. In a plea agreement in 2021, Hughes pleaded guilty to second-degree home invasion in exchange for dismissal of other charges; he was sentenced to probation and time served (524 days in the county jail). In 2019, Hughes had pleaded guilty to breaking into a Rochester Hills home in search of Eminem.
On August 23, 2023, it was revealed that the perpetrator of the 2023 Jacksonville shooting Ryan Palmeter targeted Eminem and Machine Gun Kelly as his victims in a racially-motivated attack. Both have yet responded to these statements.
Politics
Eminem has expressed his political views in multiple songs; however, he has refrained from direct endorsements of politicians, focusing more on criticisms instead. The first was "Mosh", which was released in 2004, a few weeks before the 2004 United States presidential election, and heavily criticized then-president George W. Bush but did not directly endorse John Kerry either. He would not express political views again until the 2016 United States presidential election when he released "Campaign Speech", which criticized presidential candidate Donald Trump. The following year, he criticized Trump in a freestyle titled "The Storm". In the freestyle, he expressed support for former San Francisco 49ers quarterback Colin Kaepernick and the U.S. national anthem protests, and expressed his displeasure for any of his fans that support Trump. In his song "Darkness", he heavily references the 2017 Las Vegas mass shooting, and at the end of the music video expresses his support for gun control. The week before the 2020 United States presidential election, he approved his song "Lose Yourself" to be used in a campaign video for Joe Biden. After the United States Supreme Court overturned Roe v. Wade, Eminem posted a tweet to his Twitter expressing his displeasure for the decision saying "As a father it pisses me off that women have fewer rights 2day than just a few days ago… we r fuckin goin bckwards. Here's how 2 help in Michigan." and included a link to a pro-choice organization in Michigan. In 2023 he requested that Republican election candidate Vivek Ramaswamy stop rapping his song "Lose Yourself" at campaign rallies, sending Ramaswamy a cease and desist letter.
Faith and beliefs
Eminem is a Christian, and he sang about his faith in the song "Use This Gospel".
Feuds
Eminem has had lyrical feuds during his career with many recording artists, including Christina Aguilera, Chris Kirkpatrick, Machine Gun Kelly, Everlast, Cage, Insane Clown Posse, Will Smith, Miilkbone, Mariah Carey, Nick Cannon, Limp Bizkit, Benzino, Ja Rule, Vanilla Ice, Canibus, Jermaine Dupri, Joe Budden, Lord Jamar, and Charlamagne tha God.
Insane Clown Posse
The feud began in 1997 when Eminem was throwing a party to promote his debut EP, Slim Shady EP. He gave Joseph Bruce (Violent J from Insane Clown Posse) a flyer which stated "Featuring appearances by Esham, Kid Rock, and ICP (maybe)". Bruce asked why Eminem was promoting a possible Insane Clown Posse appearance without first contacting the group. Eminem explained, "It says 'maybe.' Maybe you will be there; I don't know. That's why I'm asking you right now. You guys comin' to my release party, or what?" Bruce, upset over not being consulted, responded, "Fuck no, I ain't coming to your party. We might have, if you would've asked us first, before putting us on the fuckin' flyer like this."
Eminem took Bruce's response as a personal offense, subsequently attacking the group in radio interviews. Bruce and Utsler responded with a parody of Eminem's "My Name Is" entitled "Slim Anus" and other tracks including "Nuttin' But a Bitch Thang" and "Please Don't Hate Me". Eminem insulted Insane Clown Posse on various tracks from his album The Marshall Mathers LP (2000), including "Marshall Mathers" and "Ken Kaniff". In 2002, Eminem briefly dissed them on his single "Business" from The Eminem Show.
Insane Clown Posse talked about the feud being squashed in an interview with MTV, saying that Proof squashed the conflict in 2005, which was followed by a bowling game between members of D12 and Psychopathic Records. Violent J stated that, "He contacted us and we had a bowling game – it was really cool. We're something different. They could have skipped over us and said forget them, but they included us and said let's squash it."
Everlast and Limp Bizkit
In the early 2000s, Eminem was notified while on the Anger Management Tour that former House Of Pain member Everlast had mocked him on a song. Everlast claimed that while passing by Mathers in a hotel lobby, Mathers gave him a "weird look". Everlast's verse from the Dilated Peoples all star track "Ear Drums Pop (Remix)" contained a thinly veiled reference to Eminem ("Cock my hammer, spit a comet like Haley/I buck a .380 on ones that act shady") and went on to warn "You might catch a beatdown out where I come from" in his recounting of the incident. Taking offense to this, Eminem and D12 quickly began work on a retaliatory song, "I Remember", which ripped Everlast several times in public and with the song.
Eminem & D12 responded with "Quitter", the second half of which is a take off on 2Pac's "Hit 'Em Up" (a diss song aimed at The Notorious B.I.G.). The track ends with the spoken words, "Fuck him, that's it, I'm done, I promise, I'm done, that's it." It was reported that long-time friends of Eminem, Limp Bizkit, were meant to be featured on the song, but Fred Durst canceled at the last moment. The record continued its release without featuring Limp Bizkit, causing the Everlast-Mathers dispute to continue. In a TRL interview, Limp Bizkit member, DJ Lethal, made a statement that if Mathers and Everlast were to fight in real life, Everlast would win. This would lead to an insulting track aimed at both Everlast and Limp Bizkit (namely Durst and Lethal) appearing on D12's mainstream debut, Devil's Night, as the track "Girls". Recently, things seem to have settled and Eminem has no longer been heard insulting Everlast or Limp Bizkit. It is currently unknown if the dispute is resolved.
Canibus
The animus between Canibus and Eminem started when Canibus and Wyclef Jean confronted Eminem and asked him if he ghost-wrote the track "The Ripper Strikes Back" by LL Cool J. Eminem denied that he wrote the track. After he was confronted, he said Canibus was "rude" to him. Two years later, Canibus went to see Eminem on the Warped Tour and apologized to him for his reactions and asked him if he still wanted the track. Eminem agreed, but when he heard the track "Phuck U" from Canibus' album 2000 B.C., he thought the track was directed at him and LL Cool J. Shortly afterwards, Eminem released his third album The Marshall Mathers LP (2000) and Canibus decided to continue the "story" of Eminem's single "Stan". He titled the track "U Didn't Care" and it continued to take shots at Eminem. Eminem decided to take more shots at Canibus on his album The Eminem Show (2002) on tracks such as "Say What You Say", "When The Music Stops" and "Square Dance". Even though Canibus did not immediately respond to the tracks, Eminem continued to take shots at him, including a track Eminem was featured on with Xzibit, titled "My Name" from Xzibit's album Man vs. Machine. On November 19, 2002, Canibus responded with the track titled" Dr.C PhD". Over a year later Eminem released the track "Can-I-Bitch". He attacked Canibus in a humorous matter. Since then the hostilities have cooled down, but Canibus tried to provoke a re-ignition of it when he leaked a track titled "Air Strike (Pop Killer)", that featured vocal parts of D12, where Canibus takes shots at Eminem and his deceased friend Proof. D12 member Swift responded to the record publicly and had the following to say about DZK (another rapper featured on the track). "[He] asked us to do a track with him when he already was teamed up with Canibus without us knowing. They dissed Em, took our verses, and added them to the song, so they can bring traffic and make it seem like we were turning on Em ... as a desperate attempt to be heard after ducking and dodging Em for 7 years. It was a straight hoe move."
Michael Jackson
The music video for "Just Lose It" generated controversy by parodying singer Michael Jackson's child molestation trial, plastic surgery and an incident in which Jackson's hair caught on fire while filming a Pepsi commercial in 1984. It was banned on the BET channel, after complaints from Benzino and others (but was later reinstated, as critics of the ban argued that Nelly's "Tip Drill" video could be seen). Both were only seen on BET: Uncut. However, MTV did not drop it, and the video became one of the most requested on the channel. A week after the release of "Just Lose It", Jackson called in to the radio show of Steve Harvey to report his displeasure with the video. "I am very angry at Eminem's depiction of me in his video", Jackson said in the interview. "I feel that it is outrageous and disrespectful. It is one thing to spoof, but it is another to be demeaning and insensitive." The singer continued: "I've admired Eminem as an artist, and was shocked by this. The video was inappropriate and disrespectful to me, my children, my family and the community at large." Many of Jackson's supporters and friends spoke out about the video, including Stevie Wonder, who called the video "kicking a man while he's down" and "bullshit", and Steve Harvey, who declared, "Eminem has lost his ghetto pass. We want the pass back."
Ja Rule
Eminem's conflict with Ja Rule started after 50 Cent signed to Shady Records and Aftermath. Ja Rule stated that he had a problem with Eminem and Dr. Dre of signing someone he had conflict with.
On November 19, Ja Rule and Irv Gotti were special guests on Star and Bucwild's morning show on Hot 97 NYC. Gotti claimed to have "legal documents" referring to an order of protection 50 Cent "has on him". Ja Rule threatened, that if 50 Cent released any diss track, he would take action towards his two producers.
However, Dr. Dre was the one who produced 50 Cent's track "Back Down" in 2003 from the album Get Rich Or Die Tryin', which included lyrics insulting not only Murder Inc., but also Ja Rule's mother, wife and children; in the song, he raps, "Your Mami, your Papi, that bitch you chasin' your lil dirty ass kids, I'll fuckin' erase them."
Busta Rhymes decided to join the conflict when he was featured on the track "Hail Mary 2003", with Eminem and 50 Cent.
The feud intensified when Ja Rule released a diss called "Loose Change" in which he took shots at 50 Cent as well as Eminem, calling the latter "Feminem" and Dr. Dre "bisexual" and rapping that Suge Knight knew of Dre "bringing transvestites home". It includes also the lyrics insulting Eminem's famously estranged mother Debbie Mathers, his ex-wife Kim and his then eight-year-old daughter Hailie: "Em you claim your mother's a crack head and Kim is a known slut, so what's Hailie gonna be when she grows up?" Eminem, along with D12 and Obie Trice, responded with the track "Doe Rae Me" (aka "Hailie's Revenge"). Since then, the rift has allegedly cooled down.
Benzino and The Source Magazine
In 2003, rapper Benzino, a silent co-owner of The Source, released a diss single titled "Pull Your Skirt Up" which took aim at Eminem. The track attacked Eminem's "street cred" and accused him of being a tool of the music industry. Eminem had been discovered by The Source after writer Rigo Morales featured him in the magazine's famed monthly "Unsigned Hype" column.
In the same year, The Source released an article written by Kimberly Osorio which identified and researched the history of an old demo tape that the magazine discovered where Eminem insulted Black women and used the word "nigger". The demo featured a song called "Foolish Pride", recorded in the late 1980s when Eminem claimed to have been "dumped" by his African-American then-girlfriend. Eminem responded with two tracks titled "Nail in the Coffin" and "The Sauce". Benzino would later release more tracks. As a result of the conflict, Shady/Aftermath ads were pulled from the magazine. XXL, which had featured negative coverage of Shady/Aftermath artists since Eminem mocked them in "Marshall Mathers" from the Marshall Mathers L.P., stepped in to fill the void, accepting Shady/Aftermath ads.
Mariah Carey and Nick Cannon
Eminem has written several songs referring to a relationship with R&B singer Mariah Carey, although she denies that they were ever intimate. Eminem has referenced her on many songs, including "When the Music Stops", "Superman", "Jimmy Crack Corn", "Bagpipes from Baghdad" and "The Warning". While "Superman" was released in 2003, Carey released a song entitled "Clown" on her album Charmbracelet, released in 2002, which makes similar references in line with her 2009 hit "Obsessed".
Eminem's "Bagpipes from Baghdad" from his album Relapse disparages Carey and husband Nick Cannon's relationship. Cannon responded to Eminem by saying his career is based on "racist bigotry" and that he would get revenge on Eminem, joking that he may return to rapping. Eminem later stated that the couple misinterpreted the track and it was wishing the two the best. Cannon also stated that there were no hard feelings and that he just had to express his feelings about the song.
In 2009, Carey released "Obsessed", about an obsessed man who claims to have a relationship with her. Cannon claimed that the song was not an insult directed at Eminem. However, Eminem responded in late July 2009 by releasing a track titled "The Warning". It contained samples of voice mail recordings which Eminem claimed were left by Carey when the two were together. Eminem also hinted that he had other evidence of their relationship in his possession. A little over a year later in September 2010, Cannon responded with the song "I'm a Slick Rick", making fun of Eminem.
Moby
After the release of The Marshall Mathers LP, popular electronic music artist Moby began speaking out against the album's lyrics, citing references to misogyny and homophobia as unacceptable. Eminem responded back with insulting Moby in "Without Me", the lead single off his next album The Eminem Show.
In 2004, Moby praised Eminem for criticizing then-U.S. president George W. Bush in the song "Mosh", a track from Encore. The feud has since ended.
From Kamikaze
Throughout the album, lyrics criticize other musicians, primarily mumble rappers, and several have responded publicly. Eminem and rapper Machine Gun Kelly have had an ongoing feud for several years, and Kelly released a diss track in response to "Not Alike" titled "Rap Devil" on September 3; both songs were produced by Ronny J. Kelly continued the feud at a concert, calling it "a battle between the past and the fucking future". The song's title refers to Eminem's "Rap God" and Eminem went into the studio days later to record his own response, as did former D12 associate Bizarre. Eminem responded with "Killshot" on September 14 and Bizarre's "Love Tap" was released on September 20. "Killshot" garnered 38.1 million streams on YouTube in its first 24 hours and over 80 million views in its first week, making it the most successful debut for a hip hop song and the third-biggest debut in the platform's history. The track also debuted at number 3 on the Billboard Hot 100, making it Eminem's 20th top 10 hit on the Billboard Hot 100. Kelly has continued the feud publicly. Ja Rule responded on social media, re-igniting a feud the two had 15 years prior. 6ix9ine, Iggy Azalea, Joe Budden, Die Antwoord, Lupe Fiasco, and Lord Jamar have also responded publicly, with 6ix9ine releasing the skit "Legend" that raps over Eminem's "Lose Yourself".
Controversies
Legal issues
Eminem had his first run-in with the law at age 20, when he was arrested for his involvement in a drive-by shooting with a paintball gun. The case was dismissed when the victim did not appear in court.
On June 3, 2000, Eminem was arrested during an altercation with Douglas Dail at a car-audio store in Royal Oak, Michigan, when he pulled out an unloaded gun and pointed it at the ground. The next day, in Warren, Michigan, he was arrested again for assaulting John Guerra in the parking lot of the Hot Rock Café when he saw him kissing his wife. Eminem recreated the Guerra assault in "The Kiss (Skit)" on The Eminem Show. He pleaded guilty to possession of a concealed weapon and assault, receiving two years' probation; however, Guerra's assault charge was dropped as part of the plea agreement. On June 28, 2001, Eminem was sentenced to one year's probation and community service and was fined about $2,000 on weapon charges stemming from an argument with an employee of Psychopathic Records.
In 1999, Eminem's mother sued him for $10 million, claiming he was slandering her on The Slim Shady LP. Litigation concluded in 2001, resulting in an award of $1,600 for her damages.
On July 7, 2000, Kim attempted suicide by slitting her wrists, later suing Eminem for defamation after describing her violent death in "Kim".
Sanitation worker DeAngelo Bailey sued Eminem for $1 million in 2001, accusing him of invading his privacy by publicizing information placing him in a false light in "Brain Damage", a song that portrays him as a violent school bully. Although Bailey admitted picking on Eminem in school, he said he merely "bumped" him and gave him a "little shove". The lawsuit was dismissed on October 20, 2003; Judge Deborah Servitto, who wrote a portion of her opinion in rap-like rhyming verse, ruled that it was clear to the public that the lyrics were exaggerated.
On March 31, 2002, French jazz pianist Jacques Loussier filed a $10 million lawsuit against Eminem and Dr. Dre, claiming that the beat for "Kill You" was taken from his instrumental "Pulsion". Loussier demanded that sales of The Marshall Mathers LP be halted and any remaining copies destroyed. The case was later settled out of court.
In 2006, Eminem was accused of assaulting Miad Jarbou, a resident of Royal Oak, Michigan, in the bathroom of a Detroit strip club, but was never charged. Two years later, Jarbou sued Eminem for more than $25,000 in damages.
In 2007, Eminem's music-publishing company (Eight Mile Style) and Martin Affiliated sued Apple Inc. and Aftermath Entertainment, claiming that Aftermath was not authorized to negotiate a deal with Apple for digital downloads of 93 Eminem songs on Apple's iTunes. The case against Apple was settled shortly after the trial began, in late September 2009.
In July 2010, the United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit ruled in F.B.T. Productions, LLC v. Aftermath Records that F.B.T. Productions and Eminem were owed a royalty of 50 percent of Aftermath's net revenue from licensing his recordings to companies such as Apple, Sprint Corporation, Nextel Communications, Cingular and T-Mobile. In March 2011, the Supreme Court of the United States declined to hear the case.
In October 2013, Eminem sampled Chicago-based rap group Hotstylz's 2008 viral hit, "Lookin' Boy", for his 2013 hit single "Rap God". The group claims that Eminem did not receive permission to use the sample, nor did he credit or compensate them. In November 2013, Hotstylz released a diss track towards Eminem titled "Rap Fraud", where they sample several of his songs and criticize him for not crediting them. In January 2015, TMZ reported that Hotstylz was suing Eminem and his label, Shady Records, for $8 million, for using the 25-second sample of "Lookin' Boy" on his song "Rap God" without their permission.
United States Secret Service
On December 8, 2003, the United States Secret Service reported that it was "looking into" allegations that Eminem threatened U.S. president George W. Bush in "We As Americans" (an unreleased bootleg at the time), with the lyrics: "Fuck money, I don't rap for dead presidents. I'd rather see the president dead, it's never been said but I set precedents." The incident was included in the video for "Mosh", as a newspaper clipping on a wall with articles about unfortunate incidents in Bush's career. "We As Americans" eventually appeared on Encores deluxe-edition bonus disc with altered lyrics.
In 2018–2019, the Secret Service interviewed Eminem again regarding threatening lyrics towards president Donald Trump and daughter Ivanka.
Allegations of homophobia
Some of Eminem's lyrics have been criticized for being homophobic, and an Australian politician attempted to ban him from the country. Eminem denies the charge, saying that when he was growing up words such as "faggot" and "queer" were used generally in a derogatory manner and not specifically toward homosexuals. During a 2010 60 Minutes interview, journalist Anderson Cooper explored the issue:
Eminem was accused yet again of using homophobic words in his lyrics in "Rap God" (2013) and explained "I don't know how to say this without saying it how I've said it a million times. But that word, those kind of words, when I came up battle-rappin' or whatever, I never really equated those words ... (to actually mean homosexual)".
Eminem is a friend of gay singer Elton John, and publicly supports gay rights. When asked in an interview with The New York Times about the subject of same-sex marriage being legalized in his home state of Michigan, Eminem responded, "I think if two people love each other, then what the hell? I think that everyone should have the chance to be equally miserable, if they want", explaining that his "overall look on things is a lot more mature than it used to be."
Canada
On October 26, 2000, Eminem was scheduled to perform at Toronto's SkyDome when Ontario Attorney General Jim Flaherty said that Eminem should not be allowed to enter the country. "I personally don't want anyone coming to Canada who will come here and advocate violence against women", he said. Flaherty also said that he was "disgusted" when he read the lyrics of "Kill You", which includes the lines "Slut, you think I won't choke no whore / Till the vocal cords don't work in her throat no more?" Although public reaction to Flaherty's position was generally negative, with barring Eminem from the country considered a free-speech issue, Liberal MPP Michael Bryant suggested that hate crime charges should be brought against Eminem for advocating violence against women in his lyrics. Robert Everett-Green wrote in a Globe and Mail editorial, "Being offensive is Eminem's job description". Eminem's Toronto concert went on as planned.
Legacy
Credited for popularizing hip hop to a Middle American audience, Eminem's unprecedented global commercial success and acclaimed works for a white rapper is widely recognized for breaking racial barriers for the acceptance of white rappers in popular music. Rising from rags to riches, Eminem's anger-fueled music represented widespread angst and the reality of American underclass. He has been greatly influential for artists of various genres.
Stephen Hill, the then vice president of African American-themed television network BET (Black Entertainment Television), said in 2002:Eminem gets a pass in the same vein that back during segregation black folks had to be better than average, had to be the best, to be accepted ... he is better than the best. In his own way, he is the best lyricist, alliterator and enunciator out there in hip-hop music. In terms of rapping about the pain that other disenfranchised people feel, there is no one better at their game than Eminem.
In 2002, the BBC said that the perception of Eminem as a "modern-day William Shakespeare" was comparable to the reception of American singer Bob Dylan: "Not since Bob Dylan's heyday in the mid-1960s has an artist's output been subjected to such intense academic scrutiny as an exercise in contemporary soul-searching. US critics point to [Eminem's] vivid portraits of disenfranchised lives – using the stark, direct language of the street – as an accurate reflection of social injustice." In addition, the BBC highlighted that, "Where parents once recoiled in horror [to his music], there now seems a greater willingness to acknowledge a music that is striking such a chord among the American young, angry white underclass." Dan Ozzi of Vice highlighted that Eminem during the early 2000s was "the one artist high school kids seemed to unanimously connect with.... he represented everything high school years are about: blind rage, misguided rebellion, adolescent frustration. He was like a human middle finger. An X-rated Dennis the Menace for a dial-up modem generation."
Writing for Spin in 2002, rock critic Alan Light compared Eminem to the Beatles' John Lennon:
Regarding his rehearsal with Eminem for the "Stan" duet at the 2001 Grammy Awards, English singer Elton John said, "[When] Eminem made his entrance, I got goose bumps, the likes of which I have not felt since I first saw Jimi Hendrix, Mick Jagger, James Brown and Aretha Franklin. Eminem was that good. I just thought, 'Fuck, this man is amazing.' There are very few performers who can grab you like that the first time — only the greats." John further praised Eminem, saying, "Eminem is a true poet of his time, someone we'll be talking about for decades to come. He tells stories in such a powerful and distinctive way. As a lyricist, he's one of the best ever. Eminem does for his audience what [Bob] Dylan did for his: He writes how he feels. His anger, vulnerability and humor come out."Concerning the controversy surrounding Eminem due to his transgressive music, American entertainer Madonna had said, "I like the fact that Eminem is brash and angry and politically incorrect ... He's stirring things up, he's provoking a discussion, he's making people's blood boil. He's reflecting what's going on in society right now. That is what art is supposed to do." American musician Stevie Wonder also said, "Rap to me is a modern bluesa statement of how and where people are at ... I think art is a reflection of our society, and people don't like to confront the realities in society ... But until we really confront the truth, we are going to have a Tupac or Eminem or Biggie Smalls to remind us about itand thank God. They force people to look at realities in society."
Eminem has been credited with boosting the careers of hip hop proteges such as 50 Cent, Yelawolf, Stat Quo, Royce da 5'9", Cashis, Obie Trice, Bobby Creekwater, Boogie and hip hop groups such as D12 and Slaughterhouse. A number of artists have cited Eminem as an influence, including The Weeknd, Rae Sremmurd, Logic, Joyner Lucas, Lil Wayne, 50 Cent, Kendrick Lamar, Ed Sheeran, J. Cole, Chance the Rapper, Regina Spektor, Lana Del Rey, and Juice WRLD.
Achievements and honors
With global sales of over 220 million records, Eminem is one of the best-selling music artists of all time. He has had thirteen number-one albums on the Billboard 200: nine solo, two with D12 and one with Bad Meets Evil. He was the bestselling music artist from 2000 to 2009 in the US according to Nielsen SoundScan. He was also the bestselling male music artist in the United States of the 2010s. He has sold 47.4 million albums in the country and 107.5 million singles in the US. The Marshall Mathers LP, The Eminem Show, Curtain Call: The Hits, "Lose Yourself", "Love the Way You Lie" and "Not Afraid" have all been certified Diamond or higher by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA). Eminem has over ten billion views of his music videos on his YouTube Vevo page, and in 2014 Spotify named him the most-streamed music artist of all time.
Among Eminem's awards is 15 Grammy Awards, eight American Music Awards and 17 Billboard Music Awards, Billboard named him the "Artist of the Decade (2000–2009)". In 2013, he received the Global Icon Award at that year's MTV Europe Music Awards ceremony. His success in 8 Mile saw him win the 2002 Academy Award for Best Original Song for his song "Lose Yourself", co-written with Jeff Bass and Luis Resto, making him the first rapper to receive the award. He also won the MTV Movie & TV Awards for Best Actor in a Movie and Best Breakthrough Performance and the Critics' Choice Movie Award for Best Song for "Lose Yourself".
Eminem has also been included and ranked in several publications' lists. Rolling Stone included him in its list of the 100 Greatest Artists of All Time and the 100 Greatest Songwriters of All Time. He was ranked 9th on MTV's Greatest MCs of All Time list. He was ranked 13th on MTV's 22 Greatest Voices in Music list and 79th on the VH1 100 Greatest Artists of All Time lists. He was ranked 82nd on Rolling Stones "The Immortals" list. In 2010, MTV Portugal ranked Eminem the 7th biggest icon in popular music history. In 2012, The Source ranked him 6th on their list of the Top 50 Lyricists of All Time, while About.com ranked him 7th on its list of the 50 Greatest MCs of Our Time (1987–2007). In 2015, Eminem was placed third on "The 10 Best Rappers of All Time" list by Billboard. In 2008, Vibe readers named Eminem the Best Rapper Alive. In 2011, Eminem was labeled the "King of Hip-Hop" by Rolling Stone based on an analysis of album sales, chart positions, YouTube views, social media following, concert grosses, industry awards and critical ratings of solo rappers who released music from 2009 to the first half of 2011.
Eminem was also inducted in the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame Class of 2022, alongside Duran Duran and Dolly Parton.
Discography
Studio albums
Infinite (1996)
The Slim Shady LP (1999)
The Marshall Mathers LP (2000)
The Eminem Show (2002)
Encore (2004)
Relapse (2009)
Recovery (2010)
The Marshall Mathers LP 2 (2013)
Revival (2017)
Kamikaze (2018)
Music to Be Murdered By (2020)
Collaborative albums
Devil's Night (with D12) (2001)
D12 World (with D12) (2004)
Hell: The Sequel (with Bad Meets Evil) (2011)
Concert tours
As a headliner
The Slim Shady LP Tour (1999)
The Recovery Tour (2010–2013)
Rapture Tour (2014)
Revival Tour (2018)
Rapture 2019 (2019)
As a co-headliner
Up in Smoke Tour (with Dr. Dre, Snoop Dogg, Ice Cube and others) (2000)
Anger Management Tour (with Limp Bizkit and Papa Roach) (2002–2005)
The Home & Home Tour (with Jay-Z) (2010)
The Monster Tour (with Rihanna) (2014)
Written works
See also
Artists with the most number-one European singles
Honorific nicknames in popular music
List of artists who reached number one in the United States
List of bestselling music artists
List of bestselling music artists in the United States
List of bestselling singles in the United States
List of bestselling singles worldwide
Global Recording Artist of the Year
List of bestselling albums of the 21st century
List of bestselling albums
List of artists who reached number one on the UK Singles Chart
Transgressive art
References
Notes
Further reading
External links
Rock and Roll Hall of Fame bio
1972 births
Living people
20th-century American rappers
21st-century American rappers
20th-century American songwriters
21st-century American songwriters
Aftermath Entertainment artists
American autobiographers
American Christians
American film producers
American hip hop record producers
American hip hop singers
American male rappers
American male songwriters
American media executives
American music industry executives
American music publishers (people)
American people who self-identify as being of Cherokee descent
American people of English descent
American people of German descent
American people of Luxembourgian descent
American people of Polish descent
American people of Scottish descent
American people of Swiss descent
American people of Welsh descent
American philanthropists
American radio producers
Best Original Song Academy Award-winning songwriters
Brit Award winners
Culture of Detroit
D12 members
Echo (music award) winners
Grammy Award winners for rap music
Hardcore hip hop artists
Horrorcore artists
Juno Award for International Album of the Year winners
Midwest hip hop musicians
MTV Europe Music Award winners
MTV Video Music Award winners
Musicians with fictional stage personas
LGBT-related controversies in music
Obscenity controversies in music
People from St. Joseph, Missouri
People from Warren, Michigan
Primetime Emmy Award winners
Rappers from Detroit
Rappers from Missouri
Record producers from Michigan
Record producers from Missouri
Shady Records artists
Songwriters from Michigan
Songwriters from Missouri
Web Entertainment artists
World Music Awards winners
Writers from Detroit
Writers from Missouri |
4429772 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20flora%20of%20the%20Sonoran%20Desert%20Region%20by%20common%20name | List of flora of the Sonoran Desert Region by common name | The Sonoran Desert is a North American desert and ecoregion which covers large parts of the southwestern United States and of northwestern Mexico. With an area of , it is the hottest desert in Mexico. The western portion of the Mexico–United States border passes through the Sonoran Desert. The Sonoran Desert region includes the Sonoran Desert and some surrounding areas. All of Sonora, the Baja California Peninsula, and the islands of the Gulf of California are included. Also included are parts of Sinaloa and Chihuahua, some Pacific islands off the coast of Baja California (excluding Guadalupe Island), and southern Arizona and southern California in the United States.
This region has 4,004 species of plants from 1201 genera in 182 families. Many lack common names. Many have more than one common name, but only one is listed. Native and non-native taxa are included.
Flora with common names
Flora of the Sonoran Desert Region include:
Acanthaceae
Arizona foldwing (Dicliptera resupinata)
Arizona water-willow (Justicia candicans)
Arizona wrightwort (Carlowrightia arizonica)
Baja ruellia (Ruellia peninsularis)
beloperone (Justicia californica)
black mangrove (Avicennia germinans)
Browne's blechum (Blechum pyramidatum)
glush weed (Hygrophila costata)
hairy fournwort (Tetramerium nervosum)
island renegade (Henrya insularis)
purple scalystem (Elytraria imbricata)
rama parda (Ruellia californica)
siphonoglossa (Justicia longii)
Sonoran water-willow (Justicia sonorae)
spreading snakeherb (Dyschoriste decumbens)
Thurber's desert honeysuckle (Anisacanthus thurberi)
violet wild petunia (Ruellia nudiflora)
white devilbush (Holographis virgata)
Achatocarpaceae
devilqueen (Phaulothamnus spinescens)
Adoxaceae
blue elderberry (Sambucus nigra)
Aizoaceae
common iceplant (Mesembryanthemum crystallinum)
desert horsepurslane (Trianthema portulacastrum)
Hottentot fig (Carpobrotus edulis)
shoreline seapurslane (Sesuvium portulacastrum)
slenderleaf iceplant (Mesembryanthemum nodiflorum)
verrucose seapurslane (Sesuvium verrucosum)
Alismataceae
American water plantain (Alisma subcordatum)
arumleaf arrowhead (Sagittaria cuneata)
broadleaf arrowhead (Sagittaria latifolia)
giant arrowhead (Sagittaria montevidensis)
longbarb arrowhead (Sagittaria longiloba)
upright burhead (Echinodorus berteroi)
water poppy (Hydrocleys nymphoides)
yellow velvetleaf (Limnocharis flava)
Amaranthaceae
Arizona snakecotton (Froelichia arizonica)
Australian saltbush (Atriplex semibaccata)
Barclay's saltbush (Atriplex barclayana)
big saltbush (Atriplex lentiformis)
California saltbush (Atriplex californica)
carelessweed (Amaranthus palmeri)
cattle saltbush (Atriplex polycarpa)
Davidson's saltbush (Atriplex pacifica)
desert goosefoot (Chenopodium pratericola)
desertholly (Atriplex hymenelytra)
dwarf saltwort (Salicornia bigelovii)
estuary seablite (Suaeda esteroa)
fetid goosefoot (Chenopodium graveolens)
fivehorn smotherweed (Bassia hyssopifolia)
fourwing saltbush (Atriplex canescens)
fringed amaranth (Amaranthus fimbriatus)
globe amaranth (Gomphrena globosa)
iodinebush (Allenrolfea occidentalis)
lambsquarters (Chenopodium album)
mat amaranth (Amaranthus blitoides)
Mexican tea (Dysphania ambrosioides)
Mojave seablite (Suaeda moquini)
nettleleaf goosefoot (Chenopodium murale)
New Mexico goosefoot (Chenopodium neomexicanum)
Nuttall's povertyweed (Monolepis nuttalliana)
old man saltbush (Atriplex nummularia)
pearly globe amaranth (Gomphrena nitida)
pickleweed (Salicornia virginica)
Powell's amaranth (Amaranthus powellii)
prince's feather (Amaranthus hypochondriacus)
prostrate pigweed (Amaranthus albus)
red amaranth (Amaranthus cruentus)
Russian thistle (Kali tragus)
shadscale (Atriplex confertifolia)
slim amaranth (Amaranthus hybridus)
Sonoran globe amaranth (Gomphrena sonorae)
spiny hopsage (Grayia spinosa)
Standley's bloodleaf (Iresine heterophylla)
Texas snakecotton (Froelichia interrupta)
washerwoman (Alternanthera caracasana)
Watson's amaranth (Amaranthus watsonii)
Watson's goosefoot (Chenopodium watsonii)
wheelscale saltbush (Atriplex elegans)
winterfat (Krascheninnikovia lanata)
woolly seablite (Suaeda taxifolia)
woolly tidestromia (Tidestromia lanuginosa)
Wright's saltbush (Atriplex wrightii)
Amaryllidaceae
cebollín (Hymenocallis pimana)
copper zephyrlily (Zephyranthes longifolia)
crowpoison (Nothoscordum bivalve)
Geyer's onion (Allium geyeri)
gland onion (Allium glandulosum)
Kunth's onion (Allium kunthii)
largeflower onion (Allium macropetalum)
Mexicali onion (Allium peninsulare)
spider lily (Hymenocallis sonorensis)
Texas false garlic (Nothoscordum texanum)
Anacardiaceae
African sumac (Rhus lancea)
aigros (Rhus terebinthifolia)
Baja elephant tree (Pachycormus discolor)
ciruelo (Cyrtocarpa edulis)
evergreen sumac (Rhus virens)
fragrant sumac (Rhus aromatica)
Kearney's sumac (Rhus kearneyi)
laurel sumac (Malosma laurina)
lemonadeberry (Rhus integrifolia)
littleleaf sumac (Rhus microphylla)
mango (Mangifera indica)
Peruvian pepper tree (Schinus molle)
pink-flowering sumac (Rhus lentii)
poison ivy (Rhus radicans)
purple mondin (Spondias purpurea)
smooth sumac (Rhus glabra)
sugarbush (Rhus ovata)
Apiaceae
alpine false springparsley (Cymopterus lemmonii)
American wild carrot (Daucus pusillus)
Arizona eryngo (Eryngium sparganophyllum)
bristly scaleseed (Spermolepis echinata)
chervil (Anthriscus cerefolium)
Chiricahua Mountain eryngo (Eryngium lemmonii)
coriander (Coriandrum sativum)
cow parsnip (Heracleum maximum)
culantrillo (Daucus montanus)
dill (Anethum graveolens)
false carrot (Yabea microcarpa)
fennel (Foeniculum vulgare)
hierba del sapo (Eryngium nasturtiifolium)
hoary bowlesia (Bowlesia incana)
Huachuca Mountain eryngo (Eryngium phyteumae)
large bullwort (Ammi majus)
marsh parsley (Cyclospermum leptophyllum)
masiaguri (Tauschia edulis)
Mexican hemlockparsley (Conioselinum mexicanum)
Schaffner's grasswort (Lilaeopsis schaffneriana)
southern umbrellawort (Tauschia arguta)
water-hemlock (Cicuta douglasii)
western sandparsley (Ammoselinum giganteum)
Wright's eryngo (Eryngium heterophyllum)
Apocynaceae
Arizona bluestar (Amsonia grandiflora)
Arizona milkvine (Gonolobus arizonicus)
Arizona milkweed (Asclepias angustifolia)
Arizona swallow-wort (Metastelma arizonicum)
bloodflower milkweed (Asclepias curassavica)
bract milkweed (Asclepias brachystephana)
California milkweed (Asclepias californica)
citavaro (Vallesia laciniata)
cockroachplant (Haplophyton cimicidum)
Davis Mountain rocktrumpet (Mandevilla hypoleuca)
desert milkweed (Asclepias erosa)
fringed twinevine (Funastrum cynanchoides)
hierba de piojo (Mandevilla foliosa)
horsetail milkweed (Asclepias subverticillata)
Huachuca Mountain rocktrumpet (Macrosiphonia brachysiphon)
Kearney's bluestar (Amsonia kearneyana)
Lemmon's milkweed (Asclepias lemmonii)
mahogany milkweed (Asclepias hypoleuca)
Mexican swallow-wort (Cynanchum ligulatum)
Mojave milkweed (Asclepias nyctaginifolia)
Nacapule rocktrumpet (Mandevilla nacapulensis)
narrowleaf milkweed (Asclepias fascicularis)
nodding milkweed (Asclepias glaucescens)
oleander (Nerium oleander)
Palmer's bluestar (Amsonia palmeri)
pineneedle milkweed (Asclepias linaria)
plateau rocktrumpet (Mandevilla lanuginosa)
plumeria (Plumeria rubra)
rubber vine (Cryptostegia grandiflora)
rush milkweed (Asclepias subulata)
showy milkweed (Asclepias speciosa)
slimpod milkweed (Asclepias quinquedentata)
smooth vallesia (Vallesia glabra)
Sonoran milkvine (Matelea cordifolia)
spearleaf (Matelea parvifolia)
Texas milkvine (Matelea producta)
tufted milkweed (Asclepias nummularia)
wavyleaf twinevine (Funastrum crispum)
whitestem milkweed (Asclepias albicans)
white twinevine (Funastrum clausum)
Wiggins' swallow-wort (Metastelma mexicanum)
woolly bluestar (Amsonia tomentosa)
woollypod milkweed (Asclepias eriocarpa)
yellow oleander (Thevetia peruviana)
zizotes milkweed (Asclepias oenotheroides)
Aquifoliaceae
holly (Ilex rubra)
Araceae
common duckweed (Lemna minor)
least duckweed (Lemna minuta)
lesser duckweed (Lemna aequinoctialis)
common duckmeat (Spirodela polyrrhiza)
Araliaceae
Algerian ivy (Hedera canariensis)
angelica tree (Dendropanax arboreus)
Arizona spikenard (Aralia humilis)
floating marshpennywort (Hydrocotyle ranunculoides)
manyflower marshpennywort (Hydrocotyle umbellata)
papaya cimarrona (Oreopanax peltatum)
tropical marshpennywort (Hydrocotyle pusilla)
whorled marshpennywort (Hydrocotyle prolifera)
Arecaceae
apak palm (Brahea dulcis)
babisa (Brahea brandegeei)
blue hesper palm (Brahea armata)
California fan palm (Washingtonia filifera)
Mexican fan palm (Washingtonia robusta)
date palm (Phoenix dactylifera)
Sinaloa hesper palm (Brahea aculeata)
Sonoran blue palm (Brahea nitida)
Sonoran palmetto (Sabal uresana)
Aristolochiaceae
calico flower (Aristolochia littoralis)
canastilla (Aristolochia taliscana)
hierba del indio (Aristolochia quercetorum)
southwestern pipevine (Aristolochia brevipes)
Watson's Dutchman's pipe (Aristolochia watsonii)
Asparagaceae
American century plant (Agave americana)
Arizona agave (Agave arizonica)
azucena del monte (Echeandia ramosissima)
banana yucca (Yucca baccata)
Bigelow's nolina (Nolina bigelovii)
bluedicks (Dipterostemon capitatus)
chahuiqui (Agave multifilifera)
chaparral yucca (Hesperoyucca whipplei)
common sotol (Dasylirion wheeleri)
cowhorn agave (Agave bovicornuta)
datilillo (Agave datylio)
Dehesa beargrass (Nolina interrata)
desert agave (Agave deserti)
desert lily (Hesperocallis undulata)
golden agave (Agave chrysoglossa)
goldenflower century plant (Agave chrysantha)
Ithuriel's spear (Triteleia laxa)
jaiboli (Agave jaiboli)
Joshua tree (Yucca brevifolia)
large-flowered yucca (Yucca grandiflora)
McKelvey agave (Agave mckelveyana)
mescal ceniza (Agave colorata)
mescalito (Agave felgeri)
Mexican star (Milla biflora)
Mojave yucca (Yucca schidigera)
mountain yucca (Yucca schottii)
Murphey's century plant (Agave murpheyi)
narrowleaf agave (Agave angustifolia)
Navajo yucca (Yucca baileyi)
Nelson's beargrass (Nolina nelsonii)
night-flowering hesperaloe (Hesperaloe nocturna)
ocahui (Agave ocahui)
octopus agave (Agave vilmoriniana)
Palmer's century plant (Agave palmeri)
Palmer's craglily (Echeandia palmeri)
Palmer's Bajalily (Triteleiopsis palmeri)
Palmer's beargrass (Nolina palmeri)
Parry's agave (Agave parryi)
Parry's beargrass (Nolina parryi)
pink funnel lily (Androstephium breviflorum)
sacahuista (Nolina microcarpa)
Schott's century plant (Agave schottii)
Shaw's agave (Agave shawii)
Sierra Madre yucca (Yucca madrensis)
small-flowered beargrass (Nolina parviflora)
Texas sacahuista (Nolina texana)
Tonto Basin agave (Agave delamateri)
Torrey's craglily (Echeandia flavescens)
Toumey's century plant (Agave toumeyana)
tree beargrass (Nolina matapensis)
tree yucca (Yucca valida)
tuberose-flowered agave (Agave polianthiflora)
Utah agave (Agave utahensis)
zebra agave (Agave zebra)
Asphodelaceae
Aloe vera (Aloe vera)
common marsh poker (Kniphofia linearifolia)
onionweed (Asphodelus fistulosus)
Aspleniaceae
blackstem spleenwort (Asplenium resiliens)
Countess Dalhousie's spleenwort (Asplenium dalhousiae)
dwarf spleenwort (Asplenium pumilum)
little spleenwort (Asplenium exiguum)
Palmer's spleenwort (Asplenium palmeri)
singlesorus spleenwort (Asplenium monanthes)
Asteraceae
Abert's creeping zinnia (Sanvitalia abertii)
African sheepbush (Pentzia incana)
alkali marsh aster (Almutaster pauciflorus)
American everlasting (Gamochaeta americana)
American tarwort (Flourensia cernua)
American threefold (Trixis californica)
annual candyleaf (Stevia micrantha)
annual monsterwort (Parthenice mollis)
Apache beggarticks (Bidens ferulaefolia)
Apache plant (Guardiola platyphylla)
arid tansyaster (Machaeranthera arida)
arid throne fleabane (Erigeron arisolius)
Arizona baccharis (Baccharis thesioides)
Arizona beggarticks (Bidens aurea)
Arizona blackfoot (Melampodium longicorne)
Arizona blanketflower (Gaillardia arizonica)
Arizona cudweed (Pseudognaphalium arizonicum)
Arizona fluffweed (Filago arizonica)
Arizona snakeweed (Gutierrezia arizonica)
Arizona sunflowerweed (Tithonia thurberi)
Arizona thistle (Cirsium arizonicum)
arrowweed (Pluchea sericea)
asthmaweed (Conyza bonariensis)
Aztec marigold (Tagetes erecta)
Baja bush sunflower (Encelia ventorum)
beardless cinchweed (Pectis imberbis)
betonyleaf brickellbush (Brickellia betonicifolia)
Bigelow's beggarticks (Bidens bigelovii)
Bigelow's bristlehead (Carphochaete bigelovii)
blessed milkthistle (Silybum marianum)
brightwhite (Prenanthella exigua)
brittlebush (Encelia farinosa)
broom snakeweed (Gutierrezia sarothrae)
brownfoot (Acourtia wrightii)
brownplume wirelettuce (Stephanomeria pauciflora)
brownturbans (Malperia tenuis)
burrobush (Ambrosia salsola)
burroweed (Ambrosia dumosa)
button brittlebush (Encelia frutescens)
California brittlebush (Encelia californica)
California chicory (Rafinesquia californica)
California cottonrose (Filago californica)
California goldfields (Lasthenia californica)
California rockdaisy (Perityle californica)
camphorweed (Heterotheca subaxillaris)
Canadian horseweed (Conyza canadensis)
canyon ragweed (Ambrosia ambrosioides)
Cape marigold (Dimorphotheca tragus)
changing fleabane (Erigeron versicolor)
chaparral fleabane (Erigeron oreophilus)
Chihuahuan fleabane (Erigeron velutipes)
chicory (Cichorium intybus)
chicoryleaf wirelettuce (Stephanomeria cichoriacea)
Cleveland's desertdandelion (Malacothrix clevelandii)
coastal tidy tips (Layia platyglossa)
Cochise marshtail (Laennecia eriophylla)
common goldenbush (Isocoma coronopifolia)
common sowthistle (Sonchus oleraceus)
common sunflower (Helianthus annuus)
common yarrow (Achillea millefolium)
common zinnia (Zinnia elegans)
Cooper's dogweed (Adenophyllum cooperi)
Cooper's goldenbush (Ericameria cooperi)
cottonbatting plant (Pseudognaphalium stramineum)
Coulter's brickellbush (Brickellia coulteri)
Coulter's chinchweed (Pectis coulteri)
Coulter's horseweed (Laennecia coulteri)
crowndaisy (Glebionis coronaria)
Cuman ragweed (Ambrosia psilostachya)
cure for all (Pluchea carolinensis)
cutleaf ironplant (Xanthisma spinulosum)
daisy desertstar (Monoptilon bellidiforme)
desert baccharis (Baccharis sergiloides)
desertbroom (Baccharis sarothroides)
desert coreopsis (Coreopsis bigelovii)
desert cudweed (Gamochaeta stagnalis)
desert Indianbush (Psacalium decompositum)
desert marigold (Baileya multiradiata)
desert palafox (Palafoxia arida)
desert twinbugs (Dicoria canescens)
desert zinnia (Zinnia acerosa)
doll's head (Lagascea decipiens)
dwarf coyote brush (Baccharis pilularis)
dwarf desertpeony (Acourtia nana)
dwarf filago (Filago depressa)
earleaf brickellbush (Brickellia amplexicaulis)
eastern annual saltmarsh aster (Symphyotrichum subulatum)
Emory's baccharis (Baccharis salicina)
Emory's rockdaisy (Perityle emoryi)
espantamula (Acourtia dieringeri)
Esteve's pincushion (Chaenactis stevioides)
everlasting neststraw (Stylocline gnaphaloides)
false boneset (Brickellia eupatorioides)
false daisy (Eclipta prostrata)
Felger crownbeard (Verbesina felgeri)
Fendler's desertdandelion (Malacothrix fendleri)
fewflower beggarticks (Bidens leptocephala)
Flagstaff ragwort (Packera actinella, syn. Senecio actinella)
flatspine burr ragweed (Ambrosia acanthicarpa)
flat-top whiteweed (Ageratum corymbosum)
fragrant snakeroot (Ageratina herbacea)
Frémont pincushion (Chaenactis fremontii)
fringed rockdaisy (Perityle ciliata)
gachupín (Sclerocarpus spathulatus)
gallant soldier (Galinsoga parviflora)
garden cosmos (Cosmos bipinnatus)
glandular Cape marigold (Dimorphotheca sinuata)
golden crownbeard (Verbesina encelioides)
goldenfleece (Ericameria arborescens)
grassleaf lettuce (Lactuca graminifolia)
green rabbitbrush (Ericameria teretifolia)
Guadalupe Island rockdaisy (Perityle incana)
guayule (Parthenium argentatum)
gumhead (Gymnosperma glutinosum)
hairy beggarticks (Bidens pilosa)
hairy leafcup (Smallanthus uvedalius)
Hartweg's groundsel (Roldana hartwegii)
hoary tansyaster (Machaeranthera canescens)
hollyleaf burr ragweed (Ambrosia ilicifolia)
hollyleaf bursage (Ambrosia eriocentra)
Hopi tea greenthread (Thelesperma megapotamicum)
Irish lace (Tagetes filifolia)
Jersey cudweed (Pseudognaphalium luteoalbum)
Kellogg's tarweed (Hemizonia kelloggii)
lavender cotton (Santolina chamaecyparissus)
laxflower (Baileya pauciradiata)
leafy marshtail (Laennecia sophiifolia)
Lemmon's beggarticks (Bidens lemmonii)
Lemmon's hawkweed (Hieracium crepidispermum)
Lemmon's marigold (Tagetes lemmonii)
Lemmon's ragwort (Senecio lemmonii)
Lemmon's rockdaisy (Perityle lemmonii)
Lemmon's snakeroot (Ageratina lemmonii)
licorice marigold (Tagetes micrantha)
Lindley's silver puffs (Uropappus lindleyi)
lobed fleabane (Erigeron lobatus)
longleaf crownbeard (Verbesina longifolia)
longleaf false goldeneye (Heliomeris longifolia)
Macoun's cudweed (Pseudognaphalium macounii)
Maltese star-thistle (Centaurea melitensis)
manybristle cinchweed (Pectis papposa)
mariola (Parthenium incanum)
Maximilian sunflower (Helianthus maximiliani)
Mayo groundsel (Senecio riomayensis)
mesa tansyaster (Machaeranthera tagetina)
Mexican camphorweed (Pluchea salicifolia)
Mexican coneflower (Ratibida mexicana)
Mexican flame vine (Pseudogynoxys chenopodioides)
Mexican tansyaster (Psilactis gentryi)
Mexican tarragon (Tagetes lucida)
Mexican tree sunflower (Tithonia fruticosa)
Mojave cottonthorn (Tetradymia stenolepis)
Mojave desertstar (Monoptilon bellioides)
mountain dahlia (Dahlia coccinea)
mountain oxeye (Heliopsis parvifolia)
mountain ragwort (Senecio parryi)
mulefat (Baccharis salicifolia)
narrowleaf goldenbush (Ericameria linearifolia)
narrowleaf zinnia (Zinnia angustifolia)
netvein goldeneye (Bahiopsis reticulata)
New Mexico fleabane (Erigeron neomexicanus)
New Mexico groundsel (Packera neomexicana)
New Mexico plumeseed (Rafinesquia neomexicana)
New Mexico thistle (Cirsium neomexicanum)
orange sneezeweed (Hymenoxys hoopesii)
owl's crown (Gamochaeta sphacelata)
Palmer's umbrella thoroughwort (Koanophyllon palmeri)
palmleaf thoroughwort (Conoclinium greggii)
parachute plant (Atrichoseris platyphylla)
Parish goldeneye (Viguiera parishii)
Peruvian zinnia (Zinnia peruviana)
pineappleweed (Matricaria discoidea)
pineland marshtail (Laennecia schiedeana)
pinnate false threadleaf (Schkuhria pinnata)
plains blackfoot (Melampodium leucanthum)
plains fleabane (Erigeron modestus)
plumeweed (Carminatia tenuiflora)
Plummer's candyleaf (Stevia plummerae)
poreleaf dogweed (Adenophyllum porophyllum)
prairie sagewort (Artemisia frigida)
prairie sunflower (Helianthus petiolaris)
pricklyleaf dogweed (Thymophylla acerosa)
prickly lettuce (Lactuca serriola)
Pringle's brickellbush (Brickellia pringlei)
Pringle's cudweed (Pseudognaphalium pringlei)
Pringle's hawkweed (Hieracium pringlei)
Pringle's woolly sunflower (Eriophyllum pringlei)
ragged marsh-elder (Hedosyne ambrosiifolia)
resinleaf brickellbush (Brickellia baccharidea)
Rocky Mountain beggarticks (Bidens heterosperma)
Rocky Mountain zinnia (Zinnia grandiflora)
romero macho (Pectis linifolia)
rose heath (Leucelene ericoides)
Rothrock's knapweed (Centaurea rothrockii)
Rothrock's snakeroot (Ageratina rothrockii)
rough blackfoot (Melampodium sericeum)
rough cocklebur (Xanthium strumarium)
rubber rabbitbrush (Ericameria nauseosa)
running fleabane (Erigeron tracyi)
Rusby's cinchweed (Pectis rusbyi)
Rusby's hawkweed (Hieracium abscissum)
Rutter's false goldenaster (Heterotheca rutteri)
safflower (Carthamus tinctorius)
San Diego sunflower (Bahiopsis laciniata)
San Diego wirelettuce (Stephanomeria diegensis)
San Pedro daisy (Lasianthaea podocephala)
Santa Maria feverfew (Parthenium hysterophorus)
Santa Rita Mountain aster (Symphyotrichum potosinum)
Santa Rita snakeroot (Ageratina paupercula)
sawtooth candyleaf (Stevia serrata)
scalebud (Anisocoma acaulis)
scepterbearing fleabane (Erigeron sceptrifer)
Schott's pygmycedar (Peucephyllum schottii)
Seeman's sunbonnets (Leibnitzia lyrata)
shaggy blackfoot (Melampodium strigosum)
shaggy soldier (Galinsoga quadriradiata)
shortleaf baccharis (Baccharis brachyphylla)
shortray rockdaisy (Perityle microglossa)
showy sunflower (Helianthus niveus)
shrine jimmyweed (Isocoma tenuisecta)
shrubby thoroughwort (Koanophyllon solidaginifolium)
Siam weed (Chromolaena odorata)
singlewhorl burrobrush (Hymenoclea monogyra)
slender poreleaf (Porophyllum gracile)
slimleaf bursage (Ambrosia confertiflora)
slimlobe beggarticks (Bidens tenuisecta)
smallflower desert-chicory (Pyrrhopappus pauciflorus)
smallflower tansyaster (Machaeranthera parviflora)
small wirelettuce (Stephanomeria exigua)
smooth beggarticks (Bidens laevis)
smooth desertdandelion (Malacothrix glabrata)
snake's head (Malacothrix coulteri)
Sonoran brickellbush (Brickellia simplex)
Sonoran bursage (Ambrosia cordifolia)
Sonoran cinchweed (Pectis cylindrica)
Sonoran desertdandelion (Malacothrix sonorae)
Sonoran neststraw (Stylocline sonorensis)
Sonoran pricklyleaf (Thymophylla concinna)
Sonoran thoroughwort (Fleischmannia sonorae)
southern annual saltmarsh aster (Symphyotrichum divaricatum)
southern goldenbush (Isocoma pluriflora)
southwestern cosmos (Cosmos parviflorus)
Spanish needles (Bidens alba)
spearleaf brickellbush (Brickellia atractyloides)
spineless horsebrush (Tetradymia canescens)
spiny chloracantha (Chloracantha spinosa)
spiny sowthistle (Sonchus asper)
spoonleaf purple everlasting (Gamochaeta purpurea)
spreading cinchweed (Pectis prostrata)
spreading fleabane (Erigeron divergens)
spring pygmy-cudweed (Diaperia verna)
Stebbins' desertdandelion (Malacothrix stebbinsii)
stemless four-nerve daisy (Tetraneuris acaulis)
sticky brittlebush (Encelia resinifera)
stinking brickellbush (Brickellia rusbyi)
straggler daisy (Calyptocarpus vialis)
sulphur cosmos (Cosmos sulphureus)
sweetbush (Bebbia juncea)
Tahoka daisy (Machaeranthera tanacetifolia)
tarragon (Artemisia dracunculus)
tasselflower brickellbush (Brickellia grandiflora)
Texas blueweed (Helianthus ciliaris)
threadleaf ragwort (Senecio flaccidus)
threadleaf snakeweed (Gutierrezia microcephala)
Thurber's desertpeony (Acourtia thurberi)
Thurber's sneezeweed (Helenium thurberi)
Thurber's wirelettuce (Stephanomeria thurberi)
toothleaf goldeneye (Viguiera dentata)
trailing fleabane (Erigeron flagellaris)
Trans-Pecos thimblehead (Hymenothrix wislizeni)
triangle-leaf bursage (Ambrosia deltoidea)
turpentine bush (Ericameria laricifolia)
upright prairie coneflower (Ratibida columnifera)
veiny brickellbush (Brickellia venosa)
velvet turtleback (Psathyrotes ramosissima)
veronicaleaf brickellbush (Brickellia veronicifolia)
Virgin River brittlebush (Encelia virginensis)
viscid candyleaf (Stevia viscida)
Wallace's woolly daisy (Eriophyllum wallacei)
western pearly everlasting (Anaphalis margaritacea)
white cudweed (Pseudognaphalium leucocephalum)
whitedaisy tidytips (Layia glandulosa)
whitemargin pussytoes (Antennaria marginata)
white sagebrush (Artemisia ludoviciana)
whitestem paperflower (Psilostrophe cooperi)
white tackstem (Calycoseris wrightii)
white woolly daisy (Eriophyllum lanosum)
willowleaf aster (Symphyotrichum praealtum)
willow ragwort (Barkleyanthus salicifolius)
wingpetal (Heterosperma pinnatum)
woolly brickellbush (Brickellia incana)
woolly desert marigold (Baileya pleniradiata)
woolly eriophyllum (Antheropeas lanosum)
woollyhead neststraw (Stylocline micropoides)
woolly paperflower (Psilostrophe tagetina)
Wooton's ragwort (Senecio wootonii)
Wright's baccharis (Baccharis wrightii)
Wright's goldenrod (Solidago wrightii)
Wright's snakeweed (Gutierrezia wrightii)
Wright's thimblehead (Hymenothrix wrightii)
yellowdome (Trichoptilium incisum)
yellow pincushion (Chaenactis glabriuscula)
yellowspine thistle (Cirsium ochrocentrum)
yellow starthistle (Centaurea solstitialis)
yellow tackstem (Calycoseris parryi)
yerba porosa (Porophyllum ruderale)
zoapatle (Montanoa tomentosa)
Bataceae
saltwort (Batis maritima)
Berberidaceae
creeping barberry (Mahonia repens)
Frémont's barberry (Mahonia fremontii)
Harrison's barberry (Berberis harrisoniana)
Nevin's barberry (Mahonia nevinii)
red barberry (Mahonia haematocarpa)
Wilcox's barberry (Berberis wilcoxii)
Betulaceae
aliso (Alnus acuminata)
American hophornbeam (Ostrya virginiana)
Arizona alder (Alnus oblongifolia)
gray alder (Alnus incana)
Bignoniaceae
catclaw (Dolichandra unguis-cati)
desert willow (Chilopsis linearis)
Mexican calabash (Crescentia alata)
pink tabebuia (Handroanthus impetiginosus)
trumpet creeper (Campsis radicans)
yellow tabebuia (Tabebuia chrysantha)
yellow trumpetbush (Tecoma stans)
Bixaceae
Mexican yellowshow (Amoreuxia palmatifida)
Santa Rita mountain yellowshow (Amoreuxia gonzalezii)
silk cottontree (Cochlospermum vitifolium)
Blechnaceae
palm fern (Blechnum appendiculatum)
Boraginaceae
adobe popcornflower (Plagiobothrys acanthocarpus)
Arizona phacelia (Phacelia arizonica)
Arizona popcornflower (Plagiobothrys arizonicus)
basin yellow cryptantha (Cryptantha confertiflora)
bastard cherry (Ehretia tinifolia)
bearded cryptantha (Cryptantha barbigera)
black-sage (Cordia curassavica)
bristly fiddleneck (Amsinckia tessellata)
broadfruit combseed (Pectocarya platycarpa)
bushy heliotrope (Heliotropium ternatum)
Caracus wigandia (Wigandia urens)
chuckwalla combseed (Pectocarya heterocarpa)
cleftleaf wildheliotrope (Phacelia crenulata)
curaciao bush (Cordia globosa)
curvenut combseed (Pectocarya recurvata)
dainty desert hideseed (Eucrypta micrantha)
desert Canterbury bells (Phacelia campanularia)
distant phacelia (Phacelia distans)
fivespot (Nemophila maculata)
flatspine stickseed (Lappula occidentalis)
Franciscan bluebells (Mertensia franciscana)
Frémont's phacelia (Phacelia fremontii)
fulvous popcornflower (Plagiobothrys fulvus)
giant-trumpets (Macromeria viridiflora = Lithospermum macromeria)
gravelbar cryptantha (Cryptantha decipiens)
green stoneseed (Lithospermum viride)
Guadalupe cryptantha (Cryptantha maritima)
hiddenflower phacelia (Phacelia cryptantha)
Jamaicanweed (Nama jamaicense)
Key West heliotrope (Heliotropium fruticosum)
lacy phacelia (Phacelia tanacetifolia)
largeflower phacelia (Phacelia grandiflora)
limestone phacelia (Phacelia affinis)
Menzies' fiddleneck (Amsinckia menziesii)
mountain balm (Eriodictyon trichocalyx)
narrowleaf yerba santa (Eriodictyon angustifolium)
Palmer's grapplinghook (Harpagonella palmeri)
palo de asta (Cordia sonorae)
Panamint cryptantha (Cryptantha angustifolia)
pedicellate phacelia (Phacelia pedicellata)
Pringle's popcornflower (Plagiobothrys pringlei)
salt heliotrope (Heliotropium curassavicum)
sandfood (Pholisma sonorae)
scorpion's tail (Heliotropium angiospermum)
skyblue phacelia (Phacelia caerulea)
sleeping popcornflower (Plagiobothrys hispidulus)
small-leaf geigertree (Cordia parvifolia)
smooththroat stoneseed (Lithospermum cobrense)
spotted hideseed (Eucrypta chrysanthemifolia)
tatachinole (Tournefortia hartwegiana)
twining soldierbush (Tournefortia volubilis)
valley popcornflower (Plagiobothrys canescens)
violincillo (Heliotropium macrostachyum)
whitewhisker fiddleleaf (Nama undulata)
wingnut cryptantha (Cryptantha pterocarya)
Brassicaceae
alpine pennycress (Noccaea montana)
Asian mustard (Brassica tournefortii)
black mustard (Brassica nigra)
blunt tansymustard (Descurainia obtusa)
California mustard (Caulanthus lasiophyllus)
California shieldpod (Dithyrea californica)
charlock (Sinapis arvensis)
crossflower (Chorispora tenella)
cultivated radish (Raphanus sativus)
eared hedgemustard (Sisymbrium auriculatum)
evening-scented stock (Matthiola bicornis)
field mustard (Brassica rapa)
Gordon's bladderpod (Physaria gordonii)
herb sophia (Descurainia sophia)
India mustard (Brassica juncea)
Indian hedgemustard (Sisymbrium orientale)
lesser swinecress (Lepidium didymum)
little bladderpod (Physaria tenella)
London rocket (Sisymbrium irio)
longleaf mock thelypody (Pennellia longifolia)
Long Valley tumblemustard (Thelypodiopsis ambigua)
peppergrass (Lepidium virginicum)
perennial rockcress (Arabis perennans)
rocketsalad (Eruca vesicaria)
sanddune wallflower (Erysimum capitatum)
sand fringepod (Thysanocarpus curvipes)
shepherd's purse (Capsella bursa-pastoris)
slimleaf plainsmustard (Schoenocrambe linearifolia)
southern marsh yellowcress (Rorippa teres)
sweet alyssum (Lobularia maritima)
Thurber's pepperweed (Lepidium thurberi)
watercress (Nasturtium officinale)
wedgeleaf draba (Draba cuneifolia)
western tansymustard (Descurainia pinnata)
white bladderpod (Physaria purpurea)
wild radish (Raphanus raphanistrum)
Bromeliaceae
agu mara (Bromelia alsodes)
datillo (Hechtia montana)
flor de encino (Tillandsia erubescens)
mescal (Tillandsia caput-medusae)
mezcalito (Tillandsia cretacea)
small ballmoss (Tillandsia recurvata)
Burseraceae
elemi-gum (Bursera penicillata)
fragrant bursera (Bursera fagaroides)
gumbo-limbo (Bursera simaruba)
littleleaf elephant tree (Bursera microphylla)
palo mulato (Bursera grandifolia)
red elephant tree (Bursera hindsiana)
tacamaca (Bursera lancifolia)
torote (Bursera filicifolia)
torote blanco (Bursera stenophylla)
torote papelío (Bursera laxiflora)
Cactaceae
Alamos barrel cactus (Ferocactus alamosanus)
Arizona claret-cup cactus (Echinocereus arizonicus)
Arizona pencil cholla (Cylindropuntia arbuscula)
Arizona queen of the night (Peniocereus greggii)
Arizona spinystar (Coryphantha vivipara)
beavertail cactus (Opuntia basilaris)
Bonker hedgehog cactus (Echinocereus bonkerae)
Brady's pincushion cactus (Pediocactus bradyi)
branched pencil cholla (Cylindropuntia ramosissima)
brittle prickly pear (Opuntia fragilis)
buckhorn cholla (Cylindropuntia acanthocarpa)
bunny ears (Opuntia microdasys)
cactus apple (Opuntia engelmannii)
California barrel cactus (Ferocactus cylindraceus)
California cholla (Cylindropuntia californica)
California fishhook cactus (Mammillaria dioica)
candelabra cactus (Myrtillocactus cochal)
candle cholla (Cylindropuntia kleiniae)
candy barrel cactus (Ferocactus wislizeni)
casa de rata (Echinocereus brandegeei)
chain-link cholla (Cylindropuntia cholla)
Christmas cholla (Cylindropuntia leptocaulis)
club cholla (Corynopuntia clavata)
chaparral prickly pear (Opuntia oricola)
choyita (Echinocereus scheeri)
coastal cholla (Cylindropuntia prolifera)
coastal prickly pear (Opuntia littoralis)
cochineal nopal cactus (Opuntia cochenillifera)
Cochise foxtail cactus (Coryphantha robbinsorum)
common fishhook cactus (Mammillaria tetrancistra)
cottontop cactus (Echinocactus polycephalus)
counterclockwise nipple cactus (Mammillaria mainiae)
creeping devil (Stenocereus eruca)
desert pincushion (Coryphantha chlorantha)
devil cholla (Corynopuntia emoryi)
devil's club cholla (Grusonia invicta)
devilshead (Echinocactus horizonthalonius)
devilthorn (Echinocereus pseudopectinatus)
dollarjoint prickly pear (Opuntia chlorotica)
Durango prickly pear (Opuntia durangensis)
dwarf organpipe cactus (Stenocereus littoralis)
Emory's barrel cactus (Ferocactus emoryi)
Engelmann's hedgehog cactus (Echinocereus engelmannii)
fire barrel cactus (Ferocactus gracilis)
Ford barrel cactus (Ferocactus fordii)
galloping cactus (Stenocereus gummosus)
Gander's buckhorn cholla (Cylindropuntia ganderi)
gearstem cactus (Peniocereus striatus)
golden prickly pear (Opuntia aurea)
golden-spined barrel cactus (Ferocactus chrysacanthus)
golden torch (Bergerocactus emoryi)
Graham's nipple cactus (Mammillaria grahamii)
greenflower nipple cactus (Mammillaria barbata)
greenflower nipple cactus (Mammillaria viridiflora)
hecho (Pachycereus pecten-aboriginum)
hybrid teddy bear cholla (Cylindropuntia fosbergii)
Johnson's fishhook cactus (Echinomastus johnsonii)
jumping cholla (Cylindropuntia fulgida)
Kaibab pediocactus (Pediocactus paradinei)
kingcup cactus (Echinocereus triglochidiatus)
Kunze's club cholla (Corynopuntia kunzei)
lacespine nipple cactus (Mammillaria lasiacantha)
Lau hedgehog cactus (Echinocereus laui)
Leding hedgehog cactus (Echinocereus ledingii)
little nipple cactus (Mammillaria heyderi)
long-tubercle beehive cactus (Coryphantha robustispina)
Macdougal's nipple cactus (Mammillaria macdougalii)
marblefruit prickly pear (Opuntia strigil)
maritime hedgehog cactus (Echinocereus maritimus)
matted cholla (Corynopuntia parishii)
Mexican giant cardon (Pachycereus pringlei)
Mexican night-blooming cereus (Peniocereus serpentinus)
Missouri foxtail cactus (Coryphantha missouriensis)
Munz's cholla (Cylindropuntia munzii)
Navajo pincushion cactus (Pediocactus peeblesianus)
Orcutt's foxtail cactus (Coryphantha sneedii)
organpipe cactus (Stenocereus thurberi)
paperspine fishhook cactus (Sclerocactus papyracanthus)
pencil cholla (Cylindropuntia tesajo)
ping-pong ball cactus (Epithelantha micromeris)
Pinkava's prickly pear (Opuntia pinkavae)
pinkflower hedgehog cactus (Echinocereus fendleri)
plains prickly pear (Opuntia polyacantha)
purple prickly pear (Opuntia macrocentra)
rainbow hedgehog cactus (Echinocereus rigidissimus)
redspine fishhook cactus (Echinomastus erectocentrus)
reina de la noche (Peniocereus marianus)
sagebrush cholla (Corynopuntia pulchella)
saguaro (Carnegiea gigantea)
sahuira (Stenocereus montanus)
San Diego barrel cactus (Ferocactus viridescens)
San Esteban hedgehog cactus (Echinocereus grandis)
San Esteban pincushion (Mammillaria estebanensis)
San Pedro Nolasco hedgehog cactus (Echinocereus websterianus)
Santa Cruz beehive cactus (Coryphantha recurvata)
sarramatraca (Peniocereus johnstonii)
Santa Rita prickly pear (Opuntia santa-rita)
scarlet hedgehog cactus (Echinocereus coccineus)
senita cactus (Pachycereus schottii)
Sheldon's pincushion (Mammillaria sheldonii)
Siler pincushion cactus (Pediocactus sileri)
silver cholla (Cylindropuntia echinocarpa)
sina (Stenocereus alamosensis)
sina voladora (Selenicereus vagans)
smallflower fishhook cactus (Sclerocactus parviflorus)
snake cactus (Echinocereus pensilis)
Sonoran old man cactus (Pilosocereus alensis)
strawberry hedgehog cactus (Echinocereus fasciculatus)
tapona (Opuntia tapona)
teddy bear cholla (Cylindropuntia bigelovii)
thistle cholla (Cylindropuntia tunicata)
Thornber's nipple cactus (Mammillaria thornberi)
tree cholla (Cylindropuntia imbricata)
triangle cactus (Acanthocereus tetragonus)
twisted barrel cactus (Ferocactus herrerae)
tulip prickly pear (Opuntia phaeacantha)
tuna cactus (Opuntia ficus-indica)
twistspine prickly pear (Opuntia macrorhiza)
violet prickly pear (Opuntia gosseliniana)
walkingstick cactus (Cylindropuntia spinosior)
Whipple cholla (Cylindropuntia whipplei)
Whipple's fishhook cactus (Sclerocactus whipplei)
white fishhook cactus (Echinomastus intertextus)
Wolf's opuntia (Cylindropuntia wolfii)
Wright's nipple cactus (Mammillaria wrightii)
Campanulaceae
Apache lobelia (Lobelia anatina)
cardinalflower (Lobelia cardinalis)
clasping Venus' looking-glass (Triodanis perfoliata)
devil's tobacco (Lobelia tupa)
fringeleaf lobelia (Lobelia fenestralis)
madamfate (Hippobroma longiflora)
Sierra Madre lobelia (Lobelia laxiflora)
Cannabaceae
guasique (Aphananthe monoica)
marijuana (Cannabis sativa)
sugarberry (Celtis laevigata)
Capparaceae
falseteeth (Capparis flexuosa)
vomitbush (Capparis atamisquea)
Caprifoliaceae
Arizona honeysuckle (Lonicera arizonica)
Mexican honeysuckle (Lonicera pilosa)
Palmer's snowberry (Symphoricarpos palmeri)
pineland valerian (Valeriana sorbifolia)
tobacco root (Valeriana edulis)
western white honeysuckle (Lonicera albiflora)
Caricaceae
jarilla (Jarilla heterophylla)
Caryophyllaceae
canyon drymary (Drymaria leptophylla)
cardinal catchfly (Silene laciniata)
Chihuahuan chickweed (Cerastium sordidum)
common soapwort (Saponaria officinalis)
Fendler's drymary (Drymaria glandulosa)
hairy rupturewort (Herniaria hirsuta)
Indian pink (Silene californica)
nodding chickweed (Cerastium nutans)
pinewoods drymary (Drymaria effusa)
shortstalk chickweed (Cerastium brachypodum)
simple campion (Silene scouleri)
sleepy silene (Silene antirrhina)
slender drymary (Drymaria multiflora)
slimleaf drymary (Drymaria molluginea)
spreading pygmyleaf (Loeflingia squarrosa)
spreading sandwort (Arenaria lanuginosa)
Texas chickweed (Cerastium texanum)
Trans-Pecos drymary (Drymaria laxiflora)
Celastraceae
algodoncillo (Wimmeria mexicana)
crucifixion thorn (Canotia holacantha)
desert yaupon (Schaefferia cuneifolia)
Florida mayten (Maytenus phyllanthoides)
sandpaper bush (Mortonia sempervirens)
Cistaceae
clustered frostweed (Helianthemum glomeratum)
threepetal pinweed (Lechea tripetala)
Cleomaceae
Asian spiderflower (Cleome viscosa)
bladderpod spiderflower (Cleome isomeris)
sandyseed clammyweed (Polanisia trachysperma)
spectacle fruit (Wislizenia refracta)
spiderwisp (Cleome gynandra)
Combretaceae
button mangrove (Conocarpus erectus)
white mangrove (Laguncularia racemosa)
Commelinaceae
blue spiderwort (Commelina coelestis)
birdbill dayflower (Commelina dianthifolia)
climbing dayflower (Commelina diffusa)
cojite morado (Callisia monandra)
creeping inchplant (Callisia repens)
leatherleaf spiderwort (Tradescantia crassifolia)
pinewoods spiderwort (Tradescantia pinetorum)
whitemouth dayflower (Commelina erecta)
Convolvulaceae
American dodder (Cuscuta americana)
bayhops (Ipomoea pes-caprae)
beach morning glory (Ipomoea imperati)
bejuco blanco (Ipomoea bracteata)
bigseed alfalfa dodder (Cuscuta indecora)
Cairo morning glory (Ipomoea cairica)
canyon morning glory (Ipomoea barbatisepala)
cardinal climber (Ipomoea quamoclit)
Cochise dodder (Cuscuta mitriformis)
crestrib morning glory (Ipomoea costellata)
field bindweed (Convolvulus arvensis)
fiveangled dodder (Cuscuta pentagona)
flatglobe dodder (Cuscuta umbellata)
Gila River dodder (Cuscuta applanata)
globe dodder (Cuscuta potosina)
gloria de la mañana (Ipomoea carnea)
heartleaf morning glory (Ipomoea cardiophylla)
Huachuca Mountain morning glory (Ipomoea plummerae)
ivyleaf morning glory (Ipomoea hederacea)
lilacbell (Ipomoea turbinata)
Meyer's morning glory (Ipomoea meyeri)
midnightblue clustervine (Jacquemontia agrestis)
New Mexico ponysfoot (Dichondra brachypoda)
noyau vine (Merremia dissecta)
oceanblue morning glory (Ipomoea indica)
pinkthroat morning glory (Ipomoea longifolia)
Pringle's clustervine (Jacquemontia pringlei)
purple morning glory (Ipomoea capillacea)
rock rosemary (Merremia quinquefolia)
romerilla de la sierra (Ipomoea ancisa)
shaggy dwarf morning glory (Evolvulus nuttallianus)
silky morning glory (Ipomoea pubescens)
silver dwarf morning glory (Evolvulus sericeus)
silverleaf ponysfoot (Dichondra sericea)
skyblue clustervine (Jacquemontia pentanthos)
slender dodder (Cuscuta leptantha)
slender dwarf morning glory (Evolvulus alsinoides)
Sonoran dodder (Cuscuta erosa)
spiderleaf (Ipomoea tenuiloba)
spreading alkaliweed (Cressa truxillensis)
sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas)
tall morning glory (Ipomoea purpurea)
tansyleaf lidpod (Operculina pinnatifida)
Thurber's morning glory (Ipomoea thurberi)
Trans-Pecos morning glory (Ipomoea cristulata)
tree morning glory (Ipomoea arborescens)
tripleleaf morning glory (Ipomoea ternifolia)
tubercle dodder (Cuscuta tuberculata)
white-edge morning glory (Ipomoea nil)
wild dwarf morning glory (Evolvulus arizonicus)
Wright's morning glory (Ipomoea wrightii)
yellow morning glory vine (Merremia aurea)
Cornaceae
mata hombre (Cornus disciflora)
redosier dogwood (Cornus sericea)
Crassulaceae
Abrams' liveforever (Dudleya abramsii)
Anthony's liveforever (Dudleya anthonyi)
Blochman's liveforever (Dudleya blochmaniae)
bright green dudleya (Dudleya virens)
Britton's liveforever (Dudleya brittonii)
broadleaf stonecrop (Sedum spathulifolium)
canyon liveforever (Dudleya cymosa)
chalk dudleya (Dudleya pulverulenta)
Chihuahua flower (Graptopetalum bellum)
cliff lettuce (Dudleya farinosa)
Cockerell's stonecrop (Sedum cockerellii)
fingertips (Dudleya edulis)
Gila County liveforever (Dudleya collomiae)
Huachuca Mountain stonecrop (Sedum stelliforme)
lanceleaf liveforever (Dudleya lanceolata)
manystem liveforever (Dudleya multicaulis)
Panamint liveforever (Dudleya saxosa)
Patagonia Mountain leatherpetal (Graptopetalum bartramii)
pricklyseed pygmyweed (Crassula viridis)
sand pygmyweed (Crassula connata)
San Francisco River leatherpetal (Graptopetalum rusbyi)
Santa Cruz Island liveforever (Dudleya nesiotica)
smoothseed pygmyweed (Crassula solieri)
sticky liveforever (Dudleya viscida)
tapertip liveforever (Dudleya attenuata)
variegated liveforever (Dudleya variegata)
wrinkleseed pygmyweed (Crassula saginoides)
Crossosomataceae
apachebush (Apacheria chiricahuensis)
California rockflower (Crossosoma californicum)
ragged rockflower (Crossosoma bigelovii)
Cucurbitaceae
abenallilla (Ibervillea fusiformis)
balsampear (Momordica charantia)
calabash (Lagenaria siceraria)
melon (Cucumis melo)
climbing arrowheads (Sicyosperma gracile)
colocynth (Citrullus colocynthis)
coralfruit (Doyerea emetocathartica)
coyote gourd (Cucurbita cordata)
coyote melon (Cucurbita palmata)
Cucamonga manroot (Marah macrocarpus)
cucumber (Cucumis sativus)
cushaw (Cucurbita argyrosperma)
desert starvine (Brandegea bigelovii)
estropajillo (Schizocarpum palmeri)
figleaf gourd (Cucurbita ficifolia)
fingerleaf gourd (Cucurbita digitata)
Gila manroot (Marah gilensis)
Guadeloupe cucumber (Melothria pendula)
melon loco (Apodanthera undulata)
Missouri gourd (Cucurbita foetidissima)
slimlobe globeberry (Ibervillea tenuisecta)
small-flower burr-cucumber (Sicyos parviflorus)
small-leaf burr-cucumber (Sicyos microphyllus)
sponge cucumber (Luffa operculata)
sponge gourd (Luffa aegyptiaca)
squash (Cucurbita maxima)
squash (Cucurbita moschata)
squash (Cucurbita pepo)
streamside burr-cucumber (Sicyos laciniatus)
Tumamoc globeberry (Tumamoca macdougalii)
watermelon (Citrullus lanatus)
West Indian gherkin (Cucumis anguria)
wild balsam apple (Echinopepon wrightii)
Cupressaceae
alligator juniper (Juniperus deppeana)
Arizona cypress (Cupressus arizonica)
California juniper (Juniperus californica)
Monterey cypress (Cupressus macrocarpa)
redberry juniper (Juniperus coahuilensis)
Rocky Mountain juniper (Juniperus scopulorum)
táscate espinosa (Juniperus durangensis)
Tecate cypress (Cupressus forbesii)
Utah juniper (Juniperus osteosperma)
Cyperaceae
alkali bulrush (Bolboschoenus maritimus)
bearded flatsedge (Cyperus squarrosus)
black flatsedge (Cyperus niger)
Canada spikesedge (Eleocharis geniculata)
chairmaker's bulrush (Schoenoplectus americanus)
Chihuahuan sedge (Carex chihuahuensis)
clustered field sedge (Carex praegracilis)
common spikerush (Eleocharis palustris)
epiphytic flatsedge (Cyperus lanceolatus)
Fendler's flatsedge (Cyperus fendlerianus)
finger flatsedge (Cyperus digitatus)
foothill flatsedge (Cyperus amabilis)
forked fimbry (Fimbristylis dichotoma)
fragrant flatsedge (Cyperus odoratus)
Funck's hairsedge (Bulbostylis funckii)
grassleaf sedge (Carex agrostoides)
green flatsedge (Cyperus virens)
hairy flatsedge (Cyperus dentoniae)
hardstem bulrush (Schoenoplectus acutus)
hermaphrodite flatsedge (Cyperus hermaphroditus)
Huachuca Mountain sedge (Carex leucodonta)
inflatedscale flatsedge (Cyperus aggregatus)
Kunth's beaksedge (Rhynchospora kunthii)
manyspike flatsedge (Cyperus polystachyos)
mosquito flatsedge (Cyperus prolixus)
mountain spikerush (Eleocharis montana)
Mutis' flatsedge (Cyperus mutisii)
Nebraska sedge (Carex nebrascensis)
netted nutrush (Scleria reticularis)
nutgrass (Cyperus rotundus)
oneflower flatsedge (Cyperus retroflexus)
pallid flatsedge (Cyperus pallidicolor)
Parish's spikerush (Eleocharis parishii)
pine flatsedge (Cyperus hypopitys)
pond flatsedge (Cyperus ochraceus)
poorland flatsedge (Cyperus compressus)
purple spikerush (Eleocharis atropurpurea)
ricefield flatsedge (Cyperus iria)
riverswamp nutrush (Scleria hirtella)
rooted spikerush (Eleocharis radicans)
royal flatsedge (Cyperus elegans)
Rusby's flatsedge (Cyperus sphaerolepis)
rush hairsedge (Bulbostylis juncoides)
sand spikerush (Eleocharis montevidensis)
seacoast bulrush (Bolboschoenus robustus)
sharpscale flatsedge (Cyperus oxylepis)
slender flatsedge (Cyperus bipartitus)
smallflower halfchaff sedge (Lipocarpha micrantha)
smooth flatsedge (Cyperus laevigatus)
southern fimbry (Fimbristylis decipiens)
spectacular flatsedge (Cyperus spectabilis)
starrush whitetop (Rhynchospora colorata)
swamp carex (Carex senta)
taperfruit shortscale sedge (Carex leptopoda)
tapertip flatsedge (Cyperus acuminatus)
Texas flatsedge (Cyperus seslerioides)
tropical flatsedge (Cyperus surinamensis)
turban sedge (Carex turbinata)
umbrella plant (Cyperus involucratus)
variable flatsedge (Cyperus difformis)
white-edge flatsedge (Cyperus flavicomus)
whitehead sedge (Kyllinga odorata)
widefruit sedge (Carex angustata)
withering flatsedge (Cyperus fugax)
woodrush flatsedge (Cyperus entrerianus)
Wright's flatsedge (Carex dipsaceus)
yellow flatsedge (Cyperus flavescens)
yerba de estrella (Rhynchospora nervosa)
Dennstaedtiaceae
tropical hayscented fern (Dennstaedtia cicutaria)
western bracken fern (Pteridium aquilinum)
Dioscoreaceae
barbasquillo (Dioscorea convolvulacea)
Dryopteridaceae
Christmas fern (Polystichum acrostichoides)
cinnamon woodfern (Dryopteris cinnamomea)
eared veinfern (Phanerophlebia auriculata)
Ebenaceae
Sonoran persimmon (Diospyros sonorae)
wild persimmon (Diospyros californica)
Elatinaceae
Texas bergia (Bergia texana)
Ephedraceae
longleaf jointfir (Ephedra trifurca)
Nevada jointfir (Ephedra nevadensis)
rough jointfir (Ephedra aspera)
Equisetaceae
dwarf scouringrush (Equisetum scirpoides)
smooth horsetail (Equisetum laevigatum)
Ericaceae
Arizona madrone (Arbutus arizonica)
Baja birdbush (Ornithostaphylos oppositifolia)
dwarf bilberry (Vaccinium caespitosum)
ghost plant (Monotropa uniflora)
peninsular manzanita (Arctostaphylos peninsularis)
pinesap (Monotropa hypopitys)
pointleaf manzanita (Arctostaphylos pungens)
sidebells wintergreen (Orthilia secunda)
striped prince's pine (Chimaphila maculata)
Texas madrone (Arbutus xalapensis)
Erythroxylaceae
redheart (Erythroxylum mexicanum)
Euphorbiaceae
Abrams' sandmat (Euphorbia abramsiana)
Arizona manihot (Manihot davisiae)
Arizona nettlespurge (Jatropha cinerea)
Arizona sandmat (Euphorbia arizonica)
arrow poison plant (Sebastiania bilocularis)
beetle spurge (Euphorbia eriantha)
blackseed spurge (Euphorbia bilobata)
branched noseburn (Tragia ramosa)
buckeye-leafed cassava (Manihot aesculifolia)
California copperleaf (Acalypha californica)
candelilla (Euphorbia ceroderma)
Carrizo Mountain sandmat (Euphorbia pediculifera)
castor bean (Ricinus communis)
catnip noseburn (Tragia nepetifolia)
Chiricahua Mountain sandmat (Euphorbia florida)
cliff spurge (Euphorbia misera)
David's spurge (Euphorbia davidii)
desertmountain manihot (Manihot angustiloba)
desert silverbush (Argythamnia claryana)
eyebane (Euphorbia nutans)
fire on the mountain (Euphorbia cyathophora)
foxtail copperleaf (Acalypha alopecuroides)
graceful sandmat (Euphorbia hypericifolia)
grassleaf sandmat (Euphorbia graminea)
gulf sandmat (Euphorbia thymifolia)
hairyfruit spurge (Euphorbia cuphosperma)
head sandmat (Euphorbia capitellata)
hoary myrtlecroton (Bernardia incana)
horned spurge (Euphorbia brachycera)
Huachuca Mountain spurge (Euphorbia macropus)
hyssopleaf sandmat (Euphorbia hyssopifolia)
Jones' noseburn (Tragia jonesii)
leatherweed (Croton pottsii)
mala mujer (Cnidoscolus angustidens)
matted sandmat (Euphorbia serpens)
Mendez's sandmat (Euphorbia mendezii)
Mexican copperleaf (Acalypha mexicana)
Mexican croton (Croton ciliatoglandulifer)
Mexican fireplant (Euphorbia heterophylla)
Mexican jumping bean (Sebastiania pavoniana)
Mexican sandmat (Euphorbia gracillima)
milk purslane (Euphorbia maculata)
mountain spurge (Euphorbia chamaesula)
narrowleaf silverbush (Argythamnia lanceolata)
New Mexico copperleaf (Acalypha neomexicana)
New Mexico silverbush (Argythamnia neomexicana)
Parry's sandmat (Euphorbia parryi)
petty spurge (Euphorbia peplus)
physicnut (Jatropha cuneata)
pillpod sandmat (Euphorbia hirta)
pineland threeseed mercury (Acalypha ostryifolia)
prostrate sandmat (Euphorbia prostrata)
queen's-root (Stillingia linearifolia)
ragged nettlespurge (Jatropha macrorhiza)
red-gland spurge (Euphorbia melanadenia)
ribseed sandmat (Euphorbia glyptosperma)
royal sandmat (Euphorbia indivisa)
sangre de cristo (Jatropha cardiophylla)
San Pedro River sandmat (Euphorbia trachysperma)
sawtooth sandmat (Euphorbia serrula)
slimseed sandmat (Euphorbia stictospora)
slipper flower (Pedilanthus macrocarpus)
smallseed sandmat (Euphorbia polycarpa)
snow on the mountain (Euphorbia marginata)
squareseed spurge (Euphorbia exstipulata)
Sonoita noseburn (Tragia laciniata)
Sonoran croton (Croton sonorae)
Sonoran sandmat (Euphorbia micromera)
southern Florida sandmat (Euphorbia adenoptera)
spurgecreeper (Dalechampia scandens)
sun spurge (Euphorbia radians)
sycamore-leafed limberbush (Jatropha malacophylla)
threadstem sandmat (Euphorbia revoluta)
whitemargin sandmat (Euphorbia albomarginata)
Yuma sandmat (Euphorbia setiloba)
Yuma silverbush (Argythamnia serrata)
Fabaceae
American sicklepod (Senna obtusifolia)
anil de pasto (Indigofera suffruticosa)
anil falso (Coursetia caribaea)
Arizona lupine (Lupinus arizonicus)
Arizona milkvetch (Astragalus arizonicus)
Arizona necklacepod (Sophora arizonica)
Arizona ticktrefoil (Desmodium arizonicum)
arrowhead rattlebox (Crotalaria sagittalis)
arroyo lupine (Lupinus succulentus)
Asian indigo (Indigofera trita)
Atlantic pigeonwings (Clitoria mariana)
Aztec clover (Trifolium amabile)
bajada lupine (Lupinus concinnus)
Baja fairyduster (Calliandra californica)
barba de chivato (Calliandra houstoniana)
bayahonda blanca (Prosopis juliflora)
bigpod sesbania (Sesbania herbacea)
bird of paradise shrub (Caesalpinia gilliesii)
black locust (Robinia pseudoacacia)
blue paloverde (Parkinsonia florida)
boat-spine acacia (Acacia cochliacantha)
brasilette (Haematoxylum brasiletto)
Brazilian jackbean (Canavalia brasiliensis)
Brazilian stylo (Stylosanthes guianensis)
broadleaf lupine (Lupinus parishii)
burclover (Medicago polymorpha)
California dalea (Psorothamnus arborescens)
carabatilla de espina negra (Senegalia kelloggiana)
cassie (Vachellia farnesiana)
catclaw acacia (Senegalia greggii)
catclaw blackbead (Pithecellobium unguis-cati)
catclaw mimosa (Mimosa aculeaticarpa)
chacapo (Mimosa polyantha)
chaparral pea (Pickeringia montana)
Chihuahuan prairie clover (Dalea exigua)
Chihuahuan snoutbean (Rhynchosia edulis)
chipilín (Crotalaria longirostrata)
coastal bird's-foot trefoil (Lotus salsuginosus)
coralbean (Erythrina flabelliformis)
corcho (Diphysa suberosa)
Coues' cassia (Senna covesii)
Coville's bundleflower (Desmanthus covillei)
cow clover (Trifolium wormskioldii)
dead and awake (Neptunia plena)
deerweed (Syrmatium glabrum)
desert false indigo (Amorpha fruticosa)
desert ironwood (Olneya tesota)
desert lupine (Lupinus sparsiflorus)
desertsenna (Senna armata)
dixie ticktrefoil (Desmodium tortuosum)
dwarf prairie clover (Dalea nana)
dwarf stickpea (Calliandra humilis)
dwarf white milkvetch (Astragalus didymocarpus)
dyebush (Psorothamnus emoryi)
ébano (Caesalpinia sclerocarpa)
elegant lupine (Lupinus elegans)
fairyduster (Calliandra eriophylla)
feather acacia (Acacia pennatula)
featherplume (Dalea formosa)
fish poison tree (Piscidia mollis)
flor de San José (Senna atomaria)
foothill deervetch (Lotus humistratus)
foxtail prairie clover (Dalea leporina)
freckled milkvetch (Astragalus lentiginosus)
Frémont's dalea (Psorothamnus fremontii)
frijolillo (Acacia goldmanii)
Gentry's indigobush (Dalea tentaculoides)
giant sensitive plant (Mimosa diplotricha)
Graham's mimosa (Mimosa grahamii)
Graham's ticktrefoil (Desmodium grahamii)
grape soda lupine (Lupinus excubitus)
grassleaf pea (Lathyrus graminifolius)
Gray's prairie clover (Dalea grayi)
green cassia (Cassia nemophila)
Greene's bird's-foot trefoil (Lotus greenei)
greenleaf ticktrefoil (Desmodium intortum)
Gregg's prairie clover (Dalea greggii)
guayabillo (Mariosousa russelliana)
Gulf Indian breadroot (Pediomelum rhombifolium)
gulo (Havardia sonorae)
haba de barranca (Brongniartia nudiflora)
hairy jointvetch (Aeschynomene villosa)
hairypod cowpea (Vigna luteola)
hairy prairie clover (Dalea mollis)
halfmoon milkvetch (Astragalus allochrous)
Hill's lupine (Lupinus hillii)
honeylocust (Gleditsia triacanthos)
honey mesquite (Prosopis glandulosa)
hourglass peaseed (Sphinctospermum constrictum)
Huachuca Mountain lupine (Lupinus huachucanus)
Huachuca Mountain milkvetch (Astragalus hypoxylus)
huiloche (Diphysa occidentalis)
Indian rushpea (Hoffmannseggia glauca)
Jerusalem thorn (Parkinsonia aculeata)
least snoutbean (Rhynchosia minima)
Lemmon's cologania (Cologania obovata)
Lemmon's lupine (Lupinus lemmonii)
littleleaf false tamarind (Lysiloma watsonii)
littleleaf greentwig (Brongniartia minutifolia)
longleaf cologania (Cologania angustifolia)
low prairie clover (Dalea scandens)
low rattlebox (Crotalaria pumila)
Lumholtz's prairie clover (Dalea lumholtzii)
Mexican ebony (Havardia mexicana)
Mexican holdback (Caesalpinia mexicana)
Mexican kidneywood (Eysenhardtia polystachya)
Mexican mimosa (Mimosa distachya)
Mexican pea tree (Brongniartia alamosana)
Mexican prairie clover (Dalea exserta)
Mexican redbud (Cercis mexicana)
milfoil wattle (Mariosousa millefolia)
miniature lupine (Lupinus bicolor)
Mogollon Mountain vetch (Vicia leucophaea)
Mojave lupine (Lupinus odoratus)
monkeypod (Pithecellobium dulce)
mountain goldenbanner (Thermopsis montana)
nacascolo (Chloroleucon mangense)
narrowleaf ticktrefoil (Desmodium angustifolium)
New Mexico bird's-foot trefoil (Lotus plebeius)
New Mexico lupine (Lupinus neomexicanus)
New Mexico ticktrefoil (Desmodium neomexicanum)
oakwoods prairie clover (Dalea versicolor)
oneleaf senna (Senna uniflora)
pojo de venado (Canavalia villosa)
Pacific pea (Lathyrus vestitus)
pale cologania (Cologania pallida)
palo blanco (Lysiloma candidum)
palo brea (Parkinsonia praecox)
palo chino (Acacia peninsularis)
palo Colorado (Caesalpinia platyloba)
palo estaca (Caesalpinia pannosa)
palo fierro (Hesperalbizia occidentalis)
palo joso (Albizia sinaloensis)
Parry's false prairie-clover (Marina parryi)
pata de cabra (Bauhinia pringlei)
Pinos Altos Mountain bean (Phaseolus parvulus)
poorman's friend (Stylosanthes viscosa)
prairie acacia (Acacia angustissima)
pride of Barbados (Caesalpinia pulcherrima)
pride of California (Lathyrus splendens)
Pringle's prairie clover (Dalea pringlei)
Puerto Rico sensitive briar (Mimosa asperata)
purple bushbean (Macroptilium atropurpureum)
purple desert lupine (Lupinus shockleyi)
quebracho (Lysiloma divaricatum)
quickstick (Gliricidia sepium)
red fairyduster (Calliandra peninsularis)
red hoarypea (Tephrosia vicioides)
rosary babybonnets (Coursetia glandulosa)
rosary snoutbean (Rhynchosia precatoria)
Rose's ticktrefoil (Desmodium rosei)
royal poinciana (Delonix regia)
San Pedro false prairie-clover (Marina calycosa)
San Pedro ticktrefoil (Desmodium batocaulon)
Santa Catalina prairie clover (Dalea pulchra)
Santa Cruz Island ticktrefoil (Desmodium psilocarpum)
Santa Rita Mountain ticktrefoil (Desmodium retinens)
scarlet milkvetch (Astragalus coccineus)
Schott's dalea (Psorothamnus schottii)
Schott's yellowhood (Nissolia schottii)
scorpion ticktrefoil (Desmodium scorpiurus)
screwbean mesquite (Prosopis pubescens)
sensitive partridge pea (Chamaecrista nictitans)
septicweed (Senna occidentalis)
shakeshake (Crotalaria incana)
shortstem lupine (Lupinus brevicaulis)
shrubby deervetch (Lotus rigidus)
shyleaf (Aeschynomene americana)
silver prairie clover (Dalea bicolor)
silver senna (Senna artemisioides)
silvery lupine (Lupinus argenteus)
simpleleaf ticktrefoil (Desmodium psilophyllum)
sixweeks prairie clover (Dalea polygonoides)
slender sensitive pea (Chamaecrista serpens)
slimjim bean (Phaseolus filiformis)
slimleaf bean (Phaseolus angustissimus)
smoketree (Psorothamnus spinosus)
smooth babybonnets (Coursetia glabella)
smoothpod hoarypea (Tephrosia leiocarpa)
soft prairie clover (Dalea mollissima)
Sonoran bean (Phaseolus pedicellatus)
Sonoran bird's-foot trefoil (Lotus alamosanus)
Sonoran indigo (Indigofera sphaerocarpa)
Sonoran prairie clover (Dalea filiformis)
Sonoran ticktrefoil (Desmodium scopulorum)
sourclover (Melilotus indica)
spiked ticktrefoil (Desmodium cinerascens)
spotted bean (Phaseolus maculatus)
spreading false prairie-clover (Marina diffusa)
spurred butterfly pea (Centrosema virginianum)
strigose bird's-foot trefoil (Lotus strigosus)
sweetclover vetch (Vicia pulchella)
sweet pea (Lathyrus odoratus)
tailcup lupine (Lupinus caudatus)
tamarind (Tamarindus indica)
tepary bean (Phaseolus acutifolius)
Texas snoutbean (Rhynchosia senna)
Thurber's diphysa (Diphysa thurberi)
Thurber's hoarypea (Tephrosia thurberi)
Townsville stylo (Stylosanthes humilis)
tree catclaw (Acacia occidentalis)
tropical ticktrefoil (Desmodium cajanifolium)
turkeypeas (Astragalus nuttallianus)
twinleaf senna (Senna bauhinioides)
twohorn bundleflower (Desmanthus bicornutus)
vainilla (Clitoria polystachya)
variableleaf bushbean (Macroptilium gibbosifolium)
velvet leaf senna (Senna lindheimeriana)
velvet mesquite (Prosopis velutina)
velvetpod mimosa (Mimosa dysocarpa)
viche (Caesalpinia standleyi)
viscid acacia (Acacia neovernicosa)
western redbud (Cercis occidentalis)
western trailing ticktrefoil (Desmodium procumbens)
wetapochi (Caesalpinia caladenia)
whitebark acacia (Mariosousa willardiana)
whiteflower prairie clover (Dalea albiflora)
white leadtree (Leucaena leucocephala)
white prairie clover (Dalea candida)
wild pea (Vigna adenantha)
Wislizenus' senna (Senna wislizeni)
woman's tongue (Albizia lebbeck)
wondering cowpea (Vigna speciosa)
woods clover (Trifolium pinetorum)
woolly locoweed (Astragalus mollissimus)
woolly senna (Senna hirsuta)
Wright's milkpea (Galactia wrightii)
Wright's prairie clover (Dalea wrightii)
yellow paloverde (Parkinsonia microphylla)
yellow sweetclover (Melilotus albus)
yoke-leaved amicia (Amicia zygomeris)
zarzabacoa de dos hojas (Zornia reticulata)
Fagaceae
black oak (Quercus devia)
Brandegee oak (Quercus brandegeei)
California live oak (Quercus agrifolia)
canyon live oak (Quercus chrysolepis)
Chihuahua oak (Quercus chihuahuensis)
cusi (Quercus albocincta)
Davis Mountain oak (Quercus depressipes)
Emory oak (Quercus emoryi)
encino asta (Quercus subspathulata)
gray oak (Quercus grisea)
handbasin oak (Quercus tarahumara)
Mexican blue oak (Quercus oblongifolia)
netleaf oak (Quercus rugosa)
Palmer oak (Quercus palmeri)
pungent oak (Quercus pungens)
roble prieto (Quercus durifolia)
scrub oak (Quercus dumosa)
silverleaf oak (Quercus hypoleucoides)
Sonoran oak (Quercus viminea)
Sonoran scrub oak (Quercus turbinella)
Toumey oak (Quercus toumeyi)
valley oak (Quercus lobata)
Fouquieriaceae
Adam's tree (Fouquieria diguetii)
boojum (Fouquieria columnaris)
Mexican tree ocotillo (Fouquieria macdougalii)
ocotillo (Fouquieria splendens)
pichilingue (Fouquieria burragei)
tropical ocotillo (Fouquieria fasciculata)
Frankeniaceae
alkali heath (Frankenia salina)
Palmer's seaheath (Frankenia palmeri)
Garryaceae
ashy silktassel (Garrya flavescens)
eggleaf silktassel (Garrya ovata)
laurelleaf silktassel (Garrya laurifolia)
Wright's silktassel (Garrya wrightii)
Gelsemiaceae
Carolina jessamine (Gelsemium sempervirens)
Gentianaceae
Arizona centaury (Zeltnera calycosa)
autumn dwarf gentian (Gentianella amarella)
Chiricahua dwarf gentian (Gentianella microcalyx)
Chiricahua Mountain dwarf gentian (Gentianella wislizeni)
desert centaury (Zeltnera exaltata)
elkweed (Frasera speciosa)
grand fringed gentian (Gentianopsis macrantha)
Mt. Graham spurred gentian (Halenia recurva)
Santa Catalina Mountain centaury (Zeltnera nudicaulis)
Geraniaceae
Huachuca Mountain geranium (Geranium wislizeni)
Richardson's geranium (Geranium richardsonii)
Texas stork's bill (Erodium texanum)
Grossulariaceae
chaparral currant (Ribes indecorum)
fuchsia-flowered currant (Ribes speciosum)
island currant (Ribes viburnifolium)
orange gooseberry (Ribes pinetorum)
Haloragaceae
cutleaf watermilfoil (Myriophyllum pinnatum)
Eurasian watermilfoil (Myriophyllum spicatum)
parrot feather watermilfoil (Myriophyllum aquaticum)
Hydrangeaceae
cliff fendlerbush (Fendlera rupicola)
climbing hydrangea (Hydrangea seemannii)
Lewis' mock orange (Philadelphus lewisii)
littleleaf mock orange (Philadelphus microphyllus)
Hydrocharitaceae
hydrilla (Hydrilla verticillata)
nodding waternymph (Najas flexilis)
Hydroleaceae
spiny false fiddleleaf (Hydrolea spinosa)
Hypericaceae
Scouler's St. John's wort (Hypericum scouleri)
Hypoxidaceae
Mexican yellow star-grass (Hypoxis mexicana)
Iridaceae
Arizona blue-eyed grass (Sisyrinchium arizonicum)
blackberry lily (Belamcanda chinensis)
false freesia (Freesia laxa)
fragrant gladiolus (Gladiolus callianthus)
montbretia (Crocosmia crocosmiiflora)
nodding blue-eyed grass (Sisyrinchium cernuum)
North's false flag (Neomarica northiana)
Rocky Mountain iris (Iris missouriensis)
stiff blue-eyed grass (Sisyrinchium demissum)
tiger flower (Tigridia pavonia)
western blue-eyed grass (Sisyrinchium bellum)
yellow walking iris (Neomarica longifolia)
Juglandaceae
Arizona walnut (Juglans major)
Juncaceae
arctic rush (Juncus arcticus)
Colorado rush (Juncus confusus)
forked rush (Juncus dichotomus)
grassleaf rush (Juncus marginatus)
jointleaf rush (Juncus articulatus)
poverty rush (Juncus tenuis)
swordleaf rush (Juncus ensifolius)
tapertip rush (Juncus acuminatus)
Juncaginaceae
lilaea (Lilaea scilloides)
Krameriaceae
littleleaf ratany (Krameria erecta)
trailing ratany (Krameria lanceolata)
white ratany (Krameria bicolor)
Lamiaceae
American pennyroyal (Hedeoma pulegioides)
apple mint (Mentha suaveolens)
Arizona bluecurls (Trichostema arizonicum)
Arizona monardella (Monardella arizonica)
autumn sage (Salvia greggii)
baby sage (Salvia microphylla)
basil (Ocimum basilicum)
bastard lavender (Lavandula × intermedia)
black sage (Salvia mellifera)
blood sage (Salvia coccinea)
blue sage (Salvia pachyphylla)
bog sage (Salvia uliginosa)
Browne's savory (Clinopodium brownei)
Canary Island lavender (Lavandula canariensis)
Cedros Island sage (Salvia cedrosensis)
chia (Salvia hispanica)
Christmas candlestick (Leonotis nepetifolia)
Cleveland sage (Salvia clevelandii)
common horehound (Marrubium vulgare)
common sage (Salvia officinalis)
Coulter's wrinklefruit (Tetraclea coulteri)
creeping sage (Salvia sonomensis)
crimson sage (Salvia henryi)
Davidson's sage (Salvia davidsonii)
dentate falsepennyroyal (Hedeoma dentatum)
desert germander (Teucrium glandulosum)
desert indigo sage (Salvia arizonica)
desert lavender (Hyptis emoryi)
downy lavender (Lavandula multifida)
English lavender (Lavandula angustifolia)
European pennyroyal (Mentha pulegium)
fern lavender (Lavandula pinnata)
Florida Keys sage (Salvia riparia)
forsythia sage (Salvia madrensis)
gentian sage (Salvia patens)
grape-scented sage (Salvia melissodora)
henbit deadnettle (Lamium amplexicaule)
hummingbird sage (Salvia spathacea)
island pitcher sage (Lepechinia fragrans)
Jerusalem sage (Phlomis fruticosa)
lanceleaf sage (Salvia reflexa)
Lemmon's sage (Salvia lemmonii)
lemon beebalm (Monarda citriodora)
lindenleaf sage (Salvia tiliifolia)
lucha (Salvia alamosana)
mealy sage (Salvia farinacea)
Mexican bladdersage (Salazaria mexicana)
Mexican blue sage (Salvia chamaedryoides)
Mexican bush sage (Salvia leucantha)
Mexican sage (Salvia mexicana)
Mexican scarlet sage (Salvia fulgens)
Mexican skullcap (Scutellaria potosina)
Mojave sage (Salvia mohavensis)
mountain monardella (Monardella odoratissima)
mouse's ear (Stachys crenata)
Munz's sage (Salvia munzii)
negrito (Vitex pyramidata)
obedient plant (Physostegia virginiana)
pale giant hyssop (Agastache pallida)
pignut (Hyptis suaveolens)
pineapple sage (Salvia elegans)
pony beebalm (Monarda pectinata)
Pringle's giant hyssop (Agastache pringlei)
purple sage (Salvia dorrii)
ribbed false pennyroyal (Hedeoma costata)
rock hedgenettle (Stachys bigelovii)
rock sage (Salvia pinguifolia)
rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis)
San Diego pitcher sage (Lepechinia ganderi)
San Luis Mountain giant hyssop (Agastache mearnsii)
San Luis purple sage (Salvia leucophylla)
scarlet hedgenettle (Stachys coccinea)
scarlet sage (Salvia splendens)
shellflower (Moluccella laevis)
simpleleaf chastetree (Vitex trifolia)
small coastal germander (Teucrium cubense)
Sonoran giant hyssop (Agastache wrightii)
Spanish lavender (Lavandula stoechas)
spearmint (Mentha spicata)
thistle sage (Salvia carduacea)
tropical bushmint (Hyptis mutabilis)
uvalama (Vitex mollis)
wall germander (Teucrium chamaedrys)
white giant hyssop (Agastache micrantha)
white sage (Salvia apiana)
wild bergamot (Monarda fistulosa)
wild mint (Mentha arvensis)
woolly bluecurls (Trichostema lanatum)
yellow lavender (Lavandula viridis)
Lauraceae
California laurel (Umbellularia californica)
haya (Cinnamomum hartmannii)
Mexican bay (Litsea glaucescens)
shinglewood (Nectandra hihua)
Lentibulariaceae
humped bladderwort (Utricularia gibba)
Liliaceae
desert Mariposa lily (Calochortus kennedyi)
doubting Mariposa lily (Calochortus ambiguus)
golden Mariposa lily (Calochortus aureus)
lemon lily (Lilium parryi)
sego lily (Calochortus nuttallii)
Linaceae
blue flax (Linum perenne)
common flax (Linum usitatissimum)
New Mexico yellow flax (Linum neomexicanum)
plains flax (Linum puberulum)
red flax (Linum grandiflorum)
southern flax (Linum australe)
Loasaceae
Adonis blazingstar (Mentzelia multiflora)
Argus blazingstar (Mentzelia oreophila)
desert stingbush (Eucnide urens)
dwarf mentzelia (Mentzelia pumila)
isolated blazingstar (Mentzelia isolata)
Jones' blazingstar (Mentzelia jonesii)
narrowleaf sandpaper plant (Petalonyx linearis)
Organ Mountain blazingstar (Mentzelia asperula)
rock nettle (Eucnide rupestris)
shining blazingstar (Mentzelia nitens)
Texas blazingstar (Mentzelia texana)
tropical blazingstar (Mentzelia aspera)
whitebract blazingstar (Mentzelia involucrata)
whitestem blazingstar (Mentzelia albicaulis)
yellowcomet (Mentzelia affinis)
Loganiaceae
prairie pinkroot (Spigelia hedyotidea)
Lomariopsidaceae
Boston sword fern (Nephrolepis exaltata)
Lythraceae
bat-face flower (Cuphea llavea)
crepe myrtle (Lagerstroemia indica)
lowland rotala (Rotala ramosior)
pomegranate (Punica granatum)
shrubby yellowcrest (Heimia salicifolia)
stalkflower (Nesaea longipes)
valley redstem (Ammannia coccinea)
Wright's waxweed (Cuphea wrightii)
Malpighiaceae
acerola (Malpighia emarginata)
bejuco huesillo (Heteropterys palmeri)
chaparral asphead (Aspicarpa hirtella)
hillyhock (Callaeum macropterum)
narrowleaf goldshower (Galphimia angustifolia)
slender janusia (Janusia gracilis)
thryallis (Galphimia glauca)
wild crepe myrtle (Malpighia glabra)
Malvaceae
alkali mallow (Malvella leprosa)
American basswood (Tilia americana)
anglestem Indian mallow (Abutilon trisulcatum)
Arizona anoda (Anoda thurberi)
Arizona rosemallow (Hibiscus biseptus)
arrowleaf mallow (Malvella sagittifolia)
Berlandier's Indian mallow (Abutilon berlandieri)
bladdermallow (Herissantia crispa)
bracted fanpetals (Sida ciliaris)
Brazilian rosemallow (Hibiscus phoeniceus)
buffpetal (Rhynchosida physocalyx)
caliche globemallow (Sphaeralcea laxa)
California ayenia (Ayenia compacta)
California flannelbush (Fremontodendron californicum)
chaparral mallow (Malacothamnus fasciculatus)
cheeseweed (Malva parviflora)
Chinese hibiscus (Hibiscus rosa-sinensis)
copper globemallow (Sphaeralcea angustifolia)
Coulter's globemallow (Sphaeralcea coulteri)
crested anoda (Anoda cristata)
crimsoneyed rosemallow (Hibiscus moscheutos)
Cuban jute (Sida rhombifolia)
dense ayenia (Ayenia microphylla)
desert fivespot (Eremalche rotundifolia)
desert globemallow (Sphaeralcea ambigua)
dwarf checkermallow (Sidalcea malviflora)
desert rosemallow (Hibiscus coulteri)
dwarf Indian mallow (Abutilon parvulum)
earleaf fanpetals (Sida tragiifolia)
Emory globemallow (Sphaeralcea emoryi)
escoba babosa (Bastardia bivalvis)
field anoda (Anoda pentaschista)
flaxleaf fanpetals (Sida linifolia)
fringed rosemallow (Hibiscus schizopetalus)
grandcousin (Triumfetta lappula)
heartleaf hibiscus (Hibiscus martianus)
heartleaf sida (Sida cordifolia)
Indian anoda (Anoda abutiloides)
Indian sorrel (Hibiscus sabdariffa)
koki'o ke'oke'o (Hibiscus arnottianus)
lanceleaf anoda (Anoda lanceolata)
netted anoda (Anoda reticulata)
Newberry's velvetmallow (Horsfordia newberryi)
New Mexico fanpetals (Sida neomexicana)
Orinoco jute (Corchorus hirtus)
paleface (Hibiscus denudatus)
Palmer's Indian mallow (Abutilon palmeri)
Parish's Indian mallow (Abutilon parishii)
pelotazo (Abutilon incanum)
pink velvetmallow (Horsfordia alata)
pochote (Ceiba acuminata)
pricklenut (Guazuma ulmifolia)
prickly fanpetals (Sida spinosa)
pyramidflower (Melochia pyramidata)
Sacramento bur (Triumfetta semitriloba)
San Marcos hibiscus (Gossypium harknessii)
Santa Catalina burstwort (Hermannia pauciflora)
savannah fanpetals (Sida aggregata)
scurfymallow (Malvella lepidota)
shaving brush tree (Pseudobombax palmeri)
shrubby false mallow (Malvastrum bicuspidatum)
shrubby Indian mallow (Abutilon abutiloides)
slippery burr (Corchorus siliquosus)
smooth ayenia (Ayenia glabra)
smooth fanpetals (Sida glabra)
Sonoran Indian mallow (Abutilon mollicomum)
spear globemallow (Sphaeralcea hastulata)
spreading fanpetals (Sida abutifolia)
teabush (Melochia tomentosa)
thicket anoda (Anoda crenatiflora)
threelobe false mallow (Malvastrum coromandelianum)
Thurber's cotton (Gossypium thurberi)
Trans-Pecos ayenia (Ayenia filiformis)
tree hibiscus (Hibiscus tiliaceus)
Turk's cap (Malvaviscus penduliflorus)
uhaloa (Waltheria indica)
umbrella Indian mallow (Pseudabutilon umbellatum)
upland cotton (Gossypium hirsutum)
Davidson's cotton (Gossypium davidsonii)
viscid mallow (Bastardia viscosa)
wax mallow (Malvaviscus arboreus)
white mallow (Eremalche exilis)
yellowflower Indian mallow (Abutilon reventum)
yellow Indian mallow (Abutilon malacum)
yellowstem bushmallow (Malacothamnus densiflorus)
Marsileaceae
hairy waterclover (Marsilea vestita)
tropical waterclover (Marsilea ancylopoda)
Martyniaceae
baby devil's claw (Martynia annua)
desert unicorn-plant (Proboscidea althaeifolia)
doubleclaw (Proboscidea parviflora)
Melanthiaceae
California false hellebore (Veratrum californicum)
green deathcamas (Zigadenus virescens)
Meliaceae
broomstick (Trichilia hirta)
chinaberry (Melia azedarach)
koohoo (Trichilia americana)
Spanish cedar (Cedrela odorata)
Menispermaceae
snailseed (Cocculus diversifolius)
velvetleaf (Cissampelos pareira)
Menyanthaceae
floating heart (Nymphoides crenata)
Molluginaceae
green carpetweed (Mollugo verticillata)
spreading sweetjuice (Glinus radiatus)
threadstem carpetweed (Mollugo cerviana)
Montiaceae
common pussypaws (Cistanthe monandra)
desert pussypaws (Cistanthe ambigua)
fringed redmaids (Calandrinia ciliata)
orange fameflower (Phemeranthus aurantiacus)
tepic fameflower (Phemeranthus marginatus)
Moraceae
amate (Ficus maxima)
baiburilla (Dorstenia drakena)
breadnut (Brosimum alicastrum)
chalate (Ficus trigonata)
common fig (Ficus carica)
fustic (Maclura tinctoria)
mistletoe fig (Ficus deltoidea)
nacapul (Ficus cotinifolia)
rock fig (Ficus petiolaris)
Sonoran strangler fig (Ficus pertusa)
Texas mulberry (Morus microphylla)
weeping fig (Ficus benjamina)
white ramoon (Trophis racemosa)
Myrtaceae
arrayán (Psidium sartorianum)
common guava (Psidium guajava)
river redgum (Eucalyptus camaldulensis)
Nitrariaceae
harmal peganum (Peganum harmala)
Nyctaginaceae
Apache Pass spiderling (Boerhavia pterocarpa)
burrowing four o'clock (Okenia hypogaea)
climbing wartclub (Boerhavia scandens)
coastal sand verbena (Abronia maritima)
Coulter's spiderling (Boerhavia coulteri)
creeping spiderling (Boerhavia spicata)
desert wishbone bush (Mirabilis laevis)
erect spiderling (Boerhavia erecta)
fivewing spiderling (Boerhavia intermedia)
fragrant white sand verbena (Abronia elliptica)
hairy-tuft four o'clock (Mirabilis comata)
largebract spiderling (Boerhavia wrightii)
longlobe four o'clock (Mirabilis tenuiloba)
marvel of Peru (Mirabilis jalapa)
Mexican devil's-claws (Pisonia capitata)
pullback (Pisonia aculeata)
purple spiderling (Boerhavia purpurascens)
scarlet four o'clock (Mirabilis coccinea)
scarlet spiderling (Boerhavia coccinea)
slender spiderling (Boerhavia triquetra)
slimstalk spiderling (Boerhavia gracillima)
smooth spreading four o'clock (Mirabilis oxybaphoides)
sweet four o'clock (Mirabilis longiflora)
Tucson Mountain spiderling (Boerhavia megaptera)
white four o'clock (Mirabilis albida)
Nymphaeaceae
blue water lily (Nymphaea elegans)
dotleaf water lily (Nymphaea ampla)
Mexican water lily (Nymphaea mexicana)
yellow pond lily (Nuphar lutea)
Oleaceae
Arabian jasmine (Jasminum sambac)
caca ravet (Forestiera rhamnifolia)
chaparral ash (Fraxinus trifoliolata)
desert olive (Forestiera shrevei)
devilwood (Osmanthus americanus)
Goodding's ash (Fraxinus gooddingii)
rough menodora (Menodora scabra)
spiny menodora (Menodora spinescens)
stretchberry (Forestiera pubescens)
velvet ash (Fraxinus velutina)
Onagraceae
beach evening primrose (Oenothera drummondii)
Berlandier's sundrops (Oenothera berlandieri)
Booth's suncup (Eremothera boothii)
California evening primrose (Oenothera californica)
California suncup (Eulobus californicus)
common evening primrose (Oenothera biennis)
creeping water primrose (Ludwigia adscendens)
delicate clarkia (Clarkia delicata)
diamond clarkia (Clarkia rhomboidea)
elegant clarkia (Clarkia unguiculata)
farewell to spring (Clarkia amoena)
fireweed (Chamerion angustifolium)
fourwing evening primrose (Oenothera tetraptera)
fringed willowherb (Epilobium ciliatum)
harlequinbush (Gaura hexandra)
Hooker's evening primrose (Oenothera elata)
hummingbird trumpet (Epilobium canum)
Kunth's evening primrose (Oenothera kunthiana)
Lindheimer's beeblossom (Gaura lindheimeri)
longcapsule suncup (Camissonia chamaenerioides)
Mexican primrose-willow (Ludwigia octovalvis)
narrowleaf suncup (Eremothera refracta)
New Mexico evening primrose (Oenothera neomexicana)
pinkladies (Oenothera speciosa)
prairie evening primrose (Oenothera albicaulis)
rose evening primrose (Oenothera rosea)
Saltillo evening primrose (Oenothera stubbei)
scarlet beeblossom (Gaura coccinea)
shortfruit evening primrose (Oenothera brachycarpa)
silky evening primrose (Oenothera pubescens)
Toumey's sundrops (Calylophus toumeyi)
tufted evening primrose (Oenothera caespitosa)
velvetweed (Gaura mollis)
yellow cups (Chylismia brevipes)
yellow evening primrose (Oenothera flava)
Ophioglossaceae
limestone adderstongue (Ophioglossum engelmannii)
rattlesnake fern (Botrychium virginianum)
slender adderstongue (Ophioglossum nudicaule)
Opiliaceae
margarita (Agonandra racemosa)
Orchidaceae
autumn coralroot (Corallorhiza odontorhiza)
Chiricahua adder's-mouth orchid (Malaxis macrostachya)
cow's horn orchid (Cyrtopodium punctatum)
daddy longlegs orchid (Brassavola cucullata)
flor de los santos (Laelia eyermaniana)
green ladies' tresses (Spiranthes polyantha)
hooded coralroot (Corallorhiza striata)
Huachuca Mountain adder's-mouth orchid (Malaxis corymbosa)
largeflower crested coralroot (Hexalectris grandiflora)
leafless beaked lady orchid (Sacoila lanceolata)
Michaux's orchid (Habenaria quinqueseta)
pine-pink (Bletia purpurea)
rattail orchid (Oncidium cebolleta)
shortflowered bog orchid (Platanthera brevifolia)
spotted coralroot (Corallorhiza maculata)
stream orchid (Epipactis gigantea)
threebirds (Triphora trianthophora)
Thurber's bog orchid (Platanthera limosa)
tropical widelip orchid (Liparis vexillifera)
Orobanchaceae
alpine cancer-root (Conopholis alpina)
American cancer-root (Conopholis americana)
Applegate's Indian paintbrush (Castilleja applegatei)
Arizona bluehearts (Buchnera obliqua)
Arizona desert foxglove (Brachystigma wrightii)
Cooper's broomrape (Orobanche cooperi)
Eagle Pass blacksenna (Seymeria bipinnatisecta)
Huachuca Mountain Indian paintbrush (Castilleja patriotica)
lesser Indian paintbrush (Castilleja minor)
Mogollon Mountain lousewort (Pedicularis angustifolia)
najicoli (Lamourouxia viscosa)
pygmy bluehearts (Buchnera pusilla)
Rincon Mountain Indian paintbrush (Castilleja austromontana)
Santa Catalina Indian paintbrush (Castilleja tenuiflora)
spiked broomrape (Orobanche multicaulis)
Trans-Pecos Indian paintbrush (Castilleja nervata)
Oxalidaceae
alpine woodsorrel (Oxalis alpina)
broadleaf woodsorrel (Oxalis latifolia)
creeping woodsorrel (Oxalis corniculata)
Drummond's woodsorrel (Oxalis drummondii)
saladita (Oxalis hernandesii)
tenleaf woodsorrel (Oxalis decaphylla)
Papaveraceae
blackspot hornpoppy (Glaucium corniculatum)
bush poppy (Dendromecon rigida)
California bearpoppy (Arctomecon californica)
California poppy (Eschscholzia californica)
common bearpoppy (Arctomecon humilis)
corn poppy (Papaver rhoeas)
Coulter's Matilija poppy (Romneya coulteri)
creamcups (Platystemon californicus)
crested pricklypoppy (Argemone polyanthemos)
curvepod fumewort (Corydalis curvisiliqua)
desert poppy (Eschscholzia glyptosperma)
drug fumitory (Fumaria officinalis)
fineleaf fumitory (Fumaria parviflora)
fire poppy (Papaver californicum)
flatbud pricklypoppy (Argemone munita)
golden eardrops (Dicentra chrysantha)
Mexican pricklypoppy (Argemone mexicana)
Mojave pricklypoppy (Argemone corymbosa)
opium poppy (Papaver somniferum)
Pacific bleeding heart (Dicentra formosa)
pale Mexican pricklypoppy (Argemone ochroleuca)
Parish's poppy (Eschscholzia parishii)
scrambled eggs (Corydalis aurea)
Sonoran pricklypoppy (Argemone gracilenta)
Passifloraceae
Arizonia passionflower (Passiflora arizonica)
corkystem passionflower (Passiflora suberosa)
cupped passionflower (Passiflora bryonioides)
damiana (Turnera diffusa)
grape-leafed passion vine (Passiflora vitifolia)
Mexican passionflower (Passiflora mexicana)
scarlet passionflower (Passiflora coccinea)
slender passionflower (Passiflora filipes)
twoflower passionflower (Passiflora biflora)
winged-stem passionflower (Passiflora alata)
yellow alder (Turnera ulmifolia)
Pedaliaceae
sesame (Sesamum indicum)
Phrymaceae
bush monkeyflower (Diplacus longiflorus)
Cleveland monkeyflower (Diplacus clevelandii)
crimson monkeyflower (Mimulus verbenaceus)
Eastwood's monkeyflower (Mimulus eastwoodiae)
Jacumba monkeyflower (Mimulus aridus)
little redstem monkeyflower (Mimulus rubellus)
manyflowered monkeyflower (Mimulus floribundus)
red bush monkeyflower (Mimulus puniceus)
seep monkeyflower (Mimulus guttatus)
sticky monkeyflower (Mimulus aurantiacus)
toothpetal monkeyflower (Mimulus dentilobus)
Phyllanthaceae
birdseed leaf-flower (Phyllanthus evanescens)
smartweed leaf-flower (Phyllanthus polygonoides)
Phytolaccaceae
anamu (Petiveria alliacea)
pokeberry (Phytolacca icosandra)
rougeplant (Rivina humilis)
Picramniaceae
Mexican alvaradoa (Alvaradoa amorphoides)
Picrodendraceae
Hall's shrubby-spurge (Tetracoccus hallii)
red shrubby-spurge (Tetracoccus dioicus)
Pinaceae
Apache pine (Pinus engelmannii)
Arizona pine (Pinus arizonica)
bishop pine (Pinus muricata)
border pinyon (Pinus discolor)
Chihuahuan pine (Pinus leiophylla)
Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii)
Durango fir (Abies durangensis)
egg cone pine (Pinus oocarpa)
Jeffrey pine (Pinus jeffreyi)
lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta)
Lumholtz's pine (Pinus lumholtzii)
Mexican pinyon (Pinus cembroides)
ocote (Pinus herrerae)
Parry pinyon (Pinus quadrifolia)
ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa)
smooth-bark Mexican pine (Pinus pseudostrobus)
southwestern white pine (Pinus strobiformis)
sugar pine (Pinus lambertiana)
thinleaf pine (Pinus maximinoi)
twoneedle pinyon (Pinus edulis)
Piperaceae
four-leaved peperomia (Peperomia tetraphylla)
Jamaican pepper (Piper hispidum)
palo hueso (Piper jaliscanum)
Vera Cruz pepper (Piper auritum)
Plantaginaceae
baby jump-up (Mecardonia procumbens)
Baja bush snapdragon (Galvezia juncea)
balloonbush (Epixiphium wislizeni)
bellflower beardtongue (Penstemon campanulatus)
cardinal beardtongue (Penstemon cardinalis)
Catalina beardtongue (Penstemon discolor)
Chinese houses (Collinsia heterophylla)
Cleveland's beardtongue (Penstemon clevelandii)
coast plantain (Plantago bigelovii)
Cochise beardtongue (Penstemon dasyphyllus)
common plantain (Plantago major)
common snapdragon (Antirrhinum majus)
coral plant (Russelia polyedra)
creeping water hyssop (Bacopa repens)
desert Indianwheat (Plantago ovata)
dog's mouth (Pseudorontium cyathiferum)
Fendler's penstemon (Penstemon fendleri)
ghost flower (Mohavea confertiflora)
gilia beardtongue (Penstemon ambiguus)
hackberry beardtongue (Penstemon subulatus)
hairy purslane speedwell (Veronica peregrina)
harlequin spiralseed (Schistophragma intermedia)
heartleaf keckiella (Keckiella cordifolia)
island bush snapdragon (Galvezia speciosa)
James' beardtongue (Penstemon jamesii)
Mexican plantain (Plantago australis)
narrowleaf plantain (Plantago lanceolata)
Parry's beardtongue (Penstemon parryi)
pineneedle beardtongue (Penstemon pinifolius)
redseed plantain (Plantago rhodosperma)
rock penstemon (Penstemon baccharifolius)
Rocky Mountain penstemon (Penstemon strictus)
royal penstemon (Penstemon spectabilis)
saltmeadow plantain (Plantago argyrea)
scarlet bugler (Penstemon centranthifolius)
snapdragon vine (Maurandya antirrhiniflora)
Sonoran beardtongue (Penstemon stenophyllus)
superb beardtongue (Penstemon superbus)
Texas toadflax (Nuttallanthus texanus)
Thurber's penstemon (Penstemon thurberi)
twining snapdragon (Antirrhinum filipes)
violet snapdragon (Sairocarpus nuttallianus)
Virginia plantain (Plantago virginica)
water hyssop (Bacopa monnieri)
Watson's snapdragon (Sairocarpus watsonii)
whitemargin beardtongue (Penstemon albomarginatus)
whitewoolly twintip (Stemodia durantifolia)
woolly plantain (Plantago patagonica)
Wright penstemon (Penstemon wrightii)
yellow bush penstemon (Keckiella antirrhinoides)
Platanaceae
Arizona sycamore (Platanus wrightii)
California sycamore (Platanus racemosa)
Plumbaginaceae
Cape plumbago (Plumbago auriculata)
doctorbush (Plumbago scandens)
marsh rosemary (Limonium californicum)
Poaceae
African lovegrass (Eragrostis echinochloidea)
Alamos grama (Bouteloua alamosana)
alkali sacaton (Sporobolus airoides)
Amazon sprangletop (Leptochloa panicoides)
Angleton bluestem (Dichanthium aristatum)
annual bluegrass (Poa annua)
annual canarygrass (Phalaris canariensis)
annual muhly (Muhlenbergia minutissima)
annual rabbitsfoot grass (Polypogon monspeliensis)
Arabian schismus (Schismus arabicus)
Arizona bristlegrass (Setaria arizonica)
Arizona brome (Bromus carinatus)
Arizona cottontop (Digitaria californica)
Arizona muhly (Muhlenbergia arizonica)
Arizona signalgrass (Urochloa arizonica)
Arizona threeawn (Aristida arizonica)
Arizona wheatgrass (Elymus arizonicus)
arrocillo (Paspalum paniculatum)
Asian crabgrass (Digitaria bicornis)
bahiagrass (Paspalum notatum)
bamboo muhly (Muhlenbergia dumosa)
barnyard grass (Echinochloa crus-galli)
basketgrass (Oplismenus hirtellus)
bearded cupgrass (Eriochloa aristata)
beardless rabbitsfoot grass (Polypogon viridis)
big bluestem (Andropogon gerardi)
Bigelow's bluegrass (Poa bigelovii)
big galleta (Pleuraphis rigida)
big sacaton (Sporobolus wrightii)
black grama (Bouteloua eriopoda)
blackseed crabgrass (Digitaria ternata)
black spear grass (Heteropogon contortus)
blue grama (Bouteloua gracilis)
blue panicum (Panicum antidotale)
bristly wolfstail (Lycurus setosus)
broadleaf carpetgrass (Axonopus compressus)
browntop signalgrass (Urochloa fusca)
bulb panicgrass (Panicum bulbosum)
bullgrass (Muhlenbergia emersleyi)
bur bristlegrass (Setaria adhaerens)
Burmann's basketgrass (Oplismenus burmannii)
burrograss (Scleropogon brevifolius)
buryseed umbrellagrass (Enteropogon chlorideus)
bush muhly (Muhlenbergia porteri)
California satintail (Imperata brevifolia)
California threeawn (Aristida californica)
cane bluestem (Bothriochloa barbinodis)
canyon cupgrass (Eriochloa lemmonii)
carricillo de la sierra (Lasiacis procerrima)
cattail grass (Setaria pumila)
cheatgrass (Bromus tectorum)
Chihuahuan lovegrass (Eragrostis erosa)
cliff muhly (Muhlenbergia polycaulis)
climbing tribisee (Lasiacis ruscifolia)
Colombian bluestem (Schizachyrium condensatum)
combtop muhly (Muhlenbergia pectinata)
common barley (Hordeum vulgare)
common Mediterranean grass (Schismus barbatus)
common oat (Avena sativa)
common reed (Phragmites australis)
common wheat (Triticum aestivum)
common wild oat (Avena fatua)
common wolfstail (Lycurus phleoides)
cotta grass (Cottea pappophoroides)
crimson bluestem (Schizachyrium sanguineum)
crimson fountaingrass (Pennisetum setaceum)
dallisgrass (Paspalum dilatatum)
deergrass (Muhlenbergia rigens)
delicate muhly (Muhlenbergia fragilis)
desert needlegrass (Achnatherum speciosum)
ditch rabbitsfoot grass (Polypogon interruptus)
Egyptian grass (Dactyloctenium aegyptium)
fat-spiked yard grass (Eleusine multiflora)
feather fingergrass (Chloris virgata)
feathertop (Pennisetum villosum)
foldedleaf grass (Andropogon fastigiatus)
fragilegrass (Aegopogon tenellus)
giant reed (Arundo donax)
giant wildrye (Leymus condensatus)
goldentop grass (Lamarckia aurea)
gophertail lovegrass (Eragrostis ciliaris)
gravelbar muhly (Muhlenbergia eludens)
green muhly (Muhlenbergia ramulosa)
green sprangletop (Leptochloa dubia)
Grisebach's bristlegrass (Setaria grisebachii)
Gulf muhly (Muhlenbergia capillaris)
hairy crabgrass (Digitaria sanguinalis)
hairyseed paspalum (Paspalum pubiflorum)
Hartweg's paspalum (Paspalum hartwegianum)
hillside crowngrass (Paspalum clavuliferum)
hood canarygrass (Phalaris paradoxa)
hurricane grass (Bothriochloa pertusa)
Indian goosegrass (Eleusine indica)
Indiangrass (Sorghastrum nutans)
Indian ricegrass (Achnatherum hymenoides)
inland saltgrass (Distichlis spicata)
Jamaican crabgrass (Digitaria horizontalis)
James' galleta (Pleuraphis jamesii)
Johnsongrass (Sorghum halepense)
Judd's grass (Leptochloa virgata)
jungle rice (Echinochloa colona)
Kleberg bluestem (Dichanthium annulatum)
knotgrass (Paspalum distichum)
Kunth's smallgrass (Microchloa kunthii)
Latin American crowngrass (Paspalum convexum)
Lehmann lovegrass (Eragrostis lehmanniana)
lemongrass (Cymbopogon citratus)
Liebmann's bristlegrass (Setaria liebmannii)
little barley (Hordeum pusillum)
little bluestem (Schizachyrium scoparium)
littleseed canarygrass (Phalaris minor)
littleseed muhly (Muhlenbergia microsperma)
longtongue muhly (Muhlenbergia longiligula)
lovegrass tridens (Tridens eragrostoides)
low woollygrass (Dasyochloa pulchella)
Malabar sprangletop (Leptochloa fusca)
marine couch (Sporobolus virginicus)
marsh bristlegrass (Setaria parviflora)
Mediterranean lovegrass (Eragrostis barrelieri)
mesa muhly (Muhlenbergia tenuifolia)
Mexican feathergrass (Nassella tenuissima)
Mexican gamagrass (Tripsacum lanceolatum)
Mexican lovegrass (Eragrostis mexicana)
Mexican panicgrass (Panicum hirticaule)
Mexican weeping bamboo (Otatea acuminata)
Mexican windmill grass (Chloris submutica)
millet crabgrass (Digitaria panicea)
mission grass (Pennisetum polystachion)
mountain muhly (Muhlenbergia montana)
mourning lovegrass (Eragrostis lugens)
mouse barley (Hordeum murinum)
mucronate sprangletop (Leptochloa panicea)
needle grama (Bouteloua aristidoides)
New Mexico feathergrass (Hesperostipa neomexicana)
New Mexico muhly (Muhlenbergia pauciflora)
nineawn pappusgrass (Enneapogon desvauxii)
nodding fescue (Festuca subverticillata)
oldfield grass (Anthephora hermaphrodita)
Palmer saltgrass (Distichlis palmeri)
para grass (Brachiaria mutica)
Parry's grama (Bouteloua parryi)
pine dropseed (Blepharoneuron tricholepis)
pinyon ricegrass (Piptochaetium fimbriatum)
pitscale grass (Hackelochloa granularis)
plains bristlegrass (Setaria macrostachya)
plains lovegrass (Eragrostis intermedia)
prairie false oat (Trisetum interruptum)
prairie wedgescale (Sphenopholis obtusata)
plantain signalgrass (Brachiaria plantaginea)
Porter brome (Bromus porteri)
poverty threeawn (Aristida divaricata)
prairie Junegrass (Koeleria macrantha)
Pringle's speargrass (Piptochaetium pringlei)
purple fountaingrass (Pennisetum advena)
purple grama (Bouteloua radicosa)
purple muhly (Muhlenbergia rigida)
purple threeawn (Aristida purpurea)
rabo de gato (Arundinella hispida)
rat-tail fescue (Vulpia myuros)
red brome (Bromus rubens)
red fescue (Festuca rubra)
relaxgrass (Aegopogon cenchroides)
rescuegrass (Bromus catharticus)
ripgut brome (Bromus diandrus)
rose Natal grass (Melinis repens)
Rothrock's grama (Bouteloua rothrockii)
rough bentgrass (Agrostis scabra)
running mountaingrass (Oplismenus compositus)
rustyseed paspalum (Paspalum langei)
rye (Secale cereale)
sand dropseed (Sporobolus cryptandrus)
Santa Rita Mountain grama (Bouteloua eludens)
screwleaf muhly (Muhlenbergia virescens)
serillo dulce (Schizachyrium brevifolium)
shortleaf woollygrass (Erioneuron avenaceum)
silver beardgrass (Bothriochloa laguroides)
single threeawn (Aristida schiedeana)
sixweeks fescue (Vulpia octoflora)
sixweeks grama (Bouteloua barbata)
sixweeks threeawn (Aristida adscensionis)
slender grama (Bouteloua repens)
slender hairgrass (Deschampsia elongata)
slender little bluestem (Schizachyrium tenerum)
slimbristle sandbur (Cenchrus brownii)
slim tridens (Tridens muticus)
small fescue (Vulpia microstachys)
smooth crabgrass (Digitaria ischaemum)
smut grass (Sporobolus indicus)
soft feather pappusgrass (Enneapogon mollis)
Sonoran panicgrass (Panicum sonorum)
sourgrass (Digitaria insularis)
southern crabgrass (Digitaria ciliaris)
southern sandbur (Cenchrus echinatus)
southwestern muhly (Muhlenbergia palmeri)
spidergrass (Aristida ternipes)
spike bentgrass (Agrostis exarata)
spiked crinkleawn (Trachypogon spicatus)
spike dropseed (Sporobolus contractus)
sprawling signalgrass (Brachiaria reptans)
sprucetop grama (Bouteloua chondrosioides)
St. Augustine grass (Stenotaphrum secundatum)
sticky sprangletop (Leptochloa viscida)
stinkgrass (Eragrostis cilianensis)
streambank rabbitsfoot grass (Polypogon elongatus)
streambed bristlegrass (Setaria leucopila)
sweet tanglehead (Heteropogon melanocarpus)
swollen fingergrass (Chloris barbata)
sycamore muhly (Muhlenbergia elongata)
tall fescue (Festuca arundinacea)
tapered rosette grass (Dichanthelium acuminatum)
tapertip cupgrass (Eriochloa acuminata)
Texas bluestem (Schizachyrium cirratum)
Texas muhly (Muhlenbergia texana)
thin paspalum (Paspalum setaceum)
tobosagrass (Pleuraphis mutica)
tropical crabgrass (Digitaria argillacea)
tropical panicgrass (Panicum trichoides)
tufted lovegrass (Eragrostis pectinacea)
tumble windmill grass (Chloris verticillata)
twoflower chloris (Chloris crinita)
Uruguayan pampas grass (Cortaderia selloana)
vine mesquite (Panicum obtusum)
Virlet's paspalum (Paspalum virletii)
weeping lovegrass (Eragrostis curvula)
whiplash pappusgrass (Pappophorum vaginatum)
whorled dropseed (Sporobolus coromandelianus)
winged panicgrass (Panicum alatum)
winter bentgrass (Agrostis hyemalis)
woollyspike balsamscale (Elionurus barbiculmis)
Wooton's threeawn (Aristida pansa)
Polemoniaceae
Bigelow's linanthus (Linanthus bigelovii)
bluebowls (Giliastrum rigidulum)
bluehead gilia (Gilia capitata)
California prickly phlox (Leptodactylon californicum)
Chisos Mountain false calico (Loeselia greggii)
desert beauty (Linanthus bellus)
El Paso skyrocket (Ipomopsis thurberi)
false babystars (Leptosiphon androsaceus)
glandular false calico (Loeselia glandulosa)
granite prickly phlox (Linanthus pungens)
ground pink (Linanthus dianthiflorus)
Jones' linanthus (Linanthus jonesii)
Lemmon's linanthus (Leptosiphon lemmonii)
lesser yellowthroat gilia (Gilia flavocincta)
longtube ipomopsis (Ipomopsis macrosiphon)
Macomb's ipomopsis (Ipomopsis macombii)
manyflowered ipomopsis (Ipomopsis multiflora)
miniature woollystar (Eriastrum diffusum)
Nuttall's linanthus (Leptosiphon nuttallii)
San Luis Mountain ipomopsis (Ipomopsis pinnata)
Santa Catalina Mountain phlox (Phlox tenuifolia)
star gilia (Gilia stellata)
Polygalaceae
blue milkwort (Polygala barbeyana)
blue pygmyflower (Monnina wrightii)
glandleaf milkwort (Polygala macradenia)
tropical milkwort (Polygala glochidiata)
velvetseed milkwort (Polygala obscura)
white milkwort (Polygala alba)
winged milkwort (Polygala hemipterocarpa)
Polygonaceae
bastardsage (Eriogonum wrightii)
bitter dock (Rumex obtusifolius)
canaigre dock (Rumex hymenosepalus)
Chiricahua Mountain dock (Rumex orthoneurus)
clustered dock (Rumex conglomeratus)
Confederate vine (Antigonon leptopus)
curlytop knotweed (Polygonum lapathifolium)
devil's spineflower (Chorizanthe rigida)
eastern Mojave buckwheat (Eriogonum fasciculatum)
flatcrown buckwheat (Eriogonum deflexum)
fringed spineflower (Chorizanthe fimbriata)
kidneyleaf buckwheat (Eriogonum reniforme)
naked buckwheat (Eriogonum nudum)
narrowleaf dock (Rumex stenophyllus)
oval-leaf knotweed (Polygonum arenastrum)
Palmer's buckwheat (Eriogonum palmerianum)
Pennsylvania smartweed (Polygonum pensylvanicum)
prostrate knotweed (Polygonum aviculare)
rabbit's purse (Harfordia macroptera)
red buckwheat (Eriogonum atrorubens)
saffron buckwheat (Eriogonum crocatum)
sheep sorrel (Rumex acetosella)
silversheath knotweed (Polygonum argyrocoleon)
Sonoran sea grape (Coccoloba goldmanii)
sorrel buckwheat (Eriogonum polycladon)
spotted buckwheat (Eriogonum maculatum)
spotted ladysthumb (Persicaria maculosa)
Thomas' buckwheat (Eriogonum thomasii)
Thurber's buckwheat (Eriogonum thurberi)
toothed dock (Rumex dentatus)
water-pepper (Persicaria hydropiper)
willow dock (Rumex salicifolius)
woodland pterostegia (Pterostegia drymarioides)
Polypodiaceae
Arizona scaly polypody (Pleopeltis thyssanolepis)
narrow strapfern (Campyloneurum angustifolium)
redscale scaly polypody (Pleopeltis polylepis)
resurrection fern (Pleopeltis polypodioides)
Rio Grande scaly polypody (Pleopeltis riograndensis)
western polypody (Polypodium hesperium)
Pontederiaceae
blue mudplantain (Heteranthera limosa)
common water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes)
egret mudplantain (Heteranthera peduncularis)
peacock hyacinth (Eichhornia azurea)
roundleaf mudplantain (Heteranthera rotundifolia)
Portulacaceae
kiss me quick (Portulaca pilosa)
rose moss (Portulaca grandiflora)
shrubby purslane (Portulaca suffrutescens)
silkcotton purslane (Portulaca halimoides)
Potamogetonaceae
horned pondweed (Zannichellia palustris)
longleaf pondweed (Potamogeton nodosus)
sago pondweed (Stuckenia pectinatus)
Primulaceae
chaffweed (Anagallis minima)
Chiricahua Mountain brookweed (Samolus vagans)
cudjoe-wood (Bonellia macrocarpa)
limewater brookweed (Samolus ebracteatus)
Rusby's primrose (Primula rusbyi)
seaside brookweed (Samolus valerandi)
uva cimarrona (Ardisia revoluta)
western rockjasmine (Androsace occidentalis)
Psilotaceae
flatfork fern (Psilotum complanatum)
whisk fern (Psilotum nudum)
Pteridaceae
Alabama lipfern (Cheilanthes alabamensis)
Arizona lipfern (Cheilanthes arizonica)
beaded lipfern (Cheilanthes wootonii)
Cochise scaly cloakfern (Astrolepis cochisensis)
common maidenhair (Adiantum capillus-veneris)
copper fern (Bommeria hispida)
Cretan brake (Pteris cretica)
Dixie silverback fern (Pityrogramma calomelanos)
fairyswords (Cheilanthes lindheimeri)
five-finger fern (Adiantum pedatum)
fuzzy maidenhair (Adiantum tricholepis)
glandular lip fern (Cheilanthes kaulfussii)
golden lipfern (Cheilanthes bonariensis)
graceful lipfern (Cheilanthes yavapensis)
hairy false cloak fern (Argyrochosma incana)
heartleaf cliffbrake (Pellaea cordifolia)
Jones' false cloak fern (Argyrochosma jonesii)
Lemmon's cloak fern (Notholaena lemmonii)
nitbearing lipfern (Cheilanthes lendigera)
ovate-leaf cliffbrake (Pellaea ovata)
Parry's lipfern (Cheilanthes parryi)
polished maidenhair (Adiantum concinnum)
Pringle's lipfern (Cheilanthes pringlei)
small-leaf false cloak fern (Argyrochosma microphylla)
southern lipfern (Cheilanthes microphylla)
southwestern false cloak fern (Argyrochosma limitanea)
spiny cliffbrake (Pellaea truncata)
star cloak fern (Notholaena standleyi)
Trans-Pecos cliffbrake (Pellaea ternifolia)
villous lipfern (Cheilanthes villosa)
wavy scaly cloakfern (Astrolepis sinuata)
white-footed lipfern (Cheilanthes leucopoda)
Windham's scaly cloakfern (Astrolepis windhamii)
woolly lipfern (Cheilanthes tomentosa)
Wright's cliffbrake (Pellaea wrightiana)
Wright's lipfern (Cheilanthes wrightii)
Ranunculaceae
alkali buttercup (Ranunculus cymbalaria)
Arizona buttercup (Ranunculus arizonicus)
Arizona mousetail (Myosurus cupulatus)
candle anemone (Anemone cylindrica)
Chiricahua Mountain columbine (Aquilegia triternata)
Chiricahua Mountain larkspur (Delphinium andesicola)
Colorado blue columbine ( Aquilegia coerulea)
Drummond's clematis (Clematis drummondii)
doubtful knight's-spur (Consolida ajacis)
eastern red columbine (Aquilegia canadensis)
Latin American buttercup (Ranunculus fascicularis)
longspur columbine (Aquilegia longissima)
red larkspur (Delphinium cardinale)
tall mountain larkspur (Delphinium scaposum)
tuber anemone (Anemone tuberosa)
water buttercup (Ranunculus aquatilis)
western columbine (Aquilegia formosa)
Resedaceae
lineleaf whitepuff (Oligomeris linifolia)
lollipop tree (Forchhammeria watsonii)
Rhamnaceae
birchleaf buckthorn (Rhamnus betulifolia)
bitter snakewood (Condalia globosa)
buckbrush (Ceanothus depressus)
Correll's snakewood (Condalia correllii)
coyotillo (Karwinskia humboldtiana)
deerbriar (Ceanothus buxifolius)
deerbrush (Ceanothus integerrimus)
guirote de violín (Gouania rosei)
hollyleaf redberry (Rhamnus ilicifolia)
jujube (Ziziphus jujuba)
knifeleaf condalia (Condalia spathulata)
Las Animas nakedwood (Colubrina californica)
lotebush (Ziziphus obtusifolia)
redberry buckthorn (Rhamnus crocea)
redheart (Ceanothus spinosus)
San Diego ceanothus (Ceanothus cyaneus)
spinebush (Adolphia californica)
Warnock's snakewood (Condalia warnockii)
Wright's mock buckthorn (Sageretia wrightii)
Rhizophoraceae
red mangrove (Rhizophora mangle)
Rosaceae
antelope bitterbrush (Purshia tridentata)
Apache plume (Fallugia paradoxa)
Arizona mountain ash (Sorbus dumosa)
Arizona rose (Rosa arizonica)
Arizona rosewood (Vauquelinia californica)
Baja rose (Rosa minutifolia)
blackbrush (Coleogyne ramosissima)
black cherry (Prunus serotina)
chamise (Adenostoma fasciculatum)
desert apricot (Prunus fremontii)
desert bitterbrush (Purshia glandulosa)
desert peach (Prunus andersonii)
European pear (Pyrus communis)
fernbush (Chamaebatiaria millefolium)
Gentry cherry (Prunus gentryi)
Himalayan blackberry (Rubus discolor)
hollyleaf cherry (Prunus ilicifolia)
Mexican serviceberry (Amelanchier denticulata)
mountain mahogany (Cercocarpus montanus)
New Mexico cinquefoil (Potentilla oblanceolata)
oceanspray (Holodiscus discolor)
peach (Prunus persica)
redshanks (Adenostoma sparsifolium)
rockspiraea (Holodiscus dumosus)
scarlet cinquefoil (Potentilla thurberi)
serviceberry (Amelanchier alnifolia)
shrubby cinquefoil (Potentilla fruticosa)
slimleaf rosewood (Vauquelinia corymbosa)
Stansbury cliffrose (Purshia stansburiana)
tall hairy agrimony (Agrimonia gryposepala)
toyon (Heteromeles arbutifolia)
Virginia strawberry (Fragaria virginiana)
Rubiaceae
bracted bedstraw (Galium microphyllum)
bristly bedstraw (Galium uncinulatum)
cleavers (Galium aparine)
common buttonbush (Cephalanthus occidentalis)
copalquín (Hintonia latiflora)
David's milkberry (Chiococca alba)
firecrackerbush (Bouvardia ternifolia)
Florida pusley (Richardia scabra)
limestone bedstraw (Galium proliferum)
Mexican bedstraw (Galium mexicanum)
Mexican buttonbush (Cephalanthus salicifolius)
mountain saucerflower (Crusea diversifolia)
poorjoe (Diodia teres)
pygmy bluet (Houstonia wrightii)
river false buttonweed (Spermacoce confusa)
scarlet bush (Hamelia patens)
shrubby false buttonweed (Spermacoce verticillata)
slender false buttonweed (Spermacoce tenuior)
starry bedstraw (Galium stellatum)
tropical buttonweed (Diodia sarmentosa)
tropical girdlepod (Mitracarpus hirtus)
white girdlepod (Mitracarpus breviflorus)
woodland false buttonweed (Spermacoce assurgens)
Rutaceae
balsam torchwood (Amyris balsamifera)
bitter orange (Citrus aurantium)
Dutchman's breeches (Thamnosma texanum)
grapefruit (Citrus paradisi)
hoptree (Ptelea trifoliata)
Key lime (Citrus aurantifolia)
lemon (Citrus limon)
lime pricklyash (Zanthoxylum fagara)
Mexican orange (Choisya dumosa)
orange (Citrus sinensis)
palo amarillo (Esenbeckia flava)
rue (Ruta graveolens)
spicebush (Cneoridium dumosum)
turpentinebroom (Thamnosma montana)
white sapote (Casimiroa edulis)
Salicaceae
Bonpland willow (Salix bonplandiana)
brush holly (Xylosma flexuosa)
Frémont cottonwood (Populus fremontii)
Goodding's willow (Salix gooddingii)
mountain cottonwood (Populus brandegeei)
narrowleaf willow (Salix exigua)
quaking aspen (Populus tremuloides)
yewleaf willow (Salix exilifolia)
Salviniaceae
Carolina mosuitofern (Azolla caroliniana)
Mexican mosquitofern (Azolla mexicana)
Pacific mosquitofern (Azolla filiculoides)
Santalaceae
Bollean mistletoe (Phoradendron bolleanum)
downy mistletoe (Phoradendron capitellatum)
guacimilla de canario (Phoradendron quadrangulare)
Huachuca Mountain dwarf mistletoe (Arceuthobium gillii)
juniper mistletoe (Phoradendron juniperinum)
mesquite mistletoe (Phoradendron californicum)
pineland dwarf mistletoe (Arceuthobium vaginatum)
western dwarf mistletoe (Arceuthobium campylopodum)
Sapindaceae
bigtooth maple (Acer grandidentatum)
California buckeye (Aesculus californica)
faux persil (Cardiospermum corindum)
Florida hopbush (Dodonaea viscosa)
love in a puff (Cardiospermum halicacabum)
Mexican buckeye (Ungnadia speciosa)
moldy bread and cheese (Paullinia fuscescens)
Parry buckeye (Aesculus parryi)
serpent's tooth vine (Serjania mexicana)
western soapberry (Sapindus saponaria)
Sapotaceae
bebelamo (Sideroxylon occidentale)
bully (Sideroxylon persimile)
mamey sapote (Pouteria sapota)
sapodilla (Manilkara zapota)
tempisque (Sideroxylon tepicense)
Saururaceae
yerba mansa (Anemopsis californica)
Saxifragaceae
pink alumroot (Heuchera rubescens)
redfuzz saxifrage (Saxifraga eriophora)
Schisandraceae
star anise (Illicium verum)
Schoepfiaceae
gulf graytwig (Schoepfia schreberi)
Scrophulariaceae
California figwort (Scrophularia californica)
Chihuahuan sage (Leucophyllum laevigatum)
common mullein (Verbascum thapsus)
goatweed (Capraria biflora)
poverty bush (Eremophila decipiens)
rain sage (Leucophyllum zygophyllum)
Rio Bravo sage (Leucophyllum langmaniae)
Rio Grande butterfly bush (Buddleja sessiliflora)
Sierra Bouquet sage (Leucophyllum pruinosum)
silverleaf sage (Leucophyllum candidum)
Texas ranger (Leucophyllum frutescens)
woolly butterfly bush (Buddleja marrubiifolia)
Selaginellaceae
Arizona spikemoss (Selaginella arizonica)
Peruvian spikemoss (Selaginella peruviana)
resurrection fern (Selaginella novoleonensis)
resurrection plant (Selaginella pilifera)
rockloving spikemoss (Selaginella rupincola)
Underwood's spikemoss (Selaginella underwoodii)
Wright's spikemoss (Selaginella wrightii)
Simaroubaceae
crucifixion thorn (Castela emoryi)
Stewart's crucifixion thorn (Castela stewartii)
tree of heaven (Ailanthus altissima)
Simmondsiaceae
jojoba (Simmondsia chinensis)
Solanaceae
American black nightshade (Solanum americanum)
apple of Peru (Nicandra physalodes)
Arizona desert-thorn (Lycium exsertum)
Baja desert-thorn (Lycium brevipes)
Berlandier's wolfberry (Lycium berlandieri)
black nightshade (Solanum nigrum)
Brazilian nightshade (Solanum seaforthianum)
broadleaf groundcherry (Physalis latiphysa)
buffalobur nightshade (Solanum rostratum)
bush-violet (Browallia eludens)
California desert-thorn (Lycium californicum)
chili pepper (Capsicum annuum)
Chinese lantern (Quincula lobata)
Chinese thorn-apple (Datura quercifolia)
Cleveland's tobacco (Nicotiana clevelandii)
creeping false holly (Jaltomata procumbens)
cultivated tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum)
cutleaf groundcherry (Physalis angulata)
desert thorn-apple (Datura discolor)
desert wolfberry (Lycium macrodon)
divine nightshade (Solanum nigrescens)
Frémont's desert-thorn (Lycium fremontii)
fuzzyfruit nightshade (Solanum candidum)
heartleaf nightshade (Solanum cardiophyllum)
Hinds' nightshade (Solanum hindsianum)
husk tomato (Physalis pubescens)
ivyleaf groundcherry (Physalis hederifolia)
Jamaican forget-me-not (Browallia americana)
Jerusalem cherry (Solanum pseudocapsicum)
jimsonweed (Datura stramonium)
melonleaf nightshade (Solanum heterodoxum)
netted globecherry (Margaranthus solanaceus)
Parish's desert-thorn (Lycium parishii)
potatotree (Solanum erianthum)
pricklyburr (Datura innoxia)
pygmy groundcherry (Physalis minima)
sacred thorn-apple (Datura wrightii)
seaside petunia (Calibrachoa parviflora)
sharpleaf groundcherry (Physalis acutifolia)
silverleaf nightshade (Solanum elaeagnifolium)
sonoita nightshade (Solanum adscendens)
Sonoran nightshade (Solanum lumholtzianum)
southwestern groundcherry (Physalis caudella)
sticky nightshade (Solanum sisymbriifolium)
Tex-Mex tobacco (Nicotiana plumbaginifolia)
tomato (Solanum lycopersicon)
tree tobacco (Nicotiana glauca)
tropical groundcherry (Physalis patula)
violetflower petunia (Petunia integrifolia)
yellow nightshade groundcherry (Physalis crassifolia)
Stegnospermataceae
Stegnosperma halimifolium
Talinaceae
jewels of Opar (Talinum paniculatum)
Ceylon spinach (Talinum triangulare)
Tamaricaceae
Athel tamarisk (Tamarix aphylla)
five-stamen tamarisk (Tamarix chinensis)
Tetrachondraceae
juniper leaf (Polypremum procumbens)
Thelypteridaceae
red maiden fern (Thelypteris rudis)
roughhairy maiden fern (Thelypteris hispidula)
showy maiden fern (Christella puberula)
softhairy maiden fern (Thelypteris pilosa)
Tropaeolaceae
nasturtium (Tropaeolum majus)
Typhaceae
broadleaf cattail (Typha latifolia)
dwarf cattail (Typha angustifolia)
southern cattail (Typha domingensis)
Ulmaceae
Siberian elm (Ulmus pumila)
Urticaceae
artillery plant (Pilea microphylla)
Coamo River pouzolzsbush (Pouzolzia occidentalis)
dwarf nettle (Urtica urens)
flameberry (Urera caracasana)
Florida pellitory (Parietaria floridana)
heartleaf nettle (Urtica chamaedryoides)
mountain nettle (Urtica gracilenta)
Pennsylvania pellitory (Parietaria pensylvanica)
Verbenaceae
bigbract verbena (Verbena bracteata)
brushland shrubverbena (Lantana achyranthifolia)
Carolina vervain (Verbena carolina)
catstongue (Priva lappulacea)
common lantana (Lantana camara)
common vervain (Verbena officinalis)
Dakota mock vervain (Glandularia bipinnatifida)
gray vervain (Verbena canescens)
Mexican oregano (Lippia graveolens)
mountain mock vervain (Glandularia elegans)
Peruvian verbena (Verbena peruviana)
pink mock vervain (Glandularia pumila)
purple porterweed (Stachytarpheta frantzii)
queen's wreath (Petrea volubilis)
rock verbena (Verbena tenera)
rose vervain (Glandularia canadensis)
sandpaper verbena (Verbena rigida)
seashore vervain (Verbena litoralis)
South American mock vervain (Glandularia pulchella)
southwestern mock vervain (Glandularia gooddingii)
trailing lantana (Lantana montevidensis)
turkey tangle fogfruit (Phyla nodiflora)
West Indian shrubverbena (Lantana urticoides)
Wright's beebrush (Aloysia wrightii)
Violaceae
western greenviolet (Hybanthus attenuatus)
Vitaceae
canyon grape (Vitis arizonica)
desert wild grape (Vitis girdiana)
princess vine (Cissus verticillata)
sorrelvine (Cissus trifoliata)
Virginia creeper (Parthenocissus quinquefolia)
Woodsiaceae
Cochise cliff fern (Woodsia cochisensis)
common ladyfern (Athyrium filix-femina)
Phillips' cliff fern (Woodsia phillipsii)
Plummer's cliff fern (Physematium plummerae)
Reeves' bladderfern (Cystopteris reevesiana)
Zamiaceae
chestnut dioon (Dioon edule)
Zygophyllaceae
Arizona poppy (Kallstroemia grandiflora)
California caltrop (Kallstroemia californica)
California fagonbush (Fagonia laevis)
creosote bush (Larrea tridentata)
puncturevine (Tribulus terrestris)
sticky fagonbush (Fagonia pachyacantha)
warty caltrop (Kallstroemia parviflora)
Flora without common names by scientific name
Other flora of the Sonoran Desert Region include:
Acanthaceae
Anisacanthus andersonii
Anisacanthus puberulus
Aphanosperma sinaloensis
Carlowrightia fuertensis
Carlowrightia glabrata
Carlowrightia pectinata
Dyschoriste hirsutissima
Dyschoriste xylopoda
Holographis pallida
Justicia caudata
Justicia fulvicoma
Justicia leonardii
Justicia masiaca
Justicia mexicana
Justicia phlebodes
Justicia salviiflora
Odontonema cuspidatum
Pseuderanthemum praecox
Ruellia intermedia
Ruellia inundata
Ruellia lactea
Siphonoglossa mexicana
Stenandrium pilosulum
Tetramerium abditum
Tetramerium fruticosum
Tetramerium glandulosum
Tetramerium tenuissimum
Tetramerium yaquianum
Amaranthaceae
Alternanthera stellata
Amaranthus brandegeei
Gomphrena decumbens
Iresine calea
Iresine diffusa
Iresine interrupta
Iresine palmeri
Iresine schaffneri
Salicornia subterminalis
Amaryllidaceae
Hymenocallis clivorum
Zephyranthes lindleyana
Anacardiaceae
Rhus schmidelioides
Anemiaceae
Anemia affinis
Anemia jaliscana
Anemia tomentosa
Apiaceae
Donnellsmithia juncea
Donnellsmithia ternata
Eryngium beecheyanum
Eryngium gentryi
Eryngium longifolium
Prionosciadium madrense
Prionosciadium townsendii
Sanicula liberta
Tauschia bicolor
Tauschia madrensis
Tauschia spellenbergii
Tauschia tenuifolia
Apocynaceae
Asclepias atroviolacea
Asclepias fournieri
Asclepias gentryi
Asclepias jaliscana
Asclepias jorgeana
Asclepias leptopus
Asclepias mirifica
Asclepias ovata
Asclepias standleyi
Asclepias subaphylla
Funastrum pannosum
Gonolobus gonoloboides
Gonolobus uniflorus
Macroscepis diademata
Mandevilla hesperia
Marsdenia edulis
Matelea altatensis
Matelea caudata
Matelea chihuahuensis
Matelea lesueurii
Matelea petiolaris
Matelea pilosa
Matelea quercetorum
Matelea sepicola
Matelea tristiflora
Matelea tuberosa
Metastelma californicum
Metastelma cuneatum
Metastelma latifolium
Metastelma minutiflorum
Metastelma multiflorum
Pherotrichis schaffneri
Aquifoliaceae
Ilex tolucana
Araceae
Xanthosoma wendlandii
Asparagaceae
Agave aktites
Agave aurea
Agave avellanidens
Agave boscii
Agave capensis
Agave cerulata
Agave gigantensis
Agave margaritae
Agave moranii
Agave pelona
Agave promontorii
Agave rhodacantha
Agave schidigera
Agave sebastiana
Agave shrevei
Agave sobria
Agave subsimplex
Agave wocomahi
Behria tenuiflora
Dasylirion gentryi
Dasylirion sereke
Echeandia mexicana
Hesperaloe tenuifolia
Manfreda jaliscana
Manfreda planifolia
Manfreda singuliflora
Asteraceae
Acmella oppositifolia
Acmella radicans
Acourtia patens
Adenophyllum cancellatum
Ageratella microphylla
Ageratina areolaris
Ageratina calaminthifolia
Ageratina cardiophylla
Ageratina hyssopina
Ageratina palmeri
Ageratina pichinchensis
Ageratina sandersii
Ageratina stricta
Ageratina thyrsiflora
Ageratina venulosa
Ageratina yecorana
Aldama dentata
Alloispermum palmeri
Alloispermum scabrifolium
Alomia stenolepis
Alvordia congesta
Amauria brandegeeana
Amauria rotundifolia
Ambrosia bryantii
Ambrosia camphorata
Ambrosia carduacea
Ambrosia magdalenae
Archibaccharis serratifolia
Artemisia pringlei
Astranthium orthopodum
Baccharis heterophylla
Bahiopsis tomentosa
Berlandiera monocephala
Bidens cornuta
Bidens gentryi
Bidens mollifolia
Bidens refracta
Bidens riparia
Bidens rostrata
Bidens sambucifolia
Blumea viscosa
Brickellia brandegeei
Brickellia diffusa
Brickellia lewisii
Brickellia oliganthes
Brickellia oreithales
Brickellia sonorana
Brickellia vernicosa
Calea urticifolia
Chaetymenia peduncularis
Chaptalia runcinata
Chaptalia texana
Chromolaena collina
Chromolaena ovaliflora
Chromolaena sagittata
Cirsium rhaphilepis
Conoclinium mayfieldii
Conyza apurensis
Conyza coronopifolia
Coreocarpus arizonicus
Coreocarpus dissectus
Coreocarpus sonoranus
Cosmos linearifolius
Cosmos palmeri
Cosmos pringlei
Critonia quadrangularis
Dahlia sherffii
Decachaeta haenkeana
Decachaeta scabrella
Delilia biflora
Dicoria argentea
Egletes viscosa
Elephantopus spicatus
Encelia halimifolia
Encelia laciniata
Erigeron basaseachensis
Erigeron coronarius
Erigeron delphinifolius
Erigeron eruptens
Erigeron fraternus
Erigeron fundus
Erigeron galeottii
Erigeron jenkinsii
Erigeron lepidopodus
Erigeron mayoensis
Erigeron podophyllus
Erigeron rhizomactis
Erigeron strigulosus
Erigeron wislizeni
Flaveria oppositifolia
Flaveria sonorensis
Florestina tripteris
Gamochaeta rosacea
Gnaphalium bourgovii
Gnaphalium oxyphyllum
Gnaphalium semilanatum
Gochnatia arborescens
Guardiola arguta
Gutierrezia alamanii
Helenium laciniatum
Helenium mexicanum
Hofmeisteria standleyi
Hymenothrix palmeri
Iostephane heterophylla
Iostephane madrensis
Jaegeria hirta
Jaumea peduncularis
Koanophyllon monanthum
Koanophyllon sinaloensis
Laennecia chihuahuana
Laennecia confusa
Laennecia pimana
Lagascea helianthifolia
Lasianthaea ceanothifolia
Lasianthaea fruticosa
Lasianthaea seemannii
Leibnitzia occimadrensis
Machaeranthera frutescens
Machaeranthera stenoloba
Melampodium appendiculatum
Melampodium cupulatum
Melampodium moctezumum
Melampodium perfoliatum
Milleria quinqueflora
Montanoa leucantha
Nicolletia trifida
Parthenium tomentosum
Pectis barberi
Pectis exilis
Pectis pimana
Pectis purpurea
Pectis stenophylla
Pectis uniaristata
Pectis vandevenderi
Perityle alamosana
Perityle cordifolia
Perityle gentryi
Perityle microcephala
Perityle palmeri
Perymenium buphthalmoides
Perymenium oxycarphum
Perymenium pringlei
Perymenium stenophyllum
Pinaropappus junceus
Pinaropappus pooleanus
Pleurocoronis laphamioides
Porophyllum coloratum
Porophyllum crassifolium
Porophyllum macrocephalum
Psacalium globosum
Pseudognaphalium attenuatum
Pseudognaphalium jaliscense
Senecio candidissimus
Senecio sandersii
Senecio tepopanus
Senecio umbraculifera
Simsia amplexicaulis
Simsia setosa
Stevia anadenotricha
Stevia caracasana
Stevia glandulosa
Stevia lemmonii
Stevia martinii
Stevia origanoides
Stevia ovata
Stevia salicifolia
Stevia scabrella
Stevia trifida
Tagetes jaliscensis
Tagetes pringlei
Tagetes subulata
Tagetes triradiata
Thymophylla anomala
Tithonia auriculata
Tithonia calva
Tithonia tubiformis
Tomentaurum niveum
Tridax erecta
Tridax procumbens
Tridax tenuifolia
Tridax yecorana
Trigonospermum annuum
Trixis angustifolia
Trixis michuacana
Trixis wrightii
Verbesina callilepis
Verbesina gentryi
Verbesina parviflora
Verbesina synotis
Vernonia barclayi
Vernonia joyaliae
Vernonia triflosculosa
Vernonia vernonioides
Viguiera gentryi
Viguiera lanata
Viguiera montana
Viguiera superaxillaris
Wedelia chihuahuana
Wedelia gentryi
Wedelia greenmanii
Wedelia pimana
Xanthisma gracile
Xanthocephalum eradiatum
Xylothamia diffusa
Zinnia tenuis
Zinnia zinnioides
Begoniaceae
Begonia angustiloba
Begonia bicolor
Begonia gracilis
Begonia martiana
Begonia palmeri
Begonia portillana
Begonia sandtii
Berberidaceae
Berberis higginsae
Berberis longipes
Berberis pimana
Bignoniaceae
Fridericia mollissima
Blechnaceae
Woodwardia spinulosa
Boraginaceae
Cryptantha angelica
Cryptantha grayi
Heliotropium limbatum
Heliotropium wigginsii
Lennoa madreporoides
Lithospermum discolor
Lithospermum obovatum
Lithospermum tubuliflorum
Phacelia gentryi
Phacelia pauciflora
Phacelia platycarpa
Phacelia scariosa
Brassicaceae
Cardamine obliqua
Ornithocarpa torulosa
Pennellia microsperma
Rorippa mexicana
Sibara angelorum
Bromeliaceae
Pitcairnia palmeri
Tillandsia achyrostachys
Tillandsia capitata
Tillandsia elizabethae
Tillandsia exserta
Burseraceae
Bursera cerasifolia
Cactaceae
Corynopuntia marenae
Corynopuntia reflexispina
Cylindropuntia alcahes
Cylindropuntia lindsayi
Cylindropuntia molesta
Cylindropuntia sanfelipensis
Cylindropuntia santamaria
Echinocereus barthelowanus
Echinocereus bristolii
Echinocereus ferreirianus
Echinocereus klapperi
Echinocereus leucanthus
Echinocereus mombergerianus
Echinocereus pacificus
Echinocereus sciurus
Echinocereus scopulorum
Echinocereus stoloniferus
Ferocactus diguetii
Ferocactus johnstonianus
Ferocactus peninsulae
Ferocactus pottsii
Ferocactus tiburonensis
Ferocactus townsendianus
Glandulicactus uncinatus
Grusonia robertsii
Mammillaria albicans
Mammillaria angelensis
Mammillaria armillata
Mammillaria balsasoides
Mammillaria baumii
Mammillaria blossfeldiana
Mammillaria bocensis
Mammillaria boolii
Mammillaria brandegeei
Mammillaria capensis
Mammillaria cerralboa
Mammillaria evermanniana
Mammillaria fraileana
Mammillaria goodridgei
Mammillaria halei
Mammillaria hertrichiana
Mammillaria hutchisoniana
Mammillaria insularis
Mammillaria johnstonii
Mammillaria klissingiana
Mammillaria laneusumma
Mammillaria lindsayi
Mammillaria marksiana
Mammillaria matudae
Mammillaria mazatlanensis
Mammillaria multidigitata
Mammillaria neopalmeri
Mammillaria peninsularis
Mammillaria perbella
Mammillaria petrophila
Mammillaria phitauiana
Mammillaria pondii
Mammillaria poselgeri
Mammillaria pseudoalamensis
Mammillaria saboae
Mammillaria schumannii
Mammillaria standleyi
Mammillaria tayloriorum
Opuntia bravoana
Opuntia fuliginosa
Opuntia karwinskiana
Opuntia lagunae
Opuntia puberula
Opuntia pubescens
Opuntia pumila
Opuntia pycnantha
Opuntia wilcoxii
Pachgerocereus orcuttii
Pachycereus gatesii
Pereskiopsis porteri
Campanulaceae
Diastatea tenera
Lobelia cordifolia
Lobelia ehrenbergii
Lobelia endlichii
Lobelia goldmanii
Capparaceae
Crateva palmeri
Caprifoliaceae
Lonicera cerviculata
Valeriana apiifolia
Valeriana palmeri
Caryophyllaceae
Corrigiola andina
Drymaria holosteoides
Drymaria multiflora
Drymaria villosa
Celastraceae
Mortonia palmeri
Schaefferia shrevei
Cistaceae
Helianthemum chihuahuense
Helianthemum pringlei
Cleomaceae
Cleome guianensis
Cleome melanosperma
Cleome tenuis
Clethraceae
Clethra lanata
Clethra mexicana
Commelinaceae
Commelina leiocarpa
Gibasis chihuahuensis
Gibasis linearis
Gibasis venustula
Tinantia erecta
Tinantia longipedunculata
Tinantia macrophylla
Tradescantia andrieuxii
Tradescantia disgrega
Tradescantia semisomna
Tripogandra amplexicaulis
Tripogandra palmeri
Tripogandra purpurascens
Convolvulaceae
Cuscuta boldinghii
Cuscuta corymbosa
Cuscuta costaricensis
Cuscuta desmouliniana
Cuscuta glabrior
Cuscuta gracillima
Cuscuta macrocephala
Cuscuta polyanthemos
Cuscuta tinctoria
Cuscuta vandevenderi
Evolvulus prostratus
Evolvulus rotundifolius
Ipomoea chilopsidis
Ipomoea clavata
Ipomoea hartwegii
Ipomoea intrapilosa
Ipomoea jalapa
Ipomoea lactescens
Ipomoea laeta
Ipomoea madrensis
Ipomoea minutiflora
Ipomoea parasitica
Ipomoea pedicellaris
Ipomoea perlonga
Ipomoea scopulorum
Ipomoea seaania
Ipomoea sescossiana
Jacquemontia abutiloides
Jacquemontia albida
Jacquemontia azurea
Jacquemontia oaxacana
Jacquemontia polyantha
Merremia palmeri
Operculina pteripes
Crassulaceae
Crassula solieri
Crassula tetragona
Dudleya albiflora
Dudleya anomala
Dudleya campanulata
Dudleya candida
Dudleya gatesii
Dudleya guadalupensis
Dudleya ingens
Dudleya nubigena
Dudleya pachyphytum
Dudleya rigida
Dudleya rigidiflora
Echeveria chihuahuaensis
Echeveria craigiana
Echeveria paniculata
Graptopetalum filiferum
Graptopetalum pusillum
Sedum alamosanum
Sedum chihuahuense
Sedum frutescens
Sedum lumholtzii
Sedum madrense
Sedum mellitulum
Sedum vinicolor
Villadia laxa
Villadia squamulosa
Cucurbitaceae
Cyclanthera dieterleana
Cyclanthera micrantha
Cyclanthera minima
Echinopepon cirrhopedunculatus
Echinopepon coulteri
Echinopepon racemosus
Ibervillea sonorae
Melothria pringlei
Microsechium helleri
Polyclathra cucumerina
Sicyos peninsularis
Vaseyanthus insularis
Cyperaceae
Bulbostylis hispidula
Bulbostylis tenuifolia
Carex endlichii
Carex longicaulis
Carex marianensis
Cyperus canus
Cyperus ischnos
Cyperus perennis
Cyperus regiomontanus
Cyperus semiochraceus
Cyperus tenerrimus
Eleocharis svensoniana
Eleocharis yecorensis
Fimbristylis pallidula
Fimbristylis pentastachya
Fuirena incompleta
Pycreus aschenbornianus
Rhynchospora contracta
Dennstaedtiaceae
Dennstaedtia distenta
Dioscoreaceae
Dioscorea jaliscana
Dioscorea remotiflora
Dryopteridaceae
Elaphoglossum muelleri
Elaphoglossum rzedowskii
Phanerophlebia nobilis
Phanerophlebia umbonata
Ebenaceae
Diospyros nidiformis
Ericaceae
Arbutus glandulosa
Comarostaphylis polifolia
Gaultheria glaucifolia
Vaccinium confertum
Eriocaulaceae
Eriocaulon bilobatum
Euphorbiaceae
Acalypha aliena
Acalypha burquezii
Acalypha cincta
Acalypha filipes
Acalypha papillosa
Acalypha polystachya
Acalypha pseudalopecuroides
Acalypha subviscida
Adelia brandegeei
Adelia cinerea
Adelia obovata
Bernardia gentryana
Bernardia mexicana
Bernardia viridis
Cnidoscolus maculatus
Cnidoscolus palmeri
Croton alamosanus
Croton boregensis
Croton fantzianus
Croton flavescens
Croton fragilis
Croton magdalenae
Croton martinianus
Croton niveus
Croton pedicellatus
Croton pseudoniveus
Croton subjucundus
Croton yecorensis
Dalembertia populifolia
Ditaxis guatemalensis
Ditaxis manzanilloana
Euphorbia alatocaulis
Euphorbia anychioides
Euphorbia bracteata
Euphorbia brandegeei
Euphorbia californica
Euphorbia chiribensis
Euphorbia colletioides
Euphorbia colorata
Euphorbia crepuscula
Euphorbia densiflora
Euphorbia dioscoreoides
Euphorbia gentryi
Euphorbia hexagonoides
Euphorbia hieronymi
Euphorbia humayensis
Euphorbia incerta
Euphorbia inconstantia
Euphorbia knuthii
Euphorbia misella
Euphorbia nocens
Euphorbia ocymoidea
Euphorbia petrina
Euphorbia pionosperma
Euphorbia radioloides
Euphorbia sinaloensis
Euphorbia sonorae
Euphorbia sphaerorhiza
Euphorbia strigosa
Euphorbia subreniformis
Euphorbia tomentulosa
Jatropha cordata
Jatropha moranii
Jatropha purpurea
Jatropha vernicosa
Manihot caudata
Manihot chlorosticta
Manihot rubricaulis
Sebastiania appendiculata
Sebastiania cornuta
Fabaceae
Acacia brandegeana
Acacia crinita
Acacia pringlei
Acaciella villosa
Aeschynomene fascicularis
Aeschynomene nivea
Aeschynomene petraea
Astragalus gentryi
Astragalus sinaloae
Brongniartia tenuifolia
Caesalpinia palmeri
Caesalpinia pumila
Calliandra grandiflora
Calliandra tergemina
Cologania broussonetii
Cologania cordata
Cologania procumbens
Conzattia multiflora
Coursetia barrancana
Crotalaria bupleurifolia
Crotalaria cajanifolia
Crotalaria filifolia
Crotalaria maypurensis
Crotalaria mollicula
Crotalaria polyphylla
Crotalaria quercetorum
Crotalaria rotundifolia
Dalea alamosana
Dalea analiliana
Dalea ananassa
Dalea capitata
Dalea cliffortiana
Dalea cyanea
Dalea elata
Dalea leucostachya
Dalea lutea
Dalea nelsonii
Dalea obreniformis
Dalea pinetorum
Dalea revoluta
Dalea tomentosa
Desmanthus fruticosus
Desmanthus subulatus
Desmodium aparines
Desmodium crassum
Desmodium distortum
Desmodium guadalajaranum
Desmodium hartwegianum
Desmodium leptoclados
Desmodium leptomeres
Desmodium macrostachyum
Desmodium madrense
Desmodium molliculum
Desmodium nicaraguense
Desmodium orbiculare
Desmodium plicatum
Desmodium prehensile
Desmodium prostratum
Desmodium urarioides
Diphysa racemosa
Ebenopsis confinis
Eriosema diffusum
Eriosema grandiflorum
Eriosema palmeri
Eriosema pulchellum
Errazurizia megacarpa
Galactia acapulcensis
Indigofera fruticosa
Leucaena involucrata
Leucaena lanceolata
Lonchocarpus hermannii
Lotus chihuahuanus
Lotus repens
Lupinus lesueurii
Lupinus montanus
Marina crenulata
Marina goldmanii
Marina maritima
Marina nutans
Marina palmeri
Marina peninsularis
Marina scopa
Mimosa brandegei
Mimosa gentryi
Mimosa guirocobensis
Mimosa margaritae
Mimosa moniliformis
Mimosa palmeri
Mimosa pauli
Mimosa purpurascens
Mimosa tricephala
Nissolia gentryi
Nissolia hirsuta
Nissolia microptera
Peteria pinetorum
Psoralea palmeri
Phaseolus amabilis
Phaseolus leptostachyus
Phaseolus ovatifolius
Phaseolus pauciflorus
Phaseolus sonorensis
Platymiscium trifoliolatum
Pomaria multijuga
Prosopidastrum mexicanum
Prosopis palmeri
Ramirezella strobilophora
Rhynchosia discolor
Rhynchosia macrocarpa
Senna confinis
Senna pallida
Senna polyantha
Senna purpusii
Tephrosia leucantha
Tephrosia multifolia
Tephrosia nicaraguensis
Tephrosia palmeri
Tephrosia rhodantha
Tephrosia saxicola
Zapoteca formosa
Fagaceae
Quercus crassifolia
Quercus jonesii
Quercus magnoliifolia
Quercus mcvaughii
Quercus perpallida
Quercus scytophylla
Quercus sideroxyla
Quercus tuberculata
Fouquieriaceae
Fouquieria formosa
Fouquieria ochoterenae
Gentianaceae
Halenia brevicornis
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See also
List of Sonoran Desert wildflowers
References
External links
Felger, R. S., et al. Biological Resources of the Sonoran Desert National Monument, Arizona. Drylands Institute. 2001.
Felger, R. S., et al. (2012). Checklist of vascular plants of Organ Pipe Cactus National Monument, Cabeza Prieta National Wildlife Refuge, and Tinajas Altas, Arizona. Canotia 8, 1-53.
Felger, R. S., et al. (2013). Ajo Peak to Tinajas Altas: Flora of southwestern Arizona: An introduction. Phytoneuron 5, 1–40.
Plants of the Sonoran Desert. Cabeza Prieta Natural History Association.
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Lists of flora of Arizona
Lists of flora of California
Lists of biota of Mexico
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Natural history of the Lower Colorado River Valley
Yuma Desert
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4430241 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loss%20of%20chance%20in%20English%20law | Loss of chance in English law | Loss of chance in English law refers to a particular problem of causation, which arises in tort and contract. The law is invited to assess hypothetical outcomes, either affecting the claimant or a third party, where the defendant's breach of contract or of the duty of care for the purposes of negligence deprived the claimant of the opportunity to obtain a benefit and/or avoid a loss. For these purposes, the remedy of damages is normally intended to compensate for the claimant's loss of expectation (alternative rationales include restitution and reliance). The general rule is that while a loss of chance is compensable when the chance was something promised on a contract it is not generally so in the law of tort, where most cases thus far have been concerned with medical negligence in the public health system.
Contract
Remedies
In contract cases, the court is usually interested in securing the performance of what was agreed. Where one party is about to or has suffered loss as a result of the other's breach, the court offers practical protection to his or her expectations as to performance (in some cases, the use of injunction or specific performance may be appropriate). Where a party proves that he or she has sustained loss flowing from any breach (potentially including non-pecuniary or intangible losses, e.g. for disappointment, damage to reputation, etc.), the purpose of damages is, so far as money can do it, to place the claimant in the same situation as if the contract had been performed. Thus, the most relevant basis upon which to calculate any loss is to examine the economic potential of the contract as worded. This will provide a measure of what the claimant expected to gain, and so quantify what has been lost by the breach.
Public policy
As a matter of public policy, the law aims to respect the reasonable expectations of all parties involved in the dispute. The fundamental approach is therefore to uphold the validity of the contract wherever possible. Thus, there is no general protection offered to those who find they have entered into a bad bargain. All must accept the real outcomes of agreements entered into voluntarily (see freedom of contract). Even when there is a breach, the court will not penalise the "guilty" party (see Addis v Gramophone Co Ltd [1909] AC 488 which prevents the award of punitive or exemplary damages in a purely contractual action), nor will it strip away all profits made at the expense of the other unless the breach is exceptional as in Attorney General v Blake [2000] 3 WLR 635 which appears to create a wholly novel form of contractual remedy, namely the restitutionary remedy of an account of profits for breach of contract where the normal remedies are inadequate. The standard remedy is damages which are usually calculated by reference to the claimant only and do not reflect any form of penalty on the other(s) for exploiting the gullibility or innocence of the claimant. The law also recognises that unfairness may flow from inequality in bargaining power and addresses oppressive exemption clauses.
Causation
The primary difficulty in the calculation of damages is the question of causation. Remoteness will defeat a claim if it depends on very hypothetical possibilities. In McRae v Commonwealth Disposals Commission relying on rumours, the Commission sold to McRae the right to salvage an oil tanker thought to be marooned at the specified location. Unfortunately, the tanker did not exist. The Commission argued the contract was void because of a common mistake as to the existence of the subject matter, but the court noted that the Commission "took no steps to verify what they were asserting and any 'mistake' that existed was induced by their own culpable conduct." McRae wasted money searching for the non-existent wreck. His claim for the loss of profits expected from a successful salvage was dismissed as too speculative, but reliance damages were awarded for wasted expenses. Nevertheless, the courts have been prepared to speculate. In Chaplin v Hicks (1911) 2 KB 786 the defendant in breach of contract prevented the claimant from taking part in the final stage of a beauty contest where twelve of the final fifty (out of 6,000 original entrants) would be rewarded with places in a chorus line. The claimant was awarded damages for the loss of a chance, assessed at 25% of winning the competition. The court seemed to proceed on the claimant's statistical chance of winning (as if she were a lottery player) without any actual assessment of her physical attributes against any particular criteria of beauty.
Yet Allied Maples Group Ltd v. Simmons & Simmons [1995] 1 WLR 1602 has partly restricted Chaplin v. Hicks. A solicitor's negligence deprived the claimant of an opportunity to negotiate a better bargain. The Court of Appeal held that if the client could show on the balance of probabilities that: (a) they would have sought renegotiation with the third party, and (b) that they had a substantial chance of negotiating (not necessarily that they would on balance of probabilities have negotiated) a better deal from the third party, then the court should quantify and award compensation for their loss of chance of doing so. Stuart-Smith LJ, at p1611, accepted the 'loss of chance' approach and regarded the case as one of those where "the plaintiff's loss depends on the hypothetical action of a third party, either in addition to action by the plaintiff … or independently of it." This inclusion of a third party in the equation to quantify loss could have been taken as a general precondition to all claim of loss cases, but Lord Nicholls in Gregg v Scott [2005] UKHL 2 said, "It is clear that Stuart-Smith LJ. did not intend this to be a precise or exhaustive statement of the circumstances where loss of a chance may constitute actionable damage and his observation has not been so understood."
In Bank of Credit and Commerce International SA v Ali [2002] 1 AC 251 an employee made redundant by BCCI, claimed the usual statutory payments and, under the aegis of ACAS, signed an agreement to accept a sum "in full and final settlement of all or any claims of whatsoever nature that exist or may exist against BCCI." The House of Lords held that this exclusion clause did not prevent employees from reopening their agreements when, following BCCI's collapse, it became clear that a significant part of the bank's business had been run dishonestly and the employees found that they were stigmatised for having worked there. When the parties signed the release, they could not have realistically supposed that a claim for damages in respect of disadvantage and stigma was a possibility. Accordingly, they claimed they could not have intended the release to apply to such a claim. But in earlier proceedings on the question of damages, the formidable practical obstacles presented by the limiting principles of causation, remoteness, and the duty of the claimant to mitigate any losses proved insurmountable. In 1999 Lightman J. tried five representative cases out of the 369 which had been initiated by former BCCI employees. None of them succeeded in proving that their unemployment was attributable to stigma. Indeed, subject to the anti-discrimination laws, a prospective employer is under no particular duty to employ anyone who attends for interview. Four of the cases tried by Lightman J. appear to have concerned employees who were dismissed by the liquidators when the bank collapsed in 1991. Those made redundant in 1990 faced the additional hurdle of having to explain why their unemployment was attributable to stigma when they were unable to find jobs for a year before any stigma attached to them.
In this context, Johnson (A.P.) v. Unisys Limited [2001] UKHL 13 rejects any interpretation of Addis v Gramophone Co Ltd that might have prevented an action for damage to reputation or for psychiatric injury arising from dismissal, but confirms formidable evidential difficulties on causation: How, for example, would the employee prove that his psychiatric condition was caused by the manner of the dismissal rather than the fact of the dismissal which is within an employer's power for cause? More generally, the case holds that claims for breach of contractual terms cannot be used to avoid statutory preconditions to making claims for unfair dismissal. Recently, in Harper v. Virgin Net [2004] EWCA Civ 271 the Court of Appeal decided that an employee who was summarily dismissed, cannot bring a claim for damages for the loss of the opportunity to initiate a claim for unfair dismissal. If she had served the minimum three-month period of notice stipulated in the contract, she would have been able to bring a claim for unfair dismissal. But although there was a breach of this term as to notice, there was no loss of chance to claim. She had not gained the chance by actually serving the minimum statutory period of twelve months to qualify and the action for breach of a contractual term could not be used to defeat Parliament's intention in specifying a minimum period of actual service.
Negligence
While the award of damages in tort may protect pre-existing expectations (e.g. of earning capacity or of business profits), a claimant cannot be seen to benefit from the breach of the duty of care. The measure of damages is therefore to ensure that the claimant is "no worse off" having suffered the breach of the duty of care. In each case, the claimant must prove the cause of action on the balance of probabilities. For these purposes, the court is required to speculate on what would have happened had there been no negligence. In many cases, loss and damage might have been sustained even if all had gone as planned. But there might always have been a chance that no long-term loss and damage would occur. For example, a person may attend a hospital with an existing injury. The only effect of any negligence in the treatment may be that the patient loses the chance of a full recovery, i.e. what was merely threatened becomes inevitable. Thus, actions by claimants whose chances of recovery from illness or injury have been reduced due to the professional negligence of their doctors have failed when they could not establish that, with proper treatment, their chances of recovery would have exceeded 50%. In Gregg v Scott [2005] UKHL 2; [2005] 2 WLR 268 a man whose chances of surviving non-Hodgkin's Lymphoma for ten years were reduced from 42% to 25% by a delay in diagnosis could not claim damages because his chances were already too slim (below 50%) for the delay to have worsened his position. This was complicated by the fact that the case was brought before the court following an extended delay at which point the plaintiff was still alive. In the judgement this was cited as a significant weakness in his claim. The principle is that a claimant must have had a more than 50% chance of survival to establish causation in order to satisfy the balance of probability test. However, in some Australian states, claims for loss of chance have been succeeded in medical negligence cases. Their approach argues that a patient would rather have a 42% than a 25% chance of survival. If negligence reduces the percentage, common sense justice rejects a black-and-white approach to accepting or rejecting a claim based on an expert's opinion as to whether there was ever a 50% chance of survival, and prefers to offer mitigated damages to represent the loss of chance.
In cases of economic loss, the rule that a claimant cannot normally recover for a lost chance is modified. In Kitchen v. Royal Airforce Association [1958] 2 All ER 241 a solicitor failed to issue a writ within the period of limitation in respect of a fatal accident. The surviving spouse sued for damages as she was unable to pursue her claim. There was no doubt that the loss was caused by the solicitors’ negligence and the only argument related to quantification of her claim. Although it was argued on behalf of the solicitors that the claimant might not have won her case, and may therefore have lost nothing, the court held that she had lost a chance and, as this was a valuable right, she should be compensated for it. Similarly, in Stovold v. Barlows (1996) PNLR 91 a solicitor acting for a vendor failed to use the appropriate system for sending the title deeds to a purchaser. Consequently, the claimant lost his chance to sell the property at a higher price. But damages were reduced by 50% as the court held that the purchaser might have bought another property even if the documents had arrived on time. In First Interstate Bank of California v Cohen Arnold & Co. (1996) PNLR 17 the claimant bank had loaned money to a client of the defendant accountants who negligently overstated the net worth of their clients. The bank then became concerned about the amount of the loan outstanding but, relying on the representations made by the defendant accountants, the bank delayed in calling in the loan. As a result of the delay in placing the property on the market, the price obtained was £1.45 million whereas the bank contended that it could have realised £3 million in an earlier sale. The Court of Appeal valued the chance at 66.66% on the assumption that “but for” the negligence, the property would actually have been sold for 66.66% of £3 million.
In commercial cases, damages are assessed not on the outcome which the claimant would have sought, but on the economic opportunity which he has lost. The claimant must prove on the balance of probabilities that he or she would have taken action to obtain the relevant benefit or avoid the relevant risk. Once this has been established, the claimant need only show that the chance which he or she has lost was real or substantial. In Coudert Brothers v. Normans Bay Ltd. (formerly Illingworth, Morris Ltd.) [2004] EWCA Civ 215 the court reviewed two earlier authorities:Allied Maples Group Ltd v Simmons & Simmons and Equitable Life Assurance Society v Ernst & Young (2003) EWCA Civ 1114. The claimant, Normans Bay Ltd. was advised by Coudert Brothers in a tender for 49% of the shares in a Russian company, Bolshevichka, in 1993, but the investment was lost. NBL claimed that, "but for" Coudert's negligence, the tender would have survived. At first instance, Buckley J assessed that chance of survival at 70%. The prior cases establish that loss of chance claims require proof on the balance of probabilities that:
the claimant would have sought to secure the advantage which is the subject matter of the claim for valuation.
where the claim depends on the hypothetical acts of a third party, e.g. whether the panel of a beauty contest would have awarded a prize to the claimant, the claimant has lost a real or substantial chance as opposed to a speculative or fanciful chance.
If both of these are proved, the court must assess that chance lost. If the chance was low, the court will award a low percentage of the value of the chance in damages; if the chance had a high probability of success, a high percentage will be awarded. On appeal the award was reduced to 40%. The court also dismissed Coudert's argument that its own negligence had broken the chain of causation because, to allow such an argument, would be to allow a party to benefit from their own unlawful act.
In Other Jurisdictions
In other jurisdictions, the loss of chance doctrine has received mixed reception. In the United States, 24 states have adopted some version of the lost chance doctrine, 17 have rejected it, 4 have deferred ruling on the doctrine, and 5 have yet to address the matter. Common criticisms from U.S. state courts rejecting the lost chance doctrine are that it represents a relaxation of the normal burden of proof, and that it represents a drastic shift in tort liability that would be best left up to state legislatures. The Supreme Court of Texas has further noted the risk of creating a slippery slope—if lost chance can be applied in the medical malpractice context, why should it not apply to a legal malpractice plaintiff's claim of a lost chance of victory at trial due to poor lawyering, or perhaps an entrepreneur's lost chance of success for a new failed business due to the actions of another? In rejecting the doctrine, the Supreme Court of Texas concluded: “We see nothing unique about the healing arts which should make its practitioners more responsible for possible but not probable consequences than any other negligent actor.”
In Canada, the loss of chance doctrine has also been met with hostility by the courts.
Notes
See also
Damages
Expectation damages
References
A Burrows, "No Restitutionary Damages for Breach of Contract' (1993) L.M.C.L.Q.R. 453.
P Cane, Atiyah’s Accidents, Compensation and the Law (6th edn CUP 1999)
S Deakin, A Johnston and BS Markesinis, Markesinis and Deakin's Tort Law (Clarendon 2003)
MP Furmston, GC Cheshire and CHS Fifoot, Cheshire, Fifoot and Furmston's Law of Contract (LexisNexis 2001)
H. L. A. Hart and A. M. Honoré Causation in the Law (Clarendon 1985)
E McKendrick, "Breach of Contract and the Meaning of Loss" (1999) CLP 53.
C Mitchell, "Remedial Inadequacy in Contract and the Role of Restitutionary Damages" (1999) 15 J.C.L. 133.
WVH Rogers, Winfield and Jolowicz on Tort (Sweet & Maxwell 2008)
RH Sturgess, 'The “Loss of Chance” Doctrine of Damages for Breach of Contract' (2005) Bar Journal Vol. 79(9) 29.
GH Treitel, Treitel on the Law of Contract (Sweet & Maxwell 2003)
T Weir, Tort Law (OUP 2002)
External links
Worldlii links to resources on the subject of damages
English contract law
English tort law
Legal doctrines and principles |
4430995 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Statutory%20Instruments%20of%20the%20Welsh%20Assembly%2C%202003 | List of Statutory Instruments of the Welsh Assembly, 2003 | This is an incomplete list of Statutory Instruments of the Welsh Assembly made in 2003. Statutory Instruments made by the Assembly are numbered in the main United Kingdom series with their own sub-series. The Welsh language has official equal status with the English language in Wales so every Statutory Instrument made by the Assembly is officially published in both English and Welsh. Only the titles of the English-language version are reproduced here. The Statutory Instruments are secondary legislation, deriving their power from the Acts of Parliament establishing and transferring functions and powers to the Welsh Assembly.
1-100
The Agricultural Holdings (Units of Production) (Wales) Order 2003 (S.I. 2003 No. 4 (W.2))
Gorchymyn Daliadau Amaethyddol (Unedau Cynhyrchu) (Cymru) 2003 (S.I. 2003 Rhif 4 (Cy.2))
The Housing (Right to Acquire and Right to Buy) (Designated Rural Areas and Designated Regions) (Wales) Order 2003 (S.I. 2003 No. 54 (W.5))
Gorchymyn Tai (Hawl i Gaffael a Hawl i Brynu) (Ardaloedd Gwledig Dynodedig a Rhanbarthau Dynodedig) (Cymru) 2003 (S.I. 2003 Rhif 54 (Cy.5))
The Seeds (Miscellaneous Amendments) Regulations (Wales) 2003 (S.I. 2003 No. 56 (W.6))
Rheoliadau Hadau (Diwygiadau Amrywiol) (Cymru) 2003 (S.I. 2003 Rhif 56 (Cy.6))
The Limited Liability Partnerships (Welsh Language Forms) Regulations 2003 (S.I. 2003 No. 61)
Rheoliadau (Ffurflenni Cymraeg) Partneriaethau Atebolrwydd Cyfyngedig 2003 (S.I. 2003 Rhif 61)
The Companies (Welsh Language Forms) Regulations 2003 (S.I. 2003 No. 62)
Rheoliadau (Ffurflenni Cymraeg) Cwmnïau 2003 (S.I. 2003 Rhif 62)
The Countryside Access (Dedication of Land as Access Land) (Wales) Regulations 2003 (S.I. 2003 No. 135 (W.9))
Rheoliadau Mynediad i Gefn Gwlad (Cyflwyno Tir fel Tir Mynediad) (Cymru) 2003 (S.I. 2003 Rhif 135 (Cy.9))
The National Health Service (General Dental Services) and (Dental Charges) (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2003 (S.I. 2003 No. 138 (W.10))
Rheoliadau'r Gwasanaeth Iechyd Gwladol (Gwasanaethau Deintyddol Cyffredinol) a (Ffioedd Deintyddol) (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2003 (S.I. 2003 Rhif 138 (Cy.10))
The National Health Service (General Medical Services) and (Pharmaceutical Services) (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2003 (S.I. 2003 No. 139 (W.11))
Rheoliadau'r Gwasanaeth Iechyd Gwladol (Gwasanaethau Meddygol Cyffredinol) a (Gwasanaethau Fferyllol) (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2003 (S.I. 2003 Rhif 139 (Cy.11))
The Education (Teachers' Qualifications and Health Standards) (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2003 (S.I. 2003 No. 140 (W.12))
Rheoliadau Addysg (Cymwysterau a Safonau Iechyd Athrawon) (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2003 (S.I. 2003 Rhif 140 (Cy.12))
The Countryside Access (Exclusion or Restriction of Access) (Wales) Regulations 2003 (S.I. 2003 No. 142 (W.14))
Rheoliadau Mynediad i Gefn Gwlad (Gwahardd neu Gyfyngu Mynediad) (Cymru) 2003 (S.I. 2003 Rhif 142 (Cy.14))
The National Health Service (General Medical Services) (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2003 (S.I. 2003 No. 143 (W.15))
Rheoliadau'r Gwasanaeth Iechyd Gwladol (Gwasanaethau Meddygol Cyffredinol) (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2003 (S.I. 2003 Rhif 143 (Cy.15))
The Local Authorities (Executive Arrangements) (Discharge of Functions) (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2003 (S.I. 2003 No. 147 (W.17))
Rheoliadau Awdurdodau Lleol (Trefniadau Gweithrediaeth) (Cyflawni Swyddogaethau) (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2003 (S.I. 2003 Rhif 147 (Cy.17))
The Local Health Boards (Establishment) (Wales) Order 2003 (S.I. 2003 No. 148 (W.18))
Gorchymyn Byrddau Iechyd Lleol (Sefydlu) (Cymru) 2003 (S.I. 2003 Rhif 148 (Cy.18))
The Local Health Boards (Constitution, Membership and Procedures) (Wales) Regulations 2003 (S.I. 2003 No. 149 (W.19))
Rheoliadau Byrddau Iechyd Lleol (Cyfansoddiad, Aelodaeth a Gweithdrefnau) (Cymru) 2003 (S.I. 2003 Rhif 149 (Cy.19))
The Local Health Boards (Functions) (Wales) Regulations 2003 (S.I. 2003 No. 150 (W.20))
Rheoliadau'r Byrddau Iechyd Lleol (Swyddogaethau) (Cymru) 2003 (S.I. 2003 Rhif 150 (Cy.20))
The Sheep Annual Premium (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2003 (S.I. 2003 No. 151 (W.21))
Rheoliadau Premiwm Blynyddol Defaid (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2003 (S.I. 2003 Rhif 151 (Cy.21))
The Care Standards Act 2000 (Commencement No. 10) and Transitional Provisions (Wales) Order 2003 (S.I. 2003 No. 152 (W.22) (C.8))
Gorchymyn Deddf Safonau Gofal 2000 (Cychwyn Rhif 10) a Darpariaethau Trosiannol (Cymru) 2003 (S.I. 2003 Rhif 152 (Cy.22) (C.8))
The Local Authorities Executive Arrangements (Functions and Responsibilities) (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2003 (S.I. 2003 No. 153 (W.23))
Rheoliadau Trefniadau Gweithrediaeth Awdurdodau Lleol (Swyddogaethau a Chyfrifoldebau) (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2003 (S.I. 2003 Rhif 153 (Cy.23))
The Health, Social Care and Well-being Strategies (Wales) Regulations 2003 (S.I. 2003 No. 154 (W.24))
Rheoliadau Strategaethau Iechyd, Gofal Cymdeithasol a Llesiant (Cymru) 2003 (S.I. 2003 Rhif 154 (Cy.24))
The Local Authorities (Alternative Arrangements) (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2003 (S.I. 2003 No. 155 (W.25))
Rheoliadau Awdurdodau Lleol (Trefniadau Amgen) (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2003 (S.I. 2003 Rhif 155 (Cy.25))
The Sheep and Goats Identification and Movement (Interim Measures) (Wales) (No.2) (Amendment) Order 2003 (S.I. 2003 No. 167 (W.27))
Gorchymyn Adnabod a Symud Defaid a Geifr (Mesurau Dros Dro) (Cymru) (Rhif 2) (Diwygio) 2003 (S.I. 2003 Rhif 167 (Cy.27))
The Disease Control (Interim Measures) (Wales) (No.2) (Amendment) Order 2003 (S.I. 2003 No. 168 (W.28))
Gorchymyn Rheoli Clefydau (Mesurau Dros Dro) (Cymru) (Rhif 2) (Diwygio) 2003 (S.I. 2003 Rhif 168 (Cy.28))
The Animal Gatherings (Interim Measures) (Wales) (Amendment) Order 2003 (S.I. 2003 No. 169 (W.29))
Gorchymyn Crynoadau Anifeiliaid (Mesurau Dros Dro) (Cymru) (Diwygio) 2003 (S.I. 2003 Rhif 169 (Cy.29))
The Pigs (Records, Identification and Movement) (Interim Measures) (Wales) (No. 2) (Amendment) Order 2003 (S.I. 2003 No. 170 (W.30))
Gorchymyn Moch (Cofnodion, Adnabod a Symud) (Mesurau Dros Dro) (Cymru) (Rhif 2) (Diwygio) 2003 (S.I. 2003 Rhif 170 (Cy.30))
The Adoption and Children Act 2002 (Commencement No. 1) (Wales) Order 2003 (S.I. 2003 No. 181 (W.39) (C.9))
Gorchymyn Deddf Mabwysiadu a Phlant 2002 (Cychwyn Rhif 1) (Cymru) 2003 (S.I. 2003 Rhif 181 (Cy.31) (C.9))
The Long Residential Tenancies (Principal Forms) (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2003 (S.I. 2003 No. 233 (W.33))
Rheoliadau Tenantiaethau Preswyl Hir (Prif Ffurflenni) (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2003 (S.I. 2003 Rhif 233 (Cy.33))
The Fostering Services (Wales) Regulations 2003 (S.I. 2003 No. 237 (W.35))
Rheoliadau Gwasanaethau Maethu (Cymru) 2003 (S.I. 2003 Rhif 237 (Cy.35))
The Allocation of Housing (Wales) Regulations 2003 (S.I. 2003 No. 239 (W.36))
Rheoliadau Dyrannu Tai (Cymru) 2003 (S.I. 2003 Rhif 239 (Cy.36))
The Education (Pupil Referral Units) (Appeals Against Permanent Exclusion) (Wales) Regulations 2003 (S.I. 2003 No. 287 (W.39))
Rheoliadau Addysg (Unedau Cyfeirio Disgyblion) (Apelau yn erbyn Gwaharddiadau Parhaol) (Cymru) 2003 (S.I. 2003 Rhif 287 (Cy.39))
The Road Traffic (Vehicle Emissions) (Fixed Penalty) (Wales) Regulations 2003 (S.I. 2003 No. 300 (W.42))
Rheoliadau Traffig Ffyrdd (Allyriadau Cerbydau) (Cosbau Penodedig) 2003 (S.I. 2003 Rhif 300 (Cy.42))
The National Health Service (Optical Charges and Payments) (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2003 (S.I. 2003 No. 301 (W.43))
Rheoliadau'r Gwasanaeth Iechyd Gwladol (Ffioedd a Thaliadau Optegol) (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2003 (S.I. 2003 Rhif 301 (Cy.43))
The Plastic Materials and Articles in Contact with Food (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2003 (S.I. 2003 No. 302 (W.44))
Rheoliadau Deunyddiau ac Eitemau Plastig mewn Cysylltiad â Bwyd (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2003 (S.I. 2003 Rhif 302 (Cy.44))
The Assured Tenancies and Agricultural Occupancies (Forms) (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2003 (S.I. 2003 No. 307 (W.46))
Rheoliadau Tenantiaethau Sicr a Meddianaethau Amaethyddol Sicr (Ffurflenni) (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2003 (S.I. 2003 Rhif 307 (Cy.46))
The Bluetongue (Wales) Order 2003 (S.I. 2003 No. 326 (W.47))
Gorchymyn y Tafod Glas (Cymru) 2003 (S.I. 2003 Rhif 326 (Cy.47))
The General Teaching Council for Wales (Constitution) (Amendment) Regulations 2003 (S.I. 2003 No. 389 (W.51))
Rheoliadau Cyngor Addysgu Cyffredinol Cymru (Cyfansoddiad) (Diwygio) 2003 (S.I. 2003 Rhif 389 (Cy.51))
The Town and Country Planning (Referrals and Appeals) (Written Representations Procedure) (Wales) Regulations 2003 (S.I. 2003 No. 390 (W.52))
Rheoliadau Cynllunio Gwlad a Thref (Atgyfeiriadau ac Apelau) (Gweithdrefn Sylwadau Ysgrifenedig) (Cymru) 2003 (S.I. 2003 Rhif 390 (Cy.52))
The Town and Country Planning (Enforcement Notices and Appeals) (Wales) Regulations 2003 (S.I. 2003 No. 394 (W.53))
Rheoliadau Cynllunio Gwlad a Thref (Hysbysiadau Gorfodi ac Apelau) (Cymru) 2003 (S.I. 2003 Rhif 394 (Cy.53))
The Town and Country Planning (Enforcement) (Written Representations Procedure) (Wales) Regulations 2003 (S.I. 2003 No. 395 (W.54))
Rheoliadau Cynllunio Gwlad a Thref (Gorfodi) (Gweithdrefn Sylwadau Ysgrifenedig) (Cymru) 2003 (S.I. 2003 Rhif 395 (Cy.54))
The Local Authorities (Referendums) (Petitions and Directions) (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2003 (S.I. 2003 No. 398 (W.55))
Rheoliadau Awdurdodau Lleol (Refferenda) (Deisebau a Chyfarwyddiadau) (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2003 (S.I. 2003 Rhif 398 (Cy.55))
The Movement of Animals (Restrictions) (Wales) Order 2003 (S.I. 2003 No. 399 (W.56))
Gorchymyn Symud Anifeiliaid (Cyfyngiadau) (Cymru) 2003 (S.I. 2003 Rhif 399 (Cy.56))
The M4 Motorway Slip Road (Junction 44, Lon-Las) Scheme 2003 (S.I. 2003 No. 406 (W.57))
Cynllun Fordd Ymuno Traffordd yr M4 (Cyffordd 44, Lô n-Las) 2003 (S.I. 2003 Rhif 406 (Cy.57))
The Agricultural Subsidies (Appeals) (Wales) (Amendment) Regulations 2003 (S.I. 2003 No. 411 (W.58))
Rheoliadau Cymorthdaliadau Amaethyddol (Apelau) (Cymru) (Diwygio) 2003 (S.I. 2003 Rhif 411 (Cy.58))
The Non-Domestic Rating (Demand Notices) (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2003 (S.I. 2003 No. 414 (W.59))
Rheoliadau Ardrethu Annomestig (Hysbysiadau Galw am Dalu) (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2003 (S.I. 2003 Rhif 414 (Cy.59))
The Prohibition of Keeping or Release of Live Fish (Specified Species) (Amendment) (Wales) Order 2003 (S.I. 2003 No. 416 (W.60))
Gorchymyn Gwahardd Cadw neu Ollwng Pysgod Byw (Rhywogaethau Penodedig) (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2003 (S.I. 2003 Rhif 416 (Cy.60))
The Local Health Boards (Transfer of Property, Rights and Liabilities) (Wales) Order 2003 (S.I. 2003 No. 473 (W.63))
Gorchymyn y Byrddau Iechyd Lleol (Trosglwyddo Eiddo, Hawliau a Rhwymedigaethau) (Cymru) 2003 (S.I. 2003 Rhif 473 (Cy.63))
The Animal Gatherings (Interim Measures) (Wales) Order 2003 (S.I. 2003 No. 481 (W.67))
Gorchymyn Crynoadau Anifeiliaid (Mesurau Dros Dro) (Cymru) 2003 (S.I. 2003 Rhif 481 (Cy.67))
The Transport of Animals (Cleansing and Disinfection) (Wales) Order 2003 (S.I. 2003 No. 482 (W.68))
Gorchymyn Cludo Anifeiliaid (Glanhau a Diheintio) (Cymru) 2003 (S.I. 2003 Rhif 482 (Cy.68))
The Disease Control (Interim Measures) (Wales) Order 2003 (S.I. 2003 No. 483 (W.69))
Gorchymyn Rheoli Clefydau (Mesurau Dros Dro) (Cymru) 2003 (S.I. 2003 Rhif 483 (Cy.69))
The Care Standards Act 2000 (Commencement No.11) (Wales) Order 2003 (S.I. 2003 No. 501 (W.70) (C.27))
Gorchymyn Deddf Safonau Gofal 2000 (Cychwyn Rhif 11) (Cymru) 2003 (S.I. 2003 Rhif 501 (Cy.70) (C.27))
The General Teaching Council for Wales (Disciplinary Functions) (Amendment) Regulations 2003 (S.I. 2003 No. 503 (W.71))
Rheoliadau Cyngor Addysgu Cyffredinol Cymru (Swyddogaethau Disgyblu) (Diwygio) 2003 (S.I. 2003 Rhif 503 (Cy.71))
The Council Tax (Administration and Enforcement) (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2003 (S.I. 2003 No. 522 (W.72))
Rheoliadau'r Dreth Gyngor (Gweinyddu a Gorfodi) (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2003 (S.I. 2003 Rhif 522 (Cy.72))
The Police Reform Act 2002 (Commencement) (Wales) Order 2003 (S.I. 2003 No. 525 (W.73) (C.28))
Gorchymyn Deddf Diwygio'r Heddlu 2002 (Cychwyn) (Cymru) 2003 (S.I. 2003 Rhif 525 (Cy.73) (C.28))
The Tir Gofal (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2003 (S.I. 2003 No. 529 (W.74))
Rheoliadau Tir Gofal (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2003 (S.I. 2003 Rhif 529 (Cy.74))
The Financing of Maintained Schools (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2003 (S.I. 2003 No. 538 (W.75))
Rheoliadau Ariannu Ysgolion a Gynhelir (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2003 (S.I. 2003 Rhif 538 (Cy.75))
The Education (Supply of Information) (Wales) Regulations 2003 (S.I. 2003 No. 542 (W.76))
Rheoliadau Addysg (Cyflenwi Gwybodaeth) (Cymru) 2003 (S.I. 2003 Rhif 542 (Cy.76))
The Education (Induction Arrangements for School Teachers) (Wales) Regulations 2003 (S.I. 2003 No. 543 (W.77))
Rheoliadau (Trefniadau Ymsefydlu ar gyfer Athrawon Ysgol) (Cymru) 2003 (S.I. 2003 Rhif 543 (Cy.77))
The Sea Fishing (Enforcement of Community Control Measures) (Wales) (Amendment) Order 2003 (S.I. 2003 No. 559 (W.79))
Gorchymyn Pysgota Môr (Gorfodi Mesurau Rheoli'r Gymuned) (Cymru) (Diwygio) 2003 (S.I. 2003 Rhif 559 (Cy.79))
The Shellfish (Specified Sea Area) (Prohibition of Fishing Methods) (Wales) Order 2003 (S.I. 2003 No. 607 (W.81))
Gorchymyn Pysgod Cregyn (Ardal Fôr Benodedig) (Gwahardd Dulliau Pysgota) (Cymru) 2003 (S.I. 2003 Rhif 607 (Cy.81))
The Council Tax (Discount Disregards) (Amendment) (Wales) Order 2003 (S.I. 2003 No. 673 (W.83))
Gorchymyn Treth Gyngor (Diystyru Gostyngiad) (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2003 (S.I. 2003 Rhif 673 (Cy.83))
The Revenue Support Grant (Specified Bodies) (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2003 (S.I. 2003 No. 706 (W.85))
Rheoliadau Grant Cynnal Refeniw (Cyrff Penodedig) (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2003 (S.I. 2003 Rhif 706 (Cy.85))
The Local Authority Adoption Service and Miscellaneous Amendments (Wales) Regulations 2003 (S.I. 2003 No. 710 (W.86))
Rheoliadau Gwasanaethau Mabwysiadu Awdurdodau Lleol a Diwygiadau Amrywiol (Cymru) 2003 (S.I. 2003 Rhif 710 (Cy.86))
The Health and Social Care Act 2001 (Commencement No. 4) (Wales) Order 2003 (S.I. 2003 No. 713 (W.87) (C.36))
Gorchymyn Deddf Iechyd a Gofal Cymdeithasol 2001 (Cychwyn Rhif 4) (Cymru) 2003 (S.I. 2003 Rhif 713 (Cy.87) (C.36))
The Waste Management Licensing (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2003 (S.I. 2003 No. 780 (W.91))
Rheoliadau Trwyddedu Rheoli Gwastraff (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2003 (S.I. 2003 Rhif 780 (Cy.91))
The Residential Family Centres (Wales) Regulations 2003 (S.I. 2003 No. 781 (W.92))
Rheoliadau Canolfannau Preswyl i Deuluoedd (Cymru) 2003 (S.I. 2003 Rhif 781 (Cy.92))
The National Health Service (General Dental Services) (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2003 (S.I. 2003 No. 782 (W.93))
Rheoliadau'r Gwasanaeth Iechyd Gwladol (Gwasanaethau Deintyddol Cyffredinol) (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2003 (S.I. 2003 Rhif 782 (Cy.93))
The National Health Service (Pharmaceutical Services) (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2003 (S.I. 2003 No. 783 (W.94))
Rheoliadau'r Gwasanaeth Iechyd Gwladol (Gwasanaethau Fferyllol) (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2003 (S.I. 2003 Rhif 783 (Cy.94))
The National Health Service (General Medical Services) (Amendment) (No. 2) (Wales) Regulations 2003 (S.I. 2003 No. 784 (W.95))
Rheoliadau'r Gwasanaeth Iechyd Gwladol (Gwasanaethau Meddygol Cyffredinol) (Diwygio) (Rhif 2) (Cymru) 2003 (S.I. 2003 Rhif 784 (Cy.95))
The Housing (Right to Buy) (Limits of Discount) (Amendment) (Wales) Order 2003 (S.I. 2003 No. 803 (W.97))
Gorchymyn Tai (Hawl i Brynu) (Terfynau'r Disgownt) (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2003 (S.I. 2003 Rhif 803 (Cy.97))
The Health Authorities (Transfer of Functions, Staff, Property, Rights and Liabilities and Abolition) (Wales) Order 2003 (S.I. 2003 No. 813 (W.98))
Gorchymyn Awdurdodau Iechyd (Trosglwyddo Swyddogaethau, Staff, Eiddo, Hawliau a Rhwymedigaethau a Diddymu) (Cymru) 2003 (S.I. 2003 Rhif 813 (Cy.98))
The Health Authorities (Transfer of Functions, Staff, Property, Rights and Liabilities and Abolition) (Wales) (Amendment) Order 2003 (S.I. 2003 No. 814 (W.99))
Gorchymyn Awdurdodau Iechyd (Trosglwyddo Swyddogaethau, Staff, Eiddo, Hawliau a Rhwymedigaethau a Diddymu) (Cymru) (Diwygio) 2003 (S.I. 2003 Rhif 814 (Cy.99))
The Powys Local Health Board (Additional Functions) (Regulations 2003 (S.I. 2003 No. 815 (W.100))
Rheoliadau Bwrdd Iechyd Lleol Powys (Swyddogaethau Ychwanegol) 2003 (S.I. 2003 Rhif 815 (Cy.100))
101-200
The Local Health Boards (Functions) (Amendment) Regulations 2003 (S.I. 2003 No. 816 (W.101))
Rheoliadau'r Byrddau Iechyd Lleol (Swyddogaethau) (Diwygio) 2003 (S.I. 2003 Rhif 816 (Cy.101))
The Powys Health Care National Health Service Trust (Dissolution) Order 2003 (S.I. 2003 No. 817 (W.102))
Gorchymyn Ymddiriedolaeth Gwasanaeth Iechyd Gwladol Gofal Iechyd Powys (Diddymu) 2003 (S.I. 2003 Rhif 817 (Cy.102))
The Local Health Boards (Transfer of Staff) (Wales) Order 2003 (S.I. 2003 No. 818 (W.103))
Gorchymyn y Byrddau Iechyd Lleol (Trosglwyddo Staff) (Cymru) 2003 (S.I. 2003 Rhif 818 (Cy.103))
The Food Labelling (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2003 (S.I. 2003 No. 832 (W.104))
Rheoliadau Labelu Bwyd (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2003 (S.I. 2003 Rhif 832 (Cy.104))
The National Health Service (General Ophthalmic Services) (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2003 (S.I. 2003 No. 837 (W.106))
Rheoliadau'r Gwasanaeth Iechyd Gwladol (Gwasanaethau Offthalmig Cyffredinol) (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2003 (S.I. 2003 Rhif 837 (Cy.106))
The Education (Remission of Charges Relating to Residential Trips) (Wales) Regulations 2003 (S.I. 2003 No. 860 (W.107))
Rheoliadau Addysg (Peidio â Chodi Tâl sy'n Ymwneud â Theithiau Preswyl) (Cymru) 2003 (S.I. 2003 Rhif 860 (Cy.107))
The Education (Outturn Statements) (Wales) Regulations 2003 (S.I. 2003 No. 873 (W.109))
Rheoliadau Addysg (Datganiadau Alldro) (Cymru) 2003 (S.I. 2003 Rhif 873 (Cy.109))
The Education (Free School Lunches) (Prescribed Tax Credits) (Wales) Order 2003 (S.I. 2003 No. 879 (W.110))
Gorchymyn Addysg (Ciniawau Ysgol Rhad ac am Ddim) (Credydau Treth Rhagnodedig) (Cymru) 2003 (S.I. 2003 Rhif 879 (Cy.110))
The Education (School Lunches) (Prescribed Requirement) (Wales) Order 2003 (S.I. 2003 No. 880 (W.111))
Gorchymyn Addysg (Ciniawau Ysgol) (Gofyniad Rhagnodedig) (Cymru) 2003 (S.I. 2003 Rhif 880 (Cy.111))
The National Assistance (Sums for Personal Requirements) (Wales) Regulations 2003 (S.I. 2003 No. 892 (W.112))
Rheoliadau Cymorth Gwladol (Symiau at Anghenion Personol) (Cymru) 2003 (S.I. 2003 Rhif 892 (Cy.112))
The Education (Nursery Education and Early Years Development and Childcare Plans) (Wales) Regulations 2003 (S.I. 2003 No. 893 (W.113))
Rheoliadau Addysg (Addysg Feithrin a Chynlluniau Datblygu Blynyddoedd Cynnar a Gofal Plant) (Cymru) 2003 (S.I. 2003 Rhif 893 (Cy.113))
The Local Authorities (Capital Finance) (Rate of Discount for 2003/2004) (Wales) Regulations 2003 (S.I. 2003 No. 894 (W.114))
Rheoliadau Awdurdodau Lleol (Cyllid Cyfalaf) (Cyfradd y Disgownt ar gyfer 2003/2004) (Cymru) 2003 (S.I. 2003 Rhif 894 (Cy.114))
The Local Authorities (Allowances for Members of Community Councils) (Wales) Regulations 2003 (S.I. 2003 No. 895 (W.115))
Rheoliadau Awdurdodau Lleol (Lwfansau i Aelodau Cynghorau Cymuned) (Cymru) 2003 (S.I. 2003 Rhif 895 (Cy.115))
The Fostering Services (Wales) (Amendment) Regulations 2003 (S.I. 2003 No. 896 (W.116))
Rheoliadau Gwasanaethau Maethu (Cymru) (Diwygio) 2003 (S.I. 2003 Rhif 896 (Cy.116))
The National Assistance (Assessment of Resources) (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2003 (S.I. 2003 No. 897 (W.117))
Rheoliadau Cymorth Gwladol (Asesu Adnoddau) (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2003 (S.I. 2003 Rhif 897 (Cy.117))
The Local Authorities (Capital Finance) (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2003 (S.I. 2003 No. 915 (W.118))
Rheoliadau Awdurdodau Lleol (Cyllid Cyfalaf) (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2003 (S.I. 2003 Rhif 915 (Cy.118))
The Individual Learning Accounts Wales Regulations 2003 (S.I. 2003 No. 918 (W.119))
Rheoliadau Cyfrifon Dysgu Unigol Cymru 2003 (S.I. 2003 Rhif 918 (Cy.119))
The National Assistance (Residential Accommodation)(Additional Payments, Relevant Contributions and Assessment of Resources)(Wales) Regulations 2003 (S.I. 2003 No. 931 (W.121))
Rheoliadau Cymorth Gwladol (Llety Preswyl) (Taliadau Ychwanegol, Cyfraniadau Perthnasol ac Asesu Adnoddau) (Cymru) 2003 (S.I. 2003 Rhif 931 (Cy.121))
The Basic Curriculum for Wales (Amendment) Order 2003 (S.I. 2003 No. 932 (W.122))
Gorchymyn y Cwricwlwm Sylfaenol ar gyfer Cymru (Diwygio) 2003 (S.I. 2003 Rhif 932 (W.122))
The Health and Social Care Act 2001 (Commencement No. 5) (Wales) Order 2003 (S.I. 2003 No. 939 (W.123) (C.50))
Gorchymyn Deddf Iechyd a Gofal Cymdeithasol 2001 (Cychwyn Rhif 5) (Cymru) 2003 (S.I. 2003 Rhif 939 (Cy.123) (C.50))
The Bus Service Operators Grant (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2003 (S.I. 2003 No. 943 (W.124))
Rheoliadau Grant Gweithredwyr Gwasanaethau Bysiau (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2003 (S.I. 2003 Rhif 943 (Cy.124))
The Non-Domestic Rating (Utilities) (Rateable Value) (Amendment) (Wales) Order 2003 (S.I. 2003 No. 944 (W.125))
Gorchymyn Ardrethu Annomestig (Cyfleustodau) (Gwerth Ardrethol) (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2003 (S.I. 2003 Rhif 944 (Cy.125))
The Miscellaneous Food Additives (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2003 (S.I. 2003 No. 945 (W.126))
Rheoliadau Ychwanegion Bwyd Amrywiol (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2003 (S.I. 2003 Rhif 945 (Cy.126))
The Sheep and Goats Identification and Movement (Interim Measures) (Wales) (No.2) (Amendment) (No.2) Order 2003 (S.I. 2003 No. 946 (W.127))
Gorchymyn Adnabod a Symud Defaid a Geifr (Mesurau Dros Dro) (Cymru) (Rhif 2) (Diwygio) (Rhif 2) 2003 (S.I. 2003 Rhif 946 (Cy.127))
The Care Homes (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2003 (S.I. 2003 No. 947 (W.128))
Rheoliadau Cartrefi Gofal (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2003 (S.I. 2003 Rhif 947 (Cy.128))
The National Assistance (Residential Accommodation) (Disregarding of Resources) (Wales) Regulations 2003 (S.I. 2003 No. 969 (W.131))
Rheoliadau Cymorth Gwladol (Llety Preswyl) (Diystyru Adnoddau) (Cymru) 2003 (S.I. 2003 Rhif 969 (Cy.131))
The Administration of the Rent Officer Service (Wales) Order 2003 (S.I. 2003 No. 973 (W.132))
Gorchymyn Gweinyddu Gwasanaeth y Swyddogion Rhenti (Cymru) 2003 (S.I. 2003 Rhif 973 (Cy.132))
The Preserved Counties (Amendment to Boundaries) (Wales) Order 2003 (S.I. 2003 No. 974 (W.133))
Gorchymyn Siroedd Wedi'u Cadw (Newid Ffiniau) (Cymru) 2003 (S.I. 2003 Rhif 974 (Cy.133))
The National Health Service (Travelling Expenses and Remission of Charges) (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2003 (S.I. 2003 No. 975 (W.134))
Rheoliadau'r Gwasanaeth Iechyd Gwladol (Treuliau Teithio a Pheidio â Chodi Tâl) (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2003 (S.I. 2003 Rhif 975 (Cy.134))
The Products of Animal Origin (Third Country Imports) (Wales) (Amendment) Regulations 2003 (S.I. 2003 No. 976 (W.135))
Rheoliadau Cynhyrchion sy'n Deillio o Anifeiliaid (Mewnforion Trydydd Gwledydd) (Cymru) (Diwygio) 2003 (S.I. 2003 Rhif 976 (Cy.135))
The Feeding Stuffs (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2003 (S.I. 2003 No. 989 (W.138))
Rheoliadau Porthiant (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2003 (S.I. 2003 Rhif 989 (Cy.138))
The Leasehold Reform (Collective Enfranchisement) (Counter-notices) (Wales) Regulations 2003 (S.I. 2003 No. 990 (W.139))
Rheoliadau Diwygio Lesddaliad (Rhyddfreinio ar y Cyd) (Gwrth-hysbysiadau) (Cymru) 2003 (S.I. 2003 Rhif 990 (Cy.139))
The Leasehold Reform (Notices) (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2003 (S.I. 2003 No. 991 (W.140))
Rheoliadau Diwygio Lesddaliad (Hysbysiadau) (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2003 (S.I. 2003 Rhif 991 (Cy.140))
The Zoo Licensing Act 1981 (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2003 (S.I. 2003 No. 992 (W.141))
Rheoliadau Deddf Trwyddedu Sŵau 1981 (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2003 (S.I. 2003 Rhif 992 (Cy.141))
Commission For Health Improvement (Functions) (Wales) Regulations 2003 (S.I. 2003 No. 993 (W.142))
Rheoliadau'r Comisiwn Gwella Iechyd (Swyddogaethau) (Cymru) 2003 (S.I. 2003 Rhif 993 (Cy.142))
The Commons Registration (General) (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2003 (S.I. 2003 No. 994 (W.143))
Rheoliadau Cofrestru Tir Comin (Cyffredinol) (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2003 (S.I. 2003 Rhif 994 (Cy.143))
The Care Homes (Wales) (Amendment No.2) Regulations 2003 (S.I. 2003 No. 1004 (W.144))
Rheoliadau Cartrefi Gofal (Cymru) (Diwygio Rhif 2) 2003 (S.I. 2003 Rhif 1004 (Cy.144))
The National Health Service (General Medical Services) (Amendment) (No.3) (Wales) Regulations 2003 (S.I. 2003 No. 1005 (W.145))
Rheoliadau'r Gwasanaeth Iechyd Gwladol (Gwasanaethau Meddygol Cyffredinol) (Diwygio) (Rhif 3) (Cymru) 2003 (S.I. 2003 Rhif 1005 (Cy.145))
The Diseases of Poultry (Wales) Order 2003 (S.I. 2003 No. 1079 (W.148))
Gorchymyn Clefydau Dofednod (Cymru) 2003 (S.I. 2003 Rhif 1079 (Cy.148))
The Food (Pistachios from Iran) (Emergency Control) (Wales) Regulations 2003 (S.I. 2003 No. 1119 (W.150))
Rheoliadau Bwyd (Cnau Pistasio o Iran) (Rheolaeth Frys) (Cymru) 2003 (S.I. 2003 Rhif 1119 (Cy.150))
The Housing (Right to Acquire and Right to Buy) (Designated Rural Areas and Designated Regions) (Amendment) (Wales) Order 2003 (S.I. 2003 No. 1147 (W.155))
Gorchymyn Tai (Hawl i Gaffael a Hawl i Brynu) (Ardaloedd Gwledig Dynodedig a Rhanbarthau Dynodedig) (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2003 (S.I. 2003 Rhif 1147 (Cy.155))
The Disease Control (Interim Measures) (Wales) (No.2) Order 2003 (S.I. 2003 No. 1414 (W.166))
Gorchymyn Rheoli Clefydau (Mesurau Dros Dro) (Cymru) (Rhif 2) 2003 (S.I. 2003 Rhif 1414 (Cy.166 ))
The Transport of Animals (Cleansing and Disinfection) (Wales) (No.2) Order 2003 (S.I. 2003 No. 1470 (W.172))
Gorchymyn Cludo Anifeiliaid (Glanhau a Diheintio) (Cymru) (Rhif 2) 2003 (S.I. 2003 Rhif 1470 (Cy.172))
The Adoption of Children from Overseas (Wales)(Amendment) Regulations 2003 (S.I. 2003 No. 1634 (W.176))
Rheoliadau Mabwysiadu Plant o Wledydd Tramor (Cymru) (Diwygio) 2003 (S.I. 2003 Rhif 1634 (Cy.176))
The Fish Labelling (Wales) Regulations 2003 (S.I. 2003 No. 1635 (W.177))
Rheoliadau Labelu Pysgod (Cymru) 2003 (S.I. 2003 Rhif 1635 (Cy.177))
The Feeding Stuffs (Sampling and Analysis), the Feeding Stuffs (Enforcement) and the Feeding Stuffs (Establishments and Intermediaries) (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2003 (S.I. 2003 No. 1677 (W.180))
Rheoliadau Porthiant (Samplu a Dadansoddi), Porthiant (Gorfodi) a Phorthiant (Sefydliadau a Chyfryngwyr) (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2003 (S.I. 2003 Rhif 1677 (Cy.180))
The Sweeteners in Food (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2003 (S.I. 2003 No. 1713 (W.181))
Rheoliadau Melysyddion mewn Bwyd (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2003 (S.I. 2003 Rhif 1713 (Cy.181))
The Non-Domestic Rating (Collection and Enforcement)(Local Lists) (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2003 (S.I. 2003 No. 1714 (W.182))
Rheoliadau Ardrethu Annomestig (Casglu a Gorfodi) (Rhestri Lleol) (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2003 (S.I. 2003 Rhif 1714 (Cy.182))
The Council Tax (Administration and Enforcement) (Amendment No.2) (Wales) Regulations 2003 (S.I. 2003 No. 1715 (W.183))
Rheoliadau'r Dreth Gyngor (Gweinyddu a Gorfodi) (Diwygio Rhif 2) (Cymru) 2003 (S.I. 2003 Rhif 1715 (Cy.183))
The Education Act 2002 (Transitional Provisions and Consequential Amendments) (Wales) Regulations 2003 (S.I. 2003 No. 1717 (W.184))
Rheoliadau Deddf Addysg 2002 (Darpariaethau Trosiannol a Diwygiadau Canlyniadol) (Cymru) 2003 (S.I. 2003 Rhif 1717 (Cy.184))
The Education Act 2002 (Commencement No. 2) (Wales) Order 2003 (S.I. 2003 No. 1718 (W.185) (C.72))
Gorchymyn Deddf Addysg 2002 (Cychwyn Rhif 2) (Cymru) 2003 (S.I. 2003 Rhif 1718 (Cy.185) (C.72))
The Food Supplements (Wales) Regulations 2003 (S.I. 2003 No. 1719 (W.186))
Rheoliadau Ychwanegion Bwyd (Cymru) 2003 (S.I. 2003 Rhif 1719 (Cy.186))
The Environmental Protection (Duty of Care) (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2003 (S.I. 2003 No. 1720 (W.187))
Rheoliadau Diogelu'r Amgylchedd (Dyletswydd Gofal) (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2003 (S.I. 2003 Rhif 1720 (Cy.187))
The Contaminants in Food (Wales) Regulations 2003 (S.I. 2003 No. 1721 (W.188))
Rheoliadau Halogion mewn Bwyd (Cymru) 2002 (S.I. 2003 Rhif 1721 (Cy.188))
The Welfare of Farmed Animals (Wales) (Amendment) Regulations 2003 (S.I. 2003 No. 1726 (W.189))
Rheoliadau Lles Anifeiliaid a Ffermir (Cymru) (Diwygio) 2003 (S.I. 2003 Rhif 1726 (Cy.189))
The Education (School Organisation Plans) (Wales) Regulations 2003 (S.I. 2003 No. 1732 (W.190))
Rheoliadau Addysg (Cynlluniau Trefniadaeth Ysgolion) (Cymru) 2003 (S.I. 2003 Rhif 1732 (Cy.190))
The Food Safety (Ships and Aircraft) (Wales) Order 2003 (S.I. 2003 No. 1774 (W.191))
Gorchymyn Diogelwch Bwyd (Llongau ac Awyrennau) (Cymru) 2003 (S.I. 2003 Rhif 1774 (Cy.191))
The Common Agricultural Policy (Wine) (Wales) (Amendment) Regulations 2003 (S.I. 2003 No. 1776 (W.192))
Rheoliadau'r Polisi Amaethyddol Cyffredin (Gwin) (Cymru) (Diwygio) 2003 (S.I. 2003 Rhif 1776 (Cy.192))
The Education (Assisted Places) (Incidental Expenses) (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2003 (S.I. 2003 No. 1779 (W.193))
Rheoliadau Addysg (Lleoedd a Gynorthwyir) (Mân Dreuliau) (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2003 (S.I. 2003 Rhif 1779 (Cy.193))
The Protection of Animals (Anaesthetics) Amendment (Wales) Order 2003 (S.I. 2003 No. 1844 (W.196))
Gorchymyn Diogelu Anifeiliaid (Anesthetyddion) Diwygio (Cymru) 2003 (S.I. 2003 Rhif 1844 (Cy.196))
The Coast Protection (Notices) (Wales) Regulations 2003 (S.I. 2003 No. 1847 (W.197))
Rheoliadau Diogelu'r Arfordir (Hysbysiadau) (Cymru) 2003 (S.I. 2003 Rhif 1847 (Cy.197))
The Air Quality (Ozone) (Wales) Regulations 2003 (S.I. 2003 No. 1848 (W.198))
Rheoliadau Ansawdd Aer (Osôn) (Cymru) 2003 (S.I. 2003 Rhif . 1848 (Cy.198)])
The Animal By-Products (Identification) (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2003 (S.I. 2003 No. 1849 (W.199))
Rheoliadau Sgil-gynhyrchion Anifeiliaid (Adnabod) (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2003 (S.I. 2003 Rhif 1849 (Cy.199))
The Feeding Stuffs, the Feeding Stuffs (Sampling and Analysis) and the Feeding Stuffs (Enforcement) (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2003 (S.I. 2003 No. 1850 (W.200))
Rheoliadau Porthiant, Porthiant (Samplu a Dadansoddi) a Phorthiant (Gorfodi) (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2003 (S.I. 2003 Rhif 1850 (Cy.200))
201-300
The Plant Health (Amendment) (Wales) Order 2003 (S.I. 2003 No. 1851 (W.201))
Gorchymyn Iechyd Planhigion (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2003 (S.I. 2003 1851 Rhif (Cy.201)])
The Action Programme for Nitrate Vulnerable Zones (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2003 (S.I. 2003 No. 1852 (W. 202))
Rheoliadau'r Rhaglen Weithredu ar gyfer Parthau Perygl Nitradau (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2003 (S.I. 2003 Rhif 1852 (Cy. 202))
The Housing (Right to Buy) (Priority of Charges) (Wales) Order 2003 (S.I. 2003 No. 1853 (W.203))
Gorchymyn Tai (Hawl i Brynu) (Blaenoriaeth Arwystlon) (Cymru) 2003 (S.I. 2003 Rhif 1853 (Cy.203))
The Education (Assisted Places) (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2003 (S.I. 2003 No. 1854 (W.204))
Rheoliadau Addysg (Lleoedd a Gynorthwyir) (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2003 (S.I. 2003 Rhif 1854 (Cy.204))
The Prohibition of Fishing with Multiple Trawls (Wales) Order 2003 (S.I. 2003 No. 1855 (W.205))
Gorchymyn Gwahardd Pysgota â Threillrwydi Lluosog (Cymru) 2003 (S.I. 2003 Rhif 1855 (Cy.205))
The Home Loss Payments (Prescribed Amounts) (Wales) Regulations 2003 (S.I. 2003 No. 1856 (W.206))
Rheoliadau Taliadau Colli Cartref (Symiau Rhagnodedig) (Cymru) 2003 (S.I. 2003 Rhif 1856 (Cy.206))
The Coast Protection (Variation of Excluded Waters) (River Teifi) (Wales) Regulations 2003 (S.I. 2003 No. 1915 (W.209))
Rheoliadau Diogelu'r Arfordir (Amrywio'r Dyfroedd Eithrir) (Afon Teifi) (Cymru) 2003 (S.I. 2003 Rhif 1915 (Cy.209))
The Disease Control (Wales) Order 2003 (S.I. 2003 No. 1966 (W.211))
Gorchymyn Rheoli Clefydau (Cymru) 2003 (S.I. 2003 Rhif 1966 (Cy.211))
The Animal Gatherings (Wales) Order 2003 (S.I. 2003 No. 1967 (W. 212))
Gorchymyn Crynoadau Anifeiliaid (Cymru) 2003 (S.I. 2003 Rhif 1967 (Cy.212))
The Transport of Animals (Cleansing and Disinfection) (Wales) (No. 3) Order 2003 (S.I. 2003 No. 1968 (W. 213))
Gorchymyn Cludo Anifeiliaid (Glanhau a Diheintio) (Cymru) (Rhif 3) 2003 (S.I. 2003 Rhif 1968 (Cy.213))
The National Health Service (General Dental Services) (Amendment)(No.2) (Wales) Regulations 2003 (S.I. 2003 No. 1976 (W.215))
Rheoliadau'r Gwasanaeth Iechyd Gwladol (Gwasanaethau Deintyddol Cyffredinol) (Diwygio) (Rhif 2) (Cymru) 2003 (S.I. 2003 Rhif 1976 (Cy.215))
The Food (Brazil Nuts) (Emergency Control) (Wales) Regulations 2003 (S.I. 2003 No. 2254 (W.224))
Rheoliadau Bwyd (Cnau Brasil) (Rheolaeth Frys) (Cymru) 2003 (S.I. 2003 Rhif 2254 (Cy.224))
The Food (Pistachios from Iran) (Emergency Control) (Wales) (No.2) Regulations 2003 (S.I. 2003 No. 2288 (W.227))
Rheoliadau Bwyd (Cnau Pistasio o Iran) (Rheolaeth Frys) (Cymru) (Rhif 2) 2003 (S.I. 2003 Rhif 2288 (Cy.227))
The Food (Figs, Hazelnuts and Pistachios from Turkey) (Emergency Control) (Wales) (Amendment) Regulations 2003 (S.I. 2003 No. 2292 (W.228))
Rheoliadau Bwyd (Ffigys, Cnau Cyll a Chnau Pistasio o Dwrci) (Rheolaeth Frys) (Cymru) (Diwygio) 2003 (S.I. 2003 Rhif 2292 (Cy.228))
The Food (Peanuts from China) (Emergency Control) (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2003 (S.I. 2003 No. 2299 (W.229))
Rheoliadau Bwyd (Prysgnau o Tsieina) (Rheolaeth Frys) (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2003 (S.I. 2003 Rhif 2299 (Cy.229))
The Education (Information About Post-16 Individual Pupils) (Wales) Regulations 2003 (S.I. 2003 No. 2453 (W.237))
Rheoliadau Addysg (Gwybodaeth am Ddisgyblion Ôl-16 Unigol) (Cymru) 2003 (S.I. 2003 Rhif 2453 (Cy.237))
The Food (Hot Chilli and Hot Chilli Products) (Emergency Control) (Wales) Regulations 2003 (S.I. 2003 No. 2455 (W.238))
Rheoliadau Bwyd (Tsilis Poeth a Chynhyrchion Tsilis Poeth) (Rheolaeth Frys) (Cymru) 2003 (S.I. 2003 Rhif 2455 (Cy.238))
The Classical Swine Fever (Wales) Order 2003 (S.I. 2003 No. 2456 (W.239))
Gorchymyn Clwy Clasurol y Moch (Cymru) 2003 (S.I. 2003 Rhif 2456 (Cy.239))
The Education (Teachers' Qualifications and Health Standards) (Amendment No. 2) (Wales) Regulations 2003 (S.I. 2003 No. 2458 (W.240))
Rheoliadau Addysg (Cymwysterau Athrawon a Safonau Iechyd) (Diwygiad Rhif 2) (Cymru) 2003 (S.I. 2003 Rhif 2458 (Cy.240))
The Nurses Agencies (Wales) Regulations 2003 (S.I. 2003 No. 2527 (W.242))
Rheoliadau Asiantaethau Nyrsys (Cymru) 2003 (S.I. 2003 Rhif 2527 (Cy.242))
The Care Standards Act 2000 (Commencement No.12) (Wales) Order 2003 (S.I. 2003 No. 2528 (W.243) (C.95))
Gorchymyn Deddf Safonau Gofal 2000 (Cychwyn Rhif 12) (Cymru) 2003 (S.I. 2003 Rhif 2528 (Cy.243) (C.95))
The Oil and Fibre Plant Seeds (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2003 (S.I. 2003 No. 2529 (W.244))
Rheoliadau Hadau Planhigion Olew a Ffibr (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2003 (S.I. 2003 Rhif 2529 (Cy.244))
The National Assistance (Assessment of Resources)(Amendment No. 2)(Wales) Regulations 2003 (S.I. 2003 No. 2530 (W.245))
Rheoliadau Cymorth Gwladol (Asesu Adnoddau) (Diwygiad Rhif 2) (Cymru) 2003 (S.I. 2003 Rhif 2530 (Cy.245))
The Disability Discrimination (Prescribed Periods for Accessibility Strategies and Plans for Schools) (Wales) Regulations 2003 (S.I. 2003 No. 2531 (W.246))
Rheoliadau Gwahaniaethu ar Sail Anabledd (Cyfnodau Rhagnodedig ar gyfer Strategaethau a Chynlluniau Hygyrchedd ar gyfer Ysgolion) (Cymru) 2003 (S.I. 2003 Rhif 2531 (Cy.246))
The Special Educational Needs and Disability Act 2001 (Commencement No. 2) (Wales) Order 2003 (S.I. 2003 No. 2532 (W.247) (C.94))
Gorchymyn Deddf Anghenion Addysgol Arbennig ac Anabledd 2001 (Cychwyn Rhif 2) (Cymru) 2003 (S.I. 2003 Rhif 2532 (Cy.247) (C.94))
The National Health Service (Travelling Expenses and Remission of Charges) (Amendment) (No.2) (Wales) Regulations 2003 (S.I. 2003 No. 2561 (W.250))
Rheoliadau'r Gwasanaeth Iechyd Gwladol (Treuliau Teithio a Pheidio â Chodi Tâl) (Diwygio) (Rhif 2) (Cymru) 2003 (S.I. 2003 Rhif 2561 (Cy.250))
The National Health Service (Amendments concerning Supplementary and Independent Nurse Prescribing) (Wales) Regulations 2003 (S.I. 2003 No. 2624 (W.252))
Rheoliadau'r Gwasanaeth Iechyd Gwladol (Diwygiadau ynghylch Rhagnodi gan Nyrsys Atodol ac Annibynnol) (Cymru) 2003 (S.I. 2003 Rhif 2624 (Cy.252))
The Health (Wales) Act 2003 (Commencement No. 1) Order 2003 (S.I. 2003 No. 2660 (W.256)(C.102))
Gorchymyn Deddf Iechyd (Cymru) 2003 (Cychwyn Rhif 1) 2003 (S.I. 2003 Rhif 2660 (Cy.256)(C.102))
The Food (Star Anise from Third Countries) (Emergency Control) (Wales) (Revocation) Order 2003 (S.I. 2003 No. 2661 (W.257))
Gorchymyn Bwyd (Coed Anis o Drydydd Gwledydd) (Rheolaeth Frys) (Cymru) (Dirymu) 2003 (S.I. 2003 Rhif 2661 (Cy.257))
The Local Authorities (Allowances for Members of County and County Borough Councils) (Past Service Awards) (Wales) Regulations 2003 (S.I. 2003 No. 2676 (W.258))
Rheoliadau Awdurdodau Lleol (Lwfansau i Aelodau Cynghorau Sir a Chynghorau Bwrdeistref Sirol) (Dyfarndaliadau am Wasanaeth a Roddwyd) (Cymru) 2003 (S.I. 2003 Rhif 2676 (Cy.258))
The Child Minding and Day Care (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2003 (S.I. 2003 No. 2708 (W.259))
Rheoliadau Gwarchod Plant a Gofal Dydd (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2003 (S.I. 2003 Rhif 2708 (Cy.259))
The Registration of Social Care and Independent Health Care (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2003 (S.I. 2003 No. 2709 (W.260))
Rheoliadau Cofrestru Gofal Cymdeithasol a Gofal Iechyd Annibynnol (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2003 (S.I. 2003 Rhif 2709 (Cy.260))
The Pig Industry Restructuring Grant (Wales) (Variation) Scheme 2003 (S.I. 2003 No. 2726 (W.261))
Cynllun Grantiau Ailstrwythuro'r Diwydiant Moch (Cymru) (Amrywio) 2003 (S.I. 2003 Rhif 2726 (Cy.261))
The Smoke Control Areas (Exempted Fireplaces) (Wales) Order 2003 (S.I. 2003 No. 2727 (W.262))
Gorchymyn Ardaloedd Rheoli Mwg (Lleoedd Tân Esempt) (Cymru) 2003 (S.I. 2003 Rhif 2727 (Cy.262))
The Animal By-Products (Identification) (Amendment) (Wales) (No. 2) Regulations 2003 (S.I. 2003 No. 2754 (W.265))
Rheoliadau Sgil-gynhyrchion Anifeiliaid (Adnabod) (Diwygio) (Cymru) (Rhif 2) 2003 (S.I. 2003 Rhif 2754 (Cy.265))
The Kava-kava in Food (Wales) (Revocation) Regulations 2003 (S.I. 2003 No. 2755 (W.266))
Rheoliadau Cafa-cafa mewn Bwyd (Cymru) (Dirymu) 2003 (S.I. 2003 Rhif 2755 (Cy.266))
The Animal By-Products (Wales) Regulations 2003 (S.I. 2003 No. 2756 (W.267))
Rheoliadau Sgil-gynhyrchion Anifeiliaid (Cymru) 2003 (S.I. 2003 Rhif 2756 (Cy.267))
The Pigs (Records, Identification and Movement) (Interim Measures) (Wales) (No.2) (Amendment) (No.2) Order 2003 (S.I. 2003 No. 2763 (W.268))
Gorchymyn Moch (Cofnodion, Adnabod a Symud) (Mesurau Dros Dro) (Cymru) (Rhif 2) (Diwygio) (Rhif 2) 2003 (S.I. 2003 Rhif 2763 (Cy.268))
The Schools Forums (Wales) Regulations 2003 (S.I. 2003 No. 2909 (W.275))
Rheoliadau Fforymau Ysgolion (Cymru) 2003 (S.I. 2003 Rhif 2909 (Cy.275))
The Food (Peanuts from Egypt) (Emergency Control) (Wales) Regulations 2003 (S.I. 2003 No. 2910 (W.276))
Rheoliadau Bwyd (Pysgnau o'r Aifft) (Rheolaeth Frys) (Cymru) 2003 (S.I. 2003 Rhif 2910 (Cy.276))
The Education Act 2002 (Transitional Provisions and Consequential Amendments) (No.2) (Wales) Regulations 2003 (S.I. 2003 No. 2959 (W.277))
Rheoliadau Deddf Addysg 2002 (Darpariaethau Trosiannol a Diwygiadau Canlyniadol) (Rhif 2) (Cymru) 2003 (S.I. 2003 Rhif 2959 (Cy.277))
The Education Act 2002 (Commencement No. 3) (Wales) Order 2003 (S.I. 2003 No. 2961 (W.278) (C.108))
Gorchymyn Deddf Addysg 2002 (Cychwyn Rhif 3) (Cymru) 2003 (S.I. 2003 Rhif 2961 (Cy.278) (C.108))
The Education (Admission Forums) (Wales) Regulations 2003 (S.I. 2003 No. 2962 (W.279))
Rheoliadau Addysg (Fforymau Derbyn) (Cymru) 2003 (S.I. 2003 Rhif 2962 (Cy.279))
The Local Authorities (Allowances for Members of County and County Borough Councils) (Pensions) (Wales) Regulations 2003 (S.I. 2003 No. 2963 (W.280))
Rheoliadau Awdurdodau Lleol (Lwfansau i Aelodau Cynghorau Sir a Chynghorau Bwrdeistref Sirol) (Pensiynau) (Cymru) 2003 (S.I. 2003 Rhif 2963 (Cy.280))
The Local Government Act 2003 (Commencement) (Wales) Order 2003 (S.I. 2003 No. 3034 (W.282) (C.113))
Gorchymyn Deddf Llywodraeth Leol 2003 (Cychwyn) (Cymru) 2003 (S.I. 2003 Rhif 3034 (Cy.282) (C.113))
The Shrimp Fishing Nets (Wales) Order 2003 (S.I. 2003 No. 3035 (W.283))
Gorchymyn Rhwydi Pysgota Perdys (Cymru) 2003 (S.I. 2003 Rhif 3035 (Cy.283))
The South Wales Sea Fisheries District (Variation) Order 2003 (S.I. 2003 No. 3036 (W.284))
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4431477 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1985%2024%20Hours%20of%20Le%20Mans | 1985 24 Hours of Le Mans | The 1985 24 Hours of Le Mans was the 53rd Grand Prix of Endurance, as well as the fourth round of the 1985 World Endurance Championship. It took place at the Circuit de la Sarthe, France, on 15 and 16 June 1985.
The works Porsche team returned, with a Group C version of the 962. As favourites, they could expect from their customer teams and the works Lancias. In qualifying, Hans-Joachim Stuck set a new lap record in his works Porsche, with an average speed over 250 km/h for the first time. Mercedes returned for the first time in 30 years, as engine supplier to the Sauber team. The return was short-lived though, as the car got airborne in practice and crashed.
With tighter fuel regulations this year from FISA, the teams would have to be more mindful of fuel economy and speed. However, from the start the Joest and Richard Lloyd Racing teams had the measure of the field. Working in tandem, Klaus Ludwig and Jonathon Palmer took turns leading and slipstreaming behind the other. Then at 9pm Jean-Claude Andruet had a major accident when his WM had a tyre blow out a high speed at the Mulsanne kink, sending him into the Armco barriers. Andruet was uninjured, but the race went behind the pace-cars for a half-hour as repairs were done. Just as the race resumed James Weaver pitted the RLR Porsche with an engine misfire. Traced to a faulty sensor, they returned to the race in 7th.
Thereafter, the Joest Porsche was untroubled, with Ludwig and Barilla driving a perfectly-judged race combining speed with economy that none of the other teams could match. For only the second time, the same car-chassis won a consecutive Le Mans, following Ford in 1968-69. Ludwig took his third overall win. Palmer and Weaver came back through the field and were second in the RLR Porsche. Third was the works Porsche of Derek Bell and Hans-Joachim Stuck, seven laps behind the winners. Both Lancias finished this year, in 6th and 7th, and the first non-turbo was the EMKA-Aston Martin, coming home in 11th, 14 laps ahead of the Tullius/Ballot-Léna/Robinson Jaguar in 13th.
In his final Le Mans, Jacky Ickx finished an anticlimactic 10th as the lowest placed Porsche, after a race of constant delay. Despite the tighter fuel restrictions, the winning car covered 190 km (115 miles) further than they did winning the previous year. They recorded the second-fastest race speed ever at Le Mans, only exceeded by the 1971 race and also won the Index prize.
Regulations
By the start of the season, FISA (Fédération Internationale du Sport Automobile) had dropped its abrupt regulation changes for the World Championship. This was sufficient to mollify the concerns of the works teams at Porsche and Lancia.
However, they still wanted to manufacturers to improve fuel economy and reduced the total available for the 24 hours down by 15% to 2210 litres. The level for the C2 class remained at 1430 litres (as did the minimum weight of 700 kg).
Despite the arrival of technically specific fuels in Formula 1, the Automobile Club de l'Ouest (ACO) mandated that all cars had to use the standard 105-octane supplied centrally.
Instead, the new controversy was the scheduling clash between the Formula 1 races and the Endurance Championship that raised the ire of several teams. They threatened to boycott two races in response.
This year, there were significant changes in the race organisation. A cooperative of local civic bodies was formed to organise and administer the race and its preparation, with financial investment from the national government and Sarthe département. Such was the success of the Group C formula, spectator numbers were now starting to balloon upwards, particularly from foreign fans.
In the World Championship, the Makes title was changed to become instead a championship for Teams, tacitly acknowledging Porsches dominance by sheer weight of numbers.
Entries
Group C1 fields in Europe continued to flourish, albeit heavily filled with Porsches. It was attracting more interest from major manufacturers. This year Porsche and Lancia had cars, while Mercedes and Toyota arrived with support for their engines, joining Peugeot, Ferrari and Aston Martin. It also encouraged the arrival of one-off specials. In the C2 class, it was Mazda taking on the small constructors Alba, Tiga and Ecosse. Although the IMSA classes were eligible, the only ones accepted were the two Jaguar GTPs.
The ACO was infuriated that the FIA had scheduled the Canadian F1 Grand Prix against the race, which robbed several teams of their top-line drivers. Most teams had young drivers on their books, coming through the junior ranks of single-seater racing, like Formula 2, Formula 3 and Formula 3000.
Note: The first number is the number accepted, the second the number who started.
Group C1 and GTP
Porsche maintained its dominance of the C1 class with 13 out of the 29 entries.
The Rothmans Porsche works team returned to Le Mans and this year was equipped with the new Group C version of the Porsche 962 that had originally been developed for the IMSA series. Under Group C rules, it could be fitted with the twin KKK (Kühnle, Kopp & Kausch) turbos. For the first time, they were fitted with the langheck chassis to maximise speed. Three were brought for the race, along with a 956 as a test car. The full might of the veteran team of drivers was present: Jochen Mass and six-time winner Jacky Ickx (the pair colloquially called "MIX") had won two of the three championship rounds to date, at Mugello and Silverstone. Three-time winner Derek Bell was partnered with Hans-Joachim Stuck ("BEST") and John Watson joined 1983 winners Vern Schuppan and Al Holbert ("WASH").
Last year's winner, the Joest Racing team returned with their winning 956B from the previous year. Klaus Ludwig was back as lead-driver, with Paolo Barilla and pay-driver Louis Krages (racing under the pseudonym "John Winter"). Given the tighter fuel-ration in this year's race, the team went to extraordinary lengths to minimise fuel consumption. The car was fitted with a specially-designed low-profile bodyshell. The minimal wing surface risked instability from the lack of downforce. The car was also fitted with an engine built at their own workshop. The drivers had the ability to manually adjust the turbo boost themselves, in the car. The team also had their older 956, to be driven again by Colombian Mauricio de Narvaez, this time with new team driver Paul Belmondo and American Kenper Miller. Meanwhile, team manager Domingos Piedade did his calculations for the optimal race tactics, fitting the gearboxes with the highest gear-ratio settings.
The first three customer teams to buy the 962C were Kremer Racing, Brun Motorsport and John Fitzpatrick Racing and all three supported those with a second 956 car in their squads. While the works 962s had 17" front wheels and 19" rears, the customer cars had 16" wheels all round. The Kremer team had won the second round, at Monza, in their 962 modified with a vertical fin on the tail to improve stability. However, the winning drivers, Marc Surer and Manfred Winkelhock, had been called over by their F1 teams for the Canadian GP. In their stead, Franz Konrad, Jean-Pierre Jarier and Mike Thackwell ran the 962. South African team regulars George Fouché and Sarel van der Merwe ran the 956 with Mario Hytten. Walter Brun had also lost his two top drivers to Canada – Stefan Bellof (the defending Drivers Champion had been enticed away from the works team) and Thierry Boutsen – so Brun took the lead himself with his 962, bringing in Didier Theys and Joël Gouhier. Oscar Larrauri and Massimo Sigala had the Brun 956, joined by Gabriele Tarquini for this race. Fitzpatrick instead mixed up his regular driver line-ups. In the 962 were Kenny Acheson, Dudley Wood and Jean-Louis Schlesser while Jo Gartner/David Hobbs/Guy Edwards drove the second car.
Like Joest, Richard Lloyd's GTi Engineering had done considerable work modifying their 956B, rebuilding it on a strong honeycomb-monocoque rather than the standard single-sheet hub. They also tweaked their langheck bodyshell. The regular team of Jonathon Palmer and Jan Lammers had started the season together, but just before Le Mans, Lammers abruptly left to take up a career in American IndyCar racing. His replacement, with barely a week's notice, was James Weaver, joining Palmer and Lloyd. The proposed second entry was withdrawn. The Hans Obermeier team returned with their 956. This year owner-driver Jürgen Lässig was accompanied by Spaniard Jesús Pareja and Belgian Hervé Regout.
The Lancia Corse team arrived with three cars. The LC2/85 had been redesigned by engineer Claudio Lombardi. It was widened by 200mm. The suspension was upgraded (to fit new Michelin tyres), as was the geartrain and an improved Weber-Marelli engine-management system. Once again, Bob Wollek teamed up with Alessandro Nannini, and reserve driver Italo-Australian Lucio Cesario. The second race-car had Mauro Baldi with guest driver Henri Pescarolo. The third car was kept aside as a test-car.
Once again, WM put all its focus on this race. The P83B returned with revised aerodynamics to reduce air resistance for better fuel economy. Another change was to reduce the engines from 2850cc down to 2750cc. These were set to about 740 bhp for qualifying (1.5-bar boost) and 620 bhp in race-trim. After last year's issues, two of the three cars were now fitted with Hewland gearboxes, the third keeping its ZF box. Fellow French constructor Jean Rondeau joined team regulars Pignard and Raulet, while team leader Roger Dorchy was on notice as a Reserve entry, with veteran touring-car drivers Claude Haldi and Jean-Claude Andruet as co-drivers.
In the close season Yves Courage had picked up a Porsche dealership. The Cougar C02 was modified to fit the twin-turbo Porsche engine as used in the 962s. Like the Porsches, It had to be mounted at an angle to accommodate the underfloor ground-effect venturis. Former Renault designer Marcel Hubert tweaked the aerodynamics, and all of which made this the fastest car seen at Le Mans since 1978: reaching 370 kp/h (230 mph) on the Hunaudières Straight. With such speed, Alain de Cadenet came back to race with Courage.
Another team using the Porsche engine was the Kreepy Krauly March. South African father and son, Ferdinand and Daniel Chauvier, were introducing their pool-cleaning robot into the USA. With the money made they set up an IMSA racing team named after the machine, and based in Atlanta, Georgia. With the ex-Al Holbert March 83G, the new team had immediate success winning the 1984 24 Hours of Daytona. They then bought the ex-Pegasus Racing March 84G and swapped the Buick V6 engine for the Porsche flat-6. To comply for Group C, an 80x100cm flat floorplate was fitted under the chassis while still leaving the ends open for airflow and downforce. The scrutineers, however, took a dim view of this and the team lost the first 90 minutes of practice closing off each end fo the undertray to comply with the regulations. Drivers Christian Danner and Almo Coppelli were going to be joined by Ian Scheckter. However, when he fell ill, his spot was taken by fellow South African Graham Duxbury who had been in the Daytona winning crew.
Peter Sauber had run his BMW-engined C7 at the 1983 Le Mans, the only non-Porsche to finish in the top-10. Although he sold three cars to IMSA teams, he did not have the funds to run a Group C program in 1984. However, in October, his factory was visited by engineers from Mercedes-Benz. They were confident their 5-litre V8 would work well in the Group C fuel-formula. Mercedes had withdrawn from racing 30 years earlier after the 1955 Le Mans disaster. The company was very reticent about announcing a return, so insisted that the engines would be supplied through Sauber's Swiss engine-tuner Heini Mader. The new Sauber C8 was designed by Leo Ress (who had worked with Mercedes and BMW previously). The all-aluminium twin-valve V8 was fitted with two KKK turbos and utilised the Bosch Motronic engine-management system. It put out 650 bhp on 0.7-bar of boost, that could reach 355 kp/h (220 mph). Sauber estimated that the bigger engine would operate at lower revs and hence use about 15% less fuel. The drivers were Dieter Quester, Max Welti and John Nielsen
Toyota Racing Development (TRD) had built Group C cars for several seasons and racing them at the Fuji rounds of the World Championship. The Dome-Toyota 84C had got the company's first victory earlier in the year, in the All-Japan series, driven by Geoff Lees and Eje Elgh. They then took the step up, coming to Le Mans with works support of the Dome team as the engine-supplier. The new car, the 85C, had the racing version of the 4-cylinder turbo engine, also used in the Toyota Celica Group B rally-car. A 2.1-litre twin-cam unit with KKK turbo, it could put out 560 bhp. In race trim it would run at 1.2-bar, while for qualifying it would be wound up to 1.6-bar. Two longtail models were dispatched entered by the collaborating teams: Dome, and TOM'S Racing (at the time semi-works performance team). Lees and Elgh raced the former with Toshio Suzuki, and the all-Japanese team of Satoru Nakajima/Kaoru Hishino/Masanori Sekiya ran the latter.
Steve O'Rourke had taken a year away with his EMKA Group C car. He returned this year after considerable re-design and development work had been done. It was the only Aston Martin engine this year, and prepared by Tickford Engineering. With Lucas-Micos fuel-injection the 5.3-litre normally-aspirated V8 could now put out 585 bhp and get the car up to almost 350 kp/h (215 mph). O'Rourke had the experienced Tiff Needell and Nick Faure as co-drivers.
There was no works Rondeau team at Le Mans this year. Jean-Philippe Grand's Graff Racing had bought the M482 car run under the works banner last year. Regular privateer, Christian Bussi had put in three entries, adding to his regular DFV-M382 with a 2-year old ex-works DFL-M382. To be raced by Bussi himself, it was on the reserve list while the third entry was cancelled. Pierre Yver brought his M382 (DFV) back for its third run, with his Primagaz sponsorship.
The only entries in the IMSA-GTP class were the pair of Jaguars of the American Group 44 Racing team. Bob Tullius brought the same two XJR-5 chassis he had raced at Le Mans a year ago, albeit with a number of improvements. The undertray was re-profiled, and given stiffer rear suspension. But topping the scales at around 1000 kg, (including carrying an extra 50 kg for IMSA regulations), they were easily the heaviest cars in the field. However, engine output had been increased to 670 bhp that kept its top speed at 340 kp/h (210 mph). His regular IMSA drivers were present: Tullius raced with debutante Chip Robinson and Claude Ballot-Léna (in his record 20th Le Mans) while the second car had Brian Redman/Hurley Haywood/Jim Adams.
Jaguar had put in a Le Mans entry in C1 for the new XJR-6 model; however, the cars were not deemed ready for racing and withdrawn. Much to the chagrin of Bob Tullius, for all the development work he had been doing and profile raised for Jaguar, the company was working in conjunction with Tom Walkinshaw Racing instead of his own operation.
Group C2
After winning the C2 championship in 1984, the Scuderia Jolly Club (now rebranded as Carma FF) had struggled in the new season. Alba had built several cars for the IMSA Lights category, and the new model for the season was the AR6. It was fitted with a new turbocharged 1915cc Giannini engine with an engine-management system of Carlo Facetti's own design. The bodyshell was wider and longer than the AR2, tested in a wind tunnel, and the suspension, exhaust and cooling all updated. Three Albas were entered: an AR6 and AR2 by the Carma FF team, while they also supported a Cosworth-powered AR3 for Grifo Autoracing team.
Mazdaspeed brought two of the new 737C cars to Le Mans. Upgrades were done with the chassis and engine. The wheelbase was lengthened and strengthened for better stability. Essentially the same driver line-up was present, with Irishman David Kennedy teaming up with the Belgian Martin brothers, Jean-Michel and Philippe, again. The Japanese works car had Yojiro Terada and Takashi Yorino, joined by the experienced Yoshimi Katayama who had raced the class-winning Lola-Mazda in the 1984 race.
Gordon Spice and Ray Bellm had created their new company, Spice Engineering, in the close-season after a very strong finish to the previous year, winning all five of the races they entered after Le Mans. They continued that form this season, coming to this race as championship leaders after winning two of the first three events. The new Spice-Tiga GC85 had been delayed by RAM Racing but finally delivered. Spice and Bellm were joined by Mark Galvin. Meanwhile, fellow Tiga supporter, Australian Neil Crang had sold his two GC84 cars to Tim Lee-Davey. Both were entered in Le Mans under the Spice Engineering banner. One arrived at the track, to be raced by Lee-Davey, Crang and British veteran Tony Lanfranchi. The Spice car ran the 3.3-litre Cosworth DFL, while the other had the 3-litre DFV. British privateer Roy Baker returned with two cars this year. His Tigas (the original GC284 and a newer GC285) were again fitted with the 1.8-litre turbocharged Cosworth BDT rally engine.
The Écurie Écosse team had a foreshortened season last year when their car was wrecked at the British Grand Prix meeting. A new C285 was built for this season and the two races it had entered to date yielded a second and a class-win. The drivers for the season were David Leslie, Ray Mallock and Mike Wilds.
The Gebhardt brothers, Gerhardt and Fritz, were keen amateur drivers in Germany. In 1983, with Bill Harris, they set up Gebhardt Motorsport, based at Silverstone, England. After a promising 1984 season using both the BMW M88 and Cosworth DFV engines, the team had three Le Mans entries for their new JC853 (although in the end only one arrived). It would be driven by team regulars Frank Jelinski and Nick Adams. The BMW-powered car of the '84 season was bought by ADA Engineering that embarked on a part-season. Owner-driver, Ian Harrower, engaged John Sheldon as a co-driver, in his first drive since his major accident at Le Mans the year before.
Once again, the older Rondeau M379C was entered in C2. Lucien Roussiaud had purchased the car from Graff Racing, getting the engine tuned, as before, by Heini Mader. The Sehcar C6 had debuted in 1982 with Sauber, before being bought by Walter Brun. Now French privateer Roland Bassaler, bought the two cars and, fitting both with the BMW 3.5-litre engine, and entered them in the C2 class. Only capable of 270 kp/h (170 mph), there were significantly slower than others in their class.
Another amateur racer was Parisian PR executive Louis Descartes. He commissioned Jean-Paul Sauvée to design a C2 car, using the reliable BMW 3.5-lite engine. After a year of work, and over 3000 km of testing, the ALD 01 entered Le Mans sponsored by over 400 local businesses through the Chamber of Commerce and Industry.
Group B, GTX and GTO
With no entries arriving for IMSA GTO, the GTs were represented by a meagre list of four cars. More surprising was that there was but a single Porsche 911 entry – once the mainstay of GT racing at Le Mans. The BMW M1 filled the other three spots. Helmut Gall returned with his car, this time driven by Martin Birrane, Edgar Dören and Jean-Paul Libert. The veteran Claude Haldi did not take his entry, and instead it was taken up by Harald Grohs' Vogelsang team. Angelo Pallavicini had won the class in 1983, and returned with his M1 after a year away. Raymond Touroul had won last year's GTO class, and this year put his non-turbo 3-litre Porsche 911 SC in the Group B class.
Practice and Qualifying
For qualifying, the works Porsches were fitted with 3-litre turbo engines. Hans-Joachim Stuck took pole position with a lap record of 3:14.8 set at twilight on the first day of practice. He beat Ickx's pole lap from 1983 by almost 2 seconds, with an average speed breaking 250 kp/h (155 mph) for the first time at Le Mans. It was a record that would stand for 32 years, until Kamui Kobayashi broke it during practice for the 2017 race. Ickx himself also beat his old lap record to share the front row of the grid. Lancia tried to match the Porsches, and Nannini did exceed the 1983 pole time, but ended up third on the grid (3:16.0) over a second behind Stuck. Both teams ran Test-cars to optimise set-up. Cesare Fiorio made the baffling mistake of sending Wollek out for his best qualifying opportunity in the Lancia T-car. However, having put in his time it was then nullified.
Fourth, in the Joest Porsche was Ludwig over five seconds behind the leader (3:20.0), ahead of the other works Porsche and Lancia. The privateer Porsche 956s filled out the top-10 with the Kremer car 7th (3:24.1) ahead of the other Joest car and the RLR and Brun entries.
A number of teams were dissatisfied with the low-downforce kits on their cars, and reverted back to the standard package finding times improved with greater cornering stability.
The EMKA was the quickest of the non-turbo cars, in 13th (3:33.1), fully 9 seconds faster than it had been in 1983. The two Jaguars qualified 16th and 17th – the faster was again Tullius' (3:35.3), with an identical lap-time to the previous year. Young American Chip Robinson had a rude introduction to Le Mans when a tyre blew while at speed. Both car's engines burnt out pistons, likely owing to the change of fuel used. After the delay getting past scrutineering, the March had a problematic practice with a number of minor issues, and only qualified 24th (3:44.8). The best of the Domes was just ahead in 22nd (3:43.8) while Roger Dorchy was called up from the Reserves and had the best time for WM, in 19th (3:38.4).
There were two major incidents during practice: The Sauber had shown promise on the first day, putting in the second fastest speed down the straight and qualifying 14th, 12 seconds faster than the Sauber C7 did two years earlier. The next day, the team tweaked the aerodynamics to improve downforce. John Neilsen was just doing harm-up laps, when he got airborne as his new Sauber crested the rise after the Mulsanne kink at over 300 kp/h. Doing two slow somersaults it landed back on its wheels before careering along the barriers to the Mulsanne corner. It was thought the undertray had detached from the chassis.
In the other, also on the Hunaudières straight, the RLR-Porsche of Dudley Wood was overtaking the Carma Alba of Jean-Pierre Frey, both on their out-laps, when the two collided. The Porsche slammed into the barrier fences, flattening them for 80 metres, while the Alba vaulted the fence, ending up among the trees. From those incidents, only Wood was injured – suffering a fractured leg - and the other two were able to walk away shaken, but uninjured. Their respective cars were all written-off and would not take the start. The practice was stopped for two hours while the armco was repaired.
In the C2 class, all three Albas had qualified well – the Finotto car was the fastest in class, ending up 20th on the grid (3:42.6) and Frey would have been beside them. Third in class, and 23rd overall, was the Ecosse (3:44.2 – five seconds faster than last year) with the privateer Alba in 25th.
Race
Start
Once again, race start was 3pm on the sunny Saturday afternoon. After the major accidents in practice there were only 49 starters, although one of the WMs had a flat battery and started a lap behind the field. From the second row of the grid, Wollek quickly surged to the lead past the two works Porsches. The Lancia was followed by Ludwig in the Joest Porsche, Palmer (Canon-RLR) and van der Merwe (Kremer) cars. By the second lap, Bell was back in 9th and Ickx out of the top-10. It was apparent the works Porsches were running to a prescribed lap-time and content to avoid the traditional starting-sprint to conserve their fuel. Wollek, having made his point, also settled back to a moderate race-pace, overtaken by Ludwig and dropping to 4th on the fourth lap. It was apparent the cars were doing lap-times 5-10 seconds slower than the previous year.
The EMKA had started well and was running fourth on lap 13 when Needell was called into the pits for a strategic early stop. So, when the rest of the field pitted for fuel, Needell got the EMKA-Aston Martin four laps of free publicity for their sponsor, Dow Corning, running at the front of the field.
However, after the first fuel-stops it was the Joest and RLR teams that literally set the pace, with Larrauri's Brun Porsche in close pursuit. Ludwig and Palmer had worked out together that they could slipstream each other, not racing, and alternating the lead between each other to minimise their fuel consumption. After 25 laps, all three works Porsches were outside the top-10. This was working smoothly and mindful of the tighter fuel allowance, the top-20 C1 cars stayed fairly steady for the first couple of hours – the reduced strain on the engine helping with mechanical reliability. This was not the case with the C2s with the Gebhardt and both Baker Tigas delayed by engine-related problems and the Chevron retiring. The Japanese-run Mazda lost nearly 3 hours with oil-pump failure. The two Albas also failed – the privateer car being the first retirement of the race and the Finotto car delayed early on with loosening wheels. It was the Ecosse that dominated the class early on – running 11th overall during the first hour as the C1 cars were refuelling and then putting a lap on the rest of the class after two hours. However, in the third hour the car was put out when the oil pump broke.
On lap 36 Mass pitted with what started to be a series of issues – firstly replacing the Motronics box, then the gearbox, a few laps later an oil pipe, then within the hour replacing spark plugs cost 3more laps. Earlier the March had stopped at Mulsanne with injector problems and the Kremer car lost five laps with a clutch cylinder failure. The Cougar had been running in the top-10 when De Cadenet was nudged off-track when trying to overtake one the Porsches. With damage to the rear suspension, the repairs cost 40 minutes.
In the early evening, after four hours, Barilla and Weaver (63 laps), working together, had put a lap on the field. The Brun cars were 3rd and 5th, split by the Wollek/Nannini Lancia. Holbert was the leading works Porsche, in 6th, with the JFR car just ahead of the Bell/Stuck car. The second Lancia was 9th with the EMKA running well in 10th. Ickx was putting in another one of his impressive comeback drives, setting the fastest lap of the race in the sixth hour, but he was then stymied having to pit to replace a gearbox oil cooler, losing another 7 minutes.
Otherwise, this measured approach by the teams continued until 9am, when Jean-Claude Andruet had a significant accident in his WM. Again, at the Mulsanne kink, a tyre blowout at top speed shot him off into the barriers. The drive emerged unharmed, but the incident brought out the pace cars for 30-minutes to repair the armco. Joest took the opportunity to put pay-driver "John Winter" in the driver's seat. He put in a single 75-minute stint before leaving the rest of the driving to his professional team-mates.
Just as the safety-cars pulled off, James Weaver pitted the RLR Porsche with an engine misfire. Despite replacing the Motronic unit, he returned a few laps later. It was traced to a faulty sensor, but the time spent meant they returned to the race in 7th, two laps down. The top dozen cars were still all within two laps of each other. But that did not include the Ickx/Mass car, that had slowed on the back straight with an overheating gearbox. Limping back to the pits, the gearbox replacement took an hour, dropping them down to 30th place.
Night
At midnight, the other two works Porsches were running second and third, but neither works teams could match the pace and fuel efficiency of the leaders. Soon after though, the Bell/Stuck car pitted for the first of two wheel-bearing changes, costing Bell the chance of a 4th victory. Through the night, the Joest Porsche continued to defy expectations consistently doing an extra lap in every stint to the other teams. In contrast, the Kreepy Krauly March was having a nightmare run: Coppelli went off in the Porsche Curves, several punctures, a pair of broken wishbones, the Motronic unit and then a fuel leak. There was then a curious delay affecting several teams, including the RLR, Lancia and Brun cars, when they stopped to refuel. An official had inadvertently turned off the valve to the central fuel supply. Race director Michael Martin told the timekeepers to credit those cars with an equivalent distance to the time they had lost in waiting.
After 12 hours, Ludwig/Barilla had covered 185 laps, a lap ahead of the #3 Rothmans Porsche. The Brun car of Larrauri/Sigala/Tarquini and Wollek/Nannini Lancia were several laps back (182) with the recovering RLR car back up to 5th having passed Bell/Stuck (181). Brun's own car (179) led another clump, with the Obermeier Porsche, the second Lancia and the Kremer 962 (178) rounding out the top-10. Soon after the halfway point, Fiorio called in his leading Lancia to check the engine. The team had noticed that fuel consumption was running high. The fault was traced to cracks in the turbo from an errant stone that therefore gave too much boost and hence too much fuel. Replacing the turbo took a half-hour, dropping Wollek/Nannini down to 13th. In C2, the Martin brothers' works Mazda (18th)had been leading since sunset, with the Carma Alba seven laps back (21st) having recently taken second from the ADA Gebhardt (22nd). The Spice/Bellm Spice-Tiga had led off-and-on for 90 minutes going into the evening, but had now slipped to 4th in class (24th) after losing nearly the same amount of time fixing the oil cooler, the exhaust and the undertray. Their downforce was so much, it had bottomed out the undertray so it had detached.
As dawn approached, the Joest Porsche was running like clockwork. Klaus Ludwig commented:
ACO inspectors came to the teams pit to examine the fuel-rig and hoses but could find nothing out of order. The drivers were told not to use first gear and running as low revs as they could, changing gears as little as needed. Team manager Piedade even joked with the reporters that he had hypnotised his drivers. By the end of the race he was jokingly offering his spare fuel to the other teams.
After Ludwig pushed hard in the cool dawn air, the team now had a 3-lap lead over the works Porsche. The leading Lancia of Pescarolo/Baldi lost a half-hour with gear-selection problems, but thereafter both Lancias ran well for the rest of the race.
Morning
The recovery of the RLR-Porsche was completed when Palmer retook second place at 8.30am, when Schuppan had to stop and have a wheel bearing replaced, costing 9 minutes. About an hour later, Le Mans debutante Paul Belmondo was on cold tyres and just starting his new stint, when he lost control at the Dunlop Curve. After 18 hours, this was the first Porsche to retire. Promising Australian youngster Lucio Cesario, finally got his chance to drive, as a Lancia reserve driver, giving Nannini and Wollek a rest when he did a single 50-minute stint.
For the sizeable British contingent (including the Duke of Kent), after showing initial promise, both the Jaguars and EMKA had drifted back down the field. Contesting for the best non-turbo car, they had regularly swapped places through the night. Mid-morning, Tullius' Jaguar (15th) was in the pits with an engine misfire– so the engine-management box got replaced a second time. The sister-car had retired early on Sunday morning, stopping out on the circuit with a broken CV-joint. The EMKA (14th) lost 45 minutes getting its clutch replaced, and then at 10.30am, John Watson slowly brought the works Porsche into the pits. After running a strong second all through the night, its race was done by a broken crankshaft.
Finish and post-race
Palmer took over the RLR Porsche at 11am and immediately began putting in very fast laps – often 10 seconds a lap faster than the Joest car. Despite taking a lap back, Ludwig would not rise to the bait, and being three laps behind the team ordered Palmer to ease off again and conserve the car for the finish. At midday, Richard Lloyd took the car out for a one-hour stint, his only drive in the race.
Soon after, Joël Gouhier had a big accident on the Hunaudières Straight when the transmission on the Brun 962 seized, launching the car into the guardrails, then flipping and rolling down the track. Crashing out of sixth place, Gouhier was able to get out and walk away. And within a half-hour, the Brun sister-car, running third, was in the pits with what proved to be terminal engine problems.
After leading the C2 class for over eleven hours, the Mazda of the Martin brothers was stopped by a bearing failure in its gearbox. The pit-crew parked the car up for the remainder of the race. Heading out 3 hours later, they had only lost one place, and finished 19th. Spice/Bellm/Galvin inherited the lead, with four hours to go, even though they were 13 laps behind them, as all the other cars in the class had had bigger issues.
In the final few hours, there were a number of cars struggling to get to the end: the Kreepy Krauly March had suffered two wishbone failures, punctures and Motronic issues had cost them much time early in the race. The Rondeau WM was staggering round with its engine sounding as if it was about to expire. With 90 minutes to go, the Jaguar pitted with severe mechanical problems. A piston had rammed into the cylinder head, but the team sealed off the cylinder and sent Tullius out again in the last minutes for a final lap. In the last hour, the March was in the pits again, but after almost 7 hours spent in the pits the crew got Copelli out in that final quarter-hour. The ADA Gebhardt broke its gearbox in the last hour. The team waited until Steve Earle took it out to take the flag. Such was the spread of the C2 class, they did not lose a place and still finished second.
The Joest Porsche continued on to take a comfortable victory. Ludwig had done the preponderance of the driving: a total of 12½ hours. He took his third overall win, while Barilla won at his third attempt after moving over from the Lancia works team. Their car, 956-117, became only the second chassis to win a consecutive Le Mans, following Ford GT40-1075 in 1968-69. The RLR Porsche of Palmer/Weaver/Lloyd was second. The works Porsche of Bell/Stuck, had got to third just before midday and held onto that to finish seven laps behind the winners.
Three of the nine privateer Porsches retired, but the other six all finished in the top-10. The Fitzpatrick 956B was fourth (the car that had finished 3rd last year), with the Kremer 956 fifth and their 962 in 9th. Both Lancias finished this year, in 6th and 7th, held back by insufficient fuel economy impeding their progress. The Ickx/Mass car was the lowest placed Porsche, in 10th. The non-turbos were quite outclassed this year, and they enjoyed their own race within a race. In the end, the EMKA-Aston Martin won that, coming home in 11th, 14 laps ahead of the Tullius/Ballot-Léna/Robinson Jaguar (13th) after its late-race tribulations. Between them was the TOMs Dome, after a relatively uneventful race.
The contrast between the reliability of the C1 and C2 classes was stark, with less than half the entry of 15 cars classified as finishers and all suffering a major delay of some kind. The Spice-Tiga held on for the class win (and 14th overall), fully 130 km less than the previous year, but finishing ahead of the ADA-Gebhardt by a greater margin (170 km). After leading all through the night, the Mazdaworks car scrapped its way to third, 29 laps behind. Spice Engineering would go on to win the inaugural C2 championship. Such was the mechanical attrition in the class, there were four cars not classified because they had fallen so far behind. By dint of being the only GT running at the end, when all their opponents retired in the first half of the race, the Helmut Gall BMW won Group B, repeating its win from the previous year.
Much like the 1976 Le Mans, touted by the media as an "economy run", the winners actually achieved better results than the previous years. The Joest Porsche covered 190 km (115 miles) further than they did winning the previous year. They recorded the second-fastest race speed ever at Le Mans, only exceeded by the 1971 winners. Such was their performance and fuel economy, they also won the Index prize and still had 140 litres of fuel still left over. The RLR team had similarly successful tactics: and the sensor delay that cost them three laps early on would be eventual margin of their defeat (and had 30 litres of fuel left).Not including Joest's perfect reliability, the others teams were at a loss to match their success. Ludwig explained it as a combination of running very low downforce, a carefully-programmed engine-management computer and being able to moderate the turbo-boost while slipstreaming. Both teams also only drove their third, amateur, driver for just a single one-hour stint.
The response of the drivers in this race was that this year was a tactical race and technical exercise, rather than being the driving challenge it was renowned for. It was a surprise that, for once, the works Porsche were not a major factor in the race they had previously dominated. There were five Rondeaux entered but only one finished, in 18th, 83 laps behind the winner. The final chapter of the Rondeau story ended in December when 39-year old Jean Rondeau was killed in a car accident, when he tried to beat a train at a level crossing.
Jacky Ickx had been to Le Mans fifteen times and won a record six times. This would be his final 24-hours after a notable career; the tenth place was a bit anticlimactic. Later in the year, at the endurance round at Spa Ickx was duelling for the lead with former team-mate Stefan Bellof. The cars collided at Eau Rouge, crashed and Bellof was killed in the impact. This followed the fatal accident to Manfred Winkelhock at the preceding round at Mosport in Canada. A third serious accident at practice for Spa had broken the leg of Jonathon Palmer. In all three instances, the drivers legs were trapped forcing the Porsche engineers to do an investigation on the structural safety of their car. After a competitive, traumatic year, the Rothmans Porsche works team won the inaugural Teams Championship. Stuck and Bell won the Drivers Championship.
Official results
Finishers
Results taken from Quentin Spurring's book, officially licensed by the ACOClass winners are in Bold text.
Note *: Not classified because did not cover sufficient distance (70% of the winner) by the race's end.
Did not finish
Did not start
Class winners
Note: setting a new class distance record.
Index of Energy Efficiency
Note: Only the top ten positions are included in this set of standings.
Statistics
Taken from Quentin Spurring's book, officially licensed by the ACO
Pole Position –H.-J. Stuck, #2 Porsche 962C– 3:14.8secs;
Fastest lap – J. Ickx, #1 Porsche 962C – 3:25.1secs;
Winning distance –
Winner's average speed –
Attendance – 80,000 / 160,000.
Notes
References
Clarke, R.M. - editor (1999) Le Mans 'The Porsche & Jaguar Years 1983-1991' Cobham, Surrey: Brooklands Books
Laban, Brian (2001) Le Mans 24 Hours London: Virgin Books
Hamilton, Maurice – editor (1985) Autocourse #31 1985/86 Richmond, Surrey: Hazleton Publishing
Spurring, Quentin (2012) Le Mans 1980-89 Yeovil, Somerset: Haynes Publishing
Wimpffen, János (2008) Monocoques and Ground Effects Hong Kong: David Bull Publishing
External links
Racing Sports Cars – Le Mans 24 Hours 1983 with entries, results, technical detail and photos of every car. Retrieved 24 Apr 2023
Le Mans History – Le Mans entry-list and hour-by-hour placings (incl. pictures of every car, quotes, highest speeds per car, YouTube links). Retrieved 24 Apr 2023
World Sports Racing Prototypes – results, reserve entries & chassis numbers. Retrieved 24 Apr 2023
Team Dan – results & reserve entries, explaining driver listings. Retrieved 24 Apr 2023
Unique Cars & Parts – results & reserve entries. Retrieved 24 Apr 2023
Formula 2 – Le Mans results & reserve entries. Retrieved 24 Apr 2023
Speedfreaks – Results table for the World Challenge for Endurance Drivers. Retrieved 24 Apr 2023
Motorsport Memorial – motor-racing deaths by year. Retrieved 24 Apr 2023
YouTube – race coverage, with race sounds, English commentary, music cut out (20min). Retrieved 24 Apr 2023
YouTube – compilation of assorted footage, with race sounds but no commentary (60min). Retrieved 24 Apr 2023
YouTube – race coverage, with race sounds, Japanese commentary & rock music?! (40min). Retrieved 24 Apr 2023
YouTube – series of 5 photographs showing the Sauber of John Nielsen getting airborne during practice (1min). Retrieved 24 Apr 2023
24 Hours of Le Mans races
Le Mans
Le Mans
1985 in French motorsport |
4431552 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HC%20CSKA%20Moscow | HC CSKA Moscow | HC CSKA Moscow (1946–present, , Central Sports Club of the Army, Moscow) is a Russian professional ice hockey club based in Moscow. The club is a member of the Tarasov Division in the Kontinental Hockey League (KHL). It is referred to in the West as "Central Red Army" or the "Red Army Team" for its affiliation with the Soviet Army, known as the Red Army until 1946, and the Russian Armed Forces. CSKA won more Soviet championships and European cups than any other team in history. It is owned by Russia's largest oil company, Rosneft, which is in turn majority-owned by the Russian government.
In addition to nine division titles and record six Continental Cups, CSKA has reached the Gagarin Cup Finals six times, winning in 2019, 2022 and 2023. The club also became the first one to win both the Continental Cup and the Gagarin Cup in the same season.
In 2018, after more than 50 seasons at the old Ice Palace, the team moved to a new arena, which is now called CSKA Arena, their present home arena in Moscow.
History
The club was founded in 1946 as CDKA (Centralnyy Dom Krasnoy Armii – Central House of the Red Army, referring to the Army community centre in Moscow). It was known as CDSA (with Red Army changed to Soviet Army) from 1952 – 1954, as CSK MO (Central Sports Club of the Ministry of Defense) from 1955 – 1959, and acquired its current name in 1960.
As a hockey powerhouse
CSKA won 32 Soviet regular season championships during the Soviet League's 46-year existence, far and away the most in the league's history; no other team won more than five. This included all but six from 1955 to 1989 and 13 in a row from 1977 to 1989. By comparison, no NHL team has won more than five Stanley Cups in a row since the NHL took de facto control of the trophy in 1926.
CSKA was just as dominant in the European Cup. They won all but two titles from 1969 to 1990, including 13 in a row from 1978 to 1990. The team's first coach was Anatoli Tarasov, who would later become famous as the coach of the Soviet national team. Tarasov coached the Red Army Team, either alone or with co-coaches, for most of the time from 1946 to 1975. The team's greatest run came under Viktor Tikhonov, who was coach from 1977 to 1996—serving for most of that time as coach of the national team.
The Red Army Team was able to pull off such a long run of dominance because during the Soviet era, the entire CSKA organization was a functioning division of the Soviet Armed Forces via the Ministry of Defence. As all able-bodied Soviet males had to serve in the military, the team was able to literally draft the best young hockey players in the Soviet Union onto the team. All players were commissioned officers in the Soviet Army. There was a substantial overlap between the rosters of the Red Army Team and the Soviet national team, which was one factor behind the Soviets' near-absolute dominance of international hockey from the 1950s through the early 1990s. By the late 1980s, however, the long run of Red Army dominance caused a significant dropoff in attendance throughout the league.
One of the most feared lines in hockey history was the KLM Line of the 1980s. The name came from the last names of the three players, Vladimir Krutov, Igor Larionov, and Sergei Makarov. Together with defensemen Viacheslav Fetisov and Alexei Kasatonov, they were known as the Green Unit because they wore green jerseys in practice. The five-man unit formed a dominant force in European hockey throughout the decade. All five players were later permitted to go to the NHL in 1989, with mixed results. Krutov had the shortest NHL career, lasting only one season in Vancouver; Makarov (who won the Calder Memorial Trophy in 1990) and Kasatonov were out of the NHL by 1997; Fetisov and Larionov won the Stanley Cup twice together with Detroit before Fetisov retired in 1998; Larionov would win a third Cup with Detroit in 2002, before retiring from New Jersey in 2004.
Not surprisingly, discipline was quite strict, especially under Tikhonov. His players practiced for as many as 11 months a year, and were confined to training camp (an Army barracks) most of that time even if they were married. However, it became less restrictive after the collapse of the Soviet Union.
At the IIHF Centennial All-Star Team, out of 6 players selected 4 players once played at CSKA Moscow.
CSKA and the NHL
CSKA played 36 games against NHL teams from 1975 to 1991 and finished with a record of 26 wins, 8 losses, and 2 ties. 34 of these games were played in Super Series, including the tour of North America in 1975/1976. The Super Series also introduced eventual Hockey Hall of Fame goaltender Vladislav Tretiak of the CSKA squad to North American ice hockey fans. On New Year's Eve 1975, CSKA played the Montreal Canadiens, widely regarded as the league's finest team (and that year's eventual Stanley Cup winners). The game ended with a 3–3 draw, but was widely hailed as one of the greatest games ever played.
Another memorable game was played on 11 January 1976 against the Philadelphia Flyers, who at the time were the defending Stanley Cup Champions and were known as the "Broad Street Bullies" for their highly physical play. The game was notable for an incident where, after a body check delivered by Philadelphia's Ed Van Impe, the CSKA's top player, Valeri Kharlamov (like Tretiak eventually a Hall of Famer), was left prone on the ice for a minute. CSKA coach Konstantin Loktev pulled his team off the ice in protest that no penalty was called. They were told by NHL president Clarence Campbell to return to the ice and finish the game, which was being broadcast to an international audience, or the Soviet Hockey Federation would not get paid the fee that they were entitled to. They eventually complied and lost the game 4–1.
CSKA Moscow alumni have made a large impact on the NHL. In the mid-1990s, Sergei Fedorov, Vladimir Konstantinov, and Vyacheslav Kozlov had established themselves as key members of the Detroit Red Wings when they were joined by Fetisov and Larionov, forming the Russian Five. These five players would play an integral role in the Wings' consecutive Stanley Cup championships in 1997 and 1998. Dmitri Mironov joined the 1998 squad, following Konstantinov's career-ending injury on 13 June 1997; since Konstantinov was kept on the roster despite his injury, the 1998 squad marks the largest contingent of CSKA veterans (six) to win the Stanley Cup.
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| 1 || @ New York Rangers || 7–3 || 1–0–0
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| 2 || @ Montreal Canadiens || 3–3 || 1–1–0
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| 3 || @ Boston Bruins ||5–2 || 2–1–0
|- style="background:#fbb;"
| 4 || @ Philadelphia Flyers ||1–4 || 2–1–1
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| 5 || @ New York Rangers ||5–2 || 3–1–1
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| 6 || @ New York Islanders ||3–2|| 4–1–1
|- style="background:#fbb;"
| 7 || @ Montreal Canadiens ||2–4 || 4–1–2
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| 8 || @ Buffalo Sabres ||1–6 || 4–1–3
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| 9 || @ Quebec Nordiques ||6–4 || 5–1–3
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| 10 ||@ Los Angeles Kings ||5–2 || 6–1–3
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| 11 || @ Edmonton Oilers ||6–3 || 7–1–3
|- style="background:#fbb;"
| 12 || @ Quebec Nordiques ||1–5 || 7–1–4
|- bgcolor="#CCFFCC"
| 13 || @ Montreal Canadiens ||6–1 || 8–1–4
|- bgcolor="#CCFFCC"
| 14 || @ St. Louis Blues ||4–2 || 9–1–4
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| 15 || @ Minnesota North Stars ||4–3 || 10–1–4
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|- bgcolor=" "
| 16 ||@ Quebec Nordiques ||5–5 || 10–2–4
|- bgcolor="#CCFFCC"
| 17 || @ New York Islanders ||3–2 || 11–2–4
|- bgcolor="#CCFFCC"
| 18 || @ Boston Bruins ||5–4 || 12–2–4
|- bgcolor="#CCFFCC"
| 19 || @ New Jersey Devils ||5–0 || 13–2–4
|- style="background:#fbb;"
| 20 || @ Pittsburgh Penguins ||2–4 || 13–2–5
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| 21 || @ Hartford Whalers ||6–3 || 14–2–5
|- style="background:#fbb;"
| 22 || @ Buffalo Sabres ||5–6 || 14–2–6
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| 23 || Calgary Flames ||2–1 || 15–2–6
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| 24 || @ Winnipeg Jets ||1–4 || 15–2–7
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| 25 || @ Vancouver Canucks ||6–0 || 16–2–7
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| 26 || @ Minnesota North Stars ||4–2 || 17–2–7
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| 27 || @ Chicago Blackhawks ||6–4 || 18–2–7
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| 28 || @ Philadelphia Flyers ||5–4 || 19–2–7
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| 29 || Montreal Canadiens ||3–2 || 20–2–7
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| 30 ||@ Detroit Red Wings ||5–2 || 21–2–7
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| 31 || @ New York Rangers ||6–1 || 22–2–7
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| 32 || @ Chicago Blackhawks ||4–2 || 23–2–7
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| 33|| @ Calgary Flames ||6–4 || 24–2–7
|- style="background:#fbb;"
| 34 || @ Edmonton Oilers ||2–4 || 24–2–8
|- bgcolor="#CCFFCC"
| 35 || @ Winnipeg Jets ||6–4 || 25–2–8
|- bgcolor="#CCFFCC"
| 36 || @ Vancouver Canucks ||4–3 (OT)|| 26–2–8
|-
Post-Soviet history
During the late '80s and early '90s CSKA positions significantly weakened. After a conflict with Tikhonov, CSKA major stars including Fetisov, Larionov, Krutov and Makarov left the team to make their careers in the NHL. During the 90s they were followed by younger talents like Bure, Fedorov and Samsonov.
CSKA Moscow played a series of exhibitions games, and an all-star game with the American Hockey Association as part of the 1992–93 season.
For a time in the late 1990s and early 2000s, it was briefly unofficially known as "the Russian Penguins" after the Pittsburgh Penguins bought an interest in the team. The Russian Penguins played 13 games in the International Hockey League as part of the 1993–94 IHL season.
In 1996 after a conflict with management of the club, Tikhonov created his own separate team called HC CSKA that spent two seasons in the Russian Superleague and eventually reunited with the original CSKA in 2002.
In the KHL
Although CSKA has remained one of the strongest teams in Russia since the dissolution of the Soviet Union, it did not win a title in the KHL or its predecessors until 2015, when the club finished first in the regular season and became Russian champion for the first time in a long time, but failed to win the Gagarin Cup. From 2008 to 2015, the team did not advance past the conference semifinals of the Gagarin Cup playoffs; they missed the playoffs altogether in 2011. In the 2015–16 season, the team advanced all the way to the Gagarin Cup final; however, they lost that series to Metallurg Magnitogorsk in seven games. In the 2018–19 season, CSKA won its first Gagarin Cup, after beating Avangard Omsk in four games.
After the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, Swedes Joakim Nordstrom and Lucas Wallmark elected to leave the team. Having lost the 2021 Gagarin Cup final to Avangard Omsk, CSKA returned to the final in 2022 to win its second Gagarin Cup against Metallurg Magnitogorsk.
Logos
Honours
Domestic competitions
Soviet League Championship (32, record): 1947–48, 1948–49, 1949–50, 1954–55, 1955–56, 1957–58, 1958–59, 1959–60, 1960–61, 1962–63, 1963–64, 1964–65, 1965–66, 1967–68, 1969–70, 1970–71, 1971–72, 1972–73, 1974–75, 1976–77, 1977–78, 1978–79, 1979–80, 1980–81, 1981–82, 1982–83, 1983–84, 1984–85, 1985–86, 1986–87, 1987–88, 1988–89
USSR Cup (12, record): 1954, 1955, 1956, 1961, 1966, 1967, 1968, 1969, 1973, 1977, 1979, 1988
Vysshaya Liga Championship (1): 1996–97
Russian Championship (4): 2014–15, 2018–19, 2019–20, 2021–22
Kontinental Hockey League
Gagarin Cup (3): 2019, 2022, 2023
Continental Cup (6, record): 2014–15, 2015–16, 2016–17, 2018–19, 2019–20, 2020–21
Opening Cup (2): 2015–16, 2022–23
International
Intercontinental Cup (1): 1971–72
IIHF European Cup (20, record): 1969, 1970, 1971, 1972, 1973, 1974, 1976, 1978, 1979, 1980, 1981, 1982, 1983, 1984, 1985, 1986, 1987, 1988, 1989, 1990
Spengler Cup (1): 1991
Pajulahti Cup (1): 2005
Pre-season
Hockeyades (Vallée de Joux) (2): 2017, 2018
Moscow Mayor Cup (4): 2010, 2011, 2013, 2017
Season-by-season KHL record
Note: GP = Games played; W = Wins; L = Losses; OTW = Overtime/shootout wins; OTL = Overtime/shootout losses; Pts = Points; GF = Goals for; GA = Goals against
Head coaches
Until the fall of communism, all coaches held the rank of colonel in the Soviet Army.
Players
Current roster
Retired numbers
CSKA have retired four numbers in their history:
Hall-of-Famers
Players
Pavel Bure, LW, 1987–91, inducted 2012
Sergei Fedorov, C, 1986–90, inducted 2015
Viacheslav Fetisov, D, 1978–89, 2009; inducted 2001
Valeri Kharlamov, LW, 1967–81, inducted 2005
Igor Larionov, C, 1981–89, inducted 2008
Sergei Makarov, RW, 1978–89, inducted 2016
Vladislav Tretiak, G, 1968–84, inducted 1989
Sergei Zubov, D, 1988–93, inducted 2019
Builders
Anatoli Tarasov, Coach, 1947–60, 1961–70, 1970–74; inducted 1974
IIHF Hall-of-Famers
Players
Builders
Anatoli Tarasov, Coach, 1947–60, 1961–70, 1970–74; inducted 1997
Viktor Tikhonov, Coach, 1977–96, 2002–04; inducted 1998
Triple Gold Club
Players
Viacheslav Fetisov, D, 1978–89, 2009; inducted 7 June 1997, Stanley Cup win vs. Philadelphia Flyers
Alexei Gusarov, D, 1984–91, inducted 10 June 1996, Stanley Cup win vs. Florida Panthers
Valeri Kamensky, LW, 1985–91, inducted 10 June 1996, Stanley Cup win vs. Florida Panthers
Igor Larionov, C, 1981–89, inducted 7 June 1997, Stanley Cup win vs. Philadelphia Flyers
Vladimir Malakhov, D, 1988–92, inducted 10 June 2000, Stanley Cup win vs. Dallas Stars
Alexander Mogilny, RW, 1986–89, inducted 10 June 2000, Stanley Cup win vs. Dallas Stars
Pavel Datsyuk, C, 2012–13, inducted 25 February 2018, Olympic gold win vs. Germany
First round draft picks
2009: Mikhail Pashnin (1st overall)
2010: none
2011: Alexander Timirev (3rd overall), Mikhail Grigorenko (8th overall)
2012: Nikita Zadorov (4th overall), Vladislav Boiko (6th overall), Andrei Filonenko (18th overall), Sergei Tolchinsky (28th overall)
2013: Maxim Tretiak (12th overall), Ivan Nikolishin (29th overall)
List of CSKA players selected in the NHL Amateur Draft
1978: Viacheslav Fetisov (Montreal Canadiens) (201st overall)
List of CSKA players selected in the NHL Entry Draft
1982: Viktor Zhluktov (Minnesota North Stars) (143rd overall)
1983: Vladislav Tretiak (Montreal Canadiens) (138th overall), Viacheslav Fetisov (New Jersey Devils) (145th overall), Alexei Kasatonov (New Jersey Devils) (225th overall), Sergei Makarov (Calgary Flames) (231st overall)
1985: Igor Larionov (Vancouver Canucks) (214th overall)
1986: Vladimir Krutov (Vancouver Canucks) (238th overall)
1987: Igor Vyazmikin (Edmonton Oilers) (252nd overall)
1988: Alexander Mogilny (Buffalo Sabres) (89th overall), Valeri Kamensky (Quebec Nordiques) (129th overall)
1989: Sergei Fedorov (Detroit Red Wings) (74th overall), Pavel Bure (Vancouver Canucks) (113th overall), Sergei Starikov (New Jersey Devils) (152nd overall), Vyacheslav Bykov (Quebec Nordiques) (169th overall), Andrei Khomutov (Quebec Nordiques) (190th overall), Vladimir Konstantinov (Detroit Red Wings) (221st overall), Evgeny Davydov (Winnipeg Jets) (235th overall)
1990: Sergei Zubov (New York Rangers) (85th overall), Vyacheslav Butsayev (Philadelphia Flyers) (109th overall), Andrei Kovalenko (Quebec Nordiques) (148th overall)
1991: Igor Kravchuk (Chicago Blackhawks) (71st overall), Dmitri Motkov (Detroit Red Wings) (98th overall), Oleg Petrov (Montreal Canadiens) (127th overall), Evgeny Belosheikin (Edmonton Oilers) (232nd overall)
1992: Sergei Krivokrasov (Chicago Blackhawks) (12th overall), Boris Mironov (Winnipeg Jets) (27th overall), Dmitri Starostenko (New York Rangers) (120th overall), Artur Oktyabrev (Winnipeg Jets) (155th overall)
1993: Alexander Osadchy (San Jose Sharks) (80th overall), Yuri Yuresko (Detroit Red Wings) (178th overall), Dmitri Gorenko (Hartford Whalers) (214th overall)
1994: Alexander Kharlamov (Washington Capitals) (15th overall), Alexei Krivchenkov (Pittsburgh Penguins) (76th overall), Valentin Morozov (Pittsburgh Penguins) (154th overall), Alexei Lazarenko (New York Rangers) (182nd overall), Boris Zelenko (Pittsburgh Penguins) (206th overall)
1995: Oleg Belov (Pittsburgh Penguins) (102nd overall), Vasili Turkovsky (Washington Capitals) (199th overall)
1996: Andrei Petrunin (Hartford Whalers) (61st overall), Oleg Kvasha (Florida Panthers) (65th overall), Dmitri Subbotin (New York Rangers) (76th overall), Nikolai Ignatov (Tampa Bay Lightning) (152nd overall), Denis Khloptonov (Florida Panthers) (209th overall), Denis Khloptonov (Florida Panthers) (209th overall)
1997: Denis Timofeyev (Boston Bruins) (135th overall), Denis Martynyuk (Vancouver Canucks) (135th overall)
1998: Alexander Zevakhin (Pittsburgh Penguins) (54th overall)
1999: Alexander Buturlin (Montreal Canadiens) (39th overall), Alexander Chagodayev (Mighty Ducks of Anaheim) (105th overall), Vladimir Kulkov (Toronto Maple Leafs) (211st overall), Maxim Orlov (Washington Capitals) (219th overall), Dimitri Kirilenko Calgary Flames (252nd overall)
2000: Anton Volchenkov (Ottawa Senators) (21st overall), Vasily Bizyayev (Buffalo Sabres) (213th overall)
2002: Sergei Anshakov (Los Angeles Kings) (50th overall), Vladislav Evseev (Boston Bruins) (56th overall), Dmitri Kazionov (Tampa Bay Lightning) (100th overall), Viktor Bobrov (Calgary Flames) (146th overall), Sergei Mozyakin (Columbus Blue Jackets) (263rd overall)
2003: Nikolay Zherdev (Columbus Blue Jackets) (fourth overall), Andrei Kostitsyn (Montreal Canadiens) (10th overall), Dmitri Kosmachev (Columbus Blue Jackets) (71st overall), Rustam Sidikov (Nashville Predators) (133rd overall), Andrei Mukhachev (Nashville Predators) (210th overall)
2004: Kirill Lyamin (Ottawa Senators) (58th overall), Denis Parshin (Colorado Avalanche) (72nd overall), Alexander Nikulin (Ottawa Senators) (122nd overall)
2005: Viktor Dovgan (Washington Capitals) (209th overall), Nikolay Lemtyugov (St. Louis Blues) (219th overall)
2006: Vladimir Zharkov (New Jersey Devils) (77th overall), Sergei Shirokov (Vancouver Canucks) (163rd overall), Arturs Kulda (Atlanta Thrashers) (200th overall)
2007: Maxim Goncharov (Phoenix Coyotes) (123rd overall), Ilya Kablukov (Vancouver Canucks) (146th overall)
2008: Nikita Filatov (Columbus Blue Jackets) (sixth overall), Dmitri Kugryshev (Washington Capitals) (58th overall)
2011: Nikita Kucherov (Tampa Bay Lightning) (58th overall), Alexei Marchenko (Detroit Red Wings) (205th overall)
2012: Nikolai Prokhorkin (Los Angeles Kings) (121st overall), Nikita Gusev (Tampa Bay Lightning) (202nd overall)
2016: Maxim Mamin (Florida Panthers) (175th overall)
2017: Andrei Svetlakov (Minnesota Wild) (178th overall)
2018: Alexander Romanov (Montreal Canadiens) (38th overall)
Stanley Cup Winners
Players
Builders
Vyacheslav Fetisov, assistant coach, 1978–89, 2009, won 2000
Note: Only counts if the players or builders have played for CSKA before the NHL.
Olympic Champions
Players
Builders
Anatoly Tarasov, Coach, 1947–60, 1961–70, 1970–74, champion 1964, 1968, 1972
Viktor Tikhonov, Coach, 1977–96, 2002–04, champion 1984, 1988, 1992
Igor Nikitin, Coach, 2014–21, champion 2018
Canada Cup Winners
Players
Builders
Viktor Tikhonov, Coach, 1977–96, 2002–04, won 1981
NHL Awards
Hart Trophy (NHL MVP)
Sergei Fedorov, C, 1986–90, 1993–94
Lady Byng Memorial Trophy
Alexander Mogilny, RW, 1986–89, 2002–03
Calder Memorial Trophy
Pavel Bure, LW, 1987–91, 1991–92
Sergei Makarov, RW, 1978–89, 1989–90
Sergei Samsonov, LW, 1994–96, 1997–98
Kirill Kaprizov, LW, 2017–20, 2020–21
Ted Lindsay Award
Sergei Fedorov, C, 1986–90, 1993–94
Frank J. Selke Trophy
Sergei Fedorov, C, 1986–90, 1993–94, 1995–96
NHL Plus-Minus Award
Vladimir Konstantinov, D, 1984–91, 1995–96
Maurice "Rocket" Richard Trophy
Pavel Bure, LW, 1987–91, 1999–00, 2000–01
Note: Only counts if the players or builders played in the CSKA before the NHL.
All-Star game
NHL All-Star Game
Players
Note: Only counts if the players or builders has played in the CSKA before NHL.
KHL All-Star Game
Players
Konstantin Barulin, G, 2008–10, 2009
Pavel Datsyuk, C, 2012–13, 2013
Denis Denisov, D, 1996–97, 2012–17, 2014
Mikhail Grabovski, C, 2012–13, 2013
Konstantin Korneyev, D, 2006–10, 2009, 2010
Denis Parshin, LW, 2003–12, 2010
Nikolai Prokhorkin, LW, 2010–12, 2012–15, 2014
Alexander Radulov, RW, 2012–16, 2013, 2014
Oleg Saprykin, LW, 2004–05, 2007–09, 2009
Sergei Shirokov, RW, 2004–09, 2011–13, 2012
Builders
Vyacheslav Bykov, assistant coach, 2004–09, 2009
Igor Zakharkin, assistant coach, 2008–09, 2009
Franchise scoring leaders
These are the top-ten-point-scorers in franchise history. Figures are updated after each completed Soviet/CIS/IHL/RUS 2/RSL/KHL regular season.
''Note: Pos = Position; GP = Games played; G = Goals; A = Assists; Pts = Points; P/G = Points per game
Awards and trophies
Soviet / Russian MVP
Scoring Champion
Goal Scoring Champion
Soviet / Russian League First Team
Best Line
Best Rookie
See also
References
External links
Ice hockey teams in Russia
Ice hockey clubs established in 1946
Kontinental Hockey League teams
1946 establishments in the Soviet Union
HC
Military ice hockey teams |
4431555 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PBC%20CSKA%20Moscow | PBC CSKA Moscow | PBC CSKA Moscow () is a Russian professional basketball team based in Moscow, Russia. The club is a member of the VTB United League, and was a member of the EuroLeague. On February 28, 2022, EuroLeague Basketball suspended all Russian teams because of the Russian invasion of Ukraine.
CSKA won two titles between 2006 and 2008, as well as between 2016 and 2019, in Europe's principal club competition, the EuroLeague, making the final in all seasons these years, and in total has advanced to the EuroLeague Final Four 18 times in the 21st century. CSKA is dominating in VTB United League, winning all but two title to date. With 8 EuroLeague championships, 1 NEBL championship, 51 home league championships, 7 home cups, 1 home Supercup and 10 VTB United League titles in total, CSKA is the most successful basketball team in Russia (former Soviet Union), and is also one of the most successful basketball teams in Europe.
In EuroLeague in 2006 CSKA won its first title in a long time, defeating Maccabi Tel Aviv 73–69 in the final in Prague. Next year the team lost in the 2007 final 93–91 to Panathinaikos on the Greens' home floor, the Nikos Galis Olympic Indoor Hall in Athens. In 2008, they won a rematch of the 2006 final against Maccabi Tel Aviv 91–77 in Madrid. In 2009, they lost a rematch of the 2007 final against Panathinaikos 73–71 in Berlin. The club competed in eight consecutive EuroLeague Final Fours from 2003 to 2010, which is an all-time record. Later the team beat its own record by making it to nine consecutive Final Fours from 2012 to 2021 (with 2020 Final Four cancelled due to COVID-19 situation). CSKA then won its seventh title in 2016, after beating Fenerbahçe in the final by a score of 101–96 in overtime. The last European title up-to-date was won in 2019, when CSKA defeated Anadolu Efes in the final in Vitoria-Gasteiz.
Well-known players who have played for the club over the years include: Sergei Belov, Gennadi Volnov, Viktor Zubkov, Yuri Korneev, Vladimir Andreev, Anatoly Myshkin, Stanislav Yeryomin, Ivan Edeshko, Armenak Alachachian, Alzhan Zharmukhamedov, Heino Enden, Jaak Lipso, Sergei Tarakanov, Rimas Kurtinaitis, Vladimir Tkachenko, Sergei Bazarevich, Sasha Volkov, Andrei Kirilenko, Trajan Langdon, Darius Songaila, Gordan Giriček, Dragan Tarlać, Marcus Brown, Matjaž Smodiš, Sergei Panov, Aleksey Savrasenko, Ramūnas Šiškauskas, Theo Papaloukas, Nenad Krstić, J. R. Holden, Sasha Kaun, Miloš Teodosić, Victor Khryapa, Nando de Colo, Kyle Hines, Cory Higgins, Sergio Rodriguez and Will Clyburn. Also, Alexander Gomelsky, the Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame basketball coach, worked in CSKA for more than 20 years. Nowadays, CSKA has the reputation for being one of the richest sports clubs in Europe, having been previously owned by Russian billionaire Mikhail Prokhorov, and being currently owned by Norilsk Nickel.
History
1923–1991
CSKA was founded on 29 April 1923, then known as OPPV, when on that day soldiers and sportsmen fought in football against each other for the first place of Moscow. "OPPV", which means Опытно-показательная военно-спортивная площадка всевобуча, a department in the General military education service, was the first central sports department of the Red Army. It was based on the pre-revolutionary "Community of Amateur Skiers".
The first success of the basketball department came at the 1924 Soviet League championship, which was played between cities, not clubs. Two more titles followed in 1928 and 1935. In 1938, the Soviet League championship was played between clubs, and CSKA under the name CDKA (Центральный дом Красной Армии, Central House of the Red Army) debuted there. Stalin's son, Vasily, then founded the club VVS MVO (Военно-Воздушные Силы Московского Военного Округа), with CDKA merging with it. By the end of the Great Patriotic War, CSKA established itself as one of the most respected Soviet basketball teams.
In 1953 and 1954, the club was renamed CDSA (Центральный дом Советской Армии, Central House of the Soviet Army), between 1955 and 1960, it was known as CSK MO, and finally in 1960, it received its current name CSKA (Центральный спортивный клуб Армии, Central Sports Club of the Army).
CSKA won the FIBA European Champions Cup (now called EuroLeague) title, in 1961, 1963, 1969, and 1971. They also won the Soviet League championship 24 times (1945, 1960–1962, 1964–1966, 1969–1974, 1976–1984, 1988, and 1990).
1992–2008
CSKA won the Russian League title every year from 1992 through 2000, and every year from 2003 to 2008. CSKA also made the 1996 EuroLeague Final Four. They also made the 2001 SuproLeague Final Four, the 2003 EuroLeague Final Four, the 2004 EuroLeague Final Four and the 2005 EuroLeague Final Four, before finally winning the EuroLeague championship at the 2006 EuroLeague Final Four.
In the 2004–05 season, CSKA eventually lost in the semifinals on their home court to Spanish League club TAU Cerámica, and to Panathinaikos, of the Greek League, in the third-place game. That sent them to the 2nd grade teams in the EuroLeague draw. That same year they also lost a game in the finals series of the Russian League, but they eventually got the Russian League crown.
In 2006, CSKA qualified for the 2004–05 EuroLeague Top 16, by finishing third in their group. They finished at the top of their Top 16 group, being denied a perfect record at Tau, in their final game. CSKA entered the 2006 EuroLeague Final Four on a roll, as the only club to sweep their best-of-three quarterfinal series, by defeating Turkish Super League power Efes Pilsen. They defeated Barça in the EuroLeague semis, before defeating the high-powered offense of Maccabi Tel Aviv, of the Israeli Basketball Super League, in the final, on April 30, even though the overall record of Maccabi's games with CSKA Moscow favored the Israeli club.
The following year, they faced Panathinaikos in the final, on the Greek team's home floor, OAKA Indoor Hall, which had been designated more than a year earlier as the site for that year's Final Four. Panathinaikos won. In 2008, their EuroLeague championship win at the 2008 EuroLeague Final Four, put them in sole possession of second place for overall top-tier level European-wide titles. On October 14, 2008, the team played an NBA preseason game against the Toronto Raptors, at Air Canada Centre, in Toronto.
2009–2021
CSKA won the Russian League title every year from 2009 through 2018, continuing to add to their streak of consecutive Russian League titles won every year since 2003 overall. Since the foundation of the VTB United League in 2008, CSKA has dominated the league, winning the title in 10 of its first 11 seasons (2010, 2012–2019, 2021), excluding the league's Promotional Cup in 2008.
EuroLeague success, however, continued to elude the team. From 2009, CSKA had played in the Final Four every single year except 2011. However, CSKA suffered multiple heartbreaks. CSKA struggled, in particular playing Olympiacos, who beat CSKA in the EuroLeague finals in 2012, and eliminated CSKA in 2013 and 2015. In 2014, CSKA lost a shocker to Maccabi Tel Aviv. CSKA won 3rd place in 2010, 2013 and 2015.
In the 2015–16 season, CSKA won its 7th EuroLeague championship. At the Berlin Final Four, CSKA Moscow defeated Fenerbahçe, by a score of 101–96, after overtime. The star player of CSKA was Nando de Colo, who was named both the season EuroLeague MVP, and the EuroLeague Final Four MVP. In 2016–2017, CSKA reached the Final Four again, but once again lost to Olympiacos in the semifinals. CSKA beat Real Madrid to win 3rd place.
In 2017-18 season CSKA finished with a 24–6 record. Qualifying to the Final Four, however, CSKA suffered a complete fiasco - losing to Real Madrid in the semifinals, and to BC Žalgiris in the 3rd place game. In the VTB United League, CSKA secured their 9th title after defeating Khimki 95:84 in the 2018 Final Four.
In the next season CSKA finished at the 2nd place of the regular season, securing its 17th Final Four appearance in the 21 century. In Vitoria-Gasteiz the club made a comeback during the semifinals against Real Madrid and beat Anadolu Efes in the final, achieving 8th title in club's history. CSKA also won the VTB United League, sweeping Khimki 3:0 in the finals.
There were changes in the 2019–20 season. Defending champion CSKA Moscow played steady until November, when they suffered four losses in a row, stepping down to the 6th position at worst. Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, CSKA and all other teams quit playing after the 28th round; there was no winner declared. At the time of the season's stopping, CSKA was behind Khimki in the VTB standings. The tournament was also stopped with no winner being announced.
In the 2020-2021 season, CSKA again lead in the EuroLeague standings for much of the season, before repeated conflicts by Itoudis, CSKA management, and Mike James resulted in James, team leader, leaving the team in March. While losing the first place in the standings to FC Barcelona, CSKA went all the way to the EuroLeague Final Four. CSKA, however, lost to Efes in the semifinals, and were beaten by EA7 Emporio Armani Milan in the third place game, thus finishing the season in disappointing 4th place. In the VTB United League, despite finishing the regular season in just 4th place, CSKA beat Nizhny Novgorod 2-1 in the quarterfinals, regular season winners Zenit Saint Petersburg 3-1 in the semifinals, and UNICS Kazan 3-0 in the finals to win the VTB United League once again.
2022–present
In early 2022, upon the outbreak of the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, Tornike Shengelia from Georgia (saying: "Everyone says it was a difficult or big decision, but it was not. First of all, I felt that my family was threatened, even though the war was not in Moscow. With war you never know what will occur, one second is enough for something to happen. The first thing I wanted to do was to send my family away and then I made the decision to depart too."), Johannes Voigtmann from Germany ("I can't reconcile myself playing for a Russian team.... The Russian president is responsible for a brutal war, because of which innocent people are dying in Ukraine. Millions of people have to flee their homes, and children, in particular, are losing their homes or even their lives. I just couldn't stay in Russia and carry on as if nothing had happened...."), Gabriel Lundberg from Denmark, Marius Grigonis from Lithuania, Italian-American Daniel Hackett, and Russian-American Joel Bolomboy all left the team. Canadian-Slovenian Kevin Pangos who signed with CSKA one day before the war started never joined the team. The team informed them all that the departure means violating of their contracts and reached the agreements on terminating the contracts with all but one player, Joel Bolomboy, who was given a letter of clearance by FIBA to sign for Olympiacos Piraeus when his CSKA contract expired in summer of 2022. CSKA informed about the intention to sue Bolomboy for breaching his CSKA agreement earlier.
On February 28, 2022, EuroLeague Basketball suspended the team because of Russia's invasion of Ukraine. On March 22, 2022, CSKA, UNICS Kazan, and Zenit St. Petersburg were disqualified from the EuroLeague. In October 2022, CSKA Moscow president Andrey Vatutin said: "Owners and sponsors are in crisis and are not interested in spending big money just to participate in the VTB league – therefore the budget is reduced. We have left the international scene, so CSKA’s role in world basketball is declining."
In the VTB United League, CSKA made the finals once again. Despite leading 3-1 in the finals, CSKA lost the last three games to Zenit St. Petersburg, who won the VTB title with a 4-3 series win - for the first time since 2010-2011, CSKA did not win the competition. Greek head coach Dimitrios Itoudis left the team in June 2022, immediately after losing the final game to Zenit, with one year remaining on his contract.
Home arenas
CSKA played all of its home games, both national domestic league games, and European league games, at the 5,500 seat Universal Sports Hall CSKA, from 1979 to 2015. They also played a home EuroLeague game at the 13,344 seat Megasport Arena, on January 23, 2008. Starting with the 2015–16 season, CSKA began regularly playing its home EuroLeague games at Megasport Arena, while still playing at CSKA Universal Sports Hall for VTB United League games. Kaliningrad's Yantarny Sports Palace was used as a substitute for their round of 16 and 17 home games during the 2019-20 EuroLeague season.
Players
Current roster
2023–24
Other players under contract
Out on loan
Depth chart
Honours
Domestic competitions
USSR Premier League (defunct)
Winners (24): 1944–45, 1959–60, 1960–61, 1961–62, 1963–64, 1964–65, 1965–66, 1968–69, 1969–70, 1970–71, 1971–72, 1972–73, 1973–74, 1975–76, 1976–77, 1977–78, 1978–79, 1979–80, 1980–81, 1981–82, 1982–83, 1983–84, 1987–88, 1989–90
Runners-up (11): 1945–46, 1950–51, 1952–53, 1953–54, 1954–55, 1956–57, 1957–58, 1974–75, 1984–85, 1985–86, 1986–87
Russian League
Winners (27): 1992, 1992–93, 1993–94, 1994–95, 1995–96, 1996–97, 1997–98, 1998–99, 1999–00, 2002–03, 2003–04, 2004–05, 2005–06, 2006–07, 2007–08, 2008–09, 2009–10, 2010–11, 2011–12, 2012–13, 2013–14, 2014–15, 2015–16, 2016–17, 2017–18, 2018–19, 2020–21
Runners-up (1): 2021–22
VTB United League
Winners (11): 2008, 2009–10, 2011–12, 2012–13, 2013–14, 2014–15, 2015–16, 2016–17, 2017–18, 2018–19, 2020–21
Runners-up (2): 2010–11, 2021–22
USSR Cup (defunct)
Winners (3): 1971–72, 1972–73, 1981–82
Russian Cup
Winners (4): 2004–05, 2005–06, 2006–07, 2009–10
Runners-up (3): 2002–03, 2003–04, 2007–08
VTB United League Supercup
Winners (1): 2021
Runners-up (1): 2022
European competitions
EuroLeague
Winners (8): 1960–61, 1962–63, 1968–69, 1970–71, 2005–06, 2007–08, 2015–16, 2018–19
Runners-up (6): 1964–65, 1969–70, 1972–73, 2006–07, 2008–09, 2011–12
Semifinalists (1): 1961–62
3rd place (8): 1965–66, 1976–77, 1995–96, 2003–04, 2009–10, 2012–13, 2014–15, 2016–17
4th place (8): 1982–83, 1984–85, 2000–01, 2002–03, 2004–05, 2013–14, 2017–18, 2020–21
Final Four (20): 1966, 1996, 2001, 2003, 2004, 2005, 2006, 2007, 2008, 2009, 2010, 2012, 2013, 2014, 2015, 2016, 2017, 2018, 2019, 2021
FIBA Saporta Cup (defunct)
Semifinalists (2): 1985–86, 1986–87
FIBA Korać Cup (defunct)
Semifinalists (1): 1989–90
European Super Cup (semi-official, defunct)
3rd place (1): 1988
Other competitions
FIBA International Christmas Tournament (friendly, defunct)
Winners (1): 1998
VTB United League Promo-Cup
Winners (1): 2008
Gomelsky Cup
Winners (10): 2010, 2011, 2012, 2013, 2014, 2015, 2016, 2018, 2019, 2020
Runners-up (2): 2009, 2017
Moscow tournament
Winners (1): 2006
Cologne tournament
Runners-up (1): 2006
Gloria Cup
Winners (2): 2014, 2019
Runners-up (1): 2018
Zadar Basketball Tournament
Runners-up (2): 2017, 2018
Vladimir Kondrashin and Alexander Belov Tournament
Winners (6): 2003, 2004, 2005, 2006, 2008, 2010
Runners-up (2): 2021, 2022
Nikos Galis Cup
Runners-up (1)'': 2014
Venice, Italy Invitational Game
Winners (1): 2008
Verona, Italy Invitational Game
Winners (1): 2008
Rossiiskie Zheleznye Dorogi Cup
Winners (1): 2011
Trofeo Città di Caserta
Winners (1): 2011
Moderna, Italy Invitational Game
Winners (1): 2012
Siena, Italy Invitational Game
Winners (1): 2013
Bologna, Italy Invitational Game
Winners (1): 2013
Patras, Greece Invitational Game
Winners (1): 2014
Moscow, Russia Invitational Game
Winners (5): 2015, 2017, 2018, 2019, 2020
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4431689 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proposed%20states%20and%20union%20territories%20of%20India | Proposed states and union territories of India | This is a list of proposed states and union territories in India. The constitutional power to create new states and union territories in India is solely reserved with the Parliament of India. It can do so by announcing new states/union territories, separating territory from an existing state or merging two or more states/union territories or parts of them. In addition to the existing 28 states and 8 union territories, several new states and union territories have been proposed.
The Indian constitution (under Part I: The Union and its territory) allows certain provisions for the creation of new states and union territories:
Name and territory of the union.
Admission or establishment of new states.
Formation of new States and alteration of areas, boundaries or names of other existing states.
Laws made under articles 2 and 3 to provide for the amendment of the First and the Fourth Schedules and supplemental, incidental and consequential matters.
However, at the same time, demanding separate statehood within under the administration of Indian union from an existing state can lead to criminal charges under secession law in India.
Between late 1956 and early 2014, members and leaders of various respected ethnic/linguistic organizations, in various separate statehood movements like - 1) Telangana movement in Andhra Pradesh, 2) Barak, Bodoland and Karbiland movements in Assam, 3) Punjabi Suba movement in East Punjab, 4) Gorkhaland movement in West Bengal, et cetera, have been arrested, detained and "encountered" by police under IPC section 124A by the order of Government of India for demanding and asking for a separate state from the existing one. For instance:
During 1953 Separate Andhra movement, It's main leader Shri Potti Sreeramulu, has sacrificed his life by fasting for 56 days for the cause of Separate Andhra state. Many people at that time were killed and thousands were injured by Central Government authorities for asking for a Separate Telugu-speaking state from Madras Presidency.
In 1961, during Bengali Language Movement in Barak Valley, 11 ethnic Bengalis were have been killed by Assam Police for protesting against the imposition of Assamese Language, for demanding separate Barak state and recognition of Bengali Language as official in the Valley.
During the Gorkhaland movement in the late 1986-88, around 1,200 people were killed/encountered by police and dozens were arrested.
Before 1963, Naga people of Undivided Assam's Naga hills were asking for a separate Nagaland state, resulting in clashes between Naga tribe and Indian Army, thus killing hundreds and injuring thousands.
In 1966, Indira Gandhi's government bombed Mizoram's capital Aizawl, killing thousands, because they were asking for a separate Mizo state.
The Punjabi Suba movement, which sought a separate Punjabi-speaking state, saw as many 200 deaths during 1955 Golden Temple raid and 57,129 arrests by police.
During the Bodoland Movement, around 5,000 people have been "encountered" by Assam police and 20,000 jailed since 1967.
During separate Karbiland demand in Assam, many people have been "encountered" and jailed for asking for a separate state.
History
Before independence, India was divided into British-administered provinces and nominally autonomous princely states, which were governed by the British administration. After the partition of India, some of these administrative divisions became part of the Dominion of Pakistan, whilst the remaining states and provinces formed the Dominion of India. The colonial system of administration continued until 1956 when the States Reorganisation Act abolished the provinces and princely states in favour of new states which were based on language and ethnicity.
Several new states and union territories have been created out of the existing states since 1956. The Bombay Reorganisation Act split the Bombay State into the present-day states of Gujarat and Maharashtra on 1 May 1960 on a linguistic basis. The state of Nagaland was created on 1 December 1963. The Punjab Reorganisation Act, 1966 carved out a new Hindi-speaking state of Haryana from the southern districts of Punjab state, transferred the northern districts to Himachal Pradesh and designated a union territory around Chandigarh, the shared capital of Punjab and Haryana.
Statehood was conferred upon Himachal Pradesh on 25 January 1971, and upon Manipur, Meghalaya and Tripura on 21 January 1972. The Kingdom of Sikkim joined the Indian Union as a state on 26 April 1975. In 1987, Arunachal Pradesh and Mizoram became states on 20 February, followed by Goa on 30 May of the same year. Goa's northern exclaves of Daman and Diu became a separate union territory.
Three new states were created in November 2000: Chhattisgarh (1 November) was created out of eastern Madhya Pradesh; Uttaranchal (9 November), which was later renamed Uttarakhand, was created out of the mountainous districts of northwest Uttar Pradesh; and Jharkhand (15 November) was created out of the southern districts of Bihar.
On 2 June 2014, Telangana was separated from Andhra Pradesh as the 29th state of the union. On 31 October 2019, the state of Jammu and Kashmir was split into two new Union Territories: Jammu and Kashmir and Ladakh. On 26 January 2020, the Union Territory of Daman and Diu and the Union Territory of Dadra and Nagar Haveli were merged into one Union Territory: the Union Territory of Dadra and Nagar Haveli and Daman and Diu.
India may have 50 states in the near future if all statehood demands are conceded.
Table of all proposed States
Andhra Pradesh
Rayalaseema
This proposed state would consist of eight districts, namely Kurnool, Nandyal, Anantapur, Sri Sathya Sai, Kadapa, Annamayya, Tirupati, and Chittoor. Rayalaseema Parirakshana Samithi is a political party formed by Byreddy Rajasekhar Reddy in 2013 advocating for a separate Rayalaseema state. There have also been demands to include the two coastal districts of Prakasam and Nellore district to form Greater Rayalaseema.
Assam
Ahomland
Upper Assam's various Tai-Ahom organizations like "Ahom Tai Mangoliya Rajya Parishad" (ATMRP), has been demanding separate Ahomland state since 1967, comprising erstwhile Un-divided Sivasagar and Lakhimpur districts respectively. On 2023, "TAI Ahom Yuba Parishad, Assam" (TAYPA) have organized a protest at Chachal and have demanded Separate Ahomland state.
Barak State
The native Bengali people of Assam have demanded a separate state for themselves within the Barak Valley, particularly the Bengali-majority districts of Cachar, Hailakandi, and Karimganj. Some definitions also include Dima Hasao and Hojai. Silchar would be the capital of the proposed state.
Bodoland
The agitation for the creation of a separate Bodoland state resulted in an agreement between the Indian Government, the Assam state government, and the Bodo Liberation Tigers Force. According to the agreement made on 10 February 2003, the Bodoland Territorial Council, an entity subordinate to the government of Assam, was created to govern four districts covering 3,082 Bodo Kachari-majority villages in Assam. Elections to the council were held on 13 May 2003, and Hagrama Mohilary was sworn in as the chief of the 46-member council on 4 June.
Dimaraji
The Dimasa people of northeast India have been demanding a separate state called Dimaraji or "Dimaland" for several decades. It would comprise the Dimasa-Kachari inhabited areas in Assam, namely the Dima Hasao district, Cachar district, Karimganj district, Hailakandi district, Karbi Anglong district, and parts of Hojai district, together with part of the Dimapur district in Nagaland.
Karbiland
Karbi Anglong is one of the 35 districts of Assam. Several memoranda for a Karbi homeland have been submitted at multiple times by several organisations over the years. The demand for a separate state turned violent on 31 July 2013 when student demonstrators set government buildings on fire.
Bihar
At least three states have been proposed to be carved out of Bihar.
Bhojpur
There have been demands for a Bhojpur state, comprising the Bhojpuri-speaking districts of western Bihar and eastern Uttar Pradesh.
Magadha Rajya
There have been demands for a Magadha Rajya, comprising the Magahi-speaking districts of southern Bihar and a blend of Magahi known as Khortha is spoken by non-tribal populace in North Chotanagpur division of northern Jharkhand. Patna could be the new capital of proposed state.
Mithila
Mithila is a proposed state which would cover the Maithili-speaking regions of Bihar and Jharkhand. There is no consensus on the capital, although Begusarai, Darbhanga, Muzaffarpur, and Purnia have all been suggested as candidate cities.
Chhattisgarh
Gondi State
Gondi, a prominent language spoken in southern Chhattisgarh, India, holds profound cultural and historical significance among the Gondi people. The creation of the new state may have a potential impact on reducing the Naxalite-Maoist insurgency, as it could address some of the underlying grievances and socioeconomic challenges contributing to the conflict.
Threats to Gondi Language and Culture
Despite its significance, Gondi faces numerous challenges that threaten its survival:
a. Language Shift: The younger generation of Gondi speakers is increasingly shifting to dominant regional languages, such as Hindi, due to better economic opportunities and limited resources for Gondi language education.
b. Lack of Government Support: Historically, Gondi has received limited recognition and support from government institutions. The absence of official status hampers efforts to promote and preserve the language.
c. Displacement and Modernization: Rapid urbanization and displacement of Gondi communities disrupt the traditional ways of life that fostered the language. Modernization often alienates younger Gondi speakers from their linguistic and cultural roots.
The Proposal for a Gondi State
To counteract these threats and ensure the survival of the Gondi language and culture, there is a growing movement among Gondi leaders and activists to propose the establishment of a separate Gondi state within the Indian federal system. This proposal seeks to achieve several key objectives:
a. Official Recognition: A Gondi state would provide official recognition to the language and its cultural significance. This would facilitate the development of educational materials, preservation initiatives, and government support for Gondi.
b. Cultural Preservation: With its own state, Gondi communities would have greater autonomy in preserving their cultural practices, traditions, and heritage. This would enable the revitalization of Gondi language and cultural identity.
c. Socioeconomic Development: A Gondi state could focus on socio-economic development programs tailored to the needs of Gondi-speaking communities. This would create opportunities for locals and reduce the incentive for migration to urban areas.
d. Linguistic Revival: The creation of a Gondi state would encourage language revival initiatives, including language immersion schools, cultural festivals, and media outlets, all contributing to the language's long-term sustainability.
Delhi
The political administration of Delhi more closely resembles that of a state than a union territory, with its own legislature, high court, and an executive council of ministers headed by a Chief Minister. New Delhi is jointly administered by the union government and the local government of Delhi. The previous National Democratic Alliance government introduced a bill in Parliament in 2003, to grant full statehood to Delhi, however the legislation was not passed.
Gujarat
Bhil Pradesh
The establishment of Bhil Pradesh has been a demand for over 30 years. The Daily News and Analysis reported in 2013 that the formation of the Telangana state has reignited hopes of statehood to this region, comprising the tribal-dominated parts of Gujarat and neighbouring states Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, and Maharashtra.
In 2023, Aam Aadmi Party (AAP) MLA leader Chaitar Vasava raised demand for separate state of Bhil Pradesh.
Kutch
Kutch State or Cutch State, covering the Kutch district of Gujarat, the Great Rann of Kutch, and the Little Rann of Kutch, is an aspirant, both as an independent state and as part of a combined Saurashtra, also known as Kathiawar. Both Saurashtra State and Kutch State existed as separate states from 1947 to 1956. They were Part-B and Part-C states of India respectively. They were merged with Bombay state following the States Re-organisation Act, and became part of Gujarat after the bifurcation of Bombay state on 1 May 1960 following the Mahagujarat Movement. Some people demand a return of statehood to Saurashtra and Kutch, citing slow development of the regions. Apart from these two separate statehood demands, there is a demand for a separate Bhilistan state.
At the time of the integration of the princely state of Kutch with India in 1947, the accession was done on the condition that Kutch would retain the status of a separate state. It enjoyed this status until 1960, when a separate state of Gujarat was carved out of Maharashtra and Kutch was merged with it. The main reason behind a separate state is cultural and geographical distance from Gandhinagar. In 1960, Kutch was promised an autonomous development board under Article 371(2) of the Constitution, which never came into existence due to lack of political will.
Saurashtra
The movement for a separate Saurashtra state was initiated in 1972 by advocate Ratilal Tanna, who was a close aide of former Prime Minister Morarji Desai. As per the Saurashtra Sankalan Samiti, more than 300 organisations across the Saurashtra region support the demand of the separate State. The Samiti also claims that compared to other parts of Gujarat, Saurashtra is underdeveloped. Lack of better water supply to the region, lack of job opportunities, and subsequent youth migration have been cited as major reasons for the demand of statehood. Saurashtra is linguistically different from the rest of the state due to the prevalence of its Saurashtra dialect.
Jammu and Kashmir
Jammu state and Kashmir state
Ethnic Kashmiri leaders, including writer and opinion leader Ghulam Nabi Khayal, have called for the division of Jammu and Kashmir into separate states as a possible solution to the Kashmir conflict. The proposed state of Kashmir comprises the Kashmir Division, and the proposed state of Jammu comprises the Jammu Division. Demographically, the Jammu region is very different from the Kashmir valley. It is primarily inhabited by Dogras, Gujjars, and Sikhs who speak the Dogri, Gojri, Punjabi languages.
In late 2020, IkkJutt Jammu was launched as a party and demanded that the Jammu Division should be separated and given statehood. The party also supports splitting Kashmir Division into two union territories, with one for Kashmiri Hindus.
Panun Kashmir
Panun Kashmir is a proposed union territory in the Kashmir Valley on religious lines which is advocated by the Kashmiri Pandit Network as a homeland for Kashmiri Hindus who have fled the Kashmir valley as a result of ongoing separatist movement and hope to return.
Karnataka
Karu Nadu or North Karnataka
North Karnataka is a geographical region consisting of mostly semi-arid plateau from elevation that constitutes the northern part of the Karnataka state in India. It is drained by the Krishna River and its tributaries, the Bhima, Ghataprabha, Malaprabha, and Tungabhadra. North Karnataka lies within the Deccan thorn scrub forests ecoregion, which extends north into eastern Maharashtra.
The proposed state of North Karnataka includes the districts of Bagalkot, Belagavi, Bellary, Bidar, Dharwad, Gadag, Haveri, Kalaburagi, Koppal, Raichur, Vijayanagar, Vijayapura, and Yadgir.
There is a notable difference from the regions of Old Mysore, Coastal Karnataka, and Central Karnataka in terms of language, cuisine and culture. The region is well known for its contributions to the literature, arts, architecture, economy and politics of Karnataka.
Kodagu
Kodagu is a district of Karnataka that is predominantly inhabited by Kodava people. The Codava National Council (CNC) wishes for it to be an "autonomous region".
Konkan
Konkan is a rugged section of the western coastline of India. It consists of the coastal districts of Maharashtra, Goa, and Karnataka. The ancient sapta-Konkan is a slightly larger region described in the Sahyadrikhanda, which refers to it as "Parashuramakshetra". The proposed Konkan state includes the districts of Ratnagiri and Sindhudurg from Maharashtra, the state of Goa, and Karwar up to Aghanashini in Karnataka.
Tulu Nadu
Tulu Nadu is a border region between the states of Karnataka and Kerala in southern India. The demand for a separate state is based on a distinct culture and language (Tulu, which does not have official status), and neglect of the region by the two state governments. To counter these complaints and accusations, the Karnataka and Kerala state governments created the Tulu Sahitya Academy to preserve and promote Tuluva culture. The proposed state would comprise the districts of Dakshina Kannada and Udupi from Karnataka, and the Kasaragod district from Kerala.
Bellary
As of September 2023 some of the Telugu people of Bellary City who are proper residents of the city have raised a issue that Bellary City should be a Union Territory and Telugu should also be the official language and have the equal status with Kannada in the City of Bellary, because they were verbally discriminated by some of the kannada people with regard to their language stating that their mother tongue is Telugu and it is the official language of Andhra Pradesh and they should not speak in Telugu in Bellary and speak only in Kannada or else they should go out of Bellary to Andhra Pradesh, from the time when Veteran Telugu actor and politician N.T. Rama Rao's statue was built at Kamma Bhavan of Bellary and was inagurated by Nara Chandrababu Naidu. But the issue raised by Telugus have not gained any popularity.
Ladakh
After Revocation of the special status of Jammu and Kashmir, Ladakh was made Union Territory without legislature like Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
Thereafter several demands has been raised from both Kargil and Leh district for statehood for Ladakh Union Territory.
Kargil Democratic Alliance and Leh Apex Body demanded statehood and rallied across areas of Leh and Kargil and also held rallies in Jammu and Delhi They threatened Central Government to intensify their protests before Ladakh local bodies elections and Next Lok Sabha Election.
Sonam Wangchuk a reformer from Ladakh demanded statehood and stood on 5 day hunger strike.
Madhya Pradesh
Madhya Pradesh is the second largest Indian state by area, holding nearly 9.37% of the country's land area and approximately 6.03% of its population. The regions of Madhya Pradesh are very ethno-linguistically diverse and often hold no connection to each other. Naturally, this has led to several proposals to divide the state into smaller states, each with homogeneous populations.
Baghelkhand, Bundelkhand and Vindhya Pradesh
Vindhya Pradesh was a former state of India. It occupied an area of 23,603 sq. miles. It was created in 1948, shortly after the independence of India, from the territories of the princely states in the eastern portion of the former Central India Agency. It was named after the Vindhya Range, which runs straight through the center of the province. The capital of the state was originally Singrauli, then Rewa. It lay between Uttar Pradesh to the north and Madhya Pradesh to the south, and the enclave of Datia, which lay a short distance to the west, was surrounded by the state of Madhya Bharat.
Vindhya Pradesh was merged into Madhya Pradesh in 1956, following the States Reorganisation Act. In 2000, Sriniwas Tiwari, ex-speaker of the Madhya Pradesh assembly, called for nine districts to be separated from Madhya Pradesh to create a new state of Vindhya Pradesh, although this was rejected by the Chief Minister of Madhya Pradesh. Separate states of Bundelkhand and Baghelkhand, instead of a single Vindhya Pradesh state, is advocated as well to accommodate for the districts claimed by these regions from the neighboring state of Uttar Pradesh.
Recently, the demand for a Bundelkhand state has been gaining popularity. Former Chief Minister of Madhya Pradesh Uma Bharti has assured people of the region to raise voice for a separate Bundelkhand state. Former Chief Minister of Uttar Pradesh Mayawati has also expressed her support for the establishment of the Bundelkhand state. The Bundelkhand state would consist of more than 16 districts, including Jhansi, Lalitpur, Urai, Jalon, Banda, Chitrakoot, Hamirpur, Mauranipur, Mahoba in Uttar Pradesh and Sagar, Damoh, Panna, Chhatarpur, Tikamgarh, Shivpuri, Datia, and some parts of Gwalior in Madhya Pradesh. More recently, a voice for the Bundelkhand state has been raised by Bundelkhand Mukti Morcha, a political party headed by Raja Bundela of Lalitpur.
Mahakoshal and Gondwana
Mahakoshal is a region which lies in the upper or eastern reaches of the Narmada River valley in the Indian state of Madhya Pradesh. The region includes the districts of Jabalpur, Chhindwara, Katni, Narsinghpur, Mandla, Dindori, and Seoni. The largest city and a possible capital is Jabalpur. Organisations such as Mahakaushal Mukti Morcha and Bharatiya Janashakti have demanded separate statehood for the region.
It is alleged that although the Mahakoshal region is rich in minerals, forests, water and land resources, related industries were set up in nearby states. The region has a distinct cultural identity owing to Jabalpur city, known as the Sanskardhani (cultural capital) of the State, one of the oldest towns of central India. Culturally and socially, the Mahakoshal region differs greatly from the neighbouring Vindhya Pradesh. One of the key reasons for this is said to be that large parts of Mahakoshal were under direct British rule from the nineteenth century onwards, turning it into a relatively progressive, modern and liberal area and infusing democratic values into its body politic. Casteism and feudalism are said to be not as deeply rooted in this region as they are in Vindhya Pradesh.
A parallel demand for a state of Gondwana from the same Mahakoshal region of Madhya Pradesh has arisen, owing to the fact that vast areas of Mahakoshal were ruled by Gondi kings and even today, Mandla, Chinndwara, Dindori, Seoni, and Balaghat have a predominantly Gondi tribal population. Tribes constitute 64% of the total population of the Dindori district and 57% of the Mandla district. The Gondwana Gantantra party (GGP) was established in 1991, with the objective to struggle for the creation of a separate Gondwana State comprising regions that were ruled by Gondis. The Gondwana Gantantra party (GGP) has since divided into numerous factions, such as the Rashtriya Gondwana party and Gondwana Mukti Dal.
Malwa
There have been demands for a separate Malwa state with the probable capital at Indore. The region includes the Madhya Pradesh districts of Agar Malwa, Dewas, Dhar, Indore, Jhabua, Mandsaur, Neemuch, Rajgarh, Ratlam, Shajapur, Ujjain, and parts of Guna and Sehore, and the Rajasthan districts of Jhalawar and parts of Banswara and Pratapgarh.
The main language of Malwa is Malvi, although Hindi is widely spoken in the cities. The language is sometimes referred to as Malavi or Ujjaini. Malvi is part of the Rajasthani branch of languages; Nimadi is spoken in the Nimar region of Madhya Pradesh and in Rajasthan. The dialects of Malvi are, in alphabetical order, Bachadi, Bhoyari, Dholewari, Hoshangabadi, Jamral, Katiyai, Malvi Proper, Patvi, Rangari, Rangri and Sondwari. A survey in 2001 found only four dialects: Ujjaini (in the districts of Ujjain, Indore, Dewas and Sehore), Rajawari (Ratlam, Mandsaur and Neemuch), Umadwari (Rajgarh) and Sondhwari (Jhalawar, in Rajasthan). About 55% of the population of Malwa can converse in and about 40% of the population is literate in Hindi, the official language of the Madhya Pradesh state.
Rewakhand
An initiative has been started by MP High Court Bar council with a demand of a new state of "Rewakhand" from the eastern half of the state combining all the regions of Vindhya Pradesh, Bundelkhand, Baghelkhand and Mahakoshal.
Maharashtra
Konkan
The Konkan region is a section of land along the north-western coast of India and the north Western Ghats. Konkan lies in between the Deccan plateau and the Arabian Sea. It consists of the westernmost districts of Daman, Maharashtra, and Goa. The ancient sapta-Konkan is a slightly larger region described in the Sahyadrikhanda, which refers to it as "Parashuramakshetra". The proposed Konkan state includes the historically Konkani-speaking districts of the Konkan division, the former untion territory of Goa, Daman and Diu, and a portion of the Carwar district.
Marathwada
Marathwada is one of the five divisions of Maharashtra. The region coincides with the Aurangabad Division of Maharashtra. Marathwada came under the rule of the Nizam of Hyderabad, which later became the princely state of Hyderabad, under the suzerainty of British India. Subsequently, through Operation Polo, a "police action" on 17 September 1948, the Indian army annexed Hyderabad to India and on 1 November 1956, Marathwada was formed by merging Hyderabad State and Bombay State. On 1 May 1960, Bombay State was divided into the states of Maharashtra and Gujarat, with Marathwada becoming a part of the former. There have been demands for a separate Marathwaada state.
Vidarbha
Vidarbha is a region that comprises the Amravati and Nagpur divisions of eastern Maharashtra. The State Reorganisation Act of 1956 placed Vidarbha in Bombay State. Shortly after this, the States Reorganisation Commission recommended the creation of Vidarbha state with Nagpur as the capital, but instead it was included in Maharashtra state, which was formed on 1 May 1960. Support for a separate Vidarbha state had been expressed by Loknayak Bapuji Aney and Brajlal Biyani. The demands for the creation of a separate state are based on allegations of neglect by the Maharashtra state government. Jambuwantrao Dhote led a popular struggle for Vidarbha statehood in the 1970s. Two politicians, N. K. P. Salve and Vasant Sathe, have led attempts to bring about statehood in recent times.
The BJP supported the Vidarbha statehood demand and it won 44 out of the 62 seats in Vidarbha region in the 2014 Maharashtra Legislative assembly election, receiving a majority in the Maharashtra Legislative assembly. However, BJP did not create a separate state after winning the election. In the following 2019 legislative assembly election, BJP was defeated, only winning 29 seats.
Manipur
Kukiland
Kukiland a proposed separate state for the Kuki people. The demand for a separate state or union territory began in the 1980s. After the 2023 Manipur violence the demand resurfaced. Kuki-Zomi people protested against the Meitei people. Ruling BJP government in the state rejected the demand. However, ten MLAs from the ruling party as well as from the opposition demanded Kukiland saying that Kuki people will not survive in Meitei-majority Manipur. The Kuki State Demand Committee an extremist group which supports a separate homeland for the Kuki-Zomi people in the state of Manipur and is also supported by the Kuki National Army. KSDC covers almost 60% of the area of Manipur, including Southern Manipur and surrounding areas of Sadar hills, Imphal.
Meghalaya
Garoland
Garo Hills Autonomous District Council (GHADC) is seated at Tura and is one of the three Autonomous District Councils within Meghalaya state, and one of fourteen autonomous regions of India. The region of Garoland covers the districts of East Garo Hills, West Garo Hills, South Garo Hills, North Garo Hills, and Southwest Garo Hills.
The Garo National Council is a political party in Meghalaya in northeastern India. Founded by Clifford R. Marak, the party fights for the creation of a Garo-majority state, to be carved from the districts of West Garo Hills, East Garo Hills, and South Garo Hills. The Garoland demand of GNC is different from that of the separatist guerrilla Achik National Volunteer Council, who also demands that parts of Assam ought to be part of Garoland.
GNC won one seat in the Garo Hills Autonomous District Council elections in 2002.
In the 2003 Meghalaya state assembly elections, GNC had put up seven candidates, who together received 8,483 votes.
Clifford Marak, the only GNC MLA in the state legislature, died on 1 March 2015 of liver and kidney disease.
Khasi-Jaintia Hills (Khasiland) state
HSPDP a regional political party which is also part of Conrad Sangma led MDA has demanded to bifurcate state into two states, Garo hills as Garoland and Khasi-Jaintia Hills as Khasiland. However the other ally of MDA, UDP has not supported the demand by saying that the bifurcation of state would create problems. The "Hill State People's Democratic Party" (HSPDP), the oldest regional political party of Meghalaya, for about 50 years has been demanding a separate Khasi-Jaintia state to be carved out from Meghalaya, by citing Article 371 of the Indian Constitution.
Mizoram
Chakmaland
Chakmaland is a proposed union territory for the predominantly Buddhist Chakma people in western Mizoram, which came under Indian territory from the Chittagong Hill Tracts after the Partition of India. Chakmas have been demanding to convert the existing Chakma Autonomous District Council and areas of Tlabung in Mizoram into a union territory. The Chakma people have faced discrimination by the predominantly Christian Mizo people.
Nagaland
Frontier Nagaland
An organisation named Eastern Nagaland People's Organization(ENPO) has called separate state for frontier districts (Longleng, Mon, Tuensang, Noklak, Shamtor and Kiphire) ahead of 2023 Nagaland Legislative Assembly election. They also called for boycott of upcoming state election. These region comprises 20 state assembly seats.
These region of Nagaland is inhibited by tribes of Konyak, Khiamniungan, Chang, Sangtam, Tikhir, Phom and Yimkhiung.
During British era, this region was under Tuensang Frontier earlier was part of North-East Frontier Agency(Later to Assam state until 1957).
Odisha
Kosal
The Kosal state movement is an effort by people of the Western Odisha region to secede from the state of Odisha.[when?] [citation needed] Organizations like Western Odisha Yuva Manch (WOYM), Kosal Youth Coordination Committee (KYCC), Kosal State Coordination Committee (KSCC), KOSHAL SENA are mainly leading this.
The demand for secession from the state of Odisha arose mostly because of the prolonged underdevelopment and backwardness of this region. Pro-separatist groups have repeatedly claimed the state government is not doing enough for the development of undeveloped districts of western Odisha.
To develop the western Odisha region, the state government has established a Western Odisha Development Council (WODC). A significant budget is allotted to this council from the total budget of Odisha. However, the WODC headquarters is located in the state capital Bhubaneswar rather than in Western Odisha.
Punjab
Greater Punjab
There have been continuous demand raised by Punjab mainstream Akali Dal politicians to Central Government of India to merge the neighbouring Punjabi-speaking areas of Himachal Pradesh (most particularly Una, Kangra, Solan), Haryana's (Ambala, Kurukshetra, Karnal, Sirsa, Fatehabad), and Chandigarh city to current Punjab, India. Akali Dal leaders have further demanded the neighbouring Punjabi-speaking areas of Rajasthan as well (most particularly the Hanumangarh and Sri Ganganagar districts).
Rajasthan
Maru Pradesh
Maru Pradesh
(मरुप्रदेश) is a proposed desert state in North West India, to be carved out from the state of Rajasthan. The proposed state consists of the Barmer district, Jaisalmer district, Bikaner district, Churu district, Ganganagar district, Hanumangarh district, Jhunjhunu district, Jodhpur district, Nagaur district, Pali district, Jalore district, Sirohi district, and Sikar district.
When the then Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee created three new states in the year 2000, Bhairon Singh Shekhawat wrote a letter saying that for the development of the state of Rajasthan and the internal security of the country, two parts of the state were go done.
Tamil Nadu
Kongu Nadu
There have been demands for the formation of a Kongu Nadu state by bifurcating Tamil Nadu. In 2021 the Bharatiya Janata Party's (BJP) Coimbatore North district demanded separate statehood to Kongu Nadu. Kongunadu Munnetra Kazhagam party has supported the statehood demand. The DMK has opposed the move. Though it haven't got any momentum from general public of Kongu nadu region
Tripura
Tipraland
Tipraland is the name of a proposed state in India. The formation of "Tipraland", a state within the TTAADC, under articles 2 and 3 of the Indian Constitution, is demanded by the Indigenous People's Front of Tripura (IPFT) as part of their political agenda. Another registered regional political party, Tipraland State Party (TSP) also demanded statehood for Tipraland.
The Kingdom of Tripura was a kingdom ruled by the Manikya Dynasty. Its first king was Maha Manikya, who ruled the kingdom in the early 15th century. The earlier kings are partly mythological and partly legendary or semi-legendary. The penultimate king was Maharaja Bir Bikram Kishore Debbarman Manikya Bahadur. After his death in 1947, the princely state of Tripura joined India as a Part C State on 15 October 1949 under the name Tripura, and later achieved statehood on 21 January 1972.
Historically, the rulers of Tripura's Manikya dynasty had always encouraged the immigration of and settlement of non-tribals to Tripura, especially Bengalis. Rajmala authenticates the fact that Ratna Manikya (1464-1468) was the first to "settle 4,000 Bengalis in four places" in Tripura. During the Noakhali riots in 1946, many Bengali Hindu survivors were sheltered in temporary relief camps in Comilla, Chandpur, Agartala (the present capital of Tripura), and other places. A large migration of Bengali Hindus and Muslims took place in Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura, and other places during the Bangladesh Liberation War in 1971. The indigenous Tipra people demanded an autonomous district, which they finally achieved on 23 March 1979 in the form of the Tripura Tribal Areas Autonomous District Council (TTAADC).
Uttar Pradesh
At least four states have been proposed to be carved out of Uttar Pradesh.
Awadh Pradesh
The population of a proposed Awadh state, consisting of Awadhi-speaking districts of central Uttar Pradesh, would be approximately 50 million people with an area of approximately 75,000 km2 and Lucknow as the capital.
Braj Pradesh and Harit Pradesh/Pashchim Pradesh
Harit Pradesh is a proposed state with Meerut as proposed capital. Even B.R. Ambedkar proposed Uttar Pradesh to be split in 3 separate states, with Meerut as capital for western Uttar Pradesh. Ambedkar proposes that the state of U.P. must be divided into three states, with each region having the centrally located Meerut, Cawnpore (now Kanpur), and Allahabad in these regions as their respective capitals. The states would thereby have an estimated population of 2 crores each, facilitating smoother administration.
Harit Pradesh would comprise 22 districts of Western Uttar Pradesh, currently forming six divisions – Agra, Aligarh, Bareilly, Meerut, Moradabad, Saharanpur and some parts of the Kanpur Division, (Farrukhabad, Etawah and Auraiya districts). The most prominent advocate for the creation of the new state is Ajit Singh, the leader of the Rashtriya Lok Dal party and B.R Ambedkar. Mayawati also supported the formation of Harit Pradesh in December 2009, even Union Minister Sanjeev Balyan agreed with the new state and Sh. Jairam Ramesh of congress.
There is another demand within the same region – Braj Pradesh, consisting of the Agra division, Aligarh division and some districts of the Kanpur division (Farrukhabad, Etawah and Auraiya) from Uttar Pradesh, and the districts of Bharatpur, Dholpur and Gwalior from Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh. So far, Braj has remained as a historical and cultural region, rather than a political entity. The language of Braj is Braj Bhasha.
Bundelkhand
Bundelkhand comprises parts of Uttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh. In 2011, the Bahujan Samaj Party government under Chief Minister Mayawati proposed the creation of Bundelkhand from seven districts of Uttar Pradesh, with Allahabad as the capital. Organisations such as Bundelkhand Mukti Morcha (BMM) also demanded its formulation, along with the inclusion of six other districts from Madhya Pradesh as well. Uma Bharati of the Bharatiya Janata Party promised a separate state of Bundelkhand within three years if her party was voted to power, during campaigning for the 2014 Loksabha Elections at Jhansi. A similar promise was made by Congress leader Pradeep Jain Aditya during these elections.
Since the early 1960s, there has been a movement for establishing a Bundelkhand state for promoting the development of the region. Bundelkhand is geographically in the central part of India, covering part of Madhya Pradesh and part of Uttar Pradesh. Despite being rich in minerals, the people of Bundelkhand are poor and the region is underdeveloped and underrepresented in state and central politics. Agrarian crisis and farmer's suicides are also cited as the reason for separate statehood.
Purvanchal
Purvanchal is a geographic region of north-central India, which comprises the eastern end of Uttar Pradesh state. It is bounded by Nepal to the north, Bihar state to the east, Baghelkhand region of Madhya Pradesh state to the south, the Awadh region of Uttar Pradesh to the west. Purvanchal comprises three divisions – Awadhi region in the west, Bhojpuri region in the east, and the Baghelkhand region in the south. The most commonly spoken language in Purvanchal is Bhojpuri. The area is represented by 23 Members of Parliament to the lower house of Indian Parliament, and 117 legislators in the 403 member Uttar Pradesh state assembly or Vidhan Sabha. The region includes the districts of Azamgarh, Ballia, Basti, Chandauli, Deoria, Ghazipur, Gorakhpur, Jaunpur, Kushinagar, Maharajganj, Mau, Mirzapur, Sant Kabir Nagar, Sant Ravidas Nagar, Siddharth Nagar, and Varanasi.
As a fallout of the movement for Telangana, then state chief minister Mayawati, proposed on 13 December 2009, to carve out a separate state of Purvanchal out of Uttar Pradesh, with Gorakhpur or Varanasi as its capital.
West Bengal
Gorkhaland
Gorkhaland is a proposed state covering areas inhabited by the ethnic Indian Gorkha people, namely the Darjeeling hills and the Dooars in the northern part of West Bengal. Nepali is spoken by 40% of the population of the Darjeeling district and 51% of the population of the Kalimpong district. The movement for Gorkhaland has gained momentum in the line of ethno-linguistic-cultural sentiment of the people who desire to identify themselves as Gorkha.
The demand for a separate administrative region has existed since 1907, when the Hillmen's Association of Darjeeling submitted a memorandum to the Morley-Minto reforms committee. After Indian independence, the Akhil Bharatiya Gorkha League (ABGL) was the first political party from the region to demand greater identity for the Gorkha ethnic group and economic freedom for the community. In 1980, the Pranta Parishad of Darjeeling wrote to the then Prime Minister of India, Indira Gandhi, with the need to form a state for the Gorkhas.
The movement for a separate state of Gorkhaland gained serious momentum during the 1980s, when a violent agitation was carried out by the Gorkha National Liberation Front (GNLF) led by Subhash Ghising. The agitation ultimately led to the establishment of a semiautonomous body in 1988 called the Darjeeling Gorkha Hill Council (DGHC) to govern certain areas of the Darjeeling district. However, in 2008, a new party called the Gorkha Janmukti Morcha (GJM) raised the demand for a separate state of Gorkhaland once again. In 2011, the GJM signed an agreement with the state and central governments for the formation of the Gorkhaland Territorial Administration, a semiautonomous body that replaced the DGHC in the Darjeeling hills. On 28 March 2022, Gorkha Janmukti Morcha permanently dropped its Gorkhaland statehood demand, instead seeking political solution within West Bengal.
Junglemahal State
In 2021, Saumitra Khan, Lok Sabha BJP MP advocated for the creation of a Junglemahal state by carving out Junglemahal area from West Bengal. He claimed that the Junglemahal area is underdeveloped and the demands of employment and development for locals could only be met if it gets statehood. The proposed Junglemahal state consists of Purulia, Jhargram, Bankura, parts of Birbhum, Purbo Medinipur, and Paschim Medinipur, along with some other areas. Currently 15 of the 40 MLAs from the Bankura, Purulia, West Midnapore and Jhargram are from BJP.
However, the West Bengal state BJP unit distanced itself from the demand and officially commented that they are against division. Following the Junglemahal statehood demand, a Trinamool congress leader filed Complaint against Saumitra Khan for demanding separate statehood.
Kamtapur
Kamtapur lies in the northern parts of West Bengal. The proposed state consists of the districts of Cooch Behar, Goalpara, Dhubri, South Salmara, Bongaigaon, Kamrup, and the southern plains of the Darjeeling district, including Siliguri city as well as Jalpaiguri.
North Bengal
In 2021, BJP MP John Barla demanded carving out a state or union territory comprising North Bengal districts out of the West Bengal state. The demand was supported by BJP MP Jayanta Roy, MLA Aanandamay Barman and MLA Sikha Chatterjee. The proposed Union Territory will comprise eight districts of North Bengal: Darjeeling, Kalimpong, Jalpaiguri, Alipurduar, Cooch Behar, Malda, Uttar Dinajpur, and Dakshin Dinajpur. Currently, 30 out of the 54 MLAs in the North Bengal are from the BJP.
The West Bengal state BJP unit distanced itself from the union territory/statehood demand. The West Bengal Congress president Adhir Ranjan Chowdhury said that this is a plot to carve out Muslim-dominated regions in the state and added that RSS is behind this move. A Trinamool congress leader filed a complaint against John Barla for demanding a separate state. However, North Bengal's different native linguistic ethnic groups like Bengalis, Gorkhalis, Adivasis, and Koch Rajbongshis have rejected the separate statehood demand and are against the division of West Bengal. A report was published where it has been found that most people in Cooch Behar are against the separation of North Bengal.
See also
Autonomous administrative divisions of India
Indian reunification
Greater India
Kashmir#Current status and political divisions
References
External links
India likely to have 50 states if all demands of new states conceded
India politics-related lists
Lists of proposals |
4431866 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mel%20Charles | Mel Charles | Melvyn Charles (14 May 1935 – 24 September 2016) was a Welsh international footballer. Charles played as both a centre-half and centre-forward, with his preferred position being at right-half.
After a short stint on the Leeds United ground staff, he turned professional with his local club, Swansea Town, in 1952. He spent seven years in the Second Division with the club, before he won a £42,750 move to First Division Arsenal in March 1959. His three seasons at the club were plagued by injury, and in February 1962 he was sold on to Cardiff City for a £28,500 fee. He spent three years with Cardiff, winning the Welsh Cup in 1964, his only domestic honour, before he joined Porthmadog in the Welsh League in 1965. He spent a brief period in the Fourth Division with Port Vale in the 1966–67 season, before he returned to Welsh football with Oswestry Town. He joined Haverfordwest in 1967, where he spent five years before he retired from the game. He scored a total of 122 goals in 401 league and cup games in the Football League.
He captained Wales at international level whom he represented at the 1958 FIFA World Cup. Charles also went his whole career without being booked or sent off. He also competed in eight British Home Championships, and became only the third Welshman to score four goals in a game when he scored all the goals in a 4–0 win over Northern Ireland. In total he earned 31 senior caps, in addition to one under-23 cap, and he scored six full international goals.
Club career
Swansea City
Growing up in a poor family in the Cwmbwrla district of Swansea alongside elder brother John and three other siblings, John and Mel Charles seemed destined to begin their careers at local club Swansea Town. However manager Billy McCandless was unwilling to test youngsters in the unforgiving waters of the Third Division South, so the boys were not signed up to the club. This proved costly to Swansea, and the result was that John signed with Leeds United, and fourteen-year-old Mel also followed him to Elland Road to become one of the ground staff. Despite fitting in well at the club, he was unable to settle in Leeds; due to his poor background he was unable to afford trips back to Wales to visit his family and he was also illiterate so could not write home. After a young apprentice, also from Swansea, failed to impress at Leeds, manager Major Frank Buckley asked Charles to accompany him on the trip back to his hometown. However, due to his homesickness, Charles never returned to Yorkshire once he made it back to Swansea. Instead Swansea Town scout Joe Sykes persuaded Charles to join the club's ground staff.
He was offered a professional contract with Swansea Town at the age of seventeen, and he immediately settled into the Second Division side. His debut came at Bramall Lane on 20 December 1952, in what turned out to be a 7–1 defeat to Sheffield United. However his progress was halted when he twisted his knee on national service, though this injury came as he was messing around outside the cook house rather than on parade or in the 9th Battalion's march to the Army Cup. He went straight back into the first team upon his recovery, and he was played mostly at centre-half, or in his preferred position at right-half. He remained in the first XI under Ron Burgess, who was appointed manager following McCandless' death in July 1955.
He spent seven seasons with the "Swans" from 1952 to 1959, all of which ended with Swansea finishing between tenth and twentieth. They consistently picked up results at Vetch Field, but failed to perform away from home. During this time they also reached the final of the Welsh Cup in 1956 and 1957, though lost out to Cardiff City and then Wrexham. A cash-strapped club, their cause was not helped by the fact that the directors refused to pay for overnight stays, and so many times the team's coach would appear outside the opposition's ground just minutes before the match. Swansea were a selling a club, and during his time Ivor and Len Allchurch, Cliff Jones, and Terry Medwin would all be sold to big English clubs. Including Charles, these five players all represented Wales at the World Cup. Jones' brother Bryn also played for Swansea, as did Cyril and Gilbert Beech; this meant three sets of brothers played for the "Swans" during this time, in what was an extremely local squad. Throughout the 1950s Swansea were an attacking team, and during his time at Vetch Field Charles picked up four goals in a match against Blackburn Rovers, as well as hat-tricks against Stoke City, Middlesbrough and Sheffield Wednesday. Charles offered to work at a second job to remain at Swansea with their strict wage limit of £14 a week, but this was not permitted, and instead he put in a transfer request. He employed Neil Harris to act as his 'business manager' in his pending transfer move, thereby making him the first ever agent in the English game. In one of his last games for the club, he helped Swansea record their first ever league win over rivals Cardiff City at Ninian Park.
Arsenal
Chased by Chelsea and Tottenham Hotspur, Charles was eventually sold to Arsenal in March 1959 for a fee of £42,750 with two other players, David Dodson and Peter Davies, going the other way. This was at the time the highest ever transfer between two British clubs as Juventus had paid Leeds United £65,000 for John Charles in 1957. Aiming to use him as a centre forward, Arsenal manager George Swindin and captain Tommy Docherty managed to persuade Charles to take the move, and as Charles was convinced by the Arsenal men, Tottenham decided to withdraw their offer. Spurs manager Bill Nicholson was forced to sign Dave Mackay instead, as the White Hart Lane club would become a major force in the game in the 1960s. Due to this success, in his autobiography, Charles wrote that "signing for Arsenal was the most terrible choice I ever made". Though he also wrote that "I'll always have a place in my heart for Arsenal, and it was an honour to have played for them."
He was paid £20 a week, and set up with a house and car by the Arsenal management – a Sunbeam-Talbot with the license plate 'MEL 9'. Not used to the complexities of a rapidly modernising game, he endured a frosty relationship with coach Ron Greenwood after numerous humorous mix-ups over new terms such as 'blind-side run' and 'marking space', and embarrassed himself in front of the TV cameras when he fumbled and said "I'm okay, I've just got clitorises in my eyes", instead of cataracts.
He made his debut against Sheffield Wednesday on 22 August 1959, in what was a difficult 1959–60 season for the "Gunners". Though they ended up in thirteenth place, Charles managed to bag himself a hat-trick at Highbury in a 5–2 win over Blackburn Rovers on 6 February. A fortnight later he missed a chance to make it two Highbury hat-tricks in a row when, already with two goals to his name, he scuffed a penalty into the arms of Everton keeper Jimmy O'Neill.
Always struggling with his knees, during the 1960–61 he started to be afflicted by ligament damage. The physios used whatever methods they could to reduce the swellings in his knees, and as he was a big-money signing, Charles would be forced to take to the field week in and week out, despite his injuries. His team were wildly inconsistent, beating Newcastle United 5–0, only to lose 6–0 to West Ham United a few weeks later; meanwhile supporters were anxious at the rise of their North London rivals. Arsenal finished eleventh, some 25 points behind Double-winning Tottenham Hotspur.
The 1961–62 season was another difficult one for both Charles and Arsenal. However, he did manage to bag another hat-trick for the club, as he scored all three goals in an FA Cup win over Bradford City. His time in London would be dominated by injuries though, and he underwent three operations in three years. Altogether Charles played 64 matches in three seasons for Arsenal, scoring 28 goals.
Cardiff City
In February 1962 he returned to his native Wales to sign with Cardiff City, who paid Arsenal £28,500 for his services. Though he would have preferred a move back to Swansea, they were unwilling to spend money in the transfer market, and so he was happy to sign with Cardiff, despite the Cardiff-Swansea rivalry; in turn the Cardiff fans were welcoming to Charles despite his Swansea connection. The "Bluebirds" were in a relegation dogfight, and there was a lot of pressure on Charles to perform, however he missed an easy chance for a goal in his debut, in what ended as a 0–0 draw at home to Manchester City. He helped them to earn 1–1 draws against Burnley and former club Arsenal, however a bad run soon followed and the club lost their First Division status at the end of the season.
Cardiff signed renowned goal-getters Ivor Allchurch and Peter Hooper for the upcoming 1962–63 Second Division campaign, and so Charles was moved to a more central role in the pitch. Though signed by Bill Jones, ironically George Swindin, the manager who had sold him at Arsenal, replaced Jones as manager in October 1962. Despite the disruption, Charles scored in both derby games against Swansea, in what was otherwise a forgettable season for Cardiff fans.
Cardiff signed John Charles for the start of the 1963–64 campaign, allowing the brothers to play alongside each other for the first time at club level. However Swindin was against the move, as his team were already quite aged without the 32-year-old former superstar; instead it was the club's chairman who pushed for the £22,500 deal. On his league debut for Cardiff, against Norwich City, John scored from a free kick inside his own half. However Mel picked up an injury, and Cardiff's promotion hopes began to fade after a poor run of form in the Christmas period. The season did end on a high note though, as both brothers played in the Welsh Cup final victory over Bangor City. The two-legged affair had finished as a draw, and so Cardiff only lifted the cup after a 2–0 win at the Racecourse Ground, in a hastily arranged replay.
Swindin was sacked for failing to bring promotion, and new manager Jimmy Scoular did not see eye-to-eye with Charles. Charles scored a hat-trick against Swindon Town, but was dropped by Scoular for the next game after he told his striker that he hadn't worked hard enough for the team. Charles responded by pointing at a horse in a field by Ninian Park and telling Scoular "you could put a number eight shirt on him and he would run all day – but he wouldn't score a fucking hat-trick for you!" Scoular responded to this outburst by telling Charles that he had played his last game for Cardiff and could look for a new club.
Later career
Charles' next club would be Welsh Football League side Porthmadog. Despite being a little known outfit, the club was bankrolled by a millionaire, and so Charles was paid a higher wage than he had received at Arsenal and Cardiff. They finished the 1965–66 season second in the Welsh League, behind Caernarfon Town. Despite enjoying his time in North Wales, he decided that he could not turn down an offer to return to the Football League by Port Vale, then managed by Stanley Matthews. Port Vale paid Porthmadog a £1,250 fee, and Charles made his Vale debut in a 1–0 defeat at local rivals Crewe Alexandra on 3 February 1967. He played a further six games, including a rough encounter with Walsall, another one of Vale's rivals, before he decided to head back to Wales.
Charles signed on a free transfer to Oswestry Town in May 1967, before moving on to Haverfordwest County later in the year; both clubs competed in the Welsh Football League. He enjoyed his time in Pembrokeshire and went on to play close to 200 games for County, mostly as a centre-half. He left the club in 1972 to return to the Cwmbwrla district of Swansea, where he set up an amateur side called Cwmfelin. After he retired from competitive football he had kneecap replacements in both his legs.
International career
Charles made his debut for Wales in a game against Northern Ireland at Windsor Park on 20 April 1955; the Welsh won 3–2 thanks to a John Charles hat-trick. His second cap came against Austria on 23 November, in a game latter dubbed the 'Battle of Wrexham'. He was stretchered off with fifteen minutes to go after an Austrian boot went through the back of his leg; this was notable as the only time John ever lost his temper, as he reacted to the challenge by lifting the Austrian off the ground and screaming "If you ever do that to my brother again I'll bloody kill you!" Charles was then selected for the 1957 British Home Championship squad, and helped his country to record a 2–2 draw with Scotland at Ninian Park. He also battled against injury to play in the 3–1 defeat to England at Wembley Stadium, before the tournament ended with a goalless draw in Ireland.
He helped Wales to qualify for the 1958 FIFA World Cup in Sweden after they were drawn in a difficult qualifying group consisting of themselves, Czechoslovakia, and East Germany. A Roy Vernon goal gave Wales two opening points at home to the Czechs – this was John Charles' final game before his big money move to Juventus. In the second game, Mel gave Wales an opening lead against the East Germans, only for the Germans to come back to record a 2–1 win in front of 100,000 supporters at the Zentralstadion. The return fixture to the Czechs at Prague ended with a 2–0 defeat, seemingly ending Welsh hopes of qualification. Juventus did not allow John to play in the final match, but Mel put in one of his best performances in a Welsh shirt, and managed to keep prolific striker Willy Tröger in check to help secure a 4–1 victory over East Germany at Cardiff.
The Czechs won the group and Welsh hopes of World Cup football seemed to be over, however tension in the Middle East came to Wales' rescue. Though before this, the English recorded a thumping 4–0 win at Ninian Park in the 1958 British Home Championship to further depress the Welsh. The reprieve for Wales came as Turkey (now a member of UEFA) refused to compete in the AFC (Asian) qualifying group, and so Israel advanced to the Second Round of CAF / AFC qualifying by default. Egypt and Indonesia both withdrew from the process, whilst Sudan, then the only other team from the region who had entered, refused to recognise Israel, and so also withdrew from the competition. FIFA ruled that Israel could not qualify for the World Cup without kicking a ball, and so a lottery was held for another team to play Israel in a specially created play-off qualification match. Another nation won the lottery, but refused to play as they were too proud to accept such an easy route to the tournament; the Welsh FA had no such qualms, and so Charles and his countrymen only had to overcome a team of amateur Israelis to qualify for the elite competition of international football. Wales duly qualified with two simple 2–0 victories, one in the baking sun at a half completed Ramat Gan Stadium, the other in front of 50,000 rain-soaked Welshmen at Ninian Park; the scores were kept respectable by some heroic goalkeeping from Ya'akov Hodorov.
Wales' maiden appearance in the tournament, it was also the only time all four of the Home Nations qualified for the same World Cup, though only Wales and Northern Ireland made it past the group stage. The Welsh FA were pessimistic for their prospects, and before the tournament they arranged for five days of training on some free land at Hyde Park and booked the flights home for before the beginning of the knockout stages. Manager Jimmy Murphy used highly defensive tactics, they would prove highly effective as Wales never conceded more than once in any of their five games in the tournament. Wales remained undefeated in the group stage, battling to draws with Hungary, Mexico, and eventual runners-up Sweden. Wales had played well against the Hungarians but played poorly against the Mexicans, though they still came close to recording two victories; in the third match both the Swedes and the Welsh were happy to amble to a draw, as that way both sides remained in the competition. As Hungary also recorded three points in the group, a play-off match ensued, and Wales came from behind at the Råsunda Stadium to advance with a 2–1 win; however due to dirty play from the opposition John Charles was injured in the match and missed out on the rest of the tournament. The Welsh were eventually knocked out by Brazil in the quarter-finals at the Ullevi stadium in Gothenburg, thanks to a goal by Pelé in the 66th minute – this was only Pelé's second game for his country, and the goal made him the youngest player ever to score in a World Cup game. Charles later recalled that Pelé miskicked the ball, and even in later life it upset him greatly to remember the ball trickling across the line. Pelé himself said that Charles was the best centre-half of the tournament, and the Brazilian swapped shirts with Charles after the game. The Brazilians went on to win the competition. It was a difficult experience for Wales, who were forced to play five highly competitive games in eleven days. Despite their heroics, the competition received little publicity in Britain at the time – the South Wales Evening Post's back page headlined a Glamorgan cricket match – and Charles said in his autobiography that "I don't think many people in Wales even knew the World Cup was on."
After the World Cup, he played in a 3–0 Home Championship defeat to Scotland. On 26 November 1958, he helped the Welsh to record a 2–2 draw with England at Villa Park by marking Nat Lofthouse out of the game. He would play for Wales a further eleven times, and only two of these games finished as Welsh victories, both against Northern Ireland. The second of these, at Ninian Park on 11 April 1962 for the 1962 British Home Championship, finished 4–0, and it was Charles who scored all four of the goals. This made him one of only four players ever to score four goals in one game for Wales, the other three being John Price (1882), Jack Doughty (1888), and Ian Edwards (1978). Following this he was included in the tour of South America in 1962, where defeats were recorded by Brazil and Mexico, both of whom were warming up for the 1962 FIFA World Cup – Brazil would go on to beat Czechoslovakia in the final. Wales had missed out on the tournament after narrowly losing their qualifying encounter with Spain 3–2 on aggregate, Charles played in both legs, though with Alfredo Di Stéfano in the team Spain were always considered the favourites.
His final game for Wales came on 20 March 1963, in a 1–1 draw with Hungary in a 1964 European Nations' Cup qualifying game. In total he picked up 31 senior caps and scored six goals in a seven-year international career. Charles served as captain for a number of these games. He also captained Wales under-23s in a 2–1 win over England under-23s on 23 April 1958.
Caps
Personal life and post-retirement activities
He was the brother of all-round player John Charles and father of former Wales international Jeremy Charles.
In March 1958, Charles married Vera (surname Frame). His brother John Charles was unable to attend the wedding as he was in Italy at the time. It was a triple wedding, as Swansea teammates Don Pearson and Jeff Rees also married their partners in the same ceremony. In September 1959 Vera gave birth to a son, Jeremy, who went on to play for Swansea and Wales himself. They also had a daughter, Catherine. The couple divorced in 1972, though remained good friends.
After he left the professional game he found himself 'virtually penniless'. He tried jobs as a door-to-door shoe salesman, as a scrap metal dealer (along with brother John), as a butcher, and as a potato merchant; often failing in a spectacular and humorous fashion.
Charles' autobiography, entitled In the Shadow of a Giant, was released by John Blake Publishing in 2009. The title is a reference to his elder brother, John Charles, who became one of the biggest names in football as Mel was building his own career. The foreword was written by John Toshack and Jack Charlton.
After a period of ill health, Charles died on 24 September 2016, at the age of 81.
Career statistics
Club
Source:
International
Honours
Swansea Town
Welsh Cup runner-up: 1956 & 1957
Cardiff City
Welsh Cup: 1964
References
Specific
General
External links
Mel Charles profile at Arsenal.com
1935 births
2016 deaths
Footballers from Swansea
Welsh men's footballers
Wales men's international footballers
Wales men's under-23 international footballers
Men's association football utility players
Men's association football defenders
Men's association football wing halves
Men's association football forwards
Leeds United F.C. players
Swansea City A.F.C. players
Arsenal F.C. players
Cardiff City F.C. players
Porthmadog F.C. players
Port Vale F.C. players
Oswestry Town F.C. players
Haverfordwest County A.F.C. players
1958 FIFA World Cup players
English Football League players
British autobiographers
British sports agents
Association football agents |
4431917 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canyons%20of%20the%20Ancients%20National%20Monument | Canyons of the Ancients National Monument | Canyons of the Ancients National Monument is a national monument protecting an archaeologically significant landscape located in the southwestern region of the U.S. state of Colorado. The monument's are managed by the Bureau of Land Management, as directed in the presidential proclamation which created the site on June 9, 2000. Canyons of the Ancients National Monument is part of the National Landscape Conservation System, better known as the National Conservation Lands. This system comprises 32 million acres managed by the Bureau of Land Management to conserve, protect, and restore these nationally significant landscapes recognized for their outstanding cultural, ecological, and scientific values.<ref>[http://www.blm.gov/wo/st/en/prog/blm_special_areas/NLCS.html "National Conservation Lands] Bureau of Land Management. Retrieved 5-2-2016.</ref> Canyons of the Ancients encompasses and surrounds three of the four separate sections of Hovenweep National Monument, which is administered by the National Park Service. The monument was proclaimed in order to preserve the largest concentration of archaeological sites in the United States, primarily Ancestral Puebloan ruins. As of 2022, over 8,500 individual archeological sites had been documented within the monument.
Geography
Canyons of the Ancients National Monument is located 9 miles west of Pleasant View, Colorado in southwestern Colorado.Gregory, Lee. Colorado Scenic Guide: Southern Region. Johnson Books, Boulder, Colorado, 1996 (1st edition 1984). pp. 17-18. . The monument's northern and eastern boundaries are canyons. Its western boundary is the Colorado-Utah state border and the reservation of the Navajo Nation. Lands south are bordered by the Ute Mountain Reservation and McElmo Creek.
History
Canyons of the Ancients residents
Developmental Pueblo: AD 500 to 1100
Ancient Pueblo people lived in the Canyons of the Ancients in the 10th century; Lowry Pueblo, built during the Great Pueblo period, was built atop pit-house built in the 10th century.
For a fuller understanding of the architecture and life style during this period, pueblo buildings in the Mesa Verde region were built with stone, windows facing south, and in U, E and L shapes. The buildings were located more closely together and reflected deepening religious celebration. Towers were built near kivas and likely used for look-outs. Pottery became more versatile, including pitchers, ladles, bowls, jars and tableware for food and drink. White pottery with black designs emerged, the pigments coming from plants. Water management and conservation techniques, including the use of reservoirs and silt-retaining dams also emerged during this period.
Great Pueblo period: AD 1100 to 1300
As refinements in construction techniques increased, the Puebloans built larger pueblos, or villages, on top of the pit-houses starting about AD 1090. Lowry Pueblo had just a few rooms and 2 kivas in 1090 and the village was expanded two times about 1103 and 1120 until it had 40 rooms, 8 kivas and one great kiva.
Like their ancient neighbors at Hovenweep National Monument and Mesa Verde National Park, the Lowry Pueblo dwellers were farmers and hunters. They grew beans, corn and squash and raised turkeys. They also made and decorated pottery.
Notable sites
At least 8,500 distinct structures have been identified in the monument, and the density of archeological remains is the highest of any region in the United States. The vast majority of stone structures in the national monument are from the Ancient Puebloans era.
More than 30,000 sites likely exist in the Monument, in some places more than 200 sites per square mile. After building basic pit style structures at first, the Puebloans later built villages with cliff dwellings. Archaeological ruins also include Sweat lodges, kivas, shrines and petroglyphs. Reservoirs with stone and earthen dams, including spillways and also numerous check dams,Canyons of the Ancients: Background. Bureau of Land Management. Retrieved 9-24-2011. built in case of flash floods. Stone towers which may have been lookout or sentry posts, are found scattered throughout the monument.
Migration
Unlike other Ancient Pueblo site abandonment, it appears that the people of the Canyons of the Ancients left the sites much earlier than their neighbors, some time in the mid-12th century. Some of the artifacts found from the site show a connection to the Chacoan culture, while others are similar to those of the Mesa Verde dwellers.
Other Ancient Pueblo people from the area migrated south to Arizona and New Mexico, ancestors to modern pueblo people such as the Hopi and Zuni. Modern Pueblo people are located on reservations primarily in New Mexico, but some in Arizona. The 60,000 people's pueblos and reservations reside in three geographic areas:
along the upper Rio Grande in New Mexico, such as Taos Pueblo
southern New Mexican Zuni, Acoma, Laguna and Isleta pueblos and reservations
Arizona Hopi.
Post-Pueblo Native American tribes: 14th to 18th century
After 1300, hunter-gatherers, ancestors of the Ute and Navajo, moved into the southwestern Colorado and southeastern Utah and came to inhabit the region.
The ancestors to the Navajo were one of the tribes of the southern division of the Athabaskan language family that migrated south from Alaska and northwestern Canada, most likely traveling through the Great Basin. The Navajo ancestors were in the area after AD 1300, but at least by the early 16th century.
The people from who the Ute descended arrived in the area from the west in this period from 1300 to the 18th century.What Other Indian Tribe is Related to the Navajo? Crow Canyon Archaeological Center. 2011. Retrieved 9-26-2011. The Ute's ancestors are hunter-gatherers who, in the 12th century, began migrating east from the present southern California area into a large hunter-gathering territory as far east as the Great Plains and in the canyons and mountains of eastern Utah and Colorado.
During this period, the Spanish colonial reach extended to northern New Mexico, where they settled in the 16th century. They introduced items for trade, such as guns and horses, new and deadly diseases, and cultural influence in the forms of religion, language, and forms of government. In the 18th century, Spanish missionaries visited the area looking for a route to Spanish missions in California. One of the expeditions was that of Spanish friars Silvestre Vélez de Escalante and Francisco Atanasio Domínguez who traveled from New Mexico, through western Colorado to Utah.
European and American settlement: 19th century to present
The first Anglo American people arrived in the early 19th century, starting with trappers. With the discovery of precious ores in the last decades of the 19th century, miners and other settlers moved into the region. By the mid-19th century, the United States government and Native American tribes were at war over land ownership. People were forced to leave their homelands. The Navajo had moved south and the Ute territory was significantly reduced.
Excavation and restoration
Lowry Pueblo was excavated between 1930 and 1934 by Paul S. Martin of the Field Museum of Natural History and went through a restoration process in 1965. Two years later, it was named a National Historic Landmark and was listed on the National Register of Historic places.Wilson, D. Ray (1990) Colorado Historical Tour Guide. Carpentersville, IL: Crossroads Communications. p. 374. .
National monument
Canyons of the Ancients National Monument
The U.S. Bureau of Land Management administers the monument and enforces regulations balancing resource protection with land conservation. It was created by executive proclamation in 2000 with the intention of protecting the archaeological, natural and geological resources. Facilities at the Lowry Pueblo include parking, a picnic area, toilet and trail. Sand Canyon Pueblo also has a trail, which leads to McElmo Canyon.
While other national monuments in the Southwest, including Hovenweep, were limited to the area around major ruins, "Canyons of the Ancients was perhaps the first to explicitly recognize that ruins do not tell the entire story—that ancients lived in, hunted, gathered and raised crops, and developed water and religious sites throughout the larger landscape,” according to Secretary of the Interior Bruce Babbitt.
Wilderness study areas
There are three Wilderness study areas in the monument:
Cahone Canyon, located about 4 miles southwest of the town of Cahone, Colorado, is about 9,156 acres. The wilderness area, varying from in elevation, consists of three canyons with piñon-juniper woodlands and riparian and sagebrush ecosystems.
Cross Canyon, located south of Cahone Canyon, about 14 miles southwest of the town of Cahone, Colorado, is about 12,721 acres, 1,008 acres cross into Utah. The wilderness area, varying from in elevation, consists of three canyons (Cross, Ruin, and Cow), with piñon-juniper woodlands and riparian and sagebrush ecosystems.
Squaw/Papoose Canyon is located about 12 miles south of Dove Creek and is about 11,357 acres, 6,676 acres cross into Utah. The wilderness area, varying from in elevation, consists of two canyons (Squaw and Papoose).
Anasazi Heritage Center and Canyons of the Ancients visitor center
The Anasazi Heritage Center is also the visitor center for the Canyons of the Ancients National Monument and includes artifacts from the monument, a museum with interactive exhibits, a library and a theatre. Information is available there regarding the Ancient Puebloan culture, Trail of the Ancients Byway and the Canyons of the Ancients National Monument.
Vandalism
Vandalism and treasure hunting are difficult to minimize due to an inadequate number of federal employees and law enforcement personnel to monitor and prosecute those who deface ruins or steal archeological remains. Thousands of undocumented artifacts have been removed from the monument and now reside in private collections. A news article in July 2006 reported that funding for the monument had decreased by almost 40% since 2004, and that a particularly severe looting episode occurred in January 2006.
Natural resources
Geology and topography
The northern part of the Monument in part has gently sloping, relatively even surfaces ranging in elevation from about in the east to about in the west. These surfaces are upheld by sedimentary rocks of Cretaceous age that are mostly covered by much younger gravel and sand layers deposited in the last several million years. The region is incised by canyons that drain south and west to McElmo Creek; the creek falls from the east at about west at the Utah border. The oldest rocks are exposed in McElmo Canyon and are sedimentary layers of Jurassic age. In and near the Monument, these sedimentary rocks have been bent upwards to form a dome, the McElmo Dome: most of the Jurassic rocks are below the surface in the regions immediately bordering the area. The southern boundary of much of the Monument lies just north of McElmo Creek. The Ute Mountains to the south are cored by igneous intrusions and rise to .
Formations from the Cretaceous and Jurassic periods
The following description of the geology of the Monument is derived mostly from contributions to Anderson et al. (1997), unless otherwise referenced. The nomenclature of the rock units here may not represent the present consensus. The sedimentary sequence is over thick and is represented by the stratigraphic units listed below.
Carboniferous Period
Carbon dioxide is produced from rocks of Mississippian age (Carboniferous Period
359.2–299 million years ago) in the McElmo Dome, from wells drilled to a depth of about . The dome contains one of the largest deposits of carbon dioxide in the United States, and the extracted gas is used for enhanced oil recovery. This carbon dioxide reservoir has been studied to learn about possible underground storage (carbon sequestration) of carbon dioxide.
Oil and gas exploration
In 1986, the area was designated as the Anasazi Area of Critical Environmental Concern by the Bureau of Land Management to ensure there are no new leases for oil and gas industry; Leases will only be given to promote the conservation of oil and gas resources.
85% of the monument was under lease by ranchers and oil and gas exploration entities in 2000. With only 2,000 acres of monument land that is not leased, and that land home to ancient archaeological sites and wildlife habitat, four environmental groups have been active to ensure there is no further oil and gas exploration and extraction. However, off-road vehicles and an increase in road construction for oil and gas exploration, allow greater access to archeological areas. Large trucks known as "thumpers" were found searching for oil and gas pockets by pounding the earth and recording the seismic data, having received a green light from the Bureau of Land Management. Executive Director of the San Juan Citizens Alliance, Mark Pearson stated:
The decision showed a blatant disregard for the proclamation [that states that leases should only be made to protect and preserve oil and gas resources]. That does not bode well for the future management for the rest of this monument or any monument in the country.
In 2006, the National Trust for Historic Preservation reported that the nation's push for energy resources on federal land is occurring at a cost of archaeological and cultural resources at Canyons of the Ancients National Monument and Utah's Nine Mile Canyon. The National Trust further asserted that the Bureau of Land Management has only documented 17 million acres of the 262 under its stewardship.
Ken Salazar, Secretary of Interior, said in 2009:
With an emphasis on conservation, protection and restoration, the National Landscape Conservation System and Canyons of the Ancients National Monument represent a new era of management for the BLM. After 130 years of exploration and research identifying tens of thousands of irreplaceable and fragile archaeological sites, we know that Canyons of the Ancients represents the best of our cultural heritage. Using an army of volunteers who contribute on the ground services and applying the principles of balanced management and science-based decision-making, this crown jewel preserves ancestral homes and landscapes for Native American citizens and for children and communities throughout the United States.
Wildlife
The Monument is home to a wide variety of desert wildlife, some of which are the American kestrels, Gambel's quail, Golden eagles, Long-Nosed Leopard lizard, Mesa Verde nightsnake, mourning dove, Peregrine falcons, Red-tailed hawks the Twin-spotted Spiny Lizard. Mammals that pass through the riparian and piñon-juniper woodland are jackrabbits, Mule deer, ringtail, fox, muskrat, beaver and bobcat.
Wildlife and plant habitat are threatened by increased road and building construction by oil and gas interests.
Gallery
See also
List of national monuments of the United States
Other neighboring Ancient Pueblo sites in Colorado
Anasazi Heritage Center
Crow Canyon Archaeological Center
Hovenweep National Monument
Mesa Verde National Park
Other cultures in the Four Corners region
Trail of the Ancients
List of ancient dwellings of Pueblo peoples
Early cultures
Ancestral Puebloans
List of prehistoric sites in Colorado
Oasisamerica cultures
Outline of Colorado prehistory
Paleo-Indians
Notes
References
Further reading
Anderson, O. J., Kues, B. S., and Lucas, S. G. (editors) (1997) Mesozoic Geology and Paleontology of the Four Corners Region.'' New Mexico Geological Society Forty-Eighth Annual Field Conference.
Gerhardt, K. M., Lacey, P. F., McBride, R., and McBride, D. Raw lithic material sources near the Greenlee Site. Retrieved May, 2009.
Gibbon, Guy E.; Ames, Kenneth M. (1998) Archaeology of Prehistoric Native America: An Encyclopedia. .
External links
Canyons of the Ancients National Monument (Bureau of Land Management)
Canyons of the Ancients National Monument Recreational Map
Crow Canyon Archaeological Center, Describes sites in the Monument
National Monuments in Colorado
Bureau of Land Management National Monuments
Bureau of Land Management areas in Colorado
Ancient Puebloan archaeological sites in Colorado
Native American history of Colorado
Protected areas of Dolores County, Colorado
Protected areas of Montezuma County, Colorado
Oasisamerica cultures
Puebloan buildings and structures
Ruins on the National Register of Historic Places
Archaeological sites on the National Register of Historic Places in Colorado
National Register of Historic Places in Montezuma County, Colorado
2000 establishments in Colorado
Protected areas established in 2000
Units of the National Landscape Conservation System |
4432216 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Danny%20Care | Danny Care | Daniel Stuart Care (born 2 January 1987) is an English professional rugby union player who plays as a scrum-half for Premiership Rugby club Harlequins and the England national team.
Early life
Care was born in Leeds, West Yorkshire. He first played rugby union at age 6, with his local club in Leeds, West Park Bramhope RUFC (now called West Park Leeds RUFC). At age 11 he was invited to join the Academy at Sheffield Wednesday Football Club which meant giving up club rugby union although he continued playing the game at Prince Henry's Grammar School, Otley.
He helped Prince Henry's win the Under-13 Yorkshire Cup in 2000 but he missed almost all of the next season recovering from a broken leg sustained in a school game.
The following season he was released from Sheffield Wednesday academy, and could concentrate on rugby union. By the end of the season he had been selected for Yorkshire Schools' Under-15's. The next season he was also selected for Yorkshire and the North of England before making his debut for England Schools' Under-16s against Wales at Neath in April 2003. Care had resumed club rugby union with Otley and the season also brought another Yorkshire Cup success at Under-16's with Prince Henry's.
Care joined the Leeds Tykes academy at the start of the 2003–04 season. Leeds won the National Under-19 Colts Cup that season and Care was named as Tykes' Players' Young Player of the Year. At school level Care spent the season playing at fly-half and helped Prince Henry's to win the Daily Mail Under-18 Vase at Twickenham, he scored 13 points in an 18–11 win against St Columba's College, St Albans. He was selected for the England Clubs Under-18's squad for the Four Nations Tournament held in Belfast where he played against Ireland, Scotland and Wales.
Danny care played 20 times for the England youth setup scoring 25 points between 2003 and 2007. He also played for England sevens in the 2004 youth commonwealth games in Bendigo Australia.
Club career
Leeds Tykes
In 2003 Care made made his first XV for Leeds Tykes on the wing as a second-half replacement in a pre-season friendly against Exeter Chiefs. He was selected for Team England in the rugby sevens at the 2004 Commonwealth Youth Games in Bendigo, Australia, his first experience of sevens. England won the silver medal, losing 26–24 to the hosts, Australia, in the Final. Care was top try scorer in the competition with 7 tries.
He was an unused replacement for Leeds in home and away European Challenge Cup games against Grenoble, Care made his competitive debut at fly-half away to Valladolid RAC, in Spain, in the European Challenge Shield a week after returning from Australia. His involvement lasted 23 minutes before he suffered a broken leg, by which time he had scored a try and kicked 4 conversions.
Care signed his first professional contract with Leeds in December 2004.
After completing his A-level studies at Prince Henry's, Care joined Leeds on a full-time basis alongside All Black scrum-half legend Justin Marshall who signed for the club during the close season. A pre-season injury to Leeds' No.2 scrum-half Mark McMillan gave Care an early opportunity to understudy Marshall and he made his Guinness Premiership debut away at Saracens in September 2005 as a replacement for Marshall late in the game. Over the coming weeks further opportunities arose for first team experience including starting appearances in the Powergen Cup against Sale (which brought his first senior try) and against Newcastle (which brought his first man-of-the-match award).
Harlequins
2006–2008
In the summer of 2006 Care signed a 3-year contract with Harlequins. At Harlequins Care initially found himself understudying Samoan international Steve So'oialo at scrum-half but after disappointing results early in the season the club recruited the experienced Andy Gomarsall, a member of England's World Cup winning squad in 2003. This restricted his game time, he started in the EDF Energy Cup and European Challenge Cup games before making his first Guinness Premiership start for Harlequins in a 9–3 home win against Bath in January 2007.
The start of the 2007–08 season presented Care with a chance of an extended run as starting scrum-half at Harlequins as Andy Gomarsall and Steve So'oialo were away at the Rugby World Cup in France with England and Samoa respectively. He was selected for the London Double Header, the first fixture of the season, against London Irish at Twickenham. Care was prominent as Harlequins beat London Irish 35–27, he was injured in the match and sidelined for 5 weeks. By the time he had recovered Gomarsall and So'oialo had returned to club action and game time was limited in the Premiership. He started several games in the Heineken Cup and EDF Energy Cup. At the end of the domestic season Care was shortlisted for the Guinness Premiership Young Player of the Year Award – he finished 3rd behind Ben Foden and the winner, Danny Cipriani.
2008–2010
Care had a successful season at club level in 2008–09 with Harlequins who finished 2nd in the Guinness Premiership and reached the quarter-finals of the Heineken Cup, at that point the club's best season in the professional era. At the end of the domestic season Care was shortlisted for the PRA Young Player of the Year Award which was voted for by his fellow professionals – he finished 3rd in the voting behind Tom Croft and the winner, Ben Foden.
Care agreed a 2-year contract extension with Harlequins, committing himself to the club until June 2011. In August 2010 Care agreed a 2-year contract extension with Harlequins, committing himself to the club until June 2013.
2010–2012
Care had a successful season at club level with Harlequins as the club won the Amlin Challenge Cup, the 2nd tier European club rugby competition. Quins came top of their Pool which consisted of Bayonne, Connacht and I Cavalieri Prato, and beat Wasps at home in the quarter-final and Munster away in the semi-final, with Care scoring in both games. The final was at the Cardiff City Stadium against Stade Francais. With Harlequins losing 18–12 with only 5 minutes to play Care produced a line break and chip kick to enable Gonzalo Camacho to score a try which was converted to give Harlequins a win, 19–18. The win enabled Harlequins to qualify for the Heineken Cup, for the 2011–12 season as the club had failed to qualify via the Aviva Premiership. Care scored 7 tries in all competitions during the season and was named in the ESPN Dream Team for 2010–11.
Care was arrested on 10 December 2011 on suspicion of being drunk and disorderly. He was not charged but was subsequently fined by Harlequins. He was also arrested and charged with drink driving on 1 January 2012. He was again disciplined by Harlequins and was told that he would not be considered for selection for the England Six Nations squad. On 16 January 2012 Care attended Southampton Magistrates' Court where he pleaded guilty to a charge of drink driving, was banned from driving for 16 months and fined £3,100. Care was arrested outside the Queens Hotel in the early hours of 4 March 2012 in Leeds. He was taken to a station by officers and questioned about the offence before being released. Care was given a caution for being drunk and disorderly.
On 23 March 2012 Care was accused of sexual assault earlier in the month. He was bailed pending further enquiries. On 9 July 2012 Care was advised that the police investigation had been completed. The Crown Prosecution Service had decided that there was no case to answer.
Despite his off-field issues Care helped Harlequins to their best ever season as they became English champions for the first time in the club's history. Harlequins finished top of the Aviva Premiership at the end of the regular season and qualified for a home semi-final in the play-offs against Northampton Saints. Care missed the semi-final due to a shoulder injury but Harlequins beat Northampton 25–23 to quality for the final against Leicester Tigers. Care had recovered from injury in time to play in the play-off final at Twickenham as Harlequins beat Leicester, 30–23. Stephen Jones of the Sunday Times said "Danny Care at scrum-half had what may well have been the game of his career. He was marvellously sharp and his decision-making was immaculate". Care made 16 appearances during the Premiership season and contributed 4 tries and 1 drop goal.
In August 2012 Care agreed a 3-year contract extension with Harlequins, committing himself to the club until June 2016.
2012–present
At club level Care helped Harlequins to finish 3rd in the Aviva Premiership and qualify for the end of season play-offs. In the semi-final they lost 33–16 away to Leicester to end the defence of their title. In the penultimate game of the regular season Care made his 100th Premiership appearances, he scored 2 tries as Harlequins won 42–26 against Worcester Warriors. Harlequins won all of their group games in the Heineken Cup, making them top seeds from the pool stages, but lost a home quarter-final against Munster 18–12. Care was one of six players shortlisted for the Aviva Premiership Rugby Player of the Year Award, the winner was Tom Youngs (Leicester Tigers). He was also shortlisted for the Rugby Players' Association (RPA) Player of the Year Award, the winner was Christian Wade (London Wasps).
Care won his second Premiership title and started as Harlequins won the game 40-38 in the highest scoring Premiership final ever on 26 June 2021.
International career
England Sevens
Early in the 2005–06 season he was named in the core squad for the senior England Sevens team and in February 2006 he made his debut at Wellington in the New Zealand leg of the IRB Sevens series. England lost to France in the quarter-final of the Cup but bounced back to beat Argentina in the final of the Plate. The squad moved straight on to Los Angeles where they beat Fiji in the final of the Cup to record England's first ever win in the USA leg of the IRB Sevens.
Care's performances in Wellington and Los Angeles earned him selection for Team England at the Commonwealth Games in Melbourne where he won a silver medal after defeat by New Zealand in the final of the competition, this was England's first ever medal in the Games at Rugby Sevens. This gave Care a unique double as the only England rugby player to win medals at the Commonwealth Youth Games and the senior Commonwealth Games.
In between Los Angeles and Melbourne, Care made his debut for the England Under-19 team. He scored 2 tries in a 35–5 victory over Scotland at the Twickenham Stoop. Later in the season he travelled to Dubai where he was a member of the England squad which achieved 3rd place in the IRB Under-19 World Championship, England's highest ever position in the tournament. Care started the tournament in his customary position at scrum-half but he was selected to start at fly-half in the crucial 3rd/4th place game against France as first choice fly-half Danny Cipriani had suffered concussion in an earlier game against South Africa. Care scored a try late in the game which was converted to bring the game level at 12–12. England clinched 3rd place by virtue of out-scoring France 2 tries to nil.
England
2006–2008
He was selected for the 2006 IRB Under-21 World Championship in France, making his debut at that level in the opening game against Fiji which England won 34–8. He won 4 caps during the tournament including a starting appearance in the 5th/6th place game against Ireland. Care scored the first try in England's 32–8 victory which gave them 5th place, their highest ever finishing position in the competition. He was named as captain of the England Under-20 team for the 2007 Six Nations games, his first experience of captaincy at any level of the game. Care's debut as captain saw England gain a comfortable 31–5 victory over Scotland at Bath. A week later Care lead his side to a 30–10 victory over Italy, again at Bath, with Care contributing a drop goal in the second half. England's lost 13–6 against Ireland in Athlone, and finished the championship in 3rd place after losing 32–13 to France at Northampton and drawing 21–21 against Wales at Newport.
Care was recalled to the England Sevens squad for the Hong Kong and Adelaide legs of the IRB Sevens Tournament during late March & early April 2007. England were knocked out at the quarter-final stage in both tournaments. In Hong Kong they lost to New Zealand and in Adelaide they were beaten by Kenya. He was selected for England Sevens squad for the final legs of the 2006/2007 IRB Sevens series at Twickenham and Murrayfield. At Twickenham England failed to qualify for the quarter-finals of the Cup after a 22–0 defeat to Wales on Day 1. Care scored a hat-trick of tries in a 17–14 victory over South Africa. On Day 2 England beat Kenya, France and Portugal to win the Bowl competition.
A week later at Murrayfield England again disappointed on Day 1 by failing to qualify for the quarter-finals of the Cup after defeats against Argentina and New Zealand. On Day 2 they won the Bowl beating Portugal 31–0 in the final. Due to the late withdrawal from the squad of England Sevens captain Simon Amor, Care was asked to take on additional responsibility by assuming the main play-maker role within the team. He was the 2nd highest scorer in the tournament with 42 points (4 tries + 11 conversions) including 2 tries in a thrilling 24–19 victory over Australia in the Bowl semi-final which went into extra-time.
Care was selected for an England Saxons training squad in January 2008, followed a few days later by selection for the England Sevens squad to play in Wellington in the New Zealand leg of the IRB Sevens. In Wellington England again disappointed on Day 1 losing all 3 games, including a defeat against the Cook Islands. On Day 2 they won the Bowl, beating Argentina 12–7 in the Final. On his return from Wellington he was called into the England Saxons training squad and selected as a replacement for the game against Italy A in Ragusa, Sicily in February 2008. Care made his Saxons debut in the 2nd half helping the team to a 38–15 victory.
Care's performances during the early part of 2008 earned him a call-up to the England training squad before the Six Nations games against Scotland and Ireland. He was named as the Guinness Premiership Player of the Month for March 2008, and in May he was selected for the England squad for the end of season game against the Barbarians and the summer tour to New Zealand.
Care was selected for an uncapped England XV against the Barbarians at Twickenham which England won 17–14. He made his debut as a 2nd half replacement in the First Test against New Zealand at Eden Park, Auckland which New Zealand won 37–20. A week later came his first start for England in the Second Test at Christchurch which New Zealand won 44–12 with Care scoring his first try for England in the 2nd half.
2008–2010
In July 2008 Care was selected in the England Elite Player Squad for the forthcoming season. His early season performances for Harlequins earned him selection for his third England cap as starting scrum-half for the opening Autumn International against the Pacific Islands at Twickenham. Care played a prominent role in England's 39–13 victory, and his performance was sufficient to earn him selection in the starting line-up for the 3 remaining Autumn International against Australia, South Africa and New Zealand, England lost all 3 games.
Care was selected to start in the opening game of the 2009 RBS 6 Nations competition against Italy but a slip on ice after a training session at the team hotel in Surrey caused him to withdraw with damaged ankle ligaments and his place in the team was taken by Harry Ellis. The injury meant that Care also missed the next game against Wales but he recovered sufficiently to take a place on the bench against Ireland at Croke Park, Dublin, where England lost, 14–13. Care was heavily criticised in the national press for his performance in Dublin. Care retained his place on the bench for the final RBS 6 Nations games at home to France and Scotland. Against Scotland he was on the field as early as the 16th minute following a injury to Ellis. Care contributed a drop goal as England beat Scotland 26–12 to regain the Calcutta Cup.
Care was considered by many to be unlucky not to be selected for the British and Irish Lions squad for the summer tour to South Africa but he retained his place in the England squad for the end of season game against the Barbarians and the 2 match series against Argentina. Care started all 3 games which began with a 33–26 defeat in the "non-cap" game against an experienced Barbarians team at Twickenham. A week later England beat Argentina 37–15 at Old Trafford, Manchester but lost the return fixture 24–22 the following week in Salta.
Care retained his position as starting scrum-half for the first of the Autumn Internationals in 2009 against Australia, England lost the game 18–9. There was widespread criticism of the overall team performance and the following week against Argentina Care moved to the replacements' bench. England beat Argentina 16–9 and Care remained on the bench for the final game against New Zealand which England lost 19–6. Care made brief appearances late in the game against both Argentina and New Zealand.
Care regained the starting spot for the 2010 RBS 6 Nations, starting all 5 games in the championship. He played a prominent part in England's 30–17 victory against Wales in the opening game at Twickenham, scoring a try early in the second half but a mixed campaign saw England finish in 3rd place. At club level Care had a disappointing season with Harlequins who finished in 8th place in the Guinness Premiership, missing out on qualification for the Heineken Cup.
At the end of the season Care was part of the England squad which travelled to Australia and New Zealand for a 5-game tour including 2 Tests against Australia but before the tour party left England played against the Barbarians at Twickenham in a "non-cap" game. Care started the game which England won 35–26.
In Australia Care started the 1st Test against Australia in Perth which Australia won 27–17. England's poor performance in the game attracted significant criticism and Care was replaced by Ben Youngs for the 2nd Test one week later in Sydney. England won the 2nd Test 21–20 to tie the Test series 1 game all with Care coming off the bench after 66 minutes.
After the Australian leg of the tour England moved on to New Zealand to play against New Zealand Māori in Napier in a "non-cap" game as part of the centenary celebrations for Maori rugby. Care started the game and scored a try late in the 1st half, but England lost the game 35–28.
2010–2012
During the 2010-11 England season Care found himself on the replacements bench for all nine games. Care came off the bench in the first four games of the 2011 Six Nations, which England won. England travelled to Dublin to play Ireland in Round 5 where with a Championship and a Grand Slam could be won, Care was brought on in the 46th minute. England were beaten 24–8, but won the 2011 RBS 6 Nations Championship as nearest rivals Wales were beaten by France in Paris. In June 2011 Care was named in England's preliminary 45-man training squad prior to the Rugby World Cup.
During a Rugby World Cup warm up game Care received widespread praise, especially in Wales, for his sportsmanship during the game in refusing to play the ball at the base of a ruck when it was clear that Welsh full-back Morgan Stoddart was badly injured following a tackle. Referee Steve Walsh was forced to stop the game to allow Stoddart to be treated for what turned out to be a double fracture of tibia and fibula. The following week Care sustained a torn plantar plate affecting the big toe of his left foot, an injury which required surgery and which kept him out of England's squad for the World Cup. The medical reports confirming that surgery was required came just a few hours after Care had been informed by England Head Coach Martin Johnson that he would be included in the squad. Whilst recovering from his injury Care worked for ESPN and Sky Sports on rugby coverage as well as being an analyst for ITV's coverage of the 2011 Rugby World Cup.
Care's was recalled to the England senior squad for the summer tour to South Africa. Care was recalled to the starting XV for the third and final Test in Port Elizabeth with Lee Dickson on the bench. England drew 14–14, Care scored England's only try early in the first half and was named man of the match.
2012–present
Care retained the starting shirt for 's opening game of the Autumn Internationals against . England won 54–12, despite Care being sin-binned for a tip-tackle on Leone Nakarawa. Care started the following week against Australia, and England lost 20–14. Care came off the bench for the next game against South Africa, England lost 16–15, and for the final game of the series as England beat world champions New Zealand 38–21, their first win over the All Blacks in 9 years.
Care remained on the bench in the 2013 RBS 6 Nations championship against Scotland at Twickenham, and scored England's fourth try in the final minute of the game. In Round 3, 2 weeks later, Care came off the bench in the second half as England beat France, 23–13. Care started an 18–11 win against Italy but returned to the bench for the championship decider against Wales in Cardiff. England had the opportunity to clinch the championship and a Grand Slam but Wales won comfortably 30–3, England's biggest ever defeat in the fixture.
Care was not selected for the 2013 British and Irish Lions squad to tour Australia. Greg Growden, writing for ESPN Scrum.com in Australia, said, "Danny Care's chances of making the tour were always going to be hard after spending most of the Six Nations series on the England bench, acting as Ben Youngs' back-up."
In August 2013 Care was named in the England Elite Player Squad for the forthcoming season.
Career statistics
List of international tries
List of international drop goals
Honours
England
3× Six Nations Championship: 2011, 2016 (Grand Slam), 2017
3× Six Nations Championship runner-up: 2009, 2013, 2014 (Triple Crown)
Harlequins
2× Premiership Rugby: 2012, 2021
1× EPCR Challenge Cup: 2011
1× EPCR Challenge Cup runner-up: 2016
England Sevens
1× Commonwealth Youth Games silver medalist: 2004
1× Commonwealth Games silver medalist: 2006
References
External links
1987 births
Living people
English people of Irish descent
Commonwealth Games medallists in rugby sevens
Commonwealth Games rugby sevens players for England
Commonwealth Games silver medallists for England
England international rugby sevens players
England international rugby union players
English rugby union players
Harlequin F.C. players
Leeds Tykes players
Male rugby sevens players
Otley R.U.F.C. players
People educated at Prince Henry's Grammar School, Otley
Rugby sevens players at the 2006 Commonwealth Games
Rugby union players from Leeds
Rugby union scrum-halves
Medallists at the 2006 Commonwealth Games
2015 Rugby World Cup players
2023 Rugby World Cup players |
4432235 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Dutch%20painters | List of Dutch painters | This is a list of Dutch painters who were born and/or were primarily active in the Netherlands. For artists born and active in the Southern Netherlands, see the List of Flemish painters. The artists are sorted by century and then alphabetically by last name.
In general, artists are included that are mentioned at the ArtCyclopedia website, in the Grove Dictionary of Art, and/or whose paintings regularly sell for over $20,000 at auctions. Active painters are therefore underrepresented, while more than half of the artists are baroque painters of the 17th century, roughly corresponding to the Dutch Golden Age. The names of older artists often have many different spellings; the preferred spelling is used as listed in the Netherlands Institute for Art History database, but several painters are listed twice when their common alternative names are alphabetically far apart.
14th and 15th century
Bosch, Hieronymus ('s-Hertogenbosch 1450 – 's-Hertogenbosch 1516)
Bouts, Dieric (Haarlem 1415 – Leuven 1475)
Christus, Petrus (Baarle 1415/1435 – Bruges 1476)
David, Gerard (Oudewater 1460 – Bruges 1523)
Engelbrechtsz, Cornelis (Gouda c. 1462 – Leiden 1527)
Geertgen tot Sint Jans (Leiden? c. 1460 – Haarlem c.1495)
Joest van Calcar, Jan (Kalkar c. 1450 – Haarlem 1519)
Limbourg brothers (Nijmegen 1380/1390 – Dijon? 1416)
Maelwael, Jan (Nijmegen c. 1365 – Dijon 1415)
Master of Alkmaar (active 1475–1515 in Alkmaar)
Master of Bellaert (active 1483–86 in Haarlem)
Master of Delft (fl. 1490–1520 in Delft)
Master of the Amsterdam Death of the Virgin (fl. 1485 – 1510 in Amsterdam or Utrecht)
Master of the Brunswick Diptych (fl. 1485 – 1510 in Haarlem?)
Master of the Figdor Deposition (fl. 1480 – 1500 in Haarlem)
Master of the Saint Bartholomew Altarpiece (Nijmegen? c. 1450 – Cologne 1510)
Master of the Tiburtine Sibyl (fl. 1470 – 1505 in Haarlem)
Master of the Virgo inter Virgines (active 1470 – 1505 in Delft)
Master of Zweder van Culemborg (fl. 1420 – 1440 in Culemborg)
Mynnesten, Johan van den (Schüttorf 1425 – Zwolle 1504)
Ouwater, Albert van (Oudewater c. 1410 – Haarlem? >1475)
Reuwich, Erhard (Utrecht c. 1455 – Mainz c. 1490)
Vrelant, Willem (Vreeland? <1430 – Bruges c. 1481)
16th century
A-L
Aertsen, Pieter (Amsterdam 1508 – Amsterdam 1575)
Aertsz, Rijckaert (Wijk aan Zee 1482 – Antwerp 1577)
Amstel, Jan van (Amsterdam c. 1500 – Antwerp c. 1542)
Barendsz, Dirck (Amsterdam 1534 – Amsterdam 1592)
Beer, Joos de (Utrecht 1515/35 – Utrecht 1593)
Blocklandt van Montfoort, Anthonie (Montfoort 1533 – Utrecht 1583)
Bruegel the Elder, Pieter (Breda? 1525 – Brussels 1569)
Cock, Jan Wellens de (Leiden? c. 1470 – Antwerp 1527)
Coninxloo, Gillis van (Antwerp 1544 – Amsterdam 1607)
Crabeth, Adriaen Pietersz (Gouda c. 1510 – Autun 1553)
Crabeth, Dirk (Gouda 1501 – Gouda 1574)
Crabeth, Wouter, I (Gouda c. 1510 – Gouda 1590)
Cronenburg, Adriaen van (Schagen 1535/45 – Bergum c. 1604)
Dalem, Cornelis van (Antwerp c. 1530 – Breda 1573)
Delff, Jacob Willemsz (Gouda c. 1550 – Delft 1601)
Dircksz, Barend (Amsterdam 1490/1510 – Amsterdam 1577)
Elaut, Franchoys (Haarlem ca. 1589 – Haarlem 1635)
Elburcht, Jan van der (Elburg ca. 1500 – Antwerp 1571)
Goltzius, Hendrick (Mulbracht 1558 – Haarlem 1617)
Gossaert, Jan (Maubeuge 1478 – Middelburg 1532)
Haye, Corneille de la (The Hague 1505 – Lyon 1575)
Heemskerck, Maarten van (Heemskerk 1498 – Haarlem 1574)
Hoey, Jan de (Leiden 1544 – Avon, Seine-et-Marne 1615)
Isenbrandt, Adriaen (Haarlem? c. 1485 – Bruges 1551)
Jacobsz, Dirck (Amsterdam? bef. 1497 – Amsterdam 1567)
Ketel, Cornelis (Gouda 1548 – Amsterdam 1616)
Key, Willem (Breda 1515 – Antwerp 1568)
Kraeck, Jan (Haarlem 1538 – Turin 1607)
Kunst, Pieter Cornelisz (Leiden 1484 – Leiden 1561)
Leyden, Aertgen Claesz van (Leiden 1498 – Leiden 1564)
Leyden, Lucas van (Leiden 1494 – Leiden 1533)
Lichtenberg, Mechtelt van (Utrecht? ca. 1520 – (Kampen 1598)
Lyon, Corneille de (The Hague 1505 – Lyon 1575)
M-Z
Mabuse, Jan Gossaert van (Maubeuge 1478 – Middelburg 1532)
Mander, Karel van (Meulebeke 1548 – Amsterdam 1606)
Mandijn, Jan (Haarlem c. 1500 – Antwerp c. 1560)
Mor, Anthonis (Utrecht 1519 – Antwerp 1575)
Mostaert, Gillis (Hulst 1528 – Antwerp 1598)
Mostaert, Jan (Haarlem c. 1475 – Haarlem 1553)
Nagel, Jan (Haarlem c. 1560 – The Hague 1602)
Oostsanen, Jacob Cornelisz van (Oostzaan 1472 – Amsterdam 1533)
Pietersz, Aert (Amsterdam 1550 – Amsterdam 1612)
Pietersz, Magdalena (Haarlem c. 1550 – Amsterdam aft. 1592)
Pietersz, Pieter (Antwerp 1541 – Amsterdam 1603)
Pourbus, Pieter (Gouda 1523 – Bruges 1584)
Queborn, Daniel van den (Antwerp c. 1555 – The Hague c. 1605)
Ravesteyn, Dirck de Quade van (Den Bosch 1565/70 – aft. 1619)
Reymerswale, Marinus van (Reimerswaal c. 1490 – Goes 1546)
Saenredam, Jan (Zaandam 1565 – Assendelft 1607)
Savery, Jacob (Kortrijk c. 1565 – Amsterdam 1603)
Scorel, Jan van (Schoorl 1495 – Utrecht 1562)
Jan Soens ('s-Hertogenbosch c. 1547 – Parma 1611)
Steenwijck, Hendrik I van (Kampen c. 1550 – Frankfurt am Main 1603)
Sustris, Lambert (Amsterdam c. 1515 – Venice 1591)
Swanenburg, Isaac Claesz van (Leiden 1537 – Leiden 1614)
Swart van Groningen, Jan (Groningen c. 1495 – Antwerp? c. 1560)
Weelink, Gerrit Pietersz (Amsterdam 1566 – Amsterdam 1611/12)
Thibaut, Willem (Haarlem 1524 – Haarlem 1597)
Utrecht, Jacob van (Utrecht? c. 1480 – Lübeck? >1530)
Veen, Otto van (Leiden 1556 – Brussels 1629)
Vermeyen, Jan Cornelisz (Beverwijk 1504 – Brussels 1559)
Vredeman de Vries (Leeuwarden 1526 – Hamburg 1609)
17th century
A
Aeck, Johannes van der (Leiden 1636 – Leiden 1662)
Aelst, Evert van (Delft 1602 – Delft 1657)
Aelst, Willem van (Delft 1627 – Amsterdam 1683)
Aken, Jan van (Amsterdam 1614/15 – Amsterdam 1661)
Aldewereld, Jan Herman (Amsterdam 1628/29 – Amsterdam 1669)
Angel, Philips (I) (Middelburg 1616 – Middelburg aft. 1683)
Angel, Philips (II) (Leiden c. 1618 – Batavia, Dutch East Indies 1664/65)
Anraedt, Pieter van (Utrecht c. 1635 – Deventer 1678)
Anthonissen, Hendrick van (Amsterdam 1605 – Amsterdam 1656)
Anthonisz, Aert (Antwerp 1579/80 – Amsterdam 1620)
Arentsz, Arent (Amsterdam)
Asch, Pieter van (Delft 1603 – Delft 1678)
Asselijn, Jan (Diemen c. 1610 – Amsterdam 1652)
Assteyn, Bartholomeus (Dordrecht 1607 – Dordrecht 1670/77)
Ast, Balthasar van der (Middelburg 1593/94 – Delft 1657)
Avercamp, Barend (Kampen 1612/13 – Kampen 1679)
Avercamp, Hendrick (Amsterdam 1585 – Kampen 1634)
B
Baburen, Dirck van (Wijk bij Duurstede 1595 – Utrecht 1624)
Backer, Jacob Adriaensz (Harlingen 1608 – Amsterdam 1651)
Backhuizen, Ludolf (Emden 1630 – Amsterdam 1708)
Baen, Jan de (Haarlem 1633 – The Hague 1702)
Bailly, David (Leiden 1584 – Leiden 1657)
Bary, Hendrik (Gouda c. 1640 – Gouda 1707)
Bassen, Bartholomeus van (Antwerp 1590 – The Hague 1652)
Battem, Gerrit (Rotterdam c. 1636 – Rotterdam 1684)
Beck, David (Delft 1621 – The Hague 1656)
Beeck, Johannes van der (Amsterdam 1589 – Amsterdam 1644)
Beecq, Jan Karel Donatus van (Amsterdam 1638 – Amsterdam 1732)
Beelt, Cornelis (Rotterdam c. 1630 – Haarlem or Rotterdam 1702)
Beerstraaten, Jan Abrahamsz (Amsterdam 1622 – Amsterdam 1666)
Bega, Cornelis Pietersz (Haarlem 1632 – Haarlem 1664)
Begeyn, Abraham Jansz (Leiden 1637 – Berlin 1697)
Beijeren, Abraham van (The Hague 1620 – Overschie 1690)
Berchem, Nicolaes Pietersz (Haarlem 1620 – Amsterdam 1683)
Berckheyde, Gerrit Adriaensz (Haarlem 1638 – Haarlem 1698)
Berckheyde, Job Adriaensz (Haarlem 1630 – Haarlem 1693)
Berghe, Christoffel van den (Middelburg 1590 – Middelburg 1645)
Bijlert, Jan van (Utrecht 1597 – Utrecht 1671)
Bisschop, Cornelis (Dordrecht 1630 – Dordrecht 1674)
Bleker, Gerrit Claesz (Haarlem 1593 – Haarlem 1656)
Bloemaert, Abraham (Gorinchem 1566 – Utrecht 1651)
Bloemaert, Cornelis (Utrecht 1603 – Rome 1692)
Bloemaert, Hendrick (Utrecht 1601 – Utrecht 1672)
Bloot, Pieter de (Rotterdam 1601 – Rotterdam 1658)
Bol, Ferdinand (Dordrecht 1616 – Amsterdam 1680)
Bollongier, Hans (Haarlem c. 1600 – Haarlem 1675)
Bor, Paulus (Amersfoort 1601 – Amersfoort 1669)
Borch, Gerard (I) ter (Zwolle 1583 – Zwolle 1662)
Borch, Gerard (II) ter (Zwolle 1617 – Deventer 1681)
Borch, Gesina ter (Zwolle 1633 – Deventer 1690)
Borssom, Anthonie van (Amsterdam 1631 – Amsterdam 1677)
Bosschaert, Abraham (Middelburg 1612 – Utrecht 1643)
Bosschaert, Ambrosius (I) (Antwerp 1573 – The Hague 1621)
Bosschaert, Ambrosius (II) (Utrecht 1609 – Utrecht 1645)
Both, Andries (Utrecht 1612 – Venice 1642)
Both, Jan (Utrecht c. 1614 – Utrecht 1652)
Boursse, Esaias (Amsterdam 1631 – at sea 1672)
Brakenburg, Richard (Haarlem 1650 – Haarlem 1702)
Bramer, Leonard (Delft 1596 – Delft 1674)
Bray, Jan de (Haarlem 1627 – Haarlem 1697)
Bray, Salomon de (Amsterdam 1597 – Haarlem 1664)
Breenbergh, Bartholomeus (Deventer 1598 – Amsterdam 1657)
Brekelenkam, Quiringh van (Zwammerdam 1622 – Leiden 1669)
Broeck, Elias van den (Antwerp 1649 – Amsterdam 1708)
Bronckhorst, Jan Gerritsz van (Utrecht 1603 – Amsterdam 1661)
Brouwer, Adriaen (Oudenaarde 1605 – Antwerp 1638)
Brugghen, Hendrick ter (Utrecht 1588 – Utrecht 1629)
Burgh, Hendrick van der (Naaldwijk 1627 – Leiden? aft. 1666)
Buytewech, Willem Pietersz (Rotterdam 1591 – Rotterdam 1624)
C
Cabel, Adriaen van der (Rijswijk 1630/31 – Lyon 1705)
Cabel, Arent Arentsz (Amsterdam 1585/86 – Amsterdam 1631)
Call, Jan I van (Nijmegen 1656 – The Hague 1706)
Calraet, Abraham van (Dordrecht 1642 – Dordrecht 1722)
Campen, Jacob van (Haarlem 1596 – Amersfoort 1657)
Camphuysen, Govert Dircksz (Gorinchem 1623 – Amsterdam 1672)
Cappelle, Jan van de (Amsterdam 1626 – Amsterdam 1679)
Carré, Hendrik (Amsterdam 1656 – The Hague 1721)
Carrée, Michiel (The Hague 1657 – Alkmaar1727)
Claesz, Pieter (Berchem 1597/98 – Haarlem 1660)
Claeuw, Jacques de (Dordrecht 1623 – Leiden 1694)
Codde, Pieter (Amsterdam 1599 – Amsterdam 1678)
Collier, Edwaert (Breda 1642 – London 1708)
Colonia, Adam (Rotterdam 1634 – London 1685)
Cooghen, Leendert van der (Haarlem 1632 – Haarlem 1681)
Cool, Jan Daemen (Rotterdam c. 1589 – Rotterdam 1660)
Coorte, Adriaen (IJzendijke 1659/64 – Vlissingen 1707)
Cornelisz, Cornelis (Haarlem 1562 – Haarlem 1638)
Couwenbergh, Christiaen van (Delft 1604 – Cologne 1667)
Crabeth, Wouter Pietersz (II) (Gouda 1594 – Gouda 1644)
Cracht, Tyman Arentsz (Wormer, c. 1600 – The Hauge 1646)
Craen, Laurens (The Hague c. 1620 – Middelburg 1665/70)
Croos, Anthonie Jansz van der (Alkmaar 1606/07 – The Hague 1662/63)
Cuylenborch, Abraham van (Utrecht c. 1620 – Utrecht 1658)
Cuyp, Aelbert (Dordrecht 1620 – Dordrecht 1691)
Cuyp, Benjamin Gerritsz (Dordrecht 1612 – Dordrecht 1652)
Cuyp, Jacob Gerritsz (Dordrecht 1594 – Dordrecht 1652)
D
Dalens, Dirck (I) (Dordrecht c. 1600 – Zierikzee 1676)
Danckerts, Hendrick (The Hague c. 1625 – Amsterdam 1680)
Danckerts de Rij, Pieter (Amsterdam 1605 – Amsterdam 1660)
Decker, Cornelis Gerritsz (Haarlem? bef. 1618 – Haarlem 1678)
Delen, Dirck van (Heusden 1604/05 – Arnemuiden 1671)
Delff, Cornelis Jacobsz (Gouda 1570/71 – Delft 1643)
Delff, Jacob Willemsz (II) (Delft 1619 – Delft 1661)
Delff, Willem Jacobsz (Delft 1580 – Delft 1638)
Diepenbeeck, Abraham van (Den Bosch 1596 – Antwerp 1675)
Diepraam, Abraham (Rotterdam 1622 – Rotterdam 1670)
Diest, Adriaen van (The Hague 1655 – London 1704)
Diest, Jeronymus van (II) (The Hague 1631 – The Hague aft. 1677)
Diest, Willem van (The Hague c. 1600 – unknown 1668/72)
Dijck, Abraham van (Amsterdam? 1635/36 – Dordrecht 1680)
Dijck, Floris van (Delft 1574/75 – Haarlem 1651)
Does, Jacob van der (Amsterdam 1623 – Sloten, 1673)
Does, Simon van der (The Hague 1653 – Antwerp, aft. 1718))
Donck, Gerard (fl. Amsterdam 1627–1640)
Doncker, Herman (Haarlem c.1595-1655)
Doomer, Lambert (Amsterdam 1624 – Amsterdam 1700)
Dou, Gerard (Leiden 1613 – Leiden 1675)
Doudijns, Willem (The Hague 1630 – The Hague 1697)
Douven, Jan Frans van (Roermond 1656 – Düsseldorf 1727)
Droochsloot, Cornelis (Utrecht 1640 – Utrecht? aft. 1673)
Droochsloot, Joost Cornelisz (Utrecht 1586 – Utrecht 1666)
Drost, Willem (Amsterdam 1633 – Amsterdam 1659)
Du Bois, Guillam (Haarlem 1625 – Haarlem 1680)
Dubbels, Hendrick Jacobsz (Amsterdam 1621 – Amsterdam 1707)
Dubordieu, Pieter (L'Île-Bouchard 1609 – Amsterdam? >1678)
Duck, Jacob (Utrecht? c.1600 – Utrecht 1667)
Ducq, Johan le (The Hague 1629 – The Hague 1676)
Dujardin, Karel (Amsterdam 1626 – Venice 1678)
Dullaart, Heiman (Rotterdam 1636 – Rotterdam 1684)
Dusart, Cornelis (Haarlem 1660 – Haarlem 1704)
Duyfhuysen, Pieter Jacobsz (Rotterdam 1608 – Rotterdam 1677)
Duynen, Isaac van (Dordrecht 1628 – The Hague 1680)
Duyster, Willem Cornelisz (Amsterdam 1599 – Amsterdam 1635)
Dyck, Floris van (Delft 1574/75 – Haarlem 1651)
E–F
Eckhout, Albert (Groningen c. 1610 – Groningen 1665/66)
Eeckhout, Gerbrand van den (Amsterdam 1621 – Amsterdam 1674)
Egmont, Justus van (Leiden 1601 – Antwerp 1674)
Elinga, Pieter Janssens (Bruges 1623 – Amsterdam 1682)
Engelsz, Cornelis (Gouda 1574/75 – Haarlem 1650)
Esselens, Jacob (Amsterdam 1627/28 – Amsterdam 1687)
Everdingen, Allaert van (Alkmaar 1621 – Amsterdam 1675)
Everdingen, Cesar Boetius van (Alkmaar 1616/17 – Alkmaar 1678)
Eversdijck, Willem (Goes 1616/20 – Middelburg 1671)
Fabritius, Barent (Middenbeemster 1624 – Amsterdam 1673)
Fabritius, Carel (Middenbeemster 1622 – Delft 1654)
Fabritius, Johannes (Middenbeemster 1636 – Hoorn aft. 1693)
Feddes van Harlingen, Pieter (Harlingen c. 1586 – Leeuwarden 1623)
Flinck, Govert (Cleves 1615 – Amsterdam 1660)
Fornenburgh, Jan Baptist van (Antwerp c. 1590 – The Hague 1648)
Fris, Pieter (Amsterdam 1628 – Delft 1706)
Fromantiou, Henri de (Maastricht 1633/34 – Potsdam aft. 1693)
Furnerius, Abraham (Rotterdam 1628 – Rotterdam 1654)
G
Gael, Barent (Haarlem c. 1630 – Amsterdam 1698)
Gaesbeeck, Adriaen van (Leiden 1621 – Leiden 1650)
Gallis, Pieter (Enkhuizen 1633 – Hoorn 1697)
Geel, Jacob van (Middelburg 1584/85 – Dordrecht? aft. 1638)
Geel, Joost van (Rotterdam 1631 – Rotterdam 1698)
Geest, Wybrand de (Leeuwarden 1592 – Leeuwarden aft. 1661)
Gelder, Aert de (Dordrecht 1645 – Dordrecht 1727)
Gelder, Nicolaes van (Leiden c. 1636 – Amsterdam 1677)
Gherwen, Reynier van (Leiden c. 1620 – Leiden 1662)
Gheyn, Jacques de (II) (Antwerp 1565 – The Hague 1629)
Gheyn, Jacques de (III) (Haarlem or Leiden 1596 – Utrecht 1641)
Gillig, Jacob (Utrecht c. 1636 – Utrecht 1701)
Gillis, Nicolaes (Antwerp 1592/93 – Haarlem aft. 1632)
Giselaer, Nicolaes (Dordrecht 1583 – Utrecht 1647)
Glauber, Diana (Utrecht 1650 – Hamburg aft. 1721)
Glauber, Johannes (Utrecht 1646 – Schoonhoven 1726)
Goderis, Hans (Haarlem 1595/1600 – Haarlem 1656/59)
Goedaert, Johannes (Middelburg 1617 – Middelburg 1668)
Goudt, Hendrick (The Hague c. 1583 – Utrecht 1648)
Goyen, Jan van (Leiden 1596 – The Hague 1656)
Graat, Barend (Amsterdam 1628 – Amsterdam 1709)
Grebber, Frans Pietersz de (Haarlem c. 1573 – Haarlem 1649)
Grebber, Maria de (Haarlem c. 1602 – Enkhuizen 1680)
Grebber, Pieter de (Haarlem c. 1600 – Haarlem 1652/53)
Griffier, Jan (I) (Amsterdam 1645/52 – London 1718)
Groenewegen, Pieter Anthonisz. van (Delft c. 1600 – The Hague 1658)
H
Haagen, Joris van der (Arnhem 1615 – The Hague 1669)
Haarlem, Cornelis Cornelisz van (Haarlem 1562 – Haarlem 1638)
Hackaert, Jan (Amsterdam 1628 – Amsterdam aft. 1685)
Hals, Dirck (Haarlem 1591 – Haarlem 1656)
Hals, Frans (Antwerp 1582 – Haarlem 1666)
Hanneman, Adriaen (The Hague 1603/4 – The Hague 1671)
Heck, Claes Dirckz van der (Alkmaar c. 1595 – Alkmaar 1649)
Heck, Claes Jacobsz van der (Alkmaar c. 1578 – Alkmaar 1652)
Hecken, Abraham van den (Antwerp c. 1610 – Amsterdam? aft. 1655)
Heda, Gerret Willemsz (Haarlem c. 1625 – Haarlem 1649)
Heda, Willem Claesz (Haarlem 1594 – Haarlem 1680)
Heem, Cornelis de (Leiden 1631 – Antwerp 1695)
Heem, David Cornelisz de (Antwerp 1663 – The Hague? aft. 1701)
Heem, Jan Davidsz de (Utrecht 1606 – Antwerp 1683)
Heem, Jan Jansz. de (Antwerp 1650 – Antwerp 1695)
Heemskerck, Egbert van (Haarlem 1634 – London 1704)
Helmbreker, Dirk (Haarlem 1633 – Rome 1696)
Helst, Bartholomeus van der (Haarlem 1613 – Amsterdam 1670)
Heusch, Jacob de (Utrecht 1657 – Amsterdam 1701)
Heusch, Willem de (Utrecht 1625 – Utrecht 1692)
Heyden, Jan van der (Gorinchem 1637 – Amsterdam 1712)
Hobbema, Meindert (Amsterdam 1638 – Amsterdam 1709)
Hoet, Gerard (Zaltbommel 1648 – The Hague 1733)
Hondecoeter, Gillis Claesz d' (Antwerp c. 1575 – Amsterdam 1638)
Hondecoeter, Melchior d' (Utrecht 1636 – Amsterdam 1695)
Hondius, Abraham (Rotterdam 1625 – London 1691)
Honthorst, Gerard van (Utrecht 1592 – Utrecht 1656)
Hooch, Pieter de (Rotterdam 1629 – Amsterdam 1684)
Hooghe, Romeyn de (Amsterdam 1645 – Haarlem 1708)
Hoogstraten, Samuel van (Dordrecht 1627 – Dordrecht 1678)
Houbraken, Arnold (Dordrecht 1660 – Amsterdam 1719)
Houckgeest, Gerard (The Hague 1600 – Bergen op Zoom 1661)
Huchtenburg, Jan van (Haarlem 1647 – Amsterdam 1733)
Hulst, Frans de (Haarlem c. 1610 – Haarlem 1661)
I–J
Isaacsz, Pieter (Helsingør 1568 – Amsterdam 1625)
Jacobsz, Lambert (Amsterdam c. 1598 – Leeuwarden 1636)
Jacobsze, Juriaen (Hamburg 1624 – Leeuwarden 1685)
Jansz de Stomme, Jan (Franeker 1615 – Groningen 1658)
Jongh, Claude de (Utrecht 1605/06 – Utrecht 1663)
Jongh, Ludolf de (Overschie 1616 – Hillegersberg 1679)
Jonson van Ceulen, Cornelis (London 1593 – Utrecht 1661)
Jouderville, Isaac de (Leiden 1612 – Amsterdam 1645)
K
Kabel, Adriaen van der (Rijswijk 1630/31 – Lyon 1705)
Kalf, Willem (Rotterdam 1619 – Amsterdam 1693)
Keirincx, Alexander (Antwerp 1600 – Amsterdam 1652)
Kessel, Jan van (Amsterdam 1641 – Amsterdam 1680)
Keyser, Thomas de (Amsterdam 1596 – Amsterdam 1667)
Kick, Cornelis (Amsterdam 1634 – Amsterdam 1681)
Kick, Simon (Delft 1603 – Amsterdam 1652)
Klomp, Albert Jansz (Amsterdam 1625 – Amsterdam 1688)
Knibbergen, Catharina van (fl. The Hague 1634 – 1665)
Knibbergen, François van (The Hague 1596/99 – aft. 1664)
Knijff, Wouter (Wesel 1605/07 – Bergen op Zoom 1694)
Knüpfer, Nicolaes (Leipzig c. 1609 – Utrecht 1655)
Koedijck, Isaac (Amsterdam 1616/17 – Amsterdam 1668)
Koets, Roelof (Haarlem 1592/93 – Haarlem 1654)
Koninck, Philips (Amsterdam 1619 – Amsterdam 1688)
Koninck, Salomon (Amsterdam 1609 – Amsterdam 1656)
Kruys, Cornelis (Haarlem 1619/20 – Schiedam 1660)
Kuijl, Gerard van (Gorinchem 1604 – Gorinchem 1673)
L
Lachtropius, Nicolaes (Kampen? 1630/40 – Alphen aan den Rijn 1711)
Laer, Pieter van (Haarlem 1599 – unknown, 1642)
Lairesse, Gerard de (Liège 1641 – Amsterdam 1711)
Lastman, Pieter (Amsterdam 1583 – Amsterdam 1633)
Leemans, Anthonie (The Hague 1631 – Amsterdam or Dordrecht 1671/73)
Leemans, Johannes (The Hague c. 1633 – The Hague 1688)
Legouch, Pieter (Lokeren – Middelburg 1664)
Lely, Peter (Soest 1618 – London 1680)
Leveck, Jacobus (Dordrecht 1634 – Dordrecht 1675)
Lesire, Paulus (Dordrecht 1611 – The Hague? aft. 1656)
Leyster, Judith (Haarlem 1609 – Heemstede 1660)
Liefrinck, Cornelis (Leiden ca. 1581 – unknown, aft. 1652)
Lievens, Jan (Leiden 1607 – Amsterdam 1674)
Lingelbach, Johannes (Frankfurt 1622 – Amsterdam 1674)
Linsen, Jan (Hoorn 1602/03 – Hoorn 1635)
Lisse, Dirck van der (The Hague 1607 – The Hague 1669)
Loo, Jacob van (Sluis 1614 – Paris 1670)
Looten, Jan (Amsterdam 1617/18 – York 1681)
Lorme, Anthonie de (Tournai ca. 1610 – Rotterdam 1673)
Lubieniecki, Christoffel (Szczecin 1658 – Amsterdam 1729)
Lundens, Gerrit (Amsterdam 1622 – Amsterdam 1686)
Luttichuys, Isaack (London 1616 – Amsterdam 1673)
Luttichuys, Simon (London 1610 – Amsterdam 1661)
M
Maas, Dirk (Haarlem 1659 – Haarlem 1717)
Maddersteeg, Dirk (Enkhuizen 1662 – Berlin 1708)
Maes, Nicolaes (Dordrecht 1634 – Amsterdam 1693)
Man, Cornelis de (Delft 1621 – Delft 1706)
Mancadan, Jacob Sibrandi (Minnertsga 1602 – Tjerkgaast 1680)
Mander, Karel van (II) (Kortrijk 1579/1580 – Delft 1623)
Mander, Karel van (III) (Delft 1609 – Copenhagen 1670)
Marienhof, Aert Jansz (Utrecht 1625/26 – Brussels aft. 1652)
Marseus van Schrieck, Otto (Nijmegen 1619 – Amsterdam 1678)
Martszen de Jonge, Jan (Haarlem 1609/10 – Haarlem 1647)
Matham, Jacob (Haarlem 1571 – Haarlem 1631)
Matham, Jan (Haarlem 1600 – Haarlem 1648)
Meer, Barend van der (Haarlem 1659 – Amsterdam 1692/1702)
Meer, Jan van der (Haarlem 1656 – Haarlem 1705)
Meerhout, Jan (Gorinchem c. 1625 – Amsterdam 1677)
Meijer, Hendrick de (Rotterdam c. 1620 – Rotterdam 1689/98)
Merian, Maria Sibylla (Frankfurt 1647 – Amsterdam 1717)
Mesdach, Salomon (fl. Middelburg 1600 – 1632)
Metsu, Gabriel (Leiden 1629 – Amsterdam 1669)
Meulen, Cornelis van der (Dordrecht 1642 – Stockholm 1691)
Meyne, David de (Maastricht c. 1569 – Amsterdam c. 1620)
Mierevelt, Michiel van (Delft 1566 – Delft 1641)
Mieris, Frans van (I) (Leiden 1635 – Leiden 1681)
Mieris, Jan van (Leiden 1660 – Rome 1690)
Mignon, Abraham (Frankfurt 1640 – Utrecht 1679)
Mijtens, Daniël (I) (Delft c. 1590 – The Hague 1647/48)
Mijtens, Daniël (II) (The Hague 1644 – The Hague 1688)
Mijtens, Johannes (The Hague c. 1614 – The Hague 1670)
Mijtens, Martin (I) (The Hague 1648 – Stockholm 1736)
Moeyaert, Claes Cornelisz (Durgerdam 1591 – Amsterdam 1655)
Molenaer, Jan Miense (Haarlem 1610 – Haarlem 1668)
Molenaer, Klaes (Haarlem 1626/29 – Haarlem 1676)
Molijn, Pieter de (London 1595 – Haarlem 1661)
Mommers, Hendrick (Amsterdam 1620 – Amsterdam 1693)
Moor, Carel de (Leiden 1655 – Warmond 1738)
Moreelse, Johan (Utrecht c. 1600 – Utrecht 1634)
Moreelse, Paulus (Utrecht 1571 – Utrecht 1638)
Mosscher, Jacob van (fl. Haarlem 1635 – 1650)
Moucheron, Frederik de (Emden 1633 – Amsterdam 1686)
Mulier, Pieter (I) (Haarlem c. 1600 – Haarlem 1670)
Mulier, Pieter (II) (Haarlem 1637 – Milan 1701)
Muller, Jan Harmensz (Amsterdam 1571 – Amsterdam 1628)
Murant, Emanuel (Amsterdam 1622 – Leeuwarden aft. 1692)
Musscher, Michiel van (Rotterdam 1645 – Amsterdam 1705)
N
Naiveu, Matthijs (Leiden 1647 – Amsterdam 1726)
Naiwincx, Herman (Schoonhoven 1623 – Hamburg 1651/55)
Nason, Pieter (Amsterdam 1612 – The Hague 1688/90)
Neck, Jan van (Naarden 1634/35 – Amsterdam 1714)
Neer, Aert van der (Gorinchem 1603/04 – Amsterdam 1677)
Neer, Eglon van der (Amsterdam 1635/36 – Düsseldorf 1703)
Netscher, Caspar (Heidelberg or Prague c. 1636 – The Hague 1684)
Neyn, Pieter de (Leiden 1597 – Leiden 1639)
Nieulandt, Adriaen van (Antwerp 1586/87 – Amsterdam 1658)
Nieulandt, Willem van (II) (Antwerp 1583/84 – Amsterdam 1635)
Nooms, Reinier (Amsterdam 1623/24 – Amsterdam 1664)
Noordt, Jan van (Schagen 1623/24 – aft. 1676)
Noort, Pieter van (Leiden 1623 – Zwolle 1672)
O
Ochtervelt, Jacob (Rotterdam 1634 – Amsterdam 1682)
Oever, Hendrik ten (Zwolle 1639 – Zwolle 1716)
Olis, Jan (Gorinchem c. 1610 – Heusden 1676)
Oosterwijck, Maria van (Nootdorp 1630 – Uitdam 1693)
Oostvries, Catharina (Nieuwkoop 1636/38 – Alkmaar 1708)
Ostade, Adriaen van (Haarlem 1610 – Haarlem 1685)
Ostade, Isaac van (Haarlem 1621 – Haarlem 1649)
Ovens, Jurriaen (Taning 1623 – Frederiksstad 1678)
P–Q
Palamedesz, Anthonie (Leith 1602 – Amsterdam 1673)
Palamedesz, Palamedes (Leith 1605 – Delft 1638)
Peschier, N.L. (Ardèche bef. 1640 – Leiden? aft. 1661)
Pickenoy, Nicolaes Eliaszoon (Amsterdam 1588 – Amsterdam 1650/56)
Pierson, Christoffel (The Hague 1631 – Gouda 1714
Pijnacker, Adam (Schiedam 1622 – Amsterdam 1673)
Plas, David van der (Amsterdam 1647 – Amsterdam 1704)
Pluym, Karel van der (Leiden 1625 – Leiden 1672)
Poel, Egbert Lievensz van der (Delft 1621 – Rotterdam 1664)
Poelenburch, Cornelis van (Utrecht 1594 – Utrecht 1667)
Poorter, Willem de (Haarlem 1608 – Haarlem? aft. 1648)
Porcellis, Jan (Ghent 1584 – Zoeterwoude 1632)
Porcellis, Julius (Rotterdam c. 1610 – Leiden 1645)
Post, Frans Jansz (Haarlem 1612 – Haarlem 1680)
Post, Pieter Jansz (Haarlem 1608 – The Hague 1669)
Pot, Hendrik Gerritsz (Amsterdam c. 1580 – Amsterdam 1657)
Potter, Paulus (Enkhuizen 1625 – Amsterdam 1654)
Potter, Pieter Symonsz (Enkhuizen 1597/1600 – Amsterdam 1652)
Pynas, Jacob Symonsz (Haarlem or Amsterdam 1592/93 – Delft c. 1650)
Pynas, Jan Symonsz (Alkmaar 1581 – Amsterdam 1631)
Quast, Pieter Jansz (Amsterdam 1605/06 – Amsterdam 1647)
R
Ravesteyn, Arnold van (The Hague c. 1605 – The Hague 1690)
Ravesteyn, Hubert van (Dordrecht 1638 – Dordrecht 1683/91)
Ravesteyn, Jan van (The Hague c. 1572 – The Hague 1657)
Van Rijn, Rembrandt (Leiden 1606 – Amsterdam 1669)
Renesse, Constantijn à (Maarssen 1626 – Eindhoven 1680)
Rietschoof, Jan Claesz (Hoorn 1652 – Hoorn 1719)
Rijck, Pieter Cornelisz van (Delft 1567/68 – Italy aft. 1635
Ring, Pieter de (Ypres c. 1615 – Leiden 1660)
Roestraten, Pieter Gerritsz van (Haarlem 1630 London 1700)
Roghman, Roelant (Amsterdam 1627 – Amsterdam 1692)
Rombouts, Gillis (Haarlem 1631 – Haarlem 1672)
Rombouts, Salomon (Haarlem 1655 – Florence? 1690/1702)
Romeyn, Willem (Haarlem c. 1624 – Haarlem 1694)
Rotius, Jacob (Hoorn 1644 – Hoorn 1681/82)
Rotius, Jan Albertsz (Medemblik 1624 – Hoorn 1666)
Royen, Willem Frederiksz van (Haarlem c. 1645 – Berlin 1723)
Ruisdael, Isaack van (Naarden 1599 – Haarlem 1677)
Ruisdael, Jacob van (Haarlem 1629 – Haarlem 1682)
Ruysch, Anna (The Hague 1666 – Amsterdam 1741)
Ruysch, Rachel (The Hague 1664 – Amsterdam 1750)
Ruysdael, Salomon van (Naarden 1600/03 – Haarlem 1670)
S
Saenredam, Pieter Jansz (Assendelft 1597 – Haarlem 1665)
Saftleven, Cornelis (Gorinchem 1607 – Rotterdam 1681)
Saftleven, Herman (Rotterdam c. 1609 – Utrecht 1685)
Sailmaker, Isaac (Scheveningen 1633 – London 1721)
Salm, Adriaen van (Delfshaven c. 1660 – Delfshaven 1720)
Santvoort, Dirck Dircksz van (Amsterdam 1609 – Amsterdam 1680)
Savery, Roelant (Kortrijk 1576 – Utrecht 1639)
Schaeyenborgh, Pieter van (Antwerp 1600 – Alkmaar 1657)
Schalcken, Godfried (Made 1643 – The Hague 1706)
Schalcken, Maria (Dordrecht 1645 – Dordrecht 1699)
Schellinks, Willem (Amsterdam 1623 – Amsterdam 1678)
Schooten, Floris van (Schoten? 1585/88 – Haarlem 1656)
Schooten, Joris van (Leiden c. 1587 – Leiden 1651)
Schrieck, Otto Marseus van (Nijmegen 1619 – Amsterdam 1678)
Schuer, Theodor van der (The Hague 1634 – The Hague 1707)
Schurman, Anna Maria van (Cologne 1607 – Wieuwerd 1678)
Seghers, Hercules (Haarlem 1589/90 – The Hague 1638)
Slingeland, Cornelis van (Dordrecht c. 1635 – Dordrecht 1686)
Slingelandt, Pieter Cornelisz van (Leiden 1640 – Leiden 1691)
Smit, Abraham (Lokeren c. 1621 – Amsterdam 1672)
Snellinck, Cornelis (Rotterdam or Antwerp c. 1605 – Rotterdam 1669)
Soest, Gerard (Soest 1600 – London 1681)
Soest, Pieter Cornelisz van (fl. Amsterdam 1642–1667)
Sorgh, Hendrick Martensz (Rotterdam 1610/11 – Rotterdam 1670)
Soutman, Pieter (Haarlem 1593/1601 – Haarlem 1657)
Spelt, Adriaen van der (Leiden 1630/31 – Gouda 1673)
Spilberg, Adriana (Amsterdam 1652 – Düsseldorf 1700)
Staveren, Jan Adriaensz van (Leiden 1613/14 – Leiden 1669)
Steen, Jan Havicksz (Leiden 1626 – Leiden 1679)
Steenwijck, Harmen (Delft c. 1612 – Delft? aft. 1656)
Steenwijck, Pieter (Delft c. 1615 – aft. 1656)
Steenwijck, Hendrik II van (Antwerp 1580 – The Hague 1649)
Steenwijck, Susanna van (London aft. 1602 – Amsterdam 1664)
Stom, Matthias (Amersfoort 1600 – Sicilia aft. 1652)
Stoop, Dirck (Utrecht c. 1618 – Utrecht or Hamburg aft. 1681)
Storck, Abraham (Amsterdam 1644 – Amsterdam 1708)
Storck, Jacobus (Amsterdam 1641 – Amsterdam 1692)
Streeck, Hendrick van (Amsterdam 1659 – Amsterdam 1720)
Streeck, Juriaen Hendricksz van (Amsterdam 1632 – Amsterdam 1687)
Striep, Christiaen (Den Bosch 1634 – Amsterdam 1673)
Stuven, Ernst (Hamburg c. 1657 – Rotterdam 1712)
Susenier, Abraham (Leiden c. 1620 – Dordrecht 1672)
Swanenburg, Jacob Isaacsz van (Leiden 1571 – Utrecht 1638)
Swanevelt, Herman van (Woerden 1603 – Paris 1655)
T–U
Tempel, Abraham van den (Leeuwarden 1622 – Amsterdam 1672)
Tengnagel, Jan (Amsterdam 1584 – Amsterdam 1635)
Terborch, Gerard (II) (Zwolle 1617 – Deventer 1681)
Terbrugghen, Hendrick (Utrecht 1588 – Utrecht 1629)
Terwesten, Augustinus (The Hague 1649 – Berlin 1711)
Teyler, Johan (Nijmegen 1648 – Nijmegen, c. 1709)
Thopas, Jan (Arnhem 1625/27 – Assendelft or Westzaandam 1688/95)
Thulden, Theodoor van (Den Bosch 1606 – Den Bosch 1669)
Tol, Domenicus van (Bodegraven c. 1635 – Leiden 1676)
Toorenvliet, Jacob (Leiden 1640 – Oegstgeest 1719)
Torrentius, Johannes (Amsterdam 1589 – Amsterdam 1644)
Treck, Jan (Amsterdam 1605/06 – Amsterdam 1652)
Troyen, Rombout van (Amsterdam 1605 – Amsterdam aft. 1657)
Ulft, Jacob van der (Gorinchem 1627 – Noordwijk 1690)
Uyl, Jan den (Kampen? 1596 – Amsterdam 1639)
Uyttenbroeck, Moses van (The Hague c. 1595 – The Hague 1647)
V
Vaillant, Bernard (Lille 1632 – Leiden 1677)
Vaillant, Jacques (Amsterdam 1643 – Berlin 1691)
Vaillant, Wallerant (Lille 1623 – Amsterdam 1677)
Valckert, Werner van den (The Hague? c. 1580 – Delft? 1644?)
Veen, Otto van (Leiden 1556 – Brussels 1629)
Velde, Adriaen van de (Amsterdam 1636 – Amsterdam 1672)
Velde, Esaias van de (Amsterdam 1587 – The Hague 1630)
Velde, Jan (II) van de (Rotterdam or Delft 1593 – Enkhuizen 1641)
Velde, Jan Jansz (III) van de (Haarlem 1620 – Enkhuizen 1662)
Velde, Willem (I) van de (Leiden 1611 – Greenwich 1693)
Velde, Willem (II) van de (Leiden 1633 – London 1707)
Velsen, Jacob Jansz van (Delft c. 1597 – Amsterdam 1656)
Venne, Adriaen van de (Delft c. 1588 – The Hague 1662)
Verbeeck, Cornelis (Amsterdam? 1585/92 – Haarlem aft. 1637)
Verbeeck, Pieter Cornelisz (Haarlem c. 1600 - Haarlem c. 1653)
Verboom, Adriaen Hendriksz (Rotterdam 1627 – Rotterdam 1673)
Verelst, Herman (Dordrecht 1641 – London 1702)
Verelst, Pieter Hermansz (Dordrecht c. 1618 – Hulst? c. 1678)
Verelst, Simon Pietersz (The Hague 1644 – London 1721)
Verkolje, Jan (Amsterdam 1650 – Delft 1693)
Vermeer, Johannes (Delft 1632 – Delft 1675)
Vermeer van Haarlem, Jan (I) (Haarlem 1628 – Haarlem 1691)
Vermeer van Haarlem, Jan (II) (Haarlem 1656 – Haarlem 1705)
Vermeer van Utrecht (Schipluiden 1630 – Vreeswijk 1695/97)
Verschuier, Lieve (Rotterdam 1627 – Rotterdam 1686)
Verschuring, Hendrick (Gorinchem 1627 – Dordrecht 1690)
Verspronck, Johannes Cornelisz (Haarlem 1600/03 – Haarlem 1662)
Verstraelen, Anthonie (Gorinchem 1594 – Amsterdam 1641)
Vertangen, Daniel (The Hague c. 1630 – Amsterdam 1681)
Verwer, Abraham de (Haarlem c. 1585 – Amsterdam 1650)
Verwer, Justus de (Amsterdam 1625 – Amsterdam 1689)
Verwilt, François (Rotterdam 1620/23 – Rotterdam 1691)
Verzijl, Jan Franse (Gouda 1602/03 – Gouda 1647)
Veth, Jan Damesz de (Gouda c. 1595 – Gouda 1625)
Victors, Jan (Amsterdam 1619 – Java or Moluccas 1676)
Vinckboons, David (Mechelen 1576 – Amsterdam 1631/32)
Vingboons, Johannes (Amsterdam 1616/17 – Amsterdam 1670)
Vinne, Vincent van der (Haarlem 1628 – Haarlem 1702)
Visscher, Cornelis (Haarlem 1628 – Amsterdam 1658)
Vlieger, Simon de (Rotterdam 1600/1 – Weesp 1653)
Vliet, Hendrick Cornelisz van (Delft 1611/12 – Delft 1675)
Vliet, Willem van der (Delft c. 1584 – Delft 1642)
Vogelaer, Carel de (Maastricht 1653 – Rome 1695)
Vois, Ary de (Utrecht 1632/34 – Leiden 1680)
Vonck, Elias (Amsterdam c. 1605 – Amsterdam 1652)
Vonck, Jan (Toruń 1631 – Amsterdam 1664)
Voorhout, Johannes (Uithoorn 1647 – Amsterdam 1717)
Voort, Cornelis van der (Antwerp 1576 – Amsterdam 1624)
Vos, Cornelis de (Hulst 1584 – Antwerp 1651)
Voskuijl, Huijgh Pietersz (Amsterdam 1591 – Amsterdam 1665)
Vosmaer, Daniël (Delft 1622 – Den Briel 1666/70)
Vosmaer, Jacob (Delft c. 1580 – Delft 1641)
Vrel, Jacob (fl. Delft and Haarlem 1654-1662)
Vries, Abraham de (The Hague c. 1590 – The Hague 1649/50)
Vries, Roelof Jansz van (Haarlem 1630/31 – Amsterdam aft. 1681)
Vrije, Adriaan Gerritsz de (Gouda c. 1570 – Gouda 1643)
Vroom, Cornelis Hendriksz (Haarlem or Danzig 1590/91 – Haarlem 1661)
Vroom, Hendrik Cornelisz (Haarlem 1562/63 – Haarlem 1640)
W
Waben, Jacques (Alkmaar 1584/86 – Hoorn 1641/42)
Walscapelle, Jacob van (Dordrecht 1644 – Amsterdam 1727)
Waterloo, Anthonie (Lille 1609 – Utrecht 1690)
Weenix, Jan (Amsterdam 1642 – Amsterdam 1719)
Weenix, Jan Baptist (Amsterdam 1621 – Vleuten 1659)
Werff, Adriaen van der (Kralingen 1659 – Rotterdam 1722)
Werff, Pieter van der (Kralingen 1665 – Rotterdam 1722)
Wet, Jacob de (Haarlem c. 1610 – Haarlem or Cologne aft. 1677)
Wet, Jacob Jacobsz de (Haarlem 1641/42 – Amsterdam 1697)
Wieringen, Cornelis Claesz van (Haarlem 1575/76 – Haarlem 1633)
Wijck, Thomas (Beverwijk c. 1620 – Haarlem 1677)
Wijckersloot, Jan van (Utrecht 1625/30 – Amsterdam 1687)
Wijnants, Jan (Haarlem 1632 – Amsterdam 1684)
Wijtmans, Mattheus (Den Bosch 1638 – Utrecht 1689
Willaerts, Abraham (Utrecht 1607/13 – Utrecht 1669)
Willaerts, Adam (London 1577 – Utrecht 1664)
Willingh, Nicolaes (The Hague 1638/40 – Berlin 1678)
Wissing, Willem (Amsterdam c. 1656 – Stamford, Lincolnshire 1687)
Withoos, Alida (Amersfoort 1659/60 – Hoorn 1730)
Withoos, Matthias (Amersfoort 1627 – Hoorn 1703)
Withoos, Pieter (Amersfoort 1655 – Amsterdam 1692)
Witte, Emanuel de (Alkmaar 1617 – Amsterdam 1692)
Wittel, Caspar van (Amersfoort 1652/56 – Rome 1736)
Wolfsen, Aleijda (Zwolle 1648 – Zwolle 1692)
Wouwerman, Jan (Haarlem 1629 – Haarlem 1666)
Wouwerman, Philips (Haarlem 1619 – Haarlem 1668)
Wouwerman, Pieter (Haarlem 1623 – Amsterdam 1682)
Wtenbrouck, Moyses van (The Hague c. 1595 – The Hague 1647)
Wtewael, Joachim (Utrecht 1566 – Utrecht 1638)
Wtewael, Peter (Utrecht 1596 – Utrecht 1660)
Wyck, Jan (Haarlem 1644/45 or 1652 – Mortlake 1702)
X–Z
Zeelander, Pieter de (Haarlem bef. 1620 – aft. 1648)
Zeeman, Reinier (Amsterdam 1623/24 – Amsterdam 1664)
Zijl, Gerard Pietersz van (Leiden 1607/08 – Amsterdam 1665)
18th century
A-F
Aa, Dirk van der (The Hague, 1731 – The Hague 1809)
Accama, Bernardus (Burum 1697 – Leeuwarden 1756)
Andriessen, Jurriaan (Amsterdam 1742 – Amsterdam 1819)
Jan Augustini, Jan (Groningen 1725 – Haarlem 1773)
Backer, Catharina (Amsterdam 1689 – Leiden 1766)
Balen, Matthijs (Dordrecht 1684 – Dordrecht 1766)
Barbiers, Bartholomeus (Amsterdam 1743 – Amsterdam 1808)
Barbiers, Pieter (Amsterdam 1717 – Amsterdam 1780)
Beijer, Jan de (Aarau 1703 – Cleves 1785)
Bleeck, Peter van (The Hague 1697 – London 1764)
Boonen, Arnold (Dordrecht 1669 – Amsterdam 1729)
Brussel, Hermanus van (Haarlem 1763 – Utrecht 1815)
Brussel, Paul Theodor van (Zuid-Polsbroek 1754 – Amsterdam 1795)
Jan Bulthuis (Groningen 1750 – Amsterdam 1801)
Burg, Adriaan van der (Dordrecht 1693 – Dordrecht 1733)
Burg, Dirk van der (Utrecht 1721 – Utrecht 1773)
Busschop, Abraham (Dordrecht 1670 – Middelburg 1729)
Buys, Jacobus (Amsterdam 1724 – Amsterdam 1801)
Cats, Jacob (Altona, Hamburg 1741 – Amsterdam 1799)
Chalon, Christina (Amsterdam 1749 – Hazerswoude 1808)
Coclers, Louis Bernard (Maastricht 1740 – Liège 1817)
Compe, Jan ten (Amsterdam 1713 – Amsterdam 1761)
Croix, Pierre Frédéric de la (France, 1709 – The Hague 1782)
Croix, Susanna de la (Amsterdam, 1755 – The Hague 1789)
Dalens, Dirck (III) (Amsterdam 1688 – Amsterdam 1753)
Decker, Frans (Haarlem 1684 – Haarlem 1751)
Dijk, Philip van (Oud-Beijerland 1683 – The Hague 1753)
Dongen, Dionys van (Dordrecht 1748 – Rotterdam 1819)
Drielst, Egbert van (Groningen 1745 – Amsterdam 1818)
Ekels the Elder, Jan (Amsterdam 1724 – Amsterdam 1781)
Ekels the Younger, Jan (Amsterdam 1759 – Amsterdam 1793)
Fargue, Jacob Elias la (Voorburg 1735 – The Hague 1778)
Fargue, Karel la (The Hague 1738 – The Hague 1793)
Fargue, Maria Margaretha la (The Hague 1738 – The Hague 1813)
Fargue, Paulus Constantijn la (The Hague 1729 – The Hague 1782)
Frey, Aletta de (Amsterdam 1768 – Mannheim 1808)
Van Edele, Pieter (Amsterdam 1770 - London 1839)
G-M
Gool, Jan van (The Hague 1685 – The Hague 1763)
Graff, Dorothea Maria (Nuremberg 1678 – Saint Petersburg 1743)
Grandjean, Jean (Amsterdam 1752 – Rome 1781)
Grasdorp, Willem (Zwolle 1678 – Amsterdam 1723)
Greve, Aleida (Zwolle 1670 – Zwolle 1742)
Haag, Tethart Philipp Christian (Kassel 1737 – The Hague 1812)
Haverman, Margaretha (Breda 1693 – France? after 1739)
Hendriks, Wybrand (Amsterdam 1744 – Haarlem 1831)
Herolt, Johanna Helena (Frankfurt 1668 – Suriname ? after 1723)
Houbraken, Jacob (Dordrecht 1698 – Amsterdam 1780)
Humbert, Jean (Amsterdam 1734 – Nieuwer-Amstel 1794)
Huysum, Francina Margaretha van (Amsterdam 1707 – Amsterdam 1789)
Huysum, Jacob van (Amsterdam 1688 – London 1740)
Huysum, Jan van (Amsterdam 1682 – Amsterdam 1749)
Jelgerhuis, Rienk (Leeuwarden 1729 – Amsterdam 1806)
Jelgersma, Tako Hajo (Harlingen 1702 – Haarlem 1795)
Keun, Hendrik (Haarlem 1738 – Haarlem 1787)
Kobell, Hendrik (Rotterdam 1751 – Rotterdam 1779)
Kobell, Jan (Delfshaven 1778 – Amsterdam 1814)
Kouwenbergh, Philip van (Amsterdam 1671 – Amsterdam 1729)
Langendijk, Dirk (Rotterdam 1748 – Rotterdam 1805)
Meijer, Hendrik (Amsterdam 1744 – London 1793)
Mieris, Frans II van (Leiden 1689 – Leiden 1763)
Mieris, Willem van (Leiden 1662 – Leiden 1747)
Mijn, Agatha van der (Amsterdam 1700 – England? after 1768)
Mijn, Cornelia van der (Amsterdam 1709 – London 1782)
Mijn, George van der (London 1727 – Amsterdam 1763)
Mijn, Herman van der (Amsterdam 1684 – London 1741)
Moni, Louis de (Breda 1698 – Leiden 1771)
Moninckx, Maria (The Hague 1673/76 – Amsterdam 1757)
Moucheron, Isaac de (Amsterdam 1667 – Amsterdam 1744)
N-R
Netscher, Constantijn (The Hague 1668 – The Hague 1723)
Nickelen, Jacoba Maria van (Haarlem 1680/90 – Amsterdam 1749)
Nijmegen, Dionys van (Rotterdam 1705 – Rotterdam 1798)
Nijmegen, Elias van (Nijmegen 1667 – Rotterdam 1755)
Noorde, Cornelis van (Haarlem 1731 – Amsterdam 1795)
Numan, Hermanus (Ezinge 1744 – Amsterdam 1820)
Os, Jan van (Middelharnis 1744 – The Hague 1808)
Ouwater, Isaac (Amsterdam 1748 – Amsterdam 1793)
Palthe, Gerhard Jan (Denekamp 1681 – Deventer 1767)
Palthe, Jan (Deventer 1717 – Leiden 1769)
Pee, Henriëtta van (Amsterdam 1692 – Haarlem 1741)
Ploos van Amstel, Cornelis (Weesp 1726 – Amsterdam 1798)
Pol, Christiaan van (Heemstede 1752 – Paris 1813)
Ponse, Joris (Dordrecht 1723 – Dordrecht 1783)
Pool Juriaen (Amsterdam 1666 — Amsterdam 1745)
Pothoven, Hendrik (Amsterdam 1725 – The Hague 1807)
Pronk, Cornelis (Amsterdam 1691 – Amsterdam 1759)
Quinkhard, Jan Maurits (Rees 1688 – Amsterdam 1772)
Rademaker, Abraham (Lisse 1676/77 – Haarlem 1735)
Regters, Tibout (Dordrecht 1710 – Amsterdam 1768)
Rietschoof, Hendri (Hoorn 1678 – Koog aan de Zaan 1746)
Roedig, Johannes Christianus (The Hague 1750 – The Hague 1802)
Roepel, Coenraet (The Hague 1678 – The Hague 1748)
Ruysch, Rachel (The Hague 1664 – Amsterdam 1750)
S-Z
Scheffer, Johan Bernard (Homberg 1764 – Amsterdam 1809)
Schouman, Aert (Dordrecht 1710 – The Hague 1792)
Silo, Adam (Amsterdam 1674 – Amsterdam 1760)
Spaendonck, Cornelis van (Tilburg 1756 – Paris 1839)
Spaendonck, Gerard van (Tilburg 1746 – Paris 1822)
Spilman, Hendrik (Amsterdam 1721 – Haarlem 1784)
Stolker, Jan (Amsterdam 1724 – Rotterdam 1785)
Strij, Abraham van (Dordrecht 1753 – Dordrecht 1826)
Strij, Jacob van (Dordrecht 1756 – Dordrecht 1815)
Sypesteyn, Maria Machteld van (Haarlem 1724 – Heemstede 1774)
Tavnier, Hendrik (Haarlem 1734 – Haarlem 1807)
Terwesten, Mattheus (The Hague 1670 – Berlin 1757)
Troost, Cornelis (Amsterdam 1696 – Amsterdam 1750)
Troost, Sara (Amsterdam 1732 – Amsterdam 1803)
Troost, Willem (Amsterdam 1684 – Amsterdam 1752)
Valkenburg, Dirk (Amsterdam 1675 – Amsterdam 1721)
Vanderlyn, Pieter (Netherlands 1687 – Kingston, New York? 1778)
Verbruggen, Jan (Enkhuizen 1712 – London 1781)
Verelst, Cornelis (Amsterdam 1667 – London 1734)
Verheyden, Mattheus (Breda 1700 – The Hague 1776)
Verkolje, Nicolaas (Delft 1673 – Amsterdam 1746)
Vermeulen, Andries (Dordrecht 1763 – Amsterdam 1814)
Vinkeles, Reinier (Amsterdam 1741 – Amsterdam 1816)
Vinne, Vincent Jansz van der (Haarlem 1736 – Haarlem 1811)
Vinne, Vincent Laurensz van der (Haarlem 1686 – Haarlem 1742)
Walraven, Isaac (Amsterdam 1686 – Amsterdam 1765)
Wandelaar, Jan (Amsterdam 1690 – Leiden 1759)
Wassenbergh, Elisabeth Geertruida (Groningen 1729 – Groningen 1781)
Wassenbergh, Jan Abel (Groningen 1689 – Groningen 1750)
Weenix, Maria (Amsterdam 1697 – Amsterdam 1774)
Werff, Adriaen van der (Kralingen 1659 – Rotterdam 1722)
Werff, Pieter van der (Kralingen 1665 – Rotterdam 1722)
Weyerman, Jacob Campo (Charleroi 1677 – The Hague 1747)
Wigmana, Gerard (Workum 1673 – Amsterdam 1741)
Wilkens, Theodoor (Amsterdam 1682 – Amsterdam 1748)
Wilt, Thomas van der (Piershil 1659 – Delft 1733)
Wit, Jacob de (Amsterdam 1695 – Amsterdam 1754)
Xavery, Frans (The Hague 1740 – after 1788)
Zegelaar, Gerrit (Loenen aan de Vecht 1719 – Wageningen 1794)
19th century
A-G
Abels, Jacob (Amsterdam 1803 – Abcoude 1866)
Abrahams, Anna Adelaïde (Middelburg 1849 – The Hague 1930)
Allebé, August (Amsterdam 1838 – Amsterdam 1927)
Alma-Tadema, Lawrence (Dronrijp 1836 – Wiesbaden 1912)
Andriessen, Christiaan (Amsterdam 1775 – Amsterdam 1846)
Apol, Louis (The Hague 1850 – The Hague 1936)
Artan de Saint-Martin, Louis (The Hague 1837 – Oostduinkerke 1890)
Artz, Adolph (The Hague 1837 – The Hague 1890)
Bakker Korff, Alexander Hugo (The Hague 1824 – Leiden 1882)
Barbiers, Maria Geertruida (Haarlem 1801 – Haarlem 1879)
Bastert, Nicolaas (Maarssen 1854 – Loenen aan de Vecht 1939)
Bilders, Gerard (Utrecht 1838 – The Hague 1865)
Bilders, Johannes (Utrecht 1811 – Oosterbeek 1890)
Bilders-van Bosse, Marie (Amsterdam 1837 – Wiesbaden 1900)
Bisschop (Leeuwarden 1828 – The Hague 1904)
Bisschop, Richard (Leeuwarden 1849 – Bergen 1926)
Bisschop-Swift, Kate (London 1834 – The Hague 1928)
Bles, David (The Hague 1821 – The Hague 1899)
Blommers, Bernardus Johannes (The Hague 1845 – The Hague 1914)
Bock, Théophile de (The Hague 1851 – Haarlem 1914)
Boellaard, Margaretha Cornelia (Utrecht 1795 – Utrecht 1872)
Borselen, Jan Willem van (Gouda 1825 – The Hague 1892)
Bosch Reitz, Gijs (Amsterdam 1860 – Amsterdam 1938)
Bosboom, Johannes (The Hague 1817 – The Hague 1891)
Braakensiek, Johan (Amsterdam 1858 – Amsterdam 1940)
Brandt, Albertus Jonas (Amsterdam 1787 – Amsterdam 1821)
Breitner, George Hendrik (Rotterdam 1857 – Amsterdam 1923)
Brondgeest, Albertus (Amsterdam 1786 – Amsterdam 1849)
Calisch, Moritz (Amsterdam 1819 – Amsterdam 1870)
Caspel (Ootmarsum 1870 – Utrecht 1928)
Cate, Siebe Johannes ten (Sneek 1858 – Paris 1908)
Cornet, Jacobus Ludovicus (Leiden 1815 – Leiden 1882)
Craeyvanger, Gijsbertus (Utrecht 1810 – Amsterdam 1875)
Craeyvanger, Reinier (Utrecht 1812 – Amsterdam 1880)
Daiwaille, Jean Augustin (Cologne 1786 – Amsterdam 1850)
Dankmeijer, Charles (Amsterdam 1861 – Scheveningen 1923)
Derkinderen, Antoon (20 December 1859 – Amsterdam, 2 November 1925)
Dijsselhof, Gerrit Willem (Zwollerkerspel 1866 – Overveen 1924)
Doeleman, Jan Hendrik (Rotterdam 1848 – Voorburg 1913)
Dommersen, Cornelis Christiaan (Utrecht 1842 – The Hague 1928)
Dommersen, Pieter Cornelis (Utrecht 1834 – Hexham 1918)
Eelkema, Eelke Jelles (Leeuwarden 1788, Leeuwarden 1839)
Eerelman, Otto (Groningen 1839 – Groningen 1926)
Egenberger, Johannes Hinderikus (Arnhem 1822 – Utrecht 1897)
Ehnle, Adrianus Johannes (The Hague 1819 – Haarlem 1863)
Enschedé, Catharina Jacoba Abrahamina (Haarlem 1828 – Bloemendaal 1883)
Eversen, Adrianus (Amsterdam 1818 – Delft 1897)
Famars Testas, Willem de (Utrecht 1834 – Arnhem 1896)
Fontijn, Pieter (Dordrecht 1773 – Dordrecht 1839)
Frankfort, Eduard (Meppel 1864 – Laren 1920)
Gaal, Jacobus Cornelis (Oost-Souburg 1796 – Kampen 1866)
Gabriël, Paul (Amsterdam 1828 – Scheveningen 1903)
Gaykema Jacobsz, Jan (Heemstede 1798 – Leiden 1875)
Gogh, Vincent van (Zundert 1853 – Auvers-sur-Oise 1890)
Goovaerts, Henri (Maastricht 1865 – Maastricht 1912)
Greive, Johan Conrad (Amsterdam 1837 – Amsterdam 1891)
Greive, Petrus Franciscus (Amsterdam 1811 – Amsterdam 1872)
H-K
Haan, Meijer de (Amsterdam 1852 – Amsterdam 1895)
Haanen, Adriana Johanna (Oosterhout 1814 – Oosterbeek 1895)
Haanen, Elisabeth Alida (Utrecht 1809 – Amsterdam 1845)
Haanen, George Gillis (Utrecht 1807 – Bilzen 1879)
Haanen, Remigius Adrianus (Oosterhout 1812 – Bad Aussee 1894)
Haas, Johannes Hubertus Leonardus de (Hedel 1832 – Königswinter 1908)
Haas, Maurits Frederik Hendrik de (Rotterdam 1832 – New York City 1895)
Haas, Willem Frederik de (Rotterdam 1830 – Faial 1880)
Haaxman, Pieter (The Hague 1854 – Haarlem 1937)
Hanedoes, Louwrens (Woudrichem 1822 – Woudrichem 1905)
Hansen, Carel Lodewijk (Amsterdam 1765 – Epe 1840)
Hansen, Lambertus Johannes (Staphorst 1803 – Amsterdam 1859)
Hart Nibbrig, Ferdinand (Amsterdam 1866 – Laren 1915)
Heemskerck van Beest, Jacob Eduard van (Kampen 1828 – The Hague, 1894)
Hoevenaar, Cornelis Willem (Utrecht 1802 – Utrecht 1873)
Hoevenaar, Willem Pieter (Utrecht 1808 – Utrecht 1863)
Hogendorp-s'Jacob, Adrienne van (Batavia 1857 – Scheveningen 1920)
Houten, Gerrit van (Groningen 1866 – Santpoort 1934)
Hove, Bartholomeus Johannes van (The Hague 1790 – The Hague 1880)
Hoynck van Papendrecht, Jan (Amsterdam 1858 – The Hague 1933)
Hove, Hubertus van (The Hague 1814 – Antwerp 1864)
Hubrecht, Bramine (Rotterdam 1855 – Holmbury St Mary 1913)
Hugenholtz, Arina (Cillaarshoek 1848 – Laren 1934)
Huijsmans, Constant Cornelis (Breda 1810 – The Hague 1886)
Hulk, Abraham, Senior (London 1813 – Zevenaar 1897)
Hulk, Johannes Frederik (Amsterdam 1829 – Haarlem 1911)
Israëls, Jozef (Groningen 1824 – Scheveningen 1911)
Israëls, Isaac (Amsterdam 1865 – The Hague 1934)
Isselt, Lucie van Dam van (Bergen op Zoom 1871 – The Hague 1949)
Jelgerhuis, Johannes (Leeuwarden 1770 – Amsterdam 1836)
Jongkind, Johan Barthold (Lattrop 1819 – La Côte-Saint-André 1891)
Josselin de Jong, Pieter de (Sint-Oedenrode 1861 – The Hague 1906)
Kaemmerer, Frederik Hendrik (The Hague 1839 – Paris 1902)
Karsen, Eduard (Amsterdam 1860 – Amsterdam 1941)
Karsen, Kasparus (Amsterdam 1810 – Bieberich 1896)
Kate, Herman Frederik Carel ten (Amsterdam 1837 – Amsterdam 1894)
Keulemans, Johannes Gerardus (Rotterdam 1842 – Essex 1912)
Kever, Hein (Amsterdam 1854 – Amsterdam 1922)
Kiers, Petrus (Meppel 1807 – Amsterdam 1875)
Kikkert, Jan Elias (Amsterdam 1843 – Leiden 1925)
Kleijn, Pieter Rudolph (Hooge Zwaluwe 1785 – Leiden 1816)
Klinkenberg, Johannes Christiaan Karel (The Hague 1852 – The Hague 1924)
Knip, Henriëtte Geertruida (Tilburg 1783 – Haarlem 1843)
Knip, Joseph August (Tilburg 1777 – Berlicum 1847)
Koekkoek, Barend Cornelis (Middelburg 1803 – Cleves 1862)
Koekkoek, Hendrik Pieter (Hilversum 1843 – England 1890s)
Koekkoek, Hermanus (Middelburg 1815 – Haarlem 1882)
Koekkoek, Hermanus Willem (Amsterdam 1867 – Amsterdam 1929)
Koekkoek, Johannes Hermanus (Veere 1778 – Amsterdam 1851)
Koekkoek, Johannes Hermanus Barend (Amsterdam 1840 – Hilversum 1912)
Koekkoek, Marinus Adrianus (Middelburg 1807 – Amsterdam 1868)
Koekkoek, Willem (Amsterdam 1839 – Niewer-Amstel 1885)
Koekkoek-Daiwaille, Elise Thérèse (Amsterdam 1814 – Koblenz 1881)
Koelman, Jan Philip (The Hague 1818 – The Hague 1893)
Koning, Elisabeth Johanna (Haarlem 1816 – Rotterdam 1887)
Koster, Everhardus (The Hague 1817 – Dordrecht 1892)
Krieghoff, Cornelius (Amsterdam 1815 – Chicago 1872)
Kruseman, Cornelis (Amsterdam 1797 – Lisse 1857)
Kruseman, Jan Adam (Haarlem 1804 – Haarlem 1862)
Kruseman van Elten, Hendrik Dirk (Alkmaar 1823 – Paris 1904)
L-R
Lamme, Arie Johannes (Dordrecht 1812 – Berg en Dal 1900)
Leickert, Charles (Brussels 1816 – Mainz 1907)
Linssen, Henri (Roermond 1805 – Roermond 1869)
Looy, Jacobus van (Haarlem 1855 – Haarlem 1930)
Maaten, Jacob Jan van der (Elburg 1820 – Apeldoorn 1879)
Maris, Jacob (The Hague 1837 – Karlsbad 1899)
Maris, Matthijs (The Hague 1839 – London 1917)
Maris, Willem (The Hague 1844 – The Hague 1910)
Maris, Grada Hermina (Hengelo 1854 – The Hague 1919)
Mauve, Anton (Zaandam 1838 – Arnhem 1888)
Meijer, Louis (Amsterdam 1809 – Utrecht 1866)
Meijer de Haan, Isaäc de (Amsterdam 1852 – Amsterdam 1895)
Mesdag, Hendrik Willem (Groningen 1831 – The Hague 1915)
Mesdag, Taco (Groningen 1829 – The Hague 1902)
Mesdag-van Calcar, Geesje (Hoogezand 1850 – The Hague 1936)
Mesdag-van Houten, Sina (Groningen 1834 – The Hague 1909)
Michaëlis, Gerrit Jan (Amsterdam 1775 – Haarlem 1857)
Moes, Wally (Amsterdam 1856 – Laren 1918)
Mol, Woutherus (Haarlem 1785 – Haarlem 1857)
Mollinger, Alexander (Utrecht 1836 – Utrecht 1867)
Mooy, Jan (Callantsoog 1776 – Den Helder 1847)
Muller, Gerard (Amsterdam 1861 – Amsterdam 1929)
Neuhuys, Albert (Utrecht 1844 – Locarno 1914)
Neuman, Clasine (Amsterdam 1851 – The Hague 1908)
Nuijen, Wijnand (The Hague 1813 – The Hague 1839)
Oort, Hendrik van (Utrecht 1775 – Utrecht 1847)
Os, Georgius Jacobus Johannes van (The Hague 1782 – Paris 1861)
Os, Pieter Frederik van (Amsterdam 1808 – Haarlem 1892)
Os, Pieter Gerardus van (The Hague 1776 – The Hague 1839)
Oever, Albarta ten (Groningen 1771 – Groningen 1854)
Oyens, David (Amsterdam 1842 – Brussels 1902)
Oyens, Pieter (Amsterdam 1842 – Brussels 1894)
Pieneman, Jan Willem (Abcoude 1779 – Amsterdam 1853)
Pieneman, Nicolaas (Amersfoort 1809 – Amsterdam 1860)
Pieters, Evert (Amsterdam 1856 – Laren 1932)
Pitloo, Antonie Sminck (Arnhem 1790 – Naples 1837)
Poggenbeek, George (Amsterdam 1853 – Amsterdam 1903)
Prooijen, Albert Jurardus van (Groningen 1834 – Amsterdam 1898)
Rappard, Anthon van (Zeist 1858 – Santpoort 1892)
Ravenswaay, Adriana van (Hilversum 1816 – Hilversum 1872)
Ravenswaay, Jan van (Hilversum 1789 – Hilversum 1869)
Reekers, Hendrik (Haarlem 1815 – Haarlem 1854)
Repelius, Betsy (Amsterdam 1848 – Amsterdam 1921)
Robertson, Suze (The Hague 1855 – The Hague 1922)
Rochussen, Charles (Rotterdam 1814 – Rotterdam 1894)
Roelofs, Willem (Amsterdam 1822 – Berchem 1897)
Roeters van Lennep, Catharina Julia (Amsterdam 1813 – Amsterdam 1883)
Ronner-Knip, Henriette (Amsterdam 1821 – Elsene 1909)
Roosenboom, Margaretha (The Hague 1843 – Voorburg 1896)
Roosenboom, Nicolaas Johannes (Schellingwoude 1805 – Assen 1880)
S-Z
Sadée, Philip (The Hague 1837 – The Hague 1904)
Sande Bakhuyzen, Gerardine van de (The Hague 1827 – The Hague 1895)
Sande Bakhuyzen, Hendrikus van de (The Hague 1795 – The Hague 1860)
Sande Bakhuyzen, Julius van de (The Hague 1835 – The Hague 1925)
Scheffer, Ary (Dordrecht 1795 – Argenteuil 1858)
Scheffer, Cornelia (Dordrecht 1769 – Paris 1839)
Scheffer, Hendrik (The Hague 1798 – Paris 1858)
Schelfhout, Andreas (The Hague 1787 – The Hague 1870)
Scheltema, Jan Hendrik (The Hague 1861 – Brisbane 1941)
Schendel, Petrus van (Terheijden 1806 – Brussels 1870)
Schmetterling, Elisabeth Barbara (Amsterdam 1801 – Amsterdam 1881)
Schoemaker Doyer, Jacobus (Crefeld 1792 – Zutphen 1867)
Scholten, Hendrik Jacobus (Amsterdam 1824 – Heemstede 1907)
Schot, Francina Louise (Rotterdam 1816 – Schaerbeek 1894)
Schotel, Johannes Christiaan (Dordrecht 1787 – Dordrecht 1838)
Schotel, Petrus Johannes (Dordrecht 1808 – Dresden 1865)
Schouman, Martinus (Dordrecht 1770 – Breda 1848)
Schwartze, Thérèse (Amsterdam 1851 – Amsterdam 1918)
Smit, Joseph (Lisse 1836 – Radlett 1929)
Smits, Jacob (Rotterdam 1855 – Achterbos-Sluis 1928)
Snabilie, Maria Geertruida (Haarlem 1776 – Haarlem 1838)
Spohler, Jan Jacob Coenraad (Amsterdam 1837 – Amsterdam 1894)
Spohler, Johannes Franciscus (Rotterdam 1853 – Amsterdam 1923)
Springer, Cornelis (Amsterdam 1817 – Hilversum 1891)
Steelink, Willem (Amsterdam 1856 – Voorburg 1928)
Storm van 's-Gravesande, Carel Nicolaas (Breda 1841 – The Hague 1924)
Stroebel, Johannes Anthonie Balthasar (The Hague 1821 – Leiden 1905)
Suij, Pauline (Amersfoort 1863 – Amsterdam 1949)
Teerlink, Abraham (Dordrecht 1776 – Rome 1857)
Toorop, Jan (Purworedjo, Java 1858 – The Hague 1928)
Troostwijk, Wouter Johannes van (Amsterdam 1782 – Amsterdam 1810)
Velde, Charles William Meredith van de (Leeuwarden 1818 – Menton 1898)
Velden, Petrus van der (Rotterdam 1837 – Auckland 1913)
Verschuur, Wouterus (Amsterdam 1812 – Vorden 1874)
Verster, Floris (Leiden 1861 – Leiden 1927)
Verveer, Salomon (The Hague 1813 – Tha Hague 1876)
Veth, Jan (Dordrecht 1864 – Amsterdam 1925)
Vogel, Johannes Gijsbert (Hooge Zwaluwe 1828 – Velp 1915)
Voogd, Hendrik (Amsterdam 1768 – Rome 1839)
Vos, Hubert (Maastricht 1855 – New York 1935)
Vos, Maria (Amsterdam 1824 – Oosterbeek 1906)
Waay, Nicolaas van der (Amsterdam 1855 – Amsterdam 1936)
Waldorp, Anthonie (The Hague 1803 – Amsterdam 1866)
Weele, Herman Johannes van der (Middelburg 1852 – The Hague 1930)
Weissenbruch, Jan (The Hague 1822 – The Hague 1880)
Weissenbruch, Jan Hendrik (The Hague 1824 – The Hague 1903)
Wijnveld, Barend (Amsterdam 1820 – Haarlem 1902)
Wijsmuller, Jan Hillebrand (Amsterdam 1855 – Amsterdam 1925)
Witkamp, Ernst (Amsterdam 1854 – Amsterdam 1897)
Witsen, Willem (Amsterdam 1860 – Amsterdam 1923)
Wonder, Pieter Christoffel (Utrecht 1780 – Amsterdam 1852)
Zilcken, Philip (The Hague 1857 – Villefranche-sur-Mer 1930)
Zwart, Willem de (The Hague 1862 – The Hague 1931)
20th century
A-F
Adolfs, Gerard Pieter (Semarang 1897 – Den Bosch 1968)
Akkeringa, Johannes Evert Hendrik (Bangka 1861 – Amersfoort 1942)
Altink, Jan (Groningen 1885 – The Hague 1971)
Ansingh, Lizzy (Utrecht 1875 – Amsterdam 1959)
Appel, Karel (Amsterdam 1921 – Zürich 2006)
Armando (Amsterdam 1929 – Potsdam 2018)
Arntzenius, Floris (Surabaya 1864 – The Hague 1925)
Bach, Franciscus Hermanus (Groningen 1865 – Groningen 1956)
Balth, Carel (Rotterdam 1939)
Bastin, Marjolein (Loenen aan de Vecht 1943)
Bauer, Jo (Amsterdam 1873 – Amsterdam 1964)
Bauer, Marius (The Hague 1867 – Amsterdam 1932)
Beek, Bernard van (Amsterdam 1875 – Kortenhoef 1941)
Berkemeier, Ludolph (Tilburg 1864 – Noordwijk 1930)
Berens, Chris (Oss 1976)
Bikkers, Rudolf (Hilversum 1943)
Bogart, Bram (Delft 1921 – Sint-Truiden 2012)
Bol, Kees (Oegstgeest 1916 – Waalwijk 2009)
Bol, Henri (Eindhoven 1945 – Den Bosch 2000)
Bouter, Henk de (1968)
Breman, Co (Zwolle 1865 – Laren 1938)
Bolsius, Charles, (Den Bosch 1907 – Tucson, Arizona 1983)
Broeckman, Anne Marinus (1874–1946)
Bruckman, Lodewijk (The Hague 1903 – Leeuwarden 1995)
Bruna, Dick (Utrecht 1927 – Utrecht 2017)
Chabot, Henk (Sprang-Capelle 1894 – Rotterdam 1949)
Citroen, Paul (Berlin 1896 – Wassenaar 1983)
Constant (Amsterdam 1921 – Utrecht 2005)
Corneille (Liège 1922 – Paris 2010)
Cox, Jan (The Hague 1919 – Antwerp 1980)
Does, Willem Jan Pieter van der (Rotterdam 1889 - Zeist 1966)
Daniëls, René (Eindhoven 1950)
Deutmann, Franz (Zwolle 1867 – Blaricum 1915)
Doesburg, Theo van (Utrecht 1883 – Davos 1931)
Doorn, Tinus van (Padang 1905 – Uccle 1940)
Doeve, Eppo (Bandung 1907 – Amsterdam 1981)
Domela Nieuwenhuis, César (Amsterdam 1900 – Paris 1992)
Dongen, Kees van (Delfshaven 1877 – Monte Carlo 1968)
Dumas, Marlene (Cape Town 1953)
Eeden, Marcel van (The Hague 1965)
Escher, Maurits Cornelis (Leeuwarden 1898 – Hilversum 1972)
Eyck, Charles (Meerssen 1898 – Schimmert 1972)
Fernhout, Edgar (Bergen 1912 – Bergen 1974)
Frankot, Roelof (Meppel 1911 – Raalte 1984)
G-L
Garf, Salomon (Amsterdam 1879 – Auschwitz 1943)
Gebski, Ed (Heerlen 1959)
Genk, Willem van (Voorburg 1921 – The Hague 2005)
Gestel, Leo (Woerden 1881 – Hilversum 1941)
Gildemeester, Anna (Amsterdam 1867 – Florence 1945)
Goede, Jules de (Rotterdam 1937 – London 2007)
Golden, Daan van (Katendrecht 1936 – Schiedam 2017)
Gorter, Arnold Marc (Almelo 1866 – Amsterdam 1933)
Gregoor, Jan (The Hague 1914 – Veldhoven 1982)
Graafland, Rob (Maastricht 1875 – Heerlen 1940)
Gubbels, Klaas (Rotterdam 1934)
Haaren, Dirk van (Amsterdam 1878 – Amsterdam 1953)
Haaxman, Pieter (The Hague 1854 – Haarlem 1937)Hartwig, Peter (Hoogezand 1963)
Heemskerck, Jacoba van (The Hague 1876 – Domburg 1923)
Heijenbrock, Herman (Amsterdam 1871 – Blaricum 1948)
Heijnes, Marinus (Amsterdam 1888 – Kaag 1963)
Hellendoorn, Eduard ( Amsterdam 1912 – Waalsdorpervlakte 1941)
Herwijnen, Jan van (Delft 1889 – Bergen 1965)
Heyboer, Anton (Sabang, Sumatra 1924 – Den Ilp 2005)
Heusden, Wout van (Rotterdam 1896 – Rotterdam 1982)
Hofhuizen, Willem (Amsterdam 1915 – Maastricht 1986)
Hoog, Bernard de (Amsterdam 1867 – The Hague 1943)
Houten, Barbara Elisabeth van (Groningen 1863 – The Hague 1950)
Houten, Gerrit van (Groningen 1866 – Santpoort 1934)
Hoynck van Papendrecht, Jan (Amsterdam 1858 – The Hague 1933)
Huszar, Vilmos (Budapest 1884 – Harderwijk 1960)
Israëls, Isaac (Amsterdam 1865 – The Hague 1934)
Jongh, Tinus de (Amsterdam 1885 – Bloemfontein 1942)
Jungmann, Nico (Amsterdam 1872 – London 1935)
Kamerlingh Onnes, Harm (Zoeterwoude 1893 – Leiden 1985)
Karsen, Eduard (Amsterdam 1860 – Amsterdam 1941)
Kat, Otto B. de (Dordrecht 1907 – Laren 1995)
Ket, Dick (Den Helder 1902 – Bennekom 1940)
Klein, Fred (Bandung 1898 – Paris 1990)
Koch, Pyke (Beek 1901 – Amsterdam 1991)
Koekkoek, Marinus Adrianus (II) (Amsterdam 1873 – Amsterdam 1944)
Koekkoek, Hermanus Willem (Amsterdam 1867 – Amsterdam 1929)
Koekkoek, Stephen Robert (London 1887 – Santiago 1934)
Kooi, Jan van der (Groningen 1957)
Kooning, Willem de (Rotterdam 1904 – East Hampton 1997)
Koppelaar, Frans (The Hague 1943)
Kort, Kees de (Nijkerk 1934)
Krabbé, Hendrik Maarten (London 1868 – Amsterdam 1931)
Kruyder, Herman (Lage Vuursche 1881 – Amsterdam 1935)
Labeij, Willem (Rotterdam 1943 – Dokkum 2011)
Laguna, Baruch Lopes Leão de (Amsterdam 1864 – Auschwitz 1943)
Leck, Bart van der (Utrecht 1876 – Blaricum 1958)
Lo-A-Njoe, Guillaume (Amsterdam 1937)
Lucebert (Amsterdam 1924 – Alkmaar 1994)
Luns, Huib (Paris 1881 – Amsterdam 1942)
Lussenburg, Jos (Enkhuizen 1898 – Nunspeet 1975)
M-S
Maas, Tjaarke (Lopik 1974 – Assisi 2004)
Mackenzie, Marie Henry (Rotterdam 1878 – Hilversum 1961)
Maks, Kees (Amsterdam 1876 – Amsterdam 1967)
Mankes, Jan (Meppel 1889 – Eerbeek 1920)
Meegeren, Han van (Deventer 1889 – Amsterdam 1947)
Mees, Herman (Veendam 1880 – Zuidlaren 1964)
Melchers, Cor (Huissen 1954 – Huissen 2015)
Meijer, Sal (Amsterdam 1877 – Blaricum 1965)
Molkenboer, Theo (Leeuwarden 1871 – Lugano 1920)
Mondriaan, Piet (Amersfoort 1872 – New York 1944)
Moulijn, Simon (Rotterdam 1866 – The Hague 1948)
Muller, Gerard (Amsterdam 1861 – Amsterdam 1929)
Nerée tot Babberich, Karel de (Zevenaar 1880 – Todtmoos 1909)
Niekerk, Maurits (Amsterdam 1871 – Paris 1940)
Nieuwenkamp, W. O. J. (Amsterdam 1874 – Fiesole 1950)
Nieuwenhuys, Constant (Amsterdam 1920 – Utrecht 2005)
Nieuwenhuys, Jan (Amsterdam 1922 – Amsterdam 1986)
Numans, Henriëtte Gesina (Sintang, Borneo 1877 – Zeist 1955)
Oomens, Wilhelm Josef, (The Hague 1918 – Nijmegen 2008)
Ouborg, Piet (Dordrecht 1893 – The Hague 1956)
Coen van Oven (Dordrecht 1883 – Amsterdam 1963)
Pieck, Anton (Den Helder 1895 – Overveen 1987)
Pinkhof, Leonard (Amsterdam 1898 – Sobibor extermination camp 1943)
Poortvliet, Rien (Schiedam 1932 – Soest 1995)
Postma, Gerriet (Twijzelerheide 1932 – Groningen 2009)
Pott, Alida Jantina (Groningen 1888 – Groningen 1931)
Raedecker, Michael (Amsterdam 1963)
Rees, Otto van (Freiburg 1884 – Utrecht 1957)
Rijkhart de Voogd, Thierry (Grand-Couronne 1944 – Zutphen 1999)
Ritsema, Coba (Haarlem 1876 – Amsterdam 1961)
Roëde, Jan (Groningen 1914 – The Hague 2007)
Röling, Matthijs (Oostkapelle 1943)
Schrofer, Willem (Scheveningen 1898 – Leiden 1968)
Schuhmacher, Wim (Amsterdam 1894 – Amsterdam 1986)
Schulten, Ton (Ootmarsum 1938)
Sierhuis, Jan (Amsterdam 1928)
Sluijters, Jan ('s-Hertogenbosch 1881 – Amsterdam 1957)
Sluiter, Willy (Amersfoort 1873 – The Hague 1949)
Sparnaay, Tjalf (Hilversum 1954)
Smit, Arie (Zaandam 1916 – Denpasar 2016)
Smorenberg, Dirk (Alkmaar 1883 – Oud-Loosdrecht 1960)
Stapel, Dick (The Hague 1942)
Staveren, Jean-Marie van (Rotterdam 1946)
Sterkenburg, Peter (Harlingen 1955 – Zurich 2000)
Stoop, Pieter (Breda 1946)
Stuivenberg, Piet van (Schiedam 1901 – Schiedam 1988)
Surie, Jacoba (Amsterdam 1879 – Amsterdam 1970)
T-Z
Teixeira de Mattos, Joseph (Amsterdam 1892 – Paris 1971)
Theuns, Jan (Breda 1877 – Breda 1961)
Thieme, Anthony (Rotterdam 1888 – Greenwich Village 1954)
Thole, Karel (Bussum 1914 – Cannobio 2000)
Tholen, Willem Bastiaan (Amsterdam 1860 – The Hague 1931)
Thorn Prikker, Johan (The Hague 1868 – Cologne 1932)
Kees Timmer (Zaandam 1903 – Rotterdam 1978)
Toorop, Charley (Katwijk 1891 – Bergen 1955)
Vanderheyden, JCJ (Den Bosch 1928 – Den Bosch 2012)
Veen, Julie van der Veen (Kudus, Java 1903 – Scheveningen 1997)
Velde, Bram van (Zoeterwoude 1895 – Grimaud 1981)
Velde, Geer van (Lisse 1898 – Cachan 1977)
Veldhuizen, Willem van (Rotterdam 1954)
Veltman, Thierry (Bussum 1939 – Dordrecht? 2023)
Verkade, Jan (Zaandam 1868 – Beuron 1946)
Verster, Floris (Leiden 1861 – Leiden 1927)
Verwey, Kees (Amsterdam 1900 – Haarlem 1995)
Veth, Jan (Dordrecht 1864 – Amsterdam 1925)
Visser, Cor (Spaarndam 1903 – Ipswich 1982)
Voorden, August Willem van (Rotterdam 1881 – Rotterdam 1921)
Voskuil, Jo (Breda 1897 – Amsterdam 1972)
Waay, Nicolaas van der (Amsterdam 1855 – Amsterdam 1936)
Westerik, Co (The Hague 1924 – Rotterdam 2018)
Westermann, Gerhard (Leeuwarden 1880 – Amsterdam 1971)
Wiegers, Jan (Kommerzijl 1893 – Amsterdam 1959)
Wiegman, Piet (Zwolle 1885 – Alkmaar 1963)
Wijngaarden, Theo van (Rotterdam 1874 – Voorburg 1952)
Wijsmuller, Jan Hillebrand (Amsterdam 1855 – Amsterdam 1925)
Willink, Carel (Amsterdam 1900 – Amsterdam 1983)
Woerden, Henk van (Leiden 1947 – Ann Arbor 2005)
Wortel, Ans (Alkmaar 1929 – Hilvarenbeek 1996)
Zandleven, Jan Adam (Koog aan de Zaan 1868 – Rhenen 1923)
Zon, Jacques (The Hague 1872 – The Hague 1932)
Zwart, Willem de (The Hague 1862 – The Hague 1931)
See also
List of Dutch sculptors
List of Dutch artists
References
Sources
Netherlands Institute for Art History
artcyclopedia
Grove Dictionary of Art
Dutch painters
Painters
Dutch |
4432697 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steve%20Dixon%20%28actor%29 | Steve Dixon (actor) | Stephen Robert Dixon (born 1956 in Manchester, England) is a British actor and academic.
Early life
He studied performing arts at the Victoria University of Manchester, graduating in the same class as Rik Mayall. He worked as an actor for many years, taking minor roles in films like Privates on Parade and on television shows including The Young Ones and The Krypton Factor. For three years in the early 1980s he began working as a stand-up comic at The Comedy Store in London. He also worked in theatre, most notably with directors such as Nicholas Hytner, Steven Berkoff and Richard Eyre as well as working with experimental theatre companies Incubus and Lumiere & Son. He has directed productions himself in Mexico, Latvia and the UK, and produced an opera for the theatre company Opera North. Dixon has also directed five independent films which include large-scale movies produced through community texts. He also won an Industrial Society directing award for corporate video. He has also been the Director of Training for Glasgow Film and Video Workshop. Dixon has directed television programmes for Anglia and Granada Television, where he also produced an arts series. In 1984 Dixon appeared on Coronation Street as a taxi driver escorting the long serving character Elsie Tanner out of Weatherfield after 24 years on the show and 45 years on the street.
He turned to lecturing during the 1990s, and has since become a noted academic in the field of performing arts. Originally working at the University of Salford, he has since moved to Brunel University in London, where he was head of the School of Arts, and later from 2008 one of the university's Pro-Vice-Chancellors. One of his main publications is the book on Digital Performance published by MIT Press.
Academic background
University of Salford
Steve Dixon is a noted academic in the field of performing arts, in the 1990s he started lecturing at the University of Salford. Between 1991 and 2005 he was the Associate Head (Teaching and Learning) of the School of Media, Music and Performance at the University of Salford. In 1992 he co-founded the first honours degree combining media and performance. And then in 1994 he created the first UK module for Stand-up comedy, one of the former students of the course being Peter Kay.
Dixon also created the theatre company 'The Chameleons Group' in 1994, in which he was the director. They aimed to explore new ways to create multimedia performances and produced four performances whilst Steve Dixon was at the University of Salford. The four performances 'The Chameleon Group' produced were: ‘Chameleons: The Dark Perversity’ in 1994, ‘Chameleons 2: theatre in a movie screen’ in 1999, ‘Chameleons3: Net Congestion’ in 2000 and ‘Chameleons 4: The Doors of Serenity’ in 2002. All of their performances where part of Steve Dixon's practice-as-research.
Between the Years 1999 and 2000 Dixon began working on, and became the co-director of the Digital Performance Archive. Whilst at the University of Salford he published several articles which address a range of subjects including performance studies, gender, virtual theatre, pedagogy and cybertheory in leading journals such as The Drama Review (TDR), CTHEORY and Digital Creativity. Dixon also published two CD-ROMs which document and analyse the work of his multimedia theatre company, The Chameleons Group. One in 1996 called 'Chameleons: theatrical experiments in style, genre and multi-media’ and another in 1999 called ‘Chameleons 2: theatre in a movie screen’. In 2004 Steve Dixon's co-authored book with Barry Smith ‘Digital Performance: New Technologies in Theatre, Dance and Performance Art’ was published by the MIT press.
University of Brunel
In 2005 Steve Dixon left the University of Salford to become the Head of the School of Arts at the University of Brunel. Dixon led strategic and curriculum developments in the School of Arts at Brunel that led to the establishment of four research centres and the development of 11 new Masters Courses as well as the creation of new subject areas such as, Journalism and Videogames Design. His work as the Head of School of Arts also led to the recruitment of world-leading Professors, such as Fay Weldon and Stelarc. Dixon also managed to start the development of the new £3M Performance and Media centre at the University of Brunel.<ref
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Dixon later became the Pro-Vice-Chancellor for development at the University of Brunel. As the Pro-Vice-Chancellor, Steve's portfolio included knowledge transfer and enterprise development, corporate relationship management, sponsorship and fundraising, PR and profile raising, special projects and international collaborations.
Steve Dixon's other achievements whilst at the University of Brunel included producing his 800-page book Digital Performance, which has won two international awards. Publishing more works on subjects including theatre studies, film theory, digital arts, Artificial Intelligence, and pedagogy. Co-founding and becoming Associate Editor of the International Journal of Performance Arts and Digital Media, he is also currently on the editorial board for the academic journals CTheory, Studies in Theatre and Performance, and Body, Space & Technology. Steve has also been invited many times to present seminars at many different Universities' including Paris Sorbonne, Trinity, Beijing Film Academy, Kansas, Bayreuth, Manchester, Nottingham and Bristol. Dixon has also delivered keynote conference addresses in the US, Australia, Korea and the UK.
Lasalle College of the Arts
Since February 2012, Dixon has been the president of Lasalle College of the Arts in Singapore.
Advisory Positions
Dixon is a Research Panel member for the Arts and Humanities Research Council (Panel 7, Music and Performing Arts), and has served on two specially constituted AHRC advisory panels (ICT in Creative and Performing Arts, and the Strategic Evaluation Review of AHDS). Dixon is a recognised academic pioneer and advisor on the use of ICT in the arts and humanities. He is currently a standing committee member of Digital Resources in Humanities and Arts (DRHA) and an advisory board member of the Arts and Humanities Data Service (AHDS), and Artifact (JISC Resource Discovery Network hub).
Previously he worked as a subject reviewer for the Quality Assurance Agency (QAA) and was a member of the Benchmarking Reference Group for Dance, Drama and Performance Studies. Dixon has also formerly been a Chair of the Information Technology Group for the drama subject association SCUDD, a committee member for Performance Studies International, a panel advisor to the North West Arts Board, and an expert advisor on the JISC Arts and Humanities Research ICT Awareness and Training project.
Published works
The Digital Performance Archive
In 1999 Steve Dixon became a co-director for the newly developed Digital Performance Archive funded by the Arts and Humanities Research Council (UK). The Digital Performance Archive was established as a tool to document and analyse interdisciplinary developments in performance which draw upon varied forms of digital media. During the years 1999 – 2000 the Digital Performance Archive recorded all activity found in this field and became an extensive online database of individual works. The unique and intensive research documented over the two years are viewed as a significant historical period for digital performance. The study covers both digital resources used in performance and digital resources on performance in the period studied, examples of these include theatrical performances that incorporate electronic media to performance arts databases. The Digital Performance Archive project holds high value in a wide range of academic disciplines.
Digital Performance: New Technologies in Theatre, Dance and Performance Art
It was after this major research project that Steve Dixon co-authored (with Barry Smith) the book Digital Performance and accompanying DVD Digital Performance: New Technologies in Theatre, Dance and Performance Art which was published by MIT Press in 2004. The 800 pages of Digital Performance outline the theory and history of digital performance. The book analyses topics such as ‘space’ and ‘interactivity’ and pays particular attention to the extensive research project of the Digital Performance Archive between the years of 1999–2000. Subsequently, the book contains additional research from the 1980s, 1990s and work from the early 2000s. Along with providing a history of digital performance, Dixon addresses and critiques views regarding digital performance. Digital Performance has won two international awards – The Association of American Publishers Award for Excellence in Music and the Performing Arts (Professional/Scholarly Publishing Awards) and the Lewis Mumford Award for Outstanding Scholarship in the Ecology of Technics (Media Ecology Association).
His contributions to the Digital Performance Archive and the creation of his book Digital Performance have provided a solid grounding for the ongoing discussion of digital performance.
Published Journals
Steve Dixon published extensively on a broad range of areas including theatre studies, digital arts, film theory, Artificial Intelligence and pedagogy in lead journals such as TDR and CTheory. Dixon is Associate Editor of the International Journal of Performance Arts and Digital Media, a journal in which he co-founded.
The Chameleons Group
The Chameleons group was a multimedia performance research Company directed by Steve Dixon. The company was founded by Steve Dixon and Paul Murphy, and performer Wendy Reed in 1994. It was established from within the Media and Performance Research Unit (Now the Music, Media, and Performing Arts Research Centre) at the University of Salford. The group consisted of Wendy Reed, Fiona Watson, Paul Murphy, Steve Dixon and Sara Bailes.
The aim of The Chameleons Group was to create multimedia performances. The company devised and toured with live 'film-theatre' productions, where live actors work in front of large video screens, interacting with film characters and their own 'digital doubles', and appear to move from the stage to the screen space. The company has also toured with many original theatre performances that experimented with the integration of video and live performance. In 2000, the group presented their most ambitious interactive cyber-theatre event ever staged, the performance allowed online audiences to direct the actors and write dialogue for the performances in real time.
The Chameleons group produced four performances, these were:
Chameleons: The Dark Perversity of Chameleons
Chameleons 2: Theatre in a movie screen
Chameleons 3: Net Congestion
Chameleons 4: The Doors of Serenity
As well as four performances Steve Dixon went on to create a two award-winning CD-ROMs which documented and analysed the creation and rehearsal process of the performances of ‘The Dark Perversity of Chameleons’ and ‘Theatre in a Movie Screen’.
More recently Chameleons Group performers have collaborated with artists Paul Sermon, Andrea Zapp and Mathais Fuchs, on the telematic performance Unheimlich. Unheimlich was a telematic performance installation (funded by the Art Council) that was exhibited at conferences including SIGGRAPH which enabled the audience in the US to participate in an improvisation with live performers in the UK. The performance used Freud's notion of the uncanny, Unheimlich (at once familiar, homelike, but also strange, alien and uncomfortable) as its starting point.
Chameleons: The Dark Perversity of Chameleons
The Dark Perversity of Chameleons was the first performance created by The Chameleon Group and directed by Steve Dixon. The idea was conceived and developed by the media and performance research unit at the University of Salford. In the summer of 1994 it was performed at the University of Salford and toured various venues. It was a technically ambitious project that involved the devising of a theatrical text and the shooting and editing of over six hours of original video material. The end video material was screened on five video monitors positioned in different places on the set. The devising process incorporated a composer (Steven Durrant) who wrote and recorded original music for the production.
The aim of the project was to attempt to explore the usefulness of Antonin Artaud's theories of performance in specific relation to postmodern theatrical and televisual forms. The production originally attempted to interweave and juxtapose Antonin Artaud's theories of performance with Eastern concepts of ritual and performance codification within and against modern popularist performative models. However, three weeks into the devising process it was evident amongst the performers that it was very difficult to practically realise Antonin Artaud's theories of the actor. So after three weeks of experimenting with Artaudian acting styles, Antonin Artaud's theories were largely abandoned. However, some aspects of Artaud's theories remained such as the use of stylised physical gestures, which were employed as a physical language system.
The performance was centred on ‘Five people sitting alone in different bedrooms watching television sets. The televisions transmit different sequences, depicting each character’s thoughts and memories, mixed with their inner visions – dreams, secrets and hallucinations...’
The performance contained five characters, these characters were: Rachel (Sara Bailes), Derek (Steve Dixon), Mike (Paul Murphy), Veronica (Wendy Reed) and Sophia (Fiona Watson). Each of the characters applied the physical language system to themselves. This meant that each character had four physical gestures which were repeated throughout the piece. As the piece progressed the characters also took on each other's gestures.
Chameleons 2 – Theatre In A Movie Screen
The second research project Steve Dixon and the Chameleons Group created in 1999 was entitled Chameleons 2 – Theatre In A Movie Screen and contained four core performers from the Group, Paul Murphy, Wendy Reed, Julia Eaton and Steve Dixon.
The narrative portrayed four characters in an imagined place and time somewhere between reality and a dream, who were striving to find a sense of self and their role within the external world. The primary research objective of the Chameleons Group was to bring a closer integration of the video and of live action.
Chameleons 2 evolved over an eight-week devising process in which practical approaches and methodologies such as hot seating were undertaken in the development of the characters and the devising of the show. Three months previously to this process each of the four performers documented their dreams which enabled the company to have an initial springboard for the creation of ideas.
The performance space contained a projection screen enclosing hidden doors and windows which live action could take place – the notion of a theatre within a movie screen. The openings in the screen had numerous purposes such as a door that was used an entrance however a window represented a cliff top.
Chameleons 3 – Net Congestion
In 2000 Steve Dixon co-directed and performed two individual cybertheatre performances alongside his performance research company, The Chameleons Group. The performances were entitled ‘Chameleons 3 – Net Congestion’, which contained the core performers of the Chameleons Group, Paul Murphy, Wendy Reed and Steve Dixon himself. Over ten days the performers collaborated with eight guest artists to create edited film footage to be played on screens behind the live performers.
The performances took place on three separate stages situated in a black-box studio theatre. The live actors performed on the stages in front of projection screens which played the pre-recorded edited footage; however, there were no live audiences present.
Instead the performances were filmed with a three-camera Outside Broadcast unit that relayed the performance over the internet. Audiences online were given the opportunity to log into the live event and contribute to become the performance. The online audiences were invited to type in images, characters and dialogue, providing material for the performers to improvise with. Throughout the piece this opened a gateway for the performers to not only show pre-rehearsed material but also improvise entirely using the online interactive audience as a stimulus.
The topic of live and mediatised performance was dominant in this research project undertaken by the Chameleons Group as live Cybertheatre questions this issue. The Chameleons Group aimed to explore the theories of liveness, forming distinctions between the live and mediatised and questioning them through performance.
Chameleons 3 – Net Congestion produced a unique interactive cybertheatre performance in which the nature of the relationship held between the performers and audience transformed as the spectators became participants in the online interactive performance.
Chameleons 4 – The Doors of Serenity
In 2002 The Chameleons Group created Chameleons 4 – The Doors of Serenity, directed by Steve Dixon. Dixon also devised and performed the performance alongside Chameleons Group members Anna Fenemore, Wendy Reed and Barry Woods.
Four characters, a devil male escort, a genital-less femme fatale, a paranoid cyborg and a vampire bimbo played dangerous games through doors. Similarly to Chameleons 2, the performance incorporates multiple imaging and split screen digital video techniques with live theatre performed in hidden doors and windows within the screen itself. The Chameleons Group used this digital performance to explore the relationship between the esoteric and the populist; the disturbing and the comedic and the virtual and the 'real'. The multimedia theatre used aided the fusion of vivid dream narratives, surrealist comedy and the Artaudian techniques of the theatre of cruelty.
References
External links
Prof. Steve Dixon at Brunel University
Prof. Steve Dixon at LASALLE College of the Arts
Male actors from Manchester
Writers from Manchester
Alumni of the Victoria University of Manchester
Academics of the University of Salford
Academics of Brunel University London
Living people
1956 births |
4432812 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George%20Lippard | George Lippard | George Lippard (April 10, 1822February 9, 1854) was a 19th-century American novelist, journalist, playwright, social activist, and labor organizer. He was a popular author in antebellum America.
A friend of Edgar Allan Poe, Lippard advocated a socialist political philosophy and sought justice for the working class in his writings. He founded a secret benevolent society, Brotherhood of the Union, investing in it all the trappings of a religion; the society, a precursor to labor organizations, survived until 1994. He authored two principal kinds of stories: Gothic tales about the immorality, horror, vice, and debauchery of large cities, such as The Monks of Monk Hall (1844), reprinted as The Quaker City (1844); and historical fiction of a type called romances, such as Blanche of Brandywine (1846), Legends of Mexico (1847), and the popular Legends of the Revolution (1847). Both kinds of stories, sensational and immensely popular when written, are mostly forgotten today. Lippard died at the age of 31 in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, on February 9, 1854.
Life and work
Early life
George Lippard was born on April 10, 1822, near Yellow Springs, in West Nantmeal Township, Pennsylvania, on the farm of his father, Daniel B. Lippard. The family moved to Philadelphia two years later, shortly after his father was injured in a farming accident. Young Lippard grew up in Philadelphia, in Germantown (presently part of the city of Philadelphia), and Rhinebeck, New York (where he attended the Classical Academy). After considering a career in the Methodist religious ministry and rejecting it because of a "contradiction between theory and practice" of Christianity, he began the study of law, which he also abandoned, as it was incompatible with his beliefs about human justice. Following the death of his father in 1837, Lippard spent some time living like a homeless bohemian, working odd jobs and living in abandoned buildings and studios. Life on Philadelphia's streets gave him firsthand knowledge of the effects the Panic of 1837 had on the urban poor. Distressed by the misery he witnessed, "Lippard decided to become a writer for the masses."
Early writing career
Lippard then commenced employment with the Philadelphia daily newspaper Spirit of the Times. His lively sketches and police court reporting drew readers and increased the paper's circulation. He was but twenty when The Saturday Evening Post published his first story, a "legend" called "Philippe de Agramont."
Lippard wrote what he called "historical fictions and legends", which he defined as "history in its details and delicate tints, with the bloom and dew yet fresh upon it, yet told to us, in the language of passion, of poetry, of home!" These works, then, were not so much about what happened, as what Lippard believed ought to have happened. Some of his legendary romances include: The Ladye Annabel (1842); 'Bel of Prairie Eden (1848); Blanche of Brandywine (1846); The Nazarene (1846); Legends of Mexico (1847); and Legends of the Revolution (1847). One of the particular Legends of the Revolution was called "The Fourth of July, 1776," though it has come down to us under the name "Ring, Grandfather, Ring". The story was first published on January 2, 1847, in the Philadelphia Saturday Courier before being collected in Washington and His Generals. The story introduced "a tall slender man... dressed in a dark robe", left unidentified, whose stirring speech inspired the faint-hearted members of the Second Continental Congress to sign the Declaration of Independence. After the document was signed, Lippard claimed, independence was announced to the people by the ringing of the Liberty Bell on the 4th of July, causing its fabled crack, though this event did not happen. Another of Lippard's legends misrepresents somewhat the beliefs of Johannes Kelpius and his community of followers along the Wissahickon Creek; John Greenleaf Whittier relied on Lippard's legend about Kelpius for his long poem Pennsylvania Pilgrim. Another of Lippard's legends, "The Dark Eagle," about Benedict Arnold, was received uncritically by later readers, though few of its contemporary readers would have done the same. Many of the legends were republished in the Saturday Courier; another edition Legends of the Revolution was published 22 years after his death in 1876.
The Quaker City
George Lippard's most notorious story, The Quaker City, or The Monks of Monk Hall (1845) is a lurid and thickly plotted exposé of city life in antebellum Philadelphia. Highly anti-capitalistic in its message, Lippard aimed to expose the hypocrisy of the Philadelphia elite, as well as the darker underside of American capitalism and urbanization. Lippard's Philadelphia is populated with parsimonious bankers, foppish drunkards, adulterers, sadistic murderers, reverend rakes, and confidence men, all of whom the author depicts as potential threats to the Republic. Considered the first muckraking novel, it was the best-selling novel in America before Uncle Tom's Cabin. When it appeared in print in 1845, it sold 60,000 copies in its first year and at least 10,000 copies throughout the next decade.<ref>Reynolds, David. Introduction to The Quaker City; or The Monks of Monk Hall," Amerhest, MA, The University of Massachusetts Press, 1970: vii.</ref> Its success made Lippard one of the highest-paid American writers of the 1840s, earning $3,000 to $4,000 a year.The Quaker City is partly based on the March 1843 New Jersey trial of Singleton Mercer. Mercer was accused of the murder of Mahlon Hutchinson Heberton aboard the Philadelphia-Camden ferry vessel John Finch on February 10, 1843. Heberton had seduced (or raped - sources differ upon this point), Mercer's sixteen-year-old sister. Mercer entered a plea of insanity and was found not guilty. The trial took place only two months after Edgar Allan Poe's short story "The Tell-Tale Heart," a story based on other murder trials employing the insanity defense; Mercer's defense attorney openly acknowledged the "object of ridicule" which an insanity defense had become. Nonetheless, a verdict of not-guilty was rendered after less than an hour of jury deliberation, and the family and the lawyer of young Mercer were greeted by a cheering crowd while disembarking from the same Philadelphia-Camden ferry line on which the killing took place. Lippard employed the seduction aspect of the trial as a metaphor for the oppression of the helpless. The Monks of Monk Hall outraged some readers with its lingering descriptions of "heaving bosoms" but such descriptions also drew readers and he sold many books. A stage version was prepared but banned in Philadelphia for fear of riots. Though many were offended by the story's lurid elements, the book also prompted social and legal reform and may have led to New York's 1849 enactment of an anti-seduction law.
Lippard took advantage of the popularity of his novel The Quaker City to establish his own weekly periodical, also named The Quaker City. He advertised it as "A Popular Journal, devoted to such matters of Literature and news as will interest the great mass of readers". Its first issue was published December 30, 1848.
Social reformer
In 1850 Lippard founded the Brotherhood of the Union (later the Brotherhood of America), a secret benevolent society aiming to eliminate poverty and crime by removing the social ills causing them. His own title in the organization was "Supreme Washington". His legend-like vision was that such an organization would establish a means for men to sincerely follow a living religion. The organization grew and achieved a membership of 30,000 by 1917, but declined some time thereafter, ceasing to exist in 1994.
He was a popular lecturer, journalist, and dramatist, renowned for both the stories he wrote and for his relentless advocacy of social justice. He was a participant in the National Reform Congress (1848) and the Eighth National Industrial Congress (1853), and in 1850 founded the Brotherhood of the Union. He was not, however, immune from some of the particular prejudices of his day. The Monks of Monk Hall (also published as Quaker City) portrays a malevolent hump-backed Jewish character, Gabriel Van Gelt, one who forges, swindles, blackmails, and commits murder for money. Lippard's portrayal of blacks also reflects some of the stereotypes of his day; this is certainly hinted at in the lengthy full title of one of his sensational crime novels: The killers: A narrative of real life in Philadelphia: in which the deeds of the killers, and the great riot of election night, October 10, 1849, are minutely described : Also, the adventures of three notorious individuals, who took part in that riot, to wit: Cromwell D. Z. Hicks, the leader of the Killers; Don Jorge, one of the leaders of the Cuban expedition; and "The Bulgine," the celebrated Negro Desperado of Moyamensing. A bulgine is a derisive term for a nautical steam engine or a small dockside locomotive; the term is recalled in several folk songs, including the capstan shanty "Eliza Lee", also known as "Clear the Track, Let the Bulgine Run".
Unlike many labor reformers of his time, Lippard was an enthusiastic supporter of the Mexican–American War. In an 1848 speech, he argued that Western expansion could provide working-class Americans with an opportunity to establish themselves as landholders, and thus to escape the oppressive conditions of urban factories. His novels Legends of Mexico: The Battles of Taylor (1847) and 'Bel of Prairie Eden (1848) used Gothic conventions to represent the war as a heroic fulfillment of the American Revolution's egalitarian promise. Later in his career, Lippard seemed to grow more ambivalent about the war, and in 1851 he published a sketch called "A Sequel to the Legends of Mexico" in which he expressed a concern that the way he depicted the conflict in his novels might "lead young hearts into an appetite for blood-shedding".
Literary life
Many of his stories dealt with the early leaders of the United States, including George Washington and Benedict Arnold. Lippard particularly admired Washington and devoted more pages to him than any other writer of fiction up to that time, though his stories are often sensationalized and immersed in Gothic elements. In one of his later stories Lippard relates that George Washington rises from his tomb at Mount Vernon to take pilgrimage of nineteenth-century America accompanied by an immortal Roman named Adonai. The pair travel to Valley Forge where they see a strange, huge building and hear chaotic, frightening noises. The building turns out to be a factory.
George Lippard married Rose Newman on May 15, 1847. In an unconventional ceremony they were married outdoors in the evening of a new moon while standing on Mom Rinker's Rock above the Wissahickon Creek. That year, Lippard moved to 965 North Sixth Street, a home in which Poe had used as his final home in Philadelphia before moving to New York.
His friendship with Edgar Allan Poe is notable. Poe gave Lippard credit for rescuing him from the streets on several occasions. He was more reserved about Lippard's artistic merits; possibly Poe's own artistic standards were too high to admit praise of Lippard's writing. This is ironic, because everything we generally associate with Poe was even more intense in Lippard's style. Lippard wrote an effusive obituary after Poe's death.
Final years
George Lippard's wife died on May 21, 1851, shortly after the March death of their infant son. Their daughter had died in 1850 at the age of 18 months. In 1852, Lippard spoke in Philadelphia on the 115th birthday of Thomas Paine, attempting to redeem his political legacy and reputation, which had faltered somewhat due to his book The Age of Reason. In his version of Paine's life, Paine was responsible for convincing John Adams, Benjamin Rush, and Benjamin Franklin to seek American independence. He was also caught in a controversy with Philadelphia publisher, who incorrectly claimed that Lippard had agreed to publish exclusively with him. Other distributors suffered as a result and Lippard referred to Peterson as a "mercenary creature" who had "made his thousands of dollars off of me".
Death
Always frail, Lippard suffered from tuberculosis for the last years of his life. Confined to his house with the disease, Lippard spent the final months of his life writing a newspaper story protesting against the Fugitive Slave Law. He died on February 9, 1854, at his home, then 1509 Lawrence Street, shortly before attaining the age of 32. His last words were to his physician: "Is this death?" He was buried at Odd Fellows Cemetery at 24th and Diamond Streets in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, but his remains and an impressive burial monument were years later removed along with many other graves from this cemetery to Lawnview Memorial Park, an Odd Fellows Cemetery in Rockledge, Pennsylvania. His current monument was added by the Brotherhood of the Union.
Writing style and response
Lippard achieved substantial commercial success in his lifetime by purposely targeting a young working-class readership by using sensationalism, violence, and social criticism. Lippard acknowledged the influence of Charles Brockden Brown (1771–1810) on his writing and dedicated several books to him.
Lippard's writing has occasional glimmers of style, but his words are more memorable for quantity than for quality, and his writing for its financial success than for its literary style. He proved that one could make a living by wordsmithing. If he is remembered at all today, it is more for his social thinking, which was progressive, than for his language and literary style. One contemporary reviewer noted Lippard's efforts as a social critic: "It was his business to attack social wrongs, to drag away purple garments, and expose to our shivering gaze the rottenness of vice—to take tyranny by the throat and strangle it to death."
Nonetheless, the year before Lippard's death, Mark Twain mentioned him in a letter to home. During the short time Twain spent in Philadelphia working for The Philadelphia Inquirer, he wrote: "Unlike New York, I like this Philadelphia amazingly, and the people in it . . . . I saw small steamboats, with their signs up--'For Wissahickon and Manayunk 25 cents.' Geo. Lippard, in his Legends of Washington and his Generals, has rendered the Wissahickon sacred in my eyes, and I shall make that trip, as well as one to Germantown, soon . . . ."
Many of Lippard's fictions were received as historical fact. Probably the most famous person to quote a historical romance by George Lippard as though it were actual history is the late President Ronald Reagan, in a commencement address at Eureka College on June 7, 1957. Reagan quoted from George Lippard's "Speech of the Unknown" in Washington and His Generals: or, Legends of the Revolution (1847), which relates how a speech by an anonymous delegate was the final motivation that spurred delegates to sign the Declaration of Independence in 1776.
After Lippard became successful as a novelist, he tried to use popular literature as a vehicle for social reform.
Works
Philippe de Agramont (1842 July in Saturday Evening Post)
Adrian, the Neophyte (1843)
The Battle-Day of Germantown (1843)
Herbert Tracy; or, The Legend of the Black Rangers. A Romance of the Battle-field of Germantown (1844)
The Ladye Annabel; or, The Doom of the Poisoner. A Romance by an Unknown Author (1844)
The Quaker City; or, The Monks of Monk Hall (anon., 1844) (full text page images at openlibrary.org)
Blanche of Brandywine (1846) ( on-line text at Google Book Search)
The Nazarene; or, The Last of Washington (1846)
The Rose of Wissahikon; or, The Fourth of July, 1776. A Romance, Embracing the Secret History of the Declaration of Independence (1847)
Washington and His Generals; or, Legends of the Revolution (1847) (on-line text at Google Book Search)
Legends of Mexico (1847)
Bel of Prairie Eden: A Romance of Mexico (1848)
Paul Ardenheim, the Monk of Wissahikon (1848)
Memoirs of a Preacher: A Revelation of the Church and the Home (1849)
The Man with the Mask: A Sequel to the Memoirs of a Preacher. A Revelation of the Church and the Home (1849)
Washington and His Men: A New Series of Legends of the Revolution (1850)
The Killers: A Narrative of Real Life in Philadelphia By a Member of the Philadelphia Bar (1850)
The Author Hero of the American Revolution (n.d.)
The Bank Director's Son (1851)
Adonai, the Pilgrim of Eternity (1851)
Mysteries of the Pulpit; or, A Revelation of the Church and the Home (1851)
Thomas Paine, Author-Soldier of the American Revolution (1852)
The Midnight Queen; or Leaves from New York Life (1853) (online page images at Wright American Fiction)
The Empire City; or, New York by night (1853)
New York: Its Upper Ten and Lower Million (1854) (online page images at Wright American Fiction & on-line text at Google Book Search)
Eleanor; or, Slave catching in Philadelphia (1854)
The Life and Choice Writings of George Lippard (1855)
The Legends of the American Revolution “1776” (1876) ()
Works
"Rider of the Black Horse" by George Lippard
"A Case of Starvation" by George Lippard in The Gallows, the Prison, and the Poor-house: A Plea for Humanity by George Washington Quinby at Google Book Search
See also
Gothic fiction
Antebellum South
References
External links
George Lippard at Literary Gothic
Open Library e-facsimile of Quaker City Partial e-text version of Quaker City "Monks, Devils and Quakers The lurid life and times of George Lippard, Philadelphia's original bestselling novelist" by Edward Pettit in the Philadelphia City Paper, March 22, 2007.
"Poe's Devoted Democrat, George Lippard" by Emilio De Grazia in Poe Studies'', June 1973
1822 births
1854 deaths
19th-century American novelists
American male novelists
American socialists
Writers from Chester County, Pennsylvania
Romanticism
Novelists from Philadelphia
19th-century American dramatists and playwrights
19th-century American journalists
American male journalists
American male dramatists and playwrights
19th-century deaths from tuberculosis
Tuberculosis deaths in Pennsylvania
Burials at Lawnview Memorial Park |
4433814 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multinomial%20logistic%20regression | Multinomial logistic regression | In statistics, multinomial logistic regression is a classification method that generalizes logistic regression to multiclass problems, i.e. with more than two possible discrete outcomes. That is, it is a model that is used to predict the probabilities of the different possible outcomes of a categorically distributed dependent variable, given a set of independent variables (which may be real-valued, binary-valued, categorical-valued, etc.).
Multinomial logistic regression is known by a variety of other names, including polytomous LR, multiclass LR, softmax regression, multinomial logit (mlogit), the maximum entropy (MaxEnt) classifier, and the conditional maximum entropy model.
Background
Multinomial logistic regression is used when the dependent variable in question is nominal (equivalently categorical, meaning that it falls into any one of a set of categories that cannot be ordered in any meaningful way) and for which there are more than two categories. Some examples would be:
Which major will a college student choose, given their grades, stated likes and dislikes, etc.?
Which blood type does a person have, given the results of various diagnostic tests?
In a hands-free mobile phone dialing application, which person's name was spoken, given various properties of the speech signal?
Which candidate will a person vote for, given particular demographic characteristics?
Which country will a firm locate an office in, given the characteristics of the firm and of the various candidate countries?
These are all statistical classification problems. They all have in common a dependent variable to be predicted that comes from one of a limited set of items that cannot be meaningfully ordered, as well as a set of independent variables (also known as features, explanators, etc.), which are used to predict the dependent variable. Multinomial logistic regression is a particular solution to classification problems that use a linear combination of the observed features and some problem-specific parameters to estimate the probability of each particular value of the dependent variable. The best values of the parameters for a given problem are usually determined from some training data (e.g. some people for whom both the diagnostic test results and blood types are known, or some examples of known words being spoken).
Assumptions
The multinomial logistic model assumes that data are case-specific; that is, each independent variable has a single value for each case. As with other types of regression, there is no need for the independent variables to be statistically independent from each other (unlike, for example, in a naive Bayes classifier); however, collinearity is assumed to be relatively low, as it becomes difficult to differentiate between the impact of several variables if this is not the case.
If the multinomial logit is used to model choices, it relies on the assumption of independence of irrelevant alternatives (IIA), which is not always desirable. This assumption states that the odds of preferring one class over another do not depend on the presence or absence of other "irrelevant" alternatives. For example, the relative probabilities of taking a car or bus to work do not change if a bicycle is added as an additional possibility. This allows the choice of K alternatives to be modeled as a set of K-1 independent binary choices, in which one alternative is chosen as a "pivot" and the other K-1 compared against it, one at a time. The IIA hypothesis is a core hypothesis in rational choice theory; however numerous studies in psychology show that individuals often violate this assumption when making choices. An example of a problem case arises if choices include a car and a blue bus. Suppose the odds ratio between the two is 1 : 1. Now if the option of a red bus is introduced, a person may be indifferent between a red and a blue bus, and hence may exhibit a car : blue bus : red bus odds ratio of 1 : 0.5 : 0.5, thus maintaining a 1 : 1 ratio of car : any bus while adopting a changed car : blue bus ratio of 1 : 0.5. Here the red bus option was not in fact irrelevant, because a red bus was a perfect substitute for a blue bus.
If the multinomial logit is used to model choices, it may in some situations impose too much constraint on the relative preferences between the different alternatives. It is especially important to take into account if the analysis aims to predict how choices would change if one alternative were to disappear (for instance if one political candidate withdraws from a three candidate race). Other models like the nested logit or the multinomial probit may be used in such cases as they allow for violation of the IIA.
Model
Introduction
There are multiple equivalent ways to describe the mathematical model underlying multinomial logistic regression. This can make it difficult to compare different treatments of the subject in different texts. The article on logistic regression presents a number of equivalent formulations of simple logistic regression, and many of these have analogues in the multinomial logit model.
The idea behind all of them, as in many other statistical classification techniques, is to construct a linear predictor function that constructs a score from a set of weights that are linearly combined with the explanatory variables (features) of a given observation using a dot product:
where Xi is the vector of explanatory variables describing observation i, βk is a vector of weights (or regression coefficients) corresponding to outcome k, and score(Xi, k) is the score associated with assigning observation i to category k. In discrete choice theory, where observations represent people and outcomes represent choices, the score is considered the utility associated with person i choosing outcome k. The predicted outcome is the one with the highest score.
The difference between the multinomial logit model and numerous other methods, models, algorithms, etc. with the same basic setup (the perceptron algorithm, support vector machines, linear discriminant analysis, etc.) is the procedure for determining (training) the optimal weights/coefficients and the way that the score is interpreted. In particular, in the multinomial logit model, the score can directly be converted to a probability value, indicating the probability of observation i choosing outcome k given the measured characteristics of the observation. This provides a principled way of incorporating the prediction of a particular multinomial logit model into a larger procedure that may involve multiple such predictions, each with a possibility of error. Without such means of combining predictions, errors tend to multiply. For example, imagine a large predictive model that is broken down into a series of submodels where the prediction of a given submodel is used as the input of another submodel, and that prediction is in turn used as the input into a third submodel, etc. If each submodel has 90% accuracy in its predictions, and there are five submodels in series, then the overall model has only 0.95 = 59% accuracy. If each submodel has 80% accuracy, then overall accuracy drops to 0.85 = 33% accuracy. This issue is known as error propagation and is a serious problem in real-world predictive models, which are usually composed of numerous parts. Predicting probabilities of each possible outcome, rather than simply making a single optimal prediction, is one means of alleviating this issue.
Setup
The basic setup is the same as in logistic regression, the only difference being that the dependent variables are categorical rather than binary, i.e. there are K possible outcomes rather than just two. The following description is somewhat shortened; for more details, consult the logistic regression article.
Data points
Specifically, it is assumed that we have a series of N observed data points. Each data point i (ranging from 1 to N) consists of a set of M explanatory variables x1,i ... xM,i (also known as independent variables, predictor variables, features, etc.), and an associated categorical outcome Yi (also known as dependent variable, response variable), which can take on one of K possible values. These possible values represent logically separate categories (e.g. different political parties, blood types, etc.), and are often described mathematically by arbitrarily assigning each a number from 1 to K. The explanatory variables and outcome represent observed properties of the data points, and are often thought of as originating in the observations of N "experiments" — although an "experiment" may consist in nothing more than gathering data. The goal of multinomial logistic regression is to construct a model that explains the relationship between the explanatory variables and the outcome, so that the outcome of a new "experiment" can be correctly predicted for a new data point for which the explanatory variables, but not the outcome, are available. In the process, the model attempts to explain the relative effect of differing explanatory variables on the outcome.
Some examples:
The observed outcomes are different variants of a disease such as hepatitis (possibly including "no disease" and/or other related diseases) in a set of patients, and the explanatory variables might be characteristics of the patients thought to be pertinent (sex, race, age, blood pressure, outcomes of various liver-function tests, etc.). The goal is then to predict which disease is causing the observed liver-related symptoms in a new patient.
The observed outcomes are the party chosen by a set of people in an election, and the explanatory variables are the demographic characteristics of each person (e.g. sex, race, age, income, etc.). The goal is then to predict the likely vote of a new voter with given characteristics.
Linear predictor
As in other forms of linear regression, multinomial logistic regression uses a linear predictor function to predict the probability that observation i has outcome k, of the following form:
where is a regression coefficient associated with the mth explanatory variable and the kth outcome. As explained in the logistic regression article, the regression coefficients and explanatory variables are normally grouped into vectors of size M+1, so that the predictor function can be written more compactly:
where is the set of regression coefficients associated with outcome k, and (a row vector) is the set of explanatory variables associated with observation i.
As a set of independent binary regressions
To arrive at the multinomial logit model, one can imagine, for K possible outcomes, running K-1 independent binary logistic regression models, in which one outcome is chosen as a "pivot" and then the other K-1 outcomes are separately regressed against the pivot outcome. If outcome K (the last outcome) is chosen as the pivot, the K-1 regression equations are:
.
This formulation is also known as the Additive Log Ratio transform commonly used in compositional data analysis. In other applications it’s referred to as “relative risk”.
If we exponentiate both sides and solve for the probabilities, we get:
Using the fact that all K of the probabilities must sum to one, we find:
.
We can use this to find the other probabilities:
.
The fact that we run multiple regressions reveals why the model relies on the assumption of independence of irrelevant alternatives described above.
Estimating the coefficients
The unknown parameters in each vector βk are typically jointly estimated by maximum a posteriori (MAP) estimation, which is an extension of maximum likelihood using regularization of the weights to prevent pathological solutions (usually a squared regularizing function, which is equivalent to placing a zero-mean Gaussian prior distribution on the weights, but other distributions are also possible). The solution is typically found using an iterative procedure such as generalized iterative scaling, iteratively reweighted least squares (IRLS), by means of gradient-based optimization algorithms such as L-BFGS, or by specialized coordinate descent algorithms.
As a log-linear model
The formulation of binary logistic regression as a log-linear model can be directly extended to multi-way regression. That is, we model the logarithm of the probability of seeing a given output using the linear predictor as well as an additional normalization factor, the logarithm of the partition function:
.
As in the binary case, we need an extra term to ensure that the whole set of probabilities forms a probability distribution, i.e. so that they all sum to one:
The reason why we need to add a term to ensure normalization, rather than multiply as is usual, is because we have taken the logarithm of the probabilities. Exponentiating both sides turns the additive term into a multiplicative factor, so that the probability is just the Gibbs measure:
.
The quantity Z is called the partition function for the distribution. We can compute the value of the partition function by applying the above constraint that requires all probabilities to sum to 1:
Therefore:
Note that this factor is "constant" in the sense that it is not a function of Yi, which is the variable over which the probability distribution is defined. However, it is definitely not constant with respect to the explanatory variables, or crucially, with respect to the unknown regression coefficients βk, which we will need to determine through some sort of optimization procedure.
The resulting equations for the probabilities are
.
Or generally:
The following function:
is referred to as the softmax function. The reason is that the effect of exponentiating the values is to exaggerate the differences between them. As a result, will return a value close to 0 whenever is significantly less than the maximum of all the values, and will return a value close to 1 when applied to the maximum value, unless it is extremely close to the next-largest value. Thus, the softmax function can be used to construct a weighted average that behaves as a smooth function (which can be conveniently differentiated, etc.) and which approximates the indicator function
Thus, we can write the probability equations as
The softmax function thus serves as the equivalent of the logistic function in binary logistic regression.
Note that not all of the vectors of coefficients are uniquely identifiable. This is due to the fact that all probabilities must sum to 1, making one of them completely determined once all the rest are known. As a result, there are only separately specifiable probabilities, and hence separately identifiable vectors of coefficients. One way to see this is to note that if we add a constant vector to all of the coefficient vectors, the equations are identical:
As a result, it is conventional to set (or alternatively, one of the other coefficient vectors). Essentially, we set the constant so that one of the vectors becomes 0, and all of the other vectors get transformed into the difference between those vectors and the vector we chose. This is equivalent to "pivoting" around one of the K choices, and examining how much better or worse all of the other K-1 choices are, relative to the choice we are pivoting around. Mathematically, we transform the coefficients as follows:
This leads to the following equations:
Other than the prime symbols on the regression coefficients, this is exactly the same as the form of the model described above, in terms of K-1 independent two-way regressions.
As a latent-variable model
It is also possible to formulate multinomial logistic regression as a latent variable model, following the two-way latent variable model described for binary logistic regression. This formulation is common in the theory of discrete choice models, and makes it easier to compare multinomial logistic regression to the related multinomial probit model, as well as to extend it to more complex models.
Imagine that, for each data point i and possible outcome k=1,2,...,K, there is a continuous latent variable Yi,k* (i.e. an unobserved random variable) that is distributed as follows:
where i.e. a standard type-1 extreme value distribution.
This latent variable can be thought of as the utility associated with data point i choosing outcome k, where there is some randomness in the actual amount of utility obtained, which accounts for other unmodeled factors that go into the choice. The value of the actual variable is then determined in a non-random fashion from these latent variables (i.e. the randomness has been moved from the observed outcomes into the latent variables), where outcome k is chosen if and only if the associated utility (the value of ) is greater than the utilities of all the other choices, i.e. if the utility associated with outcome k is the maximum of all the utilities. Since the latent variables are continuous, the probability of two having exactly the same value is 0, so we ignore the scenario. That is:
Or equivalently:
Let's look more closely at the first equation, which we can write as follows:
There are a few things to realize here:
In general, if and then That is, the difference of two independent identically distributed extreme-value-distributed variables follows the logistic distribution, where the first parameter is unimportant. This is understandable since the first parameter is a location parameter, i.e. it shifts the mean by a fixed amount, and if two values are both shifted by the same amount, their difference remains the same. This means that all of the relational statements underlying the probability of a given choice involve the logistic distribution, which makes the initial choice of the extreme-value distribution, which seemed rather arbitrary, somewhat more understandable.
The second parameter in an extreme-value or logistic distribution is a scale parameter, such that if then This means that the effect of using an error variable with an arbitrary scale parameter in place of scale 1 can be compensated simply by multiplying all regression vectors by the same scale. Together with the previous point, this shows that the use of a standard extreme-value distribution (location 0, scale 1) for the error variables entails no loss of generality over using an arbitrary extreme-value distribution. In fact, the model is nonidentifiable (no single set of optimal coefficients) if the more general distribution is used.
Because only differences of vectors of regression coefficients are used, adding an arbitrary constant to all coefficient vectors has no effect on the model. This means that, just as in the log-linear model, only K-1 of the coefficient vectors are identifiable, and the last one can be set to an arbitrary value (e.g. 0).
Actually finding the values of the above probabilities is somewhat difficult, and is a problem of computing a particular order statistic (the first, i.e. maximum) of a set of values. However, it can be shown that the resulting expressions are the same as in above formulations, i.e. the two are equivalent.
Estimation of intercept
When using multinomial logistic regression, one category of the dependent variable is chosen as the reference category. Separate odds ratios are determined for all independent variables for each category of the dependent variable with the exception of the reference category, which is omitted from the analysis. The exponential beta coefficient represents the change in the odds of the dependent variable being in a particular category vis-a-vis the reference category, associated with a one unit change of the corresponding independent variable.
Likelihood function
The observed values for of the explained variables are considered as realizations of stochastically independent, categorically distributed random variables .
The likelihood function for this model is defined by:
where the index denotes the observations 1 to n and the index denotes the classes 1 to K. is the Kronecker delta.
The negative log-likelihood function is therefore the well-known cross-entropy: :
Application in natural language processing
In natural language processing, multinomial LR classifiers are commonly used as an alternative to naive Bayes classifiers because they do not assume statistical independence of the random variables (commonly known as features) that serve as predictors. However, learning in such a model is slower than for a naive Bayes classifier, and thus may not be appropriate given a very large number of classes to learn. In particular, learning in a Naive Bayes classifier is a simple matter of counting up the number of co-occurrences of features and classes, while in a maximum entropy classifier the weights, which are typically maximized using maximum a posteriori (MAP) estimation, must be learned using an iterative procedure; see #Estimating the coefficients.
See also
Logistic regression
Multinomial probit
References
Logistic regression
Classification algorithms
Regression models |
4434812 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viral%20video | Viral video | A viral video is a video that becomes popular through a viral process of Internet sharing, typically through video sharing websites such as YouTube as well as social media and email. For a video to be shareable or spreadable, it must focus on the social logics and cultural practices that have enabled and popularized these new platforms.
Viral videos may be serious, and some are deeply emotional, but many more are centered on entertainment and humorous content. Notable early examples include televised comedy sketches, such as The Lonely Islands "Lazy Sunday" and "Dick in a Box", Numa Numa videos, The Evolution of Dance, Chocolate Rain on YouTube; and web-only productions such as I Got a Crush... on Obama. Some eyewitness events have also been caught on video and have "gone viral" such as the Battle at Kruger.
One commentator called the Kony 2012 video the most viral video in history (about 34,000,000 views in three days and 100,000,000 views in six days), but "Gangnam Style" (2012) received one billion views in five months and was the most viewed video on YouTube from 2012 until "Despacito" (2017).
History
Videos were shared long before YouTube or even the Internet by word-of-mouth, film festivals, VHS tapes, and even to fill time gaps during the early days of cable. Perhaps the earliest was Reefer Madness, a 1936 "educational" film that circulated under several different titles. It was rediscovered by Keith Stroup, founder of NORML, who circulated prints of the film around college film festivals in the 1970s. The company who produced the prints, New Line Cinema, was so successful they began producing their own films. The most controversial was perhaps a clip from a newscast from Portland, Oregon in November 1970. In the clip, the disposal of a beached whale carcass by dynamite is documented, including the horrific aftermath of falling mist and chunks since the exclusion zone was not big enough. The exploding whale story obtained urban legend status in the Northwest and gained new interest in 1990 after Dave Barry wrote a humorous column about the event, leading to copies being distributed over bulletin board systems around 1994.
The "humorous home movie" genre dates back at least to 1963, when the TV series "Your Funny, Funny Films" debuted. The series showcased amusing film clips, mostly shot on 8mm equipment by amateurs. The idea was revived in 1989 with America's Funniest Home Videos, a series described by an ABC executive as a one-time "reality-based filler special" that was inspired by a segment of a Japanese variety show, Fun With Ken and Kaito Chan, borrowing clips from various Japanese home video shows as well. Now the longest-running primetime entertainment show in the history of ABC, the show's format includes showing clips of home videos sent in to the show's committee, and then the clips are voted on by a live filmed audience, with the winners awarded a monetary prize.
During the internet's public infancy, the 1996 Seinfeld episode "The Little Kicks" addresses the distribution of a viral video through non-online, non-broadcast means. It concludes with the citizens of New York City having individually witnessed Elaine's terrible dancing via a bootleg copy of a feature film, establishing that the dancing footage had effectively gone viral.
Viral videos began circulating as animated GIFs small enough to be uploaded to websites over dial-up Internet access or through email as attachments in the early 1990s. Videos were also spread on message boards, P2P file sharing sites, and even coverage from mainstream news networks on television. Two of the most successful viral videos of the early internet era were "The Spirit of Christmas" and "Dancing Baby". "The Spirit of Christmas" surfaced in 1995, spread through bootleg copies on VHS and on the internet, as well as an AVI file on the PlayStation game disc for Tiger Woods 99, later leading to a recall. The popularity of the videos led to the creation of the television series South Park after it was picked up by Comedy Central. "Dancing Baby", a 3D-rendered dancing baby video made in 1996 by the creators of Character Studio for 3D Studio MAX, became something of a mid-late 1990s cultural icon in part due to its exposure on worldwide commercials, editorials about Character Studio, and the popular television series Ally McBeal. The video may have first spread when Ron Lussier, the animator who cleaned up the raw animation, began passing the video around his workplace, LucasArts.
Later distribution of viral videos on the internet before YouTube, which was created in 2005 and bought by Google in 2006, were mostly through websites dedicated to hosting humorous content, such as Newgrounds and YTMND, although message boards such as eBaum's World and Something Awful were also instrumental. Notably, some content creators hosted their content on their own websites, such as Joel Veitch's site for his band Rather Good, which hosted quirky Flash videos for the band's songs; the most popular was "We Like the Moon", whose viral popularity on the internet prompted Quiznos to parody the song for a commercial. The most famous self-hosted home of viral videos is perhaps Homestar Runner, launched in 2000 and still running. The introduction of social media such as Facebook and Twitter has created even more avenues for videos to go viral. More recently, there has been a surge in viral videos on video sharing sites such as YouTube, partially because of the availability of affordable digital cameras. Beginning in December 2015, YouTube introduced a "trending" tab to alert users to viral videos using an algorithm based on comments, views, "external references", and even location. The feature reportedly does not use viewing history to serve up related content, and the content may be curated by YouTube.
Qualification
There are several ways to gauge whether a video has "gone viral". The statistic perhaps most mentioned is number of views, and as sharing has become easier, the threshold requirement of sheer number of views has increased. YouTube personality Kevin Nalty (known as Nalts) recalls on his blog: "A few years ago, a video could be considered 'viral' if it hit a million views", but says as of 2011, only "if it gets more than 5 million views in a 3–7-day period" can it be considered "viral". To compare, 2004's Numa Numa received two million hits on Newgrounds in its first three months (a figure explained in a 2015 article as "a staggering number for the time").
Nalts also posits three other considerations: buzz, parody, and longevity, which are more complex ways of judging a viral video's views. Buzz addresses the heart of the issue; the more a video is shared, the more discussion the video creates both online and offline. What he emphasizes is notable is that the more buzz a video gets, the more views it gets. A study on viral videos by Carnegie Mellon University found that the popularity of the uploader affected whether a video would become viral, and having the video shared by a popular source such as a celebrity or a news channel also increases buzz. It is also part of the algorithm YouTube uses to predict popular videos. Parodies, spoofs and spin-offs often indicate a popular video, with long-popular video view counts given with original video view counts as well as additional view counts given for the parodies. Longevity indicates if a video has remained part of the Zeitgeist.
Reasons for popularity
Due to their societal impact and marketability, viral videos attract attention in both advertising and academia, which try to account for the reason viral videos are spread and what will make a video go viral. Several theories exist.
A viral video's longevity often relies on a hook which draws the audience to watch it. The hook, often a memorable phrase or moment, is able to become a part of the viral video culture after being shown repeatedly. The hooks, or key signifiers, are not able to be predicted before the videos become viral. The early view pattern of a viral video can be used to forecast its peak day in future. Notable examples include "All your base are belong to us", based on the poorly translated video game Zero Wing, which was first distributed in 2000 as a GIF animation and became popular for the grammatically incorrect hook of its title, and Don Hertzfeldt's 2000 Academy Awards Best Animated Short Film nomination "Rejected" with the quotable hooks "I am a banana" and "My spoon is too big!" Another early video was the Flash animation "The End of the World", created by Jason Windsor and uploaded to Albino Blacksheep in 2003, with quotable hooks such as "but I'm le tired" and "WTF, mates?"
Rosanna Guadagno, a social psychologist at the University of Texas at Dallas, found in a study that people preferred to share a funny video rather than one of a man treating his own spider bite, and overall they were more likely to share any video that evoked an intense emotional response. Two professors at the Wharton School at the University of Pennsylvania also found that uplifting stories were more likely to be shared on the New York Times' web site than disheartening ones.
Others postulate that sharing is driven by ego in order to build up an online persona for oneself. Chartbeat, a company that measures online traffic, compiled data comparing the amount of time spent reading an article and the number of times it was shared and found that people often post articles on Twitter they haven't even read.
Categories by subject
Band and music promotion
Many independent musicians, as well as large companies such as Universal Music Group, use YouTube to promote videos. Six of the 10 most viral YouTube videos of 2015 were rooted in music.
One such video, the "Free Hugs Campaign" with accompanying music by the Sick Puppies, was one of the winners of the 2006 YouTube Awards. However, the awards received criticism over the voting process and accused of bias. However, the main character of the video, Juan Mann, received positive recognition after being interviewed on Australian news programs and appearing on The Oprah Winfrey Show.
Education
Viral videos continue to increase in popularity as teaching and instructive aids. In March 2007, an elementary school teacher, Jason Smith, created TeacherTube, a website for sharing educational videos with other teachers. The site now features over 54,000 videos. Some college curricula are now using viral videos in the classroom as well. As of 2009, Northwestern University offers a course called "YouTubing 101". The course invites students to produce their own viral videos, focusing on marketing techniques and advertising strategies.
Customer complaints
"United Breaks Guitars", by the Canadian folk rock music group Sons of Maxwell, is an example of how viral videos can be used by consumers to pressure companies to settle complaints. Another example is Brian Finkelstein's video complaint to Comcast, 2006. Finkelstein recorded a video of a Comcast technician sleeping on his couch. The technician had come to repair Brian's modem but had to call Comcast's central office and fell asleep after being placed on hold waiting for Comcast.
Cyberbullying
The Canadian high school student known as Star Wars Kid was subjected to significant harassment and ostracizing after the viral success of his video (first uploaded to the Internet on the evening of 14 April 2003). His family accepted a financial settlement after suing the individuals responsible for posting the video online.
In July 2010, an 11-year-old child with the pseudonym "Jessi Slaughter" was subjected to a campaign of harassment and cyberbullying following the viral nature of videos they had uploaded to Stickam and YouTube. As a result of the case, the potential for cyberbullying as a result of viral videos was widely discussed in the media.
Police misconduct
The Chicago Tribune reported that in 2015, nearly 1,000 civilians in the United States were shot and killed by police officers—whether the officers responsible were justified is now often publicly called into question in the age of viral videos. As more people are uploading videos of their encounters with police, more departments are encouraging their officers to wear body cameras. The procedure for releasing such video is currently evolving and could potentially incriminate more suspects than officers, although current waiting times of several months to release such videos appear to be attempted cover-ups of police mistakes. In October 2015, then-FBI Director James Comey remarked in a speech at the University of Chicago Law School that the increased attention on police in light of recent viral videos showing police involved in fatal shootings has made officers less aggressive and emboldened criminals. Comey has acknowledged that there are no data to back up his assertion; according to him, viral videos are one of many possible factors such as cheaper drugs and more criminals being released from prison. Other top officials at the Justice Department have stated that they do not believe increased scrutiny of officers has increased crime.
Two videos went viral in October 2015 of a white school police officer assaulting an African-American student. The videos, apparently taken with cell phones by other students in the classroom, were picked up by local news outlets and then further spread by social media.
Dash cam videos of the Chicago police murder of Laquan McDonald were released after 14 months of being kept sealed, which went viral and sparked further questions about police actions. Chicago's mayor, Rahm Emanuel, fired Police Superintendent Garry McCarthy and there have also been demands for Emanuel to resign. A similar case, in which Chicago police attempted to suppress a dash cam video of the shooting of Ronald Johnson by an officer, is currently part of an ongoing federal lawsuit against the city.
Political implications
The 2008 United States presidential election showcased the impact of political viral videos. For the first time, YouTube hosted the CNN-YouTube presidential debates, calling on YouTube users to pose questions. In this debate, the opinions of viral video creators and users were taken seriously. There were several memorable viral videos that appeared during the campaign. In June 2007, "I Got a Crush... on Obama", a music video featuring a girl claiming to have a crush on presidential candidate Barack Obama, appeared. Unlike previously popular political videos, it did not feature any celebrities and was purely user-generated. The video garnered many viewers and gained attention in the mainstream media.
YouTube became a powerful source of campaigning for the 2008 Presidential Election. Every major party candidate had their own YouTube channel in order to communicate with the voters, with John McCain posting over 300 videos and Barack Obama posting over 1,800 videos. The music video "Yes We Can" by will.i.am demonstrates user-generated publicity for the 2008 Presidential Campaign. The video depicts many celebrities as well as black and white clips of Barack Obama. This music video inspired many parodies and won an Emmy for Best New Approaches in Daytime Entertainment.
The proliferation of viral videos in the 2008 campaign highlights the fact that people increasingly turn to the internet to receive their news. In a study for the Pew Research Center in 2008, approximately 2% of the participants said that they received their news from non-traditional sources such as MySpace or YouTube. The campaign was widely seen as an example of the growing influence of the internet on United States politics, a point further evidenced by the founding of viral video producers like Brave New Films.
During the 2012 United States presidential election, "Obama Style" and "Mitt Romney Style", the parodies of Gangnam Style, both peaked on Election Day and received approximately 30 million views within one month before Election Day. "Mitt Romney Style", which negatively portrays Mitt as an affluent, extravagant, and arrogant businessman, received an order of magnitude views more than "Obama Style".
Financial implications
The web traffic gained by viral videos allows for advertising revenue. The YouTube website is monetized by selling and showing advertising. According to the New York Times, YouTube uses an algorithm called "reference rank" to evaluate the viral potential of videos posted to the site. Using evidence from as few as 10,000 views, it can assess the probability that the video will go viral. Before YouTube implemented wide-scale revenue sharing, if it deemed the video a viable candidate for advertising, it contacted the original poster by e-mail and offered a profit-sharing contract. By this means, such videos as "David After Dentist" have earned more than $100,000 for their owners. One successful YouTube video creator, Andrew Grantham, whose "Ultimate Dog Tease" had been viewed more than 170,000,000 times (as of June 2015), entered an agreement with Paramount Pictures in February 2012 for the development of a feature film. The film was to be written by Alec Berg and David Mandel. Pop stars such as Justin Bieber and Esmée Denters also started their careers via YouTube videos which ultimately went viral. By 2014, pop stars such as Miley Cyrus, Eminem, and Katy Perry were regularly obtaining web traffic in the order of 120 to 150 million hits a month, numbers far in excess of what many viral videos receive.
Companies also use viral videos as a type of marketing strategy. The Dove Campaign for Real Beauty is considered to have been one of the first viral marketing strategies to hit the world when Dove released their Evolution video in 2006. Their online campaign continued to generate viral videos when Real Beauty Sketches was released in 2013 and spread all throughout social media, especially Facebook and Twitter.
Notable sites
Albino Blacksheep
Break.com
BuzzFeed
eBaum's World
Fail Blog
Facebook
Google Video
Instagram
JibJab
LiveLeak
Metacafe
Newgrounds
Nico Nico Douga
TikTok
Upworthy
Vine
Veoh.com
VT (Viral Thread)
WorldStar HipHop
YouTube
YTMND
See also
Internet meme
List of Internet phenomena
List of viral videos
List of viral music videos
Positive feedback
Seeding agency
Shock site
Streisand effect
Viral marketing
References
External links
CMU Viral Videos A public data set for viral video study.
Viral Video Chart Guardian News, UK.
Photos Gone Viral! — slideshow by Life magazine
YouTube 'Rewind' – YouTube's page covering their top-viewed videos by year and brief information on their spread.
The Worlds of Viral Video Documentary produced by Off Book (web series) |
4435095 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muhammad%20Asad | Muhammad Asad | Muhammad Asad, ( , , born Leopold Weiss; 2 July 1900 – 20 February 1992) was an Austro-Hungarian-born Jew and convert to Islam who worked as a journalist, traveler, writer, linguist, political theorist, diplomat.
His translation of the Quran in English, "The Message of The Qur'an" is one of the most notable of his works. In Asad's words in "The Message of the Quran": "the work which I am now placing before the public is based on a lifetime of study and of many years spent in Arabia. It is an attempt – perhaps the first attempt – at a really idiomatic, explanatory rendition of the Qur'anic message into a European language."
By age 13, Weiss had acquired a passing fluency in Hebrew and Aramaic, on top of his native German and Polish languages. By his mid-twenties, he could read and write in English, French, Persian and Arabic. In Mandatory Palestine, Weiss engaged in arguments with Zionist leaders like Chaim Weizmann, voicing his reservations about some aspects of the Zionist Movement. After traveling across the Arab World as a journalist, he converted to Sunni Islam in 1926 and adopted the name "Muhammad Asad"—Asad being the Arabic rendition of his root name Leo (Lion).
During his stay in Saudi Arabia, he spent time with Bedouins and enjoyed the close company of the state's founder, Ibn Saud. He also carried out a secret mission for Ibn Saud to trace the sources of funding for the Ikhwan Revolt. Due to these activities, he was dubbed in a Haaretz article as "Leopold of Arabia"—hinting similarity of his activities to those of Lawrence of Arabia. On his visit to India, Asad became friends with Muslim poet-philosopher Muhammad Iqbal, who persuaded him to abandon his eastward travels and "help elucidate the intellectual premises of the future Islamic state". He also spent five years in internment by the British Government at the outbreak of World War II. On 14 August 1947, Asad received Pakistani citizenship and later served in several bureaucratic and diplomatic positions including the Director of Department of Islamic Reconstruction, Deputy Secretary (Middle East Division) in the Foreign Ministry of Pakistan, and Pakistan's Envoy to the United Nations.
In the West, Asad rose to prominence as a writer with his best-selling autobiography, The Road to Mecca. Later, after seventeen years of scholarly research, he published his magnum opus: The Message of the Qur'an—an English translation and commentary of the Quran. The book, along with the translations of Pickthall and Yusuf Ali, is regarded as one of the most influential translations of the modern era. An ardent proponent of Ijtihad and rationality in interpreting religious texts, he dedicated his works "to People who Think".
In 2008, the entrance square to the UN Office in Vienna was named Muhammad-Asad-Platz in commemoration of his work as a "religious bridge-builder". Asad has been described by his biographers as "Europe's gift to Islam" and "a Mediator between Islam and the West".
Early life
Background
Leopold Weiss was born on 2 July 1900 to a Jewish family in Lemberg, Galicia, then part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire (which is currently the city of Lviv, Ukraine). Weiss was a descendant of a long line of Jewish rabbis; however, his father, Akiva Weiss, broke from tradition and became a lawyer. Leopold received a religious education and was proficient in Hebrew from an early age, as well as familiar with Aramaic. He studied the Jewish Bible or Tanakh, the text and commentaries of the Talmud, the Mishna and Gemara, also delving into the intricacies of Biblical exegesis and the Targum.
At the age of fourteen he escaped school and joined the Austrian army under a false name. After a week or so, his father traced him with the help of the police, and he was escorted back to Vienna.
Years in wilderness (1920–1922)
After abandoning university in Vienna, Weiss drifted aimlessly around 1920s Germany, working briefly for the expressionist film director Fritz Lang (F. W. Murnau, according to The Road to Mecca). By his own account, after selling a jointly written film script, he splurged the windfall on a wild party at an expensive Berlin restaurant, in the spirit of the times. While working as a telephone operator for an American news agency in Berlin, Weiss obtained a coveted interview with Russian author Maxim Gorky's wife, his first published piece of journalism, after simply ringing up her hotel room.
Stay in the Middle East
In 1922 Weiss moved to the British Mandate of Palestine, staying in Jerusalem at the house of his maternal uncle Dorian Feigenbaum at his invitation. Feigenbaum was a psychoanalyst, a disciple of Freud, and later founded the Psychoanalytic Quarterly.
Foreign correspondent for Frankfurter Zeitung
He picked up work as a stringer for the German newspaper Frankfurter Zeitung, one of the most prestigious newspapers of Germany and Europe, selling articles on a freelance basis. His pieces were noteworthy for their understanding of Arab fears and grievances against the Zionist project. He published a small book on the subject in 1924, and this so inspired the confidence of the Frankfurter Zeitung that it commissioned him to travel more widely still, to collect information for a full-scale book. Weiss made the trip, which lasted two years.
Conversion to Islam
To gain closer assignments in the Arabic world, Weiss developed an ever-deepening engagement with Islam. This led to his religious conversion in 1926 in Berlin and adopting an Arabic name, Muhammad Asad.
Asad spoke of Islam:
"Islam appears to me like a perfect work of architecture. All its parts are harmoniously conceived to complement and support each other; nothing is superfluous and nothing lacking; and the result is a structure of absolute balance and solid composure."
Magazine Saudi Aramco World in a 2002 essay described his journey to conversion in these words: "Two roads diverged in Berlin in the 1920s: a well-worn one to the West, the other, rarely traveled, to the East. Leopold Weiss, a gifted young writer, traveler and linguist with a thorough knowledge of the Bible and the Talmud and with deep roots in European culture, took the road eastward to Makkah."
Saudi Arabia
After his conversion to Islam, Asad moved to Saudi Arabia making a journey by camel across the Arabian Desert, from Tayma to Mecca. He stayed there for nearly six years during which he made five pilgrimages. Alongside, he started writing essays for the Swiss newspaper Neue Zürcher Zeitung, and continued to do so till 1934.
Ibn Saud's confidant and Bolshevik allegations
After the sudden death of his wife Elsa, Asad stayed on in Mecca where, in a chance encounter in the Grand Mosque's library, he met Prince Faysal. On Faysal's invitation, Asad met King Abdulaziz (founder of modern Saudi Arabia); the meeting led to almost daily audiences with the King, who quickly came to appreciate Asad's knowledge, keen mind and spiritual depth. Ibn Saud allowed Asad to visit the Najd region (in the King's company), which was forbidden to foreigners at that time.
In late 1928, an Iraqi named Abdallah Damluji, who had been an adviser to Ibn Saud, submitted a report to the British on "Bolshevik and Soviet penetration" of the Hijaz. In this report, after highlighting Asad's activities in Arabia, Damluji alleged that Asad had connections with Bolsheviks: "What is the real mission which makes him endure the greatest discomforts and the worst conditions of life? On what basis rests the close intimacy between him and Shaykh Yusuf Yasin (secretary to the King and editor of the official newspaper Umm al-Qura)? Is there some connection between von Weiss and the Bolshevik consulate in Jidda?"
Ikhwan Rebellion
According to Asad, he did finally become a secret agent of sorts. Ibn Saud sent him on a secret mission to Kuwait in 1929, to trace the sources of financial and military assistance being provided to Faysal al-Dawish – an Ikhwan leader-turned-rebel against Ibn Saud's rule. Asad, after traveling day and night through the desert without lighting fire, reached Kuwait to collect first-hand evidence. He concluded that the British were providing arms and money to al-Dawish to weaken Ibn Saud for the purpose of securing a 'land route to India' – a railway from Haifa to Basra ultimately connecting the Mediterranean Sea with the Indian subcontinent.
Time in Pakistan
Meeting Iqbal and visiting Kashmir
Asad left Arabia and came to British India in 1932 where he met South Asia's premier Muslim poet, philosopher and thinker Muhammad Iqbal. Iqbal had proposed the idea of an independent Muslim state in India, which later became Pakistan. Iqbal persuaded Asad to stay on in British India and help the Muslims of India establish their separate Muslim state. Iqbal introduced Asad to Chaudhry Niaz Ali Khan, a philanthropist and agriculturalist, who, on the advice of Muhammad Iqbal, established the Dar-ul-Islam Trust Institutes in Pathankot, India and Jauharabad, Pakistan. Asad stayed on in British India and worked with both Muhammad Iqbal and Chaudhry Niaz Ali Khan. Allama Iqbal encouraged Asad to translate Sahih Al-Bukhari in English for the first time in history. Asad responded positively and started making the arrangements for his translation. In order to find a place serene enough to stimulate his intellectual and spiritual cerebration, he arrived in Kashmir during the summer of 1934. There, he met Mirwaiz Muhammad Yusuf who became his close friend. While working enthusiastically on his translation, he also set up his own printing press in Srinagar. The first two chapters of his translation were printed in Srinagar. Asad mentions in his book Home-coming of the Heart that he had a special relationship with Kashmir and that he felt very sad when he left it.
Internment as enemy alien (1939–1945)
When the Second World War broke out in 1939, Asad's parents were arrested and, subsequently, murdered by the Nazis. Asad himself was arrested in Lahore in 1939, a day after the war broke out, by the British as an enemy alien. This was despite the fact that Asad had refused German nationality after the annexation of Austria in 1938 and had insisted on retaining his Austrian citizenship. Asad spent three years in prison, while his family consisting of his wife, Munira, and son, Talal, after being released from detention earlier, lived under the protection of Chaudhry Niaz Ali Khan at the latter's vast estate in Jamalpur, 5 km west of Pathankot. Asad was finally released and reunited with his family in Jamalpur when the Second World War ended in 1945.
Role in Pakistan Movement
Asad supported the idea of a separate Muslim state in India. After the independence of Pakistan on 14 August 1947, in recognition for his support for Pakistan, Asad was conferred first full citizenship by Pakistan and appointed the Director of the Department of Islamic Reconstruction by the Government of Pakistan, where he made recommendations on the drafting of Pakistan's first Constitution. In 1949, Asad joined Pakistan's Ministry of Foreign Affairs as head of the Middle East Division and made efforts to strengthen Pakistan's ties with the Muslim states of the Middle East. In 1952, Asad was appointed as Pakistan's Minister Plenipotentiary to the United Nations in New York – a position that he relinquished in 1952 to write his autobiography (up to the age of 32), The Road to Mecca.
Career as a diplomat
Asad contributed much to Pakistan's early political and cultural life but was shunned from the corridors of power. He served this country as the head of the Directorate of Islamic Reconstruction, Joint Secretary of the Middle East Division in Foreign Office, Minister Plenipotentiary to the United Nations and organizer of the International Islamic Colloquium. If one delves into the archival material of these government departments, the role played by Asad for his beloved Pakistan can be dealt with in detail.
Marriage controversy and resignation
By chance, at a reception Asad met Pola, an American of Polish origin who was destined to become his third wife (d. 2007). She was young, beautiful and intelligent. He fell in love with her and when he learned that she had already embraced Islam he decided to marry her, despite the difference of age and temperament. However, under the rules of the Foreign Office, he was bound to get prior permission to marry a non-Pakistani national. He applied through the proper channels but the Governor-General rejected his application. So, he submitted his resignation from the Foreign Service, divorced his Arabian wife (Munira, d. 1978), and devoted himself to writing his autobiographical travel log The Road to Mecca.
During his stay in Switzerland, Asad received a letter from the President of Pakistan, General Ayub Khan, who was a great admirer of his book named The Principles of State and Government in Islam (1961). In a subsequent exchange of letters, he proposed to Asad to come to Pakistan and have the membership of a seven-man group of Muslim scholars – who both supposedly knew the world and were experts on Islam – to advise him with regard to everyday matters as well as the drawing up of a new Islamic constitution for the country. At that time, Asad was immersed in his cherished work on the Qur'an, and so he regretfully declined.
After many years, Asad was again invited by another President of Pakistan, General Zia ul-Haq, in 1983 and that was his last visit to this country. When he arrived at Islamabad, which he had not yet seen, he was received at the plane with great honour and escorted to the Presidency. During his sojourn in Islamabad, there was a series of meetings with members of the Ansari Commission in order to prepare a kind of programme for the President for the future. Asad agreed with some, and as usual disagreed with others, which he found retrograde. On one point he was firm and insistent that Muslim women should have exactly the same rights in the political sphere as had men, to the extent of becoming Prime Minister. Asad also spared some time to meet with his surviving friends in Lahore and Islamabad and at the request of the President made several radio and television appearances, as always spontaneous. On his return, he was besieged by letters from literally hundreds of admirers in Pakistan, some even offering him land or a house but he refused politely, considering his concept of Pakistan to be beyond all these worldly trivialities.
Later life and death
Towards the end of his life, Asad moved to Spain and lived there with his third wife, Pola Hamida Asad, an American national of Polish Catholic descent who had also converted to Islam, until his death on 20 February 1992 at the age of 91. He was buried in the Muslim cemetery of Granada in the former Moorish province of Andalusia, Spain.
Children
Asad had a son, Talal Asad, from his second Saudi Arabian wife, Munira. Talal Asad is now an anthropologist specialising in religious studies and post-colonialism. Asad also had a step-son named Heinrich (converted name Ahmad) with his first wife Else (converted name Aziza).
Honors and recognition
A Lviv Islamic Cultural Center named after Muhammad Asad was officially opened in 2015.
Muhammad-Asad-Platz
In April 2008, a space in front of the UNO City in the 22nd District of Vienna was named Muhammad-Asad-Platz in honour of Muhammad Asad. The step was taken as part of a two-day program on the European Year of Intercultural Dialogue focusing on Islam and its relationship with Europe. The program commemorated the life and work of Asad, described as a great Austrian visionary, who earned international recognition by building bridges between religions. The honoree's son Talal Asad, the President of the Islamic Community of Austria Anas Schakfeh and Vienna's cultural adviser Andreas Mailath-Pokorny were present at the unveiling of the square. Mailath-Pokorny, while talking to the media said: "There is probably no more appropriate place to honour Muhammad Asad than that in front of the UN-City. Muhammad Asad was a citizen of the world, who was at home, and left his mark, everywhere in the world, especially in the Orient."
Honorary postage stamp
On 23 March 2013, Pakistan Post issued a stamp with denomination of Rs. 15 under the "Men of Letters" Series in honour of Allamah Muhammad Asad.
Bibliography
Books
Unromantisches Morgenland: Aus dem Tagebuch einer Reise (1924), German, published under his former name Leopold Weiss. The book is a description of the middle-East, written before his conversion to Islam, for a German-speaking readership - The Unromantic Orient (2004), English translation by Elma Ruth Harder
Islam at the Crossroads (1934), a call for Muslims to avoid imitating Western society and instead return to the original Islamic heritage, written in English
The Road to Mecca (1954), autobiography covering his life from 1900 to 1932
The Principles of State and Government in Islam (1961), description of a democratic political system grounded in Islamic principles
The Message of The Qur'an (1980), an influential translation and interpretation of the Qur'an
Sahih Al-Bukhari: The Early Years of Islam (1981), translation and explanation of an important collection of hadith (reports of pronouncements by Muhammad)
This Law of Ours and Other Essays (1987), collection of essays about Islamic law.
Home-Coming Of The Heart (1932–1992). Part II of the Road to Mecca (2016), Al Abbas International, .
Meditations (Unpublished), intended to clarify ambiguities arising from his translation The Message of The Qur'an (1980), stands unpublished as of 2013.
The Spirit of Islam is not a separate book but a republication of the first chapter of his 1934 book Islam at the Crossroads.
Journals
Arafat: A Monthly Critique of Muslim Thought (1946–47)
Other publications
Portrayals of Asad
A Road to Mecca - The Journey of Muhammad Asad
See also
List of converts to Islam
Muhammad Marmaduke Pickthall
Contemporary Islamic philosophy
Islamic revival
Notes
References
Sources
Further reading
External links
Videos
Muhammad Asad – God Man Relationship
Tariq Ramadan on Asad
Murad Hofmann on Asad
Risalah Reformis Tafsir Muhammad Asad
1900 births
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People from the Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria
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4435357 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Beetleborgs%20monsters | List of Beetleborgs monsters | This is a list of Beetleborgs monsters featured in both versions of the American children's television series.
Big Bad Beetleborgs
Here is a list of monsters brought out of the comics by the Magnavores. The monsters here are adapted from Juukou B-Fighter:
Amphibious Monster
First Appearance: "Beetle Rock, Part 1" (9/7/96)
Voice Actor: Lex Lang
An armored amphibious monster shown in Drew's Beetleborgs comic and day-dream. This monster later appeared again when Vexor released numerous monster from the comics during the "Curse of the Shadow Borg" saga, yet was not seen again after being summoned. Drew names this creature "Hairball", though it may have just been an insult.
Terror Bear
First Appearance: "The Ghost is Toast" (9/10/96)
Voice Actor: Mike Reynolds
A people-eating black bear monster....or at least he was supposed to be in the comics. Terror Bear had a huge sweet tooth and preferred junk food over human flesh as seen when Terror Bear ate the sweet stuff that was placed on the ice cream man that he was supposed to eat. He was the first monster to be pulled out of the comics, had iron mace balls shackled to each wrist, and a third eye on his chest. In battle, he launched spikes that protruded from his body like explosive missiles. He was defeated and sent back to the comics by the Beetleborgs and their Sonic Laser Sabers.
Green Cannon Machine
First Appearance: "The Treasure of Hillhurst Mansion" (9/11/96)
Voice Actor: Tom Wyner (1st time), Ezra Weisz (2nd time)
A green android monster that had cannons in his fists and shoulder-mounted missile launchers. Drew mentions that he is from issue #99 of the Beetleborgs comics. The Magnavores were seeking Hillhurst's treasure. To aid them, they summoned the Green Cannon Machine to obstruct the Beetleborgs. The Beetleborgs did him in with Beetle Battlers.
This monster was re-released by Vexor during the "Curse of the Shadow Borg" saga, where he was one of the first victims of Drew's Thunder Stinger (before upgrading to Mega-Blue).
Sword Warrior
First Appearance: "Say the Magic Word" (9/13/96)
Voice Actor: Peter Greenwood
A samurai monster summoned by the Magnavores. He was first released when Jo was invisible and later defeated by a restored Jo and her Striker Blaster. He was then released during the comic book convention alongside Cataclazmic, Wingar and Goldex, and was also released during the "Curse of the Shadow Borg" saga. He was one of the first victims of Drew's Thunder Stinger (before upgrading to Mega-Blue).
Galaclops
Mentioned in Episode:"Lights, Camera, Too Much Action" (9/14/96)
An unseen monster from the comics suggested by Typhus as the monster to send to the Hollywood filmmakers set. According to Typhus, this monster is from issue #8.
Graxxis
First Appearance: "Lights, Camera, Too Much Action" (9/14/96)
Voice Actor: Tom Wyner
A mantis-like monster. Roland mentioned that he was from issue #102 from the Beetleborgs comic series. In battle, Graxxis could release green lasers (when angry) and launch a sharp stinger-tipped rope from its mouth. While Hollywood filmmakers were making a horror flick in Charterville, Vexor ordered Jara, Noxic, and Typhus to summon a monster to cause havoc on their behalf. Graxxis was summoned at the suggestion of Noxic. Graxxis was mistaken for the leading monster of the horror flick. After he grew tired of the director's abuse, he went out to cause real trouble in the city. His rampage was ultimately stopped by Drew's Stinger Drill. He was released again during the "Curse of the Shadow Borg" saga by Vexor where he was one of the first victims of Drew's Thunder Stinger (before upgrading to Mega-Blue). He was released again by Nukus during the finale of Season 1.
LottaMuggs
First Appearance: "Nano in the House" (9/16/96)
Voice Actor: Ezra Weisz
A multi-faced amoeba-like monster. Roland mentions that he was from issue #17 of the Beetleborgs comic books. The Magnavores stole the Amulet of Subjugation, which hypnotizes people into becoming the wearer's servants. LottaMuggs was determined to get his amulet back at any cost. LottaMuggs could summon blasts from his hands as well as turn into flying worm-like energy projectiles. He was eventually defeated by the Sonic Lasers. He was released from the comics again by Vexor in the "Curse of the Shadow Borg" saga where he was one of the victims of Drew's Thunder Stinger (before upgrading to Mega-Blue). He was released again by Nukus during the finale of season 1.
Garganturat
First Appearance: "Locomotion Commotion" (9/17/96)
Voice Actors: Will Long
A hunchbacked rat monster. Drew mentions that he was from issue #113 of the Beetleborgs comic series. Roland also mentioned that Garganturat was born from eating radioactive contaminated cheese mutating him into his monster form in the comic books. The Magnavores wanted to divert a train onto the wrong track, but needed a diversion. They summoned Garganturat to be the diversion. Garganturat kidnapped Heather to keep the Beetleborgs busy. He then shrunk himself and hid in a mousehole dimension where he was finished off by the Beetleborgs' Beetle Battlers. He came back twice, once by Vexor's powers in the "Curse of the Shadow Borg." saga where he was one of the victims of Drew's Thunder Stinger (before upgrading to Mega-Blue). He was released again by Nukus during the Season 1 finale.
Firecat
First Appearance: "Cat-Tastrophy" (9/18/96)
Voice Actor: Tom Charles
Firecat was a weak cat creature that required recharging through a special machine. When fully charged, he was stronger and had the ability to breathe fire. Noxic proudly took credit for creating Firecat, claiming he was the one who took a "weak and helpless pussy cat" and changed it into Firecat through the special machine. Typhus, seemingly based on the monster's theme, argued that the creature was from his army of monsters. He scratched Drew in battle, causing Drew to turn into a cat-like creature himself. Firecat, on the other hand, could not be controlled. Noxic and Typhus lured it with candy so they could place him back into the machine to restore him. Drew's condition worsened, and his only chance to get back to normal was by getting into the machine himself. The machine overloaded, but Drew came out in full Beetleborg form. Firecat came out too, but was angry and blackened, seemingly from being burnt to a crisp in the machine. Aside from being blackened, Firecat was still not under control and released fireballs everywhere. Firecat was defeated in the end by Drew's Stinger Drill.
Queen Magna
First Appearance: "Drew and Flabber's Less-Than-Fabulous Adventure" (9/19/96)
Actor: Lisa Walsh
A white and blue butterfly-themed sorceress with a hypnotic voice who wore a blue jeweled necklace. Heather's birthday had arrived and Drew wanted to give her as a present. Jo mentioned that Queen Magna was from Issue #113 which had her on the cover and Heather was fixated by the necklace that the villainess wore around her neck. Drew decided to give Heather that necklace for her birthday, so he convinced Flabber to take them into Magna's comic book world. However, Drew's Beetleborg powers would not work inside the comic book, so he and Flabber were at a disadvantage when confronted by Magna. As Magna tried to put them under her spell with her hypnotic vocalizing, Flabber broke free, and both he and Drew escaped leaving the necklace behind. Magna, in her dimension, sat on a throne and was fawned over by various Scabs, some of which were seen fanning her off, brushing her wings, and serving her nectar to drink. The Magnavores tried to trap Drew and Flabber in the comic book/comic book's dimension while they were inside.
Dominailer
Mentioned in Episode: "Ghouls Just Wanna Have Fun" (9/20/96)
Unseen monster from the comics mentioned by the Beetleborgs as a possible secret weapon for the Magnavores. Roland says he is from issue #18. Drew mentions that he can shoot poisonous nails from his eyes.
Photominator
First Appearance: "The Littlest Brattleborg" (9/27/96)
Voice Actor: Gregg Bullock
Photominator is a camera monster with deadly lenses. When Drew and Jo's cousin Oliver, dressed as the Blue Stinger Borg, came for a visit, the Magnavores mistook him for the real one. Oliver constantly took their pictures, giving Vexor inspiration to summon the Magnavore's old friend the Photominator. Photominator was easily beaten by the Beetleborgs (including the REAL Blue Stinger). He appeared again during the "Curse of the Shadow Borg" saga thanks to Vexor's magic.
Mace Warrior
First Appearance: "Haunted Hideout" (9/28/96)
Voice Actor: Peter Greenwood
An axe-bladed mace-wielding warrior with a cattle skull-shaped helmet and a red tunic summoned by Jara. Roland mentioned that he came from issue #18 of the Beetleborgs comics. He wielded and could toss his mace at far distances causing explosions, one of which set the nearby forest on fire. His mission was to stir-up some trouble, which he attempted to do by destroying a forest (and its wildlife) near Hillhurst. In battle, he could also blast lasers from the top of his mace. He deflected the Beetleborgs laser blasts back at them with his shield. Roland sent him back to the comics using his Hunter Claw.
Amphead
First Appearance: "Monster Rock" (10/4/96)
Voice Actor: Bob Papenbrook
An over-sized amplifier robot that played loud, devastating music. The Magnavores got word that a famous rock band was in town and were inspired to create music mayhem of their own. He was defeated but came back twice, once by Vexor in the "Curse of the Shadow Borg" saga and again by Nukus during the Season 1 finale.
Cataclazmic
First Appearance: "Convention Dimension" (10/5/96)
Voice Actor: Damian Pappahranis
Cataclazmic is a yellow caterpillar monster who was said to be from issue #141 of the comic book series. He first appeared as part of the comic book army used to terrorize the comic convention. In "She Wolf," Cataclazmic was brought back once more to help Noxic and Typhus retrieve Jara (who had been turned into a werewolf by Wolfgang). He was sent back to the comics by Drew's Stinger Drill.
Wingar
First Appearance: "Convention Dimension" (10/5/96)
Voice Actor: Richard Epcar
A bird-like monster pulled from a comic book at the convention. It was defeated with the aid of Karato and Silver Ray and by the combined effort of the Beetleborgs weapons. Despite being from a different comic, Wingar's face was later seen on Borgslayer.
Goldex
First Appearance: "Convention Dimension" (10/5/96)
Karato's arch enemy. He was designed like Karato only with a red and gold armor plate. He was defeated with the combined power of the Beetleborgs weapons. Despite being from a different comic, Goldex's face was later seen on Borgslayer.
Venus Claptrap
First Appearance: "Root of All Evil" (10/11/96)
Voice Actor: Bob Johnson
A large man-eating plant monster that could fire burning pollen. In the comics, Vexor was once surrounded by his kind. He was brought from the comics to steal Drew's unusual plant. During battle, Claptrap swallowed Roland and Jo inside and they clung onto his inner roots to avoid falling into his stomach acid. He ended up defeated in the end, when Drew used the power of Gargantus. Venus Claptrap was later brought out of the comics again by Vexor during the "Shadow Borg" saga.
Cyber-Serpent
First Appearance: "The Doctor Is In" (10/18/96)
Voice Actor: Ezra Weisz
A very powerful snake monster that came from a two-part comic. He has no head and has a snake where his head and arms should be. When Cyber-Serpent was first released from the comics, it was said that he was immune to the Beetleborgs weapons. This trait was never mentioned again after he was brought back a second and third time. Because his issue had not reached the stores yet, the kids had no idea on how to defeat Cyber-Serpent. With the help of Dr. Baron von Frankenbeans, the Beetleborgs came up with a strategy to trick the monster and send it back into the comic book....and it worked as they blasted him with their Sonic Lasers when he was unsuspectingly standing right above a copy of the comic book he came from and was promptly sent back. He reappeared in the "Curse of the Shadow Borg" saga, and was summoned by Nukus at the end of Season 1.
Dicehead
First Appearance: "The Brain in the Attic" (10/25/96)
Voice Actor: Steve Jones Watson
A monster whose brain was stolen by Typhus and placed into Hillhurst mansion. Drew mentions that Dicehead was from issue #125 of the comics. Whoever held the brain, their worst fears were brought to life (with Jo facing her Aunt May and her "slobbery kisses,"Wolfgang facing giant fleas, Nano facing a trio of ninjas, Count Fangula facing his "nightmare" of an ex-wife, Drew facing giant broccoli, and Mums facing a giant pair of scissors). When Dicehead came to life, he was clueless and idiotic (and speaking in surfer slang). Once reunited with his brain, Dicehead's intelligence was restored, making him extremely dangerous (and his real voice was deep and fiercer). To defeat him, the Beetleborgs had to confuse him, causing his brain to shatter, his intelligence to dissipate, and his defeat to come quick. He later reappeared in the "Curse of the Shadow Borg" saga and was later released by Nukus amongst the other monsters. Both of those times he was wiped out by Drew's Thunder Stinger (the latter in Mega-Blue mode).
Grenade Guy
First Appearance: "Bye, Bye Frankie" (10/31/96)
Voice Actor: Michael Sorich
A humanoid grenade monster that was assigned to kidnap Frankenbeans so the Magnavores could ransom him for the Beetle Bonders. Drew says he is from issue #101 from the comic book series. At the Halloween party held at Zoom Comics, Frankenbeans (who had left Hillhurst) tried to blend into the costumed crowd, and soon, Grenade Guy was there to kidnap him while the Beetleborgs were distracted. In the ensuing battle, Grenade Guy overpowered Roland, but then the Beetleborgs decided to try a new maneuver with their AVs. Jo equipped her AV with the Blue AV's magnet attachment to capture Grenade Guy, who was being held still by Roland's Hunter Claw. She then dropped him onto the other two AVs, which were waiting to finish him off. He reappeared during the "Curse of the Shadow Borg" saga.
Porkasaurus
First Appearance: "Fangs Over Charterville" (11/2/96)
Voice Actor: Bob Johnson
Porkasaurus is a pig monster. Like Mighty Morphin Power Rangers monster Pudgy Pig, Porkasaurus was brought out to consume all the food in Charterville during a blood drive. He was taken down and condemned back to the comics by Drew's Stinger Blade. He reappeared during the "Curse of the Shadow Borg" saga and was later released from the comics by Nukus amongst the other monsters in the Season Finale.
Detestro
First Appearance: "Raiders of the Tomb" (11/15/96)
Voice Actor: Rick Tane
A demonic humanoid white-haired warrior attired in a black outfit and armed with a spear. Detestro is mentioned by Drew to be from issue #131 of the comic book series. Drew and Josh broke into the cemetery to steal the Energy Axis from Vexor when he was powering up Shadowborg. Vexor then summoned Detestro the Cave Warrior to hunt the boys down and retrieve the device. When Drew used the Energy Axis to become his Mega-Blue form for the first time, Detestro was eventually swept back to the comic books by the Thunder Stinger.
Cataclaws
First Appearance: "Yo Ho Borgs" (11/25/96)
Voice Actor: Alex Borstein
A sloth monster who impersonated Blackbeard the Pirate. Drew says she was from issue #134 of the comic book series. Cataclaws was large with orange and white fur and green eyes. After exposing the true Blackbeard by having Flabber playing the rap music that Blackbeard raps to, Cataclaws shed her disguise and fled with the Beetleborgs in pursuit. She was sent back to the comics by the Beetleborgs' weapons.
Mucant
First Appearance: "Pet Problems" (3/21/97)
Voice Actor: Steve Kramer
An orange muscular bird-faced monster with dragon-like wings, bird-like feet, built-in shoulder cannons (one-shaped like a dragon head and the other shaped like a lobster claw), and a scorpion-like tail. It was summoned by the Magnavores to kidnap people's pets and ransom them. Mucant met his match when he tried to capture Wolfgang's strange pet, a feisty purple furred animal with a large mouth. Roland and Jo fired their weapons at Mucant to send him back to the comic books. He reappeared in the Season Finale when he was released by Nukus amongst other monsters.
Furocious
First Appearance: "Operation Frankenbeans" (3/28/97)
Voice Actor: Brad Orchard
A blue moth-headed monster with brown fur. Furocious could breathe fire in battle. Vexor's strategy to harm the kids was to constantly disrupt their daily lives so they would fail school. To add further complications, Furocious was called upon by Vexor from issue #136. Once the kids saw through Vexor's plan, he was sent back to the comics when Roland used/powered up his Green Hunter Claw. Even though the monster is called Furocious, he is never referred to by name and is named in the credits.
Skullhead
First Appearance: "The Curse of Mums' Tomb" (4/3/97)
Voice Actor: David Walsh
A skull-headed monster. He is mentioned by Roland as being from issue #137 of the Beetleborgs comic book series where Skullhead seemed impressed by Roland's knowledge of comic books. In battle, Skullhead could blast lasers from his eyes, teleport, and move/attack at great speeds (albeit upside down mostly). The kids confronted the Magnavores to retrieve Mums' lost, cursed, and magical scarab necklace. To deal with the Beetleborgs, Skullhead was called from the comics and he pulled the heroes into another dimension. Skullhead was referred to (by Jara) as her bodyguard He was quickly defeated in this new dimension, with the combined efforts of the Beetleborgs' weapons and the power of Mega Blue Beetleborg and his Thunder Stinger. When he was defeated, the Magnavores retreated and left behind the scarab necklace.
Malavex
First Appearance: "This Old Ghost" (4/4/97)
Voice Actor: Brian Tahash
A green monster with a bird-like face and a voice like Scatman Crothers. He almost resembles Mucant, minus the wings (and add in the fact that Malavex was green). Malavex's pastime was playing his trumpet, but his music was disturbing the grave of Old Man Hillhurst. For Hillhurst to rest in peace again, the Beetleborgs had to send Malavex back to the comic. Roland did just that with his Hunter Claw. Drew pointed out that Malavex was from issue #138 and was the most vicious Magnavore ever drawn. Malavex's head later appeared on Borgslayer.
Hammerhands
First Appearance: "Jo's Strange Change" (4/10/97)
Voice Actor: Bob Papenbrook
A one-eyed hammer-headed robot with hammer-shaped hands. He is mentioned as being from issue #139 of the comic book series. Hammerhands attacked the Beetleborgs at the time when Wolfgang accidentally used a spell on Jo which made her look different. When the Beetleborgs scanned him, in battle, they discovered his one eye was his weak spot. When Drew fired his Stinger Drill at this spot, Hammerhands was sent back to the comics.
Swamp Scumoid
First Appearance: "Something Fishy" (4/17/97)
Voice Actor: Dave Mallow
Swamp Scumoid was a dark green Gillman-resembling monster with the most horrid odor and was impersonating Charterville's urban legend called Charterville Charlie. The Beetleborgs were at first hesitant to kill it, thinking this creature was a real scientific discovery. Vexor had released him before the comic was made available to the public, though Jara, Noxic, and Typhus did not know it. However, the monster took Trip hostage by knocking him out with his odor, holding him until he managed to escape. He later took Mums hostage in the catacombs below Hillhurst. Roland quickly discovered the latest issue of the comics and learned that this monster was not the actual Charterville Charlie after all, but the Swamp Scumoid. After Mums was rescued, the smelly fish was zapped with the Sonic Lasers.
Crimson Creep
First Appearance: "Bride of Frankenbeans" (4/18/97)
Voice Actor: Patrick Thomas
A red moth monster summoned by the Magnavores to crash the wedding of Frankenbeans and Bride of Frankenbeans. Crimson Creep is said to be from issue #140 of the comic book series. He ended up getting his own party crashed into when Drew, in Mega Blue Beetleborg mode, sent him back to the comics with his trusty Thunder Stinger. He was later released from the comics by Nukus amongst other monsters in the Season Finale.
Unctuous
First Appearance: "Fangula's Last Bite" (4/21/97)
Voice Actor: Jimmy Theodore
A clawed red-and-orange crab/shrimp monster who was to help the Magnavores capture Fangula's boss Vlad. The plan did not work, though, as he fell victim to Roland's Hunter Claw and the Beetleborgs' Sonic Lasers. He was later released from the comics by Nukus in the Season Finale.
Super Grenade Guy
First Appearance: "The Good, the Bad, and the Scary" (4/25/97)
Voice Actor: Michael Sorich
A second version of Grenade Guy. Drew mentioned he was from issue #146 from the comics. He was by Noxic who claimed that he was much more powerful than last time. Super Grenade Guy could self-destruct and pull his dismembered body back together at any time. The Beetleborgs focused and blasted their weapons at him, for an extended period of time, causing his levels to rise to a dangerous amount. Once his meters were full, he exploded for a final time and was sent back to the comics. Super Grenade Guy was later released from the comics by Nukus in the Season Finale.
Kombat Gnat
First Appearance: "Buggin' Out" (4/28/97)
Voice Actor: Billy Forester
Kombat Gnat is a blue/lavender gnat monster with large teeth that could shrink in size. He is mentioned as being from issue #144 of the comic book series. Kombat Knat was sent to act as a spy at Hillhurst. However, Flabber was messing around with a teleportation machine while Kombat Gnat crept inside. The machine fused them together and Flabber slowly transformed into Combat Gnat (similar to Jeff Goldblum in The Fly). The Beetleborgs were faced with a difficult dilemma: let Charterville get destroyed by Kombat Gnat or fight Kombat Gnat (which meant having to fight Flabber) and risk losing Flabber forever. Kombat Gnat was destroyed and sent back by the Beetleborgs' weapons, but Flabber somehow survived much to the happy surprise of the kids and Hillhurst monsters. He later reappeared in the Season Finale (minus Flabber attached to him) when Nukus released him amongst other monsters where he was taken down for good by Drew's Thunder Stinger (in Mega Blue Beetleborg mode).
Hypnomaniac
First Appearance: "Svengali, By Golly" (5/2/97)
Voice Actor: Joey Lotsko
An insectoid sorcerer-like monster with hypnotic abilities. He is mentioned as being from issue #145 of the comic book series. Vexor was tired of the trio's failures. After they bungled their mission to capture Flabber, Vexor fired them. Hypnomaniac was summoned to hypnotize the Hillhurst monsters into becoming Vexor's new servants. Ultimately, Hypnomaniac fell victim to Drew's Thunder Stinger (in regular Blue Stinger mode). He was later released from the comics by Nukus amongst other monsters in the Season Finale where his head was later seen as the seemingly main head of Borgslayer.
Evil Eye
First Appearance: "Big Bad Luck" (5/5/97)
Voice Actor: Frank Tahoe
A green skeleton monster with a peach-colored head that has one green eye and has smaller skulls on its upper back. The Magnavores were hiding in the Hillhurst attic to cause bad luck for Flabber and the house monsters. They turned things up a notch by calling Evil Eye. Evil Eye's powers came from his eye and by attacking the eye, Evil Eye would be defeated. Evil Eye was defeated when the lasers he shot from his eye were reflected back onto him with a reflective old hubcap that the Beetleborgs used. He was later released from the comics by Nukus in the Season Finale.
Rocket Man
First Appearance: "A Monster is Born" (5/9/97)
Voice Actor: Oliver Page
Rocket Man was a blue robot that fired blinding flash bombs. He is mentioned as being from issue #148. The Magnavores left a baby at Hillhurst. Little did they know, the baby was really Rocket Man in disguise. However, Rocket Man briefly reverted to a baby-like persona when Flabber materialized an over-sized bottle to distract him. The Beetleborgs took the window of opportunity and defeated him with the Sonic Lasers.
Super Noxic
First Appearance: "Brotherly Fright" (5/16/97)
Voice Actor: Derek Stephen Prince
Noxic's younger brother that looks like Noxic, but very muscular. He is mentioned as being from issue #150 of the Beetleborgs comic book series. The Hillhurst monsters were getting in shape with Flabber's aerobic workout, but Noxic wanted to make the exercise brutal. He summoned his brother, who disguised himself as an S&M muscle-headed trainer named Hurt-Ulese. As Hurt-Ulese, he put the Hillhurst monsters through the most intense workout they had ever experienced. His true identity was found out by the kids, though, when Jo found his ID in his gym bag - the picture ID had the face of Super Noxic on it. Soon afterwards, he revealed himself to the kids and took them on in battle. He and Noxic briefly combined in battle, with Noxic controlling him from the inside. While Super Noxic proved to be a tough opponent for the Beetleborgs, he turned out to be no match for Drew's Thunder Stinger (in Mega Blue Beetleborg mode). Before being sent back to the comics, Super Noxic released Noxic from being pulled back in with him.
Borgslayer
First Appearance: "Borgslayer!" (5/20/97)
Voice Actors: Bob Papenbrook and Dave Mallow (simultaneous)
The final monster of Season One. After Nukus was brought to life, he brought out 14 Beetleborgs monsters (consisting of Graxxis, LottaMuggs, Garganturat, Amphead, Cyber-Serpent, Dicehead, Porkasaurus, Mucant, Crimson Creep, Unctuous, Super Grenade Guy, Kombat Knat, Hypnomaniac, and Evil Eye) from their comic issues to battle the Beetleborgs. During battle, a few monsters (namely Kombat Knat and Dicehead) were sent back again by Drew (who was in Mega Blue Beetleborg mode) before Nukus fused the energies of every one of Vexor's remaining monsters (who disappeared back to their comics in the process) with the energies of the Beetleborgs' blaster powers to create one massive creature called Borgslayer, a composite monster that resembled Hypnomaniac with many monster faces on his front torso and large arms (among which were the faces of Vexor's brief second form, Shadowborg, Evil Eye, Kombat Knat, Malavex, Wingar, and Goldex). Borgslayer was far too powerful as he destroyed Gargantis with little to no trouble while the Magnavore Jet Fighters destroyed the Beetle Battle Base and all 3 A.V.'s. The only way to defeat Borgslayer was for the Beetleborgs to triangulate their firepower. By doing so, Borgslayer was finished and the residual energy from the explosion managed to suck all the Magnavores and Vexor, back into the comic book world forever.
Beetleborgs Metallix
Here are the monsters that are brought out of Les Fortunes' drawings by Nukus. They are adapted from B-Fighter Kabuto:
Aqualungs
First Appearance: "Ghoul Trouble" (9/11/97)
Voice Actor: Bob Papenbrook
Aqualungs is a red-and-yellow prehistoric starfish monster who had the ability to liquify his body, making him a difficult attack target. He was sent to infiltrate Hillhurst through the pipes in the basement. After a one-on-one with Roland, he was defeated with the Metallix Grappler.
Hagfish of Gar
First Appearance: "Totally Slammin' Sector Cycles" (9/12/97)
Les was inspired by the legend of the Hagfish of Gar, a Beelzebufo-like monster that could hypnotize the minds of children with its singing. After creating a real Hagfish of Gar, it was unleashed so Nukus could capture the Beetleborgs while under the Hagfish of Gar's trance. However, the signal was useless when the Beetleborgs were borged. In fact, it even blocked the signal to the Beetle Battle Station when they tried to summon the B.V.'s. So the Crustaceans proceeded to hypnotize all the other kids in Charterville by amplifying Hagfish of Gar's singing with a stolen truck and loud speakers. Another technique Hagfish of Gar could do was to spray opponents with a very sticky goo, as demonstrated after Nukus releases him and sprays Les, and later Drew and Jo on their new Sector Cycles (which they, along with Roland, were taking out for a test-drive; they were to be activated using their Data Bonders). Hagfish of Gar ended up defeated by the Beetleborgs' Data Lasers.
Changeling
First Appearance: "Monster Impostor" (9/16/97)
Voice Actor: Ethan Murray
A shapeshifting salamander monster that looks like it is composed of many salamanders. He could disguise himself as any house monster, even Flabber. When on a mission to infiltrate Hillhurst, Changeling captured Flabber in a jar and took over his identity. At one point, he even disguised himself as Drew. Roland defeated the Changeling with his Metallix Grappler. His picture was seen among the many of Les' drawings that were combined with toxic chemicals and Nukus' powers to create Repgillian.
Fernzilla
First Appearance: "Horror Hotel" (9/17/97)
Voice Actor: Juliana Bolden
Fernzilla is a fern monster that could control vines to entangle anything and shot out deadly pollen spores from the vines sprouting from her head. Flabber and the monsters converted their mansion into a hotel. Among the hotel guests was an old hag who was really Fernzilla in disguise. She ended up losing to the Beetleborgs when she was shot by their Data Lasers. Her picture was seen among the many of Les' drawings that were combined with toxic chemicals and Nukus' powers to create Repgillian.
Roo-thless
First Appearance: "Les is More" (9/18/97)
Voice Actor: Lance Wingnut
A boxing giant kangaroo monster with a voice like Mickey Mouse and Mike Tyson. He had boxing gloves and a sword and could fire energy blasts from his pouch. was brought to life by Vilor much against Nukus' wishes (though Vilor did tell Nukus that Les brought him to life). Monsters that were not brought to life by Nukus himself were uncontrollable and if he was not sent back in 24 hours, all 2 dimensional beings, meaning the Crustaceans, would be forced back to the 2nd dimension. It took the unlikely teamwork of the Beetleborgs, Nukus, and Horribelle to send back where he belonged.
Ultimate Conqueror
First Appearance: "Sunset Boo-levard" (9/19/97)
Voice Actor: Henry Douglas Grey
Basically, he claims to be what his name suggests, but there is not much to him. Ultimate Conqueror is a strong white-scaled horned chameleon monster with horns and large claws. He had the Beetleborgs beaten, but he quickly met his match at the mercy of a has-been actress who simply screamed in his face enough to knock him over. The Beetleborgs took the opportunity to then defeat the monster with their weapons.
Torch Mouth
First Appearance: "Extra...Beetleborgs Revealed" (9/22/97)
Voice Actor: Brad Orchard
A fire-breathing smilodon monster that looked like a combination of a smilodon and a skeletal mouse with a striped smilodon's second head on his forehead. He can breathe fire out of his striped smilodon head. Torch Mouth was used by the Crustaceans to capture a reporter. He succumbed to Drew's Data Laser which was in Freeze Ray mode. His picture was seen among the many of Les' drawings that were combined with toxic chemicals and Nukus' powers to create Repgillian.
Ultra Vulture
First Appearance: "Who's That Ghoul?" (9/23/97)
Voice Actor: Gene Holliday
A fiery wind-breathing armored Teratornis monster. His fiery wind breath set the forests near Hillhurst on fire. Les called him the "Ultimate Bird of Prey". Ultra Vulture fell prey to the Beetleborgs' Metallix Battlers instead. Nukus was not pleased that Ultra Vulture did not live up to his description. His picture was seen among the many of Les' drawings that were combined with toxic chemicals and Nukus' powers to create Repgillian.
Brain Sucker
First Appearance: "Attack of the Brain Suckers" (9/24/97)
Voice Actor: Brett Walkow
Les began his own line of comics called Brain Sucker. The main character is a gray scorpionfish monster who had the ability to drain the intellect from anyone (by merely doing what his name suggests - sucking their brains), even Nano and the Hillhurst monsters (minus Frankenbeans, who apparently had no brains for the monster to suck on). Brain Sucker was created, according to the story, by the Monster Mother herself, and was hatched from an egg she laid in her lair. In battle, Brain Sucker could blast sharp darts from its mouth. The Data Lasers did this hideous creature in once and for all. After this, Nano, the Hillhurst monsters, and all of the Brain Sucker's other victims regained their intelligence.
Monster Smasher
First Appearance: "Don't Fear the Reaper" (9/29/97)
An orange deformed woolly mammoth monster. The Grim Reaper was in town and rumor had it that he was seeking a successor before retiring. Nukus got word of the news and had Les draw Monster Smasher. Nukus and Monster Smasher were on their way to Hillhurst to eliminate the competition so Nukus could become the next Grim Reaper. They never got far though as Roland and Jo (on their Sector Cycles) eliminated Monster Smasher with their Metallix Battlers, forcing an angry Nukus to retreat.
Triplesaurus Rex
First Appearance: "The Old Gray Flabber" (10/3/97)
Voice Actor: Ari Ross
A blue 3-headed Tyrannosaurus monster with two short arms and two long tail-shaped tentacles. Les had drawn a portrait of Flabber which caused him to get old (in a situation akin to a revered "Picture of Dorian Gray"). Les then drew Triplesaurus Rex to distract the Beetleborgs from Flabber's rapid aging. After Triplesaurus Rex was seemingly destroyed by the Beetleborgs, his 3 heads came back to attack them. They ended up getting taken out of the picture also. Triplesaurus Rex's picture was seen among the many of Les' drawings that were combined with toxic chemicals and Nukus' powers to create Repgillian.
Piranha Khan
First Appearance: "Son of Frankenbeans" (10/10/97)
Voice Actor: Robert Axelrod
A black coelacanth/piranha monster who attacked the Beetleborgs while they were in the midst of their dissent stemming from the contest to see who was the best Beetleborg. Only after they learned to work together again does this monster get defeated.
Emily the Seed of Evil
First Appearance: "How Does Your Garden Grow?" (10/20/97)
Voice Actor: Anne Britt Makebakken
Little Ghoul was taking up a hobby in seed planting, so Horribelle took advantage by sending her an evil seed created by Les. The seed grew into a cactus (which Little Ghoul decided to name Emily), and then into a full female cactus monster, armed with a cactus shaped sword, which sucked the life out of Flabber and the house monsters in the process. However Little Ghoul had grown so attached to the monster, that she did not want the Beetleborgs to destroy her. The Beetleborgs decided they needed a distraction for the monster and Jo decided plant food was the best one for the job. Hearing that Emily needed help, Nukus sent Vilor and the Dregs to battle. Drew and Roland took on them while Jo took on Emily. But, with a heavy heart, she used her finisher (the Metallix Baton) on the monster, and then the others joined her, using the Data Lasers, to send Emily back to paper form. After destroying Emily, Jo thought about what Little Ghoul would think of all this, so the kids and Flabber decided to give Little Ghoul a new hobby to cheer her up.
Fangula Bat Monster
First Appearance: "The Curse of The Mummy's Mommy" (10/30/97)
Voice Actor: Joe Hackett
During a scuffle between Les Fortunes and the Hillhurst monsters, Fangula was accidentally transformed into a giant vampire bat monster by Mums' family heirloom (a sacred ring passed down to him by his mother). Mums was later captured by Horribelle while the ring was stuck on his finger. His mother agreed to reverse the spell only if her son was returned to her safely. Once Mums was rescued from Nukus' clutches, the spell was reversed thus turning Fangula back to normal in the midst of his battle with the Beetleborgs.
El Scorpio
First Appearance: "Halloween Haunted House of Horrors" (10/31/97)
Voice Actor: L.B. Bartholomew
A yellow sea scorpion monster. He could split his body to attack multiple opponents. El Scorpio was sent to infiltrate a Halloween party at Hillhurst. The Beetleborgs lured him outside and to an abandoned warehouse. Once outside, the Beetleborgs sent him back to the 2-D world after a short battle.
Shellator
First Appearance: "Booger Man" (11/3/97)
Voice Actor: Dave Mallow
Shellator is a green/yellow trilobite monster who can grow to giant size during battle. Les was running out of monster ideas, so the Crustaceans captured a Bogeyman called Booger Man to give Les nightmares to serve as inspiration and Shellator was created (Shellator was the monster that appeared in Les's nightmare chasing after him). During Shellator's fight against the Beetleborgs, Shellator grew to giant size. The Beetleborgs managed to cut him down to normal size, then put the final blow on him with their Data Lasers.
Mole Monster
First Appearance: "The Poe and the Pendulum" (11/6/97)
Voice Actor: Michael McConnohie
A brown mole monster with red hair and sharp claws who was capable of digging underground. He was used to steal the book of Edgar Allan Poe's ghost, who was visiting Hillhurst at the time. The Beetleborgs' Metallix Battlers sent him spinning back to Les's drawing. He would be the final monster seen before the Lost Comic era.
Monster Mother: Root of all Evil
First Appearance: "Experiment in Evil" (2/23/98)
Monster Mother was originally shown on a screen summoned by Nukus' power, with Les' narration, to demonstrate the birth and history of "Brain Sucker" comics. Outside of the Brain Sucker comics origin, this monster was created by Dr. Frankenbeans. The Hillhurst monsters were tired of being caught in the middle of the Beetleborgs' war, so they enlist the doctor's assistance. However, Dr. Frankenbeans and the creation were captured. When the Beetleborgs went to save him, they soon discovered that the Crustaceans fled in fear of the monster after she hatched from her egg. To kill Dr. Frankenbeans' monster, they had to sever the main root. They did so with their Mega Spectra armor and mega-weapons (Drew's Wrist-Rocket, Roland's Spectra-Lance, and Jo's Cross-Bow).
Repgillian
First Appearance: "Mega Borg Power" (3/2/98)
Voice Actor: Anne Britt Makebakken
The final monster the Beetleborgs faced. Repgillian was created from mixing toxic chemicals, Les' old drawings (consisting of Changeling, Fernzilla, Torch Mouth, Ultra Vulture, and Triplesaurus Rex), and Nukus' powers. When sent to Charterville, attacked the city in its giant size. This creature was more powerful than anything the Beetleborgs had ever faced and even Roboborg had trouble when he fought her. In a last-ditch effort, Roland stole the Astral Ax from the Crustaceans and called on Boron, which subsequently caused Boron to switch sides and join the Beetleborgs' side. It took the combination of the Mega Spectra Beetleborgs, Roboborg, and Boron to finally destroy Repgillian.
Notes
References
External links
Big Bad Beetleborgs Page on Toku Central
Beetleborgs Metallix Page on Toku Central
Fictional monsters |
4435786 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tyrannosaurus%20in%20popular%20culture | Tyrannosaurus in popular culture | Tyrannosaurus rex is unique among dinosaurs in its place in modern culture; paleontologist Robert Bakker has called it "the most popular dinosaur among people of all ages, all cultures, and all nationalities". Paleontologists Mark Norell and Lowell Dingus have likewise called it "the most famous dinosaur of all times."<ref>Lowell Dingus and Mark Norell, Barnum Brown: The Man who discovered Tyrannosaurs rex, (Los Angeles: University of California Press, 2010, pg 94)</ref> Paleoartist Gregory S. Paul has called it "the theropod. [...] This is the public's favorite dinosaur [...] Even the formations it is found in have fantastic names like Hell Creek and Lance." Other paleontologists agree with that and note that whenever a museum erects a new skeleton or bring in an animatronic model, visitor numbers go up. "Jurassic Park and King Kong would not have been the same without it." In the public mind, T. rex sets the standard of what a dinosaur should be. Science writer Riley Black similarly states, "In all of prehistory, there is no animal that commands our attention quite like Tyrannosaurus rex, the tyrant lizard king. Since the time this dinosaur was officially named in 1905, the enormous carnivore has stood as the ultimate dinosaur."Tyrannosaurus was first discovered by paleontologist Barnum Brown in the badlands of Hell Creek, Montana, in 1902 and has since been frequently represented in film and on television, in literature, on the Internet and in many kinds of games. Brown himself, despite having discovered many other prehistoric animals for the American Museum of Natural History before and after, always referred to Tyrannosaurus rex as "my favorite child". In Brown's own words, Tyrannosaurus rex was indeed "king of the period and monarch of its race... He is now the dominant figure in the Cretaceous Hall to awe and inspire young boys when they grow up."
General impact
On finding Tyrannosaurus, Barnum Brown wrote to Henry Fairfield Osborn, his employer and the President of the American Museum of Natural History, "Quarry No. 1 contains the [...] bones of a large Carnivorous Dinosaur, not described by Marsh. [...] I have never seen anything like it from the Cretaceous." On realizing that the find was unlike anything ever found before, Osborn, according to Robert Bakker, "sat down to construct a name that expressed the position of Mr. Rex in the ecosystem, this apex of carnivory. The name has to be evocative, it has to be beautiful, it has to be lyrical. You hear it once you remember it. [...] Tyrant. Lizard. King. Beautiful, short, you hear it once you remember it and it can be abbreviated. T. rex."
Osborn and his Museum of Natural History had for years been in competition with the Carnegie Museum of Natural History and its famous Diplodocus skeleton, "Dippy" and had wanted something even greater for his own museum. With Brown's discovery of "the monster," Osborn's museum had its prize. He stated in 1905,Tyrannosaurus gained widespread public attention on December 30, 1905, when the New York Times hailed T. rex as "the most formidable fighting animal of which there is any record whatever," the "king of all kings in the domain of animal life," "the absolute warlord of the earth," and a "royal man-eater of the jungle." In 1906, Tyrannosaurus was dubbed the "prize fighter of antiquity" and the "Last of the Great Reptiles and the King of Them All."
In 1927, Charles R. Knight painted a mural incorporating Tyrannosaurus facing a Triceratops in the Field Museum of Natural History, establishing the two dinosaurs as enemies in popular thought; paleontologist Phil Currie cites this mural as one of his inspirations to study dinosaurs. Bakker said of the imagined rivalry between Tyrannosaurus and Triceratops, "No matchup between predator and prey has ever been more dramatic. It's somehow fitting that those two massive antagonists lived out their co-evolutionary belligerence through the very last days of the very last epoch of the Age of Dinosaurs."
Since then, popular culture has consistently depicted Tyrannosaurs as "King of the Dinosaurs" for decades. Portrayals have ranged from serving as an antagonist against whom human heroes could test their courage to an awe inspiring symbol of power, analogous to the lion's depiction as "King of the Beasts". One author goes so far as to state that it was T. rex more than any other dinosaur, that secured the place of dinosaurs in pop culture. "It is no exaggeration to say that only a slice of the more than five million people who come to visit the collection of the American Museum each year would bother at all if not if it were not for specimen: the Tyrannosaurus rex."
According to paleontologist and museum curator Mark Norell, Barnum Brown's successor at the American Museum of Natural History, Tyrannosaurus rex, "continues to be a subject of fascination, a popular icon, and probably the first dinosaur name imprinted in the minds of children globally. Besides all this, it is the inspiration for budding paleontologists worldwide. Long may the king reign."
Film appearancesTyrannosaurus rex has played a major role in many films, starting in 1918 with The Ghost of Slumber Mountain, written and directed by stop motion special effects pioneer Willis O'Brien. The Ghost of Slumber Mountain is also, and most likely, the first film showing Tyrannosaurus facing Triceratops.
However, while Ghost was the first of O'Brien's works to feature the dinosaur it was not the last time he would use the dinosaur, using it again in 1925, with the classic adaptation of Arthur Conan Doyle's 1912 novel The Lost World. Tyrannosaurus fossils were not so famous at the time of the publication of the novel (1912), and the only main villain dinosaur in the book was Allosaurus, with no appearance of Tyrannosaurus, but this 1925 film featured Tyrannosaurus anyway, for a more dramatic and spectacular effect. For his part, Bakker commented that "Willis O'Brien was a scholarly man, anatomically literate he went to the American museum, he saw the skeletons, he thought about them, he saw Knight's paintings and the sculptures. He listened to Osborn's ideas and although T. rex has a bit part in the movie, T. rex influence is huge."
O'Brien was again responsible for special effects in the 1933 monster movie King Kong, which featured a climactic battle between the giant ape and a Tyrannosaurus. This scene is credited with the film's success both in terms of cinematic experience and in securing financial backing. In a 2005 tongue in cheek mockumentary, "T. Rex: A Dinosaur in Hollywood," no one less than Kong himself explained why. "Well, I had to find a suitably impressive monster to showoff my great strength and ruthlessness. There was only one real choice!"
In real life, film historian and Kong scholar Ray Morton agreed with the previous statement. According to Morton, RKO film studio wanted to halt production on King Kong on account of it going over budget. Merian C Cooper, Kong's creator, then showed the studio heads a 20 minute test reel he and his team had made. The footage was of T. Rex's fight with Kong and was this scene that convinced the studio heads that the film had to be made, regardless of costs.
O'Brien had not originally meant to create Kong, instead seeking to make a film about a lost island of dinosaurs wherein the T. rex would have featured in the climax. When this film, Creation was cancelled, O'Brien used the T. rex model he had made and reused it (along with other dinosaur models) for King Kong. The Tyrannosaurus model was made using a cast based on an early painting by Charles R. Knight. O'Brien stated that the battle between Kong and the Tyrannosaurus was one of the most technically difficult scenes in the film to animate. Many early films depicted Tyrannosaurus with an upright posture based on the current thinking of the time. Most of these films inaccurately portrayed the dinosaur with three prominent fingers on each hand like Allosaurus (though Tyrannosaurus had a third, vestigial finger, it would not have been noticeable at first glance); Walt Disney is reported to have informed dinosaur hunter Barnum Brown that "it looked better that way", and the creature was depicted as such as in the Igor Stravinsky's The Rite of Spring segment in the Walt Disney 1940 animated film Fantasia. Since that time, T. rex has appeared in a great number of "monster" films and educational documentaries. One of the first appearances which portrayed a proper posture and anatomy of Tyrannosaurus is the 1984 short Prehistoric Beast, fully conceived and made by Phil Tippett by means of his so-called go motion technique.
One of the most iconic depictions of Tyrannosaurus in film was in 1993's Jurassic Park, where dinosaurs, including T. rex, are brought back to life using blood from fossilized mosquitoes. In the film, the dinosaur breaks free of its theme park enclosure, and proceeds to roam the park after attacking the visitors and killing one (a lawyer). In the film's finale, the Tyrannosaurus (also known as Rexy by fans) indirectly saves the main characters by killing the Velociraptors, who had been hunting them through the visitor center. The popularity of T. rex has long had a reciprocal effect on dinosaur science; the popularity of Jurassic Park factored into the discovery of the dinosaur genus Scipionyx; fossils of this genus had lain in storage in a basement in Italy until the film's release attracted attention from the fossil owner. Two Tyrannosaurus appeared again as primary antagonists in The Lost World, the sequel to Jurassic Park. In Jurassic Park III, it appeared briefly in a confrontation against the main antagonist, Spinosaurus, only to be killed by it. In a twist, the same Tyrannosaurus from the original 1993 film reappears as the climactic protagonist in Jurassic World (2015), making an entrance by smashing through a Spinosaurus skeleton. Against the odds, it defeats the Indominus rex, with the assistance of a Velociraptor, dubbed "Blue," and a Mosasaurus. This specific Tyrannosaurus reappears again in Jurassic World: Fallen Kingdom and Jurassic World: Dominion.Tyrannosaurus is one of the three dinosaur types whose physical characteristics were combined by the designers at Toho, to create the Japanese monster Godzilla; the other two dinosaurs were Stegosaurus and Iguanodon.
Among other appearances, Tyrannosaurus has made major appearances in many other films, including Dinosaurus! (1960), The Last Dinosaur (1977), The Land Before Time and its direct-to-video sequels (1988–2016), We're Back! A Dinosaur's Story (1993), Toy Story (1995), Night at the Museum (2006), Meet the Robinsons (2007), Ice Age 3: Dawn of the Dinosaurs (2009), and The Good Dinosaur (2015). The IMAX 3D film T-Rex: Back to the Cretaceous (1998) featured a Tyrannosaurus in various time travel sequences, as well as its discoverer, Barnum Brown.
Some Japanese animated films have a Tyrannosaurus as a main protagonist (You Are Umasou, 2010), as the main villain (Daikyouryu no Jidai, The Age of the Great Dinosaurs, 1979), as a minor antagonist (Magic Tree House, 2011), or as a neutral character (Doraemon: Nobita's Dinosaur, 1980, as well as its 2006 remake).Dinosaur Island, 2014, features a feathered Tyrannosaurus, reflecting more modern understanding of the dinosaurs' appearance.
Television appearancesTyrannosaurus has starred in several television series, including children's programs, both in those intended as fiction, and, more recently, documentaries.
In the American children's show Barney & Friends, Barney is a stylized Tyrannosaurus rex. In the Australian children's show The Wiggles, the character "Dorothy the Dinosaur" is a stylized adaptation of a Tyrannosaurus. Some Tyrannosaurus characters appear in Dinosaur Train, most prominently Buddy.Tyrannosaurus was one of several dinosaurs featured in the 1974 Doctor Who adventure Invasion of the Dinosaurs, starring Jon Pertwee. A sleeping juvenile is also seen on the Silurian ark in "Dinosaurs on a Spaceship". A time-travelled Tyrannosaurus is seen in London in "Deep Breath".
In 1985 the 1984 Prehistoric Beast short was served to Robert Guenette to direct a full length TV documentary titled Dinosaur!, for which Phil Tippett made new Tyrannosaurus go motion sequences (chasing Hadrosaurus) in addition to those he made for Prehistoric Beast (where Tyrannosaurus was chasing Monoclonius).
In the 1985 anime Transformers the popular Autobot, Grimlock, transformed into a mechanical Tyrannosaurus and in later incarnations a "Megaraptor". In the sequel series, Beast Wars, Megatron, the leader of the Predacons, turned into a techno-organic Tyrannosaurus.
In the cartoon The Terrible Thunderlizards, 'Mr. T' plays a Tyrannosaurus rex called Mr. T-rex. General Galapagos, the boss of the Thunderlizards, is also a Tyrannosaurus.
The T-rex plays recurring supporting roles in Dinosaurs (Roy Hess, Earl Sinclair's closest friend and the Sinclairs' neighbor), Dinosaucers (Genghis Rex, who is the leader of the Evil Tyrannos), Extreme Dinosaurs (T-Bone, the leader of the heroic group of the same namesake) as well as the anime television series Dinozaurs (as "Dino Tyranno" and his short-lived evil counterpart "Drago Tyran").
In Land of the Lost a Tyrannosaurus rex played the villain in both the 1974 series (as "Grumpy") and the 1991 version (as "Scarface", who had a scar covering his right eye).
In the Ben 10 episode "Washington B.C.", Dr. Animo brings back a Tyrannosaurus with its skeleton.
In Dino-Riders, the main villain Lord Krulos uses a Tyrannosaurus as his mount.
In the Japanese TV series Dinosaur War Izenborg, a Tyrannosaurus named Ururu (renamed "Tyrannus" in the US re-edit Attack of the Super Monsters) served as the main villain for the first half of the series.
A Tyrannosaurus named Tyrannor was the main antagonist of Dink the Little Dinosaur.
An anthropomorphic Tyrannosaurus named Johnny T. Rex is one of the villains in the Disney Afternoon series Darkwing Duck.
Documentaries and quasi-documentaries featuring Tyrannosaurus have included Dinosaur!, Dinosaur Planet, Prehistoric Park, T. Rex: New Science, New Beast, The Truth About Killer Dinosaurs, Walking with Dinosaurs, When Dinosaurs Roamed America, Sea Monsters - A Walking with Dinosaurs Trilogy, Valley of the T-Rex, Dinosaurs Decoded, Bizarre Dinosaurs, Giant Monsters, Animal Armageddon, Jurassic Fight Club, Dinolab, T-rex: Warrior or Wimp?, T. Rex: A Dinosaur in Hollywood, Dinosaur Revolution, Prehistoric Planet, The Last Dragon, and Planet Dinosaur, in which it only appears as a skeleton image.
Chomper from The Land Before Time series, as well as Red Claw from the TV series, and Sharptooth from the original film are all tyrannosaurs.Tyrannosaurus-themed mecha have appeared in the Super Sentai series beginning with Kyoryu Sentai Zyuranger in Shogozyu Tyrannosaurus, V-Rex of Mirai Sentai Timeranger, Bakuryu Tyranno of Bakuryuu Sentai Abaranger, Gozyu Rex of Kaizoku Sentai Gokaiger, Gabutyra of Zyuden Sentai Kyoryuger and recently Tyramigo of Kishiryu Sentai Ryusoulger. They also appear in their respective Power Rangers adaptations, specifically in the first season of Mighty Morphin' Power Rangers, Power Rangers Time Force, Power Rangers Dino Thunder, Power Rangers Super Megaforce, Power Rangers Dino Charge and Power Rangers Dino Fury.
A CGI animated Tyrannosaurus rex named Tina Rex is a bully in Gumball's school in the 2011–2019 animated series on Cartoon Network, The Amazing World of Gumball.
In Genndy Tartakovsky's Primal, a female Tyrannosaurus develops a bond with a Neanderthal male. The series revolves around them struggling to survive in a prehistoric-like world.
In Dinosaur King the main Tyrannosaurus is named Terry.
Literature
In literature, a dominant representation of Tyrannosaurus since 1990 has been that of Michael Crichton's, as seen in the novel Jurassic Park and its sequel The Lost World (homage title to the 1912 novel by Arthur Conan Doyle, about scientists discovering a South American plateau where dinosaurs still exist). Its skeleton was also used to illustrate the covers of these books.
A Tyrannosaurus rex was the protagonist of the children's book We're Back! A Dinosaur's Story (later adapted into a feature-length film of the same name). Tyrannosaurus has also been featured in the novel Primeval: Extinction Event, by Dan Abnett.
Other appearancesTyrannosaurus has appeared in many media and is perhaps one of, if not the most widely used dinosaurs. Various incarnations of, and creatures based on T. rex have appeared in video games, and several game series have featured Tyrannosaurus a centerpiece. These include 3D Monster Maze, the Dino Crisis/Dino Stalker line, various Jurassic Park tie-in games, the Turok game series, Tomb Raider, the Zoo Tycoon series, the survival game Ark: Survival Evolved, the simulation games Saurian and The Isle, and Super Mario Odyssey.
Numerous models and children's toys depicting Tyrannosaurus have been produced, particularly in promotion of the Jurassic Park films. The Carnegie Museum Dinosaur Collection toy line released three versions of the dinosaur, with the second brought in line with more modern scientific understanding. Sinclair Oil ads from the 1950s frequently featured T. rex, and products from radio-controlled helicopter models to a rifle cartridge (the .577 T-Rex) have been named after the dinosaur. In music, the popular 1970s glam rock band T. Rex took their name from the famous dinosaur.
In Banjo-Tooie, Humba Wumba turns Banjo and Kazooie into a T. rex for 2 different growth stages in the world Terrydactyland.
In Wario World, Wario must fight DinoMighty, the Tyrannosaurus boss of Excitement Central.
In the F-Zero series of video games, F-Zero racer Bio Rex is a Tyrannosaurus whose machine is the Big Fang.
In the Calvin and Hobbes comics, fantasy sequences often featured Tyrannosaurus rex. In one story arc, in which Calvin writes a school paper on the T. rex predator/scavenger debate, he argues that T. rex was a predator because "They're so much cooler that way." T. rex is also featured as the protagonist in the long-running webcomic Dinosaur Comics by Ryan North. Various T. rex have featured in stories published in the British comic 2000AD.
Ursula Dubosarsky's picture book, simply called Rex and illustrated by David Mackintosh, concerns a pet lizard that assumes the proportions of a T. rex in the imagination of a series of children.
In Pokémon Gold and Silver, the Pokémon Tyranitar is named after the Tyrannosaurus, while its design resembles Godzilla, which was inspired by T. rex. In Pokémon X and Y, there is an evolution family consisting of Tyrunt and Tyrantrum both of which are based on Tyrannosaurus. Their bodies are differently colored.Tyrannosaurus rex was also one of the first superheroes in Marvel Comics series.
In Super Mario Odyssey, a T-Rex'' is featured as an enemy in some areas of the game. The player can control it using Cappy like other enemies, but unlike most they can only control it for a limited time. The T-Rex is not used for many puzzles despite being in many areas in the game.
Former WWE Chairman and CEO Vince McMahon had a T. Rex skull hanging on his wall, a gift from his son-in-law Triple H. The skull is prominently visible whenever WWE programming films in his office, such as during the 2020 edition of Money in the Bank.
See also
Cultural depictions of dinosaurs
Stegosaurus in popular culture
Velociraptor in popular culture
Timeline of tyrannosaur research
List of films featuring dinosaurs
References
Dinosaurs in popular culture
Popular culture
Fiction about dinosaurs
Articles containing video clips |
4435820 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20military%20ballooning | History of military ballooning | Balloons and kites were the first inventions used in aerial warfare and their primary role was observation. Balloons provided a reliable and stable means of elevating an observer high over the battlefield to obtain a birds-eye view of troop positions and movements. An early instrument of aerial intelligence collection, they were also useful for creating accurate battlefield maps, an important ingredient for battlefield success. Incendiary balloons also have a long history. The incendiary balloons carry hot air or something that can catch fire to destroy enemy territory. They could also hold small bombs for combat. The history of military ballooning dates back to the late 18th century, when the Montgolfier brothers, Joseph-Michel and Jacques-Étienne, first demonstrated the potential of hot-air balloons for military use. The first recorded military use of balloons was during the French Revolutionary Wars, when the French military used balloons to gather intelligence on the movements of the enemy. Balloons were also used during the American Civil War, where they were used for reconnaissance and communication.
In the late 19th century, military ballooning began to evolve, as advances in technology allowed for the development of more sophisticated balloons and equipment. Balloons were equipped with cameras, telegraphs, and other instruments that allowed for more detailed and accurate reconnaissance and observation.
During World War I, military ballooning reached its peak of development, as balloons were used extensively for reconnaissance and observation by both the Central powers and the Entente. Balloons were used to spot enemy movements, direct artillery fire, and provide early warning of enemy attacks. They also used for transporting goods, messages, and people across the battlefield.
After World War I, the use of military balloons declined, as aircraft and other technological innovations made them less relevant. However, balloons were still used for some specialized purposes, such as for meteorological observations and for training pilots. During the Cold War, the United States sent hundreds of high-altitude balloons over Eastern Bloc countries to gather intelligence on their nuclear capabilities, before replacing them with its newer spy planes.
Today, military ballooning is not widely used, as other technologies such as drones and satellite have taken over its main roles.
Kongming lantern
Kongming lanterns were used as military signalling. The lantern was invented in the late Han dynasty, when Han dynasty chancellor Zhuge Liang (Kongming) was surrounded by Wei dynasty General Sima Yi at Pinlo, Sichuan. Zhuge Liang used paper-made "lanterns," or hot air balloons, to signal the rescue forces. The Kongming lantern became a common military signal in China. The Mongolian army studied Kongming lanterns from China and used them in the Battle of Legnica during the Mongol invasion of Poland. This is the first time ballooning was known in the western world. Flying the Kongming lantern is now a civilian festival of memorizing chancellor Zhuge Liang in the Lantern Festival.
Early Western balloons
Early French balloons
The first successfully flown balloons were made in France by the Montgolfier brothers in 1782–1783. They were rigid-style spheres made of cotton or silk stretched over a simple light wood frame resembling a large egg. These rigid balloons were held up over a fire so that the smoke billowed well into the cavity of the sphere. It was thought that the smoke made the balloons rise, but actually it was the hot air of the smoke that caused the elevating. The first decisive use of a balloon for aerial warfare was performed by the French Aerostatic Corps using the aerostat l’Entreprenant ("The enterprising one") at the Battle of Fleurus in 1794. The following year, during the Siege of Mainz an observation balloon was employed again. However, the French military use of the balloon did not continue uninterrupted, as in 1799 Napoleon disbanded the French balloon corps.
In 1804, Napoleon considered invading England by landing troops transported by balloons. He consulted his 'Aeronaut of Official Festivals', Sophie Blanchard, about whether invading England by balloon was viable. She told him that the invasion would likely not succeed due to the unpredictable winds in the English Channel.
In 1854, French aeronaut Eugène Godard performed several manned balloon demonstrations at the wedding of Austrian Emperor Franz Joseph I. The Emperor was so impressed that he drafted an agreement with the Godard stating that in the event of a war, he would build balloons, organize balloonists companies, and perform observation ascents for the Austrian military. However, in 1859 the French went to war against the Austrians, and Godard's observation balloons were used instead by French forces, contributing to a victory for Napoleon III over Franz Joseph. Godard's aerial reconnaissance balloons were again employed by the French in 1870 during the Franco-Prussian War and the Siege of Paris.
During the 1900 Boxer Rebellion in China, the French forces did bring a balloon with them, although there is no record of it ever having been deployed.
Austrian use at Venice in 1849
The first aggressive use of balloons in warfare took place in 1849. Austrian imperial forces besieging Venice attempted to float some 200 paper hot air balloons each carrying a bomb that was to be dropped from the balloon with a time fuse over the besieged city. The balloons were launched mainly from land; however, some were also launched from the side-wheel steamer SMS Vulcano that acted as a balloon carrier. The Austrians used smaller pilot balloons to determine the correct fuse settings. At least one bomb fell in the city; however, due to the wind changing after launch, most of the balloons missed their target, and some drifted back over Austrian lines and the launching ship Vulcano.
Balloons in the American Civil War
With the outbreak of the American Civil War, President Abraham Lincoln did consider the possibility of an air-war mechanism. This had some of the top balloonists in the country vying for position as chief aeronaut of a would-be aeronautics division. The scientific community as well showed great support in influencing Washington to consider the use of balloons. Eventually it was Prof. Thaddeus S. C. Lowe who would be awarded the title Chief Aeronaut of the Union Army Balloon Corps.
The first major-scale use of balloons in the military occurred during the Civil War with the Union Army Balloon Corps established and organized by Prof. Thaddeus S. C. Lowe. Originally, the balloons were inflated with coal gas from municipal services and then walked out to the battlefield, an arduous and inefficient operation as the balloons had to be returned to the city every four days for re-inflation. Eventually hydrogen gas generators, a compact system of tanks and copper plumbing, were constructed which converted the combining of iron filings and sulfuric acid to hydrogen. The generators were easily transported with the uninflated balloons to the field on a standard buckboard. However, this method shortened the life of the balloons, because traces of the sulfuric acid often entered the balloons along with the hydrogen. In all, Lowe built seven balloons that were fit for military service.
The first application thought useful for balloons was map-making from aerial vantage points, thus Lowe's first assignment was with the Corps of Topographical Engineers. General Irvin McDowell, commander of the Army of the Potomac, realized their value in aerial reconnaissance and had Lowe, who at the time was using his personal balloon the Enterprise, called up to the First Battle of Bull Run. Lowe also worked as a Forward Artillery Observer (FAO) by directing artillery fire via flag signals. This enabled gunners on the ground to fire accurately at targets they could not see, a military first.
Lowe's first military balloon, the Eagle was ready by 1 October 1861. It was called into service immediately to be towed to Lewinsville, Virginia, without any gas generator which took longer to build. The trip began after inflation in Washington, D.C. and turned into a 12 mile (19 km), 12-hour excursion that was upended by a gale-force wind which ripped the aerostat from its netting and sent it sailing to the coast. Balloon activities were suspended until all balloons and gas generators were completed.
With his ability to inflate balloons from remote stations, Lowe, his new balloon the Washington and two gas generators were loaded onto a converted coal barge the George Washington Parke Custis. As he was towed down the Potomac, Lowe was able to ascend and observe the battlefield as it moved inward on the heavily forested peninsula. This would be the military's first claim of an aircraft carrier.
The Union Army Balloon Corps enjoyed more success in the battles of the Peninsula Campaign than the Army of the Potomac it sought to support. The general military attitude toward the use of balloons deteriorated, and by August 1863 the Balloon Corps was disbanded.
The Confederate Army also made use of balloons, but they were gravely hampered by supplies due to the embargoes. They were forced to fashion their balloons from colored silk dress-making material, and their use was limited by the infrequent supply of gas in Richmond, Virginia. The first balloon "pilot" in the Confederate "air force" was Edward Porter Alexander. By the summer of 1863, all balloon reconnaissance of the Civil War had ceased.
First balloon assignments
The first assignment for tethered military balloons was given to the Union Army's Corps of Topographical Engineers for mapmaking, and observation of enemy troops as early as 1850. Up until that point, maps were made from ground level perspectives and their innate inaccuracy led to many a battlefield failure. The aerial perspective ostensibly improved mapmaking, especially when combined with the use of photography.
General Irvin McDowell, commander of the Army of the Potomac, called on the balloon to perform aerial observations of enemy encampments and movements in the First Battle of Bull Run. With Lowe's techniques proven to the top commanders, he was eventually tasked to build seven balloons and a series of hydrogen gas generators to inflate them in the battlefield. Even though Thaddeus Lowe was Chief Aeronaut, his bitter rival John La Mountain is credited with having made the first aerial observations of intelligence value while stationed independently at Fortress Monroe.
The balloon, under flight direction of Prof. Lowe, was also used to direct artillery fire from an unseen location onto a Confederate encampment. The balloon, Eagle, was ascended with tether and telegraph from Fort Corcoran north of Falls Church, Virginia. (The use of a telegraph to a balloon was previously successfully tested by Lowe on June 18, 1861.) An artillery battery was located at the easterly Camp Advance. With a series of predetermined flag signals, Lowe directed fire onto the Rebel encampment until the shots were landing on target. This first-used concept was the predecessor to the Forward Artillery Observer (FAO) and revolutionized the use of artillery even to modern day.
Prof. Lowe was once approached by the young Graf Ferdinand von Zeppelin in 1863, who was at the time acting as a then-civilian observer for the Union Army, about possibly serving as an aerial observer with Lowe, but this was forbidden by Union military authorities during the Civil War years, due to von Zeppelin's then-civilian status. The future rigid airship pioneer was instead directed to the camp of John Steiner, a German aeronaut already in the United States, to get his first flight experience in a balloon, which von Zeppelin was able to do at a slightly later time while he still was in the US.
The first aircraft carrier
Balloons and generators were loaded onto the USS George Washington Parke Custis, a converted coal barge. The balloons were towed down the Potomac River and were able to ascend and make observations of the battle front as it moved toward Richmond. On November 11, 1861, Lowe made the first observations from a balloon based from a ship. This is the first ever recorded observation from an aerial station by water, essentially the first-ever aircraft carrier (balloon tender).
Lowe went on to make observations at Fair Oaks, Sharpsburg, Vicksburg and Fredericksburg before political ambush both from within the military and in Congress forced him to resign in April 1863 at which point he returned to the private sector. The Balloon Corps all but ceased to exist by August 1863.
Confederate ballooning
The Confederates tried their hand at ballooning as well, more only to counter the balloons of the Federals. One type of balloon was a Montgolfier style of a rigid, cotton, “hot smoke” balloon. The attempts worked, but their handling techniques were poor at best and the balloon was easily lost and captured by the North.
Another style is referred to as the “silk dress balloon,” aerostat envelopes made of multicolored dress making silk (not actually silk dresses) which, when gas was available, were used effectively over Richmond. Again, these were easily lost, destroyed or captured, and the lack of supply made it impossible to replace them. They were relieved when the Union Army had discontinued the use of balloons.
The Confederate Balloon Corps also made use of an aircraft carrier, the CSS Teaser. The Teaser transported and launched one of the Confederate balloons to several observation positions before being captured by the Union Navy in July 1862.
Paraguayan War
On 6 July 1867, during the Paraguayan War, observation balloons were used by Brazil, assisted by the Allen brothers, James and Ezra, after their aerial intelligence pioneering for the Union army.
British ballooning
Between 1862 and 1871 efforts by two Royal Engineers officers, were made to catch the attention of senior British officers to the potential use of balloons. In July 1863 experimental balloon ascents for reconnaissance purposes were conducted by the Royal Engineers on behalf of the British Army, but although the experiments were successful it was considered not worth pursuing further because it was too expensive. However, by 1878 a Balloon Equipment Store was established at Woolwich by the Royal Engineers. By this time the limitations imposed by the need to produce hydrogen in the field by some portable apparatus and finding a suitable material for the envelope of a war balloon had been resolved.
In 1888 a School of Ballooning was established at Chatham, Medway, Kent. It moved to Stanhope Lines, Aldershot in 1890 when a balloon section and depot were formed as permanent units of the Royal Engineers establishment.
Balloons were first deployed by the British Army during the expeditions to Bechuanaland and Suakin in 1885. They were also deployed during the Second Boer War (1899–1902), where they were used in artillery observation with the Kimberley column and during the Siege of Ladysmith.
On October 5, 1907, Colonel John Capper (late Royal Engineers) and team flew the military airship Nulli Secundus from Farnborough around St. Paul's Cathedral in London and back with a view to raising public interest.
World War I
World War I was the high point for the military use of observation balloons, which were extensively deployed by both sides. The British, despite their experience in late 1800s Africa, were behind developments and were still using spherical balloons. These were quickly replaced by versions, commonly referred to as kite balloons, which were flyable and could operate in more extreme weather conditions; at first the German Parseval-Siegsfeld type balloon, and then French Caquot type dirigible. By World War I, artillery had developed to the point where it was capable of engaging targets beyond the visual range of a ground-based observer. Positioning artillery observers on balloons, generally a few miles behind the front lines and at altitude, allowed them to see targets at greater range than they could on the ground. This allowed the artillery to take advantage of its increased range.
Because of their importance as observation platforms, balloons were defended by anti-aircraft guns, groups of machine guns for low altitude defence, and patrolling fighter aircraft. Attacking a balloon was a risky venture but some pilots relished the challenge. The most successful were known as balloon busters, including such notables as Belgium's Willy Coppens, Germany's Friedrich Ritter von Röth, America's Frank Luke, and the Frenchmen Léon Bourjade, Michel Coiffard and Maurice Boyau. Many expert balloon busters were careful not to go below in order to avoid exposure to anti-aircraft guns and machine-guns.
World War I observation crews were the first to use parachutes, long before they were adopted by fixed wing aircrews. These were a primitive type, where the main part was in a bag suspended from the balloon, with the pilot only wearing a simple body harness around his waist, with lines from the harness attached to the main parachute in the bag. When the balloonist jumped, the main part of the parachute was pulled from the bag, with the shroud lines first, followed by the main canopy. This type of parachute was first adopted by the Germans and then later by the British and French for their observation balloon crews.
Observation balloons began to be used at sea for anti-submarine purposes towards the end of World War I.
The idiom "The balloon's going up!" as an expression for impending battle is derived from the very fact that an observation balloon's ascent likely signaled a preparatory bombardment for an offensive.
World War II
Barrage balloons, widely known as "blimps," were used by the United Kingdom to intercept air attacks by German bombers and V-1 cruise missiles.
Japan used recently discovered high-altitude air currents to send fire balloons (or Fu-Go balloon bomb) carrying explosive payloads to the United States. About 300 made it across the Pacific, causing some property damage and at least six deaths. The US government called for a press blackout on all balloon incidents, fearing what might happen if the Japanese started using fu-go to deliver biological weapons.
Britain used free balloons in a number of ways including Operation Outward which launched nearly 100,000 small balloons to drop incendiaries on German occupied Europe or to trail wires to short out electrical distribution cables.
Balloons also were used at sea, particularly by the US Navy for anti-submarine work.
The Red Army of the Soviet Union used Observation Balloons for artillery spotting. 8 "Aeronautical Sections" existed and 19,985 observation flights were performed by balloonists of the Red Army during the war, clocking up 20,126 flight hours. 110 Soviet Observation Balloons were lost.
Postwar
The US military developed high-altitude ballooning programs for nuclear detection and surveillance, such as Project Mogul (linked to the Roswell Incident), Project Genetrix and Project Moby Dick. They also worked on the E77 balloon bomb, refining the principles of the Japanese fire balloon explosive-delivery system.
Genetrix in particular was a program run by the U.S. Air Force, Navy, and the Central Intelligence Agency during the 1950s. Disguised as meteorological research, it launched hundreds of surveillance balloons that flew over China, Eastern Europe, and the Soviet Union to take photographs and collect intelligence. Manufactured by the aeronautical division of General Mills, the balloons were about 20 stories tall, carried cameras and other electronic equipment, and reached altitudes ranging from 30,000 to over 60,000 feet, well above the reach of any contemporary fighter plane. Many were blown off course or shot down by Soviet air defenses. The overflights also drew protests from the target countries, while the United States defended its action. To increase effectiveness and minimize diplomatic blowback, it replaced the balloons with the newly developed U-2 reconnaissance plane, which was believed to be more difficult to detect.
Since 1996, the United States has invested over $2 billion in Joint Land Attack Cruise Missile Defense Elevated Netted Sensor System or JLENS, which built aerostats to track low-altitude targets. The project received attention for its balloons accidentally untethering from their moorings and the influence of industry lobbyists in keeping it alive.
Aerostats have been used by US and coalition military forces in Iraq and in Afghanistan.
In 2019, the United States Southern Command commissioned surveillance tests using 25 balloons made by Raven Industries across six states. Funded under project COLD STAR (Covert Long-Dwell Stratospheric Architecture) by the Pentagon, the balloons are stealthy, navigate using AI, and can harvest complex data. Initially created to locate narcotic traffickers, they were later transitioned into military service. Tom Karako, a fellow at the Center for Strategic and International Studies, said the balloons can serve as communication and datalink nodes, as trucks for intelligence, surveillance and reconnaissance (ISR) to track airborne targets, and as platforms for various weapons.
Around the same time, DARPA and several defense contractors were working on the Adaptable Lighter-Than-Air (ALTA) program, which aimed to make stratospheric balloon navigation more precise and reliable using doppler laser. The mature technology was transferred to the U.S. military in 2019.
Other similar prototypes have been in development in China and the United States.
In 2023, suspected surveillance balloons from China reportedly drifted off-course across North and Central America.
During its 2022 invasion of Ukraine, Russia launched balloons with corner reflectors to exhaust Ukrainian air defenses.
See also
Aerial warfare
History of aerial warfare
Balloon (aeronautics)
Balloon propaganda campaigns in Korea
Barrage balloon
Fort Omaha Balloon School – home of World War I training program
Incendiary balloon – history of balloon bombs launched by Japan against the United States in World War II
Observation balloon
Operation Outward – British World War II programme to attack Germany by means of free-flying balloons
Roswell incident - A military balloon crash that was claimed by the army to be a conventional weather balloon, gave rise to conspiracy theories of a flying saucer
Thaddeus S. C. Lowe – father of military aerial reconnaissance in the United States
Union Army Balloon Corps
2023 Chinese balloon incident
References
External links
Royal Engineers Museum Royal Engineers and Aeronautics
Royal Engineers Museum Early British Military Ballooning (1863)
Balloons (aeronautics)
Ballooning
Ballooning |
4435883 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sunfire%20%28series%29 | Sunfire (series) | Sunfire is a series of young adult historical romance novels published by Scholastic Books in the 1980s. They are currently out of print.
Background
The books were written by a group of authors, including Vivian Schurfranz (9), Jane Claypool Miner (6), Candice F. Ransom (6), Mary Francis Shura (6), Jeffie Ross Gordon (2), and Willo Davis Roberts (3).
Structure of the novels
The Sunfire books contained two themes: history and romance. Each book featured a teenage girl who experienced a particular period or event in American history. At the same time, with very few exceptions, the girl was torn between two potential lovers. The girl was typically ahead of her time in ideas and actions and the suitor she almost always chose was the one who approved of or accepted her actions. The cover art always featured the main character flanked by her two potential lovers, along with scenes from the historical event or period that was the setting for the book.
Titles and summaries
Titles in the Sunfire series listed in order of publication: (Descriptions taken from the back covers of the books)
(#1) Amanda by Candice F. Ransom
A new land, a new love
With only a silk dress to protect her from the blazing frontier sun, Amanda fears she will die on the Oregon Trail. As the memories of Boston, the nightly balls, and Joseph fade, the hardships of life on the wagon train fill her days. Changing from a spoiled city girl to a strong young woman, Amanda finds drought and death, beauty and joy, and a love that will last forever.
Set on the Oregon Trail.
(#2) Susannah by Candice F. Ransom
The South that raised her was at war, while Susannah's own battle raged in her heart...
Susannah Dellinger had lived her sixteen years as a proper Virginia girl – obedient, dreaming of marriage, leaving the decisions to the men. But when her brother and fiancé are called on to defend the South, Susannah take the first daring steps of rebellion against the old rules. She must fight for her own life, for her family, and for the secret love born in the flames of war.
Set during the American Civil War.
(#3) Elizabeth by Willo Davis Roberts
Did she dare follow her heart?
When someone points an accusing finger and cries "Witch!" Elizabeth faces a choice - between a lie that could doom a friend, and the truth that would threaten her own life. The truth could also ruin wealthy Troy's love for Elizabeth, and reveal her own attraction to a stranger - a wild and rootless boy who shares her fear and courage.
Set during the Salem Witch Trials.
(#4) Danielle by Vivian Schurfranz
Twice she'd lost her heart, but who was her life-long love?
It is 1814 when New Orleans beauty Danielle Verlain helps Geoffrey, a young pirate, escape from her family's plantation and the authorities. Immediately she is captivated by his dashing good looks and dangerous lifestyle. While her fiancé, Paul, is both handsome and sweet, Danielle yearns for something more. Her change comes when the pirates kidnap her and hold her for ransom. Danielle comes face to face with Geoffrey again. A love stirs inside her, and the spirited Danielle must decide between a comfortable life with Paul or an adventure as a pirate queen!
Set during the War of 1812 and featuring an appearance by infamous pirate Jean Lafitte.
(#5) Joanna by Jane Claypool Miner
Would she have to defy everything - even love?
From her simple farm life in Vermont, Joanna bravely joins the growing number of girls working in the textile mills in 1836. With her she carries the painful memory of Jed, a young man who has left her, loving the sea more than her loves her.In the Lowell, Massachusetts mill Joanna is horrified to find the work both grueling and dangerous. Even a romance with the mill owner's roguish nephew, Theo, can’t keep the daily work from becoming terrifying drudgery. To strike with the other mill women seems Joanna's only way out of a job that threatens her very existence. But defying the mill owners will certainly mean losing her job and Theo. And if Jed ever returns from the sea, will he recognize – could he love – the new Joanna?
Set in the Lowell, Massachusetts textile mills.
(#6) Jessica by Mary Francis Shura
One man would love her, one man would lose her.
Jessica had lived all her life on the flat Kansas prairie. It was there, the year she turned sixteen, that Jessica fell in love. The young Indian brave, Wheeling Hawk, saved her from a flood, and Jessica's heart was lost. But even the most spirited young woman would have to defy her family and home for so distant a love. And Jessica couldn’t see in Will Reynold's eyes, where once there was anger, there now shone a love of his own.
Set in 1873 Kansas.
(#7) Caroline by Willo Davis Roberts
If only men and boys were going to California, then Caroline would become - a boy.
Caroline just wants the same adventures her brothers have. But they're headed West to California to find gold, and that's no place for a girl to be.
So Caroline takes matters - and scissors - into her own hands. By cutting her hair and donning the clothes of a gold-hungry boy, Caroline goes West. One of the young men travelling with her is handsome Dan Riddle, who treats her the way he would any young boy. But underneath the clothes of the boy pounds the heart of a young woman, and while Caroline thinks her quest is for adventure, she finds that it is for love.
Set during the California Gold Rush.
(#8) Kathleen by Candice F. Ransom
There were times she wished she'd never come to America
Pretty, spirited Kathleen O'Connor arrives in Boston on a "coffin" ship from Ireland. She has escaped the devastating famine, but her boyfriend died at home and her parents did not survive the voyage to America. Still the promise of a new life gives her hope. Patrick, a friend from the ship, finds a job for her as a maid with the wealthy Thornley family. They remind Kathleen of the landowners in Ireland who forced them from her home. She wants to despise them, but she cannot hate David Thornley, who is tender and handsome, and obviously attracted to her. Her secret love for David could force Kathleen to go back to Ireland or make her dreams for a new life in America come true.
Set during the Great Famine and Irish immigration to the USA.
(#9) Marilee by Mary Francis Shura
From the calm of England to the wilds of the new colony, Marilee is torn between three loves...
Until her father dies, Marilee lives a peaceful life in England. Suddenly she must cross the ocean to Jamestown, Virginia, to join her brother and his new wife. She is little prepared for the jealous resentment of her sister-in-law, the constant threat of Indian attacks, or so many suitors. Ship's officer Phillip Soames is kind and attentive but often at sea. Michael Braden is dashing but mysterious; and Timothy Reeves, indentured servant to her brother, is insolent but charming. Thrust on her own in this forbidding land, Marilee must follow her heart to find the one she truly loves.
Set in the Jamestown Colony.
(#10) Laura by Vivian Schurfranz
Would she abandon her beliefs for love?
While men are fighting oversears in World War I, lovely Laura Mitchell is caught up in the struggle for women's rights in the Washington, D.C. of 1918. Dismayed by her willingness to go to jail for her beliefs, Laura's mother and sister encourage her to pay more attention to her suitors. Laura only has eyes for her neighbor, Joe Menotti, who treats her like a kid sister. But her brother's friend, Shawn O’Brien, sweeps her off her feet with his Irish charm and dashing good looks. Yet everyone but Joe wants her to give up her ideals. Should she change herself, try to change the man she loves, or follow her conscience to the man who is waiting with open arms?
Set during World War I, the suffrage movement, and the 1918 influenza pandemic.
(#11) Emily by Candice F. Ransom
She could have anything in the world she wanted - but the one she loved
At the turn of the 20th century, Emily Blackburn is a wealthy New York society girl who has everything a girl could dream of. She wears the latest Parisian fashions, and is escorted to parties by the adoring and rich Worthington Bates. But amid the social whirl she feels empty and restless. When she meets the handsome Dr. Stephen Reed, she defies her parents and volunteers at the public hospital where he works. Helping there fills her life with new meaning, and Stephen stirs her heart with love. But he only sees her as a spoiled rich girl. Emily must prove that she isn’t useless and cares about others, most of all, about him.
Set in high society in the Gilded Age.
(#12) Jacquelyn by Jeffie Ross Gordon
How can she think only of herself in these hard times?
Living in Chicago in the 1930s, during the Great Depression, Jacquelyn Penelope Carleton sees poverty and suffering everywhere. But as the daughter of one of the richest families in the city, she never expects to experience it herself. Then her father loses his fortune in the crash and suffers a debilitating stroke. Suddenly Jacky must support her entire family, and she has never worked a day in her life!
Kind, handsome Stefan offers her marriage as an escape from her problems, and David opens her eyes to the dazzling, turbulent world of show business. She must choose between the two men, but doing so will tear her heart in two. Should she choose the comfort of safety or risk everything for excitement?
Set during the Great Depression.
(#13) Victoria by Willo Davis Roberts
A dashing Texan or a proud Mexican. Which man would win her love?
To beautiful, lovely Victoria Winters, Texas in 1835 is a place where parties last for three days. It's also a place of turmoil and violence. A war with Mexico can’t be far off. Luis Arista, the son of a wealthy Mexican landowner, offers Victoria security and comfort, but would she ever be able to adjust to his way of life? Cade Riley is a ruggedly handsome Texas Ranger who loves Victoria. But he can’t marry her until – or if – he returns from the battlefields. What will become of Victoria's Texas and the men she loves?
Set during the Texas Revolution.
(#14) Cassie by Vivian Schurfranz
Her brave heart is torn between two worlds.
Ever since Cassie was captured by the Indians at the age of 4 she has loved her Iroquois family. At 15 she can shoot and ride as well as any warrior. Then her world is destroyed and she is driven from the only home she knows and she must search to find where she truly belongs.
Set in the Iroquois Confederacy during the French and Indian War.
(#15) Roxanne by Jane Claypool Miner
Theirs would be the greatest love story Hollywood had ever known.
Roxanne has come from a small town to Hollywood with one dream: to become a star. And she will do anything to succeed: change her looks, her name, and her friends.
She has to decide if she should succumb to John Randolph, the movie producer's son, who can introduce her to all the right people. Or if she should follow her heart to Gary Marlowe, a glittering star who has eyes for all of the beautiful bit players and extras on set. But Roxanne knows she is not going to settle for being just another extra – to Gary or Hollywood…she's going to have it all!
Set during the Golden Age of Hollywood.
(#16) Megan by Vivian Schurfranz
One man will win her; one man will become her enemy.
It's 1867 and beautiful, 16-year-old Megan O’Brien gives up a life of luxury in Washington, D.C. for the hardships of Alaska. Her father's job in international affairs has brought the family to Sitka. As if the harsh climate wasn’t enough to get used to, Megan must also face hostility and threats from angry fur traders who don’t like her father's new rules. She meets handsome Ivan Zolotov, a hardworking fisherman, and dashing Adam Logan, whose father owns Sitka's largest store. When both men fall in love with Megan, she is torn between them. The Zolotovs and the Logans are embroiled in a bitter feud, and she must take a side. Before she is sure which man she will choose, she is kidnapped by vengeful traders. Alone and frightened, she realizes who her true love is. Will she ever have a chance to claim his love?
Set during the Alaska Purchase.
(#17) Sabrina by Candice F. Ransom
Her country asks her to risk her life. Can she find the courage to do it?
In 1780, the Revolutionary War still rages violently, especially in Charleston, South Carolina, where orphaned, 16-year-old Sabrina Robbins lives and works in her uncle's shop. Sabrina, a staunch Patriot, is in love with Martin Cresswell, a handsome Tory. Even though they are on opposite sides politically, Sabrina believes their love can survive. But when she meets Richard Taylor, a brave but arrogant patriot who is a spy, she is confused. How can she be so attracted to Richard if she loves Martin?
When Sabrina's uncle becomes ill, Sabrina has to take over his role in the spy ring, even though doing so means betraying Martin and risking her own life. She knows that Richard things some things – freedom and love – are worth any risks. But will she find the courage to fight for freedom and choose between the two men who love her?
Set during the American Revolutionary War.
(#18) Veronica by Jane Claypool Miner
Her heart is filled with love for a man she may never see again.
To 16-year-old Veronica Stewart, Pearl Harbor, Hawaii, in 1941 is a tropical paradise. Pretty and popular, her biggest worry is how to tell her longtime boyfriend, Mike, that she'd like to date other boys - especially Phillip, a handsome sailor stationed at the base.
But December 7, 1941, the day the Japanese bomb Pearl Harbor and American enters World War II, changes everything. Both Phillip and Mike are called to duty and both realize they are in love with Veronica. She is terrified for their safety but keeps busy working as a hospital volunteer. Veronica faces hardship and danger, but the work helps her grow into a woman and to realize which man she truly loves. Will he come back to Hawaii to claim Veronica's heart?
Set during the Attack on Pearl Harbor and World War II.
(#19) Nicole by Candice F. Ransom
Can the love in her heart give her the courage to face incredible danger?
World-travelling Nicole Sanders, a wealthy 16-year-old, has always lived in luxury. In 1912, she and her mother are returning to American on the Titanic - the first unsinkable ocean liner!
Aboard ship, two men fall in love with Nicole - Price, a rich Englishman and Karl, a handsome immigrant. Before she can choose between them, tragedy interrupts Nicole's happiness. The Titanic is sinking! Nicole can't find Karl or Price in the terrible confusion and she knows there aren't enough lifeboats for everyone. Even if she reaches safety, can she dare to hope the men she loves will, too?
Set during the Sinking of the RMS Titanic.
(#20) Julie by Vivian Schurfranz
Still only a girl, love forces her to make a woman's choice.
It's 1868 and in Crooked Branch, Utah, 15-year-old Julie Fulton is proud her family is helping build the first transcontinental railroad. With her father an engineer, and her mother head telegrapher for the railroad project, pretty, energetic Julie also wants to make a contribution. Her wish comes true when she begins to work as a telegrapher, too. For Julie, this down of a new era in her life is truly thrilling!
Even more thrilling is the way Julie feels when she meets two men who work on the railroad: Dylan O'Kelly, a dashing Irish charmer; and handsome, serious Samuel Harper. Dylan wants Julie to travel West with him to help complete the railroad. Samuel wants to take her to the glamour of Washington, D.C.
Both men offer Julie all the excitement and love she could ever want. But will her heart be wise enough to choose the man she really loves?
Set during the building of the transcontinental railroad, including the "Last Spike" ceremony.
(#21) Rachel by Vivian Schurfranz
Can she be true to her heritage and to the boy she loves?
It is 1910 and 16-year-old Rachel Roth and her family are immigrants from Poland to America. When Rachel sees the Statue of Liberty in New York Harbor, she catches her breath. The magnificent statue seems to promise her a better life.
While life in bustling New York City turns out to be hard, Rachel is happy with her new country and her job at the Triangle Shirtwaist Factory. Unaware that a tragedy in the factory is about to happen, Rachel thrives on the admiration of handsome Joshua Fine, who wants a traditional home with her by his side. But when Rachel meets Nathan Meyers, an energetic reporter who loves her and wants her to be as modern, as American, as he is, Rachel is uncertain. To be American, must she give up her past? Will her heritage, or her heart, determine which boy she loves?
Set during the Central European migration to the USA and includes the Triangle Shirtwaist Factory fire.
(#22) Corey by Jane Claypool Miner
She escaped from the South to the North, where a boy captured her heart.
In 1864, 16-year-old Corey has only known slavery. But she is courageous and spirited, and though Ned, a handsome slave from the same South Carolina plantation, hopes to marry her someday, Corey longs for a better life. Then the Civil War tears Corey's family apart, but Corey escapes from slavery.
Freedom isn't easy, however. Corey can't find her family, and Ned tells her he is running off to fight. Corey has no one left she can trust, so she heads north to Philadelphia. Here she finds a new home and new friends. And she meets Penn Wilson, a dashing young man who captures her heart and introduces her to a new, free world. But when Ned asks Corey to go West with him, the choices freedom brings seem harder than ever. Will Corey join Ned? Or will she return to the South to help her people - alongside Penn?
Set during the American Civil War.
(#23) Heather by Vivian Schurfranz
Two men love her - but one of them might be plotting to kill her.
Formal balls and hired thugs, excitement and danger and love are all part of life in New York in 1665. And 16-year-old Heather Lawson is part of it, too. She and her father have settled on Willow Acres, a land grant along the Hudson River from King Charles of England.
But someone doesn't want them there. Is it their mysterious neighbor, Lord Downing, whose handsome, arrogant son Michael is painting Heather's portrait? Is it laughing, blond Jan Van Ryswyk, a Dutch riverboatman who says he loves Heather and wants to marry her?
On the night Lord Downing holds a formal ball, Willow Acres' crops are destroyed by fire. All the evidence seems to point to Jan and the Dutch, but Heather is not so sure. If she is wrong, it could cost her the one she loves. If she is right, it could cost her her life!
Set during the beginning of New York City.
(#24) Gabrielle by Mary Francis Shura
She's a showboat star. Will she have to give it up for love?
Sixteen-year-old Gabrielle Prentice is practicing a new tightrope act for her father's showboat on the banks of the Mississippi River when she falls into the arms of a handsome young farmer - and in love.
She soon finds that being in love with David Wesley isn't easy. Mrs. Wesley, his mother, looks down on showboat people, and showboat people, especially the talented, aloof Stephen Dubois, do not think much of farmers. But Gabrielle is determined to pursue her dream of life on land. She convinces her father to let her accept the invitation grudgingly extended by Mrs. Wesley to spend a week on the family farm.
Life on the farm is not what Gabrielle had imagined. David is different, too. Has Gabrielle been dreaming of the wrong love? And is she ready to face what she really wants?
Set in 1880 on a Mississippi showboat.
(#25) Merrie by Vivian Schurfranz
It will take everything she has to survive the first year at Plymouth Colony
Stowing away aboard the Mayflower to escape an arranged marriage, sixteen-year-old Merrie Courtland receives no welcome on the Pilgrim ship. Luke Bosworth, the dashing young sailor who finds her, believes she is nothing but a dishonest stowaway. Her sole friend is the doctor's handsome young assistant, Zachariah Gaines.
Merrie must be brave and resourceful to make it through the harsh, lonely first winter at Plymouth Colony. But can she persuade the Pilgrims to accept her?
Luke wants Merrie to return to England to marry him. Zachariah wants her to stay. As the colony prepares a feast of thanksgiving, Merrie faces the hardest test of all. Does she have the courage to listen to her heart?
Set in the Plymouth Colony.
(#26) Nora by Jeffie Ross Gordon
It's as easy to fall in love with a rich man as a poor man. Isn't it?
Nora has always been poor. But her job as a companion to a rich San Francisco lady has given her a glimpse of a glittering, secure world. She is determined to be a part of it, determined to convince her beau Jamie to give up his dangerous dream of being an aviator for a respectable career in the bank where he works.
Then the great San Francisco earthquake of 1906 reduced the once elegant city to rubble. And Nora rescues a handsome stranger. Is she falling in love with this man who has lost his memory - who could be a thief?
Her head tells her one thing, her heart another. The wrong choice could mean the end of all her dreams.
Set during the 1906 San Francisco earthquake.
(#27) Margaret by Jane Claypool Miner
Can her worst student teach her the most important lesson of all?
Teaching in a one-room prairie schoolhouse in Nebraska in 1886 means more than giving lessons to 32 very different students. For 15-year-old Margaret, who has left Chicago to start a new life, it also means learning to survive savage blizzards, a deadly plague, and awful loneliness.
Then she meets Gerald, the handsome young easterner who is teaching in a nearby town. And she finds herself drawn more and more to brooding, handsome Robert, the 18-year-old farmer's son who is her worst pupil.
Gerald offers Margaret a chance to go back to the civilized comforts of the city. But she can’t forget her dreams. A raging prairie fire forces Margaret to prove herself, and gives her the courage to choose the life – and love – she truly wants.
Set in a midwestern one-room schoolhouse.
(#28) Josie by Vivian Schurfranz
Can Josie have love and adventure?
Ever since her mother died, Josie has taken care of the family. But she dreams of adventure, and a more exciting beau than kind, gentle James, who runs the Carson City pony express office. Then Mike, a dashing new pony express rider, comes to town. Are Josie's dreams coming true?
Josie find the answer unexpectedly, when she is the only one who can make a daring ride to get the mail through. Captured by a group of outlaws led by a famous woman bandit, Jodie gets a first-hand look at a real life of daring and danger, and some woman-to-woman advice about love.
Does Josie have the heart for another kind of adventure – the adventure of true love?
Set during the 18-month run of the Pony Express.
(#29) Diana by Mary Francis Shura
It was a time for adventure...and a time for love.
On the eve of the dangerously controversial Louisiana Purchase, Diana meets David, a handsome and charming French Creole aristocrat, at a gala New Orleans party. When her family sends her to St. Louis, until the threat of a Creole uprising against the Purchase is over, David follows Diana.
In St. Louis, Diana meets John, a brave and bold Kentucky frontiersman who is about to leave with the Lewis and Clark Expedition, which is being sent to explore the new territory.
After the expedition departs and months pass without word of it, it is given up for lost. David wants Diana to marry him.
But will saying yes to David be saying no to true love?
Set during the Louisiana Purchase and featuring the Lewis and Clark Expedition.
(#30) Renee by Vivian Schurfranz
If you dream great dreams, do you give up true love?
More than anything, Renee wants to become a New York City newspaper reporter. Her family doesn’t approve. But Nick, the young man they expect her to marry, understands. Or does he? One day, when handsome Steven Morison walks into her father's bicycle shop, Renee gets her chance. Steven's mother owns the New York Gazette. Steven gets Renee a job as a cub reporter. And he asks her out.
Then the Great Blizzard of 1888 buries New York City with raging, icy winds and huge snowdrifts, some as high as buildings. Renee is the only reporter to make it to work, and she's told to cover the blizzard! Braving the dangerous, freezing streets, she becomes a heroine more than once. And her story is published – on the front page! She's on her way.
Steven has asked her to marry him, and give up her job. She knows she loves him. But does real love mean giving up her dreams?
Set during the Great Blizzard of 1888.
(#31) Jennie by Jane Claypool Miner
Can any good come of such a disaster?
Swept away in the murderous Johnstown Flood of 1889, 16-year-old Jennie fights death - and wins. Now in the devastating, tragedy-haunted wreckage, she must fight to keep herself and her family alive.
Then, while working as a telegraph operator for the reporters who have poured into the Pennsylvania town to cover the disaster, she meets brash, handsome David. Is she falling in love with him? Or does she really love Jim, who may be one of the people responsible for the flood?
Fighting to rebuild Johnstown, Jennie tries to fight her heart. But this is one battle she may not want to win.
Set during the Johnstown Flood.
(#32) Darcy by Mary Francis Shura
Has the hurricane swept everything away?
For her sixteenth birthday, Galveston, Texas belle Darcy wants to have fun. She wants to laugh with her best friend Angela, flirt with Angela's handsome, maddening Yankee cousin Michael, and dance with her old friend Alex.
But the Galveston hurricane of September, 1900, changes all that. Caught with Michael in the murderous gale and tides that level Galveston in one night, killing more than 6,000 people, Darcy survives. Now she must face her pain.
She must find the strength to help rebuild the island that was her home, so it can never be destroyed by a hurricane again. But after such losses, will she have the strength to love again?
Set during the 1900 Galveston hurricane.
Chronology of books
1620 Merrie (#25)
1622 Marilee (#9)
1665 Heather (#23)
1692 Elizabeth (#3)
1755 Cassie (#14)
1780 Sabrina (#17)
1803 Diana (#29)
1814 Danielle (#4)
1835 Victoria (#13)
1836 Joanna (#5)
1846 Amanda (#1)
1847 Kathleen (#8)
1852 Caroline (#7)
1861 Josie (#28)
1864 Corey (#22)
1864 Susannah (#2)
1867 Megan (#16)
1868 Julie (#20)
1873 Jessica (#6)
1880 Gabrielle (#24)
1886 Margaret (#27)
1888 Renee (#30)
1889 Jennie (#31)
1900 Emily (#11)
1900 Darcy (#32)
1906 Nora (#26)
1910 Rachel (#21)
1912 Nicole (#19)
1918 Laura (#10)
1931 Jacquelyn (#12)
1938 Roxanne (#15)
1941 Veronica (#18)
American young adult novels
Novel sequences
American romance novels |
4436357 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meerkat%20Manor | Meerkat Manor | Meerkat Manor is a British television programme produced by Oxford Scientific Films that premiered in September 2005. Originally broadcast on Animal Planet International for four seasons, until its cancellation in August 2008, the programme had a revival in 2021 with the programme now known as Meerkat Manor: Rise of the Dynasty in some countries. Using traditional animal documentary style footage along with narration, the series told the story of the Whiskers, one of more than a dozen families of meerkats in the Kalahari Desert being studied as part of the Kalahari Meerkat Project, a long-term field study into the ecological causes and evolutionary consequences of the cooperative nature of meerkats. The original programme was narrated by Bill Nighy, with the narration redubbed by Mike Goldman for the Australian airings and Sean Astin for the American broadcasts. The fourth series, subtitled The Next Generation, saw Stockard Channing replacing Astin as the narrator in the American dubbing. In 2021, Nighy could be heard narrating the new series of Meerkat Manor when it was broadcast in the United States on BBC America and on Channel 5 in the United Kingdom, making it the first time that both television markets have used the same voice over on the programme.
Meerkat Manor premiered in the United Kingdom on 12 September 2005, and the first 13-episode series concluded on 24 October 2005. With the success of the programme in the United Kingdom, Animal Planet started broadcasting it on its national channels in Australia, Canada, and the US. It has since been rebroadcast in more than 160 other countries. The fourth, and final, Animal Planet series aired initially in the United States from 6 June 2008 to 22 August 2008. In August 2009, it was reported that the programme had been cancelled by Animal Planet. In 2021, Meerkat Manor returned to British TV screens with a new series subtitled onscreen as Rise of the Dynasty (as Channel 5 listed the programme just as Meerkat Manor). The 13-part series was again narrated by Nighy, and was shown by Channel 5 every weekday in the 6.30pm slot usually featuring quiz show Eggheads, with the last episode going out on Wednesday 15 December 2021. The Rise of the Dynasty series was made by Oxford Scientific Films (with the master rights belonging to BBC America) and featured three mobs of meerkats, with the groups being given the names Whiskers, Hakuna Mata and Ubuntu.
Although the show faced criticism from viewers for not intervening when a meerkat was injured and faced death, Meerkat Manor enjoyed considerable success and was Animal Planet's top series in October 2007, both on the cable channel and through its video-on-demand service. The show's experimental format broke new ground in animal documentary filming techniques and gave viewers a long-term, intimate look into the lives of its meerkat stars, breaking the traditional wall between viewer and subject found with most documentaries. Meerkat Manor was nominated for three Primetime Emmy Awards: two in 2007 and one in 2008. It won awards at the 2006 Omni Awards, and at the 2006 and 2007 New York Festivals TV Broadcasting Awards. The first three series have been released to DVD in both Region 1 and Region 2. In 2007, a book entitled Meerkat Manor – The Story of Flower of the Kalahari was released in the UK, detailing the life of Flower and the Whiskers before the series' filming began. A television film, Meerkat Manor: The Story Begins, documenting Flower's birth and rise to matriarch of the Whiskers, aired on Animal Planet on 25 May 2008.
Production details
Meerkat Manor was created by Caroline Hawkins, executive producer and series editor at Oxford Scientific Films, and commissioned for Animal Planet International by executive producer and commissioning editor Mark Wild. Filming for a 13-episode series took seven to eight months, and was limited to the Kalahari spring and summer seasons, as meerkats are less active during winter. Series three was filmed from November 2006 through April 2007, and Series four began filming in October 2007. Most scenes were filmed on location at the Kuruman River Reserve, where the Kalahari Meerkat Project that the meerkats are a part of is based. However, the meerkats seen in commercials and on the show's website were not the same animals portrayed in Meerkat Manor. Instead, tamer-rescued meerkats from the Fellow Earthlings' Wildlife Center were filmed against a green screen.
The show was primarily filmed using Sony DSR-570 cameras, although special equipment was needed for some unique footage. For scenes inside the animals' burrows, mini fibre-optic infra-red cameras were employed; wide-angle shots were filmed with a seven-metre crane and a remote-controlled camera platform. An off-camera wireless microphone was also used to record many meerkat vocalizations, only partially audible to cameras' on-board systems. Most filming was done by a single cameraman and a single sound engineer; researchers have required a minimal human presence to avoid stressing the animals. Eye-level shots were difficult to achieve at times, due to the meerkats' small size and the limited height of even the smallest tripods.
For tracking purposes by the researchers, the dominant female of each group is fitted with a radio collar, as are some dominant and roaming males. The meerkats – especially younger animals – are marked with dye to differentiate them. As the meerkats are habituated, they would tend to ignore the camera crew as long as their "personal space" was respected.
National variations
The UK and US versions of the show have the same content for most episodes; however, the latter was sometimes edited for length to allow for commercial breaks. Content was also sometimes altered; mating scenes in particular were often removed from the US version. Animal Planet US occasionally changed the names of meerkats and episode titles. Two of Flower's pups were renamed from Ren and Stumpy to Len and Squiggy; the title of the episode was also changed. De la Soul (named for the rap group of the same name), one of the sisters who started the Starsky group, was renamed Whoopi in the US as a tribute to actress Whoopi Goldberg, an early fan of the series. Animal Planet US has also renamed some of Flower's pups born in series three after two other celebrity fans of the show, Elizabeth Taylor and Denis Leary. Several episodes were renamed: the title of the final episode of the second series was changed from "The Killing Fields" to "The Quiet Fields". During the third series, the third episode's title was changed from "Something's Got to Give" to "Sister Act" (another Goldberg reference), while the sixth episode's title changed from "The House of Zappa" to "Sibling Rivalry".
Narrative
The show follows several groups of meerkats, who act communally for the benefit of the groups in which they live. These groups are typically led by a dominant female and male, who maintain almost exclusive rights to have offspring. The group followed most closely is known as the Whiskers family. This group was chosen because of its matriarch Flower, an unusually successful dominant female who led the group for five years. During series three, Flower died from a snake bite and was succeeded by her daughter Rocket Dog.
Animals in neighbouring groups were highlighted in each series as well. In the first series, a group called the Lazuli were shown frequently in competition with the Whiskers family, and the opening credits referred to them as the "neighbours from hell". Although their dominant male Big Si died between series, the Lazuli appeared in the second series, mostly as a source of roving males. Another group called the Commandoes, led by a one-eyed male named Hannibal, introduced themselves by attacking the Lazuli burrow, killing a pup and badly wounding the babysitting adult. The Commandoes became the new major rivals in the area, killing the pups of evicted Whiskers female Mozart and taking over some of the Whiskers' territory.
The Whiskers' new neighbours were the Zappa and the Starsky. Although smaller than the Whiskers, the Zappa attacked frequently, and when they fled after one attack, the Whiskers – in a rare occurrence – adopted an abandoned Zappa pup. The Starsky group, on the other hand, was no threat to the Whiskers. Formed by a trio of Flower's daughters permanently evicted from the Whiskers, the small group was ravaged by illness, predators, and a lack of new pups. The constantly struggling Starsky succumbed in the penultimate episode, with the death of the last survivor, Mozart, who was killed by a jackal. Former Whiskers female Maybelline broke away from the group at the end of the third series, forming a new group called the Aztecs which became the Whiskers' rivals in the fourth series.
Changes in representation
While the show portrays real events among the Kalahari Meerkats, it also removes repetitive elements of the animals' lives. Because many days are filled with behaviour related to grooming and foraging, these routines were often left out of the show in favour of more unusual events.
The meerkats are all named by Kalahari Meerkat volunteers; the individual who first sees a new litter emerge from the burrow is awarded naming rights. This has produced a variety of names, frequently drawn from volunteers' favourite books, movies, musical groups, family and friends, historical figures and geographical locations. Animal Planet sometimes renamed the meerkats for narration, arguing that researchers' names were too limited, often relating to spices and food condiments. Because of these changes, fans of the series who seek information on the Friends of the Kalahari Meerkat Project website sometimes have trouble locating particular animals. The project has created a list of alterations to help viewers connect the animals on the show to their real-life counterparts, and to match episodes to the monthly KMP Life History reports. The list, however, is only available to paying members of their website.
Two of the major Whiskers family rivals were composites, created with footage and blended stories from multiple groups. For example, the Commandoes group on the show uses some of events from the real Commandoes group, but was primarily shown with footage from the Vivian research group – including its dominant couple. Similarly, the show's Zappa group was mostly presented using footage from a group called "The Young Ones" (named after the British television show); however, the actual story and dominant pair were from the real Zappa Group. Axel, the abandoned pup from series three, has a research number that indicates he was probably a Young Ones pup, rather than being a Zappa as the show claims.
Reception
Meerkat Manor has been well received by viewers and critics alike. In October 2007, it was Animal Planet's top series, with an audience of more than four million in the United States alone. In the United States, its first episode was viewed by one million viewers, and the second and third series premieres were watched by approximately 800,000 viewers each. The fourth series premiere did not fare as well, with fewer than 500,000 viewers. The viewership of the on-demand video offerings for Meerkat Manor grew 20% in September 2007, when Discovery offered each third series episode, video capsules of series one and two, top ten moments from the show, and a memorial sequence for Flower. Building on the success of Meerkat Manor unique format, Animal Planet commissioned two similarly formatted programmes: Orangutan Island, which focuses on a group of orphaned orangutans at the Nyaru Menteng Orangutan Rescue and Rehabilitation Center, and Lemur Street, which looks at the lives of two rival gangs of ring-tailed lemurs in Madagascar.
Some fans have criticized the show for its non-interference policy with regard to the meerkats, asking why the film crew and researchers do not give anti-venom to snake-bitten meerkats, or euthanize those dying and suffering. US Executive Producer Mick Kaczorowski pointed out that Meerkat Manor was a show about the real lives and deaths of the meerkats. The research group has a policy against film crews interceding in natural events "because they don't want to have an effect on the gene pool by saving a weaker meerkat [or] affecting the outcome of what's natural in the Kalahari." As the research project is monitoring "...the breeding success and survival of individuals and ... the factors that affect reproduction and survival", interfering in the natural processes would render the research results invalid. There is one exception to this rule: researchers will euthanize meerkats that contract tuberculosis in order to prevent outbreaks that would threaten both the meerkat population and nearby cattle.
Awards
Meerkat Manor was nominated in 2005 for a Jackson Hole Wildlife Film Festival Award in the Animal Behaviour category, and again in 2007 for Best Original Score. At the 2006 Wildscreen Festival, the series was a finalist in three categories: Animal Behaviour, Innovation, and Popular Broadcast. The series won Gold Statues in Natural History and Cinematography and a Silver Statue for Writing at the 2006 Omni Awards. The eighth episode of series three, "Journey's End", which depicts the death of Whiskers matriarch Flower, was awarded the 2008 Wildscreen Festival Panda Award in the Five Award for Popular Broadcast Programme category. Meerkat Manor was a two-time Gold Medal winner in the Nature & Wildlife category at the New York Festivals Award Gala, in 2006 for series one, and again in 2007 for series one and two. The series was nominated for two Primetime Emmy Awards in 2007, one for Outstanding Cinematography for Nonfiction Programming and one for Outstanding Picture Editing for Nonfiction Programming, and again for Outstanding Cinematography in 2008. In 2009, the series was awarded the Grand Award at the New York Festivals International Television Programming and Promotion Awards in the Family Programmes category.
Impact on the genre
Meerkat Manor innovative new methods of filming allowed the Kalahari Project scientists a chance to uncover aspects of meerkat life never before seen, including life within the burrows. The film crew was also the first to capture meerkat infanticide on film.
While many documentaries maintain an emotional distance from their subjects, Meerkat Manor, due to its extended length, soap opera-like narration, romanticization of the animals' lives, and close-up filming techniques, provides a closer, more personal view of the meerkats. The animals are humanized by being given individual names and personalities and by narrativizing the plots of their specific social relationships, blurring the line between nature documentary and reality television. Viewers describe being emotionally involved in the animals' lives, sometimes forgetting they are watching a nature documentary. The meerkats' frequently short lives and brutal deaths become surprising and disturbing to some audiences. This format, considered experimental for its time, has been both praised and criticized for expanding the boundaries of both the nature documentary genre and the conventions of reality TV.
Merchandise
A book written by Professor Tim Clutton-Brock entitled Meerkat Manor: The Story of Flower of the Kalahari () was released in the UK in a hardback edition on 4 October 2007. The book focuses on Flower's life and the story of the Whiskers, tracing how the group started, providing a timeline of Flower's life, and detailing all of the pups she had over her lifetime, as well as their current locations. The book also gives more background on how the Kalahari Meerkat Project started, the research goals and results, and researchers' personal lives. A paperback edition of the book was announced for release in the United States by Simon & Schuster through their Touchstone imprint on 15 April 2008. The US release was entitled Meerkat Manor: Flower of the Kalahari (). In November 2007, Discovery Communications announced that it was partnering with Activision to make a video game based on Meerkat Manor as the first in a new series of nature-based games. The announcement stated the game would be released to multiple platforms in late 2008, but no game was ever released.
Film
Oxford Scientific Films produced a feature film for Discovery Films that acts as a prequel to the Meerkat Manor series. Originally announced as Flower: Queen of the Kalahari, Meerkat Manor: The Story Begins was directed by Chris Barker and Mike Slee and narrated by Whoopi Goldberg. The film documents Flower's early life as she grows from a young meerkat to become one of the most successful leaders of the Whiskers clan. The film was introduced at the 2008 Tribeca Film Festival in the Spotlight section, and then aired in the United States on Animal Planet on 25 May 2008 as a lead-in to a thirty-minute Making of Meerkat Manor: the Story Begins special. It was released to Region 1 DVD in North America on 3 June 2008, with the Making of Meerkat Manor special, and another special, The Science of Meerkat Manor, included as extras.
The film included re-edited footage and a new musical score. The Whiskers story was simplified, with the Lazuli being the only rival group to appear in the film. Unlike with the Meerkat Manor series, the film does not actually depict any of the real Whiskers meerkats. Untrained "meerkat actors" play the role of Flower and her family, with the camera crew searching out appropriately-aged meerkats, then following them until the meerkats acted in a way that was needed for the film. Flower herself was depicted by approximately eight female meerkats.
References
External links
Official Southern Star Entertainment UK Meerkat Manor website
Official Animal Planet US Meerkat Manor website
The Kalahari Meerkat Project
Friends of the Kalahari Meerkat Project
2000s British documentary television series
2005 British television series debuts
2008 British television series endings
Animal Planet original programming
Nature educational television series
Television series about families
Television series about mammals |
4436484 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German%20football%20league%20system | German football league system | The German football league system, or league pyramid, refers to the hierarchically interconnected league system for association football in Germany that in the 2016–17 season consisted of 2,235 leagues in up to 13 levels having 31,645 teams, in which all divisions are bound together by the principle of promotion and relegation. The top three professional levels contain one division each. Below this, the semi-professional and amateur levels have progressively more parallel divisions, which each cover progressively smaller geographic areas. Teams that finish at the top of their division at the end of each season can rise higher in the pyramid, while those that finish at the bottom find themselves sinking further down. Therefore, in theory, it is possible for even the lowest local amateur club to rise to the top of the system and become German football champions one day. The number of teams promoted and relegated between the divisions varies, and promotion to the upper levels of the pyramid is usually contingent on meeting additional criteria, especially concerning appropriate facilities and finances.
Structure
Germany
The German football league system is held under the jurisdiction of the nationwide German Football Association and its professional body German Football League, along with its five regional associations and their 21 state associations.
On top of the system sit the level 1 Bundesliga and the level two 2. Bundesliga, both organized by the professional German Football League. The two top flights then are followed by the level three 3. Liga, the lowest full professional division in Germany, held by the German Football Association itself.
The professional level four Regionalliga is divided into 5 regional divisions, these typically organised by one or two of the five regional associations of the German Football association, these being the Northern German Football Association, the Northeastern German Football Association, the Western German Football Association, the Southwestern Regional Football Association and the Southern German Football Association. For Bavaria, the Bavarian Football Association, a member state association of the Southern German Football Association, runs their top division under their own jurisdiction.
Starting at level five, the various fully amateur divisions are usually governed by the 21 state associations. For the North East German Football Association and Southwestern Regional Football Association, both regional bodies still run the level five divisions under their jurisdiction and their state member associations' pyramids therefore start at level six.
Federal association league system
After each season, the winners of the Bundesliga are crowned German football champions. The bottom two Bundesliga teams are relegated to 2. Bundesliga, whereas the champion and runner-up of 2. Bundesliga are promoted to the top flight. Additionally, the third-last ranked team of Bundesliga and the third-best ranked team of 2. Bundesliga play a promotion/relegation playoff for the final spot in the next Bundesliga edition. The bottom two 2. Bundesliga teams are relegated to 3. Liga, whereas the champion and runner-up of 3. Liga are promoted to the second flight. Additionally, the third-last ranked team of 2. Bundesliga and the third-best ranked team of 3. Liga play a promotion/relegation playoff for the final spot in the next 2. Bundesliga edition. The bottom four teams of 3. Liga are relegated to Regionalliga.
Regional association league systems
Whereas the professional first three levels of the German football league system each are single division only and are organised by nationwide governing bodies, the semi-professional level four Regionalliga comprises five independent divisions, each run by different regional and/or state associations.
Three regional bodies, being the Northern German Football Association, the North East German Football Association and the Western German Football Association, each run a division under their sole jurisdiction, these being the corresponding Regionalliga Nord, the Regionalliga Nordost and the Regionalliga West. The two regional bodies Southwestern Regional Football Association and Southern German Football Association share the jurisdiction on the Regionalliga Südwest. Finally, the Bavarian Football Association, although being just a subordinate state association to the superior Southern German Football Association, runs the Regionalliga Bayern, by far the largest single state football association in Germany.
As an exception to the regular promotion rules within the German league system, not all champions of each Regionalliga division are granted automatic promotion.
Instead only the Regionalliga West and Southwest each provide a fixed direct promotion. Another direct promotion place is assigned according to a rotation principle among the Regionalliga Nord, Nordost, and Bayern champions. The representatives from the remaining two Regionalligen determine the fourth promoted club in two-legged playoffs.
Northern Germany
The Northern German Football Association league system is the regional association league system in the states of Bremen, Hamburg, Lower Saxony and Schleswig-Holstein and starts at level four of the German league system with the Regionalliga Nord on top. The champions enter a promotion playoff along with the winners of the four other Regionalliga divisions and the Regionalliga Südwest runner-up for three promotions to the 3. Liga.
Below the regional association's league system, the four state association league systems of the Bremen Football Association, the Hamburg Football Association, the Lower Saxony Football Association and the Schleswig-Holstein Football Association work as feeders to the Regionalliga.
Northeastern Germany
The Northeastern German Football Association league system is the regional association league system in the states of Berlin, Brandenburg, Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania, Saxony, Saxony-Anhalt and Thuringia and starts at level four of the German league system with the Regionalliga Nordost on top. The champions enter a promotion playoff along with the winners of the four other Regionalliga divisions and the Regionalliga Südwest runner-up for three promotions to the 3. Liga.
Below the regional association's league system, the six state association league systems of the Berlin Football Association, the Brandenburg State Football Association, the Mecklenburg-Vorpommern State Football Association, the Saxony Football Association, the Saxony-Anhalt Football Association and the Thuringian Football Association work as feeders to the Oberliga.
Western Germany
The Western German Football Association league system is the regional association league system in the state of North Rhine-Westphalia and starts at level four of the German league system with the Regionalliga West on top. The champions enter a promotion playoff along with the winners of the four other Regionalliga divisions and the Regionalliga Südwest runner-up for three promotions to the 3. Liga.
Below the regional association's league system, the three state association league systems of the Lower Rhine Football Association, the Middle Rhine Football Association and the Westphalian Football and Athletics Association work as feeders to the Regionalliga.
Southwestern Germany
The Southwestern Regional Football Association league system is the regional association league system in the states of Rhineland-Palatinate and Saarland and starts at level four of the German league system with the Regionalliga Südwest on top, which is held under joint jurisdiction along with the Southern German Football Association. The champions and the runner-up enter a promotion playoff along with the winners of the four other Regionalliga divisions for three promotions to the 3. Liga. By rule, the champions and the runner-up will not face each other in the promotion playoffs.
Below the regional association's league system, the three state associations league systems of the Rhineland Football Association, the Saarland Football Association and the Southwest German Football Association work as feeders to the Oberliga.
Southern Germany
The Southern German Football Association league system is the regional association league system in the states of Baden-Württemberg, Bavaria and Hessen and starts at level four of the German league system with the Regionalliga Südwest, which is held under joint jurisdiction along with the Regional Football Association South West respectively with the Regionalliga Bayern. The champions and the runner-up of the Regionalliga Südwest and the champions of the Regionalliga Bayern enter a promotion playoff along with the winners of the three other Regionalliga divisions for three promotions to the 3. Liga.
Below the regional association's league system, the five state association league systems of the Baden Football Association, the Bavarian Football Association, the Hessian Football Association, the South Baden Football Association and the Württembergian Football Association work as feeders to the Regionalliga.
State association league systems
Mostly in line with the geographical borders of the 16 German states, amateur football is organised by 21 state football associations. Therefore, 13 states, these being Bavaria, Berlin, Brandenburg, Bremen, Hamburg, Hesse, Lower Saxony, Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania, Saarland, Saxony, Saxony-Anhalt, Schleswig-Holstein and Thuringia have a state football association with a jurisdiction covering the whole area of the corresponding political entity.
Three states are subdivided into more than one state football association. The state of North Rhine-Westphalia is subdivided into three state associations, these being Middle Rhine, Lower Rhine and Westphalia. The state of Baden-Württemberg is also subdivided into three state associations, these being Baden, South Baden and Württemberg. Finally, the state of Rhineland-Palatinate is subdivided into two state associations, these being Rhineland and Southwest.
Starting on levels four to six of the German football league system, each of these 21 state associations runs a league pyramid under its own jurisdiction. The state association of Bavaria starts its pyramid at level four. The top divisions of the state associations of Bremen, Hamburg, Hesse, Middle Rhine, Lower Rhine, Lower Saxony, Schleswig-Holstein and Westphalia sit at level five of the pyramid. The pyramids of the remaining associations of Baden, Berlin, Brandenburg, Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania, Rhineland, Saarland, Saxony, Saxony-Anhalt, South Baden, Southwest, Thuringia and Württemberg start at level six of the German football league system.
All state associations have full jurisdiction over their league pyramids, though the configuration varies in between states. A traditional state league pyramid had a Verbandsliga (Association League) as its top flight, followed by several divisions of Landesliga (State League). Due to many structural reforms in the last decades, both on federal level and on state levels, this structure has become more indeterminate. Currently, eight of the 21 state associations (Bremen, Hamburg, Hesse, Middle Rhine, Lower Rhine, Lower Saxony, Schleswig-Holstein and Westphalia) have an Oberliga (English: Premier League) as their top amateur state division, some followed by a Verbandsliga, some directly by a Landesliga. Starting in 2012, the state association of Bavaria organized its own Regionalliga (Regional League), a league formerly only organized by the superior regional associations.
With the exception of Berlin and Hamburg, all other state associations usually supervise several county and/or district associations. The county associations usually cover the area of a government district, whereas the district associations have jurisdiction for the territory of an urban district. The associations of Bavaria, Bremen, Lower Saxony and the Southwest are initially subdivided into several county associations, the latter are then subdivided into district associations. The associations of South Baden and Württemberg have several county associations following in the league system, but no district associations. The remaining associations (Baden, Brandenburg, Hesse, Lower Rhine, Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania, Middle Rhine, Rhineland, Saarland, Saxony, Saxony-Anhalt, Schleswig-Holstein, Thuringia and Westphalia) are directly subdivided into district associations. The county associations usually run a single division, the Bezirksliga (County League) under their jurisdiction, then followed by the district associations' top flights Kreisliga (District League). State associations that are directly subdivided into district associations, typically run the Bezirksliga themselves. In Hesse, the Bezirksliga is called the Gruppenliga (Group League).
Northern Germany
Schleswig-Holstein
The Schleswig-Holstein Football Association league system is the state association league system in the state of Schleswig-Holstein and starts at level five of the German league system with the Oberliga Schleswig-Holstein on top. The current (2016–17 season) champions are Eutin 08. The champions enter a promotion playoff along with the Bremen-Liga champions, the Oberliga Hamburg champions and the Niedersachsenliga runner-up for two promotions to the Regionalliga Nord.
Below the state association league system 12 district associations work as feeders to the Verbandsliga. In the 2017–18 season, the full system comprises 61 divisions having 861 teams. Additionally, four teams play above the state association league system: Holstein Kiel (2. Bundesliga), Eutin 08, SC Weiche Flensburg 08 and VfB Lübeck (all Regionalliga Nord).
Hamburg
The Hamburg Football Association league system is the state association league system in the state of Hamburg and parts of southern Schleswig-Holstein and northeastern Lower Saxony and it starts at level five of the German league system with the Oberliga Hamburg on top. The 2021–22 season champions were TuS Dassendorf. The champions enter a promotion playoff along with the Bremen-Liga champions, the Oberliga Schleswig-Holstein champions and the Niedersachsenliga runner-up for two promotions to the Regionalliga Nord.
As the state of Hamburg consists only of the city of Hamburg itself, there are no local associations below. In the 2016–17 season, the full system comprises 30 divisions having 453 teams. Additionally, six teams play above the state association league system: Hamburger SV (Bundesliga), FC St. Pauli (2. Bundesliga), Altona 93, Hamburger SV II, FC St. Pauli II and FC Eintracht Norderstedt 03 (all Regionalliga Nord).
Lower Saxony
The Lower Saxony Football Association league system is the state association league system in the state of Lower Saxony and starts at level five of the German league system with the Niedersachsenliga on top. The current (2016–17 season) champions are SSV Jeddeloh. The champions are directly promoted to Regionalliga Nord, whereas the runner-up enters a promotion playoff along with the Bremen-Liga champions and the Oberliga Hamburg champions and the Oberliga Schleswig-Holstein champions for two additional promotions.
Below the state association league system four county associations and following them 43 district associations work as feeders to the Oberliga. In the 2016–17 season, the full system comprises 295 divisions having 4,022 teams. Additionally, 16 teams play above the state association league system: Hannover 96 and VfL Wolfsburg (Bundesliga), Eintracht Braunschweig (2. Bundesliga), SV Meppen and VfL Osnabrück (3. Liga), Lüneburger SK Hansa, TSV Havelse, VfL Wolfsburg II, Hannover 96 II, 1. FC Germania Egestorf/Langreder, Schwarz-Weiß Rehden, VfB Oldenburg, SSV Jeddeloh, SV Drochtersen/Assel, VfV 06 Hildesheim and Eintracht Braunschweig II (all Regionalliga Nord).
Bremen
The Bremen Football Association league system is the state association league system in the state of Bremen and starts at level five of the German league system with the Bremen-Liga on top. The current (2016–17 season) champions are Bremer SV. The champions enter a promotion playoff along with the Oberliga Hamburg champions, the Oberliga Schleswig-Holstein champions and the Niedersachsenliga runner-up for two promotions to the Regionalliga Nord.
Below the state association league system one county association and following it two district associations work as feeders to the Landesliga. In the 2016–17 season, the full system comprises 11 divisions having 148 teams. Additionally, two teams play above the state association league system: SV Werder Bremen (Bundesliga) and SV Werder Bremen II (3. Liga).
Northeastern Germany
Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania
The Mecklenburg-Vorpommern State Football Association league system in the state association league systems in the state of Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania and starts at level six of the German league system with the Verbandsliga Mecklenburg-Vorpommern on top. The current (2020–21 season) champions are FC Mecklenburg Schwerin. The champions are directly promoted to Oberliga Nordost.
Below the state association league system six district associations work as feeders to the Landesklasse. In the 2016–17 season, the full system comprises 37 divisions having 487 teams. Additionally, seven teams play above the state association league system: Hansa Rostock (3. Liga), TSG Neustrelitz (Regionalliga Nordost), Hansa Rostock II, FC Anker Wismar, Malchower SV, FC Mecklenburg Schwerin and Torgelower FC Greif (all Oberliga Nordost).
Brandenburg
The Brandenburg State Football Association league system is the state association league system in the state of Brandenburg and starts at level six of the German league system with the Brandenburg-Liga on top. The current (2016–17 season) champions are VfB Krieschow. The champions are directly promoted to Oberliga Nordost.
Below the state association league system eight district associations work as feeders to the Landesklasse. In the 2016–17 season, the full system comprises 64 divisions having 871 teams. Additionally, 11 teams play above the state association league system: SV Babelsberg 03, FC Energie Cottbus, FSV 63 Luckenwalde and FSV Union Fürstenwalde (all Regionalliga Nordost), SV Grün-Weiß Brieselang, Brandenburger SC Süd 05, SV Altlüdersdorf, FSV Optik Rathenow, VfB Krieschow, SV Victoria Seelow and FC Strausberg (all Oberliga Nordost).
Berlin
The Berlin Football Association league system is the state association league system in the state of Berlin and starts at level six of the German league system with the Berlin-Liga on top. The current (2022-23 season) champions are SV Sparta Lichtenberg. The champions are directly promoted to NOFV-Oberliga Nord. Within the BFA, main and Reserve teams (Adressed as II, III, IV, V etc.) are allowed to play in the same rank up to Landesliga but will be grouped separate. When the main team is being overtaken by a reserve team by promotion, the teams switch the names for the following season.
As the state of Berlin consists only of the city of Berlin itself, there are no local associations below. The full system comprises 23 divisions having 358 teams. Additionally, as of the 2022-23 season, 15 teams play above the state association league system: 1. FC Union Berlin (Bundesliga), Hertha BSC (2. Bundesliga), Hertha BSC II, VSG Altglienicke, FC Viktoria 1889 Berlin, BFC Dynamo, Berliner AK 07 (Regionalliga Nordost), SV Lichtenberg 47, Tennis Borussia Berlin, FC Hertha 03 Zehlendorf, SC Staaken, SV Tasmania Berlin, CFC Hertha 06, SFC Stern 1900 and SV Sparta Lichtenberg (NOFV-Oberliga Nord)
Saxony-Anhalt
The Saxony-Anhalt Football Association league system is the association league systems in the state of Saxony-Anhalt and starts at level six of the German league system with the Verbandsliga Sachsen-Anhalt on top. The current (2016–17 season) champions are 1. FC Lok Stendal. The champions are directly promoted to Oberliga Nordost.
Below the state association league system 14 district associations work as feeders to the Landesklasse. In the 2016–17 season, the full system comprises 72 divisions having 974 teams. Additionally, eight teams play above the state association league system: 1. FC Magdeburg and Hallescher FC (3. Liga), VfB Germania Halberstadt (Regionalliga Nordost), SV Merseburg 99, VfL Halle 96, Askania Bernburg, Union Sandersdorf and 1. FC Lok Stendal (all Oberliga Nordost).
Thuringia
The Thuringian Football Association league system is the state association league system in the state of Thuringia and starts at level six of the German league system with the Thüringenliga on top. The current (2016–17 season) champions are FSV Wacker 90 Nordhausen II (not promoted). The champions are directly promoted to Oberliga Nordost.
Below the state association league system nine district associations work as feeders to the Landesklasse. In the 2016–17 season, the full system comprises 75 divisions having 949 teams. Additionally, seven teams play above the state association league system: FC Carl Zeiss Jena and Rot-Weiß Erfurt (3. Liga), ZFC Meuselwitz and FSV Wacker 90 Nordhausen (Regionalliga Nordost), FC Carl Zeiss Jena II, Einheit Rudolstadt and BSG Wismut Gera (all Oberliga Nordost).
Saxony
The Saxony Football Association league system is the association league system in the state of Saxony and starts at level six of the German league system with the Sachsenliga on top. The current (2016–17 season) champions are FC Eilenburg. The champions are directly promoted to Oberliga Nordost.
Below the state association league system 13 district associations work as feeders to the Bezirksliga. In the 2016–17 season, the full system comprises 94 divisions having 1,213 teams. Additionally, 15 teams play above the state association league system: RB Leipzig (Bundesliga), FC Erzgebirge Aue and Dynamo Dresden (2. Bundesliga), Chemnitzer FC and FSV Zwickau (3. Liga), 1. FC Lokomotive Leipzig, VfB Auerbach, FC Oberlausitz Neugersdorf and FSV Budissa Bautzen (all Regionalliga Nordost), Bischofswerdaer FV 08, VFC Plauen, FC Inter Leipzig, BSG Chemie Leipzig, FC Eilenburg and SV Einheit Kamenz (all Oberliga Nordost).
Western Germany
Lower Rhine
The Lower Rhine Football Association league system is one of three state association league systems in the state of North Rhine-Westphalia, covering its northwestern part, and starts at level five of the German league system with the Oberliga Niederrhein on top. The current (2016–17 season) champions are KFC Uerdingen 05. The champions are directly promoted to Regionalliga West.
Below the state association league system 13 district associations work as feeders to the Bezirksliga. In the 2016–17 season, the full system comprises 91 divisions having 1,476 teams. Additionally, nine teams play above the state association league system: Borussia Mönchengladbach (Bundesliga), MSV Duisburg and Fortuna Düsseldorf (2. Bundesliga), Borussia Mönchengladbach II, Rot-Weiß Oberhausen, Rot-Weiss Essen, Fortuna Düsseldorf II, KFC Uerdingen 05 and Wuppertaler SV (all Regionalliga West).
Middle Rhine
The Middle Rhine Football Association league system is one of three state association league systems in the state of North Rhine-Westphalia, covering its southwestern part, and starts at level five of the German league system with the Mittelrheinliga on top. The current (2016–17 season) champions are FC Wegberg-Beeck. The champions are directly promoted to Regionalliga West.
Below the state association league system nine district associations work as feeders to the Bezirksliga. In the 2016–17 season, the full system comprises 92 divisions having 1,348 teams. Additionally, eight teams play above the state association league system: Bayer Leverkusen and 1. FC Köln (Bundesliga), FC Viktoria Köln (3. Liga), Alemannia Aachen, 1. FC Köln II, SC Fortuna Köln, Bonner SC and FC Wegberg-Beeck (all Regionalliga West).
Westphalia
The Westphalian Football and Athletics Association league system is one of three state association league systems in the state of North Rhine-Westphalia, covering its eastern part, and starts at level five of the German league system with the Oberliga Westfalen on top. The current (2016–17 season) champions are TuS Erndtebrück. The champions and the runner-up are directly promoted to Regionalliga West.
Below the state association league system 29 district associations work as feeders to the Bezirksliga. In the 2016–17 season, the full system comprises 214 divisions having 3,231 teams. Additionally, 14 teams play above the state association league system: Borussia Dortmund and FC Schalke 04 (Bundesliga), Arminia Bielefeld and VfL Bochum (2. Bundesliga), Sportfreunde Lotte, Preußen Münster and SC Paderborn 07 (all 3. Liga), Borussia Dortmund II, TuS Erndtebrück, SC Verl, SC Wiedenbrück 2000, SV Rödinghausen, Westfalia Rhynern and SG Wattenscheid 09 (all Regionalliga West).
Southwestern Germany
Rhineland
The Rhineland Football Association league system is one of two state association league systems in the state of Rhineland-Palatinate, covering its northern part, and starts at level six of the German league system with the Rheinlandliga on top. The current (2016–17 season) champions are FV Engers 07. The champions are directly promoted to Oberliga Rheinland-Pfalz/Saar.
Below the state association league system nine district associations work as feeders to the Bezirksliga. In the 2016–17 season, the full system comprises 70 divisions having 916 teams. Additionally, six teams play above the state association league system: TuS Koblenz (Regionalliga Südwest), FV Engers 07, FC Karbach, TuS Rot-Weiss Koblenz, FSV Salmrohr and Eintracht Trier (all Oberliga Rheinland-Pfalz/Saar).
Southwest
The South West German Football Association league system is one of two state association league systems in the state of Rhineland-Palatinate, covering its southern part, and starts at level six of the German league system with the Verbandsliga Südwest on top. The current (2016–17 season) champions are FV Dudenhofen. The champions are directly promoted to Oberliga Rheinland-Pfalz/Saar.
Below the state association league system 10 district associations work as feeders to the Bezirksliga. In the 2016–17 season, the full system comprises 67 divisions having 1,042 teams. Additionally, 14 teams play above the state association league system: 1. FSV Mainz 05 (Bundesliga), 1. FC Kaiserslautern (2. Bundesliga), Wormatia Worms, 1. FSV Mainz 05 II and TSV Schott Mainz (all Regionalliga Südwest), SV Morlautern, SC 07 Idar-Oberstein, 1. FC Kaiserslautern II, FK Pirmasens, TSG Pfeddersheim, SV Gonsenheim, TuS Mechtersheim, Arminia Ludwigshafen and FV Dudenhofen (all Oberliga Rheinland-Pfalz/Saar).
Saarland
The Saarland Football Association league system is the association league system in the state of Saarland and starts at level six of the German league system with the Saarlandliga on top. The current (2016–17 season) champions are FV Eppelborn. The champions are directly promoted to Oberliga Rheinland-Pfalz/Saar.
Below the state association league system four district associations work as feeders to the Bezirksliga. In the 2016–17 season, the full system comprises 40 divisions having 587 teams. Additionally, nine teams play above the state association league system: 1. FC Saarbrücken, SV Röchling Völklingen and SV Elversberg (all Regionalliga Südwest), SV Saar 05 Saarbrücken, FC Hertha Wiesbach, FSV Jägersburg, FV Diefflen, FV Eppelborn and FC 08 Homburg (all Oberliga Rheinland-Pfalz/Saar).
Southern Germany
Hesse
The Hessian Football Association league system is the state association league system in the state of Hesse and starts at level five of the German league system with the Hessenliga on top. The current (2016–17 season) champions are SC Hessen Dreieich (not promoted). The champions are directly promoted to Regionalliga Südwest.
Below the state association league system six county associations and following them 32 district associations work as feeders to the Verbandsliga. In the 2016–17 season, the full system comprises 165 divisions having 2,526 teams. Additionally, eight teams play above the state association league system: Eintracht Frankfurt (Bundesliga), SV Darmstadt 98 (2. Bundesliga), SV Wehen-Wiesbaden (3. Liga), FSV Frankfurt, KSV Hessen Kassel, Kickers Offenbach, TSV Steinbach and TSV Eintracht Stadtallendorf (all Regionalliga Südwest).
Baden
The Baden Football Association league system is one of three state association league systems in the state of Baden-Württemberg, covering its northwestern part, and starts at level six of the German league system with the Verbandsliga Nordbaden on top. The current (2021–22 season) champions are ATSV Mutschelbach. The champions are directly promoted to Oberliga Baden-Württemberg, whereas the runner-up enters a promotion playoff along with the Verbandsliga Südbaden runner-up and the Verbandsliga Württemberg runner-up for one additional promotion.
Below the state association league system nine district associations league systems work as feeders to the Landesliga. In the 2016–17 season, the full system comprises 57 divisions having 818 teams. Additionally, 13 teams play above the state association league system: TSG 1899 Hoffenheim (Bundesliga), SV Sandhausen (2. Bundesliga), Karlsruher SC (3. Liga), 1899 Hoffenheim II, SV Waldhof Mannheim and FC Astoria Walldorf (all Regionalliga Südwest), Karlsruher SC II, FC Nöttingen, 1. CfR Pforzheim, SV Sandhausen II, SV Spielberg, FC Astoria Walldorf II and TSG Weinheim (all Oberliga Baden-Württemberg).
South Baden
The South Baden Football Association league system is one of three state association league systems in the state of Baden-Württemberg, covering its southwestern part, and starts at level six of the German league system with the Verbandsliga Südbaden on top. The current (2016–17 season) champions are FC 08 Villingen. The champions are directly promoted to Oberliga Baden-Württemberg, whereas the runner-up enters a promotion playoff along with the Verbandsliga Baden runner-up and the Verbandsliga Württemberg runner-up for one additional promotion.
Below the state association league system six county associations work as feeders to the Landesliga. In the 2016–17 season, the full system comprises 81 divisions having 1,146 teams. Additionally, six teams play above the state association league system: SC Freiburg (Bundesliga), SC Freiburg II (Regionalliga Südwest), Bahlinger SC, TSG Balingen, SV Oberachern and FC 08 Villingen (all Oberliga Baden-Württemberg).
Württemberg
The Württembergian Football Association league system is one of three state association league systems in the state of Baden-Württemberg, covering its southwestern part, and starts at level six of the German league system with the Verbandsliga Württemberg on top. The current (2016–17 season) champions are SGV Freiberg. The champions are directly promoted to Oberliga Baden-Württemberg, whereas the runner-up enters a promotion playoff along with the Verbandsliga Baden runner-up and the Verbandsliga Südbaden runner-up for one additional promotion.
Below the state association league system 16 county associations work as feeders to the Landesliga. In the 2016–17 season, the full system comprises 146 divisions having 2,053 teams. Additionally, 13 teams play above the state association league system: VfB Stuttgart (Bundesliga), 1. FC Heidenheim (2. Bundesliga), VfR Aalen and SG Sonnenhof Großaspach (3. Liga), VfB Stuttgart II, Stuttgarter Kickers and SSV Ulm 1846 Fußball (Regionalliga Südwest), TSG Backnang 1919, FSV 08 Bissingen, SGV Freiberg, SV Göppingen, Neckarsulmer SU and SSV Reutlingen 05 (all Oberliga Baden-Württemberg).
Bavaria
The Bavarian Football Association league system is the state association league system in the state of Bavaria and starts at level four of the league system with the Regionalliga Bayern on top. The champions enter a promotion playoff along with the Regionalliga Nord champions, the Regionalliga Nordost champions, the Regionalliga Südwest champions and runner-up and the Regionalliga West champions for three promotions to the 3. Liga. The current (2016–17 season) champions are SpVgg Unterhaching.
Below the state association league system seven county associations and following them 24 district associations work as feeders to the Landesliga. In the 2016–17 season, the full system comprises 442 divisions having 6,054 teams. Additionally, nine teams play above the state association league system: FC Bayern Munich and FC Augsburg (all Bundesliga), SpVgg Greuther Fürth, FC Ingolstadt, SSV Jahn Regensburg and 1. FC Nürnberg (all 2. Bundesliga), SpVgg Unterhaching, TSV 1860 Munich and Würzburger Kickers (all 3. Liga).
See also
Football in Germany
German women's football league system
Women's football in Germany
References
External links
3. Liga official website
Regionalliga results and tables (unofficial)
League321.com - German football league tables, records & statistics database.
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4436534 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marlon%20Dingle | Marlon Dingle | Marlon Dingle is a fictional character from the British television soap opera Emmerdale, played by Mark Charnock. He made his first appearance during the episode broadcast on 17 October 1996. For his portrayal of Marlon, Charnock won the British Soap Award for Outstanding Achievement at the 2023 British Soap Awards.
Storylines
Marlon comes to Emmerdale to stay with his uncle Zak Dingle (Steve Halliwell). He tells his family that he has heard about the new road development and hoped there would be some work going. His cousin Butch Dingle (Paul Loughran) offers to put in a good word with the local security firm. Marlon supports Zak when he is diagnosed with testicular cancer and he befriends Paddy Kirk (Dominic Brunt). Marlon finds employment as a chef at Kathy Glover's (Malandra Burrows) tea rooms and wine bar. When co-owner Eric Pollard's (Chris Chittell) marriage ends, he puts Marlon in charge of his business. Marlon is initially overwhelmed by the responsibility. Kathy later hires Carlos Diaz (Gary Turner) to work at the diner and Marlon goes to work at The Woolpack. Bernice Blackstock (Samantha Giles) is impressed by Marlon's cooking and they share a kiss, but it leads nowhere. New barmaid Tricia Stokes (Sheree Murphy) regularly flirts with Marlon and they soon begin dating.
Marlon and Tricia's relationship is tested when Tricia agrees to marry Jason Kirk's (James Carlton) boyfriend, Joe Fisher, so he can stay in the country. They almost break up, but reconcile just before the wedding. Tricia invests the money she is given by Joe in Marlon's business, Chez Marlon. When the business fails, Tricia leaves the village. Marlon has a brief relationship with locum vet Rhona Goskirk (Zoe Henry), until Tricia returns and they decide to get married. Ahead of the wedding, Tricia injures her neck and calls off the wedding, so their friends Paddy and Emily Kirk (Kate McGregor) marry instead.
Marlon and Tricia did eventually marry a few months later. Tricia was offered the chance to star in a Bollywood film and went to India for six months. While she was away, Marlon was dreadfully lonely and had a drunken one night stand with his cousin Charity Dingle (Emma Atkins). When Tricia returned, the secret came out and she left Marlon. His desperate attempts to win her back seemed to have failed but she was willing to forgive him after reading a romantic list of her characteristics written by Marlon. On New Year's Eve 2003, Tricia was injured during a storm which resulted in part of the Woolpack's roof collapsing on top of her. Tricia was found alive and rushed to hospital but suffered a heart attack. The hospital staff revived her but tests revealed that she had suffered serious brain damage. She was declared braindead and the medical team requested permission to switch off her life support machine. Marlon took some convincing to agree, as he was still determined that she would recover, but he finally agreed on realising that there was no hope of her recovering.
The grief suffered by Marlon was prolonged close to a year until he developed a friendship with Donna Windsor (Verity Rushworth). It was thanks to Donna's kind heart that Marlon moved on from his loss. Although he rebuffed her attempts to snare him early in the year, Donna proved she was the woman for Marlon when she helped him look after his cousin, Lilith Dingle's (Amanda Hennessy), children when she suddenly left them with him. It didn't take long for Marlon and Donna to fall in love. When he proposed to her en route to a chef's competition in Newcastle, Donna agreed and it looked like there was a happy ending in sight. However, being so young, marriage was a big thing for Donna to consider. She'd also recently become close to Max King (Charlie Kemp) and his death left her absolutely devastated.
Shortly before the wedding, Marlon started having nightmares about Tricia. This was made worse when Marlon caught Donna trying on Tricia's wedding dress, making him think that Tricia had come back. Donna explained she felt like she was always being compared to Tricia. On the morning of the wedding, Donna confided in Marlon that she had feelings for Max while they were together. Heartbroken by this admission, Marlon wondered if they should get married but his love for her overwhelmed his doubts and they married.
On return from honeymoon, Marlon and Donna spent their first few months of married life living at Smithy Cottage with Paddy and Toni Daggert (Kerry Stacey). Donna and Marlon were desperate to get on the property ladder but the prices at King & Sons' new development were too steep. So when they won the Kings River Showhome, they were thrilled but shocked to discover that they still had to pay a deposit. Donna's mother, Viv Hope (Deena Payne), offered Donna the money if Donna would be her surrogate. Marlon and Donna were stunned by Viv's suggestion that Donna get pregnant with her half-brother or sister but agreed because they needed the money to keep their new home. However the showhome collapsed following a gas explosion, leaving Marlon and Donna's dream shattered. Donna returned her mother's money as there was no longer a house to buy and Viv didn't need a surrogate, discovering she was pregnant. Following the showhome collapse, Marlon and Donna lived in a caravan outside Wishing Well cottage. They were building an "Eco Home" but realised the land they were building on belonged to Matthew King (Matt Healy) and the local council. Donna had a major run in with Marlon's family when she reported Shadrach (Andy Devine) to the police for theft. Called up before the Dingle Court, Donna defied Zak and Lisa Dingle (Jane Cox), revealing she planned to join the police force. Marlon backed her up and they stood strong together.
In October 2006, two men were looking for Marlon's brother Eli (Joe Gilgun) and broke into The Woolpack to get Marlon to tell them where Eli was, although Marlon didn't know. The pair wrecked the pub, beat up Marlon and stole thousands from the till. The men were later arrested after Eli framed them for firearm possession. In December, Lilith left her children with Marlon and Donna again while she went to work. Marlon, Donna and the children moved into The Woolpack, following Lilith's arrest for armed robbery. This didn't work out and Marlon decided the children should live with their uncle because his and Donna's living arrangements were inadequate. Donna was very upset and the children returned after running away from their uncle. Marlon saw how miserable they were and they went on the run, rather than return them to their uncle. However, they were soon caught by the police and Social Services took the children away. Marlon and Donna applied for custody of their children via the courts and prepared a room for the children but Val Lambert (Charlie Hardwick) accidentally started a fire in The Woolpack, damaging the building temporarily. Despite a positive report, their social worker, Mrs Jenkins, told them that they would not get the kids until they had more suitable accommodation.
Marlon, attempting to improve his and Donna's financial problems, used their savings to place a bet. He won £18,000 but the bookie refused to pay up so he and Eli came up with a plan to get his winnings. Just before Eli went into the bookie's, Marlon found he had a gun and learned Eli was planning an armed robbery. Marlon was shocked but let him go ahead. Eli threatened the bookie and was almost successful when a customer came in and a fight ensued. Marlon, who had been waiting in the car, got frustrated and went inside to find Eli struggling with the customer. Pretending not to know him, Marlon yelled at Eli to leave but he would not. Marlon went to grab the gun but it went off, hitting Marlon in the chest. Marlon collapsed, telling Eli to go, leaving the customer and the bookie to ring the police. Marlon was rushed to hospital and made a full recovery. Marlon is put in the paper as a hero. Marlon is filled with guilt when the grateful bookie turns up to give him his winnings and when Donna even praised him for stopping the robbery. With the money, Marlon and Donna purchase a house, hoping to raise their family there.
However, Marlon later told Donna the truth and although she was very angry, quickly forgave him. Eli began blackmailing them. He got Donna to use her position in the police force to allow him to break into a warehouse. While at the warehouse, Marlon got cold feet and warned Eli that it was a trap. Eli was angry, but Donna had informed Zak of everything that had happened. Zak confronted Eli and kicked him out of Donna and Marlon's house. However, far from it all being over, Marlon set off to work only for Eli to kidnap him.
Bundled into the back of a van, Eli drove him to the top of a multi-storey carpark, where he pretended he was going to throw him off the edge of the building to punish him for his 'betrayal'. Marlon was terrified, unsure of what his volatile brother was capable of, and asked what he had ever done to Eli. Eli revealed that he had always resented his older brother because everybody loved him and nobody had ever loved Eli. Marlon eventually managed to get free and the brothers had a fight which ended with Eli toppling over the edge of the building and only hanging on by his fingertips. Marlon tried to save him – offering his hand – but Eli refused to be rescued. Eventually Donna arrived and helped Marlon haul him to safety, but Eli ran off, apparently upset at being saved. Marlon broke down in tears and later confessed to Donna that he had considered allowing his younger brother to die and he thought that made him a terrible person. He warned Donna that being with him might only cause her trouble, but Donna reassured him.
In 2008, The Woolpack was entered in a magazine Pub of the Year competition. Val bribed Jasmine Thomas (Jenna-Louise Coleman) to tell her when the judge was coming. Marlon, Val and Diane Sugden (Elizabeth Estensen) went frantic with Marlon trying to create a gourmet menu. Diane reminded him that they were a traditional pub and not to get worked up about it. Unbelievably, they discovered they made it to the finals. Antony Worrall Thompson was discovered to be the celebrity judge. This coincided with Val's surprise wedding to Eric. Anthony was impressed with Marlon's cooking and asked Marlon to call him. When Marlon summed up the courage to call, Marlon was invited to a local television audition. A camera crew arrived at The Woolpack to record a programme featuring a special from Marlon. Marlon hired Jake Doland (James Baxter) to help him in the kitchen and also had a column in The Hotton Courier. Marlon was later approached by the owner of Malt, The Woolpack's rival pub. He offered Marlon a better job with better pay but Marlon declined, wanting to stay in Emmerdale.
In 2008, Viv, was arrested for fraud. However, Viv had been framed by Freddie Yorke (Keith Woodason). Donna found it hard, knowing her colleagues knew about her family situation. Wanting to prove her mother's innocence, she started going on unofficial stakeouts with colleague Ross Kirk (Samuel Anderson). After some time searching, they discovered where he lived. Donna tried to apprehend him but Freddie escaped. Donna followed closely at high speed but she lost control of the car and crashed. Ross pulled them from the car before it exploded and Donna spent months in hospital learning how to walk again. She became convinced she was a laughing stock at the station and decided to resign. Marlon was thrilled but when Donna came home, he saw she was miserable. He told her that he'd support her if she wanted to return to work. In September, Donna and Marlon attended a police comedy night. Marlon's cousin Chas Dingle (Lucy Pargeter), Ross's date, got into a fight with the comedian. Marlon defended her and the fight ended with Marlon and Chas being thrown out. Marlon took Chas home, leaving Donna with Ross. Donna and Ross shared a night of passion in Donna's hotel room which Donna regretted afterwards. She and Marlon decided to go on holiday. When they returned, Marlon announced he and Donna were planning to start a family but Ross tried to convince Donna that would be a mistake. He also told her that she had married too young. On 1 January 2009, Donna told Marlon of her affair with Ross. Marlon had suspected it but was still devastated, especially when Donna said she loved Ross and Marlon. Hellbent on revenge, Marlon went to the police and implicated Ross in the murder of Shane Doyle (Paul McEwan).
He gradually started to warm to Donna and was considering taking her back, although Zak warned him against it. After a conversation with Eli, who reminded him that Donna had forgiven Marlon for the raid on the bookies, Marlon agreed to give his marriage another go – on the condition that she never saw Ross again. Donna agreed, but she was certain that Ross was innocent and broke her promise to Marlon, visiting her ex-lover in prison. Meanwhile, the other Dingles remained hostile towards her and she got a very cold reception at Zak's birthday party. Surprisingly, Eli came to Donna's defence, for which Marlon was grateful. However, during a conversation with Eli, Donna noticed a vital piece of evidence that could clear Ross's name and she shopped her brother-in-law to the police. When Marlon realised that Donna had betrayed both him and his family in order to free Ross, he dumped her and later asked for a divorce. They might have reconciled had not Donna caught Marlon in a drunken clinch with his cousin Chastity. Following this, Donna departed the village – seemingly for good – leaving behind a devastated Marlon. To make matters worse, Marlon's best friend Paddy (who is in love with Chas) also found out about the kiss and the two of them fell out for quite a while. Following a period of depression, Marlon dedicated himself to helping little brother Eli, who had been disowned by the rest of the Dingle clan after his confession led to the arrest of Debbie. The pair came up with several plots to try and set her free. Faced with Debbie's release, Eli went missing for a time, but Marlon eventually found him sleeping rough and managed to convince his wayward sibling to come home.
The two brothers lived together until Eli's departure in 2010, along with Lizzie Lakely (Kitty McGeever), a blind woman who Marlon befriended. Lizzie upset Marlon when she preyed on his gullibility by pretending to be a psychic, causing Marlon to spend a fortune on phone bills pouring his heart out to her. He got his revenge by tricking her into paying back his money. His life was going smoothly until Moira Barton (Natalie J. Robb) began to work in The Woolpack. Marlon had a previous confrontation with Moira when she criticised his cooking. The two argued furiously at work as Marlon felt that she was invading his domain and finding fault with his food on purpose. It reached boiling point and Moira quit, which led to an angry Diane giving Marlon the cold-shoulder until he apologised. Marlon did so and Moira returned to work, as Marlon explained that since Donna left him, his job was the one area in his life where he felt in control and Moira had threatened that. They reached an understanding and became friends. When Marlon received a letter from Donna, saying that she had met someone else and wanted him to file for divorce, a devastated Marlon found himself turning to Moira as a shoulder to cry on. Because of this, he developed romantic feelings for her and convinced himself that she felt the same way. Going against Paddy's advice, Marlon finally confessed to Moira that he thought he was falling in love with her, leaving her shocked. She let him down and Marlon was left feeling humiliated. After a long heart-to-heart, she convinced him that she was flattered and that he would one day meet the right woman. Alongside this, Marlon also took in Charity and her young son, Noah (Jack Downham) after the family turned against her for trying to steal Cain's money. When Zak and Cain found out, they were angry and Cain punched Marlon in the stomach.
In 2010, Rhona returned to the village of Emmerdale. She and Marlon re-began a relationship, until Rhona expressed an interest in Marlon's best mate and her work partner Paddy Kirk. She split up with Marlon, and began a relationship with Paddy, much to Marlon's despair. It was later revealed that Rhona was expecting Marlon's baby, while she was still with Paddy. Marlon was very upset and told Rhona he did not want to be the part of the baby's life. He refused to go to Rhona's first scan. On Monday 13 December 2010, it was revealed that there was a possibility that Marlon and Rhona's baby may suffer from Down syndrome. It was later confirmed. On Monday 20 December 2010, Rhona decided she was going to go ahead with the pregnancy, and Marlon and Paddy backed her up happily. The trio are all now good friends again.
In January 2011, Marlon admitted to his housemate and colleague Bob Hope (Tony Audenshaw) that his and Rhona's baby was going to suffer from Down syndrome. Later in the evening, Marlon comforted Bob after his wife, Viv, and best friend Terry Woods died in an arson attack caused by Katie Sugden's (Sammy Winward) new boyfriend, Nick Henshall (Michael McKell). Soon after this, he told his friend Laurel Thomas (Charlotte Bellamy) about the baby's Down syndrome. On Tuesday 1 February 2011, Marlon, Rhona and Paddy went for a scan of the baby, and learned that its heart rate was healthy. When the boy was born, he was named Leo, and Marlon became a very proud father.
In the summer of 2012, Marlon and Laurel became a couple after a year of love and attraction between them. This caused major problems for Laurel's marriage to Ashley Thomas (John Middleton), who started abusing his father Sandy Thomas (Freddie Jones) as a result of the stress of trying to make the marriage work. When Laurel discovered this, it signaled the final blow for the couple. With Marlon, Laurel is now maintaining a friendship with Ashley. Marlon let Ashley move in with him after he had nowhere else to go, having moved out of the marital home, where Laurel remained with Sandy and the kids. The children struggled to cope following the recent events, particularly Gabby (Annelise Manojlovic), whose biological mother Bernice returned to the village in November.
In late 2012, Marlon became involved in a row and custody battle with Paddy and Rhona, who wanted to move to New Zealand for a couple of years, with Leo. They eventually decided not to move to New Zealand. Paddy and Marlon resumed their friendship but kept it a secret from Laurel and Rhona. Eventually the two couples reconciled completely and have stayed on good terms. In October 2013, he is attacked by serial killer Cameron Murray (Dominic Power) and is knocked out cold in the flooding Woolpack cellar. Cameron later takes people hostage but eventually lets them go except for Chas and Debbie Dingle (Charley Webb). He later escapes from the cellar and holds Cameron at gunpoint while Chas and Debbie attempt to escape. Marlon then runs to the cellar (now flooding to the top) but Cameron follows. After nearly drowning the three, Cameron is electrocuted. Marlon is put in the paper as a 2nd hero after what happened with Eli and the Bookie years back. He later tells Laurel the truth, she is angry but later forgives him.
Donna dies and Marlon is awarded custody of April Windsor, his long lost daughter. He marries Laurel but is devastated when she becomes an alcoholic. After Jessie Grant arranges a surprise wedding, they marry on Christmas Day. The marriage ends when Jessie has an affair with her former husband Al Chapman. Marlon is arrested for killing Rhona's partner Graham Foster. He is later released when the real culprit, Pierce Harris, Rhona’s ex-husband, who had raped her 3 years previously is arrested and sent back to prison. Marlon suffers from PTSD for sometime after his release, which results in him suffering a heart attack.
In 2021, Marlon and Rhona reconcile. He buys into the woolpack when Charity is disowned by the family after she makes a move on Al, who Debbie had discovered was cheating on her with Priya Sharma (Fiona Wade) weeks before. The business starts to experience financial issues due to the effects of the COVID-19 pandemic. Marlon suggests they start running a barbecue to get more business. Marlon buys a grill which is outside the business’s financial budget. This arrangement is short lived when Matty Barton burns his hands while cooking the barbecue food.
When it is revealed that April is being bullied by her step grandfather, Bob’s daughter, Cathy, Marlon falls out with Bob and bans him from having any contact with April again. April is upset about this and spends time with Bob behind Marlon’s back. This infuriates Marlon even more and it results in an argument between him and Bob, upsetting April even more. Bob and Marlon eventually resolve their differences and April and Cathy make amends.
Al buys into the Woolpack, much to the discomfort of the entire Dingle family. Marlon notices Chas and Al getting closer and tells Cain about this. Chas later reveals that she's using Al in a bid to try and get him out of the woolpack. It is later revealed that Al also has debts to clear. On Christmas Day, Al burns down the woolpack in a bid to try and claim the insurance. Al tells Chas and Marlon that he can get people to invest so they can keep the woolpack. However, Al’s investor pulls out when Cain tracks him down and threatens him, infuriating Chas and Marlon. The woolpack is then put up for auction and Charity buys the woolpack and gives Chas and Marlon their old jobs back.
After Pierce dies from cancer, Marlon is furious to discover that Rhona has been in contact with his son, Marcus Dean (Darcy Grey). Rhona explains to Marlon that Pierce contacted her before he died and asked her to help him find him. Rhona and Marlon resolve their differences and decide they both want to get married and plan on proposing to each other. They both propose and they both happily accept. However, shortly after, Marlon suffers a severe stroke and is rushed to hospital. Rhona is told that Marlon’s speech and mobility have been severely impaired by the stroke and that he'll need rehabilitation to regain his ability to walk and talk. Marlon chokes on water, as the stroke has also impaired his ability to swallow. He is later taken back to hospital, when he develops pneumonia. He returns home a few weeks later and begins rehabilitation. Marlon initially struggles with the physiotherapy but quickly makes progress and begins walking using a walking frame. Rhona decides that she wants to marry Marlon and proposes to him again. Marlon initially says no as he feels she's doing it out of sympathy. He talks to Paddy about this and Paddy makes him see that she's doing it out of love. Marlon then changes his mind and he and Rhona get engaged. Rhona’s mother, Mary plans the wedding and Marlon decides to set himself a goal that he'll be walking at the wedding. One day before the wedding, Marlon is taken back to hospital after he collapses and is told he has high blood pressure and needs to be kept in overnight. On the day of the wedding, Marlon still has high blood pressure and is unable to be discharged. However, he is discharged in time for the wedding and successfully walks down the aisle and marries Rhona.
By November, Marlon is out of the wheelchair and using a walking stick full time. He helps Victoria out with a catering event and gets his old job back at the Woolpack.
Marlon supports Paddy when he suffers a mental breakdown after he discovers that Chas was having an affair with Al. Paddy goes missing after a one night stand with Mandy. The community start a search for him and Marlon offers to help. April becomes concerned by this and fears that Marlon may have another stroke, particularly when she finds him on the floor after he trips. April convinces Marlon that he has COVID by getting fake tests in a bid to try and keep him away from the search. When Marlon discovers this, he talks to April and assures her that he'll be fine. Paddy returns to the village a few weeks later and seems fine. However, it is later revealed that Paddy has only come home to say goodbye to his loved ones before he takes his life. When Paddy’s loved ones discover this, they go out and search for him. Chas and Marlon find Paddy in the woods with a gun in his hand. Marlon talks Paddy down and successfully saves him from taking his own life. Paddy then returns home and seeks help for his mental health. Marlon hosts a lock in at the woolpack where all the male residents talk to one another and offer Paddy their support.
Reception
For his portrayal of Marlon, Charnock won the British Soap Award for Best Dramatic Performance in 2004. He was nominated again in 2011 for Best Actor. The episode "The Betrayed" was also nominated for Best Single Episode at the 2011 ceremony. In 2022, Charnock once again won the award for Best Dramatic Performance, as well as being shortlisted for the Best Leading Performer accolade. In 2023, he received the British Soap Award for Outstanding Achievement.
Rick Fulton of the Daily Record branded Marlon "Emmerdale's village jester" and "hapless", but noted that he was "one of the soap's best-loved characters". He also praised Charnock's portrayal of Marlon, calling it "clever" and added that it was this that made him "one of Emmerdale'''s most popular funnymen, but also showing off his impressive dramatic range when it is called for." The Northern Echo's'' Steve Pratt pointed out that Marlon does not have the best of luck with women.
References
External links
Marlon Dingle at itv.com
Emmerdale characters
Television characters introduced in 1996
British male characters in television
Fictional bartenders
Fictional chefs
Fictional characters involved in incest
Fictional prisoners and detainees
Fictional hostages and kidnapped people
Dingle family |
4436735 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Studio%20Tour | Studio Tour | The Studio Tour (also known as The Backlot Tour) is a ride attraction at the Universal Studios Hollywood theme park in Universal City, California near Los Angeles. Studio Tour is the theme park's signature attraction. It travels through a working film studio, with various film sets on the Universal Studios Lot. Guests sit on multi-car trams for the duration of the ride. The tour lasts about 45–60 minutes and is led by an in-person "tram guide" (who sits in the first car of the tram, facing the guests), with the aid of pre-recorded videos of Jimmy Fallon. It travels through the Front Lot, Backlot, and various attractions, passing sets and properties from movies along the way. The tour inspired a smaller but similar version at Universal Studios Florida, which was removed in 1995.
History
The Studio Tour attraction opened in 1915 and originally consisted of bleacher seating for an admission cost of 25 cents. In 1964, pink and white Glamor Trams were introduced, and the tram tour was the main way of seeing all the attractions at Universal. The Front Lot Commissary was the original departure point for the tram. In 1965, the Upper Lot Studio Tour Center opened. The studio tour has since evolved to incorporate advanced technology.
As the movie studio has evolved, the tour has evolved with it. In late 1989, CD players replaced some of the speaking roles of live tour guides. In 1999, DVD players and LCD screens were introduced, allowing tour guides to show scenes from movies filmed at the locations the trams pass. In 2009, the screens were upgraded to high definition. In 2011, Jimmy Fallon joined the tour as a video host to supplement the live-action narration and perform an original song "Tram-Tastic" at the end of the tour.
Like its parent theme park, its closure in mid-March 2020 from the COVID-19 pandemic caused tours to be indefinitely shut down but was reopened in April 2021.
Film sets
Sets from the Universal movies Psycho, Back to the Future, The Sting, The Great Outdoors, and the Paramount/DreamWorks film War of the Worlds are visited in the tour. Walt Disney Studios has also used the backlot for movies such as the Pirates of the Caribbean film series, 101 Dalmatians, 102 Dalmatians, and The Princess Diaries 2: Royal Engagement, specifically for town scenes. There are also 'general purpose' sets visited, such as the neighborhood Wisteria Lane from Desperate Housewives, and a neighborhood that is made to look like an old west town. This neighborhood has six streets, each with the essentials of a saloon and sheriff's station. Before the advent of sound, up to six westerns could be shot at once. The tour also winds through sound stages, and the tour guide explains what movies, television shows, music videos, commercials, and/or still camera photo shoots are currently shooting on the lot. Stage One, where The Tonight Show with Conan O'Brien was filmed from June 2009 to January 2010, was added to the tour. O'Brien and announcer Andy Richter staged events outside the studio on occasion as part of [[List of The Tonight Show with Conan_O'Brien sketches#Tonight Show Tour-iffic Tram-tacular|The Tonight Shows Tour-ific Tramtacular]] sketch.
Until June 1, 2008, the tour also passed through a group of facades resembling city streets of New York (used in the filming of Bruce Almighty and some elements in Transformers), Bring It On: In It to Win It, and New England, as well as the Courthouse Square set famously seen in the Back to the Future trilogy. However, these sets were constructed mainly of wood and therefore were highly flammable and burned to the ground in an early morning fire. All the sets have been rebuilt and a new attraction at the Studio features King Kong: 360 3-D, which opened July 1, 2010.
The area beside the Psycho house (known as Psycho Flats) used to be the site of Falls Lake — a large water-tank and waterfall used in numerous productions. Falls Lake was moved over the summer of 2008, and the area is currently occupied by the huge outdoor airplane-crash set built for War Of The Worlds, directed by Steven Spielberg. Spielberg and crew were on the Universal backlot for three days shooting on the massive outdoor set. A commercial Boeing 747-100SR aircraft formerly owned by All Nippon Airways was chopped into pieces and transported to Universal, where the full set has been left fully dressed as it was during filming. The only change made to the set following filming was to move the houses on the right of the tram off the road (so the tram can pass safely). As in the movie, there are no bodies in the plane wreckage, but during Halloween Horror Nights, a combination of cast members and dummies have been put in place as crash victims. This set has also been used for two music videos, The Fray's "Never Say Never" and "Fly" by Nicki Minaj.
Before returning to the tour's boarding area, the tram passes by an overlook of the San Fernando Valley, which includes views of neighboring Warner Bros. Studios in Burbank.
Staged events
The Studio Tour includes some special demonstrations, as well as some small segments. For example, an encounter with King Kong (King Kong: 360 3-D), a simulated flash flood, an 8.3 earthquake, a short encounter with Jaws, and a high-speed car chase featuring the cast from the Fast & Furious movie franchise (Fast & Furious: Supercharged).Psycho: Bates Mansion (1964)
The Psycho House was one of the big draws of the Universal Tram Tour, back in 1964, and has continued to be instantly recognizable in recent years. During production of the film Man on the Moon, a biopic about Andy Kaufman's life story, in 1999 at an area near the house, Jim Carrey, who portrayed Kaufman in the film, became bored during break hours and tried to channel Kaufman's creative energy by playing Norman Bates. Dressing up as "mother" and wielding a rubber knife, Carrey emerged from behind the Psycho house and jumped on the tram, scaring the passengers, including the guides. The tour guides and tram operators reported the incident to the film crew, who told them that the person in the costume was none other than a bored Jim Carrey himself. Carrey wanted to repeat the stunt one year later while filming How The Grinch Stole Christmas, which was being filmed behind the house, but this time in full Grinch costume. The park, however, kept Carrey's idea and have cast actors dressed as Norman Bates slowly approach the tram with a rubber knife.Flash Flood (1968)The downhill flood effect has appeared in many films, including Big Fat Liar and Fletch Lives.Jaws (1976)The Jaws event opened a year after the release of Steven Spielberg's 1975 film. It is an attraction that features the moving shark anamatronic from the film and other sets. The actual hero prop boat 'Orca' was placed in the lagoon as a center piece, but was removed between 1991 and 1992 and chopped up for timber (Jaws director Steven Spielberg learned of the fate of the 'Orca', much to his anger, after noticing it gone while he was on the ride). The shark as seen in the attraction has had cameos in multiple television shows and films including The Nude Bomb in 1980, the made-for-TV film The Harlem Globetrotters on Gilligan's Island in 1981, the episode "Hooray for Hollywood" from Diff'rent Strokes in 1984, and the episode "Fright Knight" from Knight Rider in 1986. The Amity Harbor/Village area that is associated with the Jaws attraction (minus the moving shark) was the set used in two Airwolf episodes "The American Dream" (Season 2) and "Where Have All the Children Gone" (Season 3).Earthquake (1989)The Earthquake event is an 8.3 earthquake inside a soundstage, designed to make it look like a San Francisco subway station. They have a hot set; a hot set is a stage in which various props stay in use and cannot be moved. The attraction features a gimbal which allows it to shake the tram, a burning gasoline truck that collapses through the roof, fire and spark effects, a derailing subway train, and a flood of water. The attraction resets itself within just 15 seconds to prepare itself for the next tramload of guests.Jurassic Park (1996)When the tram passes through the Isla Nublar set, guests are sprayed by animatronic Dilophosaurus. It is very similar to the end of the Jurassic Park: The Ride. Prior to the event, the tram also passes props and vehicles from the original Jurassic Park films.Psycho'': Bates Motel (2008)As the tram passes the Bates Motel, the guests witness Norman Bates carrying a corpse to a car. After placing the body in the trunk, he notices the tram and walks towards it with a kitchen knife as the tram leaves just in time to escape. Bates is portrayed by an Anthony Perkins lookalike and on some occasions, a Vince Vaughn lookalike. If the actors are not available, a cardboard cutout of Anthony Perkins as Bates is used in the Cabin 1 window.King Kong: 360 3-D (2010)
Studio Tour guests wear 3-D glasses as the tram enters a sound stage dressed as a recreation of Skull Island. Two Venatosaurus creatures attack and begin to chase the tram, which disturbs King Kong, who begins to fight them. The fight continues from one side of the tram to the other, as air and water effects are blown onto guests to further the illusion. Near the end of the experience, a V-Rex gets a hold of what is supposed to be the last tram car and pulls it from the train, throwing it down a pit. Kong defeats the V-Rex and roars in triumph.Fast & Furious: Supercharged (2015)
Fast & Furious: Supercharged is located at the former site of the Curse of the Mummy's Tomb tunnel. This ride opened on June 25, 2015.Nighttime Studio Tours (2015)Introduced in celebration of Universal Studios Hollywood's 50th anniversary, the Nighttime Studio Tour complements the popular daytime experience by offering a nighttime tour of the famous studio backlot.Jupiter's Claim (2022)A set themed to the western theme park of the same name from the 2022 film, Nope, which is located as the penultimate stop on the tour starting on July 22, 2022, the same day as the film's theatrical release, marking it as the first time that an attraction on the tour has opened day and date with a movie release. The set, which was disassembled during post-production and transported to, and reconstructed on site in, the park, with props and details from the film, was originally created by the film's production designer, Ruth DeJong.
Former events Avalanche Tunnel (1974–2001)The tour guide leads the tram into a revolving tunnel, simulating an avalanche, including fake snow spinning around the tram, and damaged signs, along with special sound effects. It was replaced by Curse of the Mummy's Tomb.Rockslide (1974–1979)The tram stops inside a rock cliff which begins to collapse. The tram gets past the cliff safely, but not before having a collision with the rocks. The attraction was replaced by Battle of Galactica in 1979.Runaway Train (1974–1985)The tour guide leads the tram across a train track, thinking it is safe to cross. However, a train suddenly rushes from the tracks and stops just in time before colliding with the tram. The guide leads the tram away from the tracks to safety. The train is now a stationary train in the backlot.Battle of Galactica (1979–1992)This high-technology attraction featuring animatronics and live actors in a spectacular laser battle based on the television series Battlestar Galactica with a 200-foot-long spaceship that "swallowed" the passengers, opened June 9, 1979. This was the first themed attraction to feature Audio-Animatronics characters outside Disney Parks, and was the first dark ride to combine sophisticated animatronics and lasers with live actors. At a cost of $1 million, it was the most expensive special effects attraction ever built at the park at the time. It was replaced in 1992 by the foundations of Back to the Future: The Ride.King Kong Encounter (1986–2008)
The tram enters 1976 New York City where King Kong is on the loose and grabs and shakes the tram, which eventually escapes his grasp and gets out of the city safely. The 7-ton, Kong figure was the largest and most complex animatronic figure in existence for many years. The sophistication of the attraction broke new ground and paved the way for today's themed attractions, including a Universal Studios Florida version. The Kong sequence was also featured in the film The Wizard starring Fred Savage and Indie singer Jenny Lewis. This attraction opened on June 14, 1986, and was completely destroyed by a fire in the early morning of June 1, 2008. As of June 3, 2008, Universal Studios officials stated that the experience would not be rebuilt, and instead was replaced by the new King Kong: 360 3-D attraction, based on the 2005 film.Curse of the Mummy's Tomb (2001–2013)The tram guide tells guests that they are going to take a look at some props from the film The Mummy, but instead the tram is led into Imhotep's cursed tomb, where he sucks them into a powerful revolving sandstorm. The guide eventually leads the tram out of the sandstorm, and Imhotep is defeated.
The Curse of the Mummy's Tomb closed on September 3, 2013, and was later demolished in the same month. It was confirmed on April 8, 2014, that the site would become home to the new Fast and Furious attraction, replaced by Fast & Furious: Supercharged, which opened on June 25, 2015.
The Fast & The Furious: Extreme Close-Up (2006–2013)
Extreme Close-up demonstrates some of the special effects used in The Fast & The Furious: Tokyo Drift. The attraction started construction in March 2006 and opened on June 15, 2006. The area was formerly occupied by a model used in Dante's Peak.
The section was closed in late July 2013. The studio had become increasingly frustrated with the portrayal of its Fast and Furious franchise at Universal Studios Hollywood after the blockbuster success of the sixth film. This frustration eventually led to the unplanned closure of Fast and Furious on the Studio Tour after producers from the film witnessed the attraction first-hand.The Collapsing Bridge (1974–2006, 2008–2010, 2013, 2014)The tour guide tries to take the tram around a bridge rather than going over it, but suddenly the tram driver takes the tram towards the bridge. Just as the tram reaches the midpoint of the bridge, it creaks and massive timbers fall away, causing the bridge to "drop" the tram a short distance. The tram drives on and guests can see the bridge rebuild itself for the next tram.
The bridge was used less-frequently starting in 2005, and by March 2006 was no longer part of the regular tram tour due to mechanical problems. However, the bridge has since undergone renovations, and was added back to the tour schedules in August 2008. The Collapsing Bridge was repaired and returned as part of the Studio Tour in August 2008, after the June fire had closed much of the normal tram route. As of July 2010, King Kong: 360 3-D is located in front of the Collapsing Bridge. The bridge itself is still there, but King Kong: 360 3-D has replaced it. The current route is blocked by a crushed tram, used as set dressing for King Kong. Later, the bridge entrance is blocked by a stationary train from the Runaway Train event.Parting of the Red Sea (1973–2016)The guide leads the tram to a body of water. Suddenly, the waves part, and the tram travels between them. Prior to addition of miniature models of Skull Island and the S.S. Venture boat from the King Kong remake in 2006, guides informed guests that the waterfall effect was originally installed for the "parting of the Red Sea" scene from The Ten Commandments. The surrounding pond was also featured as part of the film set from Creature from the Black Lagoon. For many years a mock-up of The Creature stood in the pond.Whoville Comes To Life''' (2008–2016)During the holiday season, at the Whoville set all of the Whos, even Max the dog, perform a musical spectacular for the guests' enjoyment. The songs are remixes of songs from the movie. This is part of Universal's Grinchmas celebration.
In 2017, with the addition of "The Magic of Christmas at Hogwarts Castle" projection mapping and fireworks show in the Wizarding World of Harry Potter, Whoville Comes To Life was closed to appease nearby neighbors who would frequently complain about noise caused by the Whoville show and the extended Studio Tour hours.
In 2020, during the COVID-19 closure of Universal Studios Hollywood, the Whoville Sets were demolished and replaced with picture cars seen in Universal films and in the theme park.
Photo gallery
See also
Universal Studios Studio Tour (Florida)
Studio Backlot Tour, a similar attraction at Disney's Hollywood Studios that eventually got demolished
References
External links
Official site
1964 establishments in California
Universal Studios Hollywood
Universal Parks & Resorts attractions by name
Amusement rides introduced in 1964
Amusement rides based on film franchises
Animatronic attractions
Backlot sets |
4436871 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National%20delimitation%20in%20the%20Soviet%20Union | National delimitation in the Soviet Union | National delimitation in the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics was the process of specifying well-defined national territorial units (Soviet socialist republics [SSR], autonomous Soviet socialist republics [ASSR], autonomous oblasts [provinces], raions [districts] and okrugs [circuits]) from the ethnic diversity of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) and its subregions. The Russian-language term for this Soviet state policy was razmezhevanie (, natsionalno-territorialnoye razmezhevaniye), which is variously translated in English-language literature as "national-territorial delimitation" (NTD), "demarcation", or "partition". National delimitation formed part of a broader process of changes in administrative-territorial division, which also changed the boundaries of territorial units, but was not necessarily linked to national or ethnic considerations.
National delimitation in the USSR was distinct from nation-building (), which typically referred to the policies and actions implemented by the government of a national territorial unit (a nation state) after delimitation. In most cases national delimitation in the USSR was followed by korenizatsiya (indigenization).
Policies of national delimitation in the Soviet Union
Pre-1917 Russia was an imperial state, not a nation state. In the 1905 Duma elections the nationalist parties received only 9 percent of all votes. The many non-Russian ethnic groups that inhabited the Russian Empire were classified as inorodtsy, or aliens. After the February Revolution, attitudes in regards to this topic began to change. In early 1917, a Socialist Revolutionary publication called Dyelo Naroda, No. 5 called for Russia to be transformed into a federal state along the lines of the United States. Specifically, separate constituent units inside of this federal state would be created for the various regions and ethnic groups of Russia (such as Little Russia, Georgia, Siberia, and Turkestan).
The Soviet Russia that took over from the Russian Empire in 1917 was not a nation-state, nor was the Soviet leadership committed to turning their country into such a state. In the early Soviet period, even voluntary assimilation was actively discouraged, and the promotion of the national self-consciousness of the non-Russian populations was attempted. Each officially recognized ethnic minority, however small, was granted its own national territory where it enjoyed a certain degree of autonomy, national schools, and national elites. A written national language (if it had been lacking), national language planning, native-language press, and books written in the native language came with the national territory, along with cultural institutions such as theaters.
The attitudes towards many ethnic minorities changed dramatically in the 1930s–1940s under the leadership of Joseph Stalin (despite his own Georgian ethnic roots) with the advent of a repressive policy featuring abolition of the national institutions, ethnic deportations, national terror, and Russification (mostly towards those with cross-border ethnic ties to foreign nation-states in the 1930s or compromised in the view of Stalin during the Great Patriotic War in the 1940s), although nation-building often continued simultaneously for others.
After the establishment of the Soviet Union within the boundaries of the former Russian Empire, the Bolshevik government began the process of national delimitation and nation building, which lasted through the 1920s and most of the 1930s. The project attempted to build nations out of the numerous ethnic groups in the Soviet Union. Defining a nation or politically conscious ethnic group was in itself a politically charged issue in the Soviet Union. In 1913, Stalin, in his work Marxism and the National Question, which subsequently became the cornerstone of the Soviet policy towards nationalities, defined a nation as "a historically constituted, stable community of people, formed on the basis of a common language, territory, economic life, and psychological makeup manifested in a common culture". Many of the subject nationalities or communities in the Russian Empire did not fully meet these criteria. Not only did cultural, linguistic, religious and tribal diversities make the process difficult, but also the lack of a political consciousness of ethnicity among the people was a major obstacle. The process relied on the Declaration of the Rights of the Peoples of Russia, adopted by the Bolshevik government on 15 November 1917, immediately after the October Revolution, which recognized equality and sovereignty of all the peoples of Russia; their right for free self-determination, up to and including secession and creation of an independent state; freedom of religion; and free development of national minorities and ethnic groups on the territory of Russia.
The Soviet Union (or more formally USSR – the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics) was established in 1922 as a federation of nationalities, which eventually came to encompass 15 major national territories, each organized as a Union-level republic (Soviet Socialist Republic or SSR). All 15 national republics, created between 1917 and 1940, had constitutionally equal rights and equal standing in the formal structure of state power. The largest of the 15 republics – Russia – was ethnically the most diverse and from the very beginning it was constituted as the RSFSR – the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic, a federation within a federation. The Russian SFSR was divided in the early 1920s into some 30 autonomous ethnic territories (Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republics – ASSR and autonomous oblasts – AO), many of which exist to this day as ethnic republics within the Russian Federation. There was also a very large number of lower-level ethnic territories, such as national districts and national village soviets. The exact number of ASSR and AO varied over the years as new entities were created while old entities switched from one form to another, transformed into Union-level republics (e.g., Kazakh and Kyrgyz SSR created in 1936, Moldovan SSR created in 1940), or were absorbed into larger territories (e.g., Crimean ASSR absorbed into the RSFSR in 1945 and Volga German ASSR absorbed into RSFSR in 1941).
The first population census of the USSR in 1926 listed 176 distinct nationalities. Eliminating excessive detail (e.g., four ethnic groups for Jews and five ethnic groups for Georgians) and omitting very small ethnic groups, the list was condensed into 69 nationalities. These 69 nationalities lived in 45 nationally delimited territories, including 16 Union-level republics (SSR) for the major nationalities, 23 autonomous regions (18 ASSR and 5 autonomous oblasts) for other nationalities within the Russian SFSR, and 6 autonomous regions within other Union-level republics (one in Uzbek SSR, one in Azerbaijan SSR, one in Tajik SSR, and three in Georgian SSR).
Higher-level autonomous national territories in the Soviet Union
Despite the general policy of granting national territories to all ethnic groups, several nationalities remained without their own territories in the 1920s and the 1930s. In many cases these groups were either widely dispersed, or these minorities were concentrated in areas already designated as the national republic for a different group, for example Poles and Jews (who were considered a nationality) represented up to a third of the population in some areas of the Ukrainian or Byelorussian SSRs or nearly half of the population in some cities and towns, yet apart from national raions, 24 of which were established in the Ukrainian SSR, no particular territorial entity was created (though a Jewish Autonomous Oblast was established in the Russian Far East in 1934). For the largely Yiddish-speaking Jews in these areas, policies were implemented such as the designation of Yiddish as an official language of Byelorussian SSR and a corresponding national public education system in Yiddish, along with the promotion of Yiddish literature and theatre in these areas as well as in the larger Russian cities. Other minorities included Bulgarians, Greeks, Hungarians, Romani, Uigurs, Koreans, and Gagauz (today the Gagauz live in a compact area known as Gagauzia in the south of Moldova, where they enjoy a measure of autonomy). The Volga Germans lost their national territory with the outbreak of World War II in 1941. The peoples of the North had neither autonomous republics nor autonomous oblasts, but since the 1930s they have been organized in 10 national autonomous okrugs for the Chukotka, Koryak, Nenets, Dolgano-Nenets, Yamalo-Nenets, Khanty-Mansi, Agin-Buryat, Ust-Orda Buryat, Evenk, Komi-Permyak titular nations.
Besides national republics, oblasts, and okrugs, several hundred national districts (with populations between 10,000 and 50,000) and several thousand national townships (population 500 to 5,000) were established. In some cases this policy required voluntary or forced resettlement in both directions to create a compact population. The immigration of cross-border ethnic groups and the return of non-Russian émigrés to the Soviet Union during the New Economic Policy, albeit perceived as an easy cover for espionage, were not discouraged and proceeded quite actively, contributing to nation-building.
Soviet fear of foreign influence gained momentum from sporadic ethnic guerilla uprisings along the entire Soviet frontier throughout the 1920s. The Soviet government was particularly concerned about the loyalty of the Finnish, Polish, and German populations. However, in July 1925 the Soviet authorities felt secure enough and in order to project Soviet influence outwards, exploiting cross-border ethnic ties, granted national minorities in the border regions more privileges and national rights than those in the central regions. This policy was implemented especially successfully in the Ukrainian SSR, which at first indeed succeeded in attracting the population of Polish Kresy. However, some Ukrainian communists claimed neighboring regions even from the Russian SFSR.
National delimitation in Central Asia
Rationale
Russia had conquered Central Asia in the 19th century by annexing the formerly independent khanates of Kokand and Khiva and the Emirate of Bukhara. After the Communists took power in 1917 and created the Soviet Union it was decided to divide Central Asia into ethnically-based republics in a process known as National Territorial Delimitation (NTD). This was in line with , and Joseph Stalin's definition of a nation as being "a historically constituted, stable community of people, formed on the basis of a common language, territory, economic life, and psychological make-up manifested in a common culture".
Central Asia's borders are often viewed by critics of the USSR as being an attempt to divide and rule; a way to maintain Soviet hegemony over the region by artificially dividing its inhabitants into separate nations and with borders deliberately drawn so as to leave minorities within each state. Though the Soviets were concerned about the possible threat of pan-Turkic nationalism, as seen in its reaction to the Basmachi movement, closer analysis informed by the primary sources paints a much more nuanced picture than is commonly presented.
The Soviets aimed to create ethnically homogenous republics; however, many areas were ethnically mixed (especially the Ferghana Valley), and it often proved difficult to assign a "correct" ethnic label to some peoples (e.g. the mixed Tajik-Uzbek Sart, or the various Turkmen/Uzbek tribes along the Amu Darya). In addition, local elites often strongly argued (and in some cases, overstated) their case and the Russians were often forced to adjudicate between them, further hindered by a lack of expert knowledge and the paucity of accurate or up-to-date ethnographic data on the region. Furthermore, the NTD also aimed to create viable entities, with economic, geographical, agricultural and infrastructural matters also to be taken into account and frequently trumping those of ethnicity. The attempt to balance these contradictory aims within an overall nationalist framework proved exceedingly difficult and often impossible, resulting in the drawing of convoluted borders, multiple enclaves and the unavoidable creation of large minorities who ended up living in the "wrong" republic. Additionally, the Soviets never intended for these borders to become international frontiers.
Creation of new SSRs and autonomous regions
NTD of the area along ethnic lines had been proposed as early as 1920. At this time Central Asia consisted of two Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republics (ASSRs) within the Russian SFSR: the Turkestan ASSR, created in April 1918 and covering large parts of what are now southern Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan and Tajikistan, as well as Turkmenistan, and the Kirghiz Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic (Kirghiz ASSR, Kirgizistan ASSR on the map), which was created on 26 August 1920 in the territory roughly coinciding with the northern part of today's Kazakhstan (at this time Kazakhs were referred to as "Kyrgyz" and what are now the Kyrgyz were deemed a sub-group of the Kazakhs and referred to as Kara-Kyrgyz i.e. "black Kyrgyz"). There were also the two separate successor republics of the Emirate of Bukhara and the Khanate of Khiva, which were transformed into the Bukhara and Khorezm People's Soviet Republics following the takeover by the Red Army in 1920.
On 25 February 1924 the Politburo and Central Committee of the Soviet Union announced that it would proceed with NTD in Central Asia. The process was to be overseen by a Special Committee of the Central Asian Bureau, with three sub-committees for each of what were deemed to be the main nationalities of the region (Kazakhs, Turkmen and Uzbeks), with work then exceedingly rapidly. There were initial plans to possibly keep the Khorezm and Bukhara PSRs, but it was decided in April 1924 to partition them, over the often vocal opposition of their local Communist Parties. The Khorezm CP in particular were reluctant to destroy their PSR and had to be strong-armed into voting for their own dissolution in July of that year.
The Turkestan ASSR was officially partitioned into two Soviet Socialist Republics (SSR), the Turkmen SSR and the Uzbek SSR. The Turkmen SSR roughly matched the borders of today's Turkmenistan and it was created as a home for the Turkmens of Soviet Central Asia. The Bukhara and Khorezm People's Soviet Republics were largely absorbed into the Uzbek SSR, which also included other territories inhabited by Uzbeks as well as those inhabited by ethnic Tajiks. At the same time, the Tajik ASSR was created within the Uzbek SSR for the Tajik ethnic population and, in May 1929, it was separated from Uzbek SSR and upgraded to the status of a full Soviet Socialist Republic (the Tajik SSR). The Kirghiz SSR (today's Kyrgyzstan) was created only in 1936; between 1929 and 1936 it existed as the Kara-Kirghiz Autonomous Oblast (province) within the Russian SFSR. The Kazakh SSR was also created at that time (5 December 1936), thus completing the process of national delimitation of Soviet Central Asia into five Soviet Socialist Republics that in 1991 would become five independent states.
Particularly bitter debates accompanied the partition of the Uzbek and Tajik SSRs in 1929, focusing especially on the status of the cities of Bukhara, Samarkand, and the Surxondaryo Region, all of which had sizeable, if not dominant, Tajik populations. The final decision negotiated by the Uzbek and Tajik parties, not without strong involvement of the Communist Party, left these three largely Tajik-populated territories within the Turkic-populated Uzbek SSR. The Tajik SSR was created on 5 December 1929 as the home for most of the ethnic Tajiks in Soviet Central Asia within the boundaries of present-day Tajikistan.
Nation-building for ethnic minorities
In the 1920s and the 1930s, the policy of national delimitation, which assigned national territories to ethnic groups and nationalities, was followed by nation-building, attempting to create a full range of national institutions within each national territory. Each officially recognized ethnic minority, however small, was granted its own where it enjoyed a certain degree of autonomy, in addition to national elites. A written national language was developed (if it had been lacking), national language planning was implemented, native teachers were trained, and national schools were established. This was always accompanied by native-language press and books written in the native language, along with other facets of cultural life. National elites were encouraged to develop and take over the leading administrative and Party positions, sometimes in proportions exceeding the proportion of the native population.
With the grain requisition crises, famines, troubled economic conditions, international destabilization and the reversal of the immigration flow in the early 1930s, the Soviet Union became increasingly worried about the possible disloyalty of diaspora ethnic groups with cross-border ties (especially Finns, Germans and Poles), residing along its western borders. This eventually led to the start of Stalin's repressive policy towards them.
Following the introduction of the Soviet passport system in 1932, each adult citizen's ethnicity () was necessarily recorded in their passport. Where parents' nationalities differed, a citizen was able to choose which nationality to register in their passport. This practice did not exist in the Russian Empire and has been abolished in the Russian Federation, although it remains law in some former-Soviet republics, including Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan.
The Bolsheviks' plan was to identify the total sum of all national, cultural, linguistic, and territorial diversities under their rule and establish scientific criteria to identify which groups of people were entitled to the description of 'nation'. This task relied on the existing work of tsarist-era ethnographers and statisticians, as well as new research conducted under Soviet auspices. Because most people did not know what is meant by a nation, some of them simply gave names when asked about ethnic group. Many groups were thought to be biologically similar, but culturally distinct. In Central Asia, many identified their "nation" as "Muslim." In other cases, geography made the difference, or even whether one lived in a town versus the countryside. Principally, however, dialects or languages formed the basis for distinguishing between various nations. The results were often contradictory and confusing. More than 150 nations were counted in Central Asia alone. Some were quickly subordinated to others, with communities which had hitherto been counted as "nations" now deemed to be simply tribes. As a result, the number of nations shrunk over the decades.
Dissolution of the Soviet Union
After the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, fifteen newly sovereign states adopted their own policies and laws with regard to national minorities. A number of conflicts erupted, some of them fed in part by national or ethnic tensions.
In the Russian Federation, some autonomous regions became new ethnic republics.
In Ukraine, the Crimean Karaites, Crimean Tatars, and Krymchaks, indigenous peoples of the Crimean peninsula, have been persecuted by the Russian occupation of Crimea since 2014 for their protests against the occupation. They were recognized as Indigenous peoples with inherent rights in 2021.
Map showing the ethnic republics of the Russian Federation (2008) that succeeded the national territories of Russian SFSR (pre-1990)
See also
Islam in the Soviet Union
Soviet people
Korenizatsiya
Soviet Central Asia
References
Notes
Citations
Further reading
John Everett-Heath (2003) Central Asia: History, Ethnicity, Modernity, Routledge-Curzon,
Arne Haugen (2004) The Establishment of National Republics in Central Asia, Palgrave Macmillan,
Terry Martin(2001). The Affirmative Action Empire: Nations and Nationalism in the Soviet Union, 1923-1939, Cornell University Press,
Oliver Roy (2000) The New Central Asia: The Creation of Nations, NYU Press,
Rogers Brubaker, Nationhood and the National Question in the Soviet Union and Post-Soviet Eurasia: An Institutionalist Account. Theory and Society, 23 [1] (February 1994): 47–78.
Subdivisions of the Soviet Union
Decentralization
Soviet internal politics
Soviet ethnic policy
Soviet phraseology
Soviet Union
Geography of the Soviet Union
Post-Soviet states
Federalism in the Soviet Union |
4436947 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fable%20II | Fable II | Fable II is a 2008 action role-playing open world video game, developed by Lionhead Studios and published by Microsoft Game Studios for Xbox 360. The game is the second installment in the Fable game series, and the sequel to 2004's Fable. The story takes place within the fictional land of Albion, 500 years after the first game. Players assume the role of a young hero who is destined to stop a former ruler turned madman from destroying the world. The game features several prominent actors portraying major characters in the game, including Zoë Wanamaker, Ron Glass and Stephen Fry. The game's setting takes inspiration from the historical late colonial era, in terms of architecture, social quality and basic firearms such as flintlock pistols.
The game made several improvements over its predecessor, updating existing gameplay and offering larger locations to explore. Alongside the main story, players can engage in several side quests and repeatable jobs to earn money and rewards, build up a property empire, and customise their character with various clothing items, hairstyles, tattoos and makeup. Players also can make decisions on how they act, affecting their characters' morality and appearance as a result. New features to the game included the opportunity to choose between playing as a male or female character, a fast-travel system, and a canine companion who can detect treasures and alert the player to nearby enemies.
Fable II was released in October 2008 and achieved critical acclaim, many citing its adherence to the original while praising the changes that redefined the game system. The game later received two downloadable content packs which introduced new locations, items and quests which were released in a compilation with the main game, titled Fable II: Game of the Year, in September 2009. The game proved a commercial success, becoming the best selling title on Xbox 360 following its release. A sequel, Fable III, was released in 2010.
Gameplay
The world in Fable II is fully dynamic, interactive and mostly free roaming with no set quest path to take. Since the game takes place over a hero's lifetime, many things can change; Molyneux gave an example of a trade camp that the player could either help or destroy. Trading in such camps would increase their profit, resulting in a small town growing around them.
Additionally, every accessible property (those that can be entered by the player) in the world can be purchased (except for the Tattered Spire), and ownership of unique buildings can unlock further quests. In addition to purchasing and renting homes, businesses and stalls are now available for purchase. These businesses produce income for the player every 5 minutes, depending on the quality of the business, the economy level of the town, and the opinion of the shop owner for the player (a shopkeeper with a high opinion will work harder), and the rent or goods prices set by the player; this happens even while the Xbox 360 is turned off. Rent is also accumulated every 5 minutes. Also, if the player visits his own shops, the quality of their goods will improve, and improve the quality of the shop. Players are able to furnish the houses with furniture and other items available for sale. In addition, titles will be awarded for buying property; if one were to buy every building and piece of land in a town he/she may become the mayor of that town; owning more land leads to higher titles such as king/queen, and eventually Emperor of the entire land of Albion. Players can become more Pure by setting prices and rent low, or more Corrupt by increasing them.
The environment in Fable II features trees with branches and leaves that are individually animated according to their own physics, each tree having roughly 120,000 leaves. There are also around 15 million poppies in Albion.
There are both interactive and non-interactive cutscenes in the game. According to Lionhead Studios, the non-interactive cutscenes consume less than five minutes of game time.
In the fully interactive cutscenes a player can use their expressions during the dialogue or even run away from the scene, thus skipping it; afterward the player can return to the cutscene location to start it again. If the player runs away from a cutscene which contains important information, the character will await the player's return.
The player's companion is a dog which the player befriends as a child. This dog follows the player almost all of the time during the game. The dog can learn tricks, fight enemies and find treasure, and lead the way to quest objectives (when required, though this is rare; typically the player is led to objectives via a sparkling gold "bread crumb" trail). It can also aid in combat situations by attacking downed enemies. The dog cannot be killed, but can become injured and ineffective, requiring healing by the player.
The appearance of their dog will also mirror the player's choices and changes colour depending on the player's alignments; if the player is neutral it will remain grey, being good will turn the dog's coat to golden and evil will turn it to black. There are no other animals in the game, save for neutral rabbits and birds, a fact commented on by one NPC who notices the oddness of carriages with no horses.
In the downloadable content "See the Future", it is possible to change the dog's breed with potions. The three choices are Dalmatian, Bloodhound and Husky.
Family and relationships
In Fable II, it is possible for the player's character to get married, including same-sex marriage, and have children. Divorce with the player's spouse can occur, and can be initiated by either the spouse or the player themselves. As with a real family, time spent around and interacting with them will keep the bond between them strong and reduce the chance of them leaving. It is possible to become widowed through the death of a partner. It is also possible for the player character's children to die through cot death or disease, or to run away from home to become an adventurer, in which case the player can rescue them from danger.
The relationships, as in the original Fable, are initiated by flirting, gift-giving, and the common expression. By performing a potential mate's favourite expressions, or giving them their preferred gifts, they will become infatuated more easily. Beyond a certain level of interest, or payment in the case of prostitute characters, a character may proposition the player for sex. Unprotected sex may lead to the birth of a child, but can also lead to sexually transmitted disease; this does affect the player, as it may lead to sterilisation. If the player has purchased or found a condom, they will have the option of protected sex. No sex is actually shown; the screen is black when the option is selected.
Character morphing
Fable II enhances the system of morphing one's character based on their actions as introduced in Fable. Character morphing revolves around two major alignment scales: Good and Evil, and Purity and Corruption.
Good players will enable a pleasant-looking Hero, with tanned skin and light hair, while evil players will have a more frightening look, with pale skin and black hair. Pure players will find that their hero will have a clear complexion and a halo, while corrupt players will find their hero with a flawed complexion and horns. These scales are independent of one another, meaning that it is possible to be both good and corrupt simultaneously or any other variation.
Also related to character morphing is the character's slimness or fatness, determined by what foods the player eats; fruits and vegetables (mainly celery), make the player thinner, while alcohol, meat and pies make the player fatter. In addition, fruits and vegetables give the player purity points (because no animals are harmed in their creation/consumption), while meats and alcohol give the player corruption points (because animals were harmed in their creation/consumption and they can cause drunkenness, respectively). This has no effect on gameplay other than attractiveness or the lack thereof in the eyes of NPCs.
Levelling up stats will also alter the player character's appearance. Increasing the Physique level will make the Hero more muscular. Increasing the Skill stat will make the Hero taller. A high level of Will power and spells create glowing blue markings, called Will Lines, all over the body.
Jobs
Unlike Fable, the player does not acquire money through doing quests, but by doing jobs around Albion. These are Blacksmith, Woodcutter, Bartender, Assassin, Civilian Displacement (Slaver), Bounty Hunter, and Merchant. The first three involve correctly pressing the A button during certain times, and the latter three are combat related. Merchant, however, is done by taking advantage of the economies of each town, buying low and selling to richer vendors for a profit. The jobs become available depending on how much renown the player has and story progression. The trade skill jobs can be done over and over again for a certain number of days, but the side quest jobs are single use, requiring the player to wait for another task to become available. The trade skills can be leveled up to five stars via promotions, allowing for more money to be made.
Recreation
Exploration plays a primary role in the game. As in the original Fable, gameplay is very linear; however, main story-advancing missions may be performed whenever the player chooses and there are additional missions that do not affect the storyline. The player may also choose to perform any of the many different jobs, gambling-based mini-games, participating in the arena-style minigame called the Crucible, explore dungeons, tombs, and caves, or roam the countryside. The player may even choose to kill innocents in town. All of these optional diversions can result in rewards for the player in the form of additional wealth, items, experience points, or character-altering attributes. Exploration is essential to discovering much of the game's hidden content, in the form of 50 silver keys, special treasure chests, 9 Demon Doors, and 50 gargoyles that can be destroyed.
Co-operative play
Players are able to drop in and out of other players' games at will. The host player can set certain rules; e.g. how loot gained is split between the players and if friendly fire is active. The joining player cannot load their custom hero; they must select a premade male or female character. This "henchman" cannot buy property or gamble in their friend's world, nor can he/she accept quests. Co-op can be achieved through Xbox Live, System Link, and by playing on a single console.
Fable II did not ship with online cooperative, but a free patch has been available from Xbox Live since the European and American release date which adds this functionality. Without the patch, players cannot play online due to being disconnected from Xbox Live.
At E3 2008 in July lead designer Peter Molyneux demonstrated 'Albion Orbs'. These orbs show where other players are in their worlds and allows bringing them into their world to co-op with. Only orbs for friends are initially viewable, with all players viewable if an in-game setting is changed. Online chat is automatically enabled between players that can see each other's orbs.
While on the same console, a second player with their own account can drop in and out as a "henchman" to the first player. If the second player on the same console does not have an account of their own, the henchman is made in a brief character-creation screen that pauses the game. Henchmen created this way are not saved into the main player's game. The first player also decides how much bounty the henchman will obtain, e.g. gold and experience. The second player is also able to port any experience, renown and gold to their own Fable II Hero via a memory card if they have imported their character and not created the henchman from scratch. Also, it is possible to use a profile on the Xbox 360 itself to create a henchman, the earned gold and experience being transferred there.
Synopsis
Setting
Fable II takes place within the fictional land of Albion - a large continent consisting of several settlements, the largest being the city of Bowerstone, surrounded by lawless stretches of land, including forests, marshlands, and coastal roads. The story and events take place 500 years after the first game, in which the relative safety and peace brought about by the defeat of Jack of Blades led to Albion's citizens deeming heroes to be corrupt and no longer being needed, effectively leading to many to disappear and the Heroes' Guild being destroyed in a riot. Since then, the land has seen changes to science and philosophy, with new religions replacing the old ones of medieval Albion, and new technologies being developed, including the creation of firearms. In effect, Albion has now evolved into a society resembling that of Earth during the late colonial and early modern period.
The game's story provides further background upon the "Old Kingdom" which existed centuries ago, but was destroyed following the activation of a large structure constructed by its inhabitants to magically grant a single wish to its user. The player's character (nicknamed by default as Sparrow) is a descendant of a hero from a bloodline traced back to the Old Kingdom, and takes place over three separate time periods (much like the first game): childhood, which acts as a prologue and training section of the game; young adulthood; and adulthood.
Plot
During a cold winter in Bowerstone, a young child known as Sparrow lives in poverty within the city's poorer district alongside their older sister Rose. Both dream of one day living in Castle Fairfax, the home of Lord Lucien that towers over the city. One day, the pair witness a travelling seller offering 'magical' wares to people, amongst them a musical box that can grant anyone who uses it a wish. An old woman convinces the pair to acquire the money needed to buy it by doing odd jobs around the district, during which time Sparrow rescues a dog from a local bully. Upon buying the box, Rose uses it to make their dream to come true. That evening, guards arrive to bring the pair to the castle, who are overjoyed that their wish comes true. However, the pair soon discover that Lucien brought them to his home to determine which of them were the three "Heroes" he seeks to fulfil his ambitions. Discovering that one of the pair is the fourth Hero who will stop him, Lucien kills Rose and wounds Sparrow, sending them out onto the city streets.
The old woman soon finds Sparrow with the help of the dog they rescued, and takes them away from the city to recover. Ten years later, now that Sparrow is a young adult, the old woman instructs them to enter a cave system beneath a large lake, which houses the ruins of what was left of the Heroes' Guild. Once inside, the old woman introduces herself as Theresa, a blind seeress, who explains that Sparrow is a descent of the Hero of Oakvale who defeated Jack of Blades. After they prove themselves by defeating a prominent bandit leader in the region, Theresa reveals that they are the only ones who can stop Lucien from destroying the world with an ancient structure known as The Spire - a building that channel magical energy to grant its user any wish they desire. Theresa reveals that Sparrow is destined to defeat Lucien by finding the three heroes he seeks, each defining a specific parameter strength, will, and skill.
Sparrow begins with finding the hero of strength from the village of Oakfield. Discovering them to be a female monk known as Sister Hannah, they work to prove themselves to her father the local abbot, before providing her with protection as she undertakes an important ritual. However, Lucien sends men to find her, who kill her father when he refuses to let them to take her. Angered, Hannah kills his murderer before offering her help to Sparrow, renaming herself as Hammer. With her help, Sparrow proceeds with tracking down the hero of will - a scholar known as Garth, who worked with Lucien to rebuild the Spire, but fell out with him over time. Lucien kidnaps him before he can be recruited, and Theresa reveals that he was taken to the Spire as a prisoner. Sparrow and Hammer head to Westcliff where Lucien is recruiting new guards from competitors that survive several harsh rounds at a local arena. Successfully winning a place amongst the latest recruits, Sparrow leaves their possessions and dog with Hammer and travel to the Spire to find Garth.
Made a slave in their new role, Sparrow endures ten years of servitude, making a number of tough decisions in the process. Eventually, Garth creates an opportunity for the pair to escape from the Spire and return to the mainland, where he agrees to help in the battle against Lucien. Hammer soon reveals that during Sparrow's absence, she sought out information on the hero of skill, discovering it to be the pirate lord known as Reaver a skilled marksman who rules over the pirate town of Bloodstone in the south. With Garth's help, Sparrow uses a cullis gate - a teleportation system used by the Heroes' Guild - to reach the marshlands that border Bloodstone, dealing with the undead in the process. After impressing Reaver with their fame, Sparrow undertakes a request from him, only for him to attempt to betray them to Lucien to claim the bounty on them. However, Reaver is soon double-crossed himself, and finds himself forced to help Sparrow and the other heroes in order to survive.
With the three heroes found, Theresa reveals that all of them need to channel their energy in a ritual to acquire a weapon needed to defeat Lucien. However, the seeress soon goes missing after the ritual is completed, whereupon Lucien arrives and kills Sparrow and their dog before kidnapping the others. Rather than die, Sparrow is taken to a dream-like paradise to reside within as a child, with Rose alive and well. Although the location is peaceful, Sparrow hears the music box playing and seeks it out, against Rose's advice, fighting against the ensuing nightmares to locate it. Upon touching it, Rose reveals it was a test, allowing him to use its power. Finding themselves back in the Spire, Sparrow tracks down Lucien and uses the music box to defeat him, whereupon he dies at their hands or Reaver's.
Theresa soon offers Sparrow a wish from the Spire that they can have as a reward: resurrecting the thousands of people that died building the Spire, and thus becoming a true hero in Albion; resurrecting their sister Rose, their dog, and, if they had one, their spouse and family; or being granted an immense fortune. After making their wish, Theresa then offers to send the others where they wish to go - Garth opts to return to his homeland, with Reaver deciding to join him, while Hammer decides to head north to find some monks to help her avoid further violence. After they leave, Theresa leaves Sparrow to enjoy Albion, but proclaims that the Spire is now hers to own. If the player has downloaded the See the Future pack, Theresa allows them to visit after cleansing two cursed items, to see a glimpse of their future. In this vision they now rule over Albion as monarch, and it is hinted that a child of theirs will become a hero to save Albion after their death, setting the background for Fable III.
Marketing
Tales of Albion
Lionhead Studios released a section on their website entitled "Tales of Albion", which provides a back-story to Fable, Fable: The Lost Chapters, and Fable II. In "Fragments of the Old Kingdom", it details how the Archon came to power in Albion, and how the Heroes' Guild was founded. "Tales" also chronicles the end of the Heroes and ruin of their Guild in "Fall of the Heroes", and "Travels in Today's Albion" (which has been completed since its release) describes where some places are and has a little description of each notable area/artefact.
Online competitions
Just as Lionhead has done with The Movies, online competitions were made available through Lionhead's forums. One such competition was naming a title to be used in the game, similar to the first game wherein a character was addressed by various titles that the character purchased from a "Title Vendor". Lionhead has stated these titles would be bought but they have to be earned first. They are bought from a town crier in Fable II; the winning title was Lionheart, which can be bought for 2000 gold or earned for free by winning in The Crucible. An "insult the hero" competition also took place and the winner wasn't announced. On 30 May, Lionhead held a competition for artwork that would be used in the game; there has been no winner announced to date.
Video diaries
2007:
24 May, episode one of The Lionhead Diaries, examining the love and emotion aspect of Fable II was released.
30 July, episode two was released, highlighting the one button in the combat system, and featured the Lionhead staff playing a game of football against fellow Microsoft satellite Rare and winning. It also included a professional combat specialist instructing the animation staff.
8 October, episode three was released, going in depth about the Central Technology Group, and featured Lionhead's 10-year Anniversary.
2008:
11 January, episode four was released, focusing on how the graphics department made the world of Albion.
19 March, episode five was released, looking at magic, GDC 2008 and co-op.
22 June, episode six "Art and the Hero" was released, looking at the artwork of the Hero, Albion, and many different characters in Fable II.
2 October, episode seven "Music and Audio" was released, showing how and where the main scores were made, where the voice-overs were recorded and taking a brief glimpse at the various voice talents for the game.
2009:
8 January, episode eight "Finishing Fable II & Creating Knothole Island" was released, detailing the Lionhead Team's euphoria over having finally completed Fable II, and giving a brief look at how Knothole Island was made, and why it didn't ship out in December 2008.
In May, episode nine "See the Future" came.
Fable II Pub Games
In August 2008, Lionhead Studios released Fable II Pub Games. This includes three of the games that can be played in pubs throughout Albion: Fortune's Tower, Keystone and Spinner Box. For 800 Microsoft Points all three games could be downloaded on the Xbox Live Marketplace.
Alternatively, some video game retailers offered a product code when a pre-order for Fable II was made.
Limited edition
Before the game was released, there was a production problem resulting in the Hobbe figurine, special box, and fate cards being removed from the collector's edition package. Due to the loss of these items, the suggested retail price was decreased to the normal game price in some stores. As an apology, Lionhead Studios created a free music album available for download over the Internet (not Xbox Live) that contains several songs from Fable and three songs from Fable II, as well as printable pdf versions of the fate cards to be released. There was another supply chain issue that occurred in North America that caused some Limited Edition games not to have the token card for in-game content.
A Limited Edition was available on its release date with the following extra features:
Alternative packaging including cardboard slip cover
1 token card code for in-game content (downloaded over Xbox Live)
Bonus disc containing the "Making of Fable II"
There was also a 2nd European release of the Limited Edition game which featured the extra features minus the token card code for downloadable content.
Downloadable content
The first downloadable content (DLC), "Knothole Island", includes the ability to resurrect the player's dog by sacrifice. It was released 13 January 2009, and features a new map, with new items and quests. The DLC includes 3 new achievements worth 100 points. A free update allows players who haven't purchased "Knothole Island" to still play online with others who did. "Knothole Island" was available for 800 Microsoft Points. The DLC got positive to average reviews. It holds a score of 66/100 on Metacritic. Dan Whitehead of Eurogamer awarded it a score of 6/10 while Tom Orry of VideoGamer.com awarded it a score of 7/10 saying that "Knothole Island is a good effort but far from the standard the full game set".
The second DLC, "See the Future", includes the ability to change the player's dog's breed. It was released 12 May 2009. The DLC includes a quest based around three cursed items from Murgo the Trader. In addition to these new quests and items, one new area is included and players have the ability to change the breed of their dog as well as the ability to get their dog back if players chose not to resurrect their dog at the end of the main storyline. The DLC includes 13 new achievements worth 250 points. It was available for 560 Microsoft Points. The DLC was met with positive criticism: "[See The Future] should be an essential purchase for Fable fans. It doesn't change things enough to win over anyone who didn't enjoy the main game, but as an expansion it extends the game in ways that are certainly worth experiencing".
As of September 2009, the entire Fable II game was available for download through Microsoft's Xbox Live Game Marketplace. When first released, the downloadable version of the game was broken up into 5 game episodes that play identical to the disc version of the game, and the first episode of the game was free to download, while Episodes 2, 3, 4, and 5 could be purchased within the game. Any player who purchased the disc version after the first episode can transfer all save data.
Currently, only the entire game can be purchased, and Episode 1 is no longer available as a demo. The downloadable version featured the complete version of the disc-based game, as well as full compatibility with the previously released game add-ons, "Knothole Island" and "See the Future".
A compilation of the Fable II disc with all the downloadable content was made available in Europe, sold as "Fable II - Game of the Year Edition" in September 2009. The "Game of the Year Edition" was made available in North America using the Platinum Hits branding in January 2010.
Reception
Critical reception
Fable II received very positive reviews from both audiences and critics.
Eurogamer welcomed the "bread crumb" trail feature in the game, "as leads you ever onwards to your next objective, but even though you can't get lost it still allows for deep exploration". OXM lauded the game as "probably the most consistent sequel ever made" and suggested combat is "great when you're winning and nothing but irritating when you're losing".
Edge ranked the game #52 on its list of "The 100 Best Games To Play Today", stating that "with a quest that tugs you through to the plot and a bucolic paradise ripe for exploration, never before has so much work been put into making sure the humble player feels special".
People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals (PETA) praised Fable II for its animal-friendly nature, giving it the Proggy Award for the most animal-friendly game of 2008, saying they enjoyed the game's pro-vegetarianism, giving the player purity points for eating non-meat products and corruption points for eating meat. However, there are also achievements encouraging players to hurt particular animals.
Sales
According to NPD, the game attained the status of best-selling title in the United States across all platforms for its debut month of October 2008 with 790,000 copies sold. Such sales volume occurred despite the game's release on 24 October consequently allowing only nine days of sales before the end of the month. The game received a "Platinum" sales award from the Entertainment and Leisure Software Publishers Association (ELSPA), indicating sales of at least 300,000 copies in the United Kingdom.
Fable II was a success, and, with approximately 3.5 million copies sold as of 11 March 2010, it is a best-selling RPG title for Xbox 360.
Awards
IGN Best of 2008:
Best Original Score (Xbox 360)
X-play's Best Game of 2008 award
Joystiq's Best Game of 2008 award
Best Action and Adventure Game of 2008, British Academy Video Games Awards
In 2010, the game was included as one of the titles in the book 1001 Video Games You Must Play Before You Die. In 2023, it was listed as the 93rd best video game of all time by a GQ poll which surveyed video game journalists across the industry.
Technical issues
A number of users, writing on the Fable II message board, have experienced technical issues with the game. The most notable were the freezing, progression bugs, and incompatibility with standard-definition television screens.
Sequel
Fable III was released on Xbox 360 in October 2010 and Microsoft Windows in May 2011.
References
External links
Official Lionhead Fable II site
Role-playing video games
Action role-playing video games
Cooperative video games
Fable (video game series)
Lionhead Studios games
Lua (programming language)-scripted video games
Microsoft games
Open-world video games
Video games about dogs
Video games developed in the United Kingdom
Video games with gender-selectable protagonists
Video game sequels
Video games scored by Danny Elfman
Video games scored by Russell Shaw
Video games with expansion packs
Xbox 360 games
Xbox Cloud Gaming games
Xbox One X enhanced games
Xbox One games
2008 video games
BAFTA winners (video games)
Multiplayer and single-player video games |
4437207 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/3rd%20Battalion%2C%207th%20Marines | 3rd Battalion, 7th Marines | The 3rd Battalion 7th Marine Regiment (3/7) is an infantry battalion of the United States Marine Corps. They are based at the Marine Corps Air Ground Combat Center Twentynine Palms and consist of approximately 800 Marines. The battalion falls under the command of the 7th Marine Regiment and the 1st Marine Division. The battalion has seen combat in World War II, the Korean War, the Vietnam War, the Gulf War and was a part of the main effort during the initial invasion of Iraq in 2003. During the Global War on Terror, the battalion saw eleven sequential combat deployments; five in support of Operation Iraqi Freedom, three in support of Operation Enduring Freedom, and three in support Operation Inherent Resolve. The unit has a long, decorated history with countless achievements. Its members were described as "true professionals" by embedded reporters during the 2003 invasion of Iraq.
Subordinate units
Headquarters and Service Company
Company I (India Company)
Company K (Kilo Company)
Company L (Lima Company)
Weapons Company
Historical Contingency Company:
Company M (Mike Company)
History
World War II
3rd Battalion 7th Marines was activated 1 January 1941 at Guantanamo Bay, Cuba and was assigned to the 1st Marine Brigade. In February 1941 they were reassigned to the 1st Marine Division.
Due to the situation in the Pacific, the 7th Marines were detached from the 1st Marine Division and sent to American Samoa with the Third Battalion being the first to arrive on 28 April 1942. Companies I and M landed at Wallis Island on 27 March 1942 along with Free French forces to deny the Island to Vichy France.
3/7 participated in the following World War II campaigns:
Guadalcanal.
New Britain.
Peleliu.
Okinawa.
After the war 3/7 participated in Operation Beleaguer in northern China from September 1945 to April 1946 and then deactivated 15 April 1946.
Korean War
The battalion was reactivated 11 September 1950 at Kobe, Japan and assigned to the 1st Marine Division. They deployed in September 1950 to the South Korea and participated in the Inchon-Seoul. Following the recapture of Seoul, the 1st Marine Division was pulled out of northwest Korea and sailed to the east coast where they landed at Wonsan in late October and began to march north towards the Yalu River.
The battalion was in Yudam-ni on the evening of 27–28 November 1950 when the Battle of Chosin Reservoir began. On the first evening, the Marines of "How Company" were overwhelmed on Hill 1403 by waves of Chinese attackers and were eventually ordered to pull back by the commanding officer (CO), Lieutenant Colonel William Harris The battalion continued to fight on the hills around Yudam-ni for the next few days until 1 December when the 5th Marines and 7th Marines were ordered to fight their way back to the 1st Marine Division's main perimeter at Hagaru-ri. The 300+ remaining members of 3/7 provided the rearguard for the two regiments as they brok eout to Hagaru-ri and were the last Marines to leave the perimeter at Yudam-ni as it was being overrun by Chinese forces 3/7 consolidated with the rest of the division at Hagaru-ri and took part in the fighting breakout towards Koto-ri where, on 7 December, all of the 1st Marine Division's regiments were together for the first time since the landing at Wonsan in October Of note during the battle, on the morning before their arrival at the Koto-ri perimeter, the battalion's CO, who during the battle was described as "coming apart" and having an "emotional breakdown and collapse", disappeared and was never seen again. After the withdrawal from Chosin the 1st Marine Division was evacuated from Hungnam.
During the rest of the war 3/7 took part in the fighting on the East Central Front and then the Western Front of the Jamestown Line. In October 1951 it performed the first battalion sized combat helicopter air assault in history in Operation Bumblebee. After the war the battalion participated in the defense of the Korean Demilitarized Zone, July 1953 to March 1955.
Vietnam War
The 3rd Battalion, along with the rest of the 7th Marines, was deployed to Vietnam from Camp Pendleton in late May 1965. The 3/7, under the command of LTC Charles H. Bodley, embarked on the amphibious ships , , and at Okinawa on 24–26 June and landed near the city of Qui Nhon on 1 July 1965.
On 18 August 1965, the 3/7 took part in Operation Starlite, the first regimental size operation by US forces since the Korean War. The 3/7, along with the 3rd Battalion, 3rd Marines, and the 2nd Battalion, 4th Marines, made a combined amphibious-helicopter assault on fortified enemy positions on the Van Tuong Peninsula. The Marines landed behind enemy lines and, after seven days of fighting, drove the Viet Cong (VC) 1st Regiment into the sea.
In January 1966, the 3/7 took part in Operation Mallard along with the 3rd Battalion, 3rd Marines. It was a sweep of the area 20 miles southwest of Da Nang, in the area later known as the Arizona Territory. While the VC did not engage in major confrontations with the Marines during Operation Mallard, the area would later be a significant battleground for the 3/7 and other Marine battalions in the years to come.
In March 1966 the battalion took part in Operation Texas. On 18 March 1966 an Army of the Republic of Vietnam (ARVN) outpost on Hill 141 west of Quang Ngai City was overrun by the People's Army of Vietnam (PAVN) 36th Regiment. A reaction/relief force was promptly put together consisting of elements from 4 Marine battalions including 3/7 and an ARVN battalion. The allied forces were inserted by ground and air on 20 and 21 March and began closing around the PAVN forces. Over the next four days, Operation Texas claimed a total of 623 known PAVN dead, but at least 57 US Marines and sailors were killed in a series of bitter fights.
Along with the 1/7, 2/7 and elements of the 26th Marines and 51st ARVN regiment, the 3/7th also took part in Operation Oklahoma Hills from March through May 1969, an operation to clear PAVN base camps and infiltration routes out of the hills and valleys southwest of Da Nang, South Vietnam's second most important city and a major base for US operations at the time.
For "conspicuous gallantry and intrepity at the risk of his life above and beyond the call of duty" and "in the face of vicious enemy fire" during a search and destroy mission in the Que Son-Hiep Duc Valley on 28 August 1969, in which he destroyed several of the enemy and silenced anti-aircraft guns and machinegunist, Lance Corporal Jose F. Jimenez of Kilo Company, 3/7, was posthumously awarded the Medal of Honor.
Persian Gulf War
During the 1990–91 Persian Gulf War, 3/7 took part in Operation Desert Storm. The battalion arrived in Jubail, Saudi Arabia, in mid-January 1991, with the mission to be a foot-mobile infiltration force. For a month from mid-February onwards, 3/7—as part of Task Force Grizzly, which mainly consisted of 3/7 and 2nd Battalion 7th Marines—took up position along a berm near the Saudi–Kuwaiti border. There, 3/7 became the lead element of all U.S. forces in the region. The battalion moved out of Saudi Arabia and into Kuwait three days before the ground offensive began on 24 February, and then became the first allied infantry force to enter Kuwait. After breaching two enemy minefields, 3/7 took over Ahmad al-Jaber Air Base, which was believed to be the main command post for all enemy forces in Kuwait. The battalion departed Saudi Arabia in early March.
Somali Civil War
From January to March 1995, elements of the battalion—namely Kilo Company, augmented with elements from India Company, Lima Company, and Weapons Company—participated in Peacetime Enforcement Operation, Operation United Shield in Somalia. The operation was the closing chapter of United Nations Operation in Somalia II (UNOSOM II). A Combined Task Force (CTF), commanded by the United States, including two ships of the Pakistan Navy, two ships of the Italian Navy and six ships of the United States Navy evacuated all UN Peacekeeping Forces from Somalia.
On 27 February 1995, minutes before midnight, the Blade executed an amphibious assault on the city of Mogadishu, part of a mechanized force consisting of about 1,800 US Marines and 350 Italian Marines. Aboard LCUs LAVs, AAVs, and LCACs the joint task force secured Mogadishu International Airport and New Port. The entire amphibious landing was complete by 0430 on the morning of 28 February, and evacuation procedures immediately commenced.
By 3 March 1995, 73 hours after the beginning of the amphibious landing, all 2,422 United Nations troops, approximately 3,800 CTF troops and over a hundred combat vehicles had withdrawn without any loss of life among any of the coalition forces.
Global War on Terror (GWOT)
Operation Iraqi Freedom
2003 - 1st Tour
3/7 was part of the main effort, and took a major role in the 2003 invasion of Iraq. The premier infantry combat unit in the world, they originally deployed in January 2003, moved north in March and reached Baghdad by April – securing several cities, military bases, terrorist training facilities, and various other objectives along the way. They then moved south for a five-month security assignment doing stabilizing operations in Karbala until September 2003. During the assignment, India Company, 3rd Battalion 7th Marines operated in Mahmudiyah, Iraq in support of Task Force Scorpion during July and August 2003. Lima Company, 3rd Battalion 7th Marines were tasked out with the training of the Iraqi Police force, intelligence gathering, disruption and dismantling of the black market weapons trade, and both daytime and clandestine operations in coalition with CIA, Delta Force, and various other units in support to carry out special assignments. Lima Company's 3rd platoon, 2nd squad, is responsible for capturing and detaining some of the highest ranking Ba'ath Party members to date during covert operations south of Baghdad. India Company's training in the Kuwaiti desert and the subsequent invasion was covered in the TV documentary Virgin Soldiers which often airs on Discovery Times and Military Channel.
2004 - 2nd Tour
After returning to the United States in September 2003, the battalion re-deployed in February 2004 to Al Qaim—in western Al Anbar Province, abutting the Syrian border. Their area of responsibility included Husaybah, the primary border-crossing point between Syria and Iraq. Increased military presence resulted in continuous fighting, including large-scale operations to retake the city of Husaybah from insurgents and local fighters in April. The Medal of Honor was posthumously awarded to Kilo Company squad leader Jason Dunham for actions in the city of Karabilah. They returned from that deployment in September 2004.
2005 - 2006 - 3rd Tour
From September 2005 to March 2006 3/7 was stationed in Ar Ramadi and made FOB Hurricane Point (HP) and Camp Ramadi their main base of operations; however most infantry units operated out of firm bases and outposts within the city. 3/7 oversaw and provided security for elections at multiple locations in Ramadi near the end of the deployment, which proved highly successful and resulted in little conflict. Elements of the battalion were engaged in firefights and rocket, mortar, and IED attacks daily throughout the entire deployment.
2007 - 4th Tour
From May 2007 to November 2007 3/7 was once again stationed in Ar Ramadi and made FOB Hurricane Point (HP) and Camp Ramadi their main base of operations. They dispersed throughout the city to increase contact with the local residents. Since the prevalence of the Anbar Awakening, 3/7 Marines began conducting counter-insurgency (COIN) missions rather than the more "kinetic" operations on previous tours.
2008 - 2009 - 5th Tour
3/7 re-deployed in support of OIF again in August 2008, once again to the Al Qaim area—in western Al Anbar Province, abutting the Syrian border. Their area of responsibility was much larger than any other time, including Husaybah to the west, all the way east to Hit. Due to status of forces agreements with the Iraqi government, operations were very limited and the battalion served in an "operational overwatch" role for the Iraqi forces. They returned from that deployment in March 2009.
Operation Enduring Freedom
2010 - 6th Tour
3/7 deployed to Helmand province, Afghanistan from March 2010 to October 2010. During this deployment, the Marines of 3/7 faced daily attacks and operated in various locations including Musa Qaleh, Marjah, and Sangin. In Sangin, 3/7 relieved the 40 Commando of the British Royal Marines and began clearing operations in some of the most dangerous areas of Afghanistan. The Marines of 3/7 encountered heavy resistance and are reported to have experienced some of the highest amounts of enemy contact during the Global War on Terrorism.
2011 - 2012 - 7th Tour
In September and October 2011, 3/7 relieved 1/5 and elements of 1/6 in both the "green" and "brown" zones of the Sangin District for a second tour in support of Operation Enduring Freedom. The battalion conducted daily security patrols along with several clearing operations in an environment heavily laced with IED's. The battalion took 9 KIA and returned home in April 2012.
2013 - 2014 - 8th Tour
In September 2013, 3/7 returned to Northern Helmand province and relieved 3rd Battalion, 4th Marines, in Afghanistan for a third tour in support of Operation Enduring Freedom. The Battalion conducted distributed operations providing support to the Afghan Security Forces with companies located in Musa Q'ala, Sangin, Kajaki and FOB Shukvani in the Southern Musa Q'ala Wadi. This deployment was much different than the two previous as the Battalion was focused on supporting the Afghan Security Forces and conducting retrograde operations by transferring the Combat Outposts to the Afghan National Army. India Co, as well as Kilo Co, tactically enabled by British SAS and Afghan Special Forces, conducted various offensive operations in 5 districts within Afghanistan.
Operation Inherent Resolve / SPMAGTF-CR-CC
2015 - 9th Tour
The Blade's inaugural Special Purpose Marine Air-Ground Task Force – Crisis Response – Central Command (SPMAGTF-CR-CC) GWOT deployment from March through October 2015.
Consisted of supporting U.S. interests throughout the United States Central Command and Combined Joint Task Force – Operation Inherent Resolve; serving in joint, disaggregated crisis response and contingency options across the 20 countries in the Area of Operations, including but not limited to Iraq, Jordan, and Kuwait. SPMAGTF-CR-CC was commanded by both 5th Marines and 7th Marines during this tenure.
A key event of this rotation involved a task force from 3/7, Task Force-"TQ" (comprising Kilo, Lima, Weapons, and H&S Marines), establishing a new US presence in al-Taqaddum, Iraq, in order to deny access and movement to ISIL holdings in Anbar province. This was discussed in American society as a sign of going back down the path to US combat "boots on the ground" in Iraq once again.
Task Force "Al-Asad" (composed largely of Kilo, Weapons, and H&S Company Marines), built partner capacity, trained, and assisted the Joint Task Force and Iraqi forces in their fight against the Islamic State in Anbar, deepening the U.S. role in efforts to halt the recent momentum of the extremists.
Battalion Operations solidified the entire Training Exercise and Employment Plan (TEEP) for 17.1, while on 15.2; returning home in October 2015.
2016 - 2017 - 10th Tour
Continuing preparation for their second bout with SPMAGTF-CR-CC, the battalion immediately executed a comprehensive pre-deployment training regimen aboard the Marine Corps Air Ground Combat Center and special-purpose non-standard schools across the United States, further capitalizing on the organic skillsets of the Marine Corps infantry battalion and lessons learned.
Deploying in October 2016, this diligent preparation effectively and directly prepared The Blade to excel across the AOR, supporting combat operations in Mosul, Iraq alongside joint and Iraqi Security Forces securing and liberating the besieged city in dense, urban street fighting against ISIL, supporting State Department and US Department of Defense initiatives in Syria fighting to disrupt ISIL and protect Internally Displaced Person (IDP) refugees around the Jordanian border, and sustained missions throughout the AOR.
The battalion returned home in April, 2017, ready for another round.
2018 - 11th Tour
From March 2018 to October 2018 the battalion once again deployed in support of Operation Inherent Resolve, 3/7 was spread across the Middle East including areas in Syria, Iraq, Afghanistan, Kuwait, and Jordan doing mainly anti–ISIL operations. A handful of men served on all three SPMAGTF-CR-CC rotations.
Medal of Honor recipients
World War II
PFC Arthur J. Jackson – 18 September 1944
PFC Wesley Phelps – 4 October 1944
Korean War
2ndLt Robert D. Reem – 6 November 1950
Sgt James E. Johnson – 2 December 1950
2ndLt George H. Ramer – 12 September 1951
SSgt William E. Shuck, Jr. – 3 July 1952
Pvt Jack W. Kelso – 2 October 1952
SSgt Lewis G. Watkins – 7 October 1952
2ndLt George H. O'Brien, Jr. – 27 October 1952
Vietnam War
LCpl Roy M. Wheat – 11 August 1967
HM3 Wayne M. Caron – 28 July 1968
LCpl Kenneth L. Worley – 12 August 1968
LCpl Lester W. Weber – 23 February 1969
LCpl Jose F. Jimenez – 28 August 1969
LCpl James D. Howe – 6 May 1970
Iraq War
Cpl Jason Dunham – 14 April 2004
Unit awards
A unit citation or commendation is an award bestowed upon an organization for the action cited. Members of the unit who participated in said actions are allowed to wear on their uniforms the awarded unit citation. 3rd Battalion, 7th Marines has been presented with the following awards:
Notable former members
Ed Bearss, Civil War Historian.
Rob Jones, served in Kilo Company during the War in Afghanistan
Chuck Robb, governor of Virginia and US Senator
In popular culture
The 1968 documentary A Face of War showed 3rd Battalion operations in Quảng Ngãi Province of Vietnam. Half the company and members of the camera crew were wounded during the filming, which took place in 1966 as U.S. commitments in Vietnam rapidly escalated.
In the 1999 film The Sixth Sense, Haley Joel Osment's character asks Bruce Willis' character, "Do you want to be a Lance Corporal in Company M, Third Battalion, Seventh Marines?" while offering him a toy soldier.
See also
List of United States Marine Corps battalions
Organization of the United States Marine Corps
Notes
http://valor.militarytimes.com/recipient.php?recipientid=23294
References
Web
3/7's official website
Infantry battalions of the United States Marine Corps
1st Marine Division (United States) |
4437256 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zooropa%20%28song%29 | Zooropa (song) | "Zooropa" is a song by Irish rock band U2, and is the opening track from their 1993 album of the same name. The song was the result of combining two pieces of music, the first of which was conceived in the studio, and the second of which was a soundcheck recording from one of the group's concert tours that was discovered by guitarist the Edge. The lyrics were written by lead vocalist Bono and describe two characters in a brightly lit city in a futuristic version of European society. Some lyrics in the song were taken directly from advertising slogans, and they also featured the phrase "dream out loud", which has appeared in other U2 media. The song touched on several themes, including moral confusion and the future of European society.
Promotional recordings of the song were released in the United States and Mexico, and the song appeared on two record charts shortly after its release in 1993. The song was briefly performed at three shows on U2's Zoo TV Tour in 1993. The band had difficulties performing it in 1993, and it was not played again until the U2 360° Tour in 2011.
The recording of the song received mostly positive reception from critics, who praised it as the album's opening track.
Background and recording
During the Zoo TV Tour in 1992, U2 were trying to create a vision of an attractive future for Europe, as opposed to a negative, dystopian image that would be found in science fiction. With recent and ongoing events in Europe, such as the Revolutions of 1989, the enlargement of the European Union, and the Bosnian War, lead vocalist Bono created a surreal vision of a European location called "Zooropa". Bono has referred to Zooropa as being a concept album, with a main theme of the exploration of interpellation within the European Union.
Bono and guitarist the Edge had been reading works by cyberpunk author William Gibson, who wrote about a futuristic urban environment known as "The Sprawl". Gibson was an influence in the texture of the song, which Bono described as "fucked up sci-fi". Bono wanted to use noise to create a visual setting for the song, similar to Gibson's futuristic world, filled with advertisements on LED displays and neon signs, as in the 1982 film Blade Runner. With "Zooropa" as the album's opening song, Bono stated that he wanted the album's music to be like "legal drugs" that would create a trip where "you come out of the other end and you feel like you've been on some kind of a journey". The closing song on the album, "The Wanderer", features Johnny Cash on vocals, and was intended on being the "antidote" to the futuristic-sounding opener.
"Zooropa" was written and recorded during the album's sessions at Windmill Lane Studios and The Factory Studios in Dublin, which took place from March to May 1993 between legs of the Zoo TV Tour. The song was created from two separate pieces of music. The first was a jam session recorded by the band in Dublin during the album's sessions. The second was a soundcheck the band had recorded a few years prior on tour in Australia or New Zealand that the Edge found while listening to cassette recordings of their soundchecks. Along with sound engineer Joe O'Herlihy, the Edge edited the best parts of the soundcheck using Sound Tools to create a song arrangement, which served as a backing track. The two-halves of the song were then edited into a stereo mix. Producer Flood created an atmospheric mix and then crossfaded it in with the song's "sombre, ethereal" introduction. The bass guitar in the intro was played by drummer Larry Mullen Jr. while the Edge was busy working on the album's guitar riffs.
Synthesizer sounds were added by producer Brian Eno on a Yamaha DX7 keyboard, including a "squishy, mad-synth sound" to create a "dovetail" connecting the different segments of the song. The Edge later added guitar tracks, as well as additional sounds to the song using an EMS Synthi A synthesiser. Once the song was almost finished, the band had doubts about the first half's backing track. Having established an arrangement for the song, they performed it again in the studio and used the new recording for the first half, while using portions of the new performance for the second half.
The band had originally intended on recording an EP during the sessions, but Zooropa eventually evolved into full-length album. "Zooropa" was one of five songs that were part of what would have become the band's EP, which also included "Babyface", "Numb", "Stay (Faraway, So Close!)", and "The Wanderer". Prior to the song's final title, it had the working title "Babble–Zooropa", as mentioned in a May 1993 issue of Hot Press, and was later titled "Zooropa I & II" in a June 1993 issue of Billboard.
Composition and themes
"Zooropa" begins with a two-minute-long introduction. As the song fades in, sustained chords are played, and a noisy collage of mainly indecipherable human voices from radio signals fades in at 0:19. The background voices include a clip of George H. W. Bush saying "Peace talks", and are referenced in the album notes as "courtesy of the advertising world". A quiet piano and bass guitar are heard above the voices, which get louder with each beat. At 1:30, the volume of the voices rises suddenly and the bass part changes. The introduction then begins to fade out fifteen seconds later, while a guitar riff played with a delay and wah-wah effect joins the mix. The riff is briefly played on its own before the bass guitar and drums join in at 2:03. This is followed by background voices saying, "What do you want?" in both English and French ("Qu'est-ce que tu veux?"), and "De quoi as-tu peur?" ("What are you afraid of?"). In response to the questions, the lyrics in the first three verses of the song consist of various advertising slogans. At 3:45, following the first three verses, a break in the song's instrumentation occurs, except for guitar, and the song returns to a state similar to the introduction's end. A rapid rhythmic synthesiser fades in and at 4:03, the drums and bass re-enter and the song assumes an increased tempo. The theme of moral confusion and uncertainty becomes present in the remaining lyrics.
The song describes two characters in a setting with a dull and grey appeal, who emerge from blinking neon signs into a brightly lit modern city. The radio sound effects in the introduction were intended to create a mood and setting for the song. DJ Carter Alan noted that the sounds seemed to draw a connection from Achtung Baby, but Bono stated that it was not intentional and that he didn't want it to have "anything to do with the past". The lyrics in "Zooropa" begin with the Audi advertising slogan "Vorsprung durch Technik" ("Advancement through technology") and the first three verses feature references to slogans for other brands, including Colgate, Daz, Fairy, and Zanussi.
Following the first three verses of advertising slogans, the song continues with the lyrics "I have no compass, and I have no map" and "No reason to get back", referring to the uncertainty of the new direction of U2's music at the time. The following verse begins with, "And I have no religion", which was included in the lyrics because Bono stated that he believes "religion is the enemy of God." A review of the album in Melody Maker compared the lyric "Uncertainty can be a guiding light" towards the end of the song to the line "If you walk away, [...] I will follow" from U2's 1980 single "I Will Follow". The reviewer stated "The man (Bono) that once had so many answers now sounds simply confused." The theme of moral confusion was first used in U2's song "Acrobat" from Achtung Baby. The coda in "Zooropa" features the lyric "dream out loud", which Bono included as a reference to "Acrobat". The phrase "dream out loud" was first used by Bono during the Lovetown Tour in 1989, and has appeared several times in U2's work since then. The phrase was also used in the song "Always" – a B-side to the "Beautiful Day" single released in 2000 — and was spoken by Bono in the PopMart: Live from Mexico City video.
Release and chart performance
"Zooropa" was the opening track from the eponymous album, and promotional recordings (promos) of the song were distributed by Island Records in the United States and Mexico. The U.S. promo features an edited version of the song that fades in at the first guitar riff (removing the intro), and the Mexico promo features the album version of the song, along with "Numb" as a second track. The cover art of the Mexico promo features the same logo from the Zooropa album cover—a sketch of the circle of stars from the Flag of Europe with an "astrobaby" figure in the middle, based on the "graffiti babyface" from the Achtung Baby album artwork. The logo represents an urban legend about a Soviet cosmonaut left floating in orbit for weeks after the collapse of the Soviet Union.
"Zooropa" was one of four songs from the album to be featured on the Billboard charts, and was the only song to chart that was not released as a single. On 24 July 1993, it appeared on the Album Rock Tracks chart at number 26, and remained on the chart for ten weeks, eventually peaking at number eight. "Zooropa" also appeared on the Modern Rock Tracks chart on 7 August 1993 at number 28, and peaked at number 13 during its eight weeks on the chart.
Live performances
During the Zoo TV Tour, clips of "Zooropa" were played during the beginning of the show. The clips included the lyric "What do you want?" repeated twice, which was displayed on video screens in various languages, and interspersed with a voice saying "It's very simple". This part of the opening segment was intended to create confusion among the audience regarding the show's message, and eventually lead to information overload. U2 performed "Zooropa" live at three consecutive concerts during the fourth leg of the Zoo TV Tour in 1993. Bono originally discussed how the song would be played live during the album's recording sessions, saying that the Edge's guitar riffs may be extended in concert. The song debuted live at a concert in Glasgow in August 1993, and was performed in the middle of the set list following "Numb". The live version was much shorter than the album version, skipping the piano intro, as well as the first three verses, starting with the line "I have no compass, and I have no map". U2 had difficulty performing the song live, which Bono acknowledged to the audience following its debut. According to the book U2 Live: A Concert Documentary, the song's first performance sounded "shaky" and needed more rehearsal, although its subsequent Zoo TV performances "sound[ed] better". Bassist Adam Clayton suggested performing the song as the show opener during the rehearsals for the tour's fifth and final Zoomerang leg, but it was not performed again on the tour.
After Zoo TV, "Zooropa" was not performed live for 18 years until it was played towards the end of the U2 360° Tour in 2011. Clayton said that adding the song to the tour's set list was "very experimental" and that it was a "bit cheeky" to introduce to the tour as the band had little experience performing it. The song debuted on the tour on 10 April 2011 in São Paulo, and was rehearsed at soundchecks several days prior. The return of the song was so popular that the word "Zooropa" became a trending topic on Twitter during the evening of its tour debut. "Zooropa" was performed at the remaining 26 concerts on the tour, in addition to a private show in Denver. , "Zooropa" has been performed live at 31 shows. During performances, the stage's 360° retractable video screen would expand its full length, and U2 would perform behind the screen as it took over the stage. The Edmonton Journal commented that by hiding themselves from the fans during the performance, the combination of advertising slogans and flickering lights "help portray this Blade Runner-type world that U2 wants us to escape." A live recording of "Zooropa" from the U2 360° Tour was featured on the U2.com member-exclusive album, U22, taken from the performance in Baltimore on 22 June 2011.
The song was not performed during the first leg of the Innocence + Experience Tour, but at the first show of the European leg in September 2015, a stripped-down version was performed during the second half of the concert. This interpretation of the song lacks the piano intro and first verses, serving as a segue from "Bullet the Blue Sky" into "Where the Streets Have No Name".
Reception
Critical reception
David Sinclair of The Times and Anthony DeCurtis of Rolling Stone both felt that "Zooropa" set the album's tone from the start. DeCurtis described Bono's singing and lyrics as a "Mephistophelean seducer". Allmusic compared "Zooropa" to the anthems of U2's The Joshua Tree album, and Entertainment Weeklys David Browne described the song as Where the Streets Have No Name' transported into the land of cyberpunk", comparing parts of the song to the techno and metallic music genres. The Independent felt "Zooropa" was "a sprawling multi-sectioned piece that drifts from two minutes of gentle radio babble into a more familiar reverb-rock structure". Jon Pareles from The New York Times said that the track was reminiscent of old U2 songs, but added new elements such as distorted vocals and repeating guitar squealing. Daily Variety praised the title track over the rest of the songs on the album, stating how it was the only song that "explores the sort of melodic range usually associated with U2".
Interpretations
Robert Vagacs, author of the book Religious Nuts, Political Fanatics: U2 in the Theological Perspective, describes the song as the antimatter of "Where the Streets Have No Name", in both musical and thematic aspects. Vagacs discusses the concept of Zooropa in detail throughout the book, and refers to Zooropa as a "wasteland" and a "dystopia", due to its lack of fulfilment and certainty. He also states how the Babylonian-like location uses its demigods to control its people through scientism, technicism, and economism. The final track from Achtung Baby, "Love Is Blindness", is described as "an interpretive bridge into the land of Zooropa", which Vagacs explains is the setting for the album, as well as the setting for songs on U2's following album, Pop. "Beautiful Day", the opening song from U2's 2000 album, All That You Can't Leave Behind, describes "a fresh start in Zooropa".
The use of consumer slogans as song lyrics was also commented on by various sources. Critic Perry Gettelman interpreted them as meaning to "signify the emptiness of modern, godless life". Kieran Keohane of York University stated that the slogans in "Zooropa" were to express an alienating form of interpellation, while J. D. Considine of The Baltimore Sun referred to the slogans as a parody of the economic hype used to pass the Maastricht Treaty, through the promising of impossibilities, such as "Be a winner" and "Eat to get slimmer". English professor Kurt Koenigsberger of Case Western Reserve University stated that the consumer advertisements constitute Zooropa as a "sardonically dystopic" location. In the book Reading Rock and Roll, Robyn Brothers said that the song conveys a "sense of confusion in the wake of a technology speeding beyond our control", while referencing the lyrics "I hear voices, ridiculous voices / I'm in the slipstream". Brothers also compared the song to "Acrobat", stating both songs reference a response to uncertainty and an unavoidable feeling of alienation.
Legacy
Zooropa producer Flood said that "Zooropa" was one of his favourite songs on the album, along with "Daddy's Gonna Pay for Your Crashed Car", "The First Time", and "Numb". Mullen felt that the song was "absolutely mesmerizing". Following the release of "Zooropa", references to the song have appeared in professional writings and in other media. On the day of the U2 concert in Sarajevo during the PopMart Tour in 1997, tour set designer Willie Williams wrote about waking up that day with "Zooropa" playing in his head and stated that Sarajevo "is the city of Zooropa, if there ever was one." José Manuel Barroso, president of the European Commission, quoted the song's lyrics at a 2005 press conference after enlisting Bono in an effort to get governments in the European Union to give more money to developing countries, and stated that the lyrics inspired an article he wrote about the future of Europe. Thomas Diez of the Copenhagen Peace Research Institute made references to "Zooropas lyrics in a 1999 book review about the history of the European Union; lyrics also appeared in a 2005 German–English dictionary, under its listing for "Vorsprung durch Technik".
Kurt Koenigsberger's book The Novel and the Menagerie mentioned "Zooropa" in a section discussing Salman Rushdie and his appearance on the Zoo TV Tour. In 2008, the word "Zooropa" was used in an international finance textbook as the name of a fictional, generic city. The book Religious Nuts, Political Fanatics lists "Zooropa" as one of 22 U2 songs for "recommended listening". A 2009 review of U2's album No Line on the Horizon, MusicRadar described the song "Magnificent" as New Year's Day' meets 'Zooropa.
Formats and track listings
Personnel
U2
Bono – vocals
The Edge – guitar, piano, synthesisers, backing vocals
Adam Clayton – bass guitar
Larry Mullen Jr. – drums, percussion, bass guitar
Additional personnel
Robbie Adams – engineering
Brian Eno – synthesisers
Flood – mixing, engineering
Rob Kirwan – engineering assistance
Willie Mannion – mixing assistance, engineering assistance
Joe O'Herlihy – second half of backing track recording at soundcheck
Charts
Notes
References
Footnotes
Bibliography
External links
"Zooropa" lyrics – U2.com
1993 songs
U2 songs
Song recordings produced by Brian Eno
Songs written by Bono
Songs written by the Edge
Songs written by Adam Clayton
Songs written by Larry Mullen Jr.
Song recordings produced by Flood (producer) |
4437430 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grand%20Theft%20Auto%20clone | Grand Theft Auto clone | A Grand Theft Auto clone (often shortened to GTA clone) is a subgenre of open world action-adventure video games, characterized by their likeness to the Grand Theft Auto series in either gameplay, or overall design. In these types of open world games, players may find and use a variety of vehicles and weapons while roaming freely in an open world setting. The objective of Grand Theft Auto clones is to complete a sequence of core missions involving driving and shooting, but often side-missions and minigames are added to improve replay value. The storylines of games in this subgenre typically have strong themes of crime, violence and other controversial elements such as drugs and sexually explicit content.
The subgenre has its origins in open world action adventure games popularized in Europe (and particularly the United Kingdom) throughout the 1980s and 1990s. The release of Grand Theft Auto (1997) marked a major commercial success for open-ended game design in North America, and featured a more marketable crime theme. But it was the popularity of its 3D sequel Grand Theft Auto III in 2001 that led to the widespread propagation of a more specific set of gameplay conventions consistent with a subgenre. The subgenre now includes many games from different developers all over the world where the player can control wide ranges of vehicles and weapons. The subgenre has evolved with greater levels of environmental detail and more realistic behaviors.
As usage of the term "clone" often has a negative connotation and can be seen as controversial, reviewers have come up with other names for the subgenre. Similar terminology for other genres, such as "[[Platform game#Naming|Donkey Kong-type]]" and "Doom clone", has given way to more neutral language. Names such as "sandbox game," however, are applied to a wider range of games that do not share key features of the Grand Theft Auto series.
Definition
A Grand Theft Auto clone is a video game that falls within the genre popularized by the 2001 title Grand Theft Auto III, where players are given the ability to drive any vehicle or fire any weapon as they explore an open world. These games are sometimes treated as a 3D action-adventure game, or third-person shooter. They are noted for frequently bearing strong violent or criminal themes, though exceptions like The Simpsons: Hit & Run and American McGee Presents: Scrapland have copied its gameplay and structure with a Teen rating. The game Lego City Undercover was released the same year as GTA V and drew similar comparisons, albeit generally positive, and was given an E10 rating.
Other terminology
Calling a game a "Grand Theft Auto clone" is sometimes considered unfair or insulting. This is because reviewers sometimes use this term to suggest that the "clone" is a mere imitation, which commonly occurs in the video game industry, designed for the sole purpose of capitalizing on the success of the Grand Theft Auto series. However, this term can also be used as a neutral description of a game, which can range from good to bad. Reviewers have used "Grand Theft Auto clone" to describe games that rest on their own merits, and do not necessarily dismiss the entire class of games as mere imitators.
Games of this type are sometimes defined under the broader terminology "open world games" or "sandbox games". However, many games that predate Grand Theft Auto III, such as Metroid from 1986, are also called open world games. Conflictingly, games such as Grand Theft Auto III and Body Harvest are credited with inventing this genre more than a decade later.i. ii. Furthermore, reviewers have stated that this genre does not include every game with a freely explorable world and that this genre is much more specific, thus excluding the free-roaming titles Spider-Man 2 and The Incredible Hulk: Ultimate Destruction from this class of games. The terminology is inconsistent, sometimes including any game with open level design, while other times focusing on a specific genre created at the turn of the century.
Without clear classifications to describe the genre popularized by Grand Theft Auto, reviewers have created a number of alternate names for this genre. Some reviewers have focused on the pervasive criminal themes and mature content in the genre, using terminology such as "crime games", "crime-based action games", and what CNN called the "gangsta genre". Other journalists have emphasized gameplay by describing the genre as "free roaming action adventure games", "driving-and-shooting games", and "driving action hybrids".
Game design
Driving and shootingGrand Theft Auto clones offer players the ability to steal and drive a number of vehicles. Games have included all kinds of vehicles, such as cars, motorcycles, helicopters, boats, fixed-wing aircraft, and military vehicles. Reviewers have compared these games based on the number of vehicles they offer, with greater choice resulting in better reviews. Players can also use vehicles as weapons, either by driving into enemies, or by damaging the vehicle until it explodes. Some games allow vehicles to perform stunts. Games in the genre thus incorporate elements of driving simulation games. Some games even allow players to customize their vehicles.
Players can engage in combat using a range of weapons depending on the game setting, such as firearms, explosives, close-range melee weapons, or even exaggerated fictional weapons (e.g. laser weapons or a hand-held minigun) . As such, several reviewers have stated that games in this genre are partially third-person shooters. Players can find weapons scattered throughout the game world, and may buy weapons in shops or take them from dead enemies. Virtually anyone in the game world can be attacked by the player. In many games, excessive violent behavior will provoke a reaction by police authorities, who the player may then choose to fight or evade. Players must also keep track of their health and ammunition in order to succeed in combat.
These games have employed a variety of aiming mechanisms, such as free look aiming or a "lock-on" button. Several games have been criticized for difficult or burdensome controls when it comes to shooting, and thus video game designers have tried to refine the aiming and shooting controls in these games.
Open world and missionsGrand Theft Auto clones allow players to freely explore the game world, which is typically on the scale of an entire city. Some games base their level design on real world cities, such as London, New York City, and Los Angeles. Players are usually able to navigate by vehicle or on foot. Some games put greater emphasis on leaping, climbing, and even swimming. Exploring the world is not just necessary to complete objectives, but also to gain valuable items, weapons, and vehicles. Different parts of the game world may be controlled by different enemy factions, who will attempt to stop the player in a variety of ways. However, more recent games in this genre allow players to acquire their own territory. The freedom of navigating a huge game world may be overwhelming or confusing for new players. Game designers have come up with a variety of navigational aids to solve this problem. A mini-map feature is common, while Saints Row and Grand Theft Auto IV go so far as to offer a GPS service. Games without these navigation tools are sometimes criticized as confusing.
The player's freedom to explore may be limited until they complete certain objectives and advance the game plot. Players must visit specific locations and complete specific missions in order to win the game, such as racing, tailing, couriering, robbing, stealing, shooting, assassinating, and driving to specific checkpoints. There may be multiple ways to complete these missions as the game environment is designed to facilitate shortcuts, experimentation, and creative ways to kill enemies. Completing a core mission will unlock further missions and advance the storyline, and if the player fails a mission they will be able to resume the game from before the mission began. In addition, these games usually offer optional side missions, which allow players to gain other rewards. These side missions improve the game's replay value. These games are also known for incorporating numerous minigames into the game world, such as circuit races. Ultimately, this allows the player to follow or ignore the game's storyline as they see fit.
History
Origin
Open world, 3D action-adventure games existed for years prior to the release of any similar game from the Scottish developer DMA Design. Mercenary (1985) has been described as a major ancestor to the Grand Theft Auto series, because it featured an open world which the player could explore freely. Turbo Esprit, the first free-roaming driving game, featured an explorable city with traffic, pedestrians and working traffic lights and has been cited as a major influence on the Grand Theft Auto series.Charlie Brooker's Gameswipe, BBC Television, 2009. "Grand Theft Auto ... directly inspried by the pioneering Spectrum game Turbo Esprit" The Terminator, released in 1991, was a free-form, open world game that set its action in a modern-day city that extended for miles, and included the ability to fire at civilians and steal cars. This game was also among the first American-developed games to feature these elements.Hunter (1991) has been described as the first sandbox game featuring full 3D, third-person graphics, thus making it an important precursor to the Grand Theft Auto series. The game consisted of a large, open world in which there were numerous possibilities to complete different missions. The character could travel on foot, or steal different vehicles such as cars, tanks, or even bicycles, boats, helicopters and hovercraft. Moreover, Hunter also had many unique features such as day and night lighting, fuel modelling, a log book, aerial observation units, tank traps, land mines and computer-controlled rocket batteries and tracer guns. It was also possible to ride a bicycle, swim, windsurf or even make a parachute jump from a helicopter.
DMA Design began pursuing open world game design with the first Grand Theft Auto, which allowed players to commandeer various automobiles and shoot various weapons within a mission-based structure. Unlike later games in the series, and indeed many earlier influences, the first two GTA games were 2D, using a top-down perspective. In 1998, DMA moved many of these design concepts into a 3D world, with Body Harvest, a Nintendo 64 game developed by DMA Design. This title featured an open world with nonlinear missions and side-quests, as well as the ability to commandeer and drive a variety of vehicles. As such, it has been retroactively called "GTA in space" (despite the fact that most of the game takes place in various settings on Earth), and is credited with making Grand Theft Auto III possible. Dan Houser has also cited the 3D Mario and Zelda games on the Nintendo 64 as major influences.
In 1999, Midtown Madness was released by Angel Studios. This driving game was 3D and featured an open world in an urban environment like Grand Theft Auto. It was however not a sandbox game, as the player could only choose one of the pre-defined gameplay modes. Travelling on foot or switching cars during gameplay was not possible. Rockstar Games approached Angel Studios with a long-term partnership in 1999, which resulted in the creation of video game series Midnight Club (another open world 3D race game) and Smuggler's Run. In November 2000, almost a year before Grand Theft Auto III, Driver 2 by Reflections came out. Set in a 3D open world in an urban environment with the ability to traverse on foot and commandeer other vehicles, Driver 2 featured many aspects of what would later become known as a Grand Theft Auto clone, though violence was restricted to cutscenes.Grand Theft Auto III took the gameplay foundation of the first two Grand Theft Auto games and expanded it into a 3D world, and offered an unprecedented variety of minigames and side-missions. The title was a much greater commercial success than its direct precursors, and its influence was profound. As such, Grand Theft Auto III is credited with popularizing this genre, let alone inventing it. Its release is sometimes treated as a revolutionary event in the history of video games, much like the release of Doom nearly a decade earlier. GamePro called it the most important game of all time, and claimed that every genre was influenced to rethink their conventional level design. IGN similarly praised it as one of the top ten most influential games of all time. Subsequent games that follow this formula of driving and shooting in a free-roaming level have been called Grand Theft Auto clones.
Other critics, however, likened Grand Theft Auto III to The Legend of Zelda and Metroid, as well as Shenmue in particular,Shenmue: Creator Yu Suzuki Speaks Out , GamesTMThe Disappearance of Yu Suzuki: Part 1, 1UP and noted how GTA III had combined elements from previous games and fused them together into a new immersive experience. For instance, radio stations had been implemented earlier in games such as Sega's Out Run (1986) and Maxis' SimCopter (1996), open-ended missions based on operating a taxi cab in a sandbox environment were the basis for Sega's Crazy Taxi (1999), the ability to kill non-player characters dated back to action role-playing games like Hydlide II (1985), and Final Fantasy Adventure (1991), and the way in which players run over pedestrians and get chased by police has been compared to Pac-Man (1980).
Recent history
One of the first games to be compared to Grand Theft Auto's foray into the 3D video game landscape was Mafia. Its development during the same time and release a year later in 2002 had a few review websites draw comparisons, notably comparing the open world city and driving. These comparisons were mostly positive, with Game Informer writing "This is a lot like GTA III. Awesome!" and "There's no shame in taking a proven gameplay formula and changing it a little bit" in its review.
Rockstar North finished development of Grand Theft Auto: Vice City later that year, which expanded on the open world concept by letting players explore the interior of more than sixty buildings. The game featured an expanded soundtrack and the voice talent of several Hollywood actors, including Ray Liotta. This set a new standard for the genre, making studio talent a pre-requisite for success. Other game developers entered the field that year, with releases such as The Getaway. The Simpsons: Hit & Run in 2003 applied the concept to a cartoon world, while True Crime: Streets of LA reversed the Grand Theft Auto formula by putting the player in the role of a police officer. Some reviewers began warning parents of the growing number of games in this genre, due to the violent themes intended for mature audiences.
Ultimately, rival developers were unable to match the reception of the Grand Theft Auto series. Rockstar North released Grand Theft Auto: San Andreas in 2004, which featured an open world on the scale of three distinct cities. The game also allowed players to customize the player-character and vehicles, as well as compete for turf by fighting with rival gangs. The continued success of the Grand Theft Auto series led to successful spin-offs, including Grand Theft Auto: Liberty City Stories in 2005, Grand Theft Auto: Vice City Stories in 2006, and the 2D Grand Theft Auto Advance for the Game Boy Advance handheld game console. A market analysis in early 2006 found that new games in this genre would have more difficulty than new first-person shooters or racing games, and noted that overall revenue for this genre declines during periods without a new Grand Theft Auto game. By 2006, developers were producing fewer games in this space, estimated at half the number seen in 2005. Grand Theft Auto clones for mobile phones were also released by a number of developers, most notably those from Gameloft's Gangstar series, the first being Gangstar: Crime City in 2006.
With the arrival of the seventh generation of video game consoles, the first "next-gen" Grand Theft Auto clones were released in 2006, beginning with Saints Row from 2006 and Crackdown from 2007 both introduced online multiplayer to the genre, a feature that had been requested by many fans. Crackdown attracted attention for being created by David Jones, the developer of the original Grand Theft Auto, and featured the ability to develop the player character's superpowers in a semi-futuristic setting. Meanwhile, The Godfather: The Game and Scarface: The World Is Yours entered the market in 2006, and attempted to apply the Grand Theft Auto formula to popular movie franchises. Still, reviewers continued to measure these games against the standard set by the Grand Theft Auto series. Grand Theft Auto IV was released in April 2008 and featured a large, detailed environment, redefining gameplay and even adopted the GPS navigation system seen in Saints Row. The game broke numerous sales records, including the record for the fastest selling game in its first 24 hours. Since its inception, this genre has evolved to include larger settings, more missions, and a wider range of vehicles. In 2010, Rockstar Games published Red Dead Redemption, an open world Western themed game. Later that year, the second entry in the Mafia series, Mafia II, was released and met with a few comparisons to Grand Theft Auto as well. On the day of Grand Theft Auto Vs release on September 17, 2013, Volition released a free downloadable content pack for Saints Row IV titled "GATV", purposely playing the similarity in the abbreviated titles to promote their game due to the confusion raised on various social networks.
Variations of the Grand Theft Auto formula have also been applied to games aimed at children and younger audiences, most notably with Lego City Undercover, first released in 2013 for the Wii U with a remastered version for Microsoft Windows, Nintendo Switch, PlayStation 4 and Xbox One released in 2017. As is with the True Crime and later Sleeping Dogs'' games, the game is role-reversed with the player taking on the role of a police officer enforcing the law, rather than of a criminal, although the player is required to commit criminal acts on some occasions in order to infiltrate criminal gangs.
See also
Vehicle simulation game
Racing game
References
Criticisms of software and websites
Clone
Video game clones
Video game genres
Video game terminology |
4437504 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automotive%20industry%20in%20India | Automotive industry in India | The automotive industry in India is the fourth-largest by production in the world as per 2022 statistics. As of 2023, India is the 3rd largest automobile market in the world in terms of sales. In 2022, India became the fourth largest country in the world by the valuation of its automotive industry.
, India's auto industry is worth more than US$100 billion and accounts for 8% of the country's total exports and 7.1% of India's GDP. According to the 2021 National Family Health Survey, barely 8% of Indian households own an automobile. According to government statistics, India has barely 22 automobiles per 1,000 people.
India's major automobile manufacturing companies includes Maruti Suzuki, Hyundai Motor India, Tata Motors, Ashok Leyland, Mahindra & Mahindra, Force Motors, Tractors and Farm Equipment Limited, Eicher Motors, Royal Enfield, Sonalika Tractors, Hindustan Motors, Hradyesh, ICML, Kerala Automobiles Limited, Reva, Pravaig Dynamics, Premier, Tara International and Vehicle Factory Jabalpur.
Brand
History
In 1897, the first car ran on an Indian road. Through the 1930s, cars were imports only, and in small numbers.
An embryonic automotive industry emerged in India in the 1940s. Hindustan Motors was launched in 1942 building Morris products, long-time competitor Premier in 1944, building Chrysler Corporation products such as Dodge and Plymouth, and beginning in the 1960s, Fiat products. Mahindra & Mahindra was established by two brothers in 1945 and began assembly of Jeep CJ-3A utility vehicles. In the same years, J. R. D. Tata, the chairman of Tata Group founded TATA Engineering and Locomotive Company (now Tata Motors) in Jamshedpur. Following independence in 1947, the Government of India and the private sector launched efforts to create an automotive-component manufacturing industry to supply to the automobile industry. In 1953, an import substitution programme was launched, and the import of fully built-up cars began to be restricted.
1947–1970
The 1952 Tariff Commission
In 1952, the Indian government appointed the first Tariff Commission, whose purpose was to come out with a feasibility plan for the indigenization of the Indian automobile industry. In 1953, the commission submitted its report, which recommended categorizing existing Indian car companies according to their manufacturing infrastructure, under a licensed capacity to manufacture a certain number of vehicles, with capacity increases allowable, as per demands, in the future. The Tariff Commission recommendations were implemented with new policies that would eventually exclude companies that only imported parts for assembly, as well as those with no Indian partner. In 1954, following the Tariff Commission implementation, General Motors, Ford, and Rootes Group, which had assembly-only plants in Mumbai, decided to move out of India.
The Tariff commission policies, including similar restrictions that applied to other industries, came to be known as the Licence Raj, which proved to be the greatest undoing of the Indian automotive industry, where bureaucratic red tape ended up causing demand to outstrip supply, with month-long waiting periods for cars, scooters, and motorcycles.
Passenger cars
Hindustan Motors was established in Kolkata in technical collaboration with Morris Motors to manufacture Morris Oxford models that would later become HM Ambassador.
Addisons, Madras – An Amalgamations Group company, was the agent for Nuffield's Morris, Wolseley, and Riley cars, and Chrysler's Plymouth, Dodge, and De Soto cars and trucks. The first Morris Minor assembled in India and the first car assembled in Madras was driven out from Addison's twin-plants on Smith Road by Anantharamakrishnan on 15 November 1950.
Premier Automobiles, Mumbai – entered into technical collaboration with Chrysler to manufacture Dodge, Plymouth and Desoto models and with Fiat to manufacture the 1100D models which would later become Premier Padmini range.
Standard Motor Products of India, Madras – entered into technical collaboration from Standard-Triumph to manufacture Standard Vanguard, Standard 8, 10 and later Standard Herald.
Utility and light commercial vehicles
Vehicle Factory Jabalpur – started manufacturing Jonga Light Utility Vehicles and Vahan 1 Ton (Nissan 4W73 Carriers) in India, under license from Nissan of Japan. They were the main troop carriers of the Indian Armed Forces and much more powerful than any other vehicle of their class.Also, Nissan Power Wagon was added to their line.
Mahindra & Mahindra plant established in Mumbai – technical collaboration with Willys to manufacture CJ Series Jeep.
Bajaj Tempo, Pune, now Force Motors – entered into technical collaboration with Tempo to manufacture Tempo Hanseat, a three-wheeler and Tempo Viking and Hanomag, later known as Tempo Matador in India.
Standard Motor Products of India – entered into technical collaboration from Standard and had licence to manufacture the Standard Atlas passenger van with panel van and one-tonne pickup variants.
Medium and heavy commercial vehicles
Tata Motors established a new plant in Pune with technical collaboration with Mercedes Benz to manufacture medium to heavy commercial vehicles both Bus and Trucks.
Vehicle Factory Jabalpur started manufacturing Shaktiman trucks with technical assistance from MAN SE of Germany. The trucks were the main logistics vehicle of the Indian Army with several specialist variants. VFJ still is the sole supplier of B vehicles to the Indian Armed Forces.
Heavy Vehicles Factory was established in 1965 in Avadi near Chennai to produce tanks in India. Since its inception, HVF has produced all the tanks of India, including Vijayanta, Arjun, Ajeya, Bhishma and their variants for the Indian Army. HVF is the only tank manufacturing facility of India.
Ashok Leyland was founded in Chennai with Leyland Motors to manufacture medium to heavy commercial vehicles both Bus and Trucks. Ashok Motors also discontinued its Austin venture formed in 1948 to sell Austin A40 and retooled the factory to make trucks and buses.
Hindustan Motors – had technical collaboration with General Motors to manufacture the Bedford range of medium lorry and bus chassis.
Premier Automobiles – entered into technical collaboration with Chrysler to manufacture the Dodge, Fargo range of medium lorry, panel vans, mini-bus, and bus chassis.
Simpsons & Co, Madras – part of Amalgamations Group (TAFE Tractors) – had technical collaboration with Ford to manufacture medium lorry and bus chassis, but did not utilise that option until the 1980s.+
Scooters, mopeds and motorcycles
Many of the two-wheelers manufacturers were granted licenses in the early 1960s, well after the tariff commission was enabled.
Royal Enfield (India), Madras – had technical collaboration with Royal Enfield, UK to manufacture the Enfield Bullet range of motorcycles.
Bajaj Auto, Poona – had technical collaboration with Piaggio, Italy to manufacture their best-selling Vespa range of scooters and three-wheelers with commercial options as well.
TVS Motors, Madurai/Chennai - started individually and later had technical collaboration with Suzuki Motors, before finally buying them out of the JV.
Automobile Products of India, Bombay (Better known for API Lambretta) – had a technical collaboration with Innocenti of Milan, Italy to manufacture their Lambretta range of mopeds, scooters and three-wheelers. This company was actually the Rootes Group car plant that was bought over by M. A. Chidambaram family.
Mopeds India Limited, Tirupathi – had technical collaboration with Motobécane, France to manufacture their best selling Mobylette mopeds.
Escorts Group, New Delhi – had technical collaboration with CEKOP of Poland to manufacture the Rajdoot 175 motorcycle whose origin was DKW RT 125.
Ideal Jawa, Mysore – entered into technical collaboration with CZ - Jawa of Czechoslovakia for its Jawa and Yezdi range of motorcycles.
However, growth was relatively slow in the 1950s and 1960s, due to nationalisation and the license raj, which hampered the growth of the Indian private sector.
1970 to 1983
The beginning of the 1970s didn't see growth potential; and most of the collaboration license agreements came to an end, but with the option to continue manufacturing with renewed branding. Cars were still meant for the elite and Jeeps, now owned by American Motors Corporation, were largely used by government organizations and in some rural regions. By the end of the decade, some developments were made in commercial vehicle segments to facilitate the movement of goods. The two-wheeler segment remained unchanged except for increased sales to the middle class in urban areas. There was an emphasis on having more farm tractors, as India was embarking on a new Green Revolution; and Russian and Eastern bloc imports were brought in to meet the demand.
But after 1970, with restrictions on the import of vehicles set, the automotive industry started to grow; but the growth was mainly driven by tractors, commercial vehicles, and scooters. Cars still remained a major luxury item. In the 1970s, price controls were finally lifted, inserting a competitive element into the automobile market. However, by the 1980s, the automobile market was still dominated by Hindustan and Premier, who sold superannuated products in fairly limited numbers. The rate of car ownership in 1981 was about one in every thousand citizens – understandable when the annual road tax alone cost about half the average income of an Indian at the time.
During the eighties, a few competitors began to arrive on the scene. Of the 30,487 cars built in India in 1980, all but six came from the two main players Hindustan and Premier: Standard had led a shadow existence in the latter half of the 1970s, producing only a handful of cars to keep their license active. A new contender was tiny Sipani, which had tried building locally developed three-wheeled vehicles since 1975 but introduced the Reliant Kitten-based Dolphin in 1982. Nonetheless, all eyes were on Maruti, which caused a major upheaval to the Indian automobile industry.
The OPEC oil crisis saw increase need to installing or redesign some vehicle to fit diesel engines on medium commercial vehicle. Until the early 1970s Mahindra Jeeps were on Petrol and Premier commercial vehicles had Petrol model options. The Defence sector too had most trucks on Petrol engines.
1984 to 1992
From the end of the 1970s to the beginning of the 1980s India saw no new models, the country continuing to depend on two decades-old designs. The Sipani Dolphin, which arrived in 1982, was not a serious contender, with its plastic body and without rear doors - essential to Indian car buyers. This situation forced the government to encourage and let more manufacturers into fray.
In 1984 AVANI was established in Medak near Hyderabad. It started manufacturing Infantry Combat Vehicles christened as Sarath, the backbone of India's mechanised infantry. AVANI is still the only manufacturing facility of ICVs in India. To manufacture the high-power engines used in ICVs and main battle tanks, the Engine Factory was set up in 1987 in Avadi, near Chennai. In 1986, to promote the auto industry, the government established the Delhi Auto Expo. The 1986 Expo was a showcase for how the Indian automotive industry was absorbing new technologies, promoting indigenous research and development, and adapting these technologies for the rugged conditions of India.
Post-1992 liberalisation
Eventually multinational automakers such as Suzuki and Toyota of Japan and Hyundai of South Korea were allowed to invest in the Indian market, furthering the establishment of an automotive industry in India. Maruti Suzuki was the first and the most successful of these new entries, in part the result of government policies to promote the automotive industry beginning in the 1980s. As India began to liberalise its automobile market in 1991, a number of foreign firms also initiated joint ventures with existing Indian companies. The variety of options available to the consumer began to multiply in the nineties, whereas before there had usually only been one option in each price class. By 2000, there were 12 large automotive companies in the Indian market, most of them offshoots of global companies.
Slow export growth
Exports were slow to grow. Sales of small numbers of vehicles to tertiary markets and neighbouring countries began early, and in 1987 Maruti Suzuki shipped 480 cars to Europe (Hungary). After some growth in the mid-nineties, exports once again began to drop as the outmoded platforms provided to Indian manufacturers by multinationals were not competitive. This was not to last, and today India manufactures low-priced cars for markets across the globe. As of 18 March 2013, global brands such as Proton Holdings, PSA Group, Kia, Mazda, Chrysler, Dodge and Geely Holding Group were shelving plans for India due to the competitiveness of the market, as well as the global economic crisis.
Emission norms
In 2000, in line with international standards to reduce vehicular pollution, the central government unveiled standards titled "India 2000", with later, upgraded guidelines to be known as Bharat Stage emission standards. These standards are quite similar to the stringent European emission standards and have been implemented in a phased manner.
Bharat Stage IV (BS-IV) was first implemented in 13 cities — Agra, Ahmedabad, Bengaluru, Chennai, Delhi (NCR), Kanpur, Kolkata, Lucknow, Hyderabad, Mumbai, Pune, Surat, Solapur — in April 2010, and then in the rest of the nation in April 2017.
In 2019, in line with international standards to reduce vehicular pollution, the central government of India announced the introduction of BS-VI norms to control air pollution, taking effect from 1 April 2020.
Local manufacture encouraged
India levies an import tax of 125% on foreign imported cars, while the import tax on components such as gearboxes, airbags, drive axles is 10%. The taxes are intended to encourage cars to be assembled in India rather than be imported as completely built units.
Sub-4-metre rule
In 2006, the government of India imposed a new tax structure, which massively impacted the segment. It enables vehicles shorter than to qualify for a significantly lower excise duty, which is 8 percent as opposed to 20 percent for longer vehicles. Tata Motors was the first to exploit the new tax structure, which redesigned the rear portion of the Indigo sedan, dropping its length to and renamed it as the Indigo CS. The model became significantly cheaper, becoming one of the largest selling three-box cars in the country. Other manufacturers quickly adapted, which led to the release of the shorter Suzuki Swift Dzire, the new Honda Brio Amaze, and others.
Manufacturing facilities
The majority of India's car manufacturing industry is evenly divided into three "clusters". Around Chennai is the largest, with a 35% revenue share, accounting for 60% of the country's automotive exports, and home of the operations of Heavy Vehicles Factory, Engine Factory Avadi, Ford, Hyundai, Renault, Mitsubishi, Nissan, BMW, Hindustan Motors, Daimler, Caparo, Mini, Citroën and Datsun.
Near Mumbai, Maharashtra, along the Chakan corridor near Pune, is the western cluster, with a 33% share of the market. Audi, Volkswagen, and Škoda are located in Aurangabad. Mahindra and Mahindra has an SUV and engine assembly plant at Nashik. General Motors, Tata Motors, Mercedes Benz, Land Rover, Jaguar, Fiat, and Force Motors have assembly plants in the area.
The northern cluster is around the National Capital Region, and contributes 30%. Gurgaon, Manesar and Kharkhoda in Haryana, are where the country's largest car manufacturer, Maruti Suzuki, is based.
An emerging cluster is the state of Gujarat, with a manufacturing facility of MG Motors in Halol, Atul Auto in Rajkot, Ford, Oculus Auto in Sabarkantha, Maruti Suzuki, and Peugeot-Citroën plants are also planned for Gujarat.
Uttarakhand with Tata Motors, Telangana with Hyundai, Ordnance Factory Medak, Hyderabad Allwyn and Mahindra & Mahindra, Noida with Honda, and Bengaluru - Karnataka region with Toyota, Volvo and Scania, Andhra with Isuzu and Kia and Kolkata - Jamshedpur belt also known as East India belt with companies such as Hindustan Motors, Heavy Engineering Corporation, Tata Hitachi Construction Machinery, TIL Tractos, Tata Daewoo and Tata Motors are other automotive manufacturing regions around the country.
Andhra Pradesh
Commercial and passenger vehicles
Isuzu Motors India – Sri City
Kia India – Penukonda (Anantapur)
Ashok Leyland - Vijayawada
Two wheelers
Hero MotoCorp – Satyavedu
Off-highway vehicles
Kobelco Cranes – Sri City
Gujarat
Haryana
Two wheelers
Hero MotoCorp – Dharuhera, Rewari
Honda Motorcycle & Scooter India – Manesar
India Yamaha Motor – Faridabad
Suzuki – Gurugram
Passenger vehicles
Maruti Suzuki – Gurugram, Manesar & Kharkhoda
Commercial vehicles
Action Construction Equipment – Faridabad
Escorts Group – Faridabad
JCB India – Faridabad
Omega Seiki Mobility – Faridabad
Agricultural Vehicles
Escorts Group – Faridabad
Kubota Corporation – Faridabad
Himachal Pradesh
Two wheelers
TVS Motor – Nalagarh
Passenger vehicles
ICML motors – Amb
Commercial vehicles
TAFE Tractors – Parwanoo
Jharkhand
Commercial vehicles
Tata Motors – Jamshedpur
Karnataka
Two wheelers
TVS Motor – Mysuru
Honda Motorcycle & Scooter India Pvt. Ltd. - Narsapura
Passenger vehicles
Mahindra Reva Electric Vehicles – Bengaluru
Toyota Kirloskar Motor Private Limited – Bidadi
Commercial vehicles
Bharat Earth Movers - Bengaluru & Mysuru
Scania Commercial Vehicles India Private Limited – Bengaluru
TAFE Tractors – Doddaballapur
Tata Motors – Dharwad
VE Commercial Vehicles Limited - Bengaluru
Kerala
Commercial vehicles
Bharat Earth Movers – Palakkad
Kerala Automobiles Limited – Thiruvananthapuram
Madhya Pradesh
Two wheelers
Mahindra & Mahindra – Pithampur
Commercial vehicles
Vehicle Factory – Jabalpur
Eicher Motors – Pithampur
Hindustan Motors – Pithampur
Force Motors Private Limited – Pithampur
TAFE Tractors – Mandideep
John Deere Tractors – Dewas
CASE Construction Equipment - Pithampur
Maharashtra
Two wheelers
Bajaj Auto – Chakan (Pune) & Waluj, Aurangabad
KTM Sportmotorcycles – Chakan (Pune)
India Kawasaki Motors – Chakan (Pune)
Vespa Scooters – Baramati (Pune)
Passenger vehicles
Mahindra & Mahindra Automotive Division – Nashik, Chakan (Pune)
Tata Motors Limited
Tata Motors – Pimpri Chinchwad (Pune)
Jaguar Cars – Pimpri Chinchwad (Pune) Pune
Land Rover - Pimpri Chinchwad, (Pune).
Mercedes-Benz Passenger Cars – Chakan (Pune)
Jeep India – Ranjangaon (Pune)
Volkswagen Group Sales India Private Limited (Pune)
Volkswagen – Chakan (Pune)
Skoda Auto - Chakan (Pune), Shendra, Aurangabad
Audi AG – Shendra, Aurangabad
Commercial vehicles
Ashok Leyland – Bhandara
Bajaj Auto (Pune) – Waluj, Aurangabad
Force Motors – Chakan (Pune)
Mahindra Navistar – Chakan, (Pune)
Piaggio Vehicles – Baramati (Pune)
Eicher (VE Commercial Vehicles Ltd.) – Thane.
Sany India – (Pune).
Hyundai Construction Equipment – Chakan (Pune).
Caterpillar – Banda, Sindhudurg.
John Deere Tractors – Sanaswadi (Pune).
Dynapac Road Construction – Phulgaon (Pune)
Wirtgen India pvt ltd, bhandgav (pune ) (Road construction)
Punjab
Commercial vehicles
SML Isuzu – Nawanshahar
Swaraj Tractors – Mohali.
Sonalika Tractor – Hoshiarpur
Preet Tractor – Nabha
Standard Tractors – Barnala
Rajasthan
Two Wheelers
Honda Motorcycle & Scooter India – Tapukara
Hero Motocorp – Neemrana
Okinawa Autotech
Passenger vehicles
Honda Cars India Ltd. – Tapukara
Commercial vehicles
Ashok Leyland – Alwar
TAFE Tractors – Alwar
Tamil Nadu
Two wheelers
TVS Motor – Hosur
BMW Motorrad – Hosur
Royal Enfield – Chennai
India Yamaha Motor – Oragadam, Chennai
Ola Electric – Krishnagiri
Ather Energy – Hosur
Simple Energy – Hosur
Ampere Electric – Ranipet, Chennai
Sri Varu Motors – Coimbatore
Boom Motors - Coimbatore
Raptee Energy - Chennai
Aventose Energy - Chennai
Passenger vehicles
BMW India – Mahindra World City, New Chennai
MINI India – Mahindra World City, New Chennai
Hyundai Motor India Limited – Sriperumbudur, Chennai
Renault Nissan Automotive India Private Limited
Nissan Motor India Private Limited – Oragadam, Chennai
Renault India Private Limited – Oragadam, Chennai
Datsun – Oragadam, Chennai
Citroën India – Tiruvallur, Chennai
BYD India Pvt. Ltd – Sriperumbudur, Chennai
New Energy Wagon Pvt. Ltd - Tiruppur
Commercial vehicles
Schwing Stetter India – Chennai
Komatsu India Private Limited – Oragadam, Chennai
Daimler India Commercial Vehicles Private Limited – Oragadam, Chennai
Caterpillar – Tiruvallur, Chennai
Heavy Vehicles Factory – Avadi, Chennai
Ashok Leyland Limited
Ennore, Chennai – trucks, buses, engines, axles etc.
Hosur – three adjacent plants (Hosur-1, Hosur-2, CPPS) for trucks, special vehicles and power units.
Sengadu Village, Kanchipuram – technical and production facility for Ashok Leyland Defence Systems
KamAZ Vectra Motors – Hosur
VST Tillers Tractors Ltd – Hosur
SAME Deutz-Fahr Tractors – Ranipet, Vellore
TAFE Tractors – Chennai, Madurai
TVS Motor – Hosur
Force Motors – Chennai
Terex India Private Limited – Hosur
Doosan Bobcat India Private Limited – Chennai
Mauto Electric Mobility Pvt. Ltd – Chennai
E Royce Motors India Pvt Ltd – Coimbatore
REEP Motors – Maraimalai Nagar, Chennai
DP Auto India Pvt Ltd - Tiruchirapalli
SWITCH Mobility Automotive Ltd - Chennai
Telangana
Defence
Armoured Vehicles Nigam Limited – Medak
Commercial vehicles
Hyundai – Hi Tech city
Mahindra and Mahindra – Zaheerabad
Deccan auto Limited – Patancheru
Uttar Pradesh
Two wheelers
India Yamaha Motor – Greater Noida
Commercial vehicles
Tata Motors – Lucknow
New Holland – Greater Noida
J.S. Auto (P) LTD. – Kanpur
Uttarakhand
Commercial vehicles
Ashok Leyland – Pantnagar
Tata Motors – Pantnagar
Mahindra & Mahindra – Haridwar
Two wheelers
Hero MotoCorp – Haridwar
Bajaj Auto – Pantnagar
West Bengal
Commercial vehicles
Tata Hitachi Construction Machinery – Kharagpur
Exports
India's automobile exports have grown consistently and reached $4.5 billion in 2009, with the United Kingdom being India's largest export market, followed by Italy, Germany, the Netherlands, and South Africa.
According to The New York Times, India's strong engineering base and expertise in the manufacturing of low-cost, fuel-efficient cars has resulted in the expansion of manufacturing facilities of several automobile companies like Hyundai, Nissan, Toyota, Volkswagen, and Maruti Suzuki.
In 2008, South Korean multinational Hyundai Motors alone exported 240,000 cars made in India. Nissan Motors planned to export 250,000 vehicles manufactured in its India plant by 2011. Similarly, US automobile company, General Motors had announced its plans to export about 50,000 cars manufactured in India by 2011.
In September 2009, Ford Motors announced its plans to set up a plant in India with an annual capacity of 250,000 cars, for US$500 million. The cars were manufactured both for the Indian market and for export. The company said that the plant was a part of its plan to make India the hub for its global production business. Fiat Motors had announced that it would source more than US$1 billion worth auto components from India.
In 2009, India (0.23m) surpassed China (0.16m) as Asia's fourth largest exporter of cars after Japan (1.77m), Korea (1.12m) and Thailand (0.26m).
In July 2010, The Economic Times reported that PSA Peugeot Citroën was planning to re-enter the Indian market and open a production plant in Andhra Pradesh that would have an annual capacity of 100,000 vehicles, investing €700M in the operation. PSA's intention to utilise this production facility for export purposes however remains unclear as of December 2010.
In recent years, India has emerged as a leading center for the manufacture of small cars. Hyundai, the biggest exporter from the country, now ships more than 250,000 cars annually from India. Apart from Maruti Exports' shipments to Suzuki's other markets, Maruti Suzuki also manufactures small cars for Nissan, which sells them in Europe. Nissan will also export small cars from its new Indian assembly line. Tata Motors exports its passenger vehicles to Asian and African markets, and is preparing to sell electric cars in Europe in 2010. The firm is planning to sell an electric version of its affordable car the Tata Nano in Europe and in the U.S. In the 2000s, Mahindra & Mahindra prepared to introduce its pickup trucks and small SUV models in the U.S. market, but canceled its plans. As of 2019, it is assembling and selling an off-road vehicle (Mahindra Roxor; not certified for road use) in limited numbers in the U.S. It is also sold in Canada. Bajaj Auto is designing a low-cost car for Renault Nissan Automotive India, which will market the product worldwide. Renault Nissan may also join domestic commercial vehicle manufacturer Ashok Leyland in another small car project. While the possibilities for the Indian automobile industry are impressive, there are challenges that could thwart future growth. Since the demand for automobiles in recent years is directly linked to overall economic expansion and rising personal incomes, industry growth will slow if the economy weakens.
Top 10 export destinations
India exported $14.5 billion worth of automobiles in 2014. The 10 countries below imported 47.8% of that total.
Exports of Vehicles in India decreased to US$1478.68 Million in 2020 from US$11332.49 Million in 2019.
Passenger vehicle manufacturers in India
India is the 4th largest passenger vehicle producer in the world. In 2018–19, it produced 4.06 million cars. Currently, there are an estimated 30 million cars in India.
This list is of cars that are officially available and serviced in India.
Indian brands
Models currently manufactured by Indian brands
Mahindra: Bolero, Scorpio, Thar, Bolero Neo, KUV100NXT, Marazzo, Alturas G4, XUV300, XUV700
Tata Motors: Xenon, Tiago, Tigor, Tigor EV, Nexon, Nexon EV, Harrier, Altroz, Safari, Punch
Force Motors: Force Gurkha
Defunct Indian brands
Hindustan Motors - the company still exists, but no longer manufactures automobiles
Sipani Automobiles
Standard Motor Products of India Limited
Joint-venture (JV) brands
Maruti Suzuki (subsidiary of Japanese auto maker Suzuki) Alto K10, Eeco, Wagon R, Swift, Dzire, Ertiga, Celerio, Ciaz, Brezza, Baleno, Ignis, XL6, S-Presso, Grand Vitara, Jimny, Fronx, Super Carry, Invicto
Foreign-owned brands
MG, Hyundai, Renault, Nissan, Citroën, Jeep, Honda, Toyota, KIA, Volkswagen, Škoda, Audi, Mercedes-Benz, BMW and MINI are the foreign automotive companies that manufacture and market their products in India.
Vehicles currently manufactured in India
Audi India: A4, A6, Q5, Q7
BMW India: 3 Series, 5 Series, X1, X3, X4, X5, X7
Citroën India: C3, C3 Aircross, C5 Aircross, ëC3
Honda Cars India: Amaze, City, Elevate
Hyundai Motor India: Grand i10 Nios, i20, Alcazar, Aura, Creta, Exter, Tucson, Venue, Verna
Isuzu Motors India: D-Max
Jaguar (subsidiary of Tata Motors): XE, XF
Jeep: Compass, Grand Cherokee, Meridian, Wrangler
Kia India: Carens, Seltos, Sonet
Land Rover (subsidiary of Tata Motors): Range Rover Evoque
MG Motor India: Astor, Comet EV, Gloster, Hector, Hector Plus, ZS EV
Mercedes-Benz India: C-Class, E-Class, EQS, S-Class, V-Class, GLC-Class, GLE-Class
MINI: Countryman
Nissan Motor India: Magnite
Renault India: Kiger, Kwid, Triber
Škoda Auto India: Kushaq, Kodiaq, Slavia
Toyota Kirloskar Motor: Innova Crysta, Innova Hycross, Fortuner, Camry, Glanza, Belta (exports only), Rumion (exports only), Urban Cruiser Hyryder, Hilux, Vitz (exports only), Lexus ES300h
Volkswagen India: Virtus, Taigun, Tiguan
Peugeot stopped selling passenger cars in India in 1997.
Daewoo Motors stopped selling passenger cars in India in 2003.
Opel was present in India until 2006. As of 2013, Opel only provides spare parts and vehicle servicing to existing Opel vehicle owners.
General Motors India stopped producing Chevrolet passenger cars for the Indian market in late 2017.
Fiat left the Indian market in 2018.
Mitsubishi Motors stopped selling passenger cars in India in the late 2010s.
Ford India stopped producing passenger cars for the Indian market in late 2021.
Nissan stopped selling Datsun passenger cars in India in 2022.
Statistics
Auto companies
Indian brands
AMW
Ashok Leyland
Atul Auto
Oculus Auto
Bajaj Auto
Eicher Motors
Force
Hindustan Motors
Mahindra & Mahindra
Premier
Tata Motors
Omega Seiki Mobility
Maruti Suzuki
Joint-venture (JV) brands
Ashok Leyland - originally a JV between Ashok Motors (owned by the Hinduja Group) and Leyland Motors, now joint ventures between Ashok Leyland and Nissan Motors (Japan) for LCV's; and John Deere (USA) for construction equipment.
KamAZ Vectra - A JV between Russia's KamAZ and the Vectra Group
MAN Force - A JV between Force Motors and MAN AG (Germany)
SML Isuzu - originally, as Swaraj Mazda, a JV between Punjab Tractors and Mazda, now 53.5% owned by Sumitomo Group and with its current name since 2011.
VE Commercial Vehicles Limited - VE Commercial Vehicles limited - A JV between Volvo Group and Eicher Motors Limited.
Foreign-owned brands
BharatBenz (Owned by Daimler AG of Germany and affiliated with Daimler's Fuso and Mercedes-Benz brands)
Caterpillar Inc.
DAF
Isuzu
Iveco
J. C. Bamford (JCB) (Owned by British multinational corporation J. C. Bamford).
KamAZ
MAN
Mercedes-Benz - manufactures luxury coaches in India.
Piaggio
Rosenbauer
Scania
Tatra
Volvo
Defunct commercial vehicle manufacturers of India
Automobile Products of India or API - founded in 1949 at Bombay (now Mumbai), by the British company Rootes Group, and later bought by M. A. Chidambaram of the MAC Group from Madras (now Chennai). The company manufactured Lambretta scooters, API Three Wheelers under licence from Innocenti of Italy and automobile ancillaries, notably clutch and braking systems. API's registered offices were earlier in Mumbai, later shifted to Chennai, in Tamil Nadu. The manufacturing facilities were located in Mumbai and Aurangabad in Maharashtra and in Ambattur, Chennai. The company has not been operational since 2002.
Escorts Yamaha - in 1984 Escorts formed a joint venture with Yamaha to manufacture motorcycles. In 2008 became India Yamaha Motor.
Hero Motors is a former moped and scooter manufacturer based in Delhi, India. It is a part of multinational company Hero Group, which also currently owns Hero Motocorp (formerly Hero Honda) and Hero Cycles, among others. Hero Motors was started in the 1960s to manufacture 50cc two-stroke mopeds but gradually diversified into making larger mopeds, mokicks and scooters in the 1980s and the 1990s. Noteworthy collaborators and technical partners were Puch of Austria and Malaguti of Italy. Due to tightening emission regulations and poor sales, Hero motors have discontinued the manufacture of all gasoline powered vehicles and transformed itself into an electric two-wheeler and auto parts manufacturer.
Ideal Jawa - motorcycle company based in Mysore, sold licensed Jawa and ČZ motorcycles beginning in 1960 under the brand name Jawa and later Yezdi.
Kinetic Honda - a joint venture between Kinetic Engineering Limited, India and Honda Motor Company, Japan. The joint venture operated during 1984 - 1998, manufacturing 2-stroke scooters in India. In 1998, the joint venture was terminated after which Kinetic Engineering continued to sell the models under the brand name Kinetic until 2008 when the interests were sold to Mahindra.
Mopeds India Limited - produces the Suvega range of Mopeds under technical collaboration with Motobécane of France.
Standard - produced by Standard Motor Products in Madras from 1949 to 1988. Indian Standards were variations of vehicles made in the U.K. by Standard-Triumph.Standard Motor Products of India Ltd. (SMPI) was incorporated in 1948, and their first product was the Vanguard, which began to be assembled in 1949. The company was dissolved in 2006 and the old plant torn down.
Tatra Vectra - Initial truck partnership with India by Vectra. Replaced by KamAZ. Tatra trucks for sale in India are now manufactured in collaboration with Bharat Earth Movers Limited.
Electric vehicle and Hybrid vehicle (xEV) industry
During April 2012, the Indian government planned to unveil the road map for the development of domestic electric and hybrid vehicles (xEV) in the country. A discussion between the various stakeholders, including Government, industry, and academia, was expected to take place during 23–24 February. The final contours of the policy would have been formed after this set of discussions. Ministries such as Petroleum, Finance, Road Transport, and Power are involved in developing a broad framework for the sector. Along with these ministries, auto industry executives, such as Anand Mahindra (Vice Chairman and managing director, Mahindra & Mahindra) and Vikram Kirloskar (Vice-chairman, Toyota Kirloskar), were involved in this task. The Government has also proposed to set up a Rs 740 crore research and development fund for the sector in the 12th five-year plan during 2012–17. The idea is to reduce the high cost of key imported components such as the battery and electric motor, and to develop such capabilities locally. In the year 2017, An Amaravati, Andhra Pradesh based Electric Vehicles manufacturing company called AVERA New & Renewable Energy started electric scooters manufacturing and are ready to launch their two models of scooters by the end of December 2018.
Electric cars are seen as economical long-term investments, as one doesn't need to purchase gas, but needs only to recharge the battery, using renewable energy sources. According to the United States Department of Energy, electric cars produce half as much emissions as compared to a gas-powered car. According to The Economic Times, 60% of Indian customers expect fuel prices to go up in the next 12 months and 58% expect to buy a new car in the same time frame. Most consumers are looking to buy a car which gives good mileage. According to the same source, 68% of Asian drivers expect higher mileage from their cars due to the higher fuel prices. This has encouraged 38% of Indian automobile consumers to switch to electric or hybrid cars. Due to this change in the market, many companies, such as Toyota, have planned to introduce electric vehicles in India; and Suzuki has tested almost 50 electric prototypes in India already, according to Mashable.In 2019 Hyundai Launched India's First Electric Car Kona Electric .
Electric vehicle manufacturers in India
Ather Energy
Raptee Energy
Ajanta Group.
Bajaj Auto
Oculus Auto
Hero Electric
Hyundai
Mahindra
Reva, now Mahindra Reva Electric Vehicles.
MG Motor
Tara International
Omega Seiki Mobility
Tata Motors
TVS Motor Company
Revolt Motors
Ola Electric
Oben Electric
Simple Energy
Okinawa Autotech
Ultraviolette Automotive
Rugged ( A Wholly owned subsidiary of eBikeGo )
Dandera technologies
Euler motors
Pravaig Dynamics
EKA mobility (EKAM)
Evage
Growth initiatives
Automotive Research Association of India and standards
The Government of India felt the need for a permanent agency to expedite the publication of standards and development of test facilities in parallel with the work of the preparation of the standards - as the development of improved safety critical parts could be undertaken only after the publication of the standard and commissioning of test facilities. The Ministry of Surface Transport (MoST) constituted a permanent Automotive Industry Standards Committee (AISC) . The Standards prepared by AISC will be approved by the permanent CMVR Technical Standing Committee (CTSC). After approval, the Automotive Research Association of India (ARAI) will publish this standard.
Intelligent Transport Systems (ITS) are globally proven systems to optimize the utilization of existing transport infrastructure and improve transportation systems in terms of efficiency, quality, comfort and safety. Having realized the potential of ITS, Government bodies and other organizations in India are presently working towards implementing various components of ITS across the country.
The first step taken for creation and implementation of ITS was holding a National Workshop titled "User Requirements for Interactive ITS Architecture", which was conducted as a collaboration between SIAM and ASRTU on 26 & 27 February 2015. This was primarily focused on ITS in Public Bus Transportation. Nonetheless, the workshop helped to create the outline for "National Intelligent Transport System Architecture and Policy for Public Transport (Bus)", which was submitted by ASRTU and SIAM to the government
In the 44th & 45th CMVR-TSC, Chairman had directed - standardization activities to be initiated on Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITS) - Vehicle Location Tracking, Camera Surveillance System and Emergency Request Button. The committee intended to extend the above user requirements to all public transportation namely –buses, taxis, etc. The current document covers the requirements for Vehicle Location Tracking and Emergency Button. The other ITS components like PIS, CCTV system, Fare collection etc. are deliberated and would be addressed in later phase and could be added as separate parts to the current document.
Based on these directions, the AISC Panel on ITS has prepared this AIS-140 titled,"Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITS) - Requirements for Public Transport Vehicle Operation". The panel also deliberated and identified the necessary elements for an effective implementation of vehicle level ITS system.
For AIS-140 Devices, in India, connectivity to report location, and Emergency Panic Button signal is though wireless cellular connectivity. There are device focused Cellular Connectivity Offerings like 'eSIM4Things' available in India, which cater to connectivity requirements of AIS-140 devices. eSIM4Things is fully compatible with all AIS-140 devices and with a connectivity manager and a range of tariff plans.
Driverless Technology in India
While there is controversy on possibility of driverless cars in India, many startups are working on this technology:
Flux Auto
FishEyeBox
Hi Tech Robotic Systemz
EC Mobility Pvt. Ltd.
ATImotors
Netradyne
Swaayat Robots
Auro Robotics
OmniPresent Robotics
Mahindra & Mahindra
SeDrica 1.0
In Auto Expo 2018, Hi Tech Robotic Systemz launched an artificial intelligence-based driver behaviour sensor technology called Novus Aware in partnership with Daimler India Commercial Vehicles (DICV).
Performance-linked incentives scheme for future tech
Automotive sector is part of 13 sectors that GoI has introduced Rs 1.97 lakh cr (US$28 b) performance-linked incentives (PLI) schemes for five years in 2021-22 budget. In Sept 2021, to boost the automotive industry with the newer and green technology the Government of India (GoI) launched 3 PLI schemes, a Rs. 26,000 cr (US$3.61 b) scheme for production of electric vehicles and hydrogen fuel vehicles (PEVHV), the Rs 18,000 crore (US$2.5 b) "Advanced Chemistry Cell" (ACC) scheme for new generation advance storage technologies which are useful for the electric vehicles, and Rs 10,000 crore (US$1.4 b) "Faster Adaption of Manufacturing of Electric Vehicles" (FAME) scheme to go green by expediting production of more electronic vehicles and replacement of other types of existing vehicles with the greener vehicles. The Rs. 26,000 cr (US$3.61 b) PLI scheme to boost automotive sector to boost the production of electric vehicles and hydrogen fuel vehicles will also generate 750,000 direct jobs in auto sector. These schemes will reduce pollution, climate change, carbon footprint, reduce oil and fuel import bill through domestic alternative substitution, boost job creation and economy. Society of Indian Automobile Manufacturers welcomed this as it will enhance the competitiveness and boost growth.
See also
Automobile industry
Automotive Industry Standards, the automotive regulations of India
Electric vehicle industry in India
Electronics and semiconductor manufacturing industry in India
Hydrogen economy in India
Hydrogen internal combustion engine vehicle
Lists of automobile-related articles
List of car brands
List of truck manufacturers
List of motorcycle manufacturers (Category)
List of scooters - List of scooter manufacturers
List of countries by motor vehicle production
List of countries by vehicles per capita
List of Asian cars
List of automobile manufacturers of China
List of Japanese cars
List of vehicle plants in India
List of car magazines
References
Bibliography
Black, Anthony, et al. "The political economy of automotive industry development policy in middle income countries: A comparative analysis of Egypt, India, South Africa and Turkey." (2020). online
Dhawan, Rajat, et al. "The auto component industry in India: Preparing for the future." (McKinsey & Company, (Sep 2018). online
Haneesh, Gaddipati Raama, and Abhishek Venkteshwar. "The Impact of Covid-19 on the Automotive Industry in India." International Journal of Management (IJM) 12.4 (2021). online
Kamala, T.N. & Doreswamy, A.G. (2007). Strategies for Enhancing Competitiveness of Indian Auto Component Industries . Indian Institute of Management Kozhikode.
Remesh, Babu P. "Re-reading the ‘Auto-revolution’in India with a Labour Lens: Shifting Roles and Positions of State, Industry and Workers." in Changing Contexts and Shifting Roles of the Indian State (Springer, Singapore, 2019) pp. 175-189.
Rengamani, J. "A Study On The Factors Influencing The Job Stress Of Production Engineers In The Automobile Companies In Chennai." International Journal of Mechanical and ProductionEngineering Research and Development (IJMPERD) 8#5 (2018) pp. 427-436 online
Saha, Priya, And Aruna Sharma. "Creating Value Through Customer Relationship Management In The Automotive Industry In India." CLEAR International Journal of Research in Commerce & Management 11.9 (2020).
Shrestha, Shahadave. "Supplier development in Indian auto industry: Case of Maruti Suzuki India Limited." The Bulletin of the Graduate School, Soka University 39 (2019): 1-15. online
Sureshkrishna, G., and D. Simanchala. "Occupational stress and job satisfaction: A Study of Automotive Industry in India." International Journal of Mechanical Engineering and Technology (IJMET) 9.2 (2018): 690-97.
Uppal, Nishant. "CEO narcissism, CEO duality, TMT agreeableness and firm performance: An empirical investigation in auto industry in India." European Business Review'' (2020). online
External links |
4437640 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nadine%20Labaki | Nadine Labaki | Nadine Labaki ( Nādīn Labikī; born February 18, 1974) is a Lebanese and Canadian actress, director, and activist. Labaki first came into the spotlight as an actress in the early 2000s. Her filmmaking career began in 2007 after the release of her debut film, Caramel, which premiered at the Cannes Film Festival. She is known for demonstrating everyday aspects of Lebanese life and covering a range of political issues such as war, poverty, and feminism. She is the first female Arab director to be nominated for an Oscar in the category for Best Foreign Language Film for third directorial effort, Capernaum (2018).
Early life
Labaki was born in Baabdat, Mount Lebanon Governorate, Lebanon, to a Maronite family to Antoine and Antoinette Labaki. Her father is an engineer while her mother is a homemaker. She spent the first seventeen years of her life living in a war-torn environment, until 1991 when the civil war in Lebanon had ended. Early in life, she learned the art of storytelling from her uncle, who was the family hakawati (storyteller). Her grandfather also owned a small theatre in Lebanon where she found her love for film. She began her career with Studio El Fan, a Lebanese talent show, in 1990. The show aired during the 1970s, which continued through to the early 2000s. At the talent show, Labaki won a prize for directing various music video productions.
Seeking safety from the war in Lebanon, Labaki spent three years in Montreal beginning around 1989, and she obtained Canadian citizenship.
Labaki obtained a degree in audiovisual studies at Saint Joseph University in Beirut. In 1997, she directed her graduation film, 11 Rue Pasteur, which won the Best Short Film Award at the Biennale of Arab Cinema at the Arab World Institute in Paris. Labaki is unique among her fellow Lebanese and Arab Film Makers in that she was not educated or trained abroad.
In 1998, she attended a workshop in acting at the Cours Florent in Paris. With her sister Caroline Labaki as executive producer, she went on to direct advertisements and music videos for renowned Middle Eastern singers, for which she won several awards. Striving to project the contemporary Lebanese woman, she "created examples of Lebanese women who were very at ease in their bodies."
Career
Director
In 2003, Labaki's name began to become more popular within the Arab media. 2003 was also the year when she began directing music videos for singer Nancy Ajram. The song, "Akhasmak ah" (Yes, I'll fight you), sparked controversy due to its scenes of sexually suggestive dancing. Ajram's female character, who serves as a waitress to male customers, was seen as inappropriate and too evocative. Labaki defended her script, stating that Ajram was actually portraying an "assertive and powerful female figure". Labaki and Ajram worked to redefine the image of the current Arab woman as feminine, alluring and in control. Ajram continued to collaborate with Labaki on her music videos, "Ya Salam," "Lawn Ouyounak" and "Inta Eih." The three videos were awarded with best music video honors.
In 2005, Labaki took part in the Cannes Film Festival Residence for six months. During that time, she wrote Caramel, her first feature film. In 2006, she directed and played one of the leading roles in Caramel, which showcases a Beirut that most people are not familiar with. Rather than tackle political issues that have plagued Lebanon, she presents a comedy that deals with five Lebanese women in Beirut who gather at a beauty salon and deal with issues related to love, sexuality, tradition, disappointment, and everyday ups and downs. The film premiered at the Directors' Fortnight at the Cannes Film Festival in 2007, which was a commercial success in the summer of that same year. It sold worldwide and collected important prizes at many festivals around the world, garnering Labaki much acclaim both as a director and actress. It also put her on Variety's 10 Directors to Watch list at the Sundance Film Festival. In 2008, the French Ministry of Culture and Communication gave her the Insignia of Chevalier in the Order of Arts and Letters.
In 2010, Labaki directed and starred in her second feature film, Where Do We Go Now? The film humorously tackles a delicate subject about a war-ravaged Middle Eastern village in which Muslim and Christian women try to keep their men from starting a religious war. The idea for this film first came about when Labaki was pregnant with her son in 2008. At that time, Lebanon was at the brink of its most violent turmoil in decades. The inter-religious conflict led to outbursts in the streets of Beirut. Labaki speaks of friends becoming enemies due to religious differences. Preparing for motherhood, she began to ponder what extreme lengths mothers would go to to prevent their sons from obtaining arms and taking to the streets to fight. This one idea sparked the narrative of this film, in which an entire town of women begin a mission to prevent the men from brutally killing each other. The story takes place in Lebanon, although never explicitly stated. Labaki's reasoning for this was that "the film is universal... this conflict does not only happen in Lebanon. I see it everywhere . . . We are scared of each other as human beings." Similar to Caramel, her second feature casts non-professional actors. In effort to heighten the reality, Labaki states that "normal people deserve to be on the big screen."
The film premiered at the Cannes Film Festival in the Un Certain Regard category in 2011. The film won the Cadillac people's choice award at the Toronto International Film Festival. It also collected many other awards in festivals around the world, like Cannes Film Festival, San Sebastián International Film Festival, Stockholm Film Festival, and Doha Tribeca Film Festival. The film was also nominated for the best foreign film at the Critics Choice Awards in Los Angeles. During its opening weekend, the film hit the largest ever admissions total for an Arabic-speaking film in Lebanon, amounting to 21,475 admissions for a total of $153,358.
In late 2013, Nadine Labaki started work on her third feature film called Capernaum which was selected to compete for the Palme d'Or at the 2018 Cannes Film Festival. The film tells the story of a 12-year-old boy living in the slums of Beirut. He strives to sue his parents for bringing him into a world of suffering and negligence of children. Labaki wrote the screenplay along with Jihad Hojeily, Michelle Kesrouani, Georges Khabbaz and her husband, Khaled Mouzanar. Mouzanar further produced the film and composed the music. The title Capernaum, means 'chaos'.
For three years prior to writing, Labaki extensively researched the city's children to gather accounts of their experiences, stories and pasts. She used mostly non-professional actors for this film, including lead child actor Zain Al Rafeea, who was found in one of the slums playing with friends, a Syrian refugee himself. Although a rather anti-classical style of filmmaking, Labaki deems her system as "very organic." She strived to provide these "forgotten children" with a voice and use her cinematic tools to ignite a lasting change.
Labaki's style of cinematography uses cinematic conventions, such as illuminations, atmosphere lighting, and silence to help convey the meaning in her films. Despite the often dangerous political situations, Labaki continues to write and direct films that do not focus on conflict.
Capernaum won the Jury Prize at Cannes, and Labaki won Best Directing at the 12th Asia Pacific Screen Awards.
She was selected to be on the jury for the Un Certain Regard section of the 2015 Cannes Film Festival.
Following the success of Capernaum, Creative Artists Agency (CAA) signed Labaki in all areas, but she continues to be represented in France by Art Media Agency.
Her movie Capernaum was nominated in the foreign-language Oscars category, which was a first for a female director in 2019. She is the first female Arab director to ever be nominated for an Oscar for Best Foreign Language Film.
In collaboration with the UNHCR and UNICEF, Zain Al Rafeea and his family have been resettled in Norway. He and his siblings are attending school for the first time in their lives with a hope of regaining their childhoods. This, says Labaki, is the greatest reward.
Actress
Nadine Labaki started acting in short films during the early 2000s. She starred in Zeina Durra's The Seventh Dog. The work won the audience award at the Circuito Of Venice International Short Film Festival in 2006.
In 2006, Labaki starred in "Bosta," a Lebanese musical comedy. The film was a box office success, outgrossing "Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire."
In the same year, Labaki acted in her first feature film, Caramel.
Labaki starred in Stray Bullet, directed by Georges Hachem in 2010.
She appears in the Moroccan production Rock The Casbah, directed by Laila Marrakchi, alongside actors Hiam Abbas and Lubna Azabal.
She has also performed in her films Where Do We Go Now? and Capernaum.
Labaki often casts herself in her movies. She feels, "When I act with the people I cast, they feel more comfortable. I like to improvise a lot, and when I am in the film, it's like directing the scene from the inside."
Jury
In 2021, she was selected as jury member at 11th Beijing International Film Festival for Tiantan Awards.
Themes and directing style
Themes
Growing up during the Lebanese Civil War, Labaki's films are informed by her experiences of political unrest in her home country, often exploring themes of violence and trauma.
Labaki's films challenge apathy towards important issues, such as the refugee crisis and poverty. Though themes of war and tragedy are prevalent in Labaki's works, so is humor. Her films cover the Lebanese Civil War and the lasting impacts it had on the country. Her experiences impacted Labaki personally, as well as how it shaped her film-making. As a director, she feels that she has to do something good for her country. She then decided that talking about problems such as poverty and the refugee crisis is important. FF2 Media covered a Q&A with Labaki in 2018 about her movie Capernaum, which received an Oscar nomination for Best Foreign Language Film of the Year (as well as 34 other wins and 46 other nominations). While trying to brainstorm concepts for the script, her team came up with ideas that she wanted to include, such as "child labor, migrant labor rights, children's rights, the absurdity of having to have the papers to prove that you exist, the absurdity of borders, and early marriage". She believes that “Cinema can be a way to [create] change.” She has stated that politics and art are intertwined and that her films are her own “way of revolt”. According to Labaki, "sometimes, a line in a film, or a scene can make you think about yourself, about your decisions. By touching your hearts films can offer hope more than politics". Labaki's films have no solutions for the issues Lebanon faces, but she hopes that her films will "simply shake audiences out of their chronic lethargy". She has stated that her film-making and activism are the same, believing that cinema can effect social change.
Another common theme in her work is feminism and the female narrative. She does this by focusing on the everyday lives of women in the Middle East in her films.
Through her films, Nadine Labaki connects themes from the Arab world and the Western world. Her transnational feminism highlights ordinary women affected by complex realities deeply rooted in decades of political turmoil.
Style
Labaki's films are often cast with non-professional actors. She often finds men, women, and children who live in the real neighborhoods shown on screen where they re-enact scenes from their own experiences, often in some of Beirut's grittiest slums. Labaki does this to make the film as realistic as possible. Labaki is also known for spending long periods to research and pick the cast for her films. She immerses herself in the lives of her subjects and spent four years researching her subject and the mistreated children in Beirut. For her film Capernaum, she gave her actors minimal direction and used hand-held cameras to capture life in the streets of Lebanon. For her film Caramel, she spent almost a year searching for women who resembled her characters. She purposely did not want professional actors, she explained, and the spontaneity of each authenticates the plot of women supporting each other as they cope with their problems. The filmmaker amassed months of raw footage, which she later edited down to just over two hours.
Labaki states that she was inspired by the photo of a 3-year-old Syrian refugee whose lifeless body sparked outrage around the world. Stating, "I remember thinking if this child could talk, what would he say, and how would he address the adults that killed him?" she says. "I wanted to become their voice, their vehicle for them to express themselves."
In a 2012 interview with Jan Lisa Huttner from FF2 Media, Labaki said: "I have a problem with injustice. I have a problem with seeing the wrong things around me and just not saying anything about them". She likes to address relevant issues and portray them through her art, be it acting, directing, or even dance. Her movie Where Do We Go Now? heavily incorporates dance, and in the same interview with FF2 Media, she mentioned that she has a background of being a dancer.
Personal life
Labaki is multilingual, fluent in Arabic, French, English and Italian. In 2007, she married Lebanese musician and composer Khaled Mouzanar. In 2009, Nadine Labaki gave birth to her first boy, Walid. Seven years later (2016), Labaki gave birth to a daughter, Mayroun.
In 2016, Labaki received an honorary degree from the American University of Beirut and was the speaker at the 150th Commencement Ceremony.
Politics
Nadine Labaki was a candidate on the list of the new political movement Beirut Madinati for the capital's May 2016 local election. Beirut Madinati focuses on social justice and the good of the public utilizing a diverse group of citizens as representatives.
Despite achieving about 40% of the popular vote, the movement lost against its opponent, the 'Beirutis' list' supported by Saad Hariri, in all 6 out of 12 wards, but did not gain a single seat under the election's one-district First-past-the-post system.
Filmography
As a director
Caramel or Sukkar Banat. Premiered at the 2007 Cannes Film Festival. (See Caramel for a list of awards and nominations).
Where Do We Go Now? released and premiered as part of the Un Certain Regard section at the 2011 Cannes Film Festival.
Rio, I Love You segment: O Milagre
Capernaum (2018) premiered at Cannes 2018 in the feature film competition, and won the jury prize, along with many other awards from other international festivals, among them the Cinema for Peace Most Valuable Movie of the year Award in 2019.
As an actress
Ramad (Ashes) – a short film by Joanna Hadjithomas and Khalil Joreige (2003)
The Seventh Dog – a short film by Zeina Durra
Non métrage Libanais (2003) – a short film by Wissam Smayra; Role as Nina
Bosta – a long feature by Philippe Aractingi; Role as Alia
Caramel or Sukkar Banat (2007) – Role as Layale
Stray Bullet (2010) – Role as Noha
Al Abb Wal Gharib The Father And The Foreigner (2010) by Ricky Tognazzi
Where Do We Go Now? (2011) – Role as Amale
Rock The Casbah (2013)
Mea Culpa (2014)
Rio, I Love You (2014) – Role as self
La Rançon de la gloire (2014)
The Idol (2015)
Capernaum (2018) – Role as Nadine
1982 (2019) – Yasmine
Costa Brava, Lebanon (2021)
Perfect Strangers (2022)
Awards and nominations
|-
! scope="row 1" | 2020
| Bodil Awards
| Best Non-American Film
| Capernaum
|
|
|-
! scope="row 2" | 2020
| Danish Film Awards (Robert)
| Best Non-English Language Film
| Capernaum
|
|
|-
! scope="row 3" | 2020
| Guldbagge Awards
| Best Foreign Film
| Capernaum
|
|
|-
! scope="row 4" | 2019
| Academy Awards
| Best Foreign Language Film of the Year
| Capernaum
|
|
|-
! scope="row 5" | 2019
| Golden Globes
| Best Motion Picture – Foreign Language
| Capernaum
|
|
|-
! scope="row 6" | 2019
| BAFTA Awards
| Best Film Not in the English Language
| Capernaum
|
|
|-
! scope="row 7" | 2019
| Alliance of Women Film Journalists
| Best Non-English Language Film
| Capernaum
|
|
|-
! scope="row 8" | 2019
| Alliance of Women Film Journalists
| Best Woman Director
| Capernaum
|
|
|-
! scope="row 9" | 2019
| Amanda Awards, Norway
| Best Foreign Feature Film
| Capernaum
|
|
|-
! scope="row 10" | 2019
| Awards Circuit Community Awards
| Best Foreign Language Film
| Capernaum
|
|
|-
! scope="row 11" | 2019
| César Awards, France
| Best Foreign Film
| Capernaum
|
|
|-
! scope="row 12" | 2019
| FEST International Film Festival
| Best Director
| Capernaum
|
|
|-
! scope="row 13" | 2019
| Globes de Cristal Awards, France
| Best Foreign Film
| Capernaum
|
|
|-
! scope="row 14" | 2019
| Kinema Junpo Awards
| Best Foreign Film
| Capernaum
|
|
|-
! scope="row 15" | 2019
| Latino Entertainment Journalists Association Film Awards
| Best Foreign Language Film
| Capernaum
|
|
|-
! scope="row 16" | 2019
| Palm Springs International Film Festival
| Best Foreign Language Film
| Capernaum
|
|
|-
! scope="row 17" | 2019
| Rotterdam International Film Festival
| IFFR Audience Award
| Capernaum
|
|
|-
! scope="row 18" | 2019
| The Lebanese Movie Awards
| Best Lebanese Director – Motion Picture
| Capernaum
|
|
|-
! scope="row 19" | 2019
| The Lebanese Movie Awards
| Best Ensemble Cast In A Lebanese Motion Picture
| Capernaum
|
|
|-
! scope="row 20" | 2019
| The Lebanese Movie Awards
| Best Writing In A Lebanese Motion Picture
| Capernaum
|
|
|-
! scope="row 21" | 2019
| Vilnius International Film Festival
| Best Feature Film
| Capernaum
|
|
|-
! scope="row 22" | 2019
| Young Artist Awards
| Humanitarian Award
| Capernaum
|
|
|-
! scope="row 23" | 2018
| Adelaide Film Festival
| Best Feature
| Capernaum
|
|
|-
! scope="row 24" | 2018
| Antalya Golden Orange Film Festival
| Best Film – Youth Jury Film Prize
| Capernaum
|
|
|-
! scope="row 25" | 2018
| Antalya Golden Orange Film Festival
| Best Film – Golden Orange
| Capernaum
|
|
|-
! scope="row 26" | 2018
| Asia Pacific Screen Awards
| Achievement in Directing
| Capernaum
|
|
|-
! scope="row 27" | 2018
| British Independent Film Awards
| Best International Independent Film
| Capernaum
|
|
|-
! scope="row 28" | 2018
| Calgary International Film Festival
| US/International Narrative Feature
| Capernaum
|
|
|-
! scope="row 29" | 2018
| Calgary International Film Festival
| Fan Favourite Award
| Capernaum
|
|
|-
! scope="row 30" | 2018
| Cannes Film Festival
| Jury Prize
| Capernaum
|
|
|-
! scope="row 31" | 2018
| Cannes Film Festival
| Prize of the Ecumenical Jury
| Capernaum
|
|
|-
! scope="row 32" | 2018
| Cannes Film Festival
| Prix de la citoyenneté
| Capernaum
|
|
|-
! scope="row 33" | 2018
| Cannes Film Festival
| Palme d'Or
| Capernaum
|
|
|-
! scope="row 34" | 2018
| Festival international du cinema francophone en Acadie
| Best Feature Film
| Capernaum
|
|
|-
! scope="row 35" | 2018
| Festival international du cinema francophone en Acadie
| Public Choice Award
| Capernaum
|
|
|-
! scope="row 36" | 2018
| Ghent International Film Festival
| North Sea Port Audience Award
| Capernaum
|
|
|-
! scope="row 37" | 2018
| Melbourne International Film Festival
| Best Narrative Feature
| Capernaum
|
|
|-
! scope="row 38" | 2018
| Mill Valley Film Festival
| World Cinema
| Capernaum
|
|
|-
! scope="row 39" | 2018
| Montréal Festival of New Cinema
| Peace Award
| Capernaum
|
|
|-
! scope="row 40" | 2018
| Norwegian International Film Festival
| Best Film
| Capernaum
|
|
|-
! scope="row 41" | 2018
| Sarajevo Film Festival
| Best Feature Film
| Capernaum
|
|
|-
! scope="row 42" | 2018
| St. Louis International Film Festival
| TV5MONDE Award for Best International Film
| Capernaum
|
|
|-
! scope="row 43" | 2018
| Stockholm Film Festival
| Best Screenplay
| Capernaum
|
|
|-
! scope="row 44" | 2018
| Stockholm Film Festival
| Best Film
| Capernaum
|
|
|-
! scope="row 45" | 2018
| São Paulo International Film Festival
| Best Feature Film
| Capernaum
|
|
|-
! scope="row 45" | 2018
| São Paulo International Film Festival
| Best Foreign Fiction
| Capernaum
|
|
|-
! scope="row 46" | 2017
| Chicago Film Critics Association Awards
| Best Foreign Language Fiction
| Capernaum
|
|
|-
! scope="row 47" | 2012
| Murex D'Or
| Best Lebanese Film Award
| Where Do We Go Now?
|
|
|-
! scope="row 48" | 2011
| Cannes Film Festival
| Prize of the Ecumenical Jury – Special Mention
| Where Do We Go Now?
|
|
|-
! scope="row 49" | 2011
| Cannes Film Festival
| François Chalais Award
| Where Do We Go Now?
|
|
|-
! scope="row 50" | 2011
| Cannes Film Festival
| Un Certain Regard Award
| Where Do We Go Now?
|
|
|-
! scope="row 51" | 2011
| Oslo Films from the South Festival
| Audience Award
| Where Do We Go Now?
|
|
|-
! scope="row 52" | 2011
| Oslo Films from the South Festival
| Silver Mirror Award
| Where Do We Go Now?
|
|
|-
! scope="row 53" | 2011
| San Sebastián International Film Festival
| Best European Film
| Where Do We Go Now?
|
|
|-
! scope="row 54" | 2011
| Stockholm Film Festival
| Best Script
| Where Do We Go Now?
|
|
|-
! scope="row 55" | 2011
| Stockholm Film Festival
| Best Film
| Where Do We Go Now?
|
|
|-
! scope="row 56" | 2011
| Toronto International Film Festival
| People's Choice Award
| Where Do We Go Now?
|
|
|-
! scope="row 54" | 2009
| Argentinean Film Critics Association Awards
| Best Foreign Film, Not in the Spanish Language
| Caramel
|
|
|-
! scope="row 55" | 2008
| Dublin Film Critics Circle Awards
| Best Actress
| Caramel
|
|
|-
! scope="row 57" | 2008
| Dublin Film Critics Circle Awards
| Breakthrough Artist
| Caramel
|
|
|-
! scope="row 58" | 2007
| Asia Pacific Screen Awards
| Achievement in Directing
| Caramel
|
|
|-
! scope="row 59" | 2007
| Asia Pacific Screen Awards
| Best Performance by an Actress
| Caramel
|
|
|-
! scope="row 60" | 2007
| Cannes Film Festival
| Golden Camera
| Caramel
|
|
|-
! scope="row 61" | 2007
| Cannes Film Festival
| C.I.C.A.E. Award
| Caramel
|
|
|-
! scope="row 62" | 2007
| Oslo Films from the South Festival
| Best Feature
| Caramel
|
|
|-
! scope="row 63" | 2007
| San Sebastián International Film Festival
| Audience Award
| Caramel
|
|
|-
! scope="row 64" | 2007
| San Sebastián International Film Festival
| Youth Jury Award
| Caramel
|
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|-
! scope="row 65" | 2007
| San Sebastián International Film Festival
| Sebastiane Award
| Caramel
|
|
|-
! scope="row 66" | 2007
| Stockholm Film Festival
| FIPRESCI Prize
| Caramel
|
|
|-
! scope="row 67" | 2007
| Paris Biennal of Arab Cinema
| Best Short Film – Fiction
| 11 Rue Pasteur
|
|
|}
Other work
In 2014, Labaki was the goodwill ambassador for the bilingual and multimedia campaign produced by The Brave Heart Fund (BHF). Based out of the Children's Heart Center at the American University of Beirut Medical Center, the BHF creates awareness and helps to fund operations and procedures for underprivileged children with Congenital Heart Disease.
References
External links
Official fan page
1974 births
Living people
Lebanese women film directors
21st-century Lebanese actresses
Lebanese film directors
Lebanese Maronites
Lebanese screenwriters
Women screenwriters
Female music video directors
Saint Joseph University alumni
Lebanese film actresses
Lebanese music video directors
People from Matn District
Lebanese feminists
Asia Pacific Screen Award winners
Canadian women film directors
Canadian music video directors
Lebanese emigrants to Canada
Film directors from Montreal
Naturalized citizens of Canada |
4437777 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akinetopsia | Akinetopsia | Akinetopsia (Greek: a for "without", kine for "to move" and opsia for "seeing"), also known as cerebral akinetopsia or motion blindness, is a term introduced by Semir Zeki to describe an extremely rare neuropsychological disorder, having only been documented in a handful of medical cases, in which a patient cannot perceive motion in their visual field, despite being able to see stationary objects without issue. The syndrome is the result of damage to visual area V5, whose cells are specialized to detect directional visual motion. There are varying degrees of akinetopsia: from seeing motion as frames of a cinema reel to an inability to discriminate any motion. There is currently no effective treatment or cure for akinetopsia.
Signs and symptoms
Akinetopsia can be separated into two categories, "inconspicuous akinetopsia" or "gross akinetopsia", based on symptom severity and the amount the akinetopsia affects the patient's quality of life.
Inconspicuous akinetopsia
Inconspicuous akinetopsia is often described by seeing motion as a cinema reel or a multiple exposure photograph. This is the most common kind of akinetopsia and many patients consider the stroboscopic vision as a nuisance. The akinetopsia often occurs with visual trailing (palinopsia), with afterimages being left at each frame of the motion. It is caused by prescription drugs, hallucinogen persisting perception disorder (HPPD), and persistent aura without infarction. The pathophysiology of akinetopsia palinopsia is not known, but it has been hypothesized to be due to inappropriate activation of physiological motion suppression mechanisms which are normally used to maintain visual stability during eye movements (e.g. saccadic suppression).
Gross akinetopsia
Gross akinetopsia is an extremely rare condition. Patients have profound motion blindness and struggle in performing the activities of daily living. Instead of seeing vision as a cinema reel, these patients have trouble perceiving gross motion. Most of what is known about this extremely rare condition was learned through the case study of one patient, LM. LM described pouring a cup of tea or coffee difficult "because the fluid appeared to be frozen, like a glacier". She did not know when to stop pouring, because she could not perceive the movement of the fluid rising. LM and other patients have also complained of having trouble following conversations, because lip movements and changing facial expressions were missed. LM stated she felt insecure when more than two people were walking around in a room: "people were suddenly here or there but I have not seen them moving". Movement is inferred by comparing the change in position of an object or person. LM and others have described crossing the street and driving cars to also be of great difficulty. LM started to train her hearing to estimate distance.
A change in brain structure (typically lesions) disturbs the psychological process of understanding sensory information, in this case visual information. Disturbance of only visual motion is possible due to the anatomical separation of visual motion processing from other functions. Like akinetopsia, perception of color can also be selectively disturbed as in achromatopsia. There is an inability to see motion despite normal spatial acuity, flicker detection, stereo and color vision. Other intact functions include visual space perception and visual identification of shapes, objects, and faces. Besides simple perception, akinetopsia also disturbs visuomotor tasks, such as reaching for objects and catching objects. When doing tasks, feedback of one's own motion appears to be important.
Causes
Brain lesions
Akinetopsia may be an acquired deficit from lesions in the posterior side of the visual cortex. Lesions more often cause gross akinetopsia. The neurons of the middle temporal cortex respond to moving stimuli and hence the middle temporal cortex is the motion-processing area of the cerebral cortex. In the case of LM, the brain lesion was bilateral and symmetrical, and at the same time small enough not to affect other visual functions. Some unilateral lesions have been reported to impair motion perception as well. Akinetopsia through lesions is rare, because damage to the occipital lobe usually disturbs more than one visual function. Akinetopsia has also been reported as a result of traumatic brain injury.
Transcranial magnetic stimulation
Inconspicuous akinetopsia can be selectively and temporarily induced using transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) of area V5 of the visual cortex in healthy subjects. It is performed on a 1 cm² surface of the head, corresponding in position to area V5. With an 800-microsecond TMS pulse and a 28 ms stimulus at 11 degrees per second, V5 is incapacitated for about 20–30 ms. It is effective between −20 ms and +10 ms before and after onset of a moving visual stimulus. Inactivating V1 with TMS could induce some degree of akinetopsia 60–70 ms after the onset of the visual stimulus. TMS of V1 is not nearly as effective in inducing akinetopsia as TMS of V5.
Alzheimer's disease
Besides memory problems, Alzheimer's patients may have varying degrees of akinetopsia. This could contribute to their marked disorientation. While Pelak and Hoyt have recorded an Alzheimer's case study, there has not been much research done on the subject yet.
Antidepressants
Inconspicuous akinetopsia can be triggered by high doses of certain antidepressants with vision returning to normal once the dosage is reduced.
Areas of visual perception
Two relevant visual areas for motion processing are V5 and V1. These areas are separated by their function in vision. A functional area is a set of neurons with common selectivity and stimulation of this area, specifically behavioral influences. There have been over 30 specialized processing areas found in the visual cortex.
V5
V5, also known as visual area MT (middle temporal), is located laterally and ventrally in the temporal lobe, near the intersection of the ascending limb of the inferior temporal sulcus and the lateral occipital sulcus. All of the neurons in V5 are motion selective, and most are directionally selective. Evidence of functional specialization of V5 was first found in primates. Patients with akinetopsia tend to have unilateral or bi-lateral damage to the V5.
V1
V1, also known as the primary visual cortex, is located in Brodmann area 17. V1 is known for its pre-processing capabilities of visual information; however, it is no longer considered the only perceptually effective gateway to the cortex. Motion information can reach V5 without passing through V1 and a return input from V5 to V1 is not required for seeing simple visual motion. Motion-related signals arrive at V1 (60–70 ms) and V5 (< 30 ms) at different times, with V5 acting independently of V1. Patients with blindsight have damage to V1, but because V5 is intact, they can still sense motion. Inactivating V1 limits motion vision, but does not stop it completely.
Ventral and dorsal streams
Another thought on visual brain organization is the theory of streams for spatial vision, the ventral stream for perception and the dorsal stream for action. Since LM has impairment in both perception and action (such as grasping and catching actions), it has been suggested that V5 provides input to both perception and action processing streams.
Case studies
Potzl and Redlich's patient
In 1911, Potzl and Redlich reported a 58-year-old female patient with bilateral damage to her posterior brain. She described motion as if the object remained stationary but appeared at different successive positions. Additionally, she also lost a significant amount of her visual field and had anomic aphasia.
Goldstein and Gelb's patient
In 1918, Goldstein and Gelb reported a 24-year-old male who suffered a gunshot wound in the posterior brain. The patient reported no impression of movement. He could state the new position of the object (left, right, up, down), but saw "nothing in between". While Goldestein and Gelb believed the patient had damaged the lateral and medial parts of the left occipital lobe, it was later indicated that both occipital lobes were probably affected, due to the bilateral, concentric loss of his visual field. He lost his visual field beyond a 30-degree eccentricity and could not identify visual objects by their proper names.
"LM"
Most of what is known about akinetopsia was learned from LM, a 43-year-old female admitted into the hospital October 1978 complaining of headache and vertigo. LM was diagnosed with thrombosis of the superior sagittal sinus which resulted in bilateral, symmetrical lesions posterior of the visual cortex. These lesions were verified by PET and MRI in 1994. LM had minimal motion perception that was preserved as perhaps a function of V1, as a function of a "higher" order visual cortical area, or some functional sparing of V5.
LM found no effective treatment, so she learned to avoid conditions with multiple visual motion stimuli, i.e. by not looking at or fixating them. She developed very efficient coping strategies to do this and nevertheless lived her life. In addition, she estimated the distance of moving vehicles by means of sound detection in order to continue to cross the street.
LM was tested in three areas against a 24-year-old female subject with normal vision:
Visual functions other than movement vision
LM had no evidence of a color discrimination deficit in either center or periphery of visual fields. Her recognition time for visual objects and words was slightly higher than the control, but not statistically significant. There was no restriction in her visual field and no scotoma.
Disturbance of movement vision
LM's impression of movement depended on the direction of the movement (horizontal vs vertical), the velocity, and whether she fixated in the center of the motion path or tracked the object with her eyes. Circular light targets were used as stimuli.
In studies, LM reported some impression of horizontal movement at a speed of 14 degrees of her predetermined visual field per second (deg/s) while fixating in the middle of the motion path, with difficulty seeing motion both below and above this velocity. When allowed to track the moving spot, she had some horizontal movement vision up to 18 deg/s. For vertical movement, the patient could only see motion below 10 deg/s fixated or 13 deg/s when tracking the target. The patient described her perceptual experience for stimulus velocities higher than 18 and 13 deg/s, respectively as "one light spot left or right" or "one light spot up or down" and "sometimes at successive positions in between", but never as motion.
Motion in depth
To determine perception of motion in depth, studies were done in which the experimenter moved a black painted wooden cube on a tabletop either towards the patient or away in line of sight. After 20 trials at 3 or 6 deg/s, the patient had no clear impression of movement. However she knew the object had changed in position, she knew the size of the cube, and she could correctly judge the distance of the cube in relation to other nearby objects.
Inner and outer visual fields
Detection of movement in the inner and outer visual fields was tested. Within her inner visual field, LM could detect some motion, with horizontal motion more easily distinguished than vertical motion. In her peripheral visual field, the patient was never able to detect any direction of movement. LM's ability to judge velocities was also tested. LM underestimated velocities over 12 deg/s.
Motion aftereffect and Phi phenomenon
Motion aftereffect of vertical stripes moving in a horizontal direction and a rotating spiral were tested. She was able to detect motion in both patterns, but reported motion aftereffect in only 3 of the 10 trials for the stripes, and no effect for the rotating spiral. She also never reported any impression of motion in depth of the spiral. In Phi phenomenon two circular spots of light appear alternating. It appears that the spot moves from one location to the other. Under no combination of conditions did the patient report any apparent movement. She always reported two independent light spots.
Visually guided pursuit eye and finger movements
LM was to follow the path of a wire mounted onto a board with her right index finger. The test was performed under purely tactile (blindfolded), purely visual (glass over the board), or tactile-visual condition. The patient performed best in the purely tactile condition and very poorly in the visual condition. She did not benefit from the visual information in the tactile-visual condition either. The patient reported that the difficulty was between her finger and her eyes. She could not follow her finger with her eyes if she moved her finger too fast.
Additional experiments
In 1994, several other observations of LM's capabilities were made using a stimulus with a random distribution of light squares on a dark background that moved coherently. With this stimulus, LM could always determine the axis of motion (vertical, horizontal), but not always the direction. If a few static squares were added to the moving display, identification of direction fell to chance, but identification of the axis of motion was still accurate. If a few squares were moving opposite and orthogonal to the predominant direction, her performance on both direction and axis fell to chance. She was also unable to identify motion in oblique directions, such as 45, 135, 225, and 315 degrees, and always gave answers in cardinal directions, 0, 90, 180, and 270 degrees.
"TD"
In 2019, Heutink and colleagues described a 37-year old female patient (TD) with akinetopsia, who was admitted to Royal Dutch Visio, Centre of Expertise for blind and partially sighted people. TD suffered an ischaemic infarction of the occipitotemporal region in the right hemisphere and a smaller infarction in the left occipital hemisphere. MRI confirmed that the damaged brain areas contained area V5 in both hemispheres. TD experienced problems with perceiving visual motion and also reported that bright colours and sharp contrasts made her feel sick. TD also had problems perceiving objects that were more than ± 5 meters away from her. Although TD had some impairments of lower visual functions, these could not explain the problems she experienced with regard to motion perception. Neuropsychological assessment revealed no evidence of Balint's Syndrome, hemispatial neglect or visual extinction, prosopagnosia or object agnosia. There was some evidence for impaired spatial processing. On several behavioural tests, TD showed a specific and selective impairment of motion perception that was comparable to LM's performance.
TD's ability to determine the direction of movement was tested using a task in which small grey blocks all moved in the same direction with the same speed against a black background. The blocks could move in four directions: right to left, left to right, upward and downward. Speed of movement was varied from 2, 4.5, 9, 15 and 24 degrees per second. Speed and direction were varied randomly across trials. TD had perfect perception of motion direction at speed up to 9 degrees per second. When speed of targets was above 9 degrees per second, TD's performance dropped dramatically to 50% correct at a speed of 15 degrees per second and 0% correct at 24 degrees per second. When the blocks moved at 24 degrees per second, TD consistently reported the exact opposite direction of the actual movement.
Pelak and Hoyt's Alzheimer's patient
In 2000, a 70-year-old man presented with akinetopsia. He had stopped driving two years prior because he could no longer "see movement while driving". His wife noted that he could not judge the speed of another car or how far away it was. He had difficulty watching television with significant action or movement, such as sporting events or action-filled TV shows. He frequently commented to his wife that he could not "see anything going on". When objects began to move they would disappear. He could, however, watch the news, because no significant action occurred. In addition he had signs of Balint's syndrome (mild simultanagnosia, optic ataxia, and optic apraxia).
Pelak and Hoyt's TBI patient
In 2003, a 60-year-old man complained of the inability to perceive visual motion following a traumatic brain injury, two years prior, in which a large cedar light pole fell and struck his head. He gave examples of his difficulty as a hunter. He was unable to notice game, to track other hunters, or to see his dog coming towards him. Instead, these objects would appear in one location and then another, without any movement being seen between the two locations. He had difficulties driving and following a group conversation. He lost his place when vertically or horizontally scanning a written document and was unable to visualize three-dimensional images from two-dimensional blueprints.
References
Visual disturbances and blindness
Agnosia
Visual perception
Neuropsychology
Dementia |
4437923 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gwalior%20State | Gwalior State | Gwalior state was a semi-autonomous Maratha state. It was centred in modern-day Madhya Pradesh, arising due to the rise of the Maratha Empire and fragmentation of the Mughal Empire.
It was ruled by the House of Scindia (anglicized from Shinde), a Hindu Maratha dynasty, and was entitled to a 21-gun salute when it became a princely state of the India. The state took its name from the old town of Gwalior, which, although not its first capital, was an important place because of its strategic location and the strength of its fort; it became later its capital, after Daulat Rao Sindhia built its palace in the village of Lashkar, near the fort. The state was founded in the early 18th century by Ranoji Sindhia, as part of the Maratha Confederacy. The administration of Ujjain was assigned by Peshwa Bajirao I to his faithful commander Ranoji Shinde and his Sarsenapati was Yasaji Rambhaji (Rege). The Mahakaaleshwara temple situated in ujjain was reconstructed during the administration of Shrimant Ranojirao Scindia in ujjain.
Under Mahadji Sindhia (1761–1794) Gwalior State became a leading power in Central India, and dominated the affairs of the confederacy. The Anglo-Maratha Wars brought Gwalior State under British suzerainty, so that it became a princely state of the British Indian Empire. Gwalior was the largest state in the Central India Agency, under the political supervision of a Resident at Gwalior. In 1936, the Gwalior residency was separated from the Central India Agency, and made answerable directly to the Governor-General of India. After Indian Independence in 1947, the Scindia rulers acceded to the new Union of India, and Gwalior state was absorbed into the new Indian state of Madhya Bharat.
Geography
The state had a total area of , and was composed of several detached portions, but was roughly divided into two, the Gwalior or Northern section, and the Malwa section. The northern section consisted of a compact block of territory with an area of , lying between 24º 10' and 26º 52' N. and 74º 38' and 79º 8' E. It was bounded on the north, northeast, and northwest by the Chambal River, which separated it from the native states of Dholpur, Karauli, and Jaipur in the Rajputana Agency; on the east by the British districts of Jalaun and Jhansi in the United Provinces, and by Saugor District in the Central Provinces; on the south by the states of Bhopal, Khilchipur, and Rajgarh, and by the Sironj pargana of Tonk State; and on the west by the states of Jhalawar, Tonk, and Kotah in the Rajputana Agency.
The Malwa section, which included the city of Ujjain, had an area of . It was made up of several detached districts, between which portions of other states were interposed, and which were themselves intermingled in bewildering intricacy.
In 1940, Gwalior State had 4,006,159 inhabitants.
History
The predecessor state of Gwalior was founded in the 10th century. In 1231 Iltutmish captured Gwalior and from then till 1398 it was a part of Delhi Sultanate.
In 1398, Gwalior came under the control of the Tomars. The most distinguished of the Tomar rulers was Man Singh Tomar, who commissioned several monuments within the Gwalior fort.
It came under the Mughals in 1528 and was a part of the empire till 1731.
The founder of the ruling house of Gwalior was Ranoji Sindhia, who belonged to the Shinde or Sindhia house which traced its descent from a family of which one branch held the hereditary post of patil in Kanherkhed, a village east of Satara.
In 1726, Ranoji along with Malhar Rao Holkar, the founder of the ruling house of Indore, and the Pawars (Dewas Junior & Dewas Senior), were authorized by the Peshwa Baji Rao I to collect chauth (25% of the revenues) and sardeshmukhi (10% over and above the chauth) in the Malwa districts, retaining for his own remuneration half the mokassa (or his remaining 65 percent). Ranoji fixed his headquarters in the ancient city of Ujjain, which ultimately became the capital of the Sindhia dominion, and on 19 July 1745 he died near Shujalpur, where his centotaph stands. He left three legitimate sons, Jayappa, Dattaji, and Jyotiba, and two illegitimate sons, Tukoji and Mahadji. Jayappa succeeded to the territories of Ranoji, but was killed at Nagaur in 1755. He was followed by his son Jankoji Rao Scindia, who was taken prisoner at the Third Battle of Panipat in 1761 and put to death, and Mahadji succeeded.
Rulers
Mahadji Sindhia (1761–1794)
Madhavrao I, Mahadji, and his successor Daulatrao took a leading part in shaping the history of India during their rule. Mahadji returned from the Deccan to Malwa in 1764, and by 1769 reestablished his power there. In 1772 Madhavrao Peshwa died, and in the struggles which ensued Mahadji took an important part, and seized every chance of increasing his power and augmenting his possessions. In 1775 Raghoba Dada Peshwa threw himself on the protection of the British. The reverses which Sindhia's forces met with at the hands of Colonel Goddard after his famous march from Bengal to Gujarat (1778) the fall of Gwalior to Major Popham (1780), and the night attack by Major Camac, opened his eyes to the strength of the new power which had entered the arena of Indian politics. In 1782 the Treaty of Salbai was made with Sindhia, the chief stipulations being that he should withdraw to Ujjain, and the British north of the Yamuna, and that he should negotiate treaties with the other belligerents. The importance of the treaty can scarcely be exaggerated. It made the British arbiters of peace in India and virtually acknowledged their supremacy, while at the same time Sindhia was recognized as an independent chief and not as a vassal of the Peshwa. A resident, Mr. Anderson (who had negotiated the treaty) was at the same time appointed to Sindhia's court.
Between 1782 and December 1805 Dholpur State was annexed by Gwalior.
Sindhia took full advantage of the system of neutrality pursued by the British to establish his supremacy over Northern India. In this he was assisted by the genius of Benoît de Boigne, whose influence in consolidating the power of Mahadji Sindhia is seldom estimated at its true value. He was originally from the Duchy of Savoy, a native of Chambéry, who had served under Lord Clare in the famous Irish Brigade at Fontenoy and elsewhere and who after many vicissitudes, including imprisonment by the Turks, reached India and for a time held a commission in the 6th Madras Infantry. After resigning his commission he had proposed to travel overland to Russia, but was prevented by the loss of his possessions and papers, stolen, it appears, at the instigation of Mahadji, who was suspicious of his intentions. De Boigne finally entered Mahadji's service, and by his genius for organization and command in the field, was instrumental in establishing the Maratha supremacy. Commencing with two battalions of infantry, he ultimately increased Sindhia's regular forces to three brigades. With these troops Sindhia became a power in northern India.
In 1785 Sindhia reinstated the Mughal emperor Shah Alam II on his throne at Delhi, receiving in return the title of deputy Vakil-ul-Mutlak or vice-regent of the Empire, that of Vakil-ul-Mutlak being at his request conferred on Peshwa Madhavrao II, his master, as he was pleased to designate him. Many of the principal feudal lords of the empire refused to pay tribute to Sindhia. Sindhia launched an expedition against the Raja of Jaipur, but withdrew after the inconclusive Battle of Lalsot in 1787. On 17 June 1788 Sindhia's armies defeated Ismail Beg, a Mughal noble who resisted the Marathas. The Afghan chief Ghulam Kadir, Ismail Beg's ally, took over Delhi and deposed and blinded the Emperor Shah Alam, placing a puppet on the Delhi throne. Sindhia intervened, taking possession of Delhi on 2 October, restoring Shah Alam to the throne and acting as his protector. Mahadji sent de Boigne to crush the forces of Jaipur at Patan (20 June 1790) and the armies of Marwar at Merta on 10 September 1790. After the peace made with Tipu Sultan in 1792, Sindhia successfully exerted his influence to prevent the completion of a treaty between the British, the Nizam of Hyderabad, and the Peshwa, directed against Tipu. Mahadji Shinde's role was instrumental in establishing Maratha supremacy over North India . De Boigne defeated the forces of Tukaji Holkar at Lakheri on 1 June 1793. Mahadji was now at the zenith of his power, when all his schemes for further aggrandizement were cut short by his sudden death in 1794 at Wanowri near Pune. Mahadji's death was mystery.
Daulatrao Sindhia (1794–1827)
Mahadji left no heir, and was succeeded by Daulat Rao, a grandson of his brother Tukaji, who was scarcely 15 years of age at the time. Daulat Rao saw himself as the chief sovereign in India rather than as a member of the Maratha Confederacy. At this time the death of the young Peshwa, Madhav Rao II (1795), and the troubles which it occasioned, the demise of Tukaji Holkar and the rise of the Yashwantrao Holkar, together with the intrigues of Nana Fadnavis, threw the country into confusion and enabled Sindhia to gain the ascendancy. He also came under the influence of Sarje Rao Ghatke, whose daughter he had married (1798). Urged possibly by this adviser, Daulat Rao aimed at increasing his dominions at all costs, and seized territory from the Maratha Ponwars of Dhar and Dewas. The rising power of Yashwant Rao Holkar of Indore, however, alarmed him. In July 1801, Yashwant Rao appeared before Sindhia's capital of Ujjain, and after defeating some battalions under John Hessing, extorted a large sum from its inhabitants, but did not ravage the town. In October, however, Sarje Rao Ghatke took revenge by sacking Indore, razing it almost to the ground, and practicing every form of atrocity on its inhabitants. From this time dates the gardi-ka-wakt, or 'period of unrest', as it is still called, during which the whole of central India was overrun by the armies of Sindhia and Holkar and their attendant predatory Pindari bands, under Amir Khan and others. De Boigne had retired in 1796; his successor, Pierre Cuillier-Perron, was a man of a very different stamp, whose determined favouritism of French officers, ind defiance of all claims to promotion, produced discontent in the regular corps.
Finally, on 31 December 1802, the Peshwa signed the Treaty of Bassein, by which the British were recognized as the paramount power in India. The continual evasion shown by Sindhia in all attempts at negotiation brought him into conflict with the British, and his power was completely destroyed in both western and northern India by the British victories at Ahmadnagar, Assaye, Asirgarh, and Laswari. His famous brigades were annihilated and his military power irretrievably broken. On 30 December 1803, he signed the Treaty of Surji Anjangaon, by which he was obliged to give up his possessions between the Yamuna and the Ganges, the district of Bharuch, and other lands in the south of his dominions; and soon after by the Treaty of Burhanpur he agreed to maintain a subsidiary force to be paid for out of the revenues of territory ceded by the treaty. By the ninth article of the Treaty of Sarji Anjangaon he was deprived of the fortresses of Gwalior and Gohad. The discontent produced by the last condition almost caused a rupture, and did actually result in the plundering of the Resident's camp and detention of the Resident as a prisoner.
In 1805, under the new policy of Lord Cornwallis, Gohad and Gwalior were restored, and the Chambal River was made the northern boundary of the state, while certain claims on Rajput states were abolished, the British government at the same time binding itself to enter into no treaties with Udaipur, Jodhpur, Kotah, or any chief tributary to Sindhia in Malwa, Mewar, or Marwar. In 1811, Daulat Rao annexed the neighboring kingdom of Chanderi. In 1816 Sindhia was called on to assist in the suppression of the Pindaris. For some time it was doubtful what line he would take, but he ultimately signed the Treaty of Gwalior in 1817 by which he promised full cooperation. He did not, however, act up to his professions, and connived at the retention of the fort of Asirgarh, which had been ceded by the treaty. In 1818, after the Third Anglo-Maratha War, the rule of the Peshwa was formally ended. A fresh treaty effected a readjustment of boundaries, Ajmer and other lands being ceded.
Jankojirao II Sindhia (1827–1843)
In 1827 Daulat Rao died, leaving no son or adopted heir. His widow, Baiza Bai, adopted Mukut Rao, a boy of eleven belonging to a distant but legitimate branch of the family, who succeeded as Jankojirao Sindhia. Jankojirao was a weak ruler and feuds were constant at his court, while the army was in a chronic state of mutiny. Upon his succession, difficulties arose as to whether the Bai should ruler in her own right or as regent, and her behaviour towards the young king finally caused a rise in feeling in his favour which impelled the Bai to take refuge in British territory. She returned after an interval and lived at Gwalior until her death in 1862. The chief's maternal uncle, known as Mama Sahib, had meanwhile become minister. The most important event during this period was the readjustment of the terms for maintaining the contingent force raised under the treaty of 1817.
Jayajirao Sindhia (1843–1886)
Jankojirao died in 1843; and in the absence of an heir, his widow Tara Bai adopted Bhagirath Rao, a son of Hanwant Rao, commonly called Babaji Sindhia. He succeeded under the name of Jayajirao Sindhia, the Mama Sahib being chosen as regent. Tara Bai, however, came under the influence of Dada Khasgiwala, the comptroller of her household, an unscrupulous adventurer who wished to get all power into his own hands. A complicated series of intrigues followed, which it is impossible to unravel. The Dada, however, succeeded in driving Mama Sahib from the state and became minister. He filled all appointments with his relatives, and matters rapidly passed from bad to worse, ending in the assemblage of large bodies of troops who threatened an attack on Sironj, where Mama Sahib was then residing. War was impending in the Punjab, and, as it was essential to secure peace, the British Government decided to interfere. Colonel Sleeman, the Resident, was withdrawn, and the surrender of Dada Khasgiwala was demanded.
A British force under Sir Hugh Gough moved on Gwalior, and crossed the Chambal in December 1843. On 29 December followed the simultaneous Battles of Maharajpur and Panniar, in which the Gwalior army was annihilated. A treaty was then made, under which certain lands to the value of 1.8 million, including Chanderi District, were ceded for the upkeep of a contingent force, besides other lands for the liquidation of the expenses incurred in the late war, the State army was reduced, and a Council of Regency was appointed during the minority, to act under the residents advice.
In 1852 Dinkar Rao became minister, and under his able management radical reforms were introduced into every department of the administration. Srimant Maharaja Jayajirao (also called as Maharaj Jayajirao saheb Shinde) was in favor to have a fight with British army. On 17 June 1858 Gwalior was captured by Sir Hugh Rose and Maharaja Sri Jayajirao was reinstated. For his services lands worth 300,000 per year, including the portion of Chanderi District west of the Betwa River, were granted to him and he was allowed to increase his infantry from 3000 to 5000 men, and his artillery from 32 to 36 guns. In 1858 Gwalior annexed Chanderi State.
Development in Gwalior State
Jayajirao Shinde was the founder of Development in Gwalior after 1857 and worked for the people of Gwalior to establish their own businesses. He was a very good artist of Gwalior Gharana classical music and opened a school for learning music. The Gwalior got its music in his regein.
GCB – Knight Grand Cross Order of the Bath (medal 1.1.1877), GCSI – (25.6.1861), CIE (1.1.1878).
In 1872 the state lent 7.5 million for the construction of the Agra-Gwalior portion of the Great Indian Peninsular Railway, and a similar amount in 1873 for the Indore-Nimach section of the Rajputana-Malwa railway. A personal salute of 21 guns was conferred in 1877, and Jayajirao became a Counsellor of the Empress and later on a GCB and CIE. In 1882 land was ceded by the state for the Midland section of the Great Indian Peninsular Railway.
In 1885 Gwalior fort and Morar cantonment, with some other villages, which had been held by British troops since 1858, were exchanged for Jhansi city.
Madhavrao II Sindhia (1886–1925)
Jayaji Rao died in 1886 and was succeeded by his son, Madho Rao Sindhia, then a boy in his tenth year. A council of Regency conducted the administration until 1894, when the Maharaja obtained powers. He took a deep and active interest in the administration of the state, and had a comprehensive grasp of the work done in each department. In 1900 the Maharaja went to China during the Boxer Rebellion, at the same time presenting a hospital ship for the accommodation of the wounded.
Jivajirao Sindhia (1925–1948)
Jivajirao Sindhia ruled the state of Gwalior as absolute monarch until shortly after India's independence on 15 August 1947. The rulers of Indian princely states had the choice of acceding to either of the two dominions (India and Pakistan) created by the India Independence Act 1947 or remaining outside them. Jivajirao signed a covenant with the rulers of the adjoining princely states that united their several states to form a new state within the union of India known as Madhya Bharat. This new covenanted state was to be governed by a council headed by a ruler to be known as the Rajpramukh. Madhya Bharat signed a fresh Instrument of Accession with the Indian dominion effective from 15 June 1948. Jivajirao became the first rajpramukh, or appointed governor, of the state on 28 May 1948. He served as Rajpramukh until 31 October 1956, when the state was merged into Madhya Pradesh.
Scindia Maharajas of Gwalior
The rulers of Gwalior bore the title of Maharaja Scindia.
The Gwalior State Darbar (Court) was composed of many nobles like Jagirdars, Sardars, Istamuradars, Mankaris, Thakurs and Zamindars.
Reigning Maharajas
Ranoji Scindia, Maharaja (1731–1745)
Jayappaji Rao Scindia, Maharaja (1745–1755)
Dattaji Scindia, Regent (1755–1760)
Jankoji Rao Scindia, Maharaja (1755–1761)
Kadarji Rao Scindia, Maharaja (1763–1764)
Manaji Rao Scindia, Maharaja (1764–1768)
Mahadaji Shinde, Maharaja (1768–1794)
Daulat Rao Sindhia, Maharaja (1794–1827)
Baiza Bai, Regent (f) (1827–1832)
Jankoji Rao Scindia II, Maharaja (1827–1843)
Tara Bai, Regent (f) (1843–1844)
Jayajirao Scindia, Maharaja (1843–1886)
Sakhya Bai, Regent (f) (1886–1894)
Madho Rao Scindia, Maharaja (1886–1925)
Chinku Bai, Regent (f) (1925–1931)
Gajra Rajebai, Regent (f) (1931–1936)
Jiwajirao Scindia, Maharaja (1925–1948)
Titular Maharajas since Union
Jiwajirao Scindia, (1948–1961)
Madhavrao Scindia, (1961–2001)
Jyotiraditya Scindia, (2001–present)
Administration
The revenue of the state in 1901 was Rs. 150,00,000.
For administrative purposes the state was divided into two prants or divisions; Northern Gwalior and Malwa. Northern Gwalior comprised seven zilas or districts: Gwalior Gird, Bhind, Sheopur, Tanwarghar, Isagarh, Bhilsa, and Narwar. The Malwa Prant comprises four zilas, Ujjain, Mandsaur, Shajapur, and Amjhera. The zilas were subdivided into parganas, the villages in a pargana being grouped into circles, each under a patwari.
The administration of the state was controlled by the Maharaja, assisted by the Sadr Board. This Board consisted of seven members, the Maharaja himself being president and the members being in charge of different departments, of which the most important were the Revenue, Land Records and Settlement, Forest, Accounts, Public Works, Customs, and Post Office. The Maharaja had no minister, but a staff of secretaries, supervised by a chief secretary, prepared cases for the final orders of the Maharaja. The zilas were overseen by subahs, or district magistrates; in Northern Gwalior, the subahs answered directly to the Sadr Board, while in Malwa, a Sar Subah was in general charge of the Malwa prant, and controlled and oversaw the work of the four Malwa subahs.
The numerous feudal estates under Gwalior were administered by the local rulers, and were outside the administration of the zilas and prants. The small estates (thakurs or diwans) of Sangul Wardha'Agra ' were nominally under the authority of Gwalior state, but the British Resident had certain administrative and judicial powers.
See also
Political integration of India
List of Maratha dynasties and states
Scindia dynasty under the Maratha empire
List of Indian princely states
Rane Khan
References
Notes
Sources
Further reading
Princely states of Madhya Pradesh
History of Gwalior
States and territories established in 1731
1948 disestablishments in India
1731 establishments in India
Former monarchies of South Asia
Gun salute princely states |
4438164 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tazria | Tazria | Tazria, Thazria, Thazri'a, Sazria, or Ki Tazria (—Hebrew for "childbirth", the 13th word, and the first distinctive word, in the parashah, where the root word means "seed") is the 27th weekly Torah portion (, parashah) in the annual Jewish cycle of Torah reading and the fourth in the Book of Leviticus. The parashah deals with ritual impurity. It constitutes Leviticus 12:1–13:59. The parashah is made up of 3,667 Hebrew letters, 1,010 Hebrew words, 67 verses, and 128 lines in a Torah Scroll (, Sefer Torah).
Jews read it the 27th or 28th Sabbath after Simchat Torah, generally in April or, rarely, in late March or early May. The lunisolar Hebrew calendar contains up to 55 weeks, the exact number varying between 50 in common years and 54 or 55 in leap years. In leap years (for example, 2024 and 2027), Parashat Tazria is read separately. In common years (for example, 2025, 2026, and 2028), Parashat Tazria is combined with the next parashah, Metzora, to help achieve the number of weekly readings needed.
Readings
In traditional Sabbath Torah reading, the parashah is divided into seven readings, or , aliyot.
First reading—Leviticus 12:1–13:5
In the first reading, God told Moses to tell the Israelites that when a woman at childbirth bore a boy, she was to be unclean 7 days and then remain in a state of blood purification for 33 days, while if she bore a girl, she was to be unclean 14 days and then remain in a state of blood purification for 66 days. Upon completing her period of purification, she was to bring a lamb for a burnt offering and a pigeon or a turtle dove for a sin offering, and the priest was to offer them as sacrifices to make expiation on her behalf. If she could not afford a sheep, she was to take two turtle doves or two pigeons, one for a burnt offering and the other for a sin offering. God told Moses and Aaron that when a person had a swelling, rash, discoloration, scaly affection, inflammation, or burn, it was to be reported to the priest, who was to examine it to determine whether the person was clean or unclean.
Second reading—Leviticus 13:6–17
In the second reading, the priest was to examine the person again the seventh day to determine whether the person was clean or unclean. The reading goes on to describe the features of skin disease.
Third reading—Leviticus 13:18–23
The third reading further describes features of skin disease.
Fourth reading—Leviticus 13:24–28
The fourth reading further describes features of skin disease.
Fifth reading—Leviticus 13:29–39
The fifth reading describes features of skin disease on the head or beard.
Sixth reading—Leviticus 13:40–54
The sixth reading continued the discussion of skin disease on the head or beard. Unclean persons were to rend their clothes, leave their head bare, cover over their upper lips, call out, "Unclean! Unclean!" and dwell outside the camp. When a streaky green or red eruptive affection occurred in wool, linen, or animal skin, it was to be shown to the priest, who was to examine to determine whether it was clean or unclean. If unclean, it was to be burned.
Seventh reading—Leviticus 13:55–59
In the seventh reading, if the affliction disappeared from the article upon washing, it was to be shut up seven days, washed again, and be clean.
Readings according to the triennial cycle
Jews who read the Torah according to the triennial cycle of Torah reading may read the parashah according to a different schedule.
In inner-biblical interpretation
The parashah has parallels or is discussed in these Biblical sources:
Leviticus chapter 12
Leviticus 12 associates childbirth with uncleanness. In the Hebrew Bible, uncleanness has a variety of associations. Leviticus 11:8, 11; 21:1–4, 11; and Numbers 6:6–7; and 19:11–16; associate it with death. And perhaps similarly, Leviticus 13–14 associates it with skin disease. Leviticus 15 associates it with various sexuality-related events. And Jeremiah 2:7, 23; 3:2; 7:30; and Hosea 6:10 associate it with contact with the worship of alien gods.
While Leviticus 12:6–8 required a new mother to bring a burnt-offering and a sin-offering, Leviticus 26:9, Deuteronomy 28:11, and Psalm 127:3–5 make clear that having children is a blessing from God; Genesis 15:2 and 1 Samuel 1:5–11 characterize childlessness as a misfortune; and Leviticus 20:20 and Deuteronomy 28:18 threaten childlessness as a punishment.
Leviticus chapter 13
The Hebrew Bible reports skin disease (, tzara'at) and a person affected by skin disease (metzora, ) at several places, often (and sometimes incorrectly) translated as "leprosy" and "a leper." In Exodus 4:6, to help Moses to convince others that God had sent him, God instructed Moses to put his hand into his bosom, and when he took it out, his hand was "leprous (m'tzora'at, ), as white as snow." In Leviticus 13–14, the Torah sets out regulations for skin disease (, tzara'at) and a person affected by skin disease (metzora, ). In Numbers 12:10, after Miriam spoke against Moses, God's cloud removed from the Tent of Meeting and "Miriam was leprous (m'tzora'at, ), as white as snow." In Deuteronomy 24:8–9, Moses warned the Israelites in the case of skin disease (, tzara'at) diligently to observe all that the priests would teach them, remembering what God did to Miriam. In 2 Kings 5:1–19, part of the haftarah for Parashat Tazria, the prophet Elisha cures Naaman, the commander of the army of the king of Aram, who was a "leper" (metzora, ). In 2 Kings 7:3–20, part of the haftarah for Parashat Metzora, the story is told of four "leprous men" (m'tzora'im, ) at the gate during the Arameans' siege of Samaria. And in 2 Chronicles 26:19, after King Uzziah tried to burn incense in the Temple in Jerusalem, "leprosy (, tzara'at) broke forth on his forehead".
In early nonrabbinic interpretation
The parashah has parallels or is discussed in these early nonrabbinic sources:
Leviticus chapter 13
Philo taught that the skin disease in Leviticus 13 signified voluntary depravity.
In classical rabbinic interpretation
The parashah is discussed in these rabbinic sources from the era of the Mishnah and the Talmud:
Leviticus chapter 12
Rabbi Simlai noted that just as God created humans after creating cattle, beasts, and birds, the law concerning human impurity in Leviticus 12 follows that concerning cattle, beasts, and birds in Leviticus 11.
Reading Leviticus 12:2, “If a woman conceives,” Rabbi Levi said three things: It is only natural that if a person has given into another's keeping an ounce of silver in private, and the latter returns a pound of gold in public, the former will surely be grateful to the latter; and so is it with God. Human beings entrust to God a drop of fluid in privacy, and God openly returns to them completed and perfected human beings. Rabbi Levi said a second thing: It is natural that, if a person is confined without attention to a chamber, and someone comes and kindles a light for the person there, the former should feel gratitude towards the latter. So too is it with God. When the embryo is in its mother's womb, God causes a light to shine for it there with which it can see from one end of the world to the other. Rabbi Levi said a third thing: It is natural that, if a person is confined without attention to a chamber, and someone comes and releases the person and takes the person out from there, the former should feel gratitude to the latter. Even so, when the embryo is in its mother's womb, God comes and releases it and brings it forth into the world.
Rabbi Ammi taught in the name of Rabbi Joḥanan that even though Rabbi Simeon ruled that a dissolved fetus expelled by a woman was not unclean, Rabbi Simeon nonetheless agreed that the woman was ritually unclean as a woman who bore a child. An old man explained to Rabbi Ammi that Rabbi Joḥanan reasoned from the words of Leviticus 12:2, "If a woman conceived seed and bore." Those words imply that even if a woman bore something like "conceived seed" (in a fluid state), she was nonetheless unclean by reason of childbirth.
Rabbi Joḥanan interpreted the words "in the [eighth] day" in Leviticus 12:3 to teach that one must perform circumcision even on the Sabbath.
The Gemara read the command of Genesis 17:14 to require an uncircumcised adult man to become circumcised, and the Gemara read the command of Leviticus 12:3 to require the father to circumcise his infant child.
The Mishnah taught that circumcision should not be performed until the sun has risen, but counts it as done if done after dawn has appeared. The Gemara explained that the reason for the rule could be found in the words of Leviticus 12:3, "And in the eighth day the flesh of his foreskin shall be circumcised". A Baraita interpreted Leviticus 12:3 to teach that the whole eighth day is valid for circumcision, but deduced from Abraham's rising "early in the morning" to perform his obligations in Genesis 22:3 that the zealous perform circumcisions early in the morning.
The disciples of Rabbi Simeon ben Yoḥai asked him why Leviticus 12:6–8 ordained that after childbirth a woman had to bring a sacrifice. He replied that when she bore her child, she swore impetuously in the pain of childbirth that she would never again have intercourse with her husband. The Torah, therefore, ordained that she had to bring a sacrifice, as she would probably violate that oath. Rabbi Berekiah and Rabbi Simon said in the name of Rabbi Simeon ben Yoḥai that because she fluttered in her heart, she had to bring a fluttering sacrifice, two turtle-doves or two young pigeons. The disciples asked Rabbi Simeon ben Yoḥai why Leviticus 12:2 permitted contact between the father and mother after 7 days when the mother bore a boy, but Leviticus 12:5 permitted contact after 14 days when she bore a girl. He replied that since everyone around the mother would rejoice upon the birth of a boy, she would regret her oath to shun her husband after just 7 days, but since people around her would not rejoice on the birth of a girl, she would take twice as long. And Rabbi Simeon ben Yoḥai taught that Leviticus 12:3 ordained circumcision on the eighth day so that the parents could join their guests in a celebratory mood on that day.
Leviticus 5:7; 5:11; 12:8; and 14:21–22 provided that people of lesser means could bring less-expensive offerings. The Mishnah taught that one who sacrificed much and one who sacrificed little attained equal merit, so long as they directed their hearts to Heaven. Rabbi Zera taught that Ecclesiastes 5:11 provided a Scriptural proof for this when it says, "Sweet is the sleep of a serving man, whether he eat little or much." Rav Adda bar Ahavah taught that Ecclesiastes 5:10 provided a Scriptural proof for this when it says, "When goods increase, they are increased who eat them; and what advantage is there to the owner thereof." Rabbi Simeon ben Azzai taught that Scripture says of a large ox, "An offering made by fire of a sweet savor"; of a small bird, "An offering made by fire of a sweet savor"; and of a meal-offering, "An offering made by fire of a sweet savor." Rabbi Simeon ben Azzai thus taught that Scripture uses the same expression each time to teach that it is the same whether people offered much or little, so long as they directed their hearts to Heaven. And Rabbi Isaac asked why the meal-offering was distinguished in that Leviticus 2:1 uses the word "soul" (, nefesh) to refer to the donor of a meal-offering, instead of the usual "man" (, adam, in Leviticus 1:2, or , ish, in Leviticus 7:8) used in connection with other sacrifices. Rabbi Isaac taught that Leviticus 2:1 uses the word "soul" (, nefesh) because God noted that the one who usually brought a meal-offering was a poor man, and God accounted it as if the poor man had offered his own soul.
Rabbi Simeon noted that Scripture always lists turtledoves before pigeons, and imagined that one might thus think that Scripture prefers turtledoves over pigeons. But Rabbi Simeon quoted the instructions of Leviticus 12:8, "a young pigeon or a turtledove for a sin-offering", to teach that Scripture accepted both equally.
Rabbi Eleazar ben Hisma taught that even the apparently arcane laws of bird offerings in Leviticus 12:8 and the beginning of menstrual cycles in Leviticus 12:1–8 are essential laws.
Tractate Kinnim in the Mishnah interpreted the laws of pairs of sacrificial pigeons and doves in Leviticus 1:14, 5:7, 12:6–8, 14:22, and 15:29; and Numbers 6:10.
Interpreting the beginning of menstrual cycles, as in Leviticus 12:6–8, the Mishnah ruled that if a woman loses track of her menstrual cycle, there is no return to the beginning of the niddah count in fewer than seven, nor more than seventeen days.
The Mishnah (following Leviticus 5:7–8) taught that a sin-offering of a bird preceded a burnt-offering of a bird; and the priest also dedicated them in that order. Rabbi Eliezer taught that wherever an offerer (because of poverty) substituted for an animal sin-offering the offering of two birds (one of which was for a sin-offering and the other for a burnt-offering), the priest sacrificed the bird sin-offering before the bird burnt-offering (as Leviticus 5:7–8 instructs). But in the case of a woman after childbirth discussed in Leviticus 12:8 (where a poor new mother could substitute for an animal burnt-offering two birds, one for a sin-offering and the other for a burnt-offering), the bird burnt-offering took precedence over the bird sin-offering. Wherever the offering came on account of sin, the sin-offering took precedence. But here (in the case of a woman after childbirth, where the sin-offering was not on account of sin) the burnt-offering took precedence. And wherever both birds came instead of one animal sin-offering, the sin-offering took precedence. But here (in the case of a woman after childbirth) they did not both come on account of a sin-offering (for in poverty she substituted a bird burnt-offering for an animal burnt-offering, as Leviticus 12:6–7 required her to bring a bird sin-offering in any case), the burnt-offering took precedence. (The Gemara asked whether this contradicted the Mishnah, which taught that a bird sin-offering took precedence over an animal burnt-offering, whereas here she brought the animal burnt-offering before the bird sin-offering.) Rava taught that Leviticus 12:6–7 merely accorded the bird burnt-offering precedence in the mentioning. (Thus, some read Rava to teach that Leviticus 12:6–8 lets the reader read first about the burnt-offering, but in fact the priest sacrificed the sin-offering first. Others read Rava to teach that one first dedicated the animal or bird for the burnt-offering and then dedicated the bird for the sin-offering, but in fact the priest sacrificed the sin-offering first.)
Leviticus 12:8 called for "two turtle-doves, or two young pigeons: the one for a burnt-offering, and the other for a sin-offering". Rav Hisda taught that the designation of one of the birds to become the burnt-offering and the other to become the sin-offering was made either by the owner or by the priest's action. Rabbi Shimi bar Ashi explained that the words of Leviticus 12:8, "she shall take . . . the one for a burnt-offering, and the other for a sin-offering", indicated that the mother could have made the designation when taking the birds, and the words of Leviticus 15:15, "the priest shall offer them, the one for a sin-offering, and the other for a burnt-offering", and of Leviticus 15:30, "the priest shall offer the one for a sin-offering, and the other for a burnt-offering", indicated that (absent such a designation by the mother) the priest could have made the designation when offering them up.
Leviticus chapter 13
Reading Leviticus 13:1, a Midrash taught that in 18 verses, Scripture places Moses and Aaron (the instruments of Israel's deliverance) on an equal footing (reporting that God spoke to both of them alike), and thus there are 18 benedictions in the Amidah.
Tractate Negaim in the Mishnah and Tosefta interpreted the laws of skin disease in Leviticus 13.
A Midrash compared the discussion of skin diseases beginning at Leviticus 13:2 to the case of a noble lady who, upon entering the king's palace, was terrified by the whips that she saw hanging about. But the king told her: "Do not fear; these are meant for the slaves, but you are here to eat, drink, and make merry." So, too, when the Israelites heard the section of Scripture dealing with leprous affections, they became afraid. But Moses told them: "These are meant for the wicked nations, but you are intended to eat, drink, and be joyful, as it is written in Psalm 32:10: "Many are the sufferings of the wicked; but he that trusts in the Lord, mercy surrounds him."
Rabbi Joḥanan said in the name of Rabbi Joseph ben Zimra that anyone who bears evil tales (, lashon hara) will be visited by the plague of skin disease (, tzara'at), as it is said in Psalm 101:5: "Whoever slanders his neighbor in secret, him will I destroy (azmit)." The Gemara read azmit to allude to , tzara'at, and cited how Leviticus 25:23 says "in perpetuity" (la-zemitut). And Resh Lakish interpreted the words of Leviticus 14:2, "This shall be the law of the person with skin disease (metzora)," to mean, "This shall be the law for him who brings up an evil name (motzi shem ra)." And the Gemara reported that in the Land of Israel they taught that slander kills three persons: the slanderer, the one who accepts it, and the one about whom the slander is told.
Similarly, Rabbi Haninah taught that skin disease came only from slander. The Rabbis found a proof for this from the case of Miriam, arguing that because she uttered slander against Moses, plagues attacked her. And the Rabbis read Deuteronomy 24:8–9 to support this when it says in connection with skin disease, "remember what the Lord your God did to Miriam".
Rabbi Samuel bar Naḥmani said in the name of Rabbi Joḥanan that skin disease results from seven sins: slander, the shedding of blood, vain oath, incest, arrogance, robbery, and envy. The Gemara cited Scriptural bases for each of the associations: For slander, Psalm 101:5; for bloodshed, 2 Samuel 3:29; for a vain oath, 2 Kings 5:23–27; for incest, Genesis 12:17; for arrogance, 2 Chronicles 26:16–19; for robbery, Leviticus 14:36 (as a Tanna taught that those who collect money that does not belong to them will see a priest come and scatter their money around the street); and for envy, Leviticus 14:35.
Similarly, a Midrash taught that skin disease resulted from 10 sins: (1) idol-worship, (2) unchastity, (3) bloodshed, (4) the profanation of the Divine Name, (5) blasphemy of the Divine Name, (6) robbing the public, (7) usurping a dignity to which one has no right, (8) overweening pride, (9) evil speech, and (10) an evil eye. The Midrash cited as proofs: (1) for idol-worship, the experience of the Israelites who said of the Golden Calf, "This is your god, O Israel", in Exodus 32:4 and then were smitten with leprosy, as reported in Exodus 32:25, where "Moses saw that the people had broken out (parua, )", indicating that leprosy had "broken out" (parah) among them; (2) for unchastity, from the experience of the daughters of Zion of whom Isaiah 3:16 says, "the daughters of Zion are haughty, and walk with stretched-forth necks and ogling eyes", and then Isaiah 3:17 says, "Therefore will the Lord smite with a scab the crown of the head of the daughters of Zion"; (3) for bloodshed, from the experience of Joab, of whom 2 Samuel 3:29 says, "Let it fall upon the head of Joab, and upon all his father's house; and let there not fail from the house of Joab one that hath an issue, or that is a leper," (4) for the profanation of the Divine Name, from the experience of Gehazi, of whom 2 Kings 5:20 says, "But Gehazi, the servant of Elisha the man of God, said: ‘Behold, my master has spared this Naaman the Aramean, in not receiving at his hands that which he brought; as the Lord lives, I will surely run after him, and take of him somewhat (me'umah, )," and "somewhat" (me'umah, ) means "of the blemish" (mum, ) that Naaman had, and thus Gehazi was smitten with leprosy, as 2 Kings 5:20 reports Elisha said to Gehazi, "The leprosy therefore of Naaman shall cleave to you"; (5) for blaspheming the Divine Name, from the experience of Goliath, of whom 1 Samuel 17:43 says, "And the Philistine cursed David by his God", and the 1 Samuel 17:46 says, "This day will the Lord deliver (sagar, ) you", and the term "deliver" (sagar, ) is used here in the same sense as Leviticus 13:5 uses it with regard to leprosy, when it is says, "And the priest shall shut him up (sagar)"; (6) for robbing the public, from the experience of Shebna, who derived illicit personal benefit from property of the Sanctuary, and of whom Isaiah|22:17 says, "the Lord . . . will wrap you round and round", and "wrap" must refer to a leper, of whom Leviticus 13:45 says, "And he shall wrap himself over the upper lip"; (7) for usurping a dignity to which one has no right, from the experience of Uzziah, of whom 2 Chronicles 26:21 says, "And Uzziah the king was a leper to the day of his death"; (8) for overweening pride, from the same example of Uzziah, of whom 2 Chronicles 26:16 says, "But when he became strong, his heart was lifted up, so that he did corruptly and he trespassed against the Lord his God"; (9) for evil speech, from the experience of Miriam, of whom Numbers 12:1 says, "And Miriam . . . spoke against Moses", and then Numbers 12:10 says, "when the cloud was removed from over the Tent, behold Miriam was leprous"; and (10) for an evil eye, from the person described in Leviticus 14:35, which can be read, "And he that keeps his house to himself shall come to the priest, saying: There seems to me to be a plague in the house," and Leviticus 14:35 thus describes one who is not willing to permit any other to have any benefit from the house.
Similarly, Rabbi Judah the Levite, son of Rabbi Shalom, inferred that skin disease comes because of eleven sins: (1) for cursing the Divine Name, (2) for immorality, (3) for bloodshed, (4) for ascribing to another a fault that is not in him, (5) for haughtiness, (6) for encroaching upon other people's domains, (7) for a lying tongue, (8) for theft, (9) for swearing falsely, (10) for profanation of the name of Heaven, and (11) for idolatry. Rabbi Isaac added: for ill-will. And our Rabbis said: for despising the words of the Torah.
Reading Leviticus 18:4, "My ordinances (, mishpatai) shall you do, and My statutes (, chukotai) shall you keep", the Sifra distinguished "ordinances" (, mishpatim) from "statutes" (, chukim). The term "ordinances" (, mishpatim), taught the Sifra, refers to rules that even had they not been written in the Torah, it would have been entirely logical to write them, like laws pertaining to theft, sexual immorality, idolatry, blasphemy and murder. The term "statutes" (, chukim), taught the Sifra, refers to those rules that the impulse to do evil (, yetzer hara) and the nations of the world try to undermine, like eating pork (prohibited by Leviticus 11:7 and Deuteronomy 14:7–8), wearing wool-linen mixtures (, shatnez, prohibited by Leviticus 19:19 and Deuteronomy 22:11), release from levirate marriage (, chalitzah, mandated by Deuteronomy 25:5–10), purification of a person affected by skin disease (, metzora, regulated in Leviticus 13–14), and the goat sent off into the wilderness (the "scapegoat," regulated in Leviticus 16). In regard to these, taught the Sifra, the Torah says simply that God legislated them and we have no right to raise doubts about them.
It was taught in a Baraita that four types of people are accounted as though they were dead: a poor person, a person affected by skin disease (, metzora), a blind person, and one who is childless. A poor person is accounted as dead, for Exodus 4:19 says, "for all the men are dead who sought your life" (and the Gemara interpreted this to mean that they had been stricken with poverty). A person affected by skin disease (, metzora) is accounted as dead, for Numbers 12:10–12 says, "And Aaron looked upon Miriam, and behold, she was leprous (, metzora'at). And Aaron said to Moses . . . let her not be as one dead." The blind are accounted as dead, for Lamentations 3:6 says, "He has set me in dark places, as they that be dead of old." And one who is childless is accounted as dead, for in Genesis 30:1, Rachel said, "Give me children, or else I am dead".
In the priest's examination of skin disease mandated by Leviticus 13:2, 9, and 14:2, the Mishnah taught that a priest could examine anyone else's symptoms, but not his own. And Rabbi Meir taught that the priest could not examine his relatives. The Mishnah taught that anyone could inspect skin disease, but only a priest could declare it unclean or clean. The Mishnah taught that the priests delayed examining a bridegroom—as well as his house and his garment—until after his seven days of rejoicing, and delayed examining anyone until after a holy day.
The Gemara taught that the early scholars were called soferim (related to the original sense of its root safar, "to count") because they used to count all the letters of the Torah (to ensure the correctness of the text). They used to say the vav () in gachon, ("belly"), in Leviticus 11:42 marks the half-way point of the letters in the Torah. They used to say the words darosh darash, ("diligently inquired"), in Leviticus 10:16 mark the half-way point of the words in the Torah. And they used to say Leviticus 13:33 marks the half-way point of the verses in the Torah. Rav Joseph asked whether the vav () in gachon, ("belly"), in Leviticus 11:42 belonged to the first half or the second half of the Torah. (Rav Joseph presumed that the Torah contains an even number of letters.) The scholars replied that they could bring a Torah Scroll and count, for Rabbah bar bar Hanah said on a similar occasion that they did not stir from where they were until a Torah Scroll was brought and they counted. Rav Joseph replied that they (in Rabbah bar bar Hanah's time) were thoroughly versed in the proper defective and full spellings of words (that could be spelled in variant ways), but they (in Rav Joseph's time) were not. Similarly, Rav Joseph asked whether Leviticus 13:33 belongs to the first half or the second half of verses. Abaye replied that for verses, at least, we can bring a Scroll and count them. But Rav Joseph replied that even with verses, they could no longer be certain. For when Rav Aha bar Adda came (from the Land of Israel to Babylon), he said that in the West (in the Land of Israel), they divided Exodus 19:9 into three verses. Nonetheless, the Rabbis taught in a Baraita that there are 5,888 verses in the Torah. (Note that others say the middle letter in our current Torah text is the aleph () in hu, ("he"), in Leviticus 8:28; the middle two words are el yesod, ("at the base of"), in Leviticus 8:15; the half-way point of the verses in the Torah is Leviticus 8:7; and there are 5,846 verses in the Torah text we have today.)
Rava recounted a Baraita that taught that the rule of Leviticus 13:45 regarding one with skin disease, "the hair of his head shall be loose", also applied to a High Priest. The status of a High Priest throughout the year corresponded with that of any other person on a festival (with regard to mourning). For the Mishnah said that the High Priest could bring sacrifices on the altar even before he had buried his dead, but he could not eat sacrificial meat. From this restriction of a High Priest, the Gemara inferred that the High Priest would deport himself as a person with skin disease during a festival. And the Gemara continued to teach that a mourner is forbidden to cut his hair, because since Leviticus 10:6 ordained for the sons of Aaron: "Let not the hair of your heads go loose" (after the death of their brothers Nadab and Abihu), we infer that cutting hair is forbidden for everybody else (during mourning), as well.
Rabbi Abbahu, as well as Rabbi Uzziel the grandson of Rabbi Uzziel the Great, taught that Leviticus 13:46 requires that the person afflicted with skin disease "cry, ‘Unclean! Unclean!'" to warn passers-by to keep away. But the Gemara cited a Baraita that taught that Leviticus 13:46 requires that the person "cry, ‘Unclean! Unclean!'" so that the person's distress would become known to many people, so that many could pray for mercy on the afflicted person's behalf. And the Gemara concluded that Leviticus 13:46 reads "Unclean" twice to teach that Leviticus 13:46 is intended to further both purposes, to keep passers-by away and to invite their prayers for mercy.
A Midrash taught that Divine Justice first attacks a person's substance and then the person's body. So when leprous plagues come upon a person, first they come upon the fabric of the person's house. If the person repents, then Leviticus 14:40 requires that only the affected stones need to be pulled out; if the person does not repent, then Leviticus 14:45 requires pulling down the house. Then the plagues come upon the person's clothes. If the person repents, then the clothes require washing; if not, they require burning. Then the plagues come upon the person's body. If the person repents, Leviticus 14:1–32 provides for purification; if not, then Leviticus 13:46 ordains that the person "shall dwell alone".
Similarly, the Tosefta reported that when a person would come to the priest, the priest would tell the person to engage in self-examination and turn from evil ways. The priest would continue that plagues come only from gossip, and skin disease from arrogance. But God would judge in mercy. The plague would come to the house, and if the homeowner repented, the house required only dismantling, but if the homeowner did not repent, the house required demolition. They would appear on clothing, and if the owner repented, the clothing required only tearing, but if the owner did not repent, the clothing required burning. They would appear on the person's body, and if the person repented, well and good, but if the person did not repent, Leviticus 13:46 required that the person "shall dwell alone".
Rabbi Samuel bar Elnadab asked Rabbi Haninah (or others say Rabbi Samuel bar Nadab the son-in-law of Rabbi Haninah asked Rabbi Haninah, or still others say, asked Rabbi Joshua ben Levi) what distinguished the person afflicted with skin disease that Leviticus 13:46 ordains that the person "shall dwell alone". The answer was that through gossip, the person afflicted with skin disease separated husband from wife, one neighbor from another, and therefore the Torah punished the person afflicted with skin disease measure for measure, ordaining that the person "shall dwell alone".
In a Baraita, Rabbi Jose related that a certain Elder from Jerusalem told him that 24 types of patients are afflicted with boils. The Gemara then related that Rabbi Joḥanan warned to be careful of the flies found on those afflicted with the disease ra’atan, as flies carried the disease. Rabbi Zeira would not sit in a spot where the wind blew from the direction of someone afflicted with ra’atan. Rabbi Elazar would not enter the tent of one afflicted with ra’atan, and Rabbi Ami and Rabbi Asi would not eat eggs from an alley in which someone afflicted with ra’atan lived. Rabbi Joshua ben Levi, however, would attach himself to those afflicted with ra’atan and study Torah, saying this was justified by Proverbs 5:19, “The Torah is a loving hind and a graceful doe.” Rabbi Joshua reasoned that if Torah bestows grace on those who learn it, it could protect them from illness. When Rabbi Joshua ben Levi was on the verge of dying, the Gemara told, the Angel of Death was instructed to perform Rabbi Joshua's bidding, as he was a righteous man and deserves to die in the manner he saw fit. Rabbi Joshua ben Levi asked the Angel of Death to show him his place in paradise, and the Angel agreed. Rabbi Joshua ben Levi asked the Angel to give him the knife that the Angel used to kill people, lest the Angel frighten him on the way, and the Angel gave it to him. When they arrived in paradise, the Angel lifted Rabbi Joshua so that he could see his place in paradise, and Rabbi Joshua jumped to the other side, escaping into paradise. Elijah the Prophet then told those in paradise to make way for Rabbi Joshua.
The Gemara told that Rabbi Joshua ben Levi asked Elijah when the Messiah would come, and Elijah told Rabbi Joshua ben Levi that he could find the Messiah sitting at the entrance of the city of Rome among the poor who suffer from illnesses.
In medieval Jewish interpretation
The parashah is discussed in these medieval Jewish sources:
Leviticus chapter 12
Maimonides taught that the laws of impurity serve many uses: (1) They keep Jews at a distance from dirty and filthy objects. (2) They guard the Sanctuary. (3) They pay regard to an established custom. (4) They lightened the burden. For these laws do not impede people affected with impurity in their ordinary occupations. For the distinction between pure and impure applies only with reference to the Sanctuary and the holy objects connected with it; it does not apply to other cases. Citing Leviticus 12:4, "She shall touch no hallowed thing, nor come into the Sanctuary," Maimonides noted that people who do not intend to enter the Sanctuary or touch any holy thing are not guilty of any sin if they remain unclean as long as they like, and eat, according to their pleasure, ordinary food that has been in contact with unclean things.
In modern interpretation
The parashah is discussed in these modern sources:
Leviticus chapter 12
Elaine Goodfriend observed that Leviticus 12 and its focus on menstruating women had an enormous effect on Jewish women's lives. Goodfriend reported that "the view that women—via their normal, recurring bodily functions—generate a pollution antagonistic to holiness served as a justification for women's distance from the sacred throughout Jewish history." Goodfriend speculated the priesthood excluded women because of "fear that the sudden onset of menstruation would result in the clash of impurity and holiness, with presumed dire consequences." Goodfriend noted that these laws and associated customs affected both women's public religious life and private family life, as they and their husbands were prohibited from sex for extensive periods of time, affecting their fertility and married life in general.
Shaye Cohen noted that the only element in common between the "ritual" or physical impurities of Leviticus 11–15 and the "dangerous" or sinful impurities of Leviticus 18 is intercourse with a menstruant.
Leviticus chapter 13
Ephraim Speiser wrote that the word “Torah” () is based on a verbal stem signifying “to teach, guide,” and the like, and the derived noun can carry a variety of meanings, including in Leviticus 13:59, 14:2, 54, and 57, specific rituals for what is sometimes called leprosy. Speiser argued that in context, the word cannot be mistaken for the title of the Pentateuch as a whole.
Commandments
According to Maimonides
Maimonides cited verses in this parashah for 3 positive and 1 negative commandments:
To circumcise the son, as it is written "and on the eighth day the flesh of his foreskin shall be circumcised"
For a woman after childbirth to bring a sacrifice after she becomes clean, as it is written "and when the days of her purification are fulfilled"
Not to shave off the hair of the scall, as it is written "but the scall shall he not shave"
For the person with skin disease to be known to all by the things written about the person, "his clothes shall be rent, and the hair of his head shall go loose, and he shall cover his upper lip, and shall cry: 'unclean, unclean.'" So too, all other unclean persons must declare themselves.
According to Sefer ha-Chinuch
According to Sefer ha-Chinuch, there are 5 positive and 2 negative commandments in the parashah:
The precept about the ritual uncleanness of a woman after childbirth
A ritually unclean person is not to eat meat of holy sacrifices.
The precept of a woman's offering after giving birth
The precept regarding the ritual uncleanness of a m'tzora (person with skin disease (, tzara'at)
The prohibition against shaving the area of a nethek (an impurity in hair)
That one with skin disease (, tzara'at), among others, should rend clothes.
The precept of , tzara'at in cloth
In the liturgy
Some Jews refer to the laws of bird offerings in Leviticus 12:8 and the laws of the menstrual cycle as they study the end of chapter 3 of Pirkei Avot on a Sabbath between Passover and Rosh Hashanah.
Some Jews refer to the guilt offerings for skin disease in Leviticus 13 as part of readings on the offerings after the Sabbath morning blessings.
Following the Shacharit morning prayer service, some Jews recite the Six Remembrances, among which is Deuteronomy 24:9, "Remember what the Lord your God did to Miriam by the way as you came forth out of Egypt," recalling that God punished Miriam with , tzara'at.
The Weekly Maqam
In the Weekly Maqam, Sephardi Jews each week base the songs of the services on the content of that week's parashah. For Parashat Tazria, Sephardi Jews apply Maqam Saba, the maqam that symbolizes a covenant (brit). This is appropriate, because this parashah commences with the discussion of what to do when a baby boy is born. It also mentions the brit milah, a ritual that shows a covenant between man and God.
Haftarah
The haftarah for the parashah (when read individually on a Sabbath that is not a special Sabbath) is 2 Kings 4:42–5:19.
Summary
A man from Baal-shalishah brought the prophet Elisha bread of the First Fruits—20 loaves of barley—and fresh grain in his sack to give to the people to eat. Elisha's servant asked Elisha how he could feed a hundred men with these rations, but Elisha told his servant to give the food to the people, for God said that they would eat and have food left over. So the servant set the food before the men, they ate, and they had food left over, just as God had said.
Naaman, the commander of the army of the king of Aram, was a great warrior, but he was a leper. The girl who waited on Naaman's wife was an Israelite whom the Arameans had taken captive, and she told Naaman's wife that if Naaman went to Elisha in Samaria, then Elisha would cure Naaman of his leprosy. Naaman told his lord the king of Aram what the girl said, and the king of Aram sent Naaman on his way with a letter to the king of Israel. Naaman departed, taking with him ten talents of silver, 6,000 pieces of gold, and ten changes of clothes. Naaman brought the king of Israel the letter, which asked the king of Israel to cure Naaman of his leprosy. When the king of Israel read the letter, he rent his clothes and complained that he was not God with power over life and death, but the king of Aram must have been seeking some pretext to attack Israel.
When Elisha heard, he invited the king to send Naaman to him, and so Naaman came to Elisha's house with his horses and his chariots. Elisha sent a messenger to Naaman to tell him to wash seven times in the Jordan River and be healed, but that angered Naaman, who expected Elisha to come out, call on the name of God, and wave his hands over Naaman. Naaman asked whether the Amanah and Pharpar rivers of Damascus were not better than any river in Israel, so that he might wash in them and be clean.
But Naaman's servants advised him that if Elisha had directed him to do some difficult thing he would have done it, so how much more should he do what Elisha directed when he said merely to wash and be clean. So Naaman dipped himself seven times in the Jordan, and his flesh came back like the flesh of a little child.
Naaman returned to Elisha, avowed that there is no God except in Israel, and asked Elisha to take a present, but Elisha declined. Naaman asked if he might take two mule loads of Israel's earth so that Naaman might make offerings to God, and he asked that God might pardon Naaman when had had to bow before the Aramean idol Rimmon when the king of Aram leaned on Naaman to bow before Rimmon. And Elisha told Naaman to go in peace.
Connection to the parashah
Both the parashah and the haftarah report the treatment of skin disease, the parashah by the priests, and the haftarah by the prophet Elisha. Both the parashah and the haftarah frequently employ the term for skin disease (, tzara'at).
A Midrash deduced from the characterization of Naaman as a "great man" in 2 Kings 5:1 that Naaman was haughty on account of his being a great warrior, and as a result was smitten with leprosy.
And fundamentally, both the parashah and the haftarah view skin disease as related to the Divine sphere and an occasion for interaction with God.
The haftarah in classical rabbinic interpretation
The Mekhilta of Rabbi Ishmael considered Naaman a more righteous convert than Jethro. Reading Jethro's words in Exodus 18:11, "Now I know that the Lord is greater than all gods," the Mekhilta of Rabbi Ishmael reported that they said that there was not an idol in the world that Jethro failed to seek out and worship, for Jethro said "than all gods." The Mekhilta of Rabbi Ishmael taught that Naaman, however, knew better than Jethro that there was no other god, for Naaman said in 2 Kings 5:15, "Behold now, I know that there is no God in all the earth, but in Israel." The Babylonian Talmud, however, taught that Naaman was merely a resident alien who observed the seven Noahide commandments (including the prohibition on idolatry).
On Shabbat HaChodesh
When the parashah coincides with Shabbat HaChodesh ("Sabbath [of] the month," the special Sabbath preceding the Hebrew month of Nissan—as it does in 2022), the haftarah is:
for Ashkenazi Jews: Ezekiel 45:16–46:18
for Sephardi Jews: Ezekiel 45:18–46:15
Connection to the Special Sabbath
On Shabbat HaChodesh, Jews read Exodus 12:1–20, in which God commands that "This month [Nissan] shall be the beginning of months; it shall be the first month of the year," and in which God issued the commandments of Passover. Similarly, the haftarah in Ezekiel 45:21–25 discusses Passover. In both the special reading and the haftarah, God instructs the Israelites to apply blood to doorposts.
Parashat Tazria–Metzora
When parashah Tazria is combined with Parashat Metzora (as it is in 2018, 2020, 2021, 2025, and 2028) and it is not a special Sabbath, the haftarah is the haftarah for Parashat Metzora, 2 Kings 7:3–20.
Summary
During the Arameans' siege of Samaria, four leprous men at the gate asked each other why they should die there of starvation, when they might go to the Arameans, who would either save them or leave them no worse than they were. When at twilight, they went to the Arameans' camp, there was no one there, for God had made the Arameans hear chariots, horses, and a great army, and fearing the Hittites and the Egyptians, they fled, leaving their tents, their horses, their donkeys, and their camp. The lepers went into a tent, ate and drank, and carried away silver, gold, and clothing from the tents and hid it.
Feeling qualms of guilt, they went to go tell the king of Samaria, and called to the porters of the city telling them what they had seen, and the porters told the king's household within. The king arose in the night, and told his servants that he suspected that the Arameans had hidden in the field, thinking that when the Samaritans came out, they would be able to get into the city. One of his servants suggested that some men take five of the horses that remained and go see, and they took two chariots with horses to go and see. They went after the Arameans as far as the Jordan River, and all the way was littered with garments and vessels that the Arameans had cast away in their haste, and the messengers returned and told the king. So the people went out and looted the Arameans' camp, so that the price of fine flour and two measures of barley each dropped to a shekel, as God had said it would. And the king appointed the captain on whom he leaned to take charge of the gate, and the people trampled him and killed him before he could taste of the flour, just as the man of God Elisha had said.
Connection to the double parashah
Both the double parashah and the haftarah deal with people stricken with skin disease. Both the parashah and the haftarah employ the term for the person affected by skin disease (metzora, ). In Parashat Tazria, Leviticus 13:46 provides that the person with skin disease "shall dwell alone; without the camp shall his dwelling be," thus explaining why the four leprous men in the haftarah lived outside the gate.
Rabbi Joḥanan taught that the four leprous men at the gate in 2 Kings 7:3 were none other than Elisha's former servant Gehazi (whom the Midrash, above, cited as having been stricken with leprosy for profanation of the Divine Name) and his three sons.
In Parashat Metzora, when there "seems" to be a plague in the house, the priest must not jump to conclusions, but must examine the facts. Just before the opening of the haftarah, in 2 Kings 7:2, the captain on whom the king leaned jumps to the conclusion that Elisha's prophecy could not come true, and the captain meets his punishment in 2 Kings 7:17 and 19.
On Shabbat Rosh Chodesh
When the combined parashah coincides with Shabbat Rosh Chodesh (as it does in 2026), the haftarah is Isaiah 66:1–24.
Notes
Further reading
The parashah has parallels or is discussed in these sources:
Biblical
Genesis 17:12 (circumcision).
Psalms 72:12 (God's help for the needy who cry out); 147:3 (God's healing).
Early nonrabbinic
Jubilees 3:8–14 Land of Israel, 2nd century BCE. (days of defilement after childbirth).
Philo. On the Posterity of Cain and His Exile 13:47; On the Unchangeableness of God 25:123–24; 27:127; Concerning Noah's Work as a Planter 26:111; On the Prayers and Curses Uttered by Noah When He Became Sober 10:49. Alexandria, Egypt, early 1st century CE. In, e.g., The Works of Philo: Complete and Unabridged, New Updated Edition. Translated by Charles Duke Yonge, pages 136, 168, 200, 231. Peabody, Massachusetts: Hendrickson Publishers, 1993.
Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews 3:11:3–5. Circa 93–94. In, e.g., The Works of Josephus: Complete and Unabridged, New Updated Edition. Translated by William Whiston, pages 96–97. Peabody, Massachusetts: Hendrickson Publishers, 1987.
Luke 2:22 (days of purification after birth).
Classical rabbinic
Mishnah: Megillah 2:4; Nazir 7:3; Sotah 3:8; Avot 3:18; Horayot 3:5; Zevachim 10:4; Arakhin 2:1, Keritot 6:9; Kinnim 1:1–3:6; Negaim 1:1–14:13. Land of Israel, circa 200 CE. In, e.g., The Mishnah: A New Translation. Translated by Jacob Neusner, pages 319, 444, 453, 681, 695, 722, 811, 851, 883–89, 981–1012. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1988.
Tosefta: Bikkurim 2:6; Shabbat 8:27; Megillah 2:4; Sotah 6:7; Eduyot 2:4; Negaim 1:1–9:9. Land of Israel, circa 250 CE. In, e.g., The Tosefta: Translated from the Hebrew, with a New Introduction. Translated by Jacob Neusner, volume 1, pages 350, 385, 857; volume 2, pages 1253, 1709–44. Peabody, Massachusetts: Hendrickson Publishers, 2002.
Sifra 121:1–147:16. Land of Israel, 4th century CE. In, e.g., Sifra: An Analytical Translation. Translated by Jacob Neusner, volume 2, pages 231–323. Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1988.
Jerusalem Talmud: Kilayim 76a; Maaser Sheni 46b; Shabbat 10b, 19a, 98a; Pesachim 14b, 45b, 55a, 78a; Shekalim 4a, 24b; Rosh Hashanah 5b; Megillah 12a, 25b; Yevamot 44a; Nedarim 12b–13a, 31a; Nazir 20a, 52a; Sotah 19b, 44a; Kiddushin 19b; Sanhedrin 63b; Shevuot 2b; Niddah 1a–. Tiberias, Land of Israel, circa 400 CE. In, e.g., Talmud Yerushalmi. Edited by Chaim Malinowitz, Yisroel Simcha Schorr, and Mordechai Marcus, volumes 5, 10, 13, 15, 18–20, 24, 26, 30, 33–37, 40, 45–46, _. Brooklyn: Mesorah Publications, 2008–2020.
Mekhilta of Rabbi Simeon 10:2. Land of Israel, 5th century. In, e.g., Mekhilta de-Rabbi Shimon bar Yohai. Translated by W. David Nelson, page 31. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 2006.
Leviticus Rabbah 2:6; 5:5; 14:1–16:1; 16:3–4, 6; 17:3–4; 18:2, 4–5; 21:2; 27:1, 10; 36:1. Land of Israel, 5th century. In, e.g., Midrash Rabbah: Leviticus. Translated by Harry Freedman and Maurice Simon, volume 4, pages 24, 70, 177–98, 202, 205–07, 216–17, 219, 229, 232–33, 266, 344, 354, 456. London: Soncino Press, 1939.
Babylonian Talmud: Berakhot 4a, 5b, 25a; Shabbat 2b, 24b, 26b, 28a, 54a, 55b, 67a, 94b, 132a–b, 134b–35a; Eruvin 24a, 32a, 37a; Pesachim 3a, 4a, 9b, 67a–b, 75a, 84a, 90b, 92a, 113b; Yoma 6a, 9b, 28b, 34b, 41a, 42a, 81a; Sukkah 28b; Megillah 8b, 20a, 24b; Moed Katan 5a, 7a–8a, 14b–15a; Chagigah 11a, 18b; Yevamot 4b, 47b, 72b, 74b–75a, 83a, 103b–04a; Ketubot 61b, 75b; Nedarim 4b, 64b; Nazir 17b, 26b–27a, 29a, 43a, 54b, 56b, 59b, 64b, 65b; Sotah 5a, 23a, 32b; Kiddushin 13b, 25a, 30a, 35b; Bava Kamma 11a, 80a, 92b; Bava Metzia 86a; Bava Batra 84a, 127a; Sanhedrin 4a, 11a, 26a, 34b, 54b, 59b, 68a, 83b, 87b–88a, 97a, 101a; Makkot 8b, 14b, 20b, 22a; Shevuot 2a, 6a–7a, 8a, 11a, 16a, 17b; Avodah Zarah 23b, 42a; Horayot 10a, 12b; Zevachim 19b, 32b, 33b, 38a, 49b, 67b, 76b, 90a, 94a, 102a, 105b, 112b, 117a; Menachot 4b, 6b, 37b, 39b, 91b; Chullin 8a, 24a, 31b, 41b, 51b, 63a, 71a, 77b–78a, 84b–85a, 109b, 134a; Bekhorot 17a, 27b, 34b, 41a, 47b; Arakhin 3a, 8b, 15b–16b, 18b, 21a; Temurah 26b; Keritot 7b–8b, 9b–10b, 22b, 28a; Meilah 19a; Niddah 11a–b, 15b, 19a, 20b–21a, 24b, 27b, 30b–31a, 34a–b, 35b, 36b, 37b, 38b, 40a, 44a, 47b, 50a, 66a, 71b. Sasanian Empire, 6th century. In, e.g., Talmud Bavli. Edited by Yisroel Simcha Schorr, Chaim Malinowitz, and Mordechai Marcus, 72 volumes. Brooklyn: Mesorah Publications, 2006.
Deuteronomy Rabbah 6:8. Land of Israel, circa 775–900 CE. In, e.g., Midrash Rabbah: Deuteronomy. Translated by Harry Freedman and Maurice Simon, volume 7, pages 125–26. London: Soncino Press, 1939.
Medieval
Solomon ibn Gabirol. A Crown for the King, 30:369–70. Spain, 11th century. Translated by David R. Slavitt, pages 48–49. New York: Oxford University Press, 1998.
Maimonides. The Guide for the Perplexed, part 1, chapter 42; part 3, chapters 41, 45, 47, 49. Cairo, Egypt, 1190. In, e.g., Moses Maimonides. The Guide for the Perplexed. Translated by Michael Friedländer, pages 56, 346, 357, 368, 379. New York: Dover Publications, 1956.
Rashi. Commentary. Leviticus 12–13. Troyes, France, late 11th century. In, e.g., Rashi. The Torah: With Rashi's Commentary Translated, Annotated, and Elucidated. Translated and annotated by Yisrael Isser Zvi Herczeg, volume 3, pages 135–57. Brooklyn: Mesorah Publications, 1994.
Rashbam. Commentary on the Torah. Troyes, early 12th century. In, e.g., Rashbam's Commentary on Leviticus and Numbers: An Annotated Translation. Edited and translated by Martin I. Lockshin, pages 69–76. Providence: Brown Judaic Studies, 2001.
Abraham ibn Ezra. Commentary on the Torah. Mid-12th century. In, e.g., Ibn Ezra's Commentary on the Pentateuch: Leviticus (Va-yikra). Translated and annotated by H. Norman Strickman and Arthur M. Silver, volume 3, pages 85–102. New York: Menorah Publishing Company, 2004.
Hezekiah ben Manoah. Hizkuni. France, circa 1240. In, e.g., Chizkiyahu ben Manoach. Chizkuni: Torah Commentary. Translated and annotated by Eliyahu Munk, volume 3, pages 713–28. Jerusalem: Ktav Publishers, 2013.
Naḥmanides. Commentary on the Torah. Jerusalem, circa 1270. In, e.g., Ramban (Nachmanides): Commentary on the Torah. Translated by Charles B. Chavel, volume 3, pages 156–85. New York: Shilo Publishing House, 1974.
Zohar 3:42a–52a. Spain, late 13th century. In, e.g., The Zohar. Translated by Harry Sperling and Maurice Simon. 5 volumes. London: Soncino Press, 1934.
Bahya ben Asher. Commentary on the Torah. Spain, early 14th century. In, e.g., Midrash Rabbeinu Bachya: Torah Commentary by Rabbi Bachya ben Asher. Translated and annotated by Eliyahu Munk, volume 5, pages 1621–52. Jerusalem: Lambda Publishers, 2003.
Jacob ben Asher (Baal Ha-Turim). Commentary on the Torah. Early 14th century. In, e.g., Baal Haturim Chumash: Vayikra/Leviticus. Translated by Eliyahu Touger; edited, elucidated, and annotated by Avie Gold, volume 3, pages 1113–37. Brooklyn: Mesorah Publications, 2000.
Jacob ben Asher. Perush Al ha-Torah. Early 14th century. In, e.g., Yaakov ben Asher. Tur on the Torah. Translated and annotated by Eliyahu Munk, volume 3, pages 852–67. Jerusalem: Lambda Publishers, 2005.
Isaac ben Moses Arama. Akedat Yizhak (The Binding of Isaac). Late 15th century. In, e.g., Yitzchak Arama. Akeydat Yitzchak: Commentary of Rabbi Yitzchak Arama on the Torah. Translated and condensed by Eliyahu Munk, volume 2, pages 577–87. New York, Lambda Publishers, 2001.
Modern
Isaac Abravanel. Commentary on the Torah. Italy, between 1492 and 1509. In, e.g., Abarbanel: Selected Commentaries on the Torah: Volume 3: Vayikra/Leviticus. Translated and annotated by Israel Lazar, pages 106–19. Brooklyn: CreateSpace, 2015.
Obadiah ben Jacob Sforno. Commentary on the Torah. Venice, 1567. In, e.g., Sforno: Commentary on the Torah. Translation and explanatory notes by Raphael Pelcovitz, pages 538–49. Brooklyn: Mesorah Publications, 1997.
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Thomas Hobbes. Leviathan, 3:40. England, 1651. Reprint edited by C. B. Macpherson, pages 503–04. Harmondsworth, England: Penguin Classics, 1982.
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Shabbethai Bass. Sifsei Chachamim. Amsterdam, 1680. In, e.g., Sefer Vayikro: From the Five Books of the Torah: Chumash: Targum Okelos: Rashi: Sifsei Chachamim: Yalkut: Haftaros, translated by Avrohom Y. Davis, pages 211–48. Lakewood Township, New Jersey: Metsudah Publications, 2012.
Chaim ibn Attar. Ohr ha-Chaim. Venice, 1742. In Chayim ben Attar. Or Hachayim: Commentary on the Torah. Translated by Eliyahu Munk, volume 3, pages 1057–90. Brooklyn: Lambda Publishers, 1999.
Yitzchak Magriso. Me'am Lo'ez. Constantinople, 1753. In Yitzchak Magriso. The Torah Anthology: MeAm Lo'ez. Translated by Aryeh Kaplan, volume 11, pages 275–99. New York: Moznaim Publishing, 1989.
Naḥman of Breslov. Teachings. Bratslav, Ukraine, before 1811. In Rebbe Nachman's Torah: Breslov Insights into the Weekly Torah Reading: Exodus-Leviticus. Compiled by Chaim Kramer; edited by Y. Hall, pages 337–40. Jerusalem: Breslov Research Institute, 2011.
Emily Dickinson. Poem 1733 (No man saw awe, nor to his house). 19th century. In The Complete Poems of Emily Dickinson. Edited by Thomas H. Johnson, page 703. New York: Little, Brown & Co., 1960.
Samuel David Luzzatto (Shadal). Commentary on the Torah. Padua, 1871. In, e.g., Samuel David Luzzatto. Torah Commentary. Translated and annotated by Eliyahu Munk, volume 3, pages 934–45. New York: Lambda Publishers, 2012.
Yehudah Aryeh Leib Alter. Sefat Emet. Góra Kalwaria (Ger), Poland, up to 1905. Excerpted in The Language of Truth: The Torah Commentary of Sefat Emet. Translated and interpreted by Arthur Green, pages 167–72. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 1998. Reprinted 2012.
Alexander Alan Steinbach. Sabbath Queen: Fifty-four Bible Talks to the Young Based on Each Portion of the Pentateuch, pages 84–87. New York: Behrman's Jewish Book House, 1936.
Thomas Mann. Joseph and His Brothers. Translated by John E. Woods, pages 101, 859. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2005. Originally published as Joseph und seine Brüder. Stockholm: Bermann-Fischer Verlag, 1943.
E.V. Hulse, "The Nature of Biblical ‘Leprosy' and the Use of Alternative Medical Terms in Modern Translations of the Bible." Palestine Exploration Quarterly. Volume 107 (1975): pages 87–105.
Gordon J. Wenham. The Book of Leviticus, pages 185–203. Grand Rapids, Michigan: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1979.
Walter Jacob. "Jewish Reaction to Epidemics (AIDS)." In Contemporary American Reform Responsa, pages 136–38. New York: Central Conference of American Rabbis, 1987.
Pinchas H. Peli. Torah Today: A Renewed Encounter with Scripture, pages 121–26. Washington, D.C.: B'nai B'rith Books, 1987.
Berit Mila in the Reform Context. Edited by Lewis M. Barth. Berit Mila Board of Reform Judaism, 1990.
Shaye J. D. Cohen. "Menstruants and the Sacred in Judaism and Christianity." In Women’s History and Ancient History. Edited by Sarah B. Pomeroy, pages 273–99. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1991.
Harvey J. Fields. A Torah Commentary for Our Times: Volume II: Exodus and Leviticus, pages 120–26. New York: UAHC Press, 1991.
Jacob Milgrom. "The Rationale for Biblical Impurity." Journal of the Ancient Near Eastern Society. Volume 22 (1993): pages 107–11.
Victor Avigdor Hurowitz. "Review Essay: Ancient Israelite Cult in History, Tradition, and Interpretation." AJS Review, volume 19 (number 2) (1994): pages 213–36.
Walter C. Kaiser Jr., " The Book of Leviticus," in The New Interpreter's Bible, volume 1, pages 1083–98. Nashville: Abingdon Press, 1994.
Judith S. Antonelli. "Childbirth." In In the Image of God: A Feminist Commentary on the Torah, pages 264–75. Northvale, New Jersey: Jason Aronson, 1995.
Ellen Frankel. The Five Books of Miriam: A Woman’s Commentary on the Torah, pages 163–66. New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1996.
Lawrence A. Hoffman. Covenant of Blood: Circumcision and Gender in Rabbinic Judaism. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996.
W. Gunther Plaut. The Haftarah Commentary, pages 268–76. New York: UAHC Press, 1996.
Sorel Goldberg Loeb and Barbara Binder Kadden. Teaching Torah: A Treasury of Insights and Activities, pages 183–88. Denver: A.R.E. Publishing, 1997.
Jacob Milgrom. Leviticus 1–16, volume 3, pages 742–826. New York: Anchor Bible, 1998.
Helaine Ettinger. "Our Children/God's Children." In The Women's Torah Commentary: New Insights from Women Rabbis on the 54 Weekly Torah Portions. Edited by Elyse Goldstein, pages 202–10. Woodstock, Vermont: Jewish Lights Publishing, 2000.
Frank H. Gorman Jr. "Leviticus." In The HarperCollins Bible Commentary. Edited by James L. Mays, pages 156–57. New York: HarperCollins Publishers, revised edition, 2000.
Lainie Blum Cogan and Judy Weiss. Teaching Haftarah: Background, Insights, and Strategies, pages 192–99. Denver: A.R.E. Publishing, 2002.
Michael Fishbane. The JPS Bible Commentary: Haftarot, pages 168–78. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 2002.
Robert Alter. The Five Books of Moses: A Translation with Commentary, pages 589–98. New York: W.W. Norton & Co., 2004.
Jacob Milgrom. Leviticus: A Book of Ritual and Ethics: A Continental Commentary, pages 122–32. Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2004.
Baruch J. Schwartz. "Leviticus." In The Jewish Study Bible. Edited by Adele Berlin and Marc Zvi Brettler, pages 232–38. New York: Oxford University Press, 2004.
Mary Lande Zamore. "Haftarat Tazri’a: II Kings 4:42–5:19" In The Women's Haftarah Commentary: New Insights from Women Rabbis on the 54 Weekly Haftarah Portions, the 5 Megillot & Special Shabbatot. Edited by Elyse Goldstein, pages 125–29. Woodstock, Vermont: Jewish Lights Publishing, 2004.
Antony Cothey. “Ethics and Holiness in the Theology of Leviticus.” Journal for the Study of the Old Testament, volume 30 (number 2) (December 2005): pages 131–51.
Professors on the Parashah: Studies on the Weekly Torah Reading Edited by Leib Moscovitz, pages 175–79. Jerusalem: Urim Publications, 2005.
Frank Anthony Spina. "Naaman's Cure, Gehazi's Curse." In The Faith of the Outsider: Exclusion and Inclusion in the Biblical Story, pages 72–93. William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2005.
Calum Carmichael. Illuminating Leviticus: A Study of Its Laws and Institutions in the Light of Biblical Narratives. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2006.
Bernard J. Bamberger. "Leviticus." In The Torah: A Modern Commentary: Revised Edition. Edited by W. Gunther Plaut; revised edition edited by David E.S. Stern, pages 734–49. New York: Union for Reform Judaism, 2006.
Suzanne A. Brody. "Birthing Contradictions." In Dancing in the White Spaces: The Yearly Torah Cycle and More Poems, page 88. Shelbyville, Kentucky: Wasteland Press, 2007.
James L. Kugel. How To Read the Bible: A Guide to Scripture, Then and Now, page 303. New York: Free Press, 2007.
Christophe Nihan. From Priestly Torah to Pentateuch: A Study in the Composition of the Book of Leviticus. Coronet Books, 2007.
James W. Watts. Ritual and Rhetoric in Leviticus: From Sacrifice to Scripture. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2007.
Tamara Cohn Eskenazi and Andrea L. Weiss, editors. The Torah: A Women's Commentary, pages 637–56. New York: URJ Press, 2008.
Roy E. Gane. "Leviticus." In Zondervan Illustrated Bible Backgrounds Commentary. Edited by John H. Walton, volume 1, pages 301–02. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Zondervan, 2009.
Reuven Hammer. Entering Torah: Prefaces to the Weekly Torah Portion, pages 159–64. New York: Gefen Publishing House, 2009.
Timothy Keller. "The Seduction of Success." In Counterfeit Gods: The Empty Promises of Money, Sex, and Power, and the Only Hope that Matters. Dutton Adult, 2009. (Naaman).
Ayala Sha’ashoua Miron. “Nagu’a: Touched by the Divine: Parashat Tazria (Leviticus 12:1–13:59).” In Torah Queeries: Weekly Commentaries on the Hebrew Bible. Edited by Gregg Drinkwater, Joshua Lesser, and David Shneer; foreword by Judith Plaskow, pages 140–44. New York: New York University Press, 2009.
Mark Leuchter. “The Politics of Ritual Rhetoric: A Proposed Sociopolitical Context for the Redaction of Leviticus 1–16.” Vetus Testamentum, volume 60 (number 3) (2010): pages 345–65.
Jeffrey Stackert. "Leviticus." In The New Oxford Annotated Bible: New Revised Standard Version with the Apocrypha: An Ecumenical Study Bible. Edited by Michael D. Coogan, Marc Z. Brettler, Carol A. Newsom, and Pheme Perkins, pages 158–61. New York: Oxford University Press, Revised 4th Edition 2010.
Dorothea Erbele-Küster. “Gender and Cult: ‘Pure’ and ‘Impure’ as Gender-Relevant Categories.” In Irmtraud Fischer and Mercedes Navarro Puerto with Andrea Taschl-Erber, editors. Torah, pages 375–406. Atlanta: Society of Biblical Literature, 2011.
Alexander Massey. “‘If male, is he circumcised?’ Covenant, Community, Compassion and Conscience.” (2011; revised 2019).
Jonathan Haidt. The Righteous Mind: Why Good People Are Divided by Politics and Religion, pages 148, 210. New York: Pantheon, 2012. (evolutionarily justified disgust as motivation for casting out lepers; circumcision as tribal symbolic marking).
Tracy M. Lemos. “Where There Is Dirt, Is There System? Revisiting Biblical Purity Constructions.” Journal for the Study of the Old Testament, volume 37 (number 3) (March 2013): pages 265–94.
Shmuel Herzfeld. "Pray for Health." In Fifty-Four Pick Up: Fifteen-Minute Inspirational Torah Lessons, pages 156–59. Jerusalem: Gefen Publishing House, 2012.
Aaron Panken. "The Checklist Imperative." The Jerusalem Report, volume 24 (number 26) (April 7, 2014): page 47.
Stephanie Butnick. "Bas Relief Depicts Circumcision in Ancient Egypt: Relic from 2400 BCE believed to be the oldest illustration of the ritual." Tablet Magazine. (June 18, 2014).
Jonathan Sacks. Covenant & Conversation: A Weekly Reading of the Jewish Bible: Leviticus: The Book of Holiness, pages 163–98. Jerusalem: Maggid Books, 2015.
Jonathan Sacks. Lessons in Leadership: A Weekly Reading of the Jewish Bible, pages 141–45. New Milford, Connecticut: Maggid Books, 2015.
Jonathan Sacks. Essays on Ethics: A Weekly Reading of the Jewish Bible, pages 171–76. New Milford, Connecticut: Maggid Books, 2016.
Shai Held. The Heart of Torah, Volume 2: Essays on the Weekly Torah Portion: Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy, pages 37–46. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 2017.
Steven Levy and Sarah Levy. The JPS Rashi Discussion Torah Commentary, pages 86–89. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 2017.
Irit Dekel, Bernhard Forchtner, and Ibrahim Efe. “Circumcising the Body: Negotiating Difference and Belonging in Germany.” National Identitie (2019).
Alessandro Massa. “The European Convention on Human Rights and Ritual Male Circumcision: Religion, Family, Rights.” (2019).
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4438586 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20Sino-Russian%20relations | History of Sino-Russian relations | Prior to the 17th century, China and Russia were on opposite ends of Siberia, which was populated by independent nomads. By about 1640 Russian settlers had traversed most of Siberia and founded settlements in the Amur River basin. From 1652 to 1689, China's armies drove the Russian settlers out, but after 1689, China and Russia made peace and established trade agreements.
By the mid-19th century, China's economy and military lagged far behind the colonial powers. It signed unequal treaties with Western countries and Russia, through which Russia annexed the Amur basin and Vladivostok. The Russian Empire and Western powers exacted many other concessions from China, such as indemnities for anti-Western riots, control over China's tariffs, and extraterritorial agreements including legal immunity for foreigners and foreign businesses.
Meanwhile, Russian culture and society, especially the elite, were westernized. The ruler of Russia officially was no longer called tsar but emperor, an import from Western Europe.
Issues that affected only Russia and China were mainly the Russian-Chinese border since Russia, unlike the Western countries, bordered China. Many Chinese people felt humiliated by China's submission to foreign interests, which contributed to widespread hostility towards the emperor of China.
In 1911, the Xinhai Revolution broke out and led to the establishment of the Republic of China. However, China's new regime, known as the Beiyang government, was forced to sign more unequal treaties with Western countries and with Russia. In recent years, Russia and China signed a border agreement.
In late 1917, Moscow and Petrograd were taken over by a communist group, the Bolsheviks, during the October Revolution, which caused the Russian Civil War between the Bolshevik Red Army and the anticommunist White forces. China's Beiyang government sided with the Whites and, along with most of the West, sent troops to fight against the Reds. In 1922, the Reds won the civil war and established a new country: the Soviet Union. In 1923, the Soviets provided aid and support to the Kuomintang, a Chinese faction that had been opposed to the Beiyang government. In alliance with the small Chinese Communist Party (CCP), the Kuomintang seized power in 1928, and both countries established diplomatic ties. Sino–Soviet relations remained fractious, and both countries fought two wars for the next ten years. Nevertheless, the Soviets, under Joseph Stalin, helped Chiang Kai-shek's Kuomintang government against Imperial Japan. Stalin told the Communists' leader, Mao Zedong, to co-operate with China's Kuomintang regime, but once in power, the Kuomintang orchestrated a violent mass purge of Communists, referred to as the Shanghai Massacre.
In 1937, the Kuomintang and the communists formed a new alliance to oppose the Japanese invasion of China, but they resumed fighting each other in 1942. After Japan had been defeated in 1945, both Chinese factions signed a truce, but the Chinese Civil War soon erupted again between them.
In 1949, with Soviet support, the communists won the Chinese Civil War and established the People's Republic of China, which made an alliance with the Soviets. Mao became the first leader of Communist China. Mao's most radical supporters, who became known as the "Gang of Four," gradually eliminated most of his rivals throughout his 27 years in power.
Ideological tension between the two countries emerged after Stalin's death in 1953. Nikita Khrushchev denounced Stalin's crimes in 1956, and both regimes started to criticise each other. At first, the criticism was indirect and muted, but in 1961, Mao accused the Soviet leadership of revisionism, and the alliance openly ended. Both countries competed for control over foreign communist states and political movements, and many countries had two rival communist parties that concentrated their fire on each other.
In 1969, a brief border war between the two countries occurred. Khrushchev had been replaced by Leonid Brezhnev in 1964, who abandoned many Soviet reforms criticized by Mao. However, China's anti-Soviet rhetoric intensified under the influence of Mao's closest supporters, the Gang of Four. Mao died in 1976, and the Gang of Four lost power in 1978.
After a period of instability, Deng Xiaoping became the new leader of China. The philosophical difference between both countries lessened somewhat since China's new leadership abandoned anti-revisionism.
China's internal reforms did not bring an immediate end to conflict with the Soviet Union. In 1979, China invaded Vietnam, which was a Soviet ally. China also sent aid to the mujahedin against the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan. In 1982, Brezhnev made a speech offering reconciliation with China, and Deng agreed to restore diplomatic relations.
In 1985, Mikhail Gorbachev became General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, reduced the Soviet garrisons at the Sino–Soviet border and in Mongolia, resumed trade, and dropped the border issue that had caused open war 16 years earlier. In 1989, he withdrew Soviet support from the communist government of Afghanistan. Rapprochement accelerated after the Soviet Union fell and was replaced by the Russian Federation in 1991.
Sino–Russian relations since 1991 are currently close and cordial. Both countries maintain a strong geopolitical and regional alliance and significant levels of trade.
Imperial period
Lying at opposite ends of Eurasia, the two countries had little contact before about 1640. Both had to deal with the steppe nomads, Russia from the south and China from the northwest. Russia became a northern neighbor of China when in 1582–1643 Russian adventurers made themselves masters of the Siberian forests. There were three points of contact: 1) south to the Amur River basin (early), 2) east along the southern edge of Siberia toward Peking (the main axis) and 3) in Turkestan (late).
The Oirats transmitted some garbled and incorrect descriptions of China to the Russians in 1614, the name "Taibykankan" was used to refer to the Wanli Emperor by the Oirats.
South to the Amur (1640–1689)
About 1640 Siberian cossacks spilled over the Stanovoy Mountains to the Amur River basin. This land was claimed by the Manchus who at this time were just beginning their conquest of China (Qing dynasty). By 1689 the Russians were driven back over the mountains and the Stanovoy Mountains remained the Russo-Chinese frontier from the Treaty of Nerchinsk (1689) to the Treaty of Aigun in 1859. For a full account see Sino–Russian border conflicts.
Russian expansion eastward along the southern edge of Siberia
Russian expansion in Siberia was confined to the forested area because the Cossacks were skilled in forest travel and were seeking furs while the forest natives were weak and the steppe nomads warlike. In the west, Siberia borders on the Kazakh Steppe. North of what is now Mongolia, there are mountains, Lake Baikal and more mountains until the Argun River separates Trans-Baikalia from Manchuria. West of Siberia, Russia slowly expanded down the Volga, around the southern Urals and out into the Kazakh steppe.
Early contacts
From the time of Kievan Rus' there was trade (fur, slaves) down the Volga to the Caspian Sea and Persia. Later trade extended southeast to the main Asian trade routes at Bukhara. Under the Mongol Yoke, Russian princes would regularly travel to Sarai for investiture. When Marco Polo returned from China he mentioned Russia as an obscure country in the far north. In 1466/73 Afanasy Nikitin made a journey southeast to India and left an interesting account. After the English reached the White Sea, Anthony Jenkinson travelled through Muscovy to Bukhara. In 1608 the Voivode of Tomsk tried and failed to reach China via the Altan Khan in western Mongolia. In 1616 a second attempt got as far as the Khan (Vasilly Tyumenets and Ivan Petrov). The first Russian to reach Peking was probably Ivan Petlin in 1618/19.
After the Russians reached Trans-Baikalia in the 1640s, some trade developed, but it is poorly documented. At this point there were three routes: 1) Irtysh River and east across Dzungaria and Mongolia, 2) Lake Baikal, Selenga River and southeast (the shortest) and 3) Lake Baikal, east to Nerchinsk, and south (slow but safe).
Early Russo-Chinese relations were difficult for three reasons: mutual ignorance, lack of a common language and the Chinese wish to treat the Russians as tributary barbarians, something that the Russians would not accept and did not fully understand. The language problem was solved when the Russians started sending Latin-speaking westerners who could speak to the Jesuit missionaries in Beijing.
In 1654 Fyodor Baykov was sent as the first ambassador, but his mission failed because he was unwilling to comply with the rules of Chinese diplomacy. Setkul Ablin, a Central Asian in the Russian service travelled to Peking in 1655,1658 and 1668. It was apparently on his third trip that the Manchus realized that these people from the west were the same as those who were raiding the Amur. In 1670 the Nerchinsk voyvode sent Ignatiy Milovanov to Beijing (he was probably the first Russian to cross Manchuria). The next ambassador, Nicholae Milescu (1675–78) was also unsuccessful. After months of fruitless arguments, he was given a blunt lecture about the proper behavior of tributary barbarians and sent home. After the capture of Albazin in 1685, a few Russians, commonly referred to as Albazinians, settled in Beijing where they founded the Chinese Orthodox Church.
Treaty of Nerchinsk (1689)
After their first victory at Albazin in 1685, the Manchus sent two letters to the Tsar (in Latin) suggesting peace and demanding that Russian freebooters leave the Amur. The resulting negotiations led the Treaty of Nerchinsk. The Russians gave up the Amur valley but kept the land between Lake Baikal and the Argun River. The treaty said nothing about what is now Mongolia since that area was then controlled by the Oirat Zunghar Khanate.
After Nerchinsk regular caravans started running from Nerchinsk south to Peking. Some of the traders were Central Asians. The round trip took from ten to twelve months. The trade was apparently profitable to the Russians but less so to the Chinese. The Chinese were also disenchanted by the drunken brawls of the traders. In 1690 the Qing defeated the Oirats at the Great Wall and gained complete control over the Khalka Mongols in Inner Mongolia. In 1696 the Oirats were defeated and driven back to the Altai Mountains (Kangxi Emperor in person with 80,000 troops in a battle near Ulan Bator). This opened the possibility of trade from Baikal southeastward and raised the problem of the northern border of Outer Mongolia. In March 1692 Eberhard Isbrand Ides, a Dane in the Russian service, was sent from Nerchinsk as ambassador. The Manchus raised the question of the border west of the Argun. Ides returned to Moscow January 1695. From this time it was decided that the China trade would be a state monopoly. Four state caravans travelled from Moscow to Peking between 1697 and 1702. The fourth returned via Selenginsk (near Lake Baikal) in 90 days and bore a letter from the Li-Fan Yuan suggesting that future trade use this route.
In 1712 Tulishen became the first Manchu or Chinese official to visit Russia (not counting earlier visits to Nerchinsk). He was mainly interested in the Kalmyks along the Caspian Sea and how they might be used to deal with their cousins, the Oirats. He left Peking in June 1712 and reached Tobolsk in August 1713. Here he learned that he could not see the Tsar because of the Swedish wars. He went to Saratov and down the Volga to visit Ayuka Khan of the Kalmyks. He returned to Peking in April 1715. His report, 'Yiyilu' of 'Record of Strange Regions' was long the main source of Chinese knowledge of Russia.
About this time the Kangxi Emperor began to put pressure on Saint Petersburg to delineate the Mongolian border west of the Argun, and several Russian caravans were held up. In July 1719 Lev Izmailov was sent as ambassador to Peking where he dealt with Tulishen, but the Chinese would not deal with the trade problem until the border was dealt with. Izmailov returned to Moscow in January 1722. Lorents Lange was left as consul in Peking, but was expelled in July 1722. He returned to Selenginsk and sent reports to Petersburg.
Treaty of Kyakhta (1729)
Just before his death, Peter the Great decided to deal with the border problem. The result was the Treaty of Kyakhta. This defined the northern border of what is now Mongolia (except for Tuva) and opened up the Kyakhta caravan trade southeast to Peking.
The needs for communication between the Russian and Chinese traders at Kyakhta and elsewhere resulted in the development of a pidgin, known to linguists as Kyakhta Russian-Chinese Pidgin.
The treaties of Nerchinsk and Kyakhta were the basis of Russo-Chinese relations until the Treaty of Aigun in 1858. The fixed border helped the Chinese to gain full control of Outer Mongolia and annex Xinjiang by about 1755. Russo-Chinese trade shifted from Nerchinsk to Kyakhta and the Nerchensk trade died out by about 1750. (Local trade in this area shifted east to a border town called Tsurukhaitu on the Argun River).
Turkestan
After the Russians reached Tobolsk in 1585, it was natural to continue up the Irtysh River to the Kazakh steppes north of Lake Balkhash to Dzungaria and western Mongolia, which was the route used by Fyodor Baykov to reach China. In 1714, Peter the Great sent Ivan Bukholts with 1,500 troops, including Swedish miners who were prisoners of war, up the Irtysh to Lake Zaysan to search for gold. The next year, he ascended the river again with 3,000 workers to build a fort. Tsewang Rabtan (or Tseren-Donduk) of the Zunghar Khanate attacked them and drove them back to Omsk. In 1720, an expedition, under Ivan Likharev, ascended the river and founded a permanent settlement at Ust-Kamenogorsk just west of the lake. Meanwhile, the Zunghars were severely defeated by the Manchus and driven out of Tibet. In 1721 to 1723, Peter sent Ivan Unkovsky to attempt to discuss an alliance. A major reason for the failure was that Lorents Lange at Selenginsk had turned over a number of Mongol refugees to the Manchus as part of the buildup to the Treaty of Kyakhta. In 1755, the Qing destroyed the remnants of the Zunghar Khanate, creating a Russo-Chinese border in Xinjiang. The area did not become active again until the Russian conquest of Turkestan.
1755–1917
Meeting in Central Asia
As the Chinese Empire established its control over Xinjiang in the 1750s, and the Russian Empire expanded into Kazakhstan at the beginning and in the middle of the 19th century, the two empires' areas of control met in what is today eastern Kazakhstan and Western Xinjiang. The 1851 Treaty of Kulja legalized trade between both countries in the region.
Russian encroachment
In 1858, during the Second Opium War, China grew increasingly weaker as the "Sick man of Asia" while Russia strengthened and eventually annexed the north bank of the Amur River and the coast down to the Korean border in the "Unequal Treaties" of Treaty of Aigun (1858) and the Convention of Peking (1860). Russia and Japan gained control of Sakhalin Island.
The Manza War (1868) was the first attempt by Russia to expel the Chinese from the territory that it controlled. Hostilities broke out around Peter the Great Gulf, Vladivostok, when the Russians tried to shut off gold mining operations and to expel Chinese workers there. The Chinese resisted a Russian attempt to take Askold Island and in response, two Russian military stations and three Russian towns were attacked by the Chinese, and the Russians failed to oust the Chinese.
Russia's special status
Unlike other Western countries, who deal with the Qing court on a monarch to monarch basis, Sino–Russian relations were governed by administrative bodies, the Qing's Board of Foreign Affairs (Lifan Yuan) and the Russian Senate (Senat). Unlike the Netherlands and Portugal in the 18th century, who were considered part of the tribute system, Russia was able to trade directly with Beijing, and their relations were under the jurisdiction of Mongolian and Manchu border officials. Russia established an Orthodox mission in Beijing in the early 18th century, and was able to escape the anti Christian persecutions of the Qing dynasty.
The Great Game and the 1870s Xinjiang border Dispute
A British observer, Demetrius Charles de Kavanagh Boulger, suggested a British-Chinese alliance to check Russian expansion in Central Asia.
During the Ili crisis, when Qing China threatened to go to war against Russia over the Russian occupation of Ili, a British officer, Charles George Gordon, was sent to China by Britain to advise China on its military options against Russia in a potential war between China and Russia.
The Russians occupied the city of Kuldja, in Xinjiang, during the Dungan revolt (1862–1877). After General Zuo Zongtang and his Xiang Army crushed the rebels, they demanded for Russia to return the occupied regions.
General Zuo Zongtang was outspoken in calling for war against Russia and hoped to settle the matter by attacking Russian forces in Xinjiang with his Xiang army. In 1878, tension increased in Xinjiang, and Zuo massed Chinese troops toward Russian-occupied Kuldja. Chinese forces also fired on Russian expeditionary forces originating from Yart Vernaic, expelled them, and caused a Russian retreat.
The Russians observed that the Chinese building up their arsenal of modern weapons during the Ili crisis since they had bought thousands of rifles from Germany. In 1880, massive amounts of military equipment and rifles were shipped via boats to China from Antwerp as China purchased torpedoes, artillery, and 260,260 modern rifles from Europe.
A Russian military observer, D. V. Putiatia, visited China in 1888 and found that in Northeastern China (Manchuria), along the Chinese-Russian border, the Chinese soldiers could become adept at "European tactics" under certain circumstances and were armed with modern weapons, like Krupp artillery, Winchester carbines, and Mauser rifles.
Compared to the Russian-controlled areas, more benefits were given to the Muslim Kirghiz in the Chinese-controlled areas. Russian settlers fought against the Muslim nomadic Kirghiz, which led the Russians to believe that the Kirghiz would be a liability in any conflict against China. The Muslim Kirghiz were sure that a war would have China defeat Russia.
The Qing dynasty forced Russia to hand over disputed territory in the Treaty of Saint Petersburg (1881) in what was widely seen by the west as a diplomatic victory for the Qing. Russia acknowledged that China could pose a serious military threat. Mass media in the West portrayed China as a rising military power because of its modernization programs and as a major threat to the West. They even invoked fears that China would manage to conquer western colonies like Australia.
Russian sinologists, the Russian media, the threat of internal rebellion, the pariah status inflicted by the Congress of Berlin, and the negative state of the Russian economy all led Russia to concede and negotiate with China in Saint Petersburg and to return most of Ili to China.
Historians have judged the Qing dynasty's vulnerability and weakness to foreign imperialism in the 19th century to be based mainly on its maritime naval weakness although it achieved military success against Westerners on land. Historian Edward L. Dreyer stated, "China's nineteenth-century humiliations were strongly related to her weakness and failure at sea. At the start of the Opium War, China had no unified navy and no sense of how vulnerable she was to attack from the sea; British forces sailed and steamed wherever they wanted to go.... In the Arrow War (1856–60), the Chinese had no way to prevent the Anglo-French expedition of 1860 from sailing into the Gulf of Zhili and landing as near as possible to Beijing. Meanwhile, new but not exactly modern Chinese armies suppressed the midcentury rebellions, bluffed Russia into a peaceful settlement of disputed frontiers in Central Asia, and defeated the French forces on land in the Sino–French War (1884–85). But the defeat of the fleet, and the resulting threat to steamship traffic to Taiwan, forced China to conclude peace on unfavorable terms."
According to Henry Hugh Peter Deasy in 1901 on the people of Xinjiang: "insurrection is about the last course to which the natives would of their own accord resort. Any riots and disturbances which occur are got up by the officials for the purpose of inflicting injury on foreigners. The population have no fighting courage, no arms, no leaders, are totally incapable of combined action, and, so far as the government of their own country is concerned. may be regarded as of no account. They have been squeezed to the utmost, but would prefer to remain under the dominion of China. If they are questioned, they say 'The Chinese plunder us, but they do not drive and hustle us, and we can do as we please.' This opinion agrees with that of the Andijanis, or natives of Russian Turkestan, who assert that Russian rule is much disliked among them, owing to the harassing administration to which they are subjected."
1890s alliance
Russian Finance Minister Sergei Witte controlled East Asian policy in the 1890s. His goal was the peaceful expansion of trade and the increase of Russian influence over China. Japan's greatly-expanded and -modernized military easily defeated the antiquated Chinese forces in the First Sino–Japanese War (1894–1895). Russia now faced the choice of working with Japan, which had fairly good relations for some years, or acting as protector of China against Japan. Witte chose the latter policy, and in 1894 Russia joined Britain and France in forcing Japan to soften the peace terms that it had imposed on China. Japan was forced to return the Liaodong Peninsula and Port Arthur (both territories in southeastern Manchuria, a Chinese province) to China. The new Russian role angered Tokyo, which decided that Russia was the main enemy in its quest to control Manchuria, Korea, and China. Witte underestimated Japan's growing economic and military power and exaggerated Russia's military prowess.
Russia concluded an alliance with China in 1896 by the Li–Lobanov Treaty, with China a junior partner and practically a protectorate. It led in 1898 to an occupation and administration by Russian personnel and police of the entire Liaodong Peninsula and to a fortification of the ice-free Port Arthur. Since Russia was receiving large-loans from France, Witte used some of the funds to establish the Russo-Chinese Bank, which provided 100 million rubles for China to fund the reparations that it owed to Japan. Along with the International Commercial Bank of St-Petersburg, it became the conduit through which Russian capital was funneled into East Asia. Furthermore, the Russo-Chinese Bank bankrolled the Russian government's policies towards Manchuria and Korea. That enormous leverage allowed Russia to make strategic leases of key military ports and defense stations. The Chinese government ceded its concession rights for building and owning the new Chinese Eastern Railway, which was to cross northern Manchuria from the west to the east, to link Siberia with Vladivostok, and strengthen the military capabilities of the Russian forces in the Far East greatly. It was built in 1898 to 1903 and operated by the Russo-Chinese Bank and allowed Russia to become economically dominant in Manchuria, which was still nominally controlled by Peking.
In 1899, the Boxer Rebellion broke out with Chinese nativist attacks on all foreigners. A large coalition of eleven major Western powers, led by Russia and Japan, sent an army to relieve their diplomatic missions in Peking and to take control of the Chinese capital. The Russian government used it as an opportunity to bring a substantial army into Manchuria, which became a fully-incorporated outpost of Russia in 1900. Japan started to prepare for a war with Russia over Korea and Manchuria.
Russo-Japanese War
Chinese Honghuzi bandits were nomads who came from China, roamed the area around Manchuria and the Russo-Chinese border, and raided Russian settlers in the Far East from 1870 to 1920.
Revolutions
Both countries saw their monarchies abolished during the 1910s, the Chinese Qing dynasty in 1912, following the Xinhai Revolution, and the Russian Romanov dynasty in 1917, following the February Revolution.
Soviet Union, Republic of China, People's Republic of China
Russian Civil War and Mongolia
The Beiyang government, in Northern China, joined the Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War. It sent 2,300 troops in Siberia and North Russia in 1918 after the request by the Chinese community in the area.
Mongolia and Tuva became contested territories. After being occupied by Chinese General Xu Shuzheng in 1919 and then by the Russian White general turned independent warlord, Ungern von Sternberg, in 1920, Soviet troops, with the support of Mongolian guerrillas, led by Damdin Sükhbaatar, defeated the White warlord and established a new pro-Soviet Mongolian client state. By 1924, it had become the Mongolian People's Republic.
KMT, CCP, and the Chinese Civil War
Soviet Foreign Minister Georgy Chicherin played a major role in establishing formal relations with China in 1924, and in designing the Kremlin's China policy. He focused on the Chinese Eastern Railway, Manchuria, and the Mongolian issue. In 1921, the Soviet Union began supporting the Kuomintang, and in 1923, the Comintern instructed the CCP to sign a military treaty with the KMT. But in 1926, KMT leader, Chiang Kai-shek abruptly dismissed his Soviet advisers, and imposed restrictions on CCP participation in the government. By 1927, when the Northern Expedition was nearly concluded, Chiang purged the CCP from the KMT-CCP alliance, resulting in the Chinese Civil War which was to last until 1950, a few months after the People's Republic of China, led by Mao Zedong, was proclaimed. During the war, some Soviet support was given to the CCP, who in 1934 were dealt a crushing blow when the KMT brought an end to the Chinese Soviet Republic, beginning the CCP's Long March to Shaanxi.
Second Sino–Japanese War and World War II
In 1931, the Empire of Japan invaded Manchuria and created the puppet state of Manchukuo (1932), which signalled the beginning of the Second Sino–Japanese War. In 1937, a month after the Marco Polo Bridge Incident, the Soviet Union established a non-aggression pact with the Republic of China. During the World War II-period, the two countries suffered more losses than any other country, with China (in the Second Sino–Japanese war) losing over 35 million and the Soviet Union 27 million people.
Joint-victory over Imperial Japan
On August 8, 1945, three months after Nazi Germany surrendered, and on the week of the American atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki (August 6 and 9), the Soviet Union launched the Soviet invasion of Manchuria, a massive military operation mobilizing 1.5 million soldiers against one million Kwantung Army troops, the last remaining Japanese military presence. Soviet forces won a decisive victory while the Kwantung suffered massive casualties, with 700,000 having surrendered. The Soviet Union distributed some of the weapons of the captured Kwantung Army to the CCP, who would go on to battle the KMT in the Chinese Civil War.
Independence of Mongolia
The China, Soviet Union: Treaty of Friendship and Alliance was signed by the Soviet Union and the Republic of China. It stated that possible Mongolian independence was in exchange for the Soviets' failure to support the communists in China.
War of Liberation and the People's Republic of China
Between 1946 and 1950, the CCP was increasingly enjoying massive support from the Chinese people in the "War of Liberation" and effectively implemented a people's war, but the KMT became increasingly isolated and only belatedly attempted to stem corruption and to introduce popular reforms. On October 1, 1949, the People's Republic of China was proclaimed by Mao Zedong, and by May 1950, the civil war was brought to an end by the Battle of Kuningtou, which saw the KMT expelled from Mainland China but remaining in control of Taiwan. With the creation of the People's Republic of China, the supreme political authority in the two countries became centered in two communist parties, which both espoused revolutionary Marxist-Leninist ideology: the CCP and the Communist Party of the Soviet Union.
In 1951, Chinese Muslim General Bai Chongxi made a speech in Taiwan to the entire Muslim world that called for a war against the Soviets and the avoiding of Indian Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru, who was accused of being blind to Soviet imperialism.
From camaraderie to the Sino–Soviet Split
After the PRC was proclaimed, the Soviet Union became its closest ally for several years. Soviet design, equipment, and skilled labour were sent out to help the Industrialization and the modernization of the PRC. In the 1960s, relations became deeply strained by the Sino–Soviet Split. In military terms, there was the low-level Sino–Soviet border conflict.
The split was ideological and forced communist parties around the world to take sides. Many of them split, and the pro-Soviet communists were battling the pro-Chinese communists for local control of global communis. The split quickly made a dead letter of the 1950 alliance between Moscow and Beijing, destroyed the socialist camp's unity, and affected the world balance of power. Internally, it encouraged Mao to plunge China into the Cultural Revolution to expunge traces of Soviet ways of thinking. The quarrel began in 1958, after several years of close relations. Mao was always loyal to Stalin, and Nikita Khrushchev felt insulted. However, when the Warsaw Pact crushed the dissident movements in Eastern Europe in 1956, Beijing was pleased that Moscow had apparently realized the dangers of de-Stalinization and would no longer tolerate independence or encourage revisionism. Beijing was also pleased that the success of the Soviet Union in the space race (the original Sputniks) demonstrated that the international communist movement had caught up in high technology with the West. Mao argued that as far as all-out nuclear war was concerned, the human race would not be destroyed, but a brave new communist world would arise from the ashes of imperialism. That attitude troubled Moscow, which had a more realistic view of the utter disasters that would accompany a nuclear war. Three major issues suddenly became critical in dividing the two nations: Taiwan, India, and China's Great Leap Forward. Although Moscow supported Beijing's position of Taiwan entirely belonging to China, it demanded to be forewarned of any invasion or serious threat that would bring an American intervention. Beijing refused, and the Chinese bombardment of the island of Quemoy in August 1958 escalated the tensions. Moscow was cultivating India, both as a major purchaser of munitions and as a strategically critical ally. However China escalated its threats to the northern fringes of India, especially from Tibet, and was building a militarily significant road system that would reach disputed areas along the border. Moscow clearly favored India, and Beijing felt betrayed as a result.
By far, the major ideological issue was the Great Leap Forward, which represented the Chinese rejection of the Soviet form of economic development. The Soviets were deeply resentful, especially since they had spent heavily to supply China with cutting-edge technology, even including some nuclear tech. The Soviets withdrew their vital technicians and economic and military aid. Khrushchev was increasingly crude and intemperate in ridiculing China and Mao to both communist and noncommunist audiences. China responded through its official propaganda network of rejecting Moscow's claim to Lenin's heritage. Beijing insisted that it was the true inheritor of the great Leninist tradition.
At one major meeting of communist parties, Khrushchev personally attacked Mao as an ultraleftist and a left revisionist and compared him to Stalin for dangerous egotism. The conflict was now out of control and was increasingly fought out in 81 communist parties around the world. The final split came in July 1963, after 50,000 refugees escaped from Sinkiang, in Western China, to Soviet territory to escape persecution. China ridiculed the Soviet incompetence in the Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962 as adventurism and capitulationism that ended up in defeat. Moscow was increasingly prioritizing friendly relationships and test ban treaties with the United States and the United Kingdom.
Increasingly, China began to consider the Soviet Union, which it viewed as social imperialist, as the greatest threat it faced, more so than even the leading capitalist power, the United States. In turn, overtures were made between the PRC and the US, such as in the Ping Pong Diplomacy and the 1972 Nixon visit to China.
From 1965 to 1988, the Sino–Soviet border, including the Tumen River area, became highly militarized and fortified. That included a large concentration of tactical nuclear-armed missile sites on both sides of the zone. Until 1991, foreigners, consulates and nonresidents had not been permitted in Vladivostok since 1948 or in Yanbian or the border areas of Heilongjiang Province since 1965. Political, social, and economic conditions deteriorated further, as the Cultural Revolution disrupted Chinese life and institutions from 1966 to 1972. Periods of extreme tension in 1968 to 1970 along the eastern Sino–Soviet border (with Primorsky) resulted in border skirmishes on the Ussuri River in 1969 and again from 1979 to 1980, when Vietnam invaded Cambodia, and China retaliated by launching a border war with Vietnam. The skirmishes led to the intensification of border fortifications and the mobilization of the civilian populations on both sides.
Post-Mao era and stabilizing relations
In September 1976, Mao died. A month later, the Gang of Four were overthrown by his successor, Chairman Hua Guofeng, with the support of Deng Xiaoping, who was to soon implement pro-market economic reform. With the PRC no longer espousing the anti-revisionist notion of the antagonistic contradiction between classes, relations between the two countries became gradually normalized. In 1979, however, the PRC launched the Sino–Vietnamese War. The invasion of Vietnam, a Soviet ally, was in response to Vietnam's invasion and subsequent occupation of Cambodia, which overthrew the Chinese-backed Khmer Rouge from power. Even though Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev went on to criticize the post-Maoist CCP for allowing PRC millionaires to have lost the socialist path, with the dissolution of the Soviet Union in the late 1980s and the early 1990s, Russia itself turned to privatization.
Dissolution of the Soviet Union
Unlike in the PRC, a much more extreme, highly
-unregulated form of privatization occurred during the presidency of Boris Yeltsin, which resulted in asset grabs by Russians in a highly unregulated fashion and in deep socio-economic inequalities in Russia and the collapse of the economy as well as various Russian institutions. Thus, after the Cold War, the PRC emerged in a far more favourable and stable financial position. The PRC is currently seeing the fastest rate of economic growth of any large economy, several percentage points higher than Russia, which has been growing at an annualized rate of some 5–6%. The economy of Russia in the early 2000s was largely driven by demand for export of natural resources to Europe and Asia, with a gradual move up the value-added chain as Russian aluminum and steel mills upgrade to international standards. China is the growth market, and with the ESPO pipeline, Russia will continue to diversify energy exports away from Europe and towards Asia.
China and the Russian Federation
China and Russia share a land border which was demarcated in 1991, and they signed the Treaty of Good-Neighborliness and Friendly Cooperation in 2001, which was renewed in June 2021 for five more years. On the eve of a 2013 state visit to Moscow by General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party Xi Jinping and President of the Russian Federation Vladimir Putin remarked that the two nations were forging a special relationship. The two countries have enjoyed close relations militarily, economically, and politically, while supporting each other on various global issues.
When China attempted to build closer relations with Russia in 2013, the Russian government initially had reservations. However, the United States sanctions against Russia for its 2014 annexation of Crimea helped push Russia to a warmer relationship with China.
Putin and Xi Jinping met on February 4, 2022, during the run up to the 2022 Beijing Olympics. During the massive Russian build-up of force on the Ukrainian border, with the two expressing, the two countries are nearly united in their anti-US alignment and that both nations shared "no limits" to their commitments. Western Intelligence reports said that China had asked Russia to wait to invade Ukraine until after the Beijing Olympics ended on February 20.
In March 2022, Russia added Taiwan to a list of foreign states and territories that commit "unfriendly actions" against its military invasion of Ukraine.
See also
China–Russia border
Chinese Eastern Railway
Li–Lobanov Treaty of 1896 between Russia and China
Kyakhta trade
International relations of the Great Powers (1814–1919)
Ethnic Chinese in Russia
Russians in China
BRICS, for 21st century relations of Brazil, Russia, India, China and South Africa
China and Russia: Four Centuries of Conflict and Concord (book)
Notes and References
Further reading
Chen, Vincent. Sino–Russian relations in the seventeenth century (Springer, 2012)
Cheng, Tianfang. A history of Sino–Russian relations (Public Affairs Press, 1957) online free
Dallin, David. Soviet foreign policy after Stalin (1961) online
Elleman, Bruce. Moscow and the Emergence of Communist Power in China, 1925–30: The Nanchang Uprising and the Birth of the Red Army (Routledge, 2009).
Fischer, Louis. Russia's road from peace to war: Soviet foreign relations, 1917–1941 (1969)
Fletcher, Joseph. "Sino–Russian Relations, 1800–62." in Fairbank, John King, ed. The Cambridge History of China: Late Chʻing, 1800–1911, pt. 1. (1978)
Floyd, David. Mao against Khrushchev: A Short History of the Sino–Soviet Conflict (1964) online
Foust, Clifford M. Muscovite and Mandarin: Russia's Trade with China and Its Setting, 1727–1805 (1969) online
Fravel, M. Taylor. Active Defense: China's Military Strategy since 1949 (Princeton Studies in International History and Politics) (2019).
Friedman, Jeremy. Shadow Cold War: The Sino–Soviet Competition for the Third World (UNC Press Books, 2015).
Garver, John W. Chinese-Soviet Relations, 1937–1945: The Diplomacy of Chinese Nationalism (Oxford University Press, 1988) online
Heinzig, Dieter. The Soviet Union and Communist China 1945–1950: The Arduous Road to the Alliance (M.E. Sharpe, 2004).
Hsu, Jing-Yun, and Jenn-Jaw Soong. "Development of China–Russia Relations (1949–2011) Limits, Opportunities, and Economic Ties." Chinese economy 47.3 (2014): 70–87. online
Jersild, Austin. The Sino–Soviet Alliance: An International History (University of North Carolina Press, 2014) detailed reviews and discussions of this book by historians, June 2015; full text online
Lukin, Alexander. The Bear Watches the Dragon: Russia's Perceptions of China and the Evolution of Russian-Chinese Relations Since the Eighteenth Century (2002) excerpt
Lüthi, Lorenz M. The Sino–Soviet Split: Cold War in the Communist World (2008)
McAleavy, Henry. "China and the Amur Provinces" History Today (1964) 14#6 pp. 381–390.
Moore, Harriet L. Soviet Far Eastern Policy, 1931–1945 (Princeton UP, 1945). online
Morse, Hosea Ballou. International Relations of the Chinese Empire: The Period of Conflict: 1834-1860. (1910) online
Morse, Hosea Ballou. International Relations of the Chinese Empire: The Period of Submission: 1861–1893. (1918) online
Morse, Hosea Ballou. International Relations of the Chinese Empire: The Period of Subjection: 1894–1911 (1918) online
Morse, Hosea Ballou. The Trade and Administration of the Chinese Empire (1908) online
Paine, S. C. M. Imperial Rivals: China, Russia, and Their Disputed Frontier (1996) online
Pavlovsky, Michel N. Chinese-Russian Relations (Philosophical Library, 1949) online
Quested, Rosemary K.I. Sino–Russian relations: a short history (Routledge, 2014)
Radchenko, Sergey. Two Suns in Heaven: The Sino–Soviet Struggle for Supremacy, 1962–1967 (2009).
Robinson, Thomas W. "The Sino–Soviet border dispute: Background, development, and the March 1969 clashes." American Political Science Review 66.4 (1972): 1175–1202. online
Ross, Robert S. China, the United States, and the Soviet Union: Tripolarity and Policy Making in the Cold War (1993) online
Rozman, Gilbert. A Mirror for Socialism: Soviet Criticisms of China (1985),
Rozman, Gilbert. The Sino–Russian Challenge to the World Order: National Identities, Bilateral Relations, and East versus West in the 2010s (2014) online review
Rozman, Gilbert. The Chinese Debate about Soviet Socialism, 1978–1985 (Princeton UP, 1987).
Schwartz, Harry. Tsars, mandarins, and commissars: a history of Chinese-Russian relations (1973)
Shen, Zhihua. A Short History of Sino-Soviet Relations, 1917–1991 (Springer Singapore;Palgrave Macmillan, 2020)
Shen, Zhihua and Yafeng Xia, "Hidden Currents during the Honeymoon: Mao, Khrushchev, and the 1957 Moscow Conference," Journal of Cold War Studies (2009) 11#4 pp74–117.
Tang, James Tuck-Hong. Britain’s Encounter with Revolutionary China, 1949–54 (Springer, 2016).
Urbansky, Sören. Beyond the Steppe Frontier: A History of the Sino–Russian Border (2020) a comprehensive history; excerpt
Walker, Michael M. 1929 Sino–Soviet War: The War Nobody Knew (2017) online book review
Westad, Odd Arne, ed. Brothers in Arms: The Rise and Fall of the Sino–Soviet Alliance (1998)
Whiting, Allen S. Soviet policies in China, 1917–1924 (Stanford University Press, 1954)
Yakhontoff, Victor A. Russia And The Soviet Union In The Far East (1932) online
Zhang, Shu Guang, "The Sino–Soviet Alliance and the Cold War in Asia, 1954–1962", in The Cambridge History of the Cold War, Vol 1 in Melvyn P. Leffler and Odd Arne Westad, eds. (2010), pp. 353–375
Primary sources
Radchenko, Sergey, and David Wolff, "To the Summit via Proxy-Summits: New Evidence from Soviet and Chinese Archives on Mao’s Long March to Moscow, 1949," CWIHPB, no. 16 (Fall 2007—Winter 2008), 105–82.
Westad, Odd Arne. "Fighting for Friendship: Mao, Stalin, and the Sino–Soviet Treaty of 1950," CWIHPB, nos. 8–9 (Winter 1996–97), 224–36
The numerous digital initiatives of CWIHP are online.
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History of the foreign relations of China
Political history of Russia
Qing dynasty
Bilateral relations of Russia
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4438808 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great%20War%20Island | Great War Island | Great War Island () is a river island in Belgrade, capital of Serbia. It is located at the confluence of Sava and Danube rivers. Though uninhabited, the island is part of the Belgrade City proper, and belongs to the city municipality of Zemun.
Location
Great War Island is located at the mouth of the Sava river into the Danube, in the Danube's widening between the Kalemegdan fortress as the ending section of the Terazije ridge of northernmost part of Šumadija on the west and the low, easternmost section of the Syrmia plain, the modern Ušće neighborhood of New Belgrade, on the south.
The island is relatively close to the banks, at the closest it is just away from both New Belgrade and Kalemegdan. On the south, halfway between the Great War Island and Ušće is the remnant of Little War Island.
In 2005 an initiative was started to transfer the island administratively, from Zemun to the New Belgrade municipality. The initiative ultimately failed.
Name
The island gained its militant name due to its history as an important strategic point either for the conquest or the defence of Belgrade. It had especially good position for cannons and was usually used as the starting point for the attack on Belgrade's harbor. It was also used as the hiding place for hajduks, Šajkaši but also for various river pirates. Numerous military facilities and fortifications were built and demolished on the island in time. During the wars, temporary, pontoon bridges were built connecting the three river sides (Belgrade, Zemun and Pančevo) with each other via the island, allowing the armies to cross over the rivers.
During history, almost a dozen different names for the island were recorded, some of them colloquial and unofficial. They include Dunavsko ostrvo (Danubian Island), Cigansko ostrvo (Gypsy Island), Veselo ostrvo (Merry Island), Vojno ostrvo (Military Island), Ratno ostrvo (War Island), Ratna ostrva (War Islands, when applied jointly to the Little War Island), Babalık ada (Babalık Island), Veliko vojno ostrvo (Great Military Island), Veliko ostrvo rata (Great Island of War) and Sirotinjsko ostrvo (Poor Man's Island). The present name, Great War Island, appeared in the mid-19th century and became permanent after World War I.
Geography
The Great War Island is generally triangular in shape and covers an area of . It is low, for the most part marshy and often flooded by the Danube. The main physical feature on the island is the canal of Veliki Galijaš. It is a remnant of the canal around which the sediments formed the opriginall barrier island which later joined into one. In time, the canal was cut off from the Danube and effectively turned into a lake, with an area of and the major natural bird and fish spawning area on the island. Next to it was a smaller wetland, Mali Galijaš, which was also and excellent natural spawning ground. However, during drought years the lake drains completely causing damage to the closed eco-system centered around it. Veliki Galijaš was revitalized later, but Mali Galijaš was completely covered with overgrowth. Currently some two-thirds of the island are used as a nature reserve for 196 bird species, many of which are endangered. One of Belgrade's beaches, Lido, is located on the northern tip of the island.
Geologically, the island is a Quaternary formation which formed at the mouth of two large rivers. Developed around several "pillars" (areas where sedimentation began), the island is a formation which changes and grows all the time (geo-dynamically active terrain). Only since the 1960s, it grew by some , or fifth of its 2020's size. Sediments are being brought even by the underground water. Because of the sedimentation, occasional drainage and removal of the silt from the northern tip of the island is necessary, as otherwise it would make a land connection to the bank of the Danube.
Wildlife
Plants
Plant life on the island includes the typical marshy flora, like reed, yellow flag or rush, but also trees like black poplar, ash tree, White Elm, elderberry, hawthorn and even some rare conifers.
A rare orchid Orchis palustris Jacq. was spotted for the first time in Belgrade in 1896 on the Great War Island, but was never seen again there. It has been re-discovered in the Makiš area in 1955, but by 2001 it disappeared, too, and today can be found only around the lake of Veliko Blato, in the neighborhood of Krnjača.
The island is the only location in Serbia of the bird's little nest fungi, which is used for the antioxidant extraction.
Forests cover and area of , or 57% of the island. Tree species include walnut tree and European nettle tree. In November 2011 some 2,500 seedlings of the pedunculate oak were planted. Higher forest coverage influences the micro climate and provides new habitats for the birds. Autochthonous tree species include willow and poplar. By November 2017, the island has been populated with 5,850 seedlings of pedunculate oak, 1,000 of narrow-leafed ash, 1,755 of European white elm and 800 of black poplar. The last two are declared endangered species in Serbia. Also planted were 1,000 bald cypresses, which adapted nicely and began to reproduce.
Fish
A total of 53 species of fish were found in and around the island.
Birds
There are 66 bird species which actually nest on the island, 43 non-migratory and 23 migratory birds. In winter, during the nesting period, there are some 80 species present, while in the migration season, number rises to over 100. Some of the species are pygmy cormorant, black stork, mergansers, seven species of herons, over 40 species of ducks, and Icterine warbler. Altogether, 163 different bird species inhabited the island in the early 2010s, but by the 2020s, 208 species of birds were recorded, of which 200 were protected in some way.
The island was the largest colony of the great egret on the entire course of the Danube, maybe the largest one in the Europe. During the NATO bombing of Serbia in 1999, the herons, for the most part, disappeared.
Major attraction on the island is a pair of white-tailed eagles. A nesting couple, they settled on the island in 2010, migrating from the marshland of Pančevački Rit, across the Danube. They built a large nest, in diameter, at the height of . There are five other nesting couples in the wider Belgrade area, and some 90 in the entire Serbia, but having them reproducing at only from the downtown of a city of this size is an exceptional rarity. They reproduced for the first time three years later, in 2013. In April 2016, when their chicks were to be hatched, the city's communal services installed a camera in the nest. The project was unique, with the similar one in Estonia, but Belgrade is the only European capital to have it. Before the next generation of chicks hatched in 2017, live feed was posted online. The largest European eagles, with the wingspan up to , are best observed from the neighboring Ušće and Dorćol districts, but they are being spotted circling above the Kalemegdan and the Republic Square, practically the center of Belgrade.
The couple was named Radovan and Ruža. In the summer of 2021, one of their male offspring, Dušan, was tagged with solar-battery satellite tracker. The technology helped management of the growth of the griffon vultures population in the Uvac Special Nature Reserve. It is introduced here for the same purpose and survey of the Belgrade's surrounding nesting areas of white-tailed eagles, like the wetlands of Beljarica or Reva.
Mammals
On the 9 October 2008 a species of the pygmy bat, soprano pipistrelle, was discovered on the island. It is a rare mammal, having a wingspan of and weight of only . Naturalists suspected that soprano pipistrelle lives in Serbia, in the Obedska bara region, but this was the first time that the bat was actually seen and caught. There are numerous colonies of various bat species on the island.
In October 2008, 21 species of mammals were recorded on the island. They included, in Belgrade rarely seen, otters, nutrias, weasels and European pine martens, but also a roe deer.
There is a colony of wild boars on the Great War Island. The population originated from the marshy area of Pančevački Rit and they reached the island swimming to it during one of the previous floods. As of 2019, it was estimated to have over 35 individual animals. Rarely, they swim across the arm of the Danube which separates the island from the urban mainland, and can be seen in Zemun or Novi Beograd. Popular case was from 2014 when a wild boar was discovered in the garage of the Energoprojekt holding company. In June 2019 due to the rise of the water level which flooded the entire island, wild boars scattered all over Belgrade, making media sensation. Numerous videos and photos of boars swimming across the rivers were posted. A small herd of wild boars was seen in New Belgrade's Block 30. Animals, including disoriented solitary piglets which is highly unusual behavior, were seen in Block 8 and in the neighborhoods of Ušće and Zemunski Kej. Wild boars have even been spotted in Belgrade's downtown: in Belgrade Fortress and Obilićev Venac, where one animal fell to its death from the multistorey car park. Though hunting organizations stated that there is no danger as wild boars avoid people, Ministry of Agriculture issued a warning, stating that people should abstain from night walks in the forested area across the island.
Fluctuating number of wild boars grew again by 2020 and they began to completely devastate gardens kept by the people from the mainland. However, as the area is protected and the gardens shouldn't be there at all, no official action was taken. Still, the authorities tried to relocate a number of boars to another location. Traps were placed, but the boars ate of corn placed as a decoy in two days, and only one piglet was trapped. Growing numbers of wild boars were reported in the wider Balkans area (rest of Serbia, Bulgaria) due to the favorable climate conditions in 2020 but more to the COVID-19 pandemic which restricted hunting.
History
Great War Island is not an old geographical feature. Based on the historical data and descriptions of the river battles on the Danube, it is believed that it has been fully formed as an island in the second half of the 15th century. It had origins as a small 14th century sandbank which was divided and morphed by the Danube, as depicted on some engravings. Blueprints of the Belgrade Fortress from 1456 confirm the existence of the sandbank. The arm of the Danube which divided the sandbank was called Dunavski potok (Danube's stream or creek).
It appeared on the proper maps for the first time in the 1514-1528 map Tabula Hungariae by the cartographer . Historian Kome chronicled the fall of Zemun to the Turks in 1521 and mentioned the island as the location where all of the imprisoned defenders of the city were interred, including their wives and children. In 1521, when Belgrade was under siege by Turkish forces, the majority of their attacks on Belgrade fortress were launched from the island. Ottoman traveler Evliya Çelebi visited the region in the 1660s and mentioned the island. He wrote about the mosque on the island, named after a certain Ahmet Babalık. One of the earlier names for the island, Babalık Island, came from the name of the mosque. First written record on the island from someone who visited it is from 1699, when an English travelling doctor described it as the "large, forested island".
The name officially appeared after 1717, when Prince Eugene of Savoy used the island as an attack point in his re-conquest of Belgrade from the Turks. In 1741 a Constantinople convention was signed, which resulted in fixing the border between Austria and Turkey, concerning the islands in the Sava and Danube. By the convention, Turkey obtained the section of the island overlooking the Belgrade, while Austria got the other part, in the direction of Zemun and Banat. In liberating Belgrade in 1806 the rebel army headed by Karađorđe also used the island for military purposes, as the Serbian artillery with 500 soldiers was bombing the Kalemegdan fortress from there. Under the command of and Vuk Ilić, Serbian artillery was out of Ottoman reach and left undisturbed cannonading the Lower Town of the fortress. Turkish city plan from 1863 still used the name Babalık for the island.
During the offensive in 1915 by Austria-Hungary against Belgrade, Austria-Hungary forces used the island to launch their attacks. After the World War I, island became part of the new Yugoslav state. After 1918, a small colony of 20 destitute inhabitants of Zemun built stilt houses on the island which was then colloquially called "Sirotinjska Ada" (Poor man's Island). In this period the entire area of the island was cultivated, mostly corn and watermelons. On the lower tip of the island, a beach was arranged and named Dorćol Beach or Lapat Beach. Also, a sandbank facing Zemun was adapted into the beach, being predecessor of the modern Lido beach, which was named this way at least before 1931.
First urban plans for the island were drafted in 1923, when the island was envisioned as an elite park area. The Belgrade's first general urban plan, adopted in 1924, included sports center on the island, and construction of the bridge to the mainland. In 1928, building company "Šumadija" proposed the construction of the cable car, which they called "air tram". The project was planned to connect Zemun to Kalemegdan on Belgrade Fortress, via Great War Island. The interval of the cabins was set at 2 minutes and the entire route was supposed to last 5 minutes. The project was never realized.
When construction of New Belgrade began in 1948, the city government made a decision to completely destroy the island by using its sand and earth to cover the marshes of Syrmia, where new city was to be built. However, the deposits of alluvial materials continually brought onto the island from the Danube completely prevented this from happening. Instead, the smaller Little War Island served this purpose and was nearly destroyed in the process.
Another proposed project after World War II included construction of the bridge and the major sports-recreational center on the island. Center of the island was to be transformed into the large, circular lake. The project was dropped in 1972. As the island has numerous water springs below its surface, from 1976 to 1985 plans were developed for using the island as the water source for the city, but this idea was abandoned, too.
Though officially uninhabited, almost a dozen people live in small shacks in the island's interior. They are mostly retirees who move to the island during the warm season and maintain their vegetable gardens, while in the winter they return to Belgrade.
In 2005, the island was protected by the state as a landscape of outstanding features. The protected area of includes both the Great War and the Little War islands.
Bridge proposals
The official city idea of constructing a bridge to the island was abandoned in 1972. Since the early 2000s, a military pontoon bridge has been placed each summer during the swimming season on the Lido Beach. It connects the beach and the neighborhood of Zemunski Kej, across an arm of the Danube. As the beach was almost wiped out during the disastrous 2006 European floods, the bridge wasn't laid in 2006–08. In general, the bridge is laid from July to September. It is long and placed by the engineering units of the Serbian Armed Forces. Placing of the bridge regularly sparks protest from the boatmen, either those who work as a ferrymen when there is no bridge, or those who are simply blocked in the Danube's arm between the island and the bank across it.
In time, there were several propositions of building a proper bridge to the island, though environmentalists are against it. A project for the bridge on two levels to the island was drafted. Designers envisioned that the top level ("upper bridge") would contain a scenic viewpoint and a restaurant. The idea was abandoned. It was partially done because the design for the bridge, made of concrete and wood, didn't take into the account high water levels of the Danube. The project also included construction of the touristic complex on the island.
In March 2016, mayor of Belgrade Siniša Mali announced the massive reconstruction of the Old Sava Bridge. However, in May 2017, after the project papers were publicized, it was obvious that the city actually wanted to demolish the bridge completely and build a new one. Citizens protested while the experts rejected the reasons named by the authorities, adding that it would be a waste of money on an unnecessary project. Mali said that the old bridge will not be demolished but moved, and that citizens will decide where, but he gave an idea to move it to Zemun, as the permanent pedestrian bridge to the Great War Island. In an article "Cloud over the Great War Island", Aleksandar Milenković, member of the Academy of Architecture of Serbia, opposed the motion. He expressed fear that having in mind the "synchronous ad hoc decisions of the administration", the reaction should be prompt as the seemingly benign idea is actually a strategically disastrous enterprise (concerning the protected wildlife on the island). He also suspects that the administration in this case, just as in all previous ones, will neglect the numerous theoretical and empirical guidelines.
The Old Sava Bridge relocation to the Great War Island was ultimately scrapped. In March 2019, city urbanist Marko Stojčić said that the bridge will be placed across the Sava, as an extension of the Omladinskih Brigada Street, in the New Belgrade's Block 70-A, and that it will connect it with Ada Ciganlija. In June 2018, architect Bojan Kovačević stated that Mali got the idea of connecting the island because of the meeting held several month before, where the Eagle Hills company, an investor of the highly controversial Belgrade Waterfront project, discussed with the city officials a possibility of construction on the island. The project should include the private villas, golf courses and a de lux hotel.
During the summer season of 2020, group of Zemun's citizens organized petition for the construction of permanent bridge to the island. In September 2020, the municipal administration of Zemun forwarded the preliminary design of the possible bridge, higher than previously designed, to the city administration. In October 2020, city announced construction of the bridge for 2022, reannouncing it in January 2022. President of Serbia Aleksandar Vučić said in August 2023 the "place for the [Old Sava] bridge has been already found", connecting Zemun and the Great War Island, and that he will "nominate" the idea to citizens.
Recent developments
In the early 2000s, speculations concerning the island's future emerged among the public, including the ideas of turning it into a grand amusement park, possible relocation spot for the Belgrade Zoo or that sections of the island should be leased to the cultural representatives of the different countries which would turn each section into ethno-park of their native culture, in which case the island would be renamed to Dunavsko ostrvo (Danube Island). The analysis has been done for the zoo to be built on the island, but the conclusion was against it due to the constant floods. There were even more grand plans which included construction of "Belgrade's Manhattan" on the island, and a gondola lift which would connect it to the Belgrade Fortress., but all this was dropped in 2005 when it was finally decided that the island should remain intact.
In 2002, the island was declared a natural fish spawning area and declared practically the only part of the City of Belgrade where building of facilities like hotels, motels or restaurants is not allowed. The major works on the island began in 2007. In February 2007, following the disastrous 2006 European floods which wiped out Lido from the northern tip of the island, the Great War Island was completely cleaned with all the bulky junk being removed, so as the remains of the old constructions and the 24-hour guarding service was set. Celebrating the June 29, the international Danube Day, an ecology camp made of pile dwellings for students of the Belgrade University was opened. The floods also heavily damaged the flora and the fauna, and it took several years for them to recuperate. A veteran naturalist documentary author Petar Lalović filmed a documentary "Belgrade oasis" in 2012 on the island, further convincing residents that the island must be preserved.
In August 2007, digging of a canal which reconnected Veliki Galijaš with the Danube also began to prevent the seasonal drying of the lake. A lookout is to be erected west of Veliki Galijaš so as the entire network of visitor centers on the unsinkable points around the lake and throughout the island for the studying of the bird life. A bio-laboratory and the small boat landing are also scheduled for construction.
Organization of the musical "Eho festival" (De Phazz, Morcheeba, Sonic Youth) on the island in early 2003, despite 80,000 visitors, ultimately ended disastrously because of the bad weather and the financial shenanigans of the organizers. In July 2018 a "Belgreat Festival 2018" was suddenly announced, with participation of Felix da Housecat, Goldie and Cristian Varela, among others. As the island is now protected, the Ministry for environmental protection announced it will block the organization of the festival, so the organizers, citing "technical difficulties", relocated to the "Barutana" club, in the Belgrade Fortress.
In September 2019, city government announced that nothing will be built on the island. A new Detailed Regulatory Plan was adopted, by which the city plans to raise the percentage of green areas in Belgrade from 15% to 25%, including further forestation of the Great War Island, with reinsurance that everything will be done to "keep and preserve" the island. Just few days after adopting controversial plan on massive construction along the Belgrade's main water supply source Makiš, city announced building of the new water supply source on the Great War Island in January 2021. A tender for the study on the matter was announced right away. Intensive expansion of the city and reduced yield of present sources was named as the reason. After the negative public reaction, city officials stated this was just a possibility, an alternative, and that maybe only Ranney collectors will be built, without any further urbanization of the island.
The island was surveyed as the possible water source several times, including in 1939, 1976 and 1981. Some studies showed that this is feasible, and that Ranney collectors, or other types of wells, can be built. However, the studies also showed that the yield would be negligible regarding the total water consumption in the city and that construction of the collectors and wells would be too expensive for the amount of water which will be produced. When flooded, the island can be buried under up to of water, which would damage to wells. Also, the water drained this way also drains the sewage soiled water either from the Danube or from the arm between the island and the land where city sewage empties. Some labeled the sudden interest in the island as a way to divert highly negative public reaction to the Makiš decision.
In February 2022 city declared the island a public park. That means that all private, but illegal, shacks and gardens on the island will be demolished.
References
External links
Geography of Belgrade
Uninhabited islands of Serbia
Islands of the Danube
River islands of Serbia |
4439533 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1988%20executions%20of%20Iranian%20political%20prisoners | 1988 executions of Iranian political prisoners | A series of mass executions of political prisoners ordered by Ayatollah Khomeini and carried out by Iranian officials, took place across Iran, starting on 19 July 1988 and continuing for approximately five months. The killings took place in at least 32 cities across the country, and estimates of the number killed range from 1,000 to 30,000, many of whom were also subject to torture.
The majority of those who were killed were supporters of the People's Mujahedin of Iran (MeK), but supporters of other leftist factions, including the Fedaian and the Tudeh Party of Iran (Communist Party), were also executed.
The killings operated outside legislation and trials were not concerned with establishing the guilt or innocence of defendants. Great care was taken to conceal the killings, and the government of Iran currently denies their occurrence. The massacres have been called "Iran’s greatest crime against humanity", without precedent in the modern Iranian history both in terms of scope and cover-up, and have been denounced by deputy Supreme Leader of Iran at the time Ayatollah Montazeri, the United Nations Human Rights Council, and number of countries such as Sweden, Canada, and Italy.
Various motives have been offered for the executions of the victims, including that the victims were executed in retaliation for the 1988 attack on the western borders of Iran by the MeK, (although members of other leftist groups which never supported or took part in the Mujahedin's invasion were also targeted for execution). Survivors of the massacre have made numerous calls for redress and they have also called for the prosecution of those who perpetrated the massacre.
Background
The main victims of the 1988 massacre, the Islamist modernist group People's Mujahedin of Iran (or MeK) had a fraught history with the victors of the Iranian Revolution -- Ayatollah Khomeini's clerical network and its supporters. Their guerilla forces (along with other victims the Marxist Fedeyeen) are thought to have provided crucial help in overthrowing the monarchy -- if only by provoking repression and discrediting the shah. (They are also thought to have helped Khomeini by spreading a rumour that he was the awaited 12th Imam returning from occultation.) But they had very different views than Khomeini's group as to what an Islamic political system would look like -- opposing a system of rule by Islamic clerics and claiming to support democracy, freedom, feminism and a classless society.
As the struggle to create a post-revolutionary society took shape and erstwhile liberal, leftist and moderate allies of Khomeini were physically suppressed, the MeK was both the regimes strongest foe and biggest victim. In 1980, Khomeini began to attackthe MeK as elteqati (eclectic), contaminated with Gharbzadegi ("the Western plague"), and as monafeqin (hypocrites) and kafer (unbelievers). In February 1980 concentrated attacks by hezbollahi toughs began on the meeting places, bookstores, newsstands of Mujahideen and other leftists. The opposition's bases of support were attacked with 20,000 teachers and nearly 8,000 military officers purged for being too "Westernized". MeK offices were shut down, their newspapers outlawed, their demonstrations prohibited, and arrest warrants issued for their leaders.
The crisis came to a head when an MeK ally, Islamic modernist President Banisadr -- another erstwhile supporter of Khomeini -- was attacked by Khomeini, impeached by the Majlis/parliament and fled the country calling for "resistance to dictatorship".
In the ensuing fight an "unprecedented reign of terror" was unleashed against the MeK and similar groups. "In less than six months, 2,665 persons, 90 per cent of whom were MeK members, were executed". The MeK retaliated with "spectacular" attacks, killed around 70 leaders of the Khomeinist Islamic Republic Party in one bombing, and the successor leader of the IRP (Mohammad Javad Bahonar) a couple months later.
Remnants of the MeK fled across the border to Iraq which was waging war against Iran. About six years later, in July 1988, in an operation known as Operation Mersad, Iraqis forces and 7,000 militants from the MeEK invaded from Iraq into Iranian Kurdistan, hoping to capture Kermanshah and eventually lead an uprising. The MeK militants were armed, equipped and given air support by the Iraqi military. They were quickly defeated but the fact that this attack came after Ayatollah Khomeini had officially announced his acceptance of a UN brokered ceasefire resolution between Iraq and Iran and Iran thought the bloody war was all but over, is likely to have greatly angered the Islamic Republican government. It is also thought not to be a coincidence the killings started about the same time.
In 2016, an audio recording was posted online of a high-level official meeting that took place in August 1988 between Hossein Ali Montazeri and the officials responsible for the mass killings in Tehran. In the recording, Hossein Ali Montazeri is heard saying that the ministry of intelligence used the MeK's armed incursion as a pretext to carry out the mass killings, which "had been under consideration for several years". Iranian authorities have dismissed the incident as "nothing but propaganda", presenting the executions as a lawful response to a small group of incarcerated individuals who had colluded with the MeK to support its 25 July 1988 incursion.
Massacre
Khomeini's order
Shortly before the executions commenced, Iranian leader Ruhollah Khomeini issued "a secret but extraordinary order – some suspect a formal fatwa." This order led to the creation of "Special Commissions with instructions to execute members of People's Mojahedin Organization of Iran as moharebs (those who war against Allah) and leftists as mortads (apostates from Islam)."
In part, the letter reads as follows:
[In the Name of God,
The Compassionate, the Merciful,]
As the treacherous Monafeqin [Mojahedin] do not believe in Islam and what they say is out of deception and hypocrisy, and
As their leaders have confessed that they have become renegades, and
As they are waging war on God, and
As they are engaging in classical warfare in the western, the northern and the southern fronts, and
As they are collaborating with the Baathist Party of Iraq and spying for Saddam against our Muslim nation, and
As they are tied to the World Arrogance, and in light of their cowardly blows to the Islamic Republic since its inception,
It is decreed that those who are in prison throughout the country and remain steadfast in their support for the Monafeqin [Mojahedin] are waging war on God and are condemned to execution.
Administering of the executions
The executions were carried out by several high-ranking members of Iran's current government.
In Tehran the special commission for the executions had 16 members representing the various authorities of the Islamic government – Imam Khomeini himself, the president, the chief prosecutor, the Revolutionary Tribunals, the Ministries of Justice and Intelligence, and the administration of Evin and Gohar Dasht, the two prisons in the Tehran area from which the prisoners were eliminated. The chair of the commission was Ayatollah Morteza Eshraqi. His two special assistants were Hojatt al-Islam Hossein-Ali Nayyeri and Hojjat al-Islam Ali Mobasheri. The commission shuttled back and forth between Evin and Gohar Dasht prisons by helicopter. In the provinces similar commissions were established, but less is known about them.
Another description of the administration of the executions has it implemented by a "four-man commission, later known as the 'death committee'." Members were Hossein-Ali Nayyeri (who was then a judge), Morteza Eshraqi (then Tehran Prosecutor), Ebrahim Raisi (then Deputy Prosecutor General) and Mostafa Pourmohammadi (then the representative of the Intelligence Ministry in Evin Prison). Ebrahim Raisi went on to campaign for president of Iran in 2017 as a hard-line conservative where he was criticized for his role in the executions, before being elected as president on his second try in 2021.
Amnesty International identified and analyzed evidence that linked several Iranian officials to participating in the massacre. These included Alireza Avayi (tasked to participate in the so-called "death commission" of Dezful), Ebrahim Raisi (member of the "death commission" in Tehran), Mostafa Pour Mohammadi, and others.
The prisoners were not executed without any proceedings, but were "tried" on charges totally unrelated to the charges that had landed them in prison. They were interviewed by commissions with a set list of questions to see if they qualified as moharebs or mortads to the satisfaction of that commission. Many, if not most, of the prisoners were unaware of the true purpose of the questions, although later some were warned by the prison grapevine.
Some of the victims were killed because of their beliefs about religion – because they were atheists or because they were Muslims who followed different versions of Islam.
Many of those killed were also subjected to "torture and other cruel, inhuman and degrading treatment or punishment in the process."
Isolation of the prisoners
Some scholarly examinations of the massacre argue that the planning stages of the 1988 Massacre began months before the actual executions started. According to one report: "prison officials took the unusual step in late 1987 and early 1988 of re-questioning and separating all political prisoners according to party affiliation and length of sentence."
The actual execution process began in the early hours of 19 July 1988 with the isolation of the political prisoners from the outside world. According to Ervand Abrahamian, Iranian authorities suddenly isolated major prisons on 19 July, having its courts of law go on an unscheduled holiday to avoid relatives finding out about those imprisoned. Prison gates were closed, scheduled visits and telephone calls were canceled, letters, care packages, and even vital medicines from the outside were turned away. Relatives of prisoners were forbidden to congregate outside the prison gates.
Inside the prison, cell blocks were isolated from each other and cleared of radios and televisions. Places where prisoners gathered communally, such as lecture halls, workshops, infirmaries, were all closed down and inmates were confined to their cells. Prison guards and workers were ordered not to speak to prisoners. One prisoner constructed a homemade wireless set to listen to the radio news from the outside but found news broadcasters were saying nothing at all about the lockdown.
Dealing with the MeK (People's Mojahedin Organization of Iran)
Prisoners were initially told that this was not a trial but a process for initiating a general amnesty and separating the Muslims from the non-Muslims. Prisoners were asked if they were willing to denounce the MeK before cameras, help the IRI hunt down MeK members, name secret sympathizers, identify phoney repenters, or go to the war front and walk through enemy minefields. According to Abrahamian, the questions were designed to "tax to the utmost the victim's sense of decency, honor, and self-respect". The Mojahedin who gave unsatisfactory answers were promptly taken to a special room and later hanged in batches of six. At first this secrecy was effective. One survivor thought the purpose of his interview was to be released in time for the forthcoming peace celebrations.
Most of the prisoners executed were serving prison terms for peaceful protest activities (distributing opposition newspapers and leaflets, taking part in demonstrations, or collecting donations for political oppositions) or holding outlawed political views. The executions did not conform with existing legislation, took place without any proven "internationally recognized criminal offence", and have since been termed a "crime against humanity" by the standards of international law. Those executed included children.
Human rights organizations say that the number of those executed remains a point of contention. Prisoners were charged with "moharebeh" or "waging war on God" and those who said to be affiliated with the MeK, including children as young as 13 years old, were hanged from cranes by Ayatollah Khomeini's direct orders. The Iranian government accused those investigating the executions of "disclosing state secrets" and threatening national security". According to Amnesty International, "there has also been an ongoing campaign by the Islamic Republic to demonize victims, distort facts, and repress family survivors and human rights defenders. In 2019, Maryam Rajavi, released a book named "Crime Against Humanity". The book is about the 1988 massacres of political prisoners in Iran, listing the location of 36 Iranian mass graves and explaining that about 30,000 people were executed, with the majority being MeK members.
Dealing with leftists
After 27 August, the commission turned its attention to the leftist prisoners, such as members of the Tudeh, Majority Fedayi, Minority Fedayi, other Fedayi, Kumaleh, Rah-e Kargar, Peykar. These were also assured they were in no danger and asked:
"Are you a Muslim?"
"Do you believe in Allah?"
"Is the Holy Qur'an the Word of Allah?"
"Do you believe in Heaven and Hell?"
"Do you accept the Holy Muhammad to be the Seal of the Prophets?"
"Will you publicly recant historical materialism?"
"Will you denounce your former beliefs before the cameras?"
"Do you fast during Ramadan?"
"Do you pray and read the Holy Qur'an?"
"Would you rather share a cell with a Muslim or a non-Muslim?"
"Will you sign an affidavit that you believe in Allah, the Prophet, the Holy Qur'an, and the Resurrection?"
"When you were growing up, did your father pray, fast, and read the Holy Qur'an?"
Prisoners were told that authorities were asking them these questions because they planned to separate practicing Muslims from non-practicing ones. However, the real reason was to determine whether the prisoners qualified as apostates from Islam, in which case they would join the moharebs in the gallows.
Some prisoners saved from execution by answering the questions properly returned to their cells and passed along what the commission was asking. A leftist prisoner who had once attended a seminary realised the theological significance of the questions, and sent morse code messages to other cells, warning of the dangers, by knocking on the prison walls. The questioners wanted to know if prisoners' fathers prayed, fasted, and read the Qur'an because the sons of devout men could be called apostates. If they had not been raised in proper Muslim homes first and "exposed to true Islam," they could not be apostates. Another wrong answer was refusing to reply on the grounds of 'privacy', a response which was often taken as an admission of apostasy.
All this was a surprise to the prisoners, with one commenting: "In previous years, they wanted us to confess to spying. In 1988, they wanted us to convert to Islam." It also meant there was no correlation between the length of sentence being served and the likelihood of death. The first leftist to go before the commission were those with short sentences, some even completed. These had no warning of what was in store and many died.
Dealing with women
Mojahedin women were given equal treatment with Mojahedin men, almost all hanged as 'armed enemies of Allah'. However, for apostasy the punishment for women was different and lighter than that for men. Since according to the commission's interpretation of Islamic law, women were not fully responsible for their actions, "disobedient women – including apostates – could be given discretionary punishments to mend their ways and obey male superiors."
Leftist women—even those raised as practicing Muslims—were given another 'opportunity' to recant their 'apostasy.' "After the investigation, leftist women began to receive five lashes every day -- one for each of the five daily prayers missed that day, half the punishment meted out to the men. After a while, many agreed to pray, but some went on hunger strike, refusing even water. One died after 22 days and 550 lashes, and the authorities certified her death as suicide because it was 'she who had made the decision not to pray.'"
Families
According to Iranian human rights lawyer Shirin Ebadi, executed prisoner's families were told that they would not be permitted to hold a funeral or mourn publicly for one year. After that time, if their conduct was deemed acceptable by the authorities, they would be told the place of burial. The justification given to these families for the execution of their loved ones was that the prisoner's name had appeared on notes pinned to PMOI members killed in the Mersad attack whose bodies had been recovered by Iranian Islamic officials. The notes listing the PMOI's supporters' in prison so the prisoners had been guilty of aiding the attack. Ebadi complained that aside from being improbable, this did not explain why the prisoners had not received a trial for the charge of giving support to the enemy. In 2009, the Abdorrahman Boroumand Center commissioned Geoffrey Robertson QC to write a legal opinion based on evidence and witness testimonies gathered by the center. Robertson's final report accused Tehran of continuing to deny relatives of the victims their right to know where their loved ones are buried.
Death toll estimates
The exact number of deaths is not definitively known. Estimates range between 1,000 and 30,000 were killed.
It is extremely difficult to estimate an accurate death toll because many of the killings were carried out in remote Kurdish and Baluchi cities. It could be as high as 30,000 according to figures which were provided by Iranian defectors.
In his autobiography, Hussein-Ali Montazeri, deputy of then-Supreme Leader Ruhollah Khomeini, put the number of prisoners executed at between 2,800 and 3,800,
In 1990, after interviewing the relatives of dozens of prisoners, Amnesty International wrote that "most of the executions were of political prisoners" in "the biggest wave of political executions [in Iran] since the early 1980s". From January 1987 to June 1990, Amnesty International collected the names of at least 2,100 executions announced in Iranian press.
In their 2008 report, Amnesty International wrote "between 4,500 and 5,000 prisoners are believed to have been killed, including women."
In their 2018 report, Amnesty International wrote that "minimum estimates put the death toll at around 5,000".
In the aftermath of the 2009 uprisings in Iran, Mohammad Nurizad, a defector from the Iranian regime stated that over 33,000 people were massacred within 2–3 months in the summer of 1988.
According to other estimates, as many as 30,000 individuals were executed.
In 1999, Abrahamian collected several testimonies from eyewitnesses and ex-prisoners. One anonymous ex-prisoner put the death toll in the 'thousands.' Another eyewitness estimated that between 5,000 and 6,000 individuals were killed – 1,000 of them were leftists and the rest of them were Mojahedin. Another eyewitness placed it in the 'thousands', with as many as 1,500 killed at Gohar Dasht prison alone.
Mohajer 1996, a study using scattered information from the provinces placed, the death toll at 12,000.
Because the number of prisoners who were going to be executed was extremely large, the prisoners were loaded into forklift trucks in groups of six and hanged from cranes in half-hour intervals. According to Christina Lamb, writing in The Telegraph: "Secret documents smuggled out of Iran reveal that, because of the large numbers of necks to be broken, prisoners were loaded onto forklift trucks in groups of six and hanged from cranes in half-hourly intervals."
It is estimated that most of those who were executed were either high school or college students or fresh graduates, and over 10% of them were women.
Response
International reaction and criticism
On 30 August 2017, the United Nations Human Rights Council highlighted the 1988 massacre and distributed a written statement by three non-governmental organizations titled, "The 1988 Massacre of Political Prisoners in Iran: Time for the Truth, Justice, Reparation and Guarantees of Non-Recurrence" The statement points to the following: In 1988, the government of Iran massacred 30,000 political prisoners. The executions took place based on a fatwa by Supreme Leader Ayatollah Khomeini. Three-member commissions known as a 'Death Commission' were formed across Iran sending political prisoners who refused to abandon their beliefs to execution. The victims were buried in secret mass graves. The perpetrators continue to enjoy impunity.
Another joint written statement by five NGOs with consultative status with the United Nations was circulated during the UN Human Rights Council in February 2018 urged "UN to launch fact-finding mission to investigate Iran's 1988 massacre in order to end impunity and prevent the same fate for detained protesters."
On 4 December 2018 Amnesty International asked the government of Iran to bring to light what happened to the political detainees in the country. Amnesty asked the United Nations to set up an investigation group to find the facts of crimes against humanity in Iran.
In November 2019, Sweden arrested Hamid Nouri, accused of being an assistant prosecutor during the massacres and playing a key role during the mass executions. UN Special Rapporteur Agnès Callamard stated that Nouri's arrest was the first time that someone was held responsible for the mass killings. His trial, initially scheduled to begin in June 2021, began August 2021.
According to an indictment, Noury is accused of "torturing prisoners and subjecting them to inhumane conditions". In July 2022 he was sentenced to life in prison.
According to the US State Department, the "death commissions" responsible for the 1988 executions of Iranian political prisoners started on 19 July (1988) and included the current head of the Iranian judiciary and current Minister of Justice. According to Amnesty International, "thousands of political dissidents were systematically subjected to enforced disappearance in Iranian detention facilities across the country and extrajudicially executed pursuant to an order issued by the Supreme Leader of Iran and implemented across prisons in the country. Many of those killed during this time were subjected to torture and other cruel, inhuman and degrading treatment or punishment in the process."
Montazeri
One of the consequences of the killings was the resignation of Hussein-Ali Montazeri as the heir-designate to Ayatollah Khomeini as Supreme Leader of Iran.
Prior to the killings, Montazeri "had taken issue with the diehard cleric on a number of subjects – the trial of Mehdi Hashemi, the anti-hoarding campaign ..." When he heard of the killings Montazeri rushed off three public letters – two to Khomeini, one to the Special Commission – denouncing the executions "in no uncertain terms."
Montazeri also wrote to Khomeini saying "at least order to spare women who have children ... the execution of several thousand prisoners in a few days will not reflect positively and will not be mistake-free", and "a large number of prisoners have been killed under torture by interrogators ... in some prisons of the Islamic Republic young girls are being raped ... As a result of unruly torture, many prisoners have become deaf or paralyzed or afflicted with chronic diseases."
He also took the Special Commission "to task for violating Islam by executing repenters and minor offenders who in a proper court of law would have received a mere reprimand."
Montazeri was asked to resign, with Khomeini maintaining he had always been doubtful of Montazeri's competence and that 'I expressed reservations when the Assembly of Experts first appointed you.'" But the Assembly of Experts had insisted on naming Montazeri the future Supreme Leader.
The regime published letters between the two Ayatollahs but "the selection dealt only with the Hashemi affair and scrupulously avoided the mass executions – thus observing the official line that these executions never took place."
On 9 August 2016, a website run by followers of Montazeri published an audio recording from a meeting he held on 15 August 1988 with the special judicial tribunal (Tehran Prosecutor Morteza Eshraghi, Judge Hossein-Ali Nayeri, Deputy Prosecutor General Ebrahim Raeesi and MOIS representative in Evin Mostafa Pourmohammadi). One can hear Montazeri condemning the mass executions. The Ministry of Intelligence and Security (MOIS) had the recording taken down the day after its release.
According to Human Rights Watch, the tape had been released by Ayatollah Montazeri's son, Ahmed Montazeri. After the release of the audiotape, Iran's Special Court of Clergy charged Ahmed Montazeri with "spreading propaganda against the system" and "revealing plans, secrets or decisions regarding the state’s domestic or foreign policies… in a manner amounting to espionage." He was later sentenced to 21 years in prison, but the sentence was suspended.
Iranian government's position
Mostafa Pourmohammadi, who was speaking in the administrative council meeting in the city of Khorram-Abad in Lorestan province, on 28 August 2016 said: "We are proud we have implemented God's order about Mojahedin (PMOI or MEK)." In 2017 Ali Khamenei defended the executions, stating that those killed were "terrorists" and "hypocrites".
The Iranian government accused those who were investigating the killings of "disclosing state secrets" and "threatening national security". According to Amnesty International, the Islamic Republic has engaged in an ongoing campaign to demonize victims, distort facts, silence family members of victims, silence survivors and silence human rights defenders.
Officials implicated in the massacre have subsequently enjoyed promotions. Public awareness about the massacres and widespread condemnation have "compelled the Islamic Republic to engage in a damage-containment propaganda exercise."
Other criticisms
One complaint which was made against the mass killings was that almost all of the prisoners who were executed had been arrested for relatively minor offenses, since those who had been charged with committing serious crimes had already been executed. The 1988 killings resembled the 'disappearances' of prisoners in 20th-century Latin America.
The "Islamic Revolutionary Courts" have been criticized "for holding unfair, secret summary trials without any semblance of due process and in violation of international human rights standards".
According to Kaveh Shahrooz, "it is baffling that two of the world's most powerful human rights organizations, Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch, have simply never written full reports on a crime as widespread as the 1988 extermination campaign."
Amnesty International's report "Iran: Violations of Human Rights 1987-1990" which was published in 1990 devotes a few pages to the massacre, the human rights organization had never written a full report on the killings until its 2018 report. The 1990 Amnesty International report states:
Similarly, Human Rights Watch devotes a mere handful of pages to the massacre in a background report concerning President Ahmadinejad's cabinet picks.
Human Rights Watch (HRW) described the executions as "deliberate and systematic ... extrajudicial killings," and condemned them as crimes against humanity. HRW also accused Mustafa Pour-Mohammadi, Iran's Interior Minister from 2005 to 2008, of direct involvement in the killings.
UN judge and human rights lawyer Geoffrey Robertson QC urged the UN Security Council to set up a special court, along the lines of the International Tribunals for Yugoslavia and Rwanda, to try the men who were involved "for one of the worst single human rights atrocities since the Second World War."
Motivation
A 2018 research by Amnesty International found that Ruhollah Khomeini had ordered the torture and execution of thousands of political prisoners through a secret fatwa. In 2016, an audio recording was posted online of a high-level official meeting that took place in August 1988 between Hossein Ali Montazeri and the officials responsible for the mass killings in Tehran. In the recording, Hossein Ali Montazeri is heard saying that the ministry of intelligence used the MeK's armed incursion as a pretext to carry out the mass killings, which "had been under consideration for several years."
Scholars disagree over why the prisoners were killed. Ali Akbar Mahdi believes the intense overcrowding of Iranian prisons and the July 1988 Mojahedin Operation Mersad offensive "had much to do" with the massacre. Ervand Abrahamian believes the "regime's internal dynamics" were responsible – the need for "a glue" to hold "together his disparate followers" and a "bloodbath" to "purge" moderates like Montazeri and prevent any future "détente with the West" from destroying his legacy. In particular the killings destroyed any ties, or possibility of ties, between populists in the Khomeini movement on the one hand, and non-Khomeiniist Islamist and secular leftists on the other. Khomeini had been concerned that "some of his followers had toyed with the dangerous notion of working with the Tudeh Party to incorporate more radical clauses into the Labor Law as well as into the Land Reform Law" earlier.
Iran Tribunal
In 2012, the families of the victims, along with the survivors of the mass executions initiated an international Commission, the Iran Tribunal, in order to investigate the mass killing of Iran's political prisoners. "Iran Tribunal" is aiming to hold Iran's government accountable on charges of crimes against humanity. The first session of court hearing was organized in London and the second one at The Hague Peace Palace.
See also
Khavaran cemetery
Mothers of Khavaran
Freedom of speech in Iran
History of the Islamic Republic of Iran
Human rights in the Islamic Republic of Iran
Chain murders of Iran
StopExecutionsinIran
Trial of Hamid Nouri
Iranian Green Movement
2009 Iranian presidential election protests
2017–18 Iranian protests
2021–2022 Iranian protests
Mahsa Amini protests
Politics of Iran
References
Further reading
Afshari Reza. Human Rights in Iran. The Abuse of Cultural Relativism. 2001.
Shahrooz, Kaveh With Revolutionary Rage and Rancor: A Preliminary Report on the 1988 Massacre of Iran's Political Pr Human Rights Journal, Volume 20
Final Report on the situation of human rights in the Islamic Republic of Iran by the Special Representative of the Commission on Human Rights Mr. Reynaldo Galindo Pohl, pursuant to Commission resolution 1992/67 of 4 March 1992. Document number E/CN.4/1993/41
Cooper, Roger. Death Plus Ten Years (Paperback). Harpercollins; New Ed edition (May 1995)
Rejali, Darius. Torture and Modernity: Self, society and state in modern Iran. Westview Press 1994.
External links
"With Revolutionary Rage and Rancor: A Preliminary Report on the 1988 Massacre of Iran's Political Prisoners". Harvard Human Rights Journal, Volume 20
The Secret Fatwa: The untold story of the 1988 massacre in Iran (documentary film)
Marked for death Some of Assassinations 1979–96
Hossein Mokhtar's Testimony
The 16th Anniversary of the Massacre of Political Prisoners in Iran
It must not happen again! September 2003
Watching the watcher by Ramin Ahmadi (Iranian.com)
Admit it
Association of Iranian Political Prisoners (in exile) has a home page in English, Swedish and Persian at کانون زندانیان سیاسی ایران - در تبعید . Under the title "Documents" there are many references to the 1988 massacre.
Photo Gallery: Court Hearing in The Hague for 1980s Massacre in Persia (Persian Dutch Network,Oct. 2012)
Ex-Khamenei advisor confirms 33,000 executed during 1988 massacre of political prisoners in Iran, May 2014)
پورمحمدی درباره اعدامهای ۶۷: افتخار میکنیم حکم خدا را اجرا کردیم
Fatwas
Islamic courts and tribunals
History of the Islamic Republic of Iran
Human rights abuses in Iran
Mass murder in 1988
Executions
Iranian war crimes
People executed by Iran
Political and cultural purges
Massacres in Iran
Political repression in Iran
People's Mojahedin Organization of Iran
Iran–Iraq War crimes
Political imprisonment in Iran
Police brutality in Iran
Crime in Iran |
4439627 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maltese%20nationality%20law | Maltese nationality law | Maltese nationality law details the conditions by which a person is a national of Malta. The primary law governing nationality regulations is the Maltese Citizenship Act, which came into force on 21 September 1964. Malta is a member state of the European Union (EU) and all Maltese nationals are EU citizens. They have automatic and permanent permission to live and work in any EU or European Free Trade Association (EFTA) country and may vote in elections to the European Parliament.
All persons born in Malta between 21 September 1964 and 1 August 1989 automatically received citizenship at birth regardless of the nationalities of their parents. Individuals born in the country since that date receive Maltese citizenship at birth if at least one of their parents is a Maltese citizen or was born in Malta. Foreign nationals may become Maltese citizens by naturalisation after meeting a minimum residence requirement (usually five years). Individuals who make a substantial financial investment in the state are eligible for a facilitated naturalisation with a shortened residence period.
Malta was previously a colony of the British Empire and local residents were British subjects. Although Malta gained independence in 1964 and Maltese citizens no longer hold British nationality, they continue to have favoured status when residing in the United Kingdom; as Commonwealth citizens, they are eligible to vote in UK elections and serve in public office there.
Terminology
The distinction between the meaning of the terms citizenship and nationality is not always clear in the English language and differs by country. Generally, nationality refers to a person's legal belonging to a sovereign state and is the common term used in international treaties when addressing members of a country, while citizenship usually means the set of rights and duties a person has in that nation. This distinction is clearly defined in non-English speaking countries but not in the Anglosphere.
In Maltese legislation, the term "citizenship" () is used to refer to state membership. "Nationality" () is used in other laws but only generically refers to a person's origin rather than a specific status. While no definitive definition exists for either term in Maltese law, "citizenship" would be the technical term used in domestic legislation to refer to members of the national constituency.
History
Early modern and colonial-era context
In 1530, Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor granted the archipelago of Malta as a fiefdom to the Knights Hospitaller after their loss of Rhodes to the Ottoman Empire. While local residents deeply resented being traded away without consultation, the Order of Saint John maintained its rule over the islands for the next 268 years until the French invasion of Malta in 1798. After the local population revolted and expelled the French, Malta came under British control as a protectorate in 1800. The 1802 Treaty of Amiens restored Malta to the Order but the organisation had been thrown into disarray following its 1798 defeat, which made enforcing this provision impossible. Regardless of the treaty, local residents vehemently opposed restoring the Knights to power and opted for continued British rule. Britain itself decided against leaving Malta after considering its strategic military value in the Mediterranean Sea following resumption of the Napoleonic Wars. The 1814 Treaty of Paris formally granted Britain full sovereignty over the territory, which became a crown colony in that year.
British nationality law applied to the colony, as was the case elsewhere in the British Empire. Maltese and all other imperial citizens were British subjects; any person born in Malta, the United Kingdom, or anywhere else within Crown dominions was a natural-born British subject. British subject status was standardised as a common nationality across the Empire and its Dominions. Although Malta was granted self-governance in 1921, nationality and naturalisation remained reserved matters under the jurisdiction of the imperial government.
Imperial nationality law was comprehensively reformed in 1948. The British Nationality Act 1948 redefined British subject to mean any citizen of the United Kingdom, its colonies, or other Commonwealth countries. Commonwealth citizen was first defined in this Act to have the same meaning. While previously all subjects of the Empire held a common status through allegiance to the Crown, each Commonwealth country under the reformed system became responsible for legislating their own nationality laws and would maintain a common status by voluntarily agreement among all the member states. British subjects under the previous meaning who held that status on 1 January 1949 because of a connection with the United Kingdom or a remaining colony (including Malta) became Citizens of the United Kingdom and Colonies (CUKC).
Changing relationship with Britain
All British subjects/Commonwealth citizens under the reformed system initially held an automatic right to settle in the United Kingdom and Ireland. Non-white immigration into the UK was systemically discouraged, but strong economic conditions in Britain following the Second World War attracted an unprecedented wave of colonial migration. In response, the British Parliament imposed immigration controls on any subjects originating from outside the British Islands with the Commonwealth Immigrants Act 1962. Ireland had continued to allow all British subjects free movement despite independence in 1922 as part of the Common Travel Area arrangement, but moved to mirror Britain's restriction in 1962 by limiting this ability only to people born on the islands of Great Britain or Ireland. Britain somewhat relaxed these measures in 1971 for patrials, subjects whose parents or grandparents were born in the United Kingdom, which gave effective preferential treatment to white Commonwealth citizens.
Malta's financial situation following the Second World War was untenable, even coming close to bankruptcy in 1951. The dire circumstances stirred substantial debate over the colony's future. Although a plurality of voters chose a closer union with Britain in a 1956 referendum, disagreements between the British and Maltese governments over the UK's financial contributions to the territory after integration ultimately led to a collapse of negotiations. Following an announcement of defence restructuring in the 1957 Defence White Paper that signaled a deprioritisation of further British military investment in Malta, Maltese government ministers shifted their efforts from pursuing integration to demanding independence.
Malta became independent on 21 September 1964 and the citizenship provisions of the Constitution of Malta came into force on the same day. Any CUKC born in Malta automatically acquired Maltese citizenship on that date if at least one parent was also born in the country, as well as any person born overseas if their father and a paternal grandparent were born in Malta.
Post-independence regulations
Individuals born in Malta after independence automatically received citizenship at birth regardless of the nationalities of their parents. Citizenship was transferrable by descent to one generation of children born overseas to Maltese fathers or unmarried Maltese mothers. Foreign women married to Maltese men could acquire citizenship by registration with no further requirements. Under the Maltese Citizenship Act enacted in 1965, Commonwealth citizens were also eligible to become citizens by registration after residing in Malta for five years while all other foreign citizens could naturalise after six years of residence.
Dual/multiple citizenship was constitutionally prohibited and any adult citizen who held other nationalities was required to renounce them by 21 September 1967. Maltese children with multiple nationalities were required to choose between their Maltese and foreign statuses within one year after reaching age 18. Any adult citizen who naturalised as a foreign citizen automatically lost their Maltese citizenship, and foreigners who acquired Maltese citizenship were required to renounce their foreign nationalities. Children adopted by Maltese citizens automatically acquired citizenship on the date of their adoption until this provision was removed on 1 January 1977.
Preferences afforded to Commonwealth citizens were abolished in 1989; the residence requirement for naturalisation was reduced to five years and Commonwealth citizens have since been treated the same as other foreign citizens. Commonwealth and Irish citizens remain technically defined in Maltese law as non-foreign, but there are no benefits provided to either group. The UK itself updated its nationality law to reflect the more modest boundaries of its remaining territory and possessions with the British Nationality Act 1981, which redefined British subject to no longer also mean Commonwealth citizen. Maltese citizens remain Commonwealth citizens in British law and continue to be eligible to vote and stand for public office in the UK.
Expanded citizenship access for Maltese diaspora
Following a general trend of change in citizenship law globally, reforms in 1989 shifted the basis for acquiring Maltese citizenship from a doctrine of birthright to that of descent. Unrestricted birthright citizenship was ended in that year and children born in the country since 1 August 1989 are only granted citizenship by birth if at least one parent is a citizen or was also born in Malta. Gender imbalances were removed from legislation as well; citizenship became transferrable by descent to children through mothers as well as fathers and foreign husbands of Maltese women became eligible for citizenship by registration.
Maltese-born persons became permitted to hold dual citizenship in limited circumstances. Although Maltese citizens who naturalised as foreign citizens continued to automatically lose their Maltese citizenship, former citizens who were born in Malta and who had been resident in the country of their new citizenship for at least six years could reacquire Maltese citizenship and be considered to have never lost that status. Consequently, children born before 1989 to a formerly Maltese father who subsequently reacquired Maltese citizenship under this provision also became Maltese citizens, backdated to the dates of their birth.
All restrictions on holding multiple citizenships were lifted in 2000; Maltese citizens no longer lose their citizenship when acquiring foreign nationalities, and naturalisation applicants are no longer required to renounce their previous citizenships. Maltese emigrants who fulfilled the previous six-year residence period in a foreign country automatically regained their Maltese citizenship and were considered to have never lost that status under this amendment, while those did not meet this condition could only regain citizenship by registration. Non-citizen spouses of Maltese citizens became subject in that year to a five-year waiting period before they were eligible to register as citizens, due to concerns over the frequency of marriages of convenience. Children born overseas to Maltese mothers between 21 September 1964 and 1 August 1989 also gained eligibility to register as citizens with no requirement to reside in Malta. Abandoned children found in Malta could not acquire Maltese citizenship after the 1989 amendment due to the requirement for a Maltese parent; the 2000 changes addressed this oversight by granting such individuals citizenship until their eligibility to another citizenship could be established.
Further reforms in 2007 extended eligibility for citizenship by descent to children born overseas to Maltese citizens who were not born in the country. Individuals with a Maltese-born lineal ascendant who died before 1 August 2007 and who themself had a parent born in Malta may acquire citizenship by registration. Maltese citizenship can be continually transmitted through each generation born abroad provided that each subsequent generation is registered for citizenship. Individuals who were unable to claim citizenship before their qualifying parent's death are exceptionally eligible to register if their parent's death was before 1 August 2010. Under the citizenship provisions of the Constitution at time of independence, a CUKC born abroad became a Maltese citizen only if their father and a paternal grandparent were born in Malta. The 2007 amendment extended citizenship to former CUKCs born overseas with a Maltese-born mother and maternal grandparent.
European integration
Malta joined the European Union as part of the EU's 2004 enlargement. Maltese citizens have since been able to live and work in other EU/EFTA countries under freedom of movement for workers established by the 1957 Treaty of Rome and participated in their first European Parliament elections in 2004.
Before the UK's withdrawal from the EU in 2020, Maltese citizens held a particularly favoured status there. While non-EU Commonwealth citizens continued to need a residence visa to live in the UK, Maltese citizens were able to settle there and immediately hold full rights to political participation due to their status as both Commonwealth and EU citizens. Maltese citizens (along with Irish and Cypriot citizens) domiciled in the UK were able to vote in the 2016 United Kingdom European Union membership referendum while all other non-British EU citizens were not.
Citizenship by investment
Amendments to the Maltese Citizenship Act in 2013 provided the legal basis for the creation of the Individual Investor Programme, through which foreign citizens could make a substantial capital investment in return for Maltese citizenship for themselves and their dependents. The original proposal for this plan required a base €650,000 donation to the state, an additional €25,000 for spouses and each minor child, and a further €50,000 for each dependent parent over 55 and unmarried child between 18 and 25.
In response to domestic criticism, the government amended the programme to require an additional €150,000 investment in bonds, stocks, or other approved financial assets held for at least five years. Applicants were also required to make a real estate purchase valued at least €350,000 or lease a residence with a minimum annual rent of €16,000. The total number of successful primary applicants would be limited to 1,800 people and the names of every person acquiring citizenship under the programme would be published. 70 per cent of the donated funds would be allotted to a National Development and Social Fund that would only be used for public works and services development. Further criticism by the European Commission led the government to add a 12-month residence requirement before applicants could be naturalised. This naturalisation pathway is not directly run by a Maltese government ministry and is instead operated by Henley & Partners, a consultancy firm that assists private clients with immigration and citizenship law. From 2014 to 2020, the firm earned €36.8 million in commissions for operating this programme.
The European Commission has repeatedly condemned this citizenship pathway for its high risks in aiding money laundering, tax evasion, and corruption. Despite requests to cease approving naturalisations by investment, the Maltese government renewed the scheme in 2020 with raised capital requirements after the original programme reached close to its 1,800-person limit. Applicants making a €600,000 donation are subject to a 36-month residence requirement while those contributing €750,000 continue to be subject to a 12-month period. All qualifying dependents require a further €50,000 donation per person regardless of age. Property purchases are required to be valued at least €700,000 and an additional contribution of €10,000 must be donated to a registered charitable organisation. Following the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, applications for investors from Russia and Belarus have been indefinitely suspended.
Acquisition and loss of citizenship
Entitlement by birth, descent, or adoption
All persons born in Malta between 21 September 1964 and 1 August 1989 automatically received citizenship at birth regardless of the nationalities of their parents. Individuals born in the country since then receive Maltese citizenship at birth if at least one parent is a citizen or was born in Malta. Children born overseas are Maltese citizens by descent if either parent is themself a Maltese citizen. Adopted children under the age of 10 are automatically granted citizenship at the time of adoption.
Abandoned children found in the country are presumed to have been born in Malta and are considered Maltese citizens by birth. Stateless persons who were born in Malta and have never held another citizenship are entitled to naturalisation after living in Malta for five years, while those born abroad but have at least one Maltese parent may naturalise after three years residence.
Voluntary acquisition
Foreigners may naturalise as Maltese citizens after residing in the country for at least four of the previous seven years. Applicants must demonstrate proficiency in Maltese or English and fulfil a good character requirement. While not an official requirement in legislation, immigration officials typically only naturalise persons with Maltese ancestry or those who have been resident in the country for a substantial period and have had children born in Malta. Individuals domiciled in the country with a grandfather and great-grandfather who were born in Malta may naturalise with no minimum residence period. Foreign investors qualify for an expedited naturalisation process after making substantial capital investments in the country, subject to the requirements of the Individual Investor Programme.
Non-citizens who are married to Maltese citizens may acquire citizenship by registration after five years of marriage and cohabitation. If a non-citizen spouse is widowed before they can be registered as citizens, citizenship can still be acquired after what would have been the fifth year of marriage, provided that the couple was living together at the time of the Maltese spouse's death. The residence requirement may be waived if either spouse performs an exceptional act of service for the country.
Former citizens who lost Maltese citizenship before 2000 due emigration or because of previous restrictions on holding multiple citizenships and were not eligible for automatic reacquisition may regain citizenship by registration. Individuals born abroad before 1 August 1989 to a Maltese mother may also become citizens by registration with no additional requirements.
While the number of people acquiring citizenship by naturalisation and registration were both consistently low during the 1990s, averaging above 100 per year, the change in dual citizenship policy in 2000 led to a sharp increase in registrations. 1,062 people registered for Maltese citizenship in 2001. Though this dropped somewhat lower in the 2000s, the extension of citizenship eligibility to more generations of Maltese born abroad contributed to a further increase in registrations. In the early 2010s, just under 1,000 people per year acquired citizenship by registration.
Relinquishment and deprivation
Maltese citizenship can be relinquished by making a declaration of renunciation, provided that the declarant already possesses another citizenship. Renunciations cannot be made during wartime and are subject to final approval by the Minister of Home Affairs. Citizenship may be involuntarily removed from naturalised or registered persons who: fraudulently acquired the status, committed an act of disloyalty against the state, aided an enemy nation with which Malta is at war, have been sentenced to incarceration for longer than 12 months within seven years of acquiring citizenship, or permanently reside overseas (other than those employed in the civil service or supranational organisation that Malta is a member state of) for a continuous period of seven years without registering their intention to retain Maltese citizenship.
References
Citations
Sources
External links
Community Malta Agency, government agency responsible for citizenship
Nationality law
Law of Malta
Foreign relations of Malta
Malta and the Commonwealth of Nations
Malta and the European Union |
4439660 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20Dianetics%20and%20Scientology | History of Dianetics and Scientology | History of Dianetics and Scientology begins around 1950. During the late 1940s, L. Ron Hubbard began developing a mental therapy system which he called Dianetics. Hubbard had tried to interest the medical profession in his techniques, including the Gerontological Society, the Journal of the American Medical Association, and the American Journal of Psychiatry, but his work was rejected for not containing sufficient evidence of efficacy to be acceptable.
In April 1950, he published his ideas in Astounding Science Fiction where he was well-known as a science fiction writer. The article generated a lot of interest and the following month Hubbard published the book Dianetics: The Modern Science of Mental Health. The book brought in money and Hubbard began teaching courses through the Hubbard Dianetic Research Foundation.
The scientific and medical communities were critical of Dianetics — the American Psychological Association called on psychologists to not use the techniques and complaints were made against local Dianetics practitioners for allegedly practicing medicine without a license. Financial problems ensued, but despite the influx of financial support from some wealthy followers, the first foundations resulted in bankruptcy and the loss of the name and copyrights to Dianetics.
Around 1952, Hubbard went on to create Scientology, eventually regaining the rights to Dianetics which he incorporated into Scientology. Today, Dianetics is a part of Scientology and is used as a beginning promotion to new people.
Origins
The ideas of Dianetics originated in unpublished research L. Ron Hubbard supposedly performed in the 1920s and 1930s. He recorded the results and his conclusions in an unpublished 1938 manuscript, Excalibur, the contents of which formed the basis for some of his later publications.
After Hubbard's service in the United States Navy during World War II, he was admitted to the Oak Knoll Naval Hospital in Oakland, California. While there, he claimed to have carried out research into endocrinology "to determine whether or not structure monitors function or function monitors structure ... using nothing but Freudian Psychoanalysis and using a park bench as a consulting room", spending a great deal of time in the hospital's library, where he would have encountered the work of Sigmund Freud and other psychoanalysts.
The emergence of Dianetics
In January 1949, Hubbard informed his literary agent, Forrest J. Ackerman, that he was writing a book on the "cause and cure of nervous tension", which he was going to call either The Dark Sword or Excalibur or Science of the Mind, and assured Ackerman that the book had "more selling and publicity angles than any book of which I have ever heard". In the same month, he told Writers' Markets and Methods magazine that he was working on a "book of psychology".
In April 1949, Hubbard told the Gerontological Society at Baltimore City Hospital that he was preparing a paper with the somewhat unwieldy title of Certain Discoveries and Researches Leading to the Removal of Early Traumatic Experiences Including Attempted Abortion, Birth Shock and Infant Illnesses and Accidents with an Examination of their Effects Physiological and Psychological and their Potential Influence on Longevity on the Adult Individual with an Account of the Techniques Evolved and Employed. Hubbard's letter was "politely received", but the Society apparently declined involvement. He also wrote to the American Medical Association and the American Psychiatric Association. These letters, and their responses, have not been published, though Hubbard later said that they had been negative.
In 1949, Hubbard told his friend John W. Campbell, the editor of Astounding Science Fiction magazine and publisher of many of Hubbard's short stories, about his work. Campbell had been one of Hubbard's early test subjects and believed that Hubbard's techniques had cured his persistent sinusitis, so he was an enthusiastic supporter. In a letter to one of Astounding's contributors, Jack Williamson, he wrote: "I know dianetics is one of, if not the greatest, discovery of all Man's written and unwritten history. It produces the sort of stability and sanity men have dreamed about for centuries."
In July 1949, Campbell wrote to another contributor, Joseph A. Winter, a physician from Michigan. Winter was intrigued by Campbell's claims about Hubbard's work, but initially skeptical; Hubbard sent him what he called "an operator's manual for your use" which convinced Winter that Dianetics had some promise. Winter later wrote:
With cooperation from some institutions, some psychiatrists, he has worked on all types of cases. Institutionalized schizophrenics, apathies, manics, depressives, perverts, stuttering, neuroses - in all, nearly 1000 cases. But just a brief sampling of each type; he doesn't have proper statistics in the usual sense. But he has one statistic. He has cured every patient he worked with. He has cured ulcers, arthritis, asthma.
In October 1949, Winter, Hubbard, and Campbell met at Hubbard's home in Bay Head, New Jersey, to continue work. Winter attempted to interest some medical colleagues and psychiatrists in Dianetics, with little success, and suggested to Hubbard that he publish an article to stimulate interest in his work. Perhaps mindful of the rejection of his earlier efforts, Hubbard told Winter that "the articles you suggest would be more acceptable coming from another pen than mine." Accordingly, in late 1949, Winter wrote a paper "giving a brief resumé of the principles and methodology of dianetic therapy" which he submitted informally to an editor of the Journal of the American Medical Association. However, the editor told Winter that "the paper as written did not contain sufficient evidence of efficacy to be acceptable and was, moreover, better suited to one of the journals which dealt with psychotherapy." He revised the paper, added case histories provided by Hubbard, and submitted it to the American Journal of Psychiatry, which rejected it on the same grounds.
According to the Church of Scientology, Hubbard issued his early research in the form of a manuscript entitled Dianetics: The Original Thesis in 1948; Hubbard gives the year as 1949. It received a wider public release in 1951 and is now published as the book The Dynamics of Life. The original text is not available for comparison with the 1951 publication, but it may have comprised the "operator's manual" written by Hubbard for Winter, which is the first independently attested codification of Dianetics.
Dianetics in print
At the end of 1949, Hubbard and Campbell agreed to announce Dianetics in the upcoming May issue of Astounding, to be followed by a full-length book. Campbell arranged for Hermitage House, a small New York City medical and psychiatric textbook publisher, to publish the book. Hubbard also published an article in The Explorers Journal called "Terra Incognita: The Mind". Dianetics was not quite finished at this stage; engrams were called comanomes, a neologism proposed by Winter that was later abandoned.
In April 1950, Hubbard, Campbell, Winter and several others established a Hubbard Dianetic Research Foundation in Elizabeth, New Jersey to coordinate work related to the forthcoming publication. Hubbard wrote Dianetics: The Modern Science of Mental Health at that time, allegedly completing the 180,000-word book in six weeks.
Hubbard first published his ideology of mental health techniques in the third week of April 1950 in Astounding, followed by publishing as a book in May 1950. It quickly sold out its first run of 8,000 copies. Only two months after the book's publication, Newsweek reported that over 55,000 copies had been sold and enthusiasts had established 500 Dianetics clubs across the United States. In July, Time magazine reported that it was climbing the U.S. bestseller lists. Campbell reported in the August 1950 Astounding that the magazine was receiving up to a thousand letters a week about Dianetics. Sales reached 150,000 copies by the end of the year.
Campbell's endorsement had proven invaluable; Astounding Science Fiction had over 150,000 readers, many of whom were familiar with Hubbard's science fiction and had a strong interest in new scientific discoveries. Among the wider population, Dianetics gained popularity as a cheaper, simpler and apparently more effective means of self-improvement than conventional psychotherapies. Hubbard's optimistic view that Dianetics could alleviate the Cold War climate of tension and fear also struck a chord. One of his supporters, Frederick L. Schuman, wrote in a letter to The New York Times that "History has become a race between Dianetics and catastrophe".
The success of Dianetics brought in a flood of money. Hubbard offered teaching courses for Dianetic "auditors" through the Hubbard Dianetic Research Foundation, costing $500 per person for four to six weeks of instruction and thirty-six hours of Dianetic therapy. Hubbard recruited his friend and fellow science fiction writer A. E. van Vogt to act as the Foundation's treasurer, and five other Foundations were soon established in Washington, DC, New York City, Chicago, Los Angeles and Honolulu. The Foundation's Los Angeles property alone was valued at $4.5 million.
Opposition to Dianetics
The scientific and medical communities were far less enthusiastic about Dianetics, viewing it with bemusement, concern, or outright derision. Nobel Prize–winning physicist I.I. Rabi, reviewing Dianetics for Scientific American, declared that "this volume probably contains more promises and less evidence per page than has any publication since the invention of printing." He noted that the publication of Dianetics had coincided with that of Worlds in Collision, a notorious work of pseudoscience by Immanuel Velikovsky, with which Dianetics shared the top of the best-seller lists. This, Rabi said, illustrated "the most frightening proof of the confusion of the contemporary mind and its tendency to fall prey to pseudo-scientific concepts."
The Nation pointed out the lack of documentation in Dianetics: "No case histories are offered to substantiate his claims, nor is there documentation of any kind to indicate that any previous thinker, medical or otherwise, ever made a significant contribution to the subject of human behavior." The Individual Psychology Bulletin also criticized Hubbard for "not offer any other evidence than a vague reference to hundreds of cured patients, without furnishing case histories or other specific data. The book is crammed with bragging and swaggering, pseudoscientific bombast, platitudes and vulgarities, and a great deal of sheer nonsense." British health minister Kenneth Robinson, among others, expressed concern at the possible dangers of unskilled amateurs practicing therapy on patients, and skepticism about Hubbard's claims that Dianetics could be effective in dealing with illnesses.
In September 1950, the American Psychological Association issued a resolution calling on psychologists not to use Hubbard's methods for treatment purposes unless and until they had been shown effective through scientific testing. Complaints were made against local Dianetics practitioners for allegedly practicing medicine without a license. This eventually prompted Dianetics advocates to disclaim any medicinal benefits in order to avoid regulation.
Hubbard explained the backlash as a response from various entities trying to co-opt Dianetics for their own use. He claimed that "just about the time hit the stands" (i.e. April–May 1950), a "very high-ranking officer" of the US Navy had approached him to sound him out about "using what you know about the mind to make people more suggestible." Hubbard apparently avoided this by resigning from the Navy. He also told the FBI in a 1952 interview that "the Soviets apparently realized the value of Dianetics because as early as 1938 an official of Amtorg , while at The Explorers Club in New York, contacted him to suggest that he go to Russia and develop Dianetics there." The FBI agent conducting the interview was not convinced, describing Hubbard as "a mental case".
Hubbard blamed the hostile press coverage in particular on a plot by the American Communist Party, working through the Authors League of America. According to Hubbard,
These people in the early days of Dianetics said, "We can use Dianetics." They were all my friends. Everywhere I looked, every writer I knew who had ever been a member of the Communist Party was right there alongside of me pumping my hand, saying, "Good going, Ron. We knew you had it in you." ... And when they finally got it through their thick skulls in October 1950 that I didn't care to have Dianetics and Scientology covertly used by any other organization on Earth for their own special purposes, Dianetics and Scientology in the public presses had it.
In later years, Hubbard decided that the psychiatric profession was the origin of all of the criticism of Dianetics, as he believed it secretly controlled most of the world's governments. Current church head David Miscavige has also propagated this theory:
At stake were all of vested interest dollars. How could they get research grants? Millions, or even billions - if the problems of the mind were already solved? And how could they hide the fact of LRH's discoveries if the whole country was talking about them? Their initial attacks have been mentioned over the years by us. First they got "technical reviews" by psychiatrists hatcheting Dianetics. They published these critical reviews in their psychiatric trade magazines ... Then they took these published reviews and handed them out to the press where they were promptly requoted as authority in magazines like "Slime" and "Tripe" .
Fragmentation and transformation
By the autumn of 1950, financial problems had developed. Book sales, lectures and auditor training still generated revenue, but financial controls were lax; Hubbard described the situation as "something on the accounting system of dumping it all in a barrel outside the door and hauling the barrel down to a bank every once in a while". Hubbard's treasurer, A. E. van Vogt, said that Hubbard personally withdrew large sums from Foundation accounts, apparently without any prior notice or explanation of his purpose; van Vogt calculated that, by November 1950 the six Foundations had spent around one million dollars and were more than $200,000 in debt.
Matters were not improved by Hubbard's experiments with a cocktail of benzedrine, vitamins and glutamic acid, called GUK after the rifle cleaning fluid used by the US Marine Corps, which he believed would provide a chemical alternative to auditing. The Foundation purchased a 110-room building in Los Angeles for the project, but Winter writes that it proved a "dismal, expensive failure".
Disagreements emerged over the direction of the Dianetic Foundation's work, and relations between the board members became strained, with several leaving, even to support causes critical of Dianetics. One example was Harvey Jackins, founder of Re-evaluation Counselling, originally a sort of discrete reworking of Dianetics, which L Ron Hubbard later declared suppressive to Scientology. Hubbard's interest in past lives was a particular cause of tension, as he noted in his 1951 book Science of Survival:
The subject of past deaths and past lives is so full of tension that as early as last July (1950-Ed) the board of trustees of the Foundation sought to pass a resolution banning the entire subject. And I have been many times requested to omit any reference to these in the present work or in public for fear that a general impression would get out that Dianetics had something to do with spiritualism.
Winter recorded his dissatisfaction with the state of affairs, believing that "Foundation dianetics was becoming crystallized, ritualistic and sterile", characterized by a "none-too-subtle antagonism towards the medical profession in general and the psychiatric field in particular". He commented that "any attempts to force the medical profession to accept it solely on the basis of the affirmation, 'It works!' and deriding those who request more conclusive proof, is more than likely to jeopardize whatever possible benefits there might be." Having failed to steer the Foundation onto "a more reasoned and conservative basis", he resigned in October 1950. Art Ceppos, the publisher of Dianetics, also resigned at this time, cutting off the Foundation's supply of books; he went on to publish Winter's critical book on Dianetics, A Doctor's Report on Dianetics: Theory and Therapy.
John W. Campbell became dissatisfied as well, accusing Hubbard of "dogmatism and authoritarianism" after the latter insisted that only the Hubbard-approved "Standard Procedure" of Dianetics be used and condemned all other methods as dangerous "Black Dianetics". This was a departure from Hubbard's previously liberal outlook, when he had rejected any attempt to monopolise Dianetics. Campbell resigned from the board in March 1951; although he remained interested in Dianetics for several years afterwards, he eventually moved on to other causes.
The most serious breach occurred with Hubbard's wife Sara, the Foundation's librarian and formerly his personal auditor and research subject. According to Barbara Klowdan, his public relations assistant, both had had affairs—Sara with Miles Hollister, a Dianetics instructor in Los Angeles, and Hubbard with Klowdan herself. Sara was suspended from the Foundation's board of directors and her official post. She filed divorce papers in March 1951, and her claims of "systematic torture" allegedly suffered at Hubbard's hands attracted widespread media attention. A few weeks later, Hubbard told the FBI that Sara had tried to kill him: "I was knocked out, had a needle thrust into my heart to give it a jet of air to produce "coronary thrombosis" and was given an electric shock with a 110 volt current". Hubbard later characterized the suit as "a gal I wasn't even married to was suing me for divorce."
Hubbard appears to have believed that his organization was under sustained attack from Communist interests. From March 2, 1951, all employees of the Dianetic Foundations were "requested to sign a strong oath of loyalty to the U.S. government, a denial of Communism and that their fingerprints be taken and forwarded to the F.B.I." Those who had left the organization, he claimed, were Communist agents; he called Winter a "psycho-neurotic discharged officer of the US Army Medical Corps... Winter seemed to have Communist connections." In one letter to the FBI, he claimed that Ceppos was "connected with Communists" and had tried to obtain the Foundation's mailing list of sixteen thousand names for purposes of distributing Communist literature: in another, he denounced Sara Hubbard and Miles Hollister as "Communist Party members or suspects", describing Hollister as having a "broad forehead, rather Slavic". He complained that "the Communist Party or members of the Communist Party have in the past year wiped out a half a million operation for me, have cost me my health and have considerably retarded material of interest to the United States Government."
In January 1951, the New Jersey Board of Medical Examiners instituted proceedings against the Hubbard Dianetic Research Foundation in Elizabeth for teaching medicine without a licence. The Foundation closed its doors, causing the proceedings to be vacated, but its creditors began to demand settlement of its outstanding debts. Don Purcell, a millionaire Dianeticist from Wichita, Kansas, offered a brief respite from bankruptcy, but the Foundation's finances failed again in 1952. Because of a sale of assets resulting from the bankruptcy, Hubbard no longer owned the rights to the name "Dianetics", but its philosophical framework still provided the seed for Scientology to grow.
Dianetics in Kansas
A temporary respite from financial difficulties was provided in April 1951 by Don Purcell, a millionaire Dianeticist from Wichita, Kansas. Purcell bankrolled a new Hubbard Dianetic Research Foundation in Wichita and paid to print a new edition of Dianetics, along with several new Dianetics books -- Self Analysis, Science of Survival, Notes on the Lectures, Advanced Procedure and Axioms and Child Dianetics—and a range of other Dianetics pamphlets and publications.
The new Foundation soon found itself pursued by creditors, however, as the other Foundations collapsed under the weight of unpaid debts. The income of the Wichita Foundation was far more modest than the earlier Foundations had enjoyed, as public interest in Dianetics had waned. Only 112 people attended the first major conference held at Wichita, and only 51 students attended a subsequent lecture series in October 1951. Science writer Martin Gardner observed that "the dianetics craze seems to have burned itself out as quickly as it caught fire".
In 1952, creditors forced the Wichita Foundation into bankruptcy. Hubbard sold his holdings to Purcell for a nominal sum and established a "Hubbard College" on the other side of Wichita, leaving Purcell to sort out the bankruptcy proceedings. The remaining assets of the Foundation, comprising the copyright of all the tapes, books, techniques, processes and paraphernalia of Dianetics, including the name, went to the auction block; Purcell bought them outright, but Hubbard's financial straits were not improved. One of his staff, James Elliot, sent out an appeal on his behalf: "Somehow Mr. Hubbard must get funds to keep Dianetics from being closed down everywhere. ... He is penniless", and wrote of Hubbard's wish to establish a "free school in Phoenix for the rehabilitation of auditors". This school was launched around April 1952 as the Hubbard Association of Scientologists; he could not use the name "Dianetics", as he no longer owned it.
In May 1952, Purcell's Foundation sent its members a set of accounts showing that it had earned $141,821 but was overspent by $63,222. Hubbard responded angrily, alleging that the American Medical Association had paid Purcell $500,000 to wreck Dianetics. He later claimed that the Communist Party had paid Purcell "to do in a Central Organization". On December 16, 1952, Hubbard was arrested in the middle of a lecture for failing to return $9,000 withdrawn from the Wichita Foundation. He eventually settled the debt by paying $1,000 and returning a car that he had borrowed from Purcell. Purcell finally tired of pursuing Hubbard over the bankruptcy and handed back the Dianetics copyrights in 1954.
History of Scientology
Dianetics provided the seed from which the philosophical framework of Scientology grew. Scientologists refer to the book Dianetics: The Modern Science of Mental Health as "Book One". Hubbard referred to his own calendar based on the publication date of Dianetics; a date of "A.D. 13" signifies "Year 13 After Dianetics", or 1963.
In 1952, Hubbard published a new set of teachings as "Scientology, a religious philosophy". Scientology did not replace Dianetics but extended it to cover new areas, augmenting the Dianetic axioms with new, additional, Scientology axioms. Where the goal of Dianetics is to rid the individual of his reactive mind engrams, the stated goal of Scientology is to rehabilitate the individual's spiritual nature so that he may reach his full potential.
In 1975, Dianetics Today was published, an all-inclusive volume of over 1000 pages. The book introduced the use of the E-Meter, the Original Assessment or standardized interview and a rote routine (Referred to as "R3R") for the application of Dianetics. This was known as Standard Dianetics.
In 1978, Hubbard released New Era Dianetics (NED), an e-meter auditing version, and the official step on The Bridge to Total Freedom to attain the level of Clear.
Dianetics and the origins of Scientology: 1950–1954
During the late 1940s, Hubbard began developing a therapy system called Dianetics, first producing an unpublished manuscript on the subject in 1948. He subsequently published his ideas as the article "Dianetics: The Evolution of a Science" in Astounding Science Fiction in May 1950. The magazine's editor, John W. Campbell, was sympathetic.
Later that year, Hubbard published his ideas as the book, Dianetics: The Modern Science of Mental Health. Published by Hermitage House, the first edition contained an introduction from medical doctor Joseph A. Winter and an appendix by the philosopher Will Durant. Dianetics subsequently spent 28 weeks as a New York Times bestseller. Urban suggested that Dianetics was "arguably the first major book of do-it-yourself psychotherapy".
Dianetics describes a "counseling" technique known as "auditing" in which an auditor assists a subject in conscious recall of traumatic events in the individual's past. It was originally intended to be a new psychotherapy. The stated intent is to free individuals of the influence of past traumas by systematic exposure and removal of the engrams (painful memories) these events have left behind, a process called clearing.
In April 1950 Hubbard founded the Hubbard Dianetic Research Foundation (HDRF) in Elizabeth, New Jersey. He began offering courses teaching people how to become auditors and lectured on the topic around the country. Hubbard's ideas generated a new Dianetics movement, which grew swiftly, partly because it was more accessible than psychotherapy and promised more immediate progress. Individuals and small groups practicing Dianetics appeared in various places across the U.S. and United Kingdom.
Hubbard continually sought to refine his Dianetics techniques.
In 1951, he introduced E-Meters into the auditing process. The original "Book One Auditing", which Hubbard promoted in the late 1940s and early 1950s, did not use an E-Meter, but simply entailed a question and answer session between the auditor and client.
Hubbard labelled Dianetics a "science", rather than considering it a religion. At that time his expressed views of religion were largely negative. He approached both the American Psychiatric Association and the American Medical Association, but neither took Dianetics seriously. Dr. Winter, hoping to have Dianetics accepted in the medical community, submitted papers outlining the principles and methodology of Dianetic therapy to the Journal of the American Medical Association and the American Journal of Psychiatry in 1949, but these were rejected. Much of the medical establishment and the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) were sceptical and critical of Dianetics; they regarded his ideas as pseudomedicine and pseudoscience. During the early 1950s, several Dianetics practitioners were arrested, charged with practicing medicine without a license.
Hubbard explicitly distanced Dianetics from hypnotism, claiming that the two were diametrically opposed in purpose. However, he acknowledged having used hypnotism during his early research, and various acquaintances reported observing him engaged in hypnotism, sometimes for entertainment purposes. Hubbard also acknowledged certain similarities between his ideas and Freudian psychoanalysis, although maintained that Dianetics provided more adequate solutions to a person's problems than Sigmund Freud's ideas. Hubbard's thought was parallel with the trend of humanist psychology at that time, which also came about in the 1950s.
As Dianetics developed, Hubbard began claiming that auditing was revealing evidence that people could recall past lives and thus provided evidence of an inner soul or spirit. This shift into metaphysical territory was reflected in Hubbard's second major book on Dianetics, Science of Survival (1951). Some Dianetics practitioners distanced themselves from these claims, believing that they veered into supernaturalism and away from Dianetics' purported scientific credentials. Several of Hubbard's followers, including Campbell and Winter, distanced themselves from Hubbard, citing the latter's dogmatism and authoritarianism.
By April 1951, Hubbard's HDRF was facing financial ruin and in 1952 it entered voluntary bankruptcy. Following the bankruptcy, stewardship of the Dianetics copyrights transferred from Hubbard to Don Purcell, who had provided the HDRF with financial support. Purcell then established his own Dianetics center in Wichita, Kansas. Hubbard distanced himself from Purcell's group and moved to Phoenix, Arizona, where he formed the Hubbard Association of Scientologists. Westbrook commented that Hubbard's development of the term "Scientology" was "born in part out of legal necessity", because Purcell owned the copyrights to Dianetics, but also reflected "Hubbard's new philosophical and theological practices". In the early texts written that year, Hubbard presented Scientology as a new "science" rather than as a religion. In March 1952 he married his third wife, Mary Sue Whipp, who became an important part of his new Scientology movement.
Establishing the Church of Scientology: 1951–1965
As the 1950s developed, Hubbard saw the advantages of having his Scientology movement legally recognised as a religion. Urban noted that Hubbard's efforts to redefine Scientology as a religion occurred "gradually, in fits and starts, and largely in response to internal and external events that made such a definition of the movement both expedient and necessary". These influences included challenges to Hubbard's authority within Dianetics, attacks from external groups like the FDA and American Medical Association, and Hubbard's growing interest in Asian religions and past life memories.
Several other science-fiction writers, and Hubbard's son, have reported that they heard Hubbard comment that the way to make money was to start a religion.
Harlan Ellison has told a story of seeing Hubbard at a gathering of the Hydra Club in 1953 or 1954. Hubbard was complaining of not being able to make a living on what he was being paid as a science fiction writer. Ellison says that Lester del Rey told Hubbard that what he needed to do to get rich was start a religion.
L. Ron Hubbard originally intended for Scientology to be considered a science, as stated in his writings. In May 1952, Scientology was organized to put this intended science into practice, and in the same year, Hubbard published a new set of teachings as Scientology, a religious philosophy. Marco Frenschkowski quotes Hubbard in a letter written in 1953, to show that he never denied that his original approach was not a religious one: "Probably the greatest discovery of Scientology and its most forceful contribution to mankind has been the isolation, description and handling of the human spirit, accomplished in July 1951, in Phoenix, Arizona. I established, along scientific rather than religious or humanitarian lines that the thing which is the person, the personality, is separable from the body and the mind at will and without causing bodily death or derangement. (Hubbard 1983: 55)."
Following the prosecution of Hubbard's foundation for teaching medicine without a license, in April 1953 Hubbard wrote a letter proposing that Scientology should be transformed into a religion. As membership declined and finances grew tighter, Hubbard had reversed the hostility to religion he voiced in Dianetics. His letter discussed the legal and financial benefits of religious status. Hubbard outlined plans for setting up a chain of "Spiritual Guidance Centers" charging customers $500 for 24 hours of auditing ("That is real money ... Charge enough and we'd be swamped."). Hubbard wrote:
In December 1953, Hubbard incorporated three organizations – a "Church of American Science", a "Church of Scientology" and a "Church of Spiritual Engineering" – in Camden, New Jersey. On February 18, 1954, with Hubbard's blessing, some of his followers set up the first local Church of Scientology, the Church of Scientology of California, adopting the "aims, purposes, principles and creed of the Church of American Science, as founded by L. Ron Hubbard".
In 1955, Hubbard established the Founding Church of Scientology in Washington, D.C. The group declared that the Founding Church, as written in the certificate of incorporation for the Founding Church of Scientology in the District of Columbia, was to "act as a parent church for the religious faith known as 'Scientology' and to act as a church for the religious worship of the faith".
During this period the organization expanded to Australia, New Zealand, France, the United Kingdom and elsewhere. In 1959, Hubbard purchased Saint Hill Manor in East Grinstead, Sussex, United Kingdom, which became the worldwide headquarters of the Church of Scientology and his personal residence. During Hubbard's years at Saint Hill, he traveled, providing lectures and training in Australia, South Africa in the United States, and developing materials that would eventually become Scientology's "core systematic theology and praxis.
With the FDA increasingly suspicious of E-Meters, in an October 1962 policy letter Hubbard stressed that these should be presented as religious, rather than medical devices. In January 1963, FDA agents raided offices of the organization, seizing over a hundred E-meters as illegal medical devices and tons of literature that they accused of making false medical claims. The original suit by the FDA to condemn the literature and E-meters did not succeed, but the court ordered the organization to label every meter with a disclaimer that it is purely religious artifact, to post a $20,000 bond of compliance, and to pay the FDA's legal expenses.
In the course of developing Scientology, Hubbard presented rapidly changing teachings that some have seen as often self-contradictory. According to Lindholm, for the inner cadre of Scientologists in that period, involvement depended not so much on belief in a particular doctrine but on unquestioning faith in Hubbard.
With the Church often under heavy criticism, it adopted strong measures of attack in dealing with its critics. In 1966, the Church established a Guardian's Office (GO), an intelligence unit devoted to undermining those hostile towards Scientology. The GO launched an extensive program of countering negative publicity, gathering intelligence, and infiltrating hostile organizations. In "Operation Snow White", the GO infiltrated the IRS and several other government departments and stole, photocopied, and then returned tens of thousands of documents pertaining to the Church, politicians, and celebrities.
Hubbard's later life: 1966–1986
In 1966, Hubbard resigned as executive director of the Church. From that point on, he focused on developing the advanced levels of training. In 1967, Hubbard established a new elite group, the Sea Organization or "SeaOrg", the membership of which was drawn from the most committed members of the Church. With its members living communally and holding senior positions in the Church, the SeaOrg was initially based on three ocean-going ships, the Diana, the Athena, and the Apollo. Reflecting Hubbard's fascination for the navy, members had naval titles and uniforms. In 1975, the SeaOrg moved its operations from the ships to the new Flag Land Base in Clearwater, Florida.
In 1972, facing criminal charges in France, Hubbard returned to the United States and began living in an apartment in Queens, New York.
In July 1977, police raids on Church premises in Washington, DC, and Los Angeles revealed the extent of the GO's infiltration into government departments and other groups. Eleven officials and agents of the Church were indicted; in December 1979 they were sentenced to between 4 and 5 years each and individually fined $10,000. Among those found guilty was Hubbard's then-wife, Mary Sue Hubbard. Public revelation of the GO's activities brought widespread condemnation of the Church. The Church responded by closing down the GO and expelling those convicted of illegal activities. A new Office of Special Affairs replaced the GO. A Watchdog Committee was set up in May 1979, and in September it declared that it now controlled all senior management in the Church.
At the start of the 1980s, Hubbard withdrew from public life, with only a small number of senior Scientologists ever seeing him again. 1980 and 1981 saw significant revamping at the highest levels of the Church hierarchy, with many senior members being demoted or leaving the Church. By 1981, the 21-year old David Miscavige, who had been one of Hubbard's closest aides in the SeaOrg, rose to prominence. That year, the All Clear Unit (ACU) was established to take on Hubbard's responsibilities. In 1981, the Church of Scientology International was formally established, as was the profit-making Author Services Incorporated (ASI), which controlled the publishing of Hubbard's work. In 1982, this was followed by the creation of the Religious Technology Center, which controlled all trademarks and service marks. The Church had continued to grow; in 1980 it had centers in 52 countries, and by 1992 that was up to 74.
Some senior members who found themselves side-lined regarded Miscavige's rise to dominance as a coup, believing that Hubbard no longer had control over the Church. Expressing opposition to the changes was senior member Bill Robertson, former captain of the Sea Org's flagship, Apollo. At an October 1983 meeting, Robertson claimed that the organization had been infiltrated by government agents and was being corrupted. In 1984 he established a rival Scientology group, Ron's Org, and coined the term "Free Org" which came to encompass all Scientologists outside the Church. Robertson's departure was the first major schism within Scientology.
During his seclusion, Hubbard continued writing. His The Way to Happiness was a response to a perceived decline in public morality. He also returned to writing fiction, including the sci-fi epic Battlefield Earth and the 10-volume Mission Earth. In 1980, Church member Gerry Armstrong was given access to Hubbard's private archive so as to conduct research for an official Hubbard biography. Armstrong contacted the Messengers to raise discrepancies between the evidence he discovered and the Church's claims regarding Hubbard's life; he duly left the Church and took Church papers with him, which they regained after taking him to court. Hubbard died at his ranch in Creston, California on January 24, 1986.
After Hubbard: 1986–present
Miscavige succeeded Hubbard as head of the Church.
In 1991, Time magazine published a frontpage story attacking the Church. The latter responded by filing a lawsuit and launching a major public relations campaign. In 1993, the Internal Revenue Service dropped all litigation against the Church and recognized it as a religious organization, with the UK's home office also recognizing it as a religious organization in 1996. The Church then focused its opposition towards the Cult Awareness Network (CAN), a major anti-cult group. The Church was part of a coalition of groups that successfully sued CAN, which then collapsed as a result of bankruptcy in 1996.
In 2008, the online activist collective Anonymous launched Project Chanology with the stated aim of destroying the Church; this entailed denial of service attacks against Church websites and demonstrations outside its premises. In 2009, the St Petersburg Times began a new series of exposes surrounding alleged abuse of Church members, especially at their re-education camp at Gilman Hot Springs in California. As well as prompting episodes of BBC's Panorama and CNN's AC360 investigating the allegations, these articles launched a new series of negative press and books presented as exposés of the Church.
In 2009, the Church established relations with the Nation of Islam, after which thousands of the latter's members received introductory Dianetics training. In 2012, Lewis commented on a recent decline in Church membership. Those leaving for the Freezone included large numbers of high-level, long-term Scientologists, among them Mark Rathbun and Mike Rinder.
Dianetics today
Dianetics is part of Scientology, and the Church of Scientology views the original Dianetics techniques as an introduction into Scientology. They promote the book in commercials, and streetside where promotion and recruitment events mix Scientology and Dianetics. Church of Scientology buildings are dual-named as Dianetics Foundations, and Book One auditing services are sold to newcomers. The organization opens outreach locations called Dianetics and Scientology Life Improvement Centers which sell beginning books, show films, and hold introductory classes on topics such as communication and marriage.
In the 1990s, DMSMH was heavily advertised because it was not readily associated with the Scientology's fringe-group image. As of 2001, the Church of Scientology continued to run television advertisements promoting the DMSMH book. In spite of this, an analysis of the approximate annual sales of DMSMH that was based on the Church's published data indicated that 2002 sales of DMSMH were similar to sales levels of the book in the early 1970s, and sales of the book reached its peak in the late 1980s. In 1991, Time magazine, alleged that the Church asked its members to purchase large quantities of the book with their own money, or with money supplied by the Church, for the sole purpose of keeping the book on The New York Times Best Seller list.
Notes
References
Bibliography
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4439803 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blindfold%20%28comics%29 | Blindfold (comics) | Blindfold (Ruth Aldine) is a fictional character, a mutant appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics. The character is usually depicted as a member of the student body of the Xavier Institute in X-Men-related comic books. She first appeared in Astonishing X-Men, vol. 3 #7 and was created by Joss Whedon and John Cassaday.
Fictional character biography
Blindfold is a student at the Xavier Institute and ever since she was a child, Ruth had worn a blindfold to cover up her obvious mutation and it was this that inspired her new codename "Blindfold." She was first mentioned by Hisako Ichiki and Wing before their confrontation with Ord. Hisako and Wing both said she had a big mouth because she had read Wing's mind and informed Hisako of his dreams of one day becoming an X-Man. Wing was upset, but Hisako told him not to worry, as she wanted to be an X-Man too, and that Blindfold was just lonely. Whether it was her fractured psyche or the fact that her powers were not suited for battle, Ruth tended to stay out of limelight.
Decimation
Ruth was one of the few mutants to retain their powers and she remained at the school after the Decimation on M-Day, although Ms. Frost excused her from combat training.
Danger
When she foresaw her friend Wing die and the robotic entity Danger being created because of it, Ruth alerted the X-Men, nevertheless her premonition eventually came to pass when a depressed Wing is shown near the edge of a cliff, lamenting over the loss of his powers when suddenly Hisako appears behind him, first to give him comfort, but then chides him to jump off, which he does falling to his death. However, the setting around him and Hisako suddenly dissipate to reveal that it was all a holographic scenario created by the now sentient and hostile Danger Room, and Wing being the robotic's first fatal victim.
Torn
When Emma Frost was struggling with survivor's guilt, Blindfold was found by Hisako "crying" in a restroom. While Hisako comforts her, Blindfold tries to convince Hisako that they are going to lose another X-Man. Wolverine, believing he is a defenseless child due to the manipulations of Cassandra Nova, barged into the restroom asking for help as a feral Beast followed him in. Hisako leaves Blindfold and hides with Wolverine, unfortunately Beast targets Blindfold and goes to attack her. Hisako powers up and scares the feral X-Man away but passes out from exhaustion. Blindfold then takes her to the infirmary because she believes someone was awake only to find the unconscious bodies of Colossus and Cyclops. Eventually Shadowcat makes her way back to the Institute and asks the girls to tell her everything they know. When Kitty leaves to find out who exactly is attacking, Cyclops manages to contact Blindfold and instruct her to give Beast a special box containing a ball of string. He also asks her to keep his mind safe from any sort of psychic attacks as he helps Emma. During the middle of the battle, Ord and the Danger Room entity interrupt and a battle begins between the X-Men, Hisako, Ord and Danger. Suddenly S.W.O.R.D. beamed the team, Danger, Ord, and Hisako into a spaceship headed for the Breakworld. Blindfold was last seen watching them along with a few other students and again commented that not all of them will come back, referring to Shadowcat who would be lost in space for a long time.
Quest for Magik
Blindfold, during an evening of storytelling, relayed the history of the deceased New Mutant Illyana Rasputin to her classmates. Her story emotionally bothered some of them as Blindfold began including aspects that both recently happened and were about to happen. She explained that the demon lord Belasco reclaimed the realm of Limbo by defeating its previous mistress, Amanda Sefton. Belasco cast her out of Limbo and began searching for a way to bring back Illyana Rasputin from the dead. After saying this, Blindfold and the other students were themselves attacked by demons from Limbo sent by Belasco. She continued to assist the students with advice throughout their time in Limbo, telling certain students when and how to react to their situations, especially concerning Pixie, who she declared "must not fall". She survived the final battle and was returned to the mansion with the rest of the students.
Blinded by the Light
Cannonball is given knowledge of the plans of the Marauders and implies that Blindfold is second on a targets list for elimination by them and the Acolytes, orchestrated by Mr. Sinister. Blindfold speaks to the New X-Men saying that whatever is supposed to happen to her can be prevented by Elixir. She grabs his hands, touching the black part of his skin that represents death and the gold part that represents life at the same time. A large energy transfer of black and gold follows, and she is incapacitated, though the New X-Men are both confused as to what she meant and unsure of whether she is dead or merely unconscious. Right as Pixie goes to get help from Shadowcat, the institute is attacked by Exodus and his Acolytes. After examining her, Exodus states that Blindfold is dead and she is no longer a priority to them and they continue on to look for Destiny's Diaries in the mansion, but in spite of this she does not 'smell dead' to X-23, and Prodigy theorizes that Blindfold's precognitive abilities forewarned her of Exodus' coming and so she used Elixir's powers to put herself in a deathlike sleep. Shadowcat subsequently operates on Blindfold, who finally awakens to speak further cryptic predictions about the X-Men's challenging situation, saying that soon Hellion, Pixie, Nightcrawler and someone else she cannot recall will be hurt.
Messiah Complex
Her predictions were soon proven correct when Lady Deathstrike maims Hellion, Scalphunter seriously injures Nightcrawler and Pixie injures herself by blindly teleporting the team from the Reavers. The other person Blindfold mentions was apparently Forge, who was injured by Bishop; or perhaps Professor X.
Young X-Men
Blindfold has a nightmare in which one of her future teammates, the Young X-Men, is killed by Donald Pierce. She meets up with Rockslide and tells him of her premonition of the soon-to-be-formed team and mentions the death of one of their future teammates, though Santo appears to take little heed of it, being more interested in the team uniforms she saw. As predicted, Cyclops arrives at the cafe and offers Santo a place on the team, but also revealing that he did not wish to recruit Ruth. However, Santo refuses to join the team unless she is allowed to as well, noting that Ruth's vision included her on the squad as well. Cyclops concedes, and Ruth takes her place on the squad.
Cyclops orders Ruth and Ink to bring in Dani Moonstar, who is apparently a member of a new Brotherhood of Mutants. However Ink betrays Ruth and delivers both girls to Donald Pierce, who is revealed to be impersonating Cyclops. Eventually they are freed and Ruths prediction comes to pass and Wolf Cub is killed. She then relocates to San Francisco with the rest of the Young X-Men, but leaves the team. Cyclops states that Ruth will only be called in as needed.<ref>Young X-Men #6</ref>
When Cipher reveals her presence to the Young X-Men, Cyclops explains that she had been there in secret under his orders helping the Young X-Men and much earlier, including during Beast's attack on Blindfold during Astonishing X-Men. Blindfold's seemingly one-sided conversation during that time (and others) is revealed to have actually been a conversation between herself and Cipher, who was able to mask her part of the conversation using her stealth powers. Blindfold is the only other besides Jean Grey, Cyclops, and Graymalkin who were aware of Cipher's existence prior to the events of Young X-Men. The two developed a friendship during this time.
Necrosha
Blindfold is shown battling the resurrected Tower without the aid of any other X-Men.
Blindfold is contacted by the newly resurrected Destiny by accident when she was trying to reach her foster daughter Rogue. Destiny saves her life from being crushed by falling rubble and gives her some information to help combat Selene's forces. After Destiny breaks contact with her, she believes she made a grave mistake. This mistake is revealed to be that Ruth is possessed by Proteus.
Blindfold is eventually freed thanks to Magneto who uses his powers to disrupt Proteus' energy matrix. During a conversation with Destiny, it is revealed that she and Destiny are distant relatives and that Ruth's mother had sacrificed herself to save Ruth from her brother, for what reason has yet to be revealed.
Age of X
Blindfold later confides in Rogue that she had visions of an entity, a mysterious force that wanted to change everything, and once it started it would not stop until everything had been destroyed. However, she cannot identify what it is because it keeps hiding around the periphery of her visions. Rogue, along with Madison Jeffries, eventually find a squid-like spider-monster that had escaped from Emplate's dimension, which they think to be the entity Blindfold sensed. However, after Rogue defeats the creature, Blindfold reveals that the threat is still out there. Before anyone could say anything else, darkness descended over Utopia and the real threat emerged.
The world around Blindfold changed dramatically and Blindfold is next seen in the jail of Fortress X during the "Age of X" storyline. She is one of the mutants considered too dangerous to roam free and is under Danger's supervision. She seems to be the Earth-616 version of the character and the only person seen so far with any memory of the mainstream reality.
Schism
When Cyclops and Wolverine had a difference of opinion as to how to lead the X-Men, Wolverine left Utopia and set up the Jean Grey School for Higher Learning back in Westchester. Many of the students, including Blindfold, chose to leave Cyclops’ militaristic style leadership and go back to being just school students with Wolverine. Before she left, though, Ruth had one final task asked of her. Recently a group of X-Men had come back from space and it seemed they had brought an unseen stowaway with them. When the other X-Men couldn't figure the situation out, it was suggested Blindfold might be able to help, given that she viewed the world differently. As it turns out, they were right and she correctly identified that the Shi'ar named Korvus’ sword was actually a gateway and someone was trapped on the other side. The X-Men made a successful rescue mission and Blindfold travelled to Westchester to be with the other students.X-Men Legacy #259-260
Regenesis
Much like Utopia, the Jean Grey School seemed to be a beacon for trouble and Blindfold foresaw many of the threats coming. She had visions of a man bringing great destruction to the X-Men and so when Exodus showed up on the doorstep everybody assumed that it was him. With Exodus dealt with, things calmed down for a bit but Blindfold realized that it wasn't him that her premonitions were warning her about.
Avengers vs. X-Men
The real threat came when Cyclops was possessed by the Phoenix Force. When Professor X tried to help him, the possessed Cyclops ended up killing his former teacher.
Blindfold's history unfolds
The psychic backlash was more than Blindfold could stand and she doubled over in pain as all her premonitions were now in flux. Ruth wasn't the only one to be affected by Xavier's death as his son David, aka Legion, also had a monumental breakdown. Ruth didn't know what had caused the changing futures but she could see that a mountain retreat in Tibet would hold some of the answers. A team of X-Men travelled to Tibet and found the retreat, but they discovered dozens of bodies littering the landscape. They quickly realized that David had caused it and Blindfold could now feel him and how scared he was. They set off after him but, as they continued along his trail, they kept on finding more bodies of the people who got in his way. None of them realized David was not only battling the forces of his multiple personalities but also that of a mysterious force that existed as a pair of disembodied eyeballs.
The team of X-Men eventually caught up with Legion in Japan and, mistakenly believing he was about to harm some children, attacked. Ruth stayed back from the fight but her mind was clearing up now and she could see David for what he was. When he overwhelmed the X-Men, Ruth realized that she was the answer to calming him down, so she entered his mind to talk. Inside David's mind, Ruth found she could speak perfectly without her usual speech mannerisms. She also wielded immense power over most of the personalities in Legion's mind, calming them all down so she and David could talk undisturbed. Ruth introduced herself, kissed David on the lips and then told him she was supposed to be his nemesis. She tried to explain that everything was going to be alright and he should trust her, but she was caught off guard by one of David's personalities. This one remained unaffected by her influence and it angrily slashed her throat and forced her out of David's mind. In the real world, Blindfold collapsed and had to be rushed back to the school.
David was transfixed by this girl who had sauntered into his mind and kissed him without any trouble. David travelled to the Jean Grey School and used astral projection to check up on her, finding Blindfold in the medical bay in a coma. Deciding to find out more about her, David delved into her mind and discovered her tragic history for himself. When Ruth Aldine was born, it became immediately obvious she wasn't like other children. She was clearly a mutant and the X-gene had caused her to be born without eyes. Having a child with an obvious mutation put a strain on her parents’ marriage and, after a few weeks, Ruth's father walked and never came back. Her mother had to work long hours to be able to feed the family and so she would often leave Ruth in the care of her older brother, Luca. Seeing his father walk out because of Ruth caused Luca to build up a deep resentment of his sister. As she grew up, Ruth started to display other powers, which caused even more stress on the family. Luca's resentment towards Ruth caused him to begin physically lashing out at her. When he was in his teens, Luca became self-destructive and was soon sent to rehab for his drug addiction. While there, he latched onto sermons by a bigoted priest and started hating mutants even more. Though Luca was released as drug-free, his problems weren't solved and he continued his abuse of his sister and his mother. Luca finally snapped and attempted to kill his sister with a chainsaw, but their mother intervened and died protecting Ruth from her brother. The years of abuse and violence had caused Ruth to see herself as the problem, so when Luca blamed her for making him kill their mother, she believed him. Luca was caught by the authorities and not only convicted of his crime but was sentenced to death. Ruth went to live with her aunt and the few years that followed were the happiest of her life. There, she could use her various gifts without feeling persecuted by anyone. By the time she was in her early teens, it was time for Luca's execution. Regardless of all the things he had put her through, Ruth felt she needed to be there as he died. She used her telepathy and gained access to the execution. However, as Luca was given the lethal injection, his own gifts emerged and his "spirit" left his body and attacked Ruth, stealing half her powers. After that day, Ruth was unable to talk in a clear and definitive way. She would always add words like "please, thank you, yes, no and sorry" into regular sentences, as if she had a form of Tourette's. In fact, it wasn't just her speech patterns that had changed; her entire psyche had fractured and Ruth found it hard to piece back together again. Thanks to her gifts, Ruth also had trouble separating the past, present, and future into their proper order, since she perceived all three at once. Ruth's aunt eventually received a call from the Xavier Institute and so Ruth was sent to a school where she could harness her gifts. David could feel Ruth's psyche hiding somewhere within her memories but he couldn't reach her before the personality that had originally harmed Ruth stopped him.
As Ruth lay in the coma, one of the young children David had saved in Japan entered the room and attacked the doctor looking after her. As it turned out, the young boy was possessed by Luca, Ruth's not-so-dead brother, and he had been orchestrating events so he could get closer to her to kill her. He had been the strange disembodied eyeballs that had followed David around, helping him escape the X-Men. Apparently, when he stole some of Ruth's powers, he also gained some precognition of his own and he was hoping to use it to rid the world of mutants, as he blamed them for all his problems. Firstly though, he wanted to kill the mutant who started everything off and so, sitting on top of Blindfold, he prepared to stab her with a kitchen knife. Before he could kill her though, he was stopped by David. The two fought and the X-Men were soon alerted to the brawl as it spilled out onto the back lawn. Luca, pretending to be the young boy, manipulated the X-Men into believing David was harming him. Unfortunately for him, Blindfold had woken up from her coma with all her memories intact and she raced outside and stabbed the young boy with the kitchen knife. Luca's energy exploded out of him and vanished, leaving the husk of the young boy, who had apparently died a long time before. Ruth vouched for David's innocence and, as he left, she warned him that something dark was coming.
Tragic Love Story
Even after everything that had happened, Blindfold still couldn't get David out of her mind. Using astral projection, she decided to spy on him and found him at a strange religious cult called the Church of the Happy Host. When the church leaders gave David a pill to see whether or not he was a mutant, Blindfold managed to dispose of the pill without anyone knowing. Blindfold soon realized that the cult was actually the one that had corrupted her brother years ago and was furious with David for being there. When he soon let on that he knew she was watching, she told him off for meddling in things he shouldn't. As he was explaining his intentions, though, he let slip that he considered the meeting a date and Blindfold started blushing. When he was called away by the church leader, she gave him a peck on the cheek and continued to watch over him. David managed to work events so that the church goers were arrested by SWORD for supposed crimes that David committed. As they were taken away, Ruth thanked David for dishing out some justice on the hateful group. Ruth left too but not before she made it clear to David she would be interested in seeing him again. Without Ruth realizing, though, David managed to get his hands on a diary full of prophesies that Luca had written and left at the church.
On their second date, Ruth and David met on the psychosphere, the dreamworld version of the astral plane. From there the two young lovers watched as David used his influence to help a young boy with his powers. Whilst at first they had slightly differing opinions on how he should help the boy, David ultimately came around to Blindfold's way of thinking. Before they could get too cozy, though, Blindfold was forcibly removed from the psychosphere by the same entity that had pushed her out of David's mind a few weeks earlier.
On their next date, the two actually met in person but the venue ended up being just as strange, as David teleported them both to the Moon. David began telling Ruth the story of Aarkus, an ancient cosmic being of which he had seen visions and which was destined to wipe out all mutants. Blindfold was alarmed and told David they should alert the X-Men, but became unsure after he showed her images of Aarkus destroying any team that challenged him. When David promised Ruth that he would take care of Aarkus, Ruth realized he essentially wanted permission to attack the being and was adamant that the being shouldn't be punished for a crime it had yet to commit. To her surprise, David replied he wanted approval because he had already done it five hours earlier. He showed her Aarkus's base on the Moon and revealed he had tampered with the being's mind whilst he was asleep. Ruth was furious but David remained unapologetic. Instead, he sent her back to the school with Aarkus in the hopes the X-Men would educate him.
Despite David's actions, Ruth couldn't stop thinking about him and so she used Cerebra to spy on him without his knowledge. As well as accidentally catching him sleeping in the nude, she also discovered Luca's diary, which David had taken a few weeks earlier. When David woke up, he immediately teleported himself away and it took a while for Blindfold to locate him. When she did, she discovered he was at a medical testing center in San Francisco and was signing on to take a cure for his mutation. Blindfold hurriedly put together her own ad-hoc X-Men team and went to rescue David from himself. When she got there, though, she discovered that she was simply a pawn in David's game and he had counted on them coming for him.
As events unfolded, it was revealed the Red Skull was the one creating the cure for mutants and David was there to stop him. After a tense fight, in which David had to give himself over to the dangerous personality in his mind, the Red Skull fled. Afterwards, Ruth and David talked about their relationship and what the future held for them. Both Ruth and David were now well aware of the future that was headed their way. David was somehow going to end up absorbing all the mutants into himself and killing the entire race. The only outcomes either of them could see was that either David would die by Blindfold's hand or every mutant, including Blindfold, would die. Despite all that, David told her that he would continue to fight for a future where they could be together.
David travelled to the UK next and enlisted a group of British mutants into helping him sort out a problem he foresaw arising. Blindfold stayed behind in America but used astral projection to keep tabs on him and was disappointed to see he was using his powers to force the various mutants into working for him. However, she had misunderstood Legion's plan and that the mutants were all working together to wipe off the map in the UK.X-Men Legacy vol. 2 #14
When David's mother was murdered, he initially lost control again but soon found his focus and decided it was time he met with Cyclops. Blindfold was becoming his emotional support more and more and she spent a great deal of time inside his mind. However, she was also being worried at some of his actions and how he achieved them. When David confronted Cyclops, he immediately started a fight and laid waste to most of the X-Men. Emma Frost and the Stepford Cuckoos proved to be trickier but Ruth surprised Emma, knocking her out with a punch. Ruth likewise pulled an unlikely victory against the Cuckoos after David slyly gave her a power boost. In the end, it was left to David to fight Cyclops alone. However, during the brawl, the two combatants accidentally knocked into a mutant girl whose powers had just manifested. Unable to control them, she started absorbing every living thing around her into one homogenous mass. When Blindfold saw it, she immediately thought that this was going to be the incident that would end either David or her. David was immediately absorbed into the growing mass and he begged Ruth to kill him with Magik's soulsword.
Knowing what would happen if she didn't, Ruth reluctantly picked up the blade and prepared to stab him, only to be stopped when a hand grabbed hers. When she turned around, Ruth saw Luca, now in possession of a body constructed out of metal. Luca had foreseen what was about to happen and was there to make sure it would go exactly the way he wanted it to. Once again, though, David had played everyone for fools and everything had been part of one big plan. He broke free of the mass, stopped Luca from killing Ruth and then destroyed his body once again. Blindfold was confused but David explained he needed to draw Luca out so he decided to make it seem his prophecy was coming true. Everyone was disgusted by his actions but, as the dust was settling, David had another psychic episode and the errant personality that had been plaguing him for so long broke free. It took control of Luca's body and then disappeared, leaving David and his shattered psyche behind.
David was taken away and it was weeks before Blindfold had any idea where he was. She eventually found him on board the SWORD space station where he was undergoing an unconventional form of therapy. By the time he left, he had a new outlook on his situation and a newfound control over his powers.X-Men Legacy vol. 2 #20
When David came back to Earth, Blindfold entered his mind but found a much different landscape than before and an even more different David. He was now absorbing all his personalities into the David Haller one and changing with each new one. Ruth was shocked at how much he had changed and worried that she could see he was continuing down the path that would lead to one of their deaths. She begged him to stop but, despite his confession of love, he told her he couldn't. He gently put her to sleep so she couldn't get in the way and then went to confront his out of control personality.
With the help of the X-Men, David managed to destroy the personality's body that it stole off Luca. With her brother dead once and for all, the powers that were stolen from Ruth returned to her. She woke up from her sleep and, whilst her body raced towards David's location, she managed to astrally project her psyche there first. Taking the name Destiny, she told the X-Men that it was now too late to save David. Her boyfriend tried absorbing the wayward personality into his new form but, as he did so, it triggered a massive change within him and he started to become the thing Blindfold had feared. Unable to stop himself, he started to absorb the consciousness of every mutant around the world into him, all except Ruth.
Her body finally made it to David and, when she arrived, he saw she had become a powerful being in her own right. Manifesting her own sword, she hacked and slashed at David's form to no avail. Eventually, she forced David to allow her to enter his mind one last time so she could see him again. Inside David's mind, the two made love for the first time. However, as soon as it was over, David could no longer hold back the inevitable. The two lovers bid goodbye and Ruth was forced back into her own body again.
Despite her best efforts, Ruth too was on the verge of being consumed by David's power until the young man found the self-confidence he needed to stop it all. With his full array of powers at his disposal, David altered reality itself and removed himself from existence. For a brief moment, everything went blank but then Ruth found herself back in her old body again at Westchester. It was now the day Xavier had died and none of the events of the past few months had happened. No one knew who David was but, when a lone voice called from inside her head, she discovered he had somehow left a fragment of himself inside her mind.
The Last Blindfold Story
After the X-Men disappeared during the confrontation with X-Man, Blindfold is revealed to be one of the few mutants that remains in the country following the advancement of a mutant vaccine, the rise of popular anti-mutant politicians and the growing anti-mutant sentiment. She tracks Cyclops and Wolverine separately and warned them each that great tragedy lies in their futures. Both Wolverine and Cyclops tell Blindfold they believe the X-Men, who are currently presumed dead while trapped in the "Age of X-Man", are still alive, but Blindfold warns them both about their future actions, and says the X-Men will die before disappearing. Due to Blindfold's cryptic words Cyclops feels that there’s more than what she’s letting on so Cyclops asks Jamie Madrox aka Multiple Man to find Blindfold, and he does. Though she is in hiding, Blindfold allows Madrox to tell Cyclops where she is, but by the time he arrives, it is too late, Blindfold had committed suicide, after foreseeing that she had no future. It's her death that motivate Cyclops to attend an anti-mutant rally where he is recognized, causing a potential incident that is quelled by Captain America.
Dawn of X
Ruth's predictions about her own future once again proves correct as she had apparently foresaw the rise of Krakoa as a utopia for most mutants, but because of who she is, she would not be able to take part in it as by Moira's demand, precog mutants are not allowed on Krakoa.
Destiny of X
Due to the precog ban, Legion become more involved in Krakoa, eventually resulting in him and Nightcrawler creating the Legion of X and the Altar, a sanctuary for mutants within Legion's Omega-Level mutant mind. When the precog ban was lifted, Blindfold has also been able to be finally revived. While many people move into Legion's headspace physically, Legion found Blindfold there in psionic form. As she explained to Legion, she was glad to be back but doesn't necessarily want her body. It seems that the limits of her physical form weren't enough to keep up with her true potential. But now, without those "tortured brain cells threading futures," Blindfold was able to glimpse more freely across the universe. Blindfold's powers have been amplified by this new psionic form, and she describes herself as a "watchman" who can see all the possibilities that await the mutants going forward, granting her the chance to watch the Magus (the father to the New Mutant ally Warlock) fall in battle to Nimrod. This defeat had likely embolden and empower Nimrod and Orchis, and could have caught the mutants entirely by surprise if it weren't for the intervention of Blindfold and Legion, giving the Quiet Council the chance to actually respond to the event. Later while back in The Altar she and Legion were approached by a mysterious being called Mother Righteous, she used her powers on Ruth and showed them many possible future's as well as something happening in the present involving a being that resembled Loki. She then offered David a deal for more power in exchange for his worship. He talked it through with Ruth but after she told him she'd love him either way. She demonstrated her new powers when she helped Nightcrawer and Weaponless Zsen look for a fugitive deity in the Astral Plane and when she forced Switch out of David's mind before he destroyed the House of L.
Characteristics
Powers and abilities
Blindfold was born without eyes, a condition known as anophthalmia. Her blindness is part of her mutation in the sense that she has no eyes, but rather has skin where eyes would normally be. However, in exchange, she is psionic, though the full extent of her abilities is unknown. She has been shown using telepathy and can sometimes psychically sense events when other telepaths apparently did not, such as Belasco pulling everyone inside the mansion into Limbo. She is able to use telepathy has been said to be a clairvoyant, retrocognitive, and precognitive mutant, meaning that she is able to see distant, past, and future places or events. With her level of power, she was immune- albeit to a limited degree- to the reality warp caused by Legion's 'Moira' personality that created the 'Age of X', allowing her to be aware that something was wrong with the world. This goes into full reality anchoring when Legion undid his own birth erasing himself from existence, Ruth was the only individual to remember David even lived after time & space had reset itself when her missing abilities were restored.
Blindfold's precognitive abilities are neutralized while in the presence of Destiny, another precognitive (and vice versa). Destiny explains that this is because two precogs in close presence to one another "are like two magnets pressed together positive pole to positive pole" and will negatively affect one another's precognitive abilities and powers.
Ruth also had a slew of other psychic abilities tied to her mutant powers which she had been developing since her early childhood. Possibly boasting an advanced intellect since she had developed a cognitive capacity for vocalization abilities at an early newborn age. Displaying telekinesis and the ability to read and analyze all possible futures and probabilistic outcomes, but those powers were taken from her by her abusive brother's own ghostly projection which resulted in her impaired mind state. Over time however she has shown remarkable leaps in bounds with her initial ability, similar to Nate Grey, Blindfold can materialize Astral Plane Energy to give her own astral projection a tangible form. With some coaxing from David Haller would showcase herself an adequate match for other powerful telepaths such as the Stepford Cuckoos, and once at the fullest manifest of her powers were returned to her Ruth not only regained her mental stability but also the majority of her missing power. Being able to materialize energy from the Astral Plane as a form of psionic armor enabling her to battle the psionic entity that sprang forth from Legions damaged psyche.
Mannerisms
Blindfold has a unique speech pattern. It includes the odd insertion into her sentences of words of politeness, including "please," "thank you," "you're welcome," and "pardon." She's also been known to oddly insert the words "yes" and "no" into her sentences. The reason she has this pattern is explained in X-Men Legacy when Legion tries to wake her up from her coma: her brother, Luca, was a mutant hater and tried to kill her when she was little, but in a fit of rage, he killed their mother. Years later, Blindfold attended his execution and, just after he died, his astral projection attacked her and stole half of her powers, leaving her "broken". When telepathically projecting herself into Legion's mind in the same issue, Blindfold did not demonstrate this speech pattern, instead speaking in a normal manner and acting with more confidence than is usually the case.
Given that she is both a telepath and a precognitive, she often answers questions before they are asked and responds to comments before they are spoken aloud. As a result, she tends to turn what would ordinarily be a two-way conversation into a monologue. While she does not always do this, it may be assumed that she is allowing the other person or persons to say what she already knows they will say out of politeness' sake.
Some of her "one-sided" conversations in Astonishing X-Men and Young X-Men were explained as having been with her friend Cipher, who remained concealed from all others around them by using her complete stealth mutant powers. After the end of Simon Spurrier's run on X-Men Legacy Ruth had regained her centre of focus now showcasing complete sentences and no more added adjectives between words. Now showcasing her whole and healed persona, Ruth Aldine states to a befuddled Pixie that she's fine and proudly stating "I Rule Me".
Reception
Accolades
In 2014, BuzzFeed ranked Blindfold 79th in their "95 X-Men Members Ranked From Worst To Best" list.
In 2016, CBR.com ranked Blindfold 9th in their "X-Men's Most Mentally Mighty Mutants" list.
In 2020, Scary Mommy included Blindfold in their "Looking For A Role Model? These 195+ Marvel Female Characters Are Truly Heroic" list.
References
BibliographyAstonishing X-Men, vol. 3 #4, 7–8, 15–18New X-Men, vol. 2 #23New X-Men'', vol. 2 #37–40
Category:Fictional characters with retrocognition
Astral projection in popular culture
Comics characters introduced in 2005
Characters created by Joss Whedon
Fictional blind characters
Fictional characters from North Carolina
Fictional characters with precognition
Marvel Comics characters who have mental powers
Marvel Comics telekinetics
Marvel Comics telepaths
Marvel Comics mutants
Marvel Comics female superheroes |
4439852 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colombian%20Americans | Colombian Americans | Colombian Americans (), are Americans who trace their ancestry to Colombia. The word may refer to someone born in the United States of full or partial Colombian descent or to someone who has immigrated to the United States from Colombia. Colombian Americans are the sixth-largest Latin American group and the largest South American Hispanic group in the United States.
Many communities throughout the United States have significant Colombian American populations. Florida (916,247) has the highest concentration of Colombian Americans in the United States, followed by New York (374,558), New Jersey (311,277), Texas (168,966) and California (134,929).
History
The first Colombian immigrants who settled in the United States likely arrived in the 1800s. However, the Colombian presence in the United States would not be known with certainty since the U.S. census included all the South Americans that lived in the United States in the "other Latinos" category.
The first community of Colombian origin was formed after World War I, through the arrival of several hundred professionals (nurses, accountants, laboratory technicians, pharmacists, and bilingual secretaries) that established themselves in New York City; later on, more people were added to the community when Colombian students decided to stay in the U.S. after they finished their studies. Most immigrants settled in Manhattan for many years until the late 1970s when they started to migrate to Jackson Heights, a middle-class neighborhood in the borough of Queens in New York City, that has good housing, schools and churches. The growth of the Colombian population was slow until 1940, when there was an increase in Colombian immigration to New York.
Post-World War II
Most Colombians who arrived after the mid-1960s wanted to stay in the United States for a specific time period. Therefore, the number of undocumented Colombian immigrants increased: from 250,000 to 350,000 people in the mid-1970s. Despite the promulgation of many laws against immigration, the number of Colombians that immigrated to the United States did not stop growing. Most of them immigrated to New York. Smaller communities formed in Los Angeles, Houston, Philadelphia, and Washington, D.C., and in the 1970s, North Side, Chicago.
Since the 1980s, many Colombians have immigrated to Miami (especially in its suburbs, such as Doral, Kendall, and Hialeah, and the Weston suburb of Fort Lauderdale). The first Colombians immigrating to the city lived in Little Havana, from where they established commercial relations between Miami and Latin America. The area also attracted wealthy Colombians, who settled there for reasons as diverse as educational, medical or economics.
By the early 1990s, many Colombians left the metropolitan centers and settled in the suburbs to escape crime and high product prices in the city. This trend probably started for the first time in the coastal towns of Connecticut and New York. Colombian communities grew significantly in places such as Stamford, Connecticut, Union City and Englewood, New Jersey, Jacksonville, Florida (which attracted a growing number of people from Miami), and Skokie, Evanston, Arlington Heights and Park Ridge, Illinois. Despite the migration to other areas, the largest communities remained in New York City, Miami, and their environs.
In 1990 and 1991, 124,745 Colombians legally immigrated to the United States, surpassing immigrants from the rest of Latin America. They were for the first time the most populous group of undocumented immigrants in the United States from Latin America, excluding Mexico. Between 1992 and 1997, the intensity of the conflict in Colombia increased, so nearly 190,000 Colombians immigrated to the United States in this period, many of them going to California.
Causes of migration
In Miville's "Colombians in the United States: History, Values, and Challenges," the nature of Colombian migration is described. He writes,"Colombian migration patterns have been distinguished by scholars as three distinct waves involving diverse demographic groups, reasons for migrating, and contextual factors with a mixture of push and pull factors from both the originating and host countries (Madrigal, 2013; Migration Policy Institute, 2015). Immigration to the United States was essentially minor from about 1820 to 1950 when fewer than 7000 Colombians immigrated to the United States. Indeed, the Colombian presence in the United States was not recognized officially until 1960, when the U.S. Census began to specify the country of origin for South Americans (Migration Policy Institute, 2015)."
Economic problems and violence have led to an immigration of Colombians to the United States, particularly South Florida (especially in the suburbs of Miami, Florida such as Doral, Kendall, and Hialeah, and the Weston suburb of Fort Lauderdale), Central Florida, New Jersey (North Jersey), Queens County in New York City, Philadelphia, the Washington, D.C., metro area, eastern Long Island, and an expanding community in California, Texas and Georgia, mainly in the Los Angeles, Houston and Atlanta areas.
First Wave: After World War I, many Colombians immigrated to the United States in order to complete their education there, studying at the universities of the country. Most of them settled in New York. Many Colombians immigrated to the United States in order to complete their education, studying in universities across the country (Madrigal, 2013; Sassen-Koob, 1989). After the civil war in 1948 and increased poverty in Colombia, many Colombians also immigrated to the United States during the 1950s. In the 1960s, the economic crisis prompted the immigration of many Colombians to the United States, obtaining U.S. citizenship Between 1960 and 1977.
Second Wave (1965–1989): "The passage of several U.S. Immigration and Naturalization Act's amendments in 1965 allowed for more Colombians to migrate to the United States (Madrigal, 2013)"
Third Wave (1990–2008): "The 1980s and 1990s brought the rise in cocaine trafficking, along with the influence of the drug cartels and paramilitary groups (Carvajal, 2017; Migration Policy Institute, 2015). From the 1990s, along with the ensuing turmoil over a political assassination in 1989, the number of Colombians admitted to the United States tripled, representing the largest numbers of immigrants from a South American country (Carvajal, 2017; Migration Policy Institute, 2015)" Since the 1980s, many Colombians fled their urban cities to migrate to suburban areas in states like New Jersey and Connecticut, as their socioeconomic status improved. The conflict escalation between terrorists, paramilitaries, and narcos between 1992 and 1997 also boosted Colombian emigration during this period. As was discussed earlier, about 75,000 Colombians immigrated at that time to the United States, concentrating mostly in the state of California.
Demographics
As of the 2000 Census, 478,600 Colombians were living in the New York metro area and 369,200 Colombians were living in the Miami metropolitan area. The largest Colombian community lives in the South Florida area (Doral, Kendall, Weston, and Country Club) and Jackson Heights in Queens County, New York City.
In New York City, a large Colombian community thrives and continues to expand in size since the wave of immigration began in the 1970s. Jackson Heights in Queens County was heavily Colombian during the 1980s, but other immigrant groups have settled in the area, notably Ecuadoreans and Mexicans. Many of the displaced Colombians have moved to adjacent areas such as Elmhurst, East Elmhurst, Corona, while wealthier Colombian Immigrants have gone further afield to College Point and Flushing. Queens County still has the largest concentration of Colombian in the United States of any county (roughly 155,000).
Ancestry
Ethnically, Colombian Americans are a diverse population including Colombians of European ancestry (mainly Spanish) ancestry, Castizo (1/4 Amerindian/ 3/4 European) and mestizo (Half Amerindian/European), Afro-Colombians, and Colombians of Indigenous ancestry. In addition, many Colombians of Middle Eastern descent, notably Lebanese Colombians, also compose the Colombian diaspora.
Until 1960, most Colombians immigrating to the United States were white or mestizos. However, between this year and 1977, a period in which more than 186,000 Colombians immigrated to the United States, are becoming more ethnically diverse, representing the ethnic diversity of the population of Colombia. So today, most Colombians consist of white, mestizo, indigenous, and Afro-Colombian ancestry.
U.S. states with the largest Colombian-American populations
U.S. metropolitan areas with the largest Colombian populations
The largest populations of Colombians are situated in the following metropolitan areas (Source: 2023 estimate):
New York-Northern New Jersey-Long Island, NY-NJ-PA-CT MSA – 643,472
Miami-Fort Lauderdale-West Palm Beach, FL MSA – 636,091
Orlando-Kissimmee-Sanford, FL MSA – 161,827
Houston-Sugar Land-Baytown, TX MSA – 91,776
Los Angeles-Long Beach-Santa Ana, CA MSA – 88,027
Boston-Cambridge-Newton, MA-NH Metro Area – 78,554
Tampa-St. Petersburg-Clearwater, FL MSA – 62,565
Washington-Arlington-Alexandria, DC-VA-MD-WV MSA – 59,952
Atlanta-Sandy Springs-Marietta, GA MSA – 46,027
Bridgeport-Stamford-Norwalk, CT MSA - 38,856
Dallas–Fort Worth-Arlington, TX MSA – 31,198
San Francisco-Oakland-Fremont, CA MSA - 29,365
Philadelphia-Camden-Wilmington, PA-NJ-DE-MD MSA - 28,394
Chicago-Joliet-Naperville, IL-IN-WI MSA - 27,771
Jacksonville, FL-GA MSA - 26,796
U.S. communities with high percentages of people of Colombian ancestry
The top 25 U.S. communities with the highest percentage of people claiming Colombian ancestry are:
Victory Gardens, New Jersey 35.7%
Dover, New Jersey 33.5%
Kendall, Florida 31.5%
Doral, Florida 29.7%
Elizabeth, New Jersey 28.6%
Country Club, Florida 23.7%
The Hammocks, Florida 22.5%
Weston, Florida 21.7%
Central Falls, Rhode Island 20.4%
Sunny Isles Beach, Florida 20.3%
Montauk, New York 19.5%
North Bay Village, Florida 19.3%
Key Biscayne, Florida 18.8%
Englewood, New Jersey 18.5%
Guttenberg, New Jersey 17.2%
Morristown, New Jersey 16.9%
North Bergen, New Jersey 15.9%
Fontainebleau, Florida 15.8%
Kendale Lakes, Florida 14.6%
Virginia Gardens, Florida 12.2%
Richmond West, Florida 11.6%
Bay Harbor Islands, Florida 11.5%
West New York, New Jersey 10.9%
Hialeah Gardens, Florida 10.8%
Union City, New Jersey 10.5%
U.S. communities with the most residents born in Colombia
The top 25 U.S. communities with the most residents born in Colombia are:
Victory Gardens, New Jersey 23.2%
Dover, New Jersey 22.5%
Kendall, Florida 17.3%
Elizabeth, New Jersey 16.5%
Country Club, Florida 16.4%
Kendale Lakes, Florida 15.1%
Doral, Florida 14.3%
Ojus, Florida 13.8%
The Hammocks, Florida 12.7%
Katonah, New York 12.2%
Weston, Florida 12.0%
Kendall West, Florida 11.7%
Broadview-Pompano Park, Florida 11.6%
Guttenburg, New Jersey 11.5%
Fontainebleau, Florida 11.1%
Fort Devens, Massachussets 10.9%
Greenbriar, Florida 10.8%
South Bound Brook, New Jersey 10.6%
Sunny Isles Beach, Florida 10.5%
Lakes-Lindgren Acres, Florida 10.5%
Shinnecock Hills, New York 10.4%
Meadow Woods, Florida 10.3
North Bay Village, Florida 10.1%
Wabasso, Florida 9.9%
Aventura, Florida 9.8%
Top counties by number of Colombian-Born immigrants according to estimates from the American Community Survey for 2023 (national total: 1,261,000)
1) Miami-Dade County, Florida – 171,000
2) Queens Borough, New York – 89,000
3) Broward County, Florida – 81,300
4) Palm Beach County, Florida – 73,600
5) Harris County, Texas – 56,900
6) Orange County, Florida – 54,400
7) Los Angeles County, California – 48,400
8) Union County, New Jersey – 47,800
9) Bergen County, New Jersey – 41,700
10) Hillsborough County, Florida – 33,500
11) Suffolk County, Massachusetts – 28,200
12) Hudson County, New Jersey – 27,900
13) Suffolk County, New York – 27,600
14) Osceola County, Florida – 19,700
15) Brooklyn Borough, New York – 17,300
16) Fairfield County, Connecticut – 16,600
17) Providence County, Rhode Island – 14,500
18) Nassau County, New York – 13,200
19) Passaic County, New Jersey – 13,100
20) Gwinnett County, Georgia – 12,200
21) Westchester County, New York – 11,500
22) Morris County, New Jersey – 10,900
23) Manhattan Borough, New York – 10,300
24) Fairfax County, Virginia – 10,100
25) New Haven County, Connecticut – 10,000
Culture
Religion
Colombian Americans, based on various studies and a survey, about 90% of the population adheres to Christianity, the majority of which (70.9%) are Roman Catholic, while a significant minority (16.7%) adhere to Protestantism (primarily Evangelicalism). Some 4.7% of the population is atheist or agnostic, while 3.5% claim to believe in God but do not follow a specific religion. In addition to the above statistics, 35.9% of Colombian Americans report that they did not practice their faith actively.
Language
A majority (82%) of Colombian Americans ages five and older speak English proficiently. The other 18% who are Colombian natives report speaking English less than very well, compared with 32% of all Latinos.
In addition, 83% of Colombians ages five and older speak Spanish at home.
Music and pastimes
Musical styles that are enjoyed by Colombian Americans include Vallenato and Cumbia.
The main pastime of Colombians in the United States is soccer, and most Colombian Americans raised in the United States continue to follow soccer. Another popular pastime, especially among the older generation, is parqués, a Colombian board game which is very similar to Parcheesi.
Food and drink
Colombian food is varied due to the several distinct regions of Colombia. Popular dishes include bandeja paisa, sancocho (chicken or fish soup with plantain), empanadas (meat-filled turnovers), pandebono and pan de queso (types of cheese-bread), and arepas (corncake similar to a tortilla). Colombian food is popular and well known in South Florida and in Queens County. Some of the most common ingredients are: cereals such as rice and corn; tubers such as potato and cassava; assorted legumes; meats, including beef, chicken, pork and goat; fish; and seafood.
Among the most representative appetizers and soups are patacones (fried green plantains), sancocho de gallina (chicken soup with root vegetables) and ajiaco (potato and corn soup). Representative snacks and breads are pandebono, arepas (corn cakes), aborrajados (fried sweet plantains with cheese), torta de choclo, empanadas and almojábanas. Representative main courses are bandeja paisa, lechona tolimense, mamona, tamales and fish dishes (such as arroz de lisa), especially in coastal regions where kibbeh, suero, costeño cheese and carimañolas are also eaten. Representative side dishes are papas chorreadas (potatoes with cheese), remolachas rellenas con huevo duro (beets stuffed with hard-boiled egg) and arroz con coco (coconut rice).
Representative desserts are buñuelos, natillas, Maria Luisa cake, bocadillo made of guayaba (guava jelly), cocadas (coconut balls), casquitos de guayaba (candied guava peels), torta de natas, obleas, flan de arequipe, roscón, milhoja, and the tres leches cake (a sponge cake soaked in milk, covered in whipped cream, then served with condensed milk). Typical sauces (salsas) are hogao (tomato and onion sauce) and Colombian-style ají.
Beverages
Colombian coffee is the world's most popular coffee and is renowned for its high quality and distinct flavor. Though much of the world's quality coffee beans come from Colombia, there are many Colombian Americans that drink instant coffee rather than brewed. It is popularly consumed as a "tinto", meaning black with sugar or panela on the side, or as café con leche, which is a preparation of half coffee and half heated milk.
Some other representative beverages are champús, cholado, gaseosas, lulada, aromáticas, avena colombiana, sugarcane juice, aguapanela, and hot chocolate.
Aguardiente is popular alcoholic drink derived from sugarcane and flavored with anise. It is widely consumed at Colombian parties, and ranges in potency from 20% to 40%. Aguardiente is a variation of the Spanish alcoholic drink.
Colombian cuisine also features a wide variety of tropical fruits such as uchuva, feijoa, arazá, nispero, pitaya, cherimoya, mamoncillo, guanabana, pineapple, mangostino, maracuya, zapote, granadilla, papaya, guava, mora (blackberry), and lulo, among many more. Colombia is one of the world's largest consumers of fruit juices. These juices have made their way to supermarkets all across the United States.
Socioeconomics
The annual personal income for Colombian Americans is $25,000, a figure higher than many other Latino groups at $21,900, but lower than that of the U.S. population at $30,000.
The rate of Colombian Americans homeownership is (45%) but lower than the 64% rate for the U.S. population as a whole. This takes into account the younger average Colombian American (Colombino) population.
Colombian Americans who live in poverty, 16%, is the same as the rate for the general U.S. population and lower than the rate for Latino overall at 25%.
Education
33% of Colombian Americans ages 25 and older—compared with 14% of all U.S. Latinos and 30% among the entire U.S. population—have obtained at least a bachelor's degree.
42% of U.S.-born Colombian Americans are more likely to have earned a bachelor's degree or higher, as compared to 30% of foreign born Colombians.
Notable people
Professional sports
Ice hockey
Scott Gomez – played for 16 seasons in the NHL, from 1999 to 2016.
American football
Kiko Alonso – linebacker
Christian Gonzalez - Cornerback selected in the 2023 NFL Draft, currently plays for the New England Patriots
Soccer
Jorge Acosta – Played in various ASL teams, including a brief stint with the United States national team in the early 1990s.
Diego Chará – current player for the Portland Timbers.
Luis Carlos Perea – Former football player; son of Luis Alberto Perea and was named one of the 100 most prominent Latinos in Miami.
Juan Agudelo – Currently plays for New England Revolution in Major League Soccer and for the United States national team.
Andrés Perea – Currently plays for Orlando City in Major league soccer; son of Nixon Perea.
Yimmi Chará – Current player for the Portland Timbers.
Alejandro Bedoya – Currently plays for Philadelphia Union in Major League Soccer and for the United States national team.
Wilman Conde, Jr. – Played in the MLS for the Chicago Fire in MLS.
Carlos Llamosa – Played in the MLS and for U.S. at 2002 FIFA World Cup, currently retired
Diego Gutiérrez - Played entire career in two MLS clubs, earning one cap with the United States in 2001.
Baseball
Lou Castro
Orlando Cabrera
Édgar Rentería
Cycling
George Hincapie – Tour de France competitor
Auto racing
Juan Pablo Montoya
Roberto Guerrero
Professional Wrestling
Red Velvet – Currently wrestling at AEW.
See also
Colombians
German Colombian
Indigenous peoples of Colombia
Indigenous peoples of America
Wayuu people
American Colombians
Italian Colombian
Lebanese Colombians
Jewish Colombians
White Colombians
Spanish Americans
Afro-Colombians
Mestizo
White Hispanic and Latino Americans
White Latin Americans
Black Hispanic and Latino Americans
Afro-Latin Americans
Demographics of Colombia
Colombia–United States relations
References
Further reading
Dockterman, Daniel. “Hispanics of Colombian Origin in the United States.” (Pew Research Center, May 26, 2011) online
Sturner, Pamela. "Colombian Americans." Gale Encyclopedia of Multicultural America, edited by Thomas Riggs, (3rd ed., vol. 1, Gale, 2014), pp. 519–530. online
External links
The Colombian American Coalition of Florida
Hispanic and Latino American
Colombia–United States relations |
4439880 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitutional%20Court%20of%20Korea | Constitutional Court of Korea | The Constitutional Court of Korea () is one of the highest courts—along with the Supreme Court—in South Korea's judiciary that exercises constitutional review, seated in Jongno, Seoul. The South Korean Constitution vests judicial power in courts composed of judges, which establishes the ordinary-court system, but also separates an independent constitutional court and grants it exclusive jurisdiction over matters of constitutionality. Specifically, Chapter VI Article 111(1) of the South Korean Constitution specifies the following cases to be exclusively reviewed by the Constitutional Court:
The constitutionality of a law upon the request of the courts;
Impeachment;
Dissolution of a political party;
Competence disputes between State agencies, between State agencies and local governments, and between local governments; and
Constitutional complaints as prescribed by [the Constitutional Court] Act.
Article 111(2) states that the Constitutional Court shall consist of nine justices qualified to be court judges, all of whom shall be appointed by the president of South Korea. Even though all nine justices must be appointed by the president, Article 111(3) states that the National Assembly and the Chief Justice shall nominate three justices each, which implies the remaining three are nominated by the president of South Korea. Article 111(4) states that the candidate for the president of the Constitutional Court must obtain the approval of the National Assembly before the President appoints them.
The South Korean Constitution broadly delineates the roles of courts, both ordinary courts and the Constitutional Court, and entrusts the National Assembly to legislate the specifics of their functions. The National Assembly, soon after the tenth constitutional amendment that ended decades of dictatorship in South Korea, passed the Constitutional Court Act (), which spells out a detailed organizational structure of the Court, establishes the hierarchy of judicial officers and their roles within the Court, and most importantly, provides ways in which people of Korea can appeal to the Court. Unlike other constitutional courts (most notably Federal Constitutional Court of Germany), a party may file a constitutional complaint directly with the Court, without having to exhaust all other legal recourse, when a particular statute infringes upon his or her constitutional rights.
Although the Constitutional Court and the Supreme Court are treated as coequal (see Article 15 of the Constitutional Court Act), the two courts have persistently come into conflict with each other over which of them is the final arbiter of the meaning of the Constitution. The Supreme Court, which is supposed to be the court of last resort, has criticized the Constitutional Court for attempting to upend the "three-tiered trial" system—referring to the conventional practice of allowing appeals up to twice—and placing itself above the Supreme Court. In 2022, the relationship between the two high courts seemingly came to a head when the Constitutional Court overturned a Supreme Court decision without declaring the relevant statute unconstitutional, holding that the statute itself does not violate the Constitution but its particular application does. The Supreme Court publicly denounced the ruling, saying that it entails the unacceptable implication that the ordinary courts' decisions fall under the Constitutional Court's jurisdiction, which subjugates the Supreme Court to the Constitutional Court.
The Constitutional Court of Korea is the seat of the Permanent Secretariat for Research and Development of the Association of Asian Constitutional Courts and Equivalent Institutions.
History
After regaining independence from the Japanese colonial rule in 1945, there were multiple attempts to establish an independent constitutional court to exercise judicial review. Members of the Constitutional Drafting Committee prior to the first republic debated whether Korea's system of constitutional review should be modeled after the United States or continental Europe. Kwon Seung-ryul's proposal followed the American judicial system where only the Supreme Court interprets the constitution, whereas Yoo Jin-oh's proposal followed the European model with a constitutional court. The Constitutional Committee () of the first republic was the result of a compromise between the two proposals. According to the 1948 Constitution, the vice president chaired the Constitutional Committee, the National Assembly appointed five assemblymen as committee members (after the 1952 constitutional amendment, three from the House of Representatives and two from the House of Councillors), and the chief justice of the Supreme Court recommended five from the Supreme Court justices to the committee.
Syngman Rhee's dictatorial rule, however, sabotaged the committee's normal operation, and as a result, the committee was able to adjudicate only six cases, two of which ruled the statutes at issue unconstitutional. The 1952 constitutional amendment established a bicameral legislature but Syngman Rhee's regime, until its demise, refused to enact the House of Councillors election law. As a result, the upper house, required for the Constitutional Committee to function, was never formed, and the Constitutional Committee soon ground to a halt.
After Rhee was overthrown in the April Revolution, the second republic was established through a constitutional amendment transitioning from a presidential to parliamentary system. As a part of the amendment, the Constitutional Court () was established to replace the now-defunct Committee. According to the 1960 constitutional amendment, the President, House of Councillors and the Supreme Court each designated three Constitutional Court judges. Although legislation to form the Court was passed in April 1961, the Court never came into existence as Park Chung Hee, who later became president, launched a coup the following month and suspended the constitution.
After the nominal dissolution of the military junta, President Park Chung Hee jammed through the 1962 constitutional amendment, which conferred the power to review cases on constitutionality on the Supreme Court and dissolved the Constitutional Court. Following the constitutional mandate in 1971, the Supreme Court unanimously struck down Article 2 of the National Compensation Act (), which restricted state liability for compensating injured soldiers while serving the country. Enraged by the decision, in the following year, Park pushed through yet another constitutional amendment, establishing the Yushin Constitution, a notoriously oppressive document that gave the president sweeping executive and legislative powers. The Yushin Constitution had an article that expressly overturned the 1971 Supreme Court decision on the National Compensation Act. Furthermore, the Supreme Court justices involved in the decision were refused reappointment and forced into retirement.
The Yushin Constitution (and the successive constitution of the fifth republic) also re-established the Constitutional Committee, but required an ordinary court to submit a formal request for constitutional review before the committee could exercise its judicial power. Since the Supreme Court was wary of retaliation as happened in 1971, it forbade courts from making such requests, rendering the Constitutional Committee powerless.
The June Struggle in 1987 led to the 1987 constitutional amendment, which finally democratized Korea and ushered in the sixth republic, which continues to this day as of January 2023. The 1987 Constitution established the Constitutional Court of Korea as we know it and empowered the Court to review matters on constitutionality. Following such will of the South Korean people, the Constitutional Court has made significant landmark decisions in contemporary history of South Korea. Renowned latest decisions of the Court include the decriminalization of abortion and the impeachment of Park Geun-hye.
Status
The current judicial system of South Korea, especially the Constitutional Court of Korea, was influenced by the Austrian judicial system. While Austria has three apex courts, whose jurisdiction is defined in different chapters of the Austrian constitution, the Constitution of South Korea only establishes two apex courts. Ordinary courts with the Supreme Court of Korea at the top is established by Article 101(2) under Chapter 5 'Courts' (), while the Constitutional Court of Korea is the one and only highest constitutional court established by Article 111(1) Chapter 6 'Constitutional Court' ().
The drafters of the Constitution tried to emphasize that the Constitutional Court does not belong to the ordinary-court system by using different but synonymous words. The term 'jaepanso (; )', meaning court, was used to describe the Constitutional Court, while 'beobwon (; )' was used to represent the ordinary courts. The equal status of the Constitutional Court and the Supreme Court is guaranteed by Article 15 of the Constitutional Court Act, which states that the President and the Associate Justices of the Constitutional Court should be treated the same as the Chief Justice and the Associate Justices of the Supreme Court, respectively.
Composition
Justices
Article 111 of the Constitution of the Republic of Korea stipulates the size of the Constitutional Court and the nomination and appointment procedure for its Justices. The Court is composed of nine Constitutional Court Justices (), and the President of South Korea formally appoints each Justice. However, Article 111(3) of the Constitution divides the power to nominate persons for appointment into equal thirds among the President, the National Assembly, and the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of Korea. Thus, the President has the power to both nominate and appoint three of the Constitutional Court's nine Justices, but the President must appoint the remaining six Justices from persons selected by the National Assembly or the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court. This appointment structure reflects the civil law tradition of regarding ordinary courts as heart of conventional judiciary, since the President of South Korea represents executive branch, and the National Assembly represents legislative branch, while the Supreme Court Chief Justice represents judicial branch of the South Korean government. However, it is clear that both the Supreme Court and the Constitutional Court generally regard the power of the Constitutional Court as essentially a kind of judicial power.
In order for a person to be appointed as a Constitutional Court Justice, Article 5(1) of the Constitutional Court Act requires that the person must be at least 40 years old, qualified as attorney at law, and have more than 15 years of career experience in legal practice or legal academia.
While exact internal procedure for the nomination of Constitutional Court Justices is not stipulated by statutes, nomination of the three Justices from the National Assembly is usually determined by political negotiations between the ruling party in the Assembly and the first opposition party. The second opposition party also plays a role in this process when it has sufficient membership in the Assembly. When the second opposition party does not have sufficient membership in the Assembly to formally participate in nomination process, the ruling party nominates one Justice, and the first opposition party nominates another. The remaining nomination is shared between the two parties, decided by negotiation or by election when the negotiation fails. For example, former Justice Kang Il-won was nominated by the National Assembly according to negotiations between the ruling Saenuri Party and the first opposition Democratic United Party in 2012. When the second opposition party is big enough to formally participate in the appointment process, it nominates the third Justice. Current Justice Lee Young-jin is example of Justice nominated from the National Assembly by the second opposition party; the Bareunmirae Party nominated him in 2018.
Notably, Article 6(2) of the Constitutional Court Act states there should be "confirmation hearings of the National Assembly" () for all Constitutional Court Justices before appointment or nomination. However, this procedure has been interpreted as non-binding where the Constitution itself does not require the National Assembly's confirmation or consent for the nomination or appointment. Thus, the National Assembly cannot use the confirmation hearing process to block the nominations advanced by the President or the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court, or the President's appointment of such nominees.
Council of Constitutional Court Justices
The "Council of Constitutional Court Justices" () is established according to article 16(1) of the Constitutional Court Act. It is composed of all nine Justices (including the President of the Constitutional Court as permanent presiding chair), and can make decisions by simple majority among a quorum of two-thirds of all Supreme Court Justices, according to article 16(2) and (3) of the Act. The main role of the council is supervisory functions for the President of the Court's power of court administration, such as the appointment of the Secretary General, the Vice Secretary General, Rapporteur Judges and other high-ranking officers over Grade III. Other issues requiring supervisory functions of the Council include making interior procedural rules and planning on fiscal issues.
President of the Constitutional Court
Article 111(4) empowers the President of South Korea to appoint the President of the Constitutional Court of Korea among nine Constitutional Court Justices, with consent the National Assembly. By article 12(3) of the Constitutional Court Act, President of the Court represents the Court and supervises court administration. Also by article 16(1), the President of the Court is chair of the Council of Constitutional Court Justices. Finally, by article 22 of the Constitutional Court Act, the President of the Court always becomes presiding member of the Full bench () composed of all nine Constitutional Court Justices.
Tenure
Article 112(1) of the Constitution and article 7 of the Constitutional Court Act provides the term of associate Justice as renewable six-year up to mandatory retirement age of 70. However, there's only two Justices who attempted to renew their term by reappointment, because renewing attempt can harm judicial independence of the Constitutional Court. During the term, according to article 112(1) and 112(2) of the Constitution, Justices shall not be expelled from office unless by impeachment or a sentence of imprisonment, and they shall not join any political party, nor shall participate in political activities to protect political neutrality of the Court.
One of sophisticated issue on the Court's tenure system is term length of the President of the Court, since the Constitution and the Act never states about exact term of the President. Shortly, the President of the Court who was newly appointed simultaneously as both Justice and the President can have full six-year term as one of the Justice, while the President of the Court who was appointed during term as Justice can only serve as the President during remaining term as Justice. For more information, see President of the Constitutional Court of Korea.
Current justices
Organization
Rapporteur Judges
Rapporteur Judges (, formerly known as 'Constitutional Research Officers') are officials supporting nine Justices in the Court. They exercise investigation and research for review and adjudication of cases, to prepare memoranda and draft decisions, which makes them as kind of judicial assistant (such as Conseillers référendaires in French Cour de cassation or Gerichtsschreiber in Swiss Bundesgericht usually working for 5 to 10 years or more until retirement, but not as law clerks in United States Supreme Court working for 1 to 2 years as intern).
Rapporteur Judges are appointed by President of the Court with consent of Council of Justices, under article 16(4) and 19(3) of the Act, and serve for renewable ten-year terms, which is same tenure system as lower ordinary court Judges () in South Korea. It is noticeable that Rapporteur Judges serve longer than Justices in Constitutional Court, and paid as same as lower ordinary court Judges, since these professional assistants are designed to ensure continuity of constitutional adjudication in South Korea. Some of Rapporteur Judges position is filled with lower ordinary court Judges or Prosecutors seconded from outside of the Constitutional Court for 1 to 2 years, to enhance diversity and insight of the Court according to article 19(9) of the Act. Other than Rapporteur Judges, there are 'Constitutional Researchers' () and 'Academic Advisors' () at the Court, working for 2 to 5 years to assist research on academic issues mainly on comparative law related to the Court's on-going cases by article 19-3 of the Act.
Department of Court Administration
The Court's administrative affairs are managed autonomously inside the Court, by apparatus called 'Department of Court Administration' (DCA, ). The department is led by the 'Secretary General' (), currently Park Jong Mun, under direction of the President of the Court, provided with consent of 'Council of Justices' () in some of important issues under article 16 and 17 of the Constitutional Court Act. The Secretary General is treated as same level as other Ministers at State Council in executive branch of South Korean government, by article 18(1) of the Act. The Deputy Secretary General () is appointed usually from the senior Rapporteur Judges and treated as same level as other Vice-Ministers. The department implements decisions of the Council of Constitutional Court Justices and operates various issues of court administration, including fiscal and human resource issues or other information technology services of the Court. It has also professional team for supporting international relations of the Court, including Venice commission and Association of Asian Constitutional Courts and Equivalent Institutions.
Constitutional Research Institute
Constitutional Research Institute () is the Constitutional Court's own institute established by article 19-4 of the Constitutional Court Act in year 2011, for research on fundamental academic issues concerning comparative law and original legal theories for South Korean Constitution. It also has function for training newly appointed officials of the Court and educating public on constitution. Professors at the Institute are recruited mainly from PhD degree holders educated from foreign countries, and their research and education programs are supervised by senior Rapporteur Judges as manager seconded from the Court. The institute is currently located in Gangnam, Seoul.
Building
Current buildings of the Constitutional Court of Korea, seated in Jae-dong, Jongno-gu of Seoul near Anguk station of Seoul Subway Line 3, is divided into Courthouse and the Annex. The five-story main building for Courthouse is designed in neo-classical style to incorporate Korean tradition with new technology. It was awarded 1st place of 2nd Korean Architecture Award in October 1993, the year it was completed. Right pillar of the main gate is engraved as meaning the Constitutional Court itself, while the left pillar gate is engraved as meaning the Department of Court Administration. It includes the courtroom, office and deliberation chamber for Justices, office for Rapporteur Judges, Academic Advisors and Constitutional Researchers, and one of working space for Department of Court Administration. The Annex building, built in April 2020 as three-story building tried to enhance communication with public and barrier-free accessibility. It includes law library, permanent exhibition hall for visitors and another working space for the department. The Court usually holds open hearing session or session for verdict in 2nd and last Thursday of a month, and visitors with ID cards or passports may attend the session. However, unaccompanied tour on building is restricted for security of the Court.
Procedure
As South Korea has predominant civil law tradition, major sequence of review procedure in the Constitutional Court of Korea stipulated in Chapter 3 of Constitutional Court Act is structured into two phases. First phase is investigating preliminary conditions on admissibility of case, not on merits. For example, if the plaintiff (who made request for adjudication) lapsed deadline for request, the case is formally decided as 'Dismissed' () no matter how much the plaintiff's request is right or not. This phase is named as 'Prior review' () under article 72 of the Act. Second phase is reviewing and deliberating merits of case. This phase is mainly fulfilled without oral hearing, yet the Court may hold oral hearing session if necessary, according to article 30 of the Act. If a case had passed prior review phase yet could not prove merits, the cas is formally decided as 'Rejected' (). Otherwise, it is decided as 'Upheld' yet the specific form of upheld decision varies with each of jurisdiction, especially in judicial review of statutes.
First phase, the 'Prior review' is delivered by three different Panel () of the Court, and each of the Panel is composed of three Justices. At this phase, the Court takes inquisitorial system to investigate every possible omit of preliminary conditions. If the Panel decides unanimously that the case lacks any of preliminary conditions, the case is dismissed. Otherwise, the case goes to second phase, where the Full bench () composed of all possible Justices with the President of the Court as presiding member, reviews the case by article 22 of the Act. Though the case may already passed Prior review, still it can be dismissed since other Justices who did not participated in Prior review of such case can have different opinion.
Votes and Quorum of Full Bench
According to 113(1) of the Constitution and article 23(2) of the Act, to make decision upholding requests for the Adjudication, or to change precedent, the Court needs votes from at least six Justices among quorum of at least seven Justices. The only exception is making uphold decision in Adjudication on competence dispute. It only requires simple majority to make uphold decision. Otherwise, for example, to dismiss or to reject case, only simple majority with quorum of at least seven Justices is need to make decision. If there's no simple majority opinion, the opinion of the Court is decided by counting votes from the most favorable opinion for the plaintiff to the most unfavorable opinion for the plaintiff, until the number of votes gets over six. When the counted votes are over six, the most unfavorable opinion inside the votes over six are regarded as opinion of the Court.
Presiding Justice and Justice in charge
In South Korea, among panel of Judges or Justices, there should be 'presiding member ()' and 'member in charge ()'. The presiding member is official representative of the panel. The member in charge is who oversees hearing and trial and writes draft judgment for each specific case. This role of 'member in charge' is mostly similar to Judge-Rapporteur in European Court of Justice. Usually the member in charge is automatically (or randomly) selected by computer to negate suspicion of partiality. However, the presiding member is bureaucratically selected by seniority. Due to this virtual difference in role, 'presiding Judge' in South Korean courts usually refer to which means such Judge is bureaucratically regarded as 'head of the panel', not who really takes role of presiding member in each of specific cases. For example, former Justice Kang Il-won was 'Justice in charge' () in Impeachment of Park Geun-hye case, so he presided much of hearings, though official presiding member of the Full bench at that time was former Justice Lee Jung-mi as acting President of the Court.
Case naming
Cases in the Constitutional Court are named as following rule. First two or four digit Arabic numbers indicate the year when the case is filed. And the following case code composed of Alphabets are categorized into eight; Hun-Ka, Na, Da, Ra, Ma, Ba, Sa and A. Each of the code matches with specific jurisdiction of the Court. The last serial number is given in the order of case filing of each year.
Jurisdiction
The Constitutional Court's jurisdiction is set out in Article 111(1) of South Korea's Constitution as follows: adjudication on (1) constitutionality of statutes, (2) impeachment, (3) dissolution of a political party, (4) competence dispute, and (5) constitutional complaint. While the South Korean Constitutional Court's organizational structure was influenced by Austria, the scope of its jurisdiction was modeled after Germany.
Judicial review of statutes
According to Article 111(1), 1. of the Constitution, the Constitutional Court may review the constitutionality of statutes at the request of ordinary courts—a power referred to as judicial review () or officially Adjudication on the constitutionality of statutes () in Chapter 4, Section 1 of the Constitutional Court Act. In a legal dispute, if the court's decision depends on the constitutionality of laws relevant to the case, either party may request the court to refer the matter to the Constitutional Court for review. However, the court has discretion on whether to follow through with such a referral. If the court decides not to refer the matter, the aggrieved party can file a "constitutional complaint" directly with the Constitutional Court. The procedural hurdles involved in requesting adjudication on the constitutionality of statutes imply that only parties directly involved in an ongoing legal case are eligible to request a referral from the court. This means that abstract or potential injuries are not eligible for this legal resource. In other words, a party must have a concrete and specific interest in the outcome of the case to request a referral to the Constitutional Court.
Article 41(5) of the Constitutional Court Act establishes that once an ordinary court has requested the Constitutional Court to adjudicate on the constitutionality of statutes, no superior court, including the Supreme Court of Korea, may intervene. This restriction on the powers of the Supreme Court was motivated by its historical passivity in confronting other branches of government during periods of authoritarian rule.
However, this clause was abused by President Park Chung Hee under the Yushin Constitution. He refused to re-appoint Supreme Court justices who challenged his authority, effectively preventing the ordinary courts from making any formal requests for constitutional review. This event laid bare the vulnerabilities of making constitutional review contingent upon a court's request.
As a result, the 1987 tenth constitutional amendment introduced another avenue for an interested party to bypass the court and directly ask the Constitutional Court to intervene in constitutional review. This alternative route, called Constitutional Complaint (), is defined in Article 68(2) of the Constitutional Court Act.
Impeachment
Impeachment adjudication () is another prominent power of the Constitutional Court. According to Article 65(1) of the Constitution, if the President, Prime Minister, or other state council members violate the Constitution or other laws of official duty, the National Assembly can file an impeachment motion with at least one third of the members of the National Assembly. In order to pass, the motion must receive the support of a supermajority if it concerns the President, and a simple majority for any other office. Once the impeachment motion passes the National Assembly, the Constitutional Court adjudicates the impeachment, and until the Constitutional Court reaches a decision, the person against whom the impeachment motion was lodged is suspended from exercising his or her power.
Neither the Constitution nor the Constitutional Court Act lays out concrete criteria to be considered in an impeachment case. Therefore, the Constitutional Court's decisions play an important role in establishing standards of review for impeachment cases. There have been two presidential impeachment cases: the failed impeachment of Roh Moo-hyun of 2004 and the successful impeachment of Park Geun-hye of 2017. In the ruling on the impeachment of President Roh Moo-hyun, the Court declared that a 'grave ()' violation of the law is required for the impeachment of a President. However, in the impeachment case of President Park Geun-hye, the Constitutional Court held that a violation of the Constitution is sufficient cause for impeachment, even if there is no grave violation of the law or statutes.
Dissolution of political parties
Under the Constitution of South Korea, the government has the right to request the dissolution of a political party if its objectives or activities are deemed to be in opposition to the principles of the liberal democratic basic order (; ), and such requests are adjudicated by the Constitutional Court. The party-dissolution provision was influenced by its German equivalent, called 'Party Ban' (), designed to prevent the recurrence of events like the rise of the Nazis. While the clear provision for dissolving a political party serves to prevent anti-democratic factions from destabilizing society, it also acts as a safeguard against attempts to dissolve a party as a means of suppressing dissent and stifling free expression since a dictator cannot dissolve at will a political party challenging his or her authority.
The Constitutional Court rarely accepts dissolution petitions, and even less often rules in favor of dissolving a political party. As of April 2023, the Unified Progressive Party (UPP, ) is the only political party dissolved through the party-dissolution provision.
Competence disputes
The Constitution of South Korea empowers the Constitutional Court to adjudicate competence disputes (), which is derived from the German 'Organs Dispute' (). Competence is legal jargon defined as the "legal authority to deal with a particular matter," and therefore, competence disputes are legal cases between state agencies () or local governments () asking the Constitutional Court to adjudicate which party does or does not have "competence." In some instances, two separate agencies may have overlapping powers, which are defined in the relevant statutes that grant those powers. As a result, it may become necessary to distinctly establish the agency responsible for a particular matter. In some other cases, the existence of competence itself can be disputed. For example, the central government in Seoul may delegate certain government projects to local governments, which uses the labor and resources of the local government. Local governments may lodge a competence-dispute lawsuit with the Constitutional Court to challenge the constitutionality of the delegation, citing their lack of constitutional competence to undertake the delegated tasks.
Constitutional complaints
According to article 111(1), 5. of the Constitution and article 68(1) of Constitutional Court Act, the Court may review whether basic right of the plaintiff is infringed by any public authorities. Influenced by German institution called Verfassungsbeschwerde, this Adjudication on Constitutional complaint () system is designed as last resort for defending basic rights under the Constitution. Thus basically, the Court can adjudicate the complaint only if when other possible remedies are exhausted. Yet the Adjudication on Constitutional complaint is not accompanied with lawsuits on civil liability, since judgment on civil liability is role of ordinary courts. The Court only reviews whether the basic right of the plaintiff is infringed or not in this adjudication process. Detailed issues on calculation of damage and compensation is out of the Court's jurisdiction. This type of adjudications are usually dismissed in Prior review due to lack of preliminary conditions.
In addition, there's another unique type of constitutional complaint under article 68(2) of the Act, as discussed above in paragraph of 'on Constitutionality of statutes'. This constitutional complaint by article 68(2) of the Act is detour for Adjudication on the constitutionality of statutes (or judicial review) denied by ordinary courts. It is usually called as '' in Korean, which means constitutional complaint especially on statutes. As this type of constitutional complaint is designed as detour for judicial review, the preliminary conditions required in Prior review for constitutional complaint under article 68(2) is different from the complaints under article 68(1) of the Act. It does not require any possible remedies to be exhausted already, but requires the plaintiff was dismissed of claim for judicial review from the ordinary court about on-going case of the plaintiff. It is notifiable that on-going case is not automatically sustained during Adjudication on Constitutional complaint by article 68(2) of the Act.
Statistics
Below are the aggregated statistics as of 09 Feb 2021.
International relations
Venice Commission : As the Republic of Korea is a member state of the Venice Commission, one of associate Justices in Constitutional Court of Korea becomes member for the commission. Substitute members are conventionally designated in following two positions; Deputy Secretary General at the Court's Department of Court Administration, and Deputy Minister of Ministry of Justice. Current member is Justice Lee Suk-Tae.
Association of Asian Constitutional Courts and Equivalent Institutions : The Republic of Korea is founding member state of the Association of Asian Constitutional Courts & Equivalent Institutions (AACC), and seat for permanent secretariat of the AACC. President of the Constitutional Court of Korea attends the Board of AACC as representing the Republic of Korea.
Criticism and Issues
According to Article 113(1) of the Constitution, the Constitutional Court is required to have at least six justices present in order to issue a ruling, but there is no contingency plan for in case the quorum is not met. Articles 6(4) and (5) of the Constitutional Court Act simply require that the vacancy be filled within 30 days, without any meaningful backup plan for when the deadline is not met, which exposes the Constitutional Court to potential political instability or gridlock, particularly between the President and the National Assembly. Although the Supreme Court of Korea similarly lacks contingency measures to address a potential vacancy, there is a key difference since the Constitutional Court needs a supermajority to issue a ruling, but the Supreme Court needs only a simple majority.
Relationship with Supreme Court
The relationship between the Constitutional Court of Korea and the Supreme Court of Korea is a hotly-debated topic among Korean jurists. The Constitution does not establish a clear hierarchy between the two highest courts, and the ranks of the respective chief justices are equal under the Constitutional Court Act. Since the co-equal relationship of the courts relies on a piece of legislation, the National Assembly could pass an amendment and rank the heads of the courts differently, which would resolve this issue. However, as it stands, there is no remedy if the two highest courts disagree on a constitutional case.
There are several areas in which the two highest courts have come into conflict, most notably jurisdiction over executive orders, which include presidential decrees and ordinances, can fall on either court, depending on the interpretation. Article 107(2) of the Constitution states the Supreme Court shall preside over and have the final say in cases concerning the legality of executive orders. However, the Constitutional Court has held that a litigant may file a complaint directly with the Constitutional Court if the litigant believes his or her constitutional rights were infringed upon by an executive order. The Constitution also grants the Constitutional Court jurisdiction over complaints of constitutional violations as prescribed by an act of the National Assembly. In addition, the Constitutional Court Act gives the Constitutional Court the authority to review the constitutionality of all government actions. Since the Constitution itself empowers both courts to hear the same cases, this puts the two courts into endless strife.
The highest courts also fiercely disagree over the Constitutional Court's power to declare a law unconstitutional as applied (), which means the statute itself is constitutional but as it is applied by either the executive branch or inferior courts does run afoul of the Constitution. The Supreme Court of Korea does not recognize the binding power of such "unconstitutional as applied" decisions by the Constitutional Court, as the Supreme Court interprets such decisions as essentially upholding the statutes in dispute. That indicates that the Supreme Court may ignore such decisions and proceed as it sees fit, which has happened several times. The Constitutional Court may counter that by suspending state powers that may violate the Constitution, which the Constitutional Court interprets to include the Supreme Court's decision to hear a case. The Constitutional Court suspended Supreme Court trials once in 1997 and twice in 2022, which has brought the nation on the verge of a constitutional crisis.
As both courts claim sharply divergent, there are conflicting interpretations of their powers, and the Constitution does not expressly state the court that has the final say, there is no way to resolve such conflicts within the current system.
Gallery
See also
Constitution of South Korea
Politics of South Korea
Government of South Korea
Judiciary of South Korea
President of the Constitutional Court of Korea
List of justices of the Constitutional Court of Korea
Rapporteur Judge
Supreme Court of Korea
Venice Commission
Association of Asian Constitutional Courts and Equivalent Institutions
References
External links
the Constitutional Court of Korea Official Website
The Constitution of the Republic of Korea (translated into English), Korea Legislation Research Institute
Constitutional Court Act (translated into English), Korea Legislation Research Institute
Thirty Years of the Constitutional Court of Korea (1988-2018), published and downloadable by the Constitutional Court of Korea
Constitutional Court of Korea
Korea, Republic of
Judiciary of South Korea
Law of South Korea
Korea, Republic of
1988 establishments in South Korea
Courts and tribunals established in 1988
Jongno District |
4440060 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Passenger%20rail%20transport%20in%20China | Passenger rail transport in China | Passenger rail transport is one of the principal means of transport in the People's Republic of China, with rail passenger traffic exceeding 1.86 billion railway trips in 2011. It is operated by the China Railway Corporation (CR). The Spring Festival Travel Season is the peak railway travel season of the year.
Passenger train classes and route identifiers
Every train route has an identification number of two to five characters arranged by the Ministry of Railways. The first character can be alphabetic or numeric, while the second to fifth characters are all numeric.
Trains are classified as either up (even-numbered) trains or down (odd-numbered) trains. Since the capital Beijing is treated as the focal point of the rail network, trains from Beijing are down services (e.g. the T109 from Beijing to Shanghai), while trains towards Beijing are up services (e.g. the T110 from Shanghai to Beijing).
Trains that do not go either to or from Beijing are similarly designated up or down based on whether the railway they are traveling on would eventually lead them away from or towards Beijing. For example, the Z90 from Guangzhou to Shijiazhuang is an up service as it travels from Guangzhou in the direction of Beijing, but terminates in Shijiazhuang before reaching the capital.
Some longer routes change from being an up service to a down service, or vice versa, mid-route, with more than one reversal being possible on the same route. In this case, the train would have two designations. For example, the G1202 and G1205 both refer to the same train from Harbin to Shanghai. From Harbin as far as Tianjin West Railway Station, the service is the G1202 up service traveling in the "up-direction" of the Beijing–Harbin High-Speed Railway towards Beijing, but after Tianjin West the train begins traveling away from Beijing down the Beijing–Shanghai High-Speed Railway towards Shanghai, becoming the G1205 in the process. Note: this is not to be confused with the G1208/G1205 from Qingdao to Harbin, which also switches at Tianjin West.
The Z31/Z34 from Wuchang to Ningbo is a more complicated example. It starts as the Z31 down service from Wuchang to Zhuji, traveling away from Beijing. At Zhuji, it becomes the Z34 up service towards Beijing. However, one stop later at Shaoxing, it reverts to being the Z31.
Types
The preceding letter of route identifier indicates the type of the passenger train, often determined by the speed and the stop patterns.
Types by 2004:
Types during 2004 – 2009:
As the Rule of The Edit and Management of Train Timetable, a rule issued by Ministry of Railway, the arrangement of following passenger train classes was put into practice from April 1, 2009.
Types during 2009 – 2015:
Types since 2015:
CRH trains
G ("Gaosu Dongche", 高速动车; High Speed EMU Train)
G trains is a series for long-distance high-speed trains. These are generally the fastest services available and the top speed can be up to but travel around operationally. As such they generally serve only lines capable of such speeds. G1–G5998 is used for the trains that run in more than one railway bureau's territory, while G6001–G9998 is used for the trains that run in only one railway bureau's territory. G trains never run overnight and thus have no sleeper car.
D ("Dongche", 动车; EMU Train)
This series has become available after the sixth rise in speed of the railway on April 18, 2007. The top speed will be up to 250–200 km/h but are limited to 250 km/h operationally. These trains are powered using CRH series electric multiple units (EMUs) named "Harmony" (Chinese:和谐号, Hexiehao). D1–D3998 for the trains running through two or more railway bureaus, D4001–D9998 for the trains running within one railway bureau. "D" services can run on high-speed lines, upgraded conventional lines or even over conventional railways at conventional speeds for a portion of their journey to connect some cities off the high-speed network.
D-series trains provide relatively fast frequent service between main cities in China. For example:
Beijing–Shijiazhuang (2 hours travel time), Taiyuan(3 hours travel time), Handan (3–3.5 hours travel time), Zhengzhou(5 hours travel time).
Xiamen–Shenzhen(3.5 hour travel time)
Shanghai–Nanjing (2 hours travel time), Hangzhou(1.5 hours travel time), some continuing to destinations beyond such as Zhengzhou and Hankou.
Besides, a few other nighttime D trains go to more remote destinations, such as the services between Shanghai and Beijing.
C ("Chengji Dongche", 城际动车; Intercity EMU Train)
This series has become available after August 1, 2008 with the opening of Beijing–Tianjin Intercity Rail. It represents the EMU trains within a metropolitan region, and mainly running within one railway bureau. The top speed is 350 km/h (e.g. Beijing-Tianjin) but most operate from 200 to 160 km/h. C1–C1998 for the trains running through two or more railway bureaus, C2001–C9998 for the trains running within one railway bureau. Some of these services run more as commuter trains to/from satellite cities surrounding major urban centres or from downtown to the airport, as at Lanzhou.
Conventional rail
Z ("Zhida", 直达; Non-Stop Express)
'Z' trains, though their name in Chinese () technically implies a "non-stop" overnight train, some of these trains have several stops between the two stations. The majority have both soft sleepers and hard sleepers, while some Z trains have only soft sleepers. The top speed is 160 km/h. It uses the numbers Z1-Z9998 without regard to the number of railway bureaus entered.
This series became available after the fifth rise in speed of the railway on April 18, 2004.
Early on (2004–2006), all but one of the Z-series trains had either Beijing or Beijing West station as their destination or origin. As of 2009, Z-series trains also operated along the Yangtze Valley as well, providing overnight service from Wuhan to Shanghai, Hangzhou, Ningbo and Shenzhen.
T ("Tekuai", 特快; Express)
This series of trains have a limited number of stops along their routes, only in major cities, or in some instances stops for switching the driver or locomotive. The top speed is 140 km/h. T1–T4998 for the trains running through two or more railway bureaus, T5001–T9998 for the trains running within one railway bureau. The standard pronunciation on the railway system is "Te"() in Chinese.
K ("Kuaisu", 快速; Fast)
This series of trains stop at more stations than T-series. The top speed is 120 km/h. The standard pronunciation on the railway system is "Kuai"() in Chinese. K1–K6998 are used for the trains that run in more than one railway bureau, while K7001 to K9998 will be used for the trains that run in only one railway bureau.
After April 18, 2004, N-series trains, which represent fast trains travelling exclusively within one railway bureau, were derived from K-series. Then all K-series trains travel on lines operated by more than one railway bureau. After April 1, 2009, N-series was re-merged to K-series after April 1, 2009.
General Fast Train
General fast trains (, which can be shortened to , ) are slower passenger trains that stop at around half of the stations along the way, resulting in a longer travel time than the fast trains. The top speed is 120 km/h. Route numbers are always four numeric digits—a numeric prefix from 1-5 followed by a 3-digit route number. Numbers 1001–1998 for the trains running through three or more railway bureaus, 2001–3998 for the trains running through two railway bureaus, and 4001–5998 for the trains that run in only one railway bureau.
General Train
The general train (, which can be shortened to , ) has as many stops as possible, and is often the preferred choice for rural workers to visit their home villages because of low ticket price. This is the slowest type of train and has the lowest priority in the Fixed Train Timetable (). The top speed is 100 km/h. These trains are often the only available transportation in rural area lacking highway infrastructures, but is gradually being phased out in favour of faster trains.
Route identifiers for general trains are always 4 digits—a numeric prefix from 6-7 followed by a 3-digit route number. 6001–6198 are used for the trains that run in more than one railway bureau, while 7001–7598 will be used for the trains that run in only one railway bureau.
Commuter Train
The commuter train is usually runs for railway staff to commute or consult their doctor, but also takes their children to school and brings them back in some areas. Generally tickets for such a kind of train are not available for passengers. Route identifiers for commuter trains are 4 digits with a range of 7601–8998.
Temporary Train
The "L" trains are temporary — they are not listed in the official train schedule, but are added when necessary. Many of these trains only operate at peak passenger travel season such as during the spring festival travel season. In addition, many new train services are originally added as L-series before train schedules are readjusted and later become regular services. L1–L6998 are used for the temporary trains that run in more than one railway bureau, while L7001–L9998 will be used for the trains that run in only one railway bureau. Recently the type was merged into other types for more kinds of temporary services (e.g. Temporary Limited Express).
Y ("Linshilüyou", 临时旅游; Temporary Tourist Train)
This series is used for trains that specifically run for tourism. Only very few trains begin with Y. Besides, travel agencies can apply to the Railways Department for organizing additional passenger trains for the tours.
S ("Shijiao", 市郊; Suburban Commuter Rail)
This is a newer class developed to utilize idle tracks (mostly industrial or former industrial) to provide commuter travel to larger city centers from its suburban areas. Existing service until 2015 are S2 line from Yanqing County to Beijing, and Tianjin–Jixian Railway from Ji County to Tianjin. The Jinshan Railway from Jinshan County to Shanghai also fell in this category, but it is fully embedded in Shanghai Metro lines therefore tickets are not available on CR's website; while the other two offers more conventional service.
Accommodation and fares
Multiple-unit train
Business Class Seat (), on a few services pending on train type, such as the CRH380AL or CRH380BL trains. 3 seats per row (2+1). Lie-flat seats with airline style catering provided.
Premier Class Seat (), can vary, pending on train type, from being similar to Business Class style seats or First Class seats located in premier or sightseeing positions such as behind the drivers cab. 3 seats per row (2+1) or compartment seats. Unlike Business Class seats, these seats are not lie-flat seats, but can in general recline.
First Class Seat (), used for CRH series EMU trains. There are 4 seats per row (2+2), just similar as soft seat.
Second Class Seat (), used for CRH series EMU trains. Similar as hard seat, there are 5 seats per row (3+2), the sitting area is relatively small.
Soft sleeper, used for CRH series EMU trains. Found on only a few 'D' trains running overnight between Shanghai-Beijing or Beijing-Shenzhen. Similar as a soft sleeper on conventional trains but are limited to 4 berths to a compartment. Some upper berths can fold away to permit running purely as seated passengers.
Conventional train
Hard seat () is the basic fare, somewhat similar to the economy class on an airplane. On busier routes, passengers who cannot arrange for better seats because of overcrowding must also purchase this type of ticket. In some cases, tickets are sold with no seat assigned (无座, wú zuò), which allows the railway to sell more tickets than there are seats in the car. Still, even the number of "no seat" tickets offered for sale is limited, to keep overcrowding within limits.
Soft seat () is one level above the Hard Seat. There are 4 seats per row (2+2), so it has comfortable seating similar to business class on airplanes.
Hard sleeper () is the basic accommodation for an overnight train. Despite the name, the bunks comfortably accommodate anyone below six feet. Bunks are arranged three on a side in a compartment—indicated by top, middle and bottom on the ticket. There are no doors for the compartments.
Soft sleeper () contains a wider bunk bed in an enclosed cabin, two bunks to a side. There is more room for luggage storage than in hard sleeper. Occasionally there may be an entertainment system where movie channels are available for viewing through headphones and an LCD display for each bunk.
Luxury sleeper ( or ) is the top level sleeper that is only provided by a few trains. The ticket is also much more expensive than that of soft sleeper. It only contains two beds in a cabin, and there is an independent toilet in every cabin. Some of them have a shower cubicle in the car.
Common to high-speed and conventional trains are Standing tickets, these do not entitle the person to a seat and they must stand for the journey. During peak travel seasons, can lead to extreme overcrowding. Ticket holders are assigned to a carriage, on conventional trains it is usually hard seat carriages only, and not permitted in soft seat or sleeper carriages. On High-Speed trains, fewer standing tickets are available and limited to entry vestibules and cafe cars. At stations or from on-board vendors, small folding seats are often sold to allow these passengers to sit in the aisles.
The fares are different between trains with or without air-conditioning.
The majority of train tickets in China are thermally printed paper tickets displaying the train's origin and destination, service number, price, date and travel time, accommodation type, class and seat number, as well as a barcode for security checks. Some tickets on the CRH routes such as Nanjing–Shanghai–Hangzhou or Guangzhou–Shenzhen use machine-readable tickets i.e. tickets on the Nanjing–Shanghai route have a magnetically encoded stripe for future use of automatic ticket inspection gates being implemented at major stations along the route, whilst tickets on the Guangzhou–Shenzhen line have embedded RFID microchips which can be read by proximity readers mounted above the ticket gates.
Most trains feature some kind of on-board catering service. Vendors with trolleys walk through the train selling snacks, drinks, fruit, newspapers etc. On shorter distance trains and many high-speed trains, there is a cafe-car selling light snacks, tea, coffee, beer etc. whilst conventional long-haul trains have full-service restaurant cars. At many stations along the route, vendors will sell fruit, prepared food and instant noodles on the platforms during the stops for conventional trains. Hot-water is provided in almost every carriage for passengers to make tea or instant noodles.
Smoking is generally not permitted in the accommodation or washroom areas of the trains but is allowed in the restaurant/cafe area and in the vestibules between the cars. On modern trains such as CRH or Beijing Suburban railway smoking is completely banned, with some smoke detectors connected to the brakes to stop the train, causing errant smokers facing hefty fines and penalties. On the Guangzhou–Kowloon cross-border train smoking is only permitted in the cafe car.
E-tickets and Internet ticket purchase
Since July 12, 2011, the e-ticket system has been firstly adopted on Beijing–Tianjin Intercity Railway. Since December 23, 2011, all tickets can be bought at the official ticket website (12306.cn) except for trains due to depart in less than two hours.
Debit card and credit cards with the China UnionPay icon, Alipay, and WeChat Pay are accepted.
Identification of one of the following types is required:
ID card of PRC (1st or 2nd generation)
Home Return Permit Hong Kong & Macau Resident to Mainland Permit or Mainland Resident to Hong Kong & Macau Permit
Taiwan Resident to Mainland Permit or Mainland Resident to Taiwan Permit
Valid Passport
Check-in
ID Card
Applicable only to holders of a second-generation ID card: In lieu of the traditional paper ticket, passengers may swipe their cards to pass through automatic entry and exit gates at stations on the following routes:
Beijing–Tianjin Intercity Railway
Beijing–Shanghai High-Speed Railway (Except the CRH Bed train that runs through old Beijing–Shanghai Railway)
Shanghai–Nanjing Intercity Railway
Shanghai–Hangzhou Passenger Railway
Wuhan–Guangzhou High-Speed Railway (Except the CRH train which does not run on this line but stops at Wuhan station)
Guangzhou–Shenzhen–Hong Kong Express Rail Link
Guangzhou–Shenzhen Railway (Except Guangzhou station)
Guangzhou–Zhuhai Intercity Railway
Hainan Eastern Ring High-Speed Railway (Except Haikou station)
Fenghua station to Xiamen North station of Hangzhou–Fuzhou–Shenzhen High-Speed Railway plus Xiamen railway station and Fuzhou railway station
Harbin-Dalian High-speed Railway
Passengers checking in with their ID card may request a paper ticket within 31 days of completing their journey.
Paper ticket
Passengers without a second-generation ID card must collect paper tickets at the ticket windows of rail stations, or authorized ticket-selling agents (火车票代售点) whose shops can be found in cities throughout China. The e-ticket number as well as proper identification of all passengers are required.
Tickets are checked at both departure and arrival stations.
Changes and refunds
Changes to online bookings can be made up to 2 hours before departure.
If within 2 hours of departure or already in possession of a paper ticket, passengers must make changes at the rail station.
Cross-border trains
to Hong Kong (Kowloon)
Through trains are available between Kowloon (Hung Hom station) and Beijing West, Shanghai, Guangzhou East, Passengers have to pass departure immigration at departure station and arrival immigration at arrival station, and boarding and alighting at intermediate stations are not allowed for cross-border passengers.
For Beijing/Shanghai to Kowloon routes, additional carriages are attached in the section between Beijing/Shanghai and Guangzhou East for domestic passengers, where boarding and alighting is allowed at intermediate stations. Tickets cannot be booked through the CR website.
to Hong Kong (West Kowloon via Guangshen'gang HXL)
Through High-speed services are available since 2018 between West Kowloon and Shenzhen, Guangzhou and other cities in mainland China like Shanghai, Xiamen, Guiyang and Beijing. Passengers have to past immigrations in West Kowloon station, and those trains also serve as normal high-speed trains in mainland China. Sections operated by CR (from other stations in mainland China to Shenzhen Futian) and MTR (West Kowloon to Shenzhen Futian) have different pricing policies, making the cross-border section one of the most expensive in China. Tickets can be booked through Internet.
International passenger trains
A few trains can transport passengers out of China to places such as Ulaanbaatar in Mongolia, Moscow in Russia, Almaty in Kazakhstan, P'yŏngyang in North Korea, Hanoi in Vietnam，Vientiane in Laos and so on. Tickets can only be bought through travel agents near the departure station. While other International passenger trains are all numbers, K or Z type conventional trains, train between Kunming South railway station and Vientiane railway station is the only International passenger train as D type multiple-unit train.
See also
Coach yard
List of tram and light rail transit systems
List of town tramway systems in Asia
List of rapid transit systems
List of trolleybus systems
Urban rail transit in China
References
External links
Official Ticket Website (Serving Time: 6:00-23:00 Beijing Time)
Individual passenger route maps of China Rail viewed in Open Maps with timetable (Chinese and English information)
Passenger train information online
Checking Train Schedules Online |
4440277 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Highlander%20%28film%29 | Highlander (film) | Highlander is a 1986 fantasy action-adventure film directed by Russell Mulcahy from a screenplay by Gregory Widen, Peter Bellwood, and Larry Ferguson. It stars Christopher Lambert, Roxanne Hart, Clancy Brown, and Sean Connery. The film chronicles the climax of an age-old war between immortal warriors, depicted through interwoven past and present-day storylines. It is the first film in the Highlander franchise.
Connor MacLeod (Lambert) is born in the Scottish Highlands in the 16th century. After being mortally wounded by the Kurgan in battle, he makes a seemingly miraculous recovery and is banished from his village under suspicion of witchcraft. Five years later, MacLeod is found by swordsman Ramírez (Connery), who trains him in swordplay and explains that they and others were born immortal, invincible unless beheaded. Immortals wage a secret war, fighting each other until the last few remaining will meet at the Gathering to fight for the Prize. In 1985, the Gathering is finally happening in New York City, and MacLeod must ensure that the Prize is not won by his oldest enemy, the murderous Kurgan (Brown).
Highlander enjoyed little success on its initial theatrical release, grossing more than $12 million worldwide against a production budget of $19 million, while receiving mixed reviews. Nevertheless, it became a cult film and inspired several film sequels and television spin-offs. It is also known for its songs recorded by the rock band Queen, with "Princes of the Universe" also used for the title sequence in the television series. The tagline, "There can be only one", has carried on into pop culture.
Plot
In 1985, when leaving a wrestling match, Connor MacLeod encounters an old enemy, Iman Fasil, in the parking garage of Madison Square Garden. After a sword duel, Connor beheads Fasil and triggers a powerful energy release—known as a Quickening—that affects the immediate surroundings, destroying many cars. After Connor hides his sword in the garage's ceiling, NYPD officers detain him for murder but later release him due to a lack of evidence.
Connor's history is revealed through a series of flashbacks. In the Scottish Highlands in 1536, Connor enters his first battle as the Fraser Clan is at war with the MacLeod Clan. The Frasers are aided by an outlander warrior, the Kurgan, in exchange for his right to slay Connor. In battle, the Kurgan fatally stabs Connor, but is driven off before he can behead him. Inexplicably, Connor makes a complete recovery, compelling his lover Kate and his cousin Dougal to accuse him of witchcraft. The clan wishes to kill him, but his other cousin, chieftain Angus, mercifully exiles him. Connor wanders the highlands, becomes a blacksmith and marries a woman named Heather MacDonald.
Juan Sánchez Villa-Lobos Ramírez, a swordsman from Spain, finds Connor after tracking the Kurgan to Scotland. He explains that he, Connor, the Kurgan, and others like them were born immortals and are destined to battle each other, save on holy ground. Under the overriding belief of all immortals ("In the end, there can be only one"), the few who shall be left will be drawn to a faraway land for the Gathering, the final battle for the Prize, the power of all the immortals through time. Ramírez reveals that immortals cannot have children and believes they must ensure evil people like the Kurgan do not win the Prize, or else humanity will suffer an eternity of darkness.
Ramírez trains Connor, and the two become friends. One night, while Connor is away, the Kurgan finds his home and duels Ramírez. Kurgan decapitates Ramírez and leaves the area. Years later, Heather dies of old age, prompting Connor to wander the Earth, adopting Ramírez's katana as his own.
In 1985, the time of the Gathering approaches, and the Kurgan is compelled to come to New York City, where Connor now lives as an antique dealer under the alias "Russell Nash," working with his confidant and adopted daughter Rachel Ellenstein. Brenda Wyatt, a metallurgy expert working for the police as a forensic scientist, finds shards of Connor's sword at Fasil's death scene and is puzzled they come from a Japanese sword dated around 600 B.C. but made with medieval-era methods. Brenda witnesses the Kurgan attack Connor before police arrive, forcing them to flee. She meets with Connor twice afterward, hoping to learn about the paradoxical sword. Connor likes her, but tells her to leave him alone.
Meanwhile, the Kurgan duels and beheads Sunda Kastagir, another Immortal. However, the Kurgan leaves a witness behind who describes him as the killer, concentrating the NYPD's search on him. Brenda investigates Connor and finds evidence that he has lived for centuries. On Heather's birthday, Connor lights a candle for her in a church, as he has done every year. The Kurgan arrives and confirms that he and Connor are now the last remaining Immortals, and also reveals he raped Heather. Disgusted, but prohibited from fighting on holy ground, Connor leaves.
Brenda confronts Connor, who explains his true identity. After spending the night together, they part company, but the Kurgan finds out about their newfound intimacy and kidnaps Brenda to draw Connor out. Connor decides to leave behind the Russell Nash identity, says goodbye to Rachel and confronts the Kurgan at Silvercup Studios in Queens, rescuing Brenda in the process. After a long duel, Connor outfights and decapitates the Kurgan, absorbing his massive power and winning the ultimate Prize. Connor returns to Scotland with Brenda and reveals that he is now a mortal man who can age and have children. He is also now able to read the thoughts and feelings of people all around the world, and remembering Ramirez's lessons, he hopes to encourage cooperation, understanding, and peace among humanity.
Cast
Christopher Lambert as Connor MacLeod, a 16th-century immortal born in Glenfinnan, Scotland near the shores of Loch Shiel. Under the alias Russell Nash, the Scottish Highlander lives and works as an antique dealer in New York in 1985.
Sean Connery as Juan Sánchez-Villalobos Ramírez, an Egyptian immortal. He later lives for a time in Japan and then later in Spain. Learning the Kurgan has targeted Connor MacLeod, Ramírez tracks down the Highlander and becomes his mentor in the ways of immortals.
Clancy Brown as The Kurgan, Connor's nemesis, said to be the last of the Kurgan tribe and a sadistic murderously brutal barbarian. In 1985, he travels to New York under the name "Victor Kruger" intending to kill the few remaining immortals and claim "The Prize."
Roxanne Hart as Brenda Wyatt, a forensic scientist and published metallurgy expert helping to investigate the string of beheadings in New York City.
Beatie Edney as Heather MacLeod, Connor's first wife. After Connor is banished from his village, he starts a new life with her. She lives with the eternally youthful Connor for many years until she dies of old age.
Alan North as Lt. Frank Moran, Brenda's colleague in the NYPD.
Jon Polito as Det. Walter Bedsoe, an NYPD detective working alongside Moran.
Sheila Gish as Rachel Ellenstein, Connor's middle-aged secretary and adopted daughter. Saved from the Nazis by Connor when she was a Jewish child during The Holocaust, Rachel is one of the few mortal people who know his true identity.
Hugh Quarshie as Sunda Kastagir, Connor's fellow immortal and friend. He is beheaded by the Kurgan during a battle in New York.
Christopher Malcolm as Kirk Matunas, an emotionally unstable Vietnam War US Marine Corps veteran who witnesses the duel between the Kurgan and Kastagir, machine guns the Kurgan, and is then impaled on the villain's sword.
Peter Diamond as Iman Fasil, a French immortal. He attacks Connor before the Highlander can have a chance to draw his own sword. Despite this, Connor defeats and beheads him. Diamond was also the film's stunt coordinator.
Celia Imrie as Kate MacLeod, Connor's lover in 1536, before he met Heather. Convinced Connor's immortality means he is "in league with Lucifer", Kate leads an unsuccessful effort to have him burned at the stake.
Billy Hartman and James Cosmo as Dougal and Angus MacLeod, Connor's cousins and leaders of the MacLeod Clan.
Other actors in the film include Edward Wiley as Garfield, a slightly unhinged NYPD officer; Corinne Russell as Candy, a prostitute hired by the Kurgan; Jimmy McKenna as Father Rainey, Alistair Findlay as NYPD Chief Murdoch, Ian Reddington as Bassett and Damien Leake as Tony.
Professional wrestlers Greg Gagne, Jim Brunzell, Sam Fatu, Michael Hayes, Terry Gordy, and Buddy Roberts appear as themselves in the film's opening sequence at a tag-team match. The event in the film is supposedly held at Madison Square Garden, but was actually shot at Brendan Byrne Arena in New Jersey.
Production and development
Conception
Gregory Widen wrote the script for Highlander, as a class assignment while he was an undergraduate in the screenwriting program at UCLA, then under the title of Shadow Clan. Widen also used Ridley Scott's 1977 film The Duellists as inspiration for his story. After reading the script, Widen's instructor advised him to send it to an agent. Widen sold the script for US$200,000. It became the first draft of what would eventually be the screenplay for the film.
According to Widen, "The idea of the story was basically a combination of a riff on The Duellists – guy wants to finish a duel over years– and a visit I made both to Scotland and the Tower of London armour display, where I thought, 'What if you owned all this? What if you'd worn it all through history and were giving someone a tour of your life through it?' That scene is basically in the movie."
According to William Panzer, producer of Highlander: The Series, "And that's where everything fell into place — the idea that there are Immortals and they were in conflict with each other, leading secret lives that the rest of us are unaware of."
In a 2006 interview with The Action Elite, Gregory Widen remarked, "I've always been amazed that a project I wrote as a UCLA student has had this kind of life. I think its appeal is the uniqueness of how the story was told and the fact it had a heart and a point of view about immortality."
Widen's original draft of the script differed significantly from the film. The initial story was darker and more violent. Connor is born in 1408 rather than 1518. He lives with his mother and father and a younger brother. Heather does not exist; Connor is promised to a girl named Mara, who rejects him when she learns that he is immortal. Connor willingly leaves his village after his clan's attitude towards him changes, instead of being banished. His alias is Richard Taupin and his weapon is a custom broadsword. Ramírez is a Spaniard born in 1100, instead of an ancient Egyptian born more than two thousand years earlier. The Kurgan is known as the Knight, using the alias Carl William Smith. He is not a savage, but a cold-blooded killer. Brenda is Brenna Cartwright, a historian at the Smithsonian who sometimes helps the police.
Other elements were changed during the rewrite. Initially, immortals could have children; in the draft Connor is said to have had 37. In a flashback in the first draft, Connor attends the funeral of one of his sons. His wife (in her 70s) and his two sons, who are in their mid 50s, see him revealed as an immortal. In the early draft, there is no release of energy when an immortal kills another nor is there any mention of the Prize. Immortals can still sense each other and when Connor finally kills the Knight, he feels a sharp burning pain. As he senses another immortal nearby, the ending implies this is simply one of many battles as the Game continues.
Director Russell Mulcahy was flipping through a magazine and saw a photograph of Christopher Lambert from his recent role as the title hero of Greystoke: The Legend of Tarzan, Lord of the Apes. At the Neuchâtel International Fantastic Film Festival in 2015, Mulcahy said he showed the photo to his production staff and "I said, 'who's this?' They had no idea. He couldn't speak English. But he had the perfect look. And he learned English very fast." Mulcahy originally considered Kurt Russell and Marc Singer for the role of Connor MacLeod.
Widen had originally envisioned Connor as a very serious, grim character following centuries of violence and loss. The film portrayed MacLeod as a person who has suffered loss and fears new attachment but doesn't deny the possibility of love, maintains a sense of humor about life, and tells his adopted daughter to have hope and remain optimistic. In a 2016 interview with HeyUGuys, Lambert said part of what he found appealing about Connor MacLeod was the man still having humor and hope despite his long life and many losses. "It's the only role that I have played that is touching on the subject of immortality, through a character carrying five hundred years of violence, pain, love, and suffering on his shoulders, who is still walking around and being positive. That is what amazed me about him the most...it's difficult living through one life but to see all the people around you dying over and over. How do you cope with that pain? How do you have the strength to keep on walking, to keep being positive and optimistic? To be capable of falling in love again when you know the pain it creates when you lose them."
Widen also had a different vision of the Kurgan originally. "Kurgan was the thing that was most different about my screenplay. He was much more tortured. The Kurgan in Highlander as it is pretty much like Freddy [Krueger] – he's just a cackling psychopath. I envisaged him as a guy who loses everything over time. The only thing he could hold onto, to give him a reason to get up in the morning, was to finish this thing – finish it with our guy [MacLeod]. It was more about that…it was just a reason to get up in the morning. Otherwise, what is the point? Everything is impermanent, everything is lost. That made him much more serious – in a weird way, a sympathetic bad guy." Widen commented that actor Clancy Brown had similar thoughts about the Kurgan, wishing to make him more complex and interesting by dressing the villain in a bowler hat and suit, disguising his villainy rather than wearing the biker outfit he had instead.
Filming
The budget was put up by Thorn EMI. When brought to Russell Mulcahy, the title was The Dark Knight. Filming took place in Scotland, England, Wales and New York City.
Director Russell Mulcahy filmed Highlander using music video techniques including fast cutting and pacy music.
In preparation, actor Christopher Lambert spent months working four hours each morning with a dialect coach and four hours in the afternoons sword training with Bob Anderson, who had been a Darth Vader stunt double in the Star Wars franchise.
On filming a scene underwater in a Scottish loch, Lambert said, "The first time it's a surprise. I thought the water would be cold, but not that cold. The second time you know it is going to be freezing. The third time you turn away and you say, 'That's the last take you're doing.'" Director of photography Arthur Smith actually filmed the scene in which fish fall out of MacLeod's kilt, but Lambert's kilt proved to be too short. Smith said, "I stuck part of a drain pipe above Chris's kilt out of camera range, and fed live trout down the tube."
Smith also had difficulties shooting MacLeod meeting the Kurgan. It was raining that day and the crew had to use umbrellas and hair dryers to prevent water from hitting the camera lenses and appearing on the film. Smith also remembered that Lambert, who was near-sighted, "kept forgetting to take off his glasses as he came over the hill on his horse."
The filming of the parking garage scene took place in two different places. According to New York location manager Brett Botula, "the garage exterior is Manhattan, across from Madison Square Garden, and the interior is 'somewhere in London.'" The pro-wrestling match in the opening scene featured The Fabulous Freebirds vs. Greg Gagne, Jim Brunzell and The Tonga Kid.
The scene where the MacLeod clan sets off to battle is supposed to take place "in the village of Glenfinnan, on the shore of Loch Shiel" in the Lochaber area, but was actually filmed at Eilean Donan Castle, which is in the same general area but is really on the shore of Loch Duich, a sea loch near Kyle of Lochalsh and the Isle of Skye.
According to the DVD commentary, the film's climax was originally intended to take place on top of the Statue of Liberty. Then it was changed to an amusement park and finally changed to the rooftop of the Silvercup Studios building. The opening sequence was originally intended to take place during a National Hockey League game, but the NHL refused because the film crew intended to emphasize the violence of the match.
The scene in the alley where the Kurgan beheads Kastagir and stabs the former marine, followed by an explosion, was filmed in an alley in England even though it was set in New York.
The opening voice-over by Connery has an echo effect because it was recorded in the bathroom of his Spanish villa, where he had been working on his Spanish accent for the film with a voice coach. It was played for the producers over the phone, and they approved of it because they could not discern the quality of the recording.
In a Reddit "Ask Me Anything" session in 2014, Clancy Brown said "It was a strange set. We were all trying to make a good movie, and the producers were trying to make money any way they could, so there were a lot of things we had to work around, do on the cheap because of those producers."
As an example of the lengths to which the producers were prepared to go to save production costs, they initially decided on the first day of filming that the extras would not receive breakfast. The crew threatened to leave, but only when one of the assistant directors threatened to bring in Connery to force the issue did the producers back down. The tension also led the largely Scottish extras to burn then-Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher in effigy.
Soundtrack
The Highlander original orchestral score was composed by Michael Kamen. The British rock band Marillion turned down the chance to record the soundtrack because they were on a world tour, a missed opportunity which guitarist Steve Rothery later said he regretted. The band's Scottish lead singer, Fish, had also accepted a part in the film but pulled out because of the scheduling conflict. David Bowie, Sting, and Duran Duran were considered to do the soundtrack for the film. The eventual soundtrack includes several songs by Queen, such as "A Kind of Magic" and "Princes of the Universe" (the latter also being used for the Highlander television series title sequence). Brian May was inspired to write "Who Wants to Live Forever" after watching the love scenes between Connor and his wife Heather, and the song ultimately accompanied the film.
Despite a mention in the end credits, to date a complete soundtrack album for Highlander has not been released. Queen's 1986 album A Kind of Magic features several songs from the film (although sometimes in different arrangements): "Princes of the Universe", "Gimme the Prize (Kurgan's Theme)" (the album version includes snippets of dialogue from the film), "One Year of Love", "Don't Lose Your Head", "Who Wants to Live Forever", and "A Kind of Magic". The album and single edits of "A Kind of Magic" feature a different mix from the one in the film; a 2011 re-release of the album includes the long-unreleased Highlander version of the song. The album does not include Queen's recording of "Theme from New York, New York", which features briefly in Highlander. "Hammer to Fall", a Queen song heard playing from a car radio in one scene, was from an earlier album, The Works.
The 1995 CD Highlander: The Original Scores includes five cues from Kamen's Highlander score (along with six cues from Stewart Copeland's Highlander II score, and four cues from J. Peter Robinson's Highlander III score). Furthermore, a rearrangement of an excerpt from Kamen's score (specifically, the beginning of the track "The Quickening") was eventually used as the logo music for New Line Cinema's ident between 1994 and 2011.
Release and reception
Highlander opened in Los Angeles on March 7, 1986. The film had a 116-minute running time in the United Kingdom and a 111-minute running time in the United States. Roughly eight minutes of footage was cut from the film for its U.S. theatrical release. Most of the cuts were sequences involving a specifically European brand of humor which the distributors thought American audiences would not find funny, such as Connor being repeatedly head-butted by one of his clansmen, the duelist shooting his assistant, and the Kurgan licking the priest's hand. The cut Mulcahy found most objectionable was the deletion of the scene showing how Connor met Rachel, because he could see no reason for its removal and believed that the relationship between Connor and Rachel was incomprehensible without it.
The film grossed $2.4 million on its opening weekend and ended with $5.9 million in the US. Internationally, the film grossed $12.9 million. Upon initial U.S. release, Highlander was not well-received, but it gained wide and persistent popularity in Europe and other markets, as well as on home video. It has since become a cult film in both domestic and non-domestic markets, leading to four sequels, a television series, and various other spin-offs.
Critical response
Variety stated that there were "entertaining moments" but the "total work is a mess". People described it as "a moody combination of Blade Runner, The Terminator and your last really good nightmare". Alex Stewart reviewed Highlander for White Dwarf #79 and stated, "What the film does have going for it is stylish direction, a breathless pace and some exquisite camerawork. The performances aren't bad either, especially Brown and Connery, who are so far over the top they're practically in the next trench." Stewart reviewed the British release print of Highlander for White Dwarf #81, and stated that "Highlander is visually stunning, from the timeless grandeur of the Scottish landscape to the surrealist urban jungles of New York. And the swordfights are terrific."
Home media
The video was a hit in the United States. The theatrical release of Highlander II: The Quickening in 1991 significantly increased the rental activity on Highlander even though the sequel was not a box-office success. Highlander was first released to DVD in the United States in 1997, in a "10th Anniversary Edition" Director's Cut that contained the international uncut version of the film. A "15th Anniversary" edition was released in Australia in 2001, which also contained the International cut of the film.
Highlander was again released in 2002 in two editions: a special "Immortal Edition" with several extra features (including three Queen music videos and a bonus CD containing three Queen songs from the film) and a standard edition, both of which contain the International uncut version with remastered video and DTS ES sound. On June 17, 2009, French distributor StudioCanal issued the film on Blu-ray with identical releases following in Germany, UK, Holland, Australia and Japan. The U.S. director's cut is available on DVD and Blu-ray in North America from Lionsgate under license from the film's current owner, StudioCanal, while television rights stand with The Walt Disney Company, parent company of theatrical distributor 20th Century Fox.
An Ultimate release of the movie was rereleased in France and Europe on April 10, 2012.
In 2022, StudioCanal released a 4K & blu ray double disk set in the UK on October 31, November 2 in Australia & New Zealand, and November 22 in France in standard and limited collectors edition formats. The 4K disc contained new special features such as a featurette on the soundtrack, an interview with photographer David James, a featurette with Clancy Brown, a look back on the magic of Highlander, and a new audio commentary by author Jon Melville as well as the original commentary by director Mulcahy, and producers Panzer and Davis, whereas the blu ray disc contained the original blu ray release's extras.
Legacy
Critical reassessment
On Rotten Tomatoes the film has an approval rating of 71% based on 38 reviews, with an average rating of 6.30/10. The site's critical consensus reads, "People hate Highlander because it's cheesy, bombastic, and absurd. And people love it for the same reasons." On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 24 out of 100 based on 7 critics, indicating "generally unfavorable reviews". Audiences surveyed by CinemaScore gave the film a grade "C+" on scale of A to F.
In 1998, Halliwell's Film Guide described Highlander as a "muddled, violent and noisy fantasy" and stated that "the explanation doesn't come until most people will have given up." In 2000, Matt Ford of the BBC gave the film three stars out of five, writing, "From the moody, rain-soaked, noir-ish streets of late 20th century America to the wild open spaces of medieval Scotland, Mulcahy plunders movie history to set off his visceral fight scenes with suitably rugged locations. ... What the film loses through ham acting, weak narrative, and pompous macho posturing it more than compensates with in sheer fiery bravado, pace, and larger than life action." Also in 2000, IGN, awarding it eight out of ten, wrote, "This 80s classic has a lot going for it. The hardcore MTV manner in which it was filmed is common these days, but was groundbreaking then. This movie features some of the best scene transitions committed to celluloid. ... To this is added some fun performances by Connery and especially Clancy Brown." In 2000, Christopher Null of FilmCritic.com gave the film four-and-a-half stars out of five, writing, "Highlander has no equal among sword-and-sorcery flicks." Null later called Highlander "the greatest action film ever made," saying that it features "awesome swordfights, an awesome score, and a time-bending plotline that only a philistine could dislike".
In 2002, giving the film three stars out of five, Adam Tyner of DVD Talk wrote, "The screenplay spots a number of intelligent, creative ideas, and I find the very concept of displacing the sword-and-sorcery genre to then-modern-day New York City to be fairly inventive. The dialogue and performances don't quite match many of the film's concepts, though. The tone seems somewhat uneven as if Highlander is unsure if it wants to be seen as a straight adventure epic or if it's a campy action flick." In his 2009 Movie Guide, Leonard Maltin gave the film one-and-a-half stars out of four, describing it as an "interesting notion made silly and boring", but acknowledged that "Connery, at least, shows some style." He added that "former rock video director Mulcahy's relentlessly showy camera moves may cause you to reach for the Dramamine." Tom Hutchinson of Radio Times awarded it three stars out of five, calling it "so confused as to be hilariously watchable". Hutchinson praised "some great sword-lunging duels — the best of which is set in a Madison Square Garden garage — but the story is never that engaging."
Novelization
A novelization of the film was written by Garry Kilworth under the pen name "Garry Douglas." It expanded the events of the movie by revealing details such as Heather finding out about Connor's immortality from Ramírez, the Kurgan's First Death, and the villain's training with an Arabian immortal known as "The Bedouin" (whom he eventually kills). The novel depicts the Kurgan battling and defeating an immortal Mongol warrior soon before meeting MacLeod in 1536. Another scene reveals how he acquires his customised longsword.
The novel depicts Connor and Kastagir as having a more somber relationship, the two comfortable talking and confiding in each other about their fears. An alternate scene has them meet in the subway before going to the Bridge.
The book expands the ending following Connor's last battle with the Kurgan. He returns to his antique shop to say a final goodbye to Rachel before leaving for Scotland. Once there, he and Brenda tour the country for two months then open an antique shop in Camden Alley. On one occasion, Connor returns to the Scottish Uplands alone and stares at the remnants of his home with Rachel. There is no croft there but he finds a few stones from the fallen tor and locates the burial place of Ramírez and Heather. Finding two timbers and fashioning a crude cross, Connor tells Heather that she would like Brenda because "she is much like you."
Sequels and reboot
The film was followed by two direct sequels. Highlander II: The Quickening was released in 1991 and met with an overall negative response, with some considering it among the worst films ever made. Highlander III: The Sorcerer (also known as Highlander: The Final Dimension) was released in 1994 and retroactively erased the canon of Highlander II, acting as an alternate sequel to the first film. The movies Highlander: Endgame (2000) and Highlander: The Source (2007) follow the continuity of the TV show Highlander: The Series. Both movies received negative reviews from fans of both the original film and the TV show. The anime movie Highlander: The Search for Vengeance (2007), which existed in its own continuity with protagonist Colin MacLeod, received largely positive reviews.
In March 2008, Summit Entertainment announced that it had bought the film rights to Highlander and was remaking the original film. Chad Stahelski was announced as a new director of the reboot which has been described to be John Wick with swords with the reboot planned as a possible trilogy. As of May 2020, the filming for the remake had not yet begun.
In May 2021, Henry Cavill was confirmed to play the lead role in the film, although his exact character was unknown. In October 2023, Lionsgate was moving forward with the reboot, with Cavill starring as MacLeod and Stahelski directing from a screenplay by Mike Finch. The project is expected to begin filming in early 2024.
TV series
Christopher Lambert was offered a chance to return as Connor MacLeod in a TV series adaptation. Lambert turned down the role, so the series became a spin-off, introducing a new character Duncan MacLeod played by Adrian Paul. Highlander: The Series began airing on television in 1992, with Lambert appearing as Connor in the first episode. The series explains Duncan is a man born decades after Connor's banishment and adopted by the Clan MacLeod. After Duncan discovers he is immortal, Connor finds him and trains him before going his separate way. The season two premiere episode "The Watchers" confirms Connor's battle with the Kurgan still happened in 1985 in the canon of the show, but the Prize was not won because there were still several living immortals in this version of events, including Duncan. Lambert did not appear in any other episode, but he and Duncan meet again in the movie Highlander: Endgame.
Highlander: The Animated Series aired 1994 to 1996. A loose science fiction adaptation and sequel of the original film, the series imagines a meteorite causing an apocalypse on Earth. In the wake of this, Connor MacLeod is one of several immortals who decides to help preserve knowledge for humanity rather than continue their war for the Prize, though he is then killed by Kortan, the one remaining evil immortal. Taking place in the 27th century, the series features the young immortal hero Quentin MacLeod, last descendant of the MacLeod Clan. He is trained by another immortal named Don Vincente Marino Ramirez, an old friend of Connor's.
References
External links
1986 films
1980s action adventure films
1980s English-language films
1980s fantasy adventure films
British action adventure films
British fantasy adventure films
American fantasy adventure films
American action adventure films
EMI Films films
Films adapted into comics
Films about duels
British films set in New York City
Films set in Scotland
Films set in Spain
Films set in the 1530s
Films set in the 1780s
Films set in the 1940s
Films set in 1985
Films shot in British Columbia
Films shot in Hertfordshire
Films shot in Highland (council area)
Films shot in London
Films shot in New Jersey
Films shot in New York City
Films shot in Spain
Films directed by Russell Mulcahy
Films produced by William N. Panzer
Films scored by Michael Kamen
Films with screenplays by Peter Bellwood
Films with screenplays by Larry Ferguson
Films with screenplays by Gregory Widen
Golan-Globus films
Highlander (franchise) films
20th Century Fox films
1980s American films
1980s British films |
4440305 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Highlander%20II%3A%20The%20Quickening | Highlander II: The Quickening | Highlander II: The Quickening is a 1991 science fiction film directed by Russell Mulcahy and starring Christopher Lambert, Virginia Madsen, Michael Ironside and Sean Connery. It is the second installment in the Highlander film series and sequel to the 1986 fantasy film Highlander. Set in the year 2024, the plot concerns Connor MacLeod, who regains his youth and immortal abilities and must free Earth from the Shield, an artificial ozone layer that has fallen under the control of a corrupt corporation. The film was shot almost entirely in Argentina before and after the country's economy crashed; as the local economy experienced hyperinflation, the film's investors and completion bond company took direct control of production and final edit, removing director Mulcahy and his creative influence while changing parts of the story. The resulting film contradicts the established canon of Highlander, in depicting immortals as aliens, featuring the inexplicable resurrection of Juan Sánchez-Villalobos Ramírez, and altering the concept of the "Quickening".
Highlander II received negative reviews from critics, and is considered to be one of the worst films ever made. The original theatrical edition was released on 12 April 1991 in the United Kingdom (in an eight-minute longer cut) and 1 November 1991 in the United States, and was also a box-office bomb grossing $16 million in the US on a production budget of $34 million.
In 1995, an alternate director's cut called the Renegade Version was released to home video that attempted to address the many story problems, such as removing all mention of Zeist and the idea that immortals are aliens. This was followed by a Special Edition DVD release in 2004, which was largely the same cut as the Renegade Version but with some altered special effects. The sequel Highlander III: The Sorcerer follows the events of the first film, in the process contradicting and completely ignoring the events and revelations of Highlander II.
Plot
In the 1990s, industrial pollution has destroyed Earth's ozone layer, leading to millions of deaths due to the sun's unfiltered rays, including Brenda Wyatt MacLeod, whose death inspires her husband, Connor MacLeod, to use his wealth to save the world. By 1999, Connor supervises a scientific team headed by Dr. Allan Neyman, who create an electromagnetic shield to protect the Earth from radiation. The shield saves the Earth, but with side-effects of condemning the planet to constant darkness, high temperatures and humidity. Humanity loses hope and the shield falls under the control of the corrupt Shield Corporation and its chief executive David Blake, who imposes heavy fees on countries for continued protection from solar radiation.
In 2024, Connor, now mortal, is a frail old man. While watching an opera performance, he has a flashback from five hundred years ago on the immortals' distant home planet of Zeist. Connor was chosen by Juan Sánchez-Villalobos Ramírez, a wise Zeist sorcerer, to lead a rebellion against the corrupt leadership of General Katana. Using the Quickening, Ramírez creates a bond between him and Connor that cannot be broken even by death. Katana and his troops then attack, crushing the rebellion and imprisoning Connor and Ramirez. They are put on trial by Katana's priests, before being exiled to Earth to live as immortals. Locked into ageless lives, they will fight each other until there is only one left. The survivor will win the Prize: a choice to either remain on Earth as a mortal or return to Zeist, their past crimes forgiven.
Awakening from his flashback, Connor is approached by Louise Marcus, the leader of an anti-shield group. Louise has uncovered the possibility that the ozone layer has returned to normal and that the Shield Corporation are keeping its restoration quiet to maintain revenue. Louise asks Connor to help her take down the shield, but he refuses, replying that he is too old and disapproves of terrorism. Meanwhile on Zeist, General Katana orders Connor's death and sends assassins Corda and Reno to Earth to kill him. MacLeod defeats Reno and Corda, and uses their Quickenings to regain his youth and summon Ramírez back to life.
Ramírez awakens where he died in Glencoe, Scotland, during a Shakespeare play. Drawn to Connor's location, his earring is apparently worth enough money to buy a new suit of clothes and a plane ticket to New York. General Katana also arrives on Earth, determined to kill Connor himself. After Ramírez finds Connor and Louise, the three make a plan to take down the shield.
Katana approaches the Shield Corporation and creates an uneasy alliance with David Blake to kill Connor. When it is discovered that Neyman has revealed to Connor proof that the ozone layer has indeed healed, Blake has Neyman imprisoned. Connor, Ramírez and Marcus break into the prison, but Neyman dies and Ramírez sacrifices his life to save Connor and Marcus from a trap. Katana kills Blake and Connor has one final confrontation with Katana. After winning the fight and decapitating Katana, Connor uses the combined Quickening energy to disable the shield, and the world begins to see a night sky for the first time.
Cast
Production
Although the film originally began after the success of the original, Davis/Panzer Productions presold most of the rights of the Highlander sequel to Vestron Inc. for $18 million, namely in five foreign territories, such as the United Kingdom, Scandinavia, Australia, Japan and Benelux, while Vestron would handle French home video distribution, Filmauro gained Italian rights to the project, Highlight Communications gained German rights to the film, Nea Kinisi for the Greece market and Lusomondo for the Portugal market, and the producers concluded other presells were available for the Argentina, Peru and Bolivia markets, and in the U.S., set to be released by New Century/Vista Film Co., which was intended for the summer of 1988, but it was landed in development hell.
The sets of Highlander II have been compared to those of Ridley Scott, particularly those of Blade Runner. Lambert and Ironside both suffered injuries during the filming, according to the St. Petersburg Times: "Lambert chipped one of Ironside's teeth during a fight scene, while Ironside inadvertently chopped off part of Lambert's finger during a swordfight scene. Both men recovered from their injuries, but Ironside said precision thrusts and parries were impossible when wielding a 22-pound broadsword."
John C. McGinley made his character's voice as deep as possible in an effort to sound like Orson Welles. He has since admitted that this was a bad idea.
According to the documentary Highlander II: Seduced by Argentina, the film's apparent poor performance is partially a result of the bonding company's interference with the work of the director, Russell Mulcahy. Mulcahy reportedly hated the final product so much he walked out of the film's world premiere, reportedly doing so after viewing its first 15 minutes. For similar reasons, Christopher Lambert threatened to walk out of the project when it was nearing fruition. However, due to contractual obligations, he did not.
The film's investors and completion bond company took direct control of production and final edit, removing director Mulcahy and his creative influence while changing parts of the story. The resulting film contradicts the established canon of Highlander regarding the nature of immortals and MacLeod's past, such as depicting immortals as aliens from the planet Zeist rather than human-born with energy connecting them to nature and making them unable to die unless beheaded. MacLeod's former mentor Ramírez, killed in the first film, is inexplicably resurrected and now depicted as an alien sorcerer. While the first film used the word "Quickening" to refer to the energy that gives an immortal their power, Highlander II uses the term to refer to a magical force Ramírez uses to bond his soul to MacLeod's, allowing him to return from death when the Highlander needs him.
Alternate ending
A once lost alternate ending, commonly known as The Fairytale Ending, was shown only in some European theaters and has never been shown in any of the American cuts. The ending shows Connor magically returning to planet Zeist, taking Louise along with him, while Ramírez’s voice is heard in the background. An early version of this ending is shown on the Special Edition. It also includes footage of Virginia Madsen as Louise Marcus speaking to Christopher Lambert as Connor MacLeod. Madsen is on location while Lambert is suspended by wires in front of a blue screen. After a brief exchange where Connor asks Louise to come with him, the theatrical ending is shown where the two embrace in front of a field of stars, then transform into light streaks and fly off into space.
Release
UK release
Highlander II: The Quickening was released in the UK on 12 April 1991 with a runtime of 100 minutes. This version was distributed by Entertainment Film Distributors and ran 8 minutes longer than the US cut.
As well as a very different scene order this version included additional footage not seen in the later US Theatrical release; including a flashback to the death of Connor's previous wife Brenda, a sequence of Connor and Louise going above the shield, and the alternate "Fairytale Ending" mentioned above.
Despite this longer version running in UK theatres, all home video releases in the country to date have been of the shorter 91-minute US Theatrical Release (running 86 minutes due to PAL speedup). This includes the rental VHS (EVV 1203), retail VHS (EVS 1072), laserdisc (PLFEB 37011), and DVD (EDV 9119).
United States release
Highlander II: The Quickening was released in the United States on 1 November 1991 with a runtime of 91 minutes, distributed by InterStar Releasing. This version was edited down by the bond company, with many scenes rearranged throughout. Despite the many cuts made to this version the bond company also added two new scenes that further fleshed out the villain, General Katana. These scenes include; Katana taunting Connor in his Zeist prison cell, and Connor and Katana meeting at the grave of Connor's dead wife, Brenda.
This version was released many times in the US, including on VHS, laserdisc, and Video8. All DVD and Blu-Ray releases of the film in the United States have been of the longer "Renegade" and "Special Edition" versions.
Marketing
A $1 million television advertising campaign was run for the release of the film.
Home media
In the United States, the theatrical cut was released on VHS on 13 May 1992 by Columbia TriStar Home Video, and was reissued on 13 April 1994 by Hemdale Home Video.
Alternate versions
UK and European theatrical release
In the UK and European theatrical release, the opening segment includes a scene where Brenda Wyatt (Connor MacLeod's lover from the first film) is dying from solar radiation. She makes MacLeod promise to stop the ozone crisis before dying. Additional scenes include MacLeod and Marcus climbing through a tunnel to get above the Shield to find the ozone layer has returned to normal. The ending shows MacLeod returning to Zeist after destroying the Shield, bringing Louise with him (this has been dubbed by fans as the "fairy-tale ending").
Renegade Version
In 1995, Mulcahy made a director's cut version known as the Renegade Version, which became the main version of the film available as the original theatrical cut did not have enough demand to warrant further production for home media. As a result, many fans in later years were only able to find the Renegade Version for viewing rather than the original theatrical release. The Renegade Version was reconstructed largely from existing material; certain scenes were removed and others added back in and entire sequences of events were changed. All references to the Immortals being aliens from another planet called Zeist were eliminated. New sequences include a battle between MacLeod and Katana atop a moving vehicle after they escape the security facility, and MacLeod and Louise climb through a mountain tunnel to emerge above the Shield to confirm that the radiation levels are back to normal (a scene previously only seen in the UK cut). The new version removes a major continuity gaffe from the theatrical version, which had merged two separate sword fights between MacLeod and Katana into one longer climactic battle. The director's cut version restores them to two separate battles, although it never shows how or when Connor reacquired his katana.
Special Edition
Producers Panzer and Davis revisited Highlander II once again in 2004. Dubbed the "Special Edition", this cut was nearly identical to the Renegade Version, but with a few alterations, such as the introduction of new CGI special effects throughout the film, including a now-blue shield as originally intended, and a small piece of voice-over work by Lambert. As the original cut of the film is no longer distributed, many fans in later years have only had the Renegade Version and Special Edition available to watch.
Reviewing the 2004 "Special Edition" DVD, David Ryan of DVD Verdict gave it a score of 69 out of 100 and said that "[this] is the best version of this film that [the producers] can make with the material they have on hand. It's still not a particularly good film—but it's infinitely superior to the original version... What was once a horrible, horrible film has become downright tolerable, and actually somewhat entertaining at times."
Reception
Box office
The film was released months later in the US on 1 November 1991, and opened at #3, grossing $5.3 million in 960 theaters in the opening weekend. It grossed a total of $15.6 million in the US.
Critical response
On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, the film has a rare approval rating of 0% based on 24 reviews and an average rating of 2.7/10. The site's critics' consensus laconically reads "There should have been only one." On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 31 out of 100 based on 14 critics, indicating "generally unfavorable reviews".
Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun-Times gave the film a score of 0.5 stars (out of four), saying: "Highlander II: The Quickening is the most hilariously incomprehensible movie I've seen in many a long day—a movie almost awesome in its badness. Wherever science fiction fans gather, in decades and generations to come, this film will be remembered in hushed tones as one of the immortal low points of the genre … If there is a planet somewhere whose civilization is based on the worst movies of all time, Highlander 2: The Quickening deserves a sacred place among their most treasured artifacts." Ebert also mocked the Quickening, saying it looked like a person standing in a puddle had touched another person who had just stuck his finger into a light socket.
Alex Carter of Den of Geek wrote: "I started writing this to try and shed a different light on this unappreciated classic, but I can't. I really can't. Highlander II is awful. It's not even "so bad it's good" territory, it skips right past that into the "so awful you can't look away for fear you'll both be killed" territory. And amazingly, it manages to not only be contender for worst film in the world, but it also runs the entire franchise into the ground and retcons the first film into oblivion in the space of 15 minutes ... For decades, this was the punchline for every bad movie joke, the bad sequel to end all bad sequels. This is a film that wishes it could be as good as Santa Claus Conquers The Martians." Giving the film a score of 2 out of 10, IGN's review of the Highlander 2: Renegade Version said: "How bad is this movie? Well, imagine if Ed Wood were alive today, and someone gave him a multi-million dollar budget. See his imagination running rampant, bringing in aliens from outer space with immensely powerful firearms, immortals who bring each other back to life by calling out their names, epic duels on flying skateboards, and a blatant disregard for anything logical or previously established—now you are starting to get closer to the vision of Highlander II."
Awarding the film one star out of five, Christopher Null of FilmCritic.com said, "Highlander has become a bit of a joke, and here's where the joke started... Incomprehensible doesn't even begin to explain it. This movie is the equivalent of the 'Hey, look over there!' gag. You look, and the guy you wanted to beat up has run away and hid [sic]."
Kevin Thomas of the Los Angeles Times wrote, "It makes clearer much that was so vague in the original; it even jokes about how confusing its premise is. In short, audiences who made the first film successful enough to warrant a second will be getting a bit more for their money." David Nusair of Reel Film Reviews gave the film two stars out of four, saying: "It's hard to imagine Highlander II appealing to non-fans of the first film, as the film barely captures the sense of fun that was so prevalent in the original. With its complicated storyline and dreary visuals, it occasionally feels more perfunctory than anything else—though, to be fair, it's nowhere near as bad as it's been made out to be over the years."
See also
List of films considered the worst
List of films with a 0% rating on Rotten Tomatoes
References
External links
1991 films
1990s action films
1991 fantasy films
1990s science fiction films
American fantasy films
American science fiction action films
American sequel films
1990s English-language films
Highlander (franchise) films
American dystopian films
Eco-terrorism in fiction
Environmental films
Films about extraterrestrial life
Films about terrorism
Films set in 1994
Films set in 1999
Films set in 2024
Films set in Scotland
Films set in the United States
Films set on fictional planets
Films shot in Argentina
Films shot in Buenos Aires
Films set in Spain
Films shot in Spain
Resurrection in film
Republic Pictures films
Films scored by Stewart Copeland
Films directed by Russell Mulcahy
Films produced by William N. Panzer
Films with screenplays by Peter Bellwood
InterStar Releasing films
Science fantasy films
1990s American films |
4440380 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finis%20L.%20Bates | Finis L. Bates | Finis Langdon Bates (August 22, 1848 – November 29, 1923) was an American lawyer and author of The Escape and Suicide of John Wilkes Booth (1907). In this 309-page book, Bates claimed that John Wilkes Booth, the assassin of U.S. president Abraham Lincoln, was not killed by Union Army Soldiers on April 26, 1865, but successfully eluded capture altogether, and lived for many years thereafter under a series of assumed names, notably John St. Helen and David E. George.
Personal life
Bates was born on a plantation in Itawamba County, Mississippi, in 1848. He was the ninth of 12 children of planter Henderson Wesley Bates (1807–1869) and Eliza Elvira Jarratt Bourland (1815–1900). Finis Bates studied law in Carrollton, Mississippi, and in the 1870s he and his family moved to Texas, where he met John St. Helen. Bates returned to Mississippi, then moved to Memphis, Tennessee, after the death of his first wife and his subsequent marriage.
Family
In 1869, Bates married Bertie Lee Money (born 1851). They had two daughters, Emma and Olga Bates, and a son, Bertram Money Bates Sr. (1870–1934), who married Anne H. "Annie" Koen. Following Bertie's death, in 1890 Finis married Madge Young Doyle (1869–1944), daughter of Washington Jackson Phepoe Doyle (1838–1907) and Minerva Hasbrook Selden (born 1851). Finis' youngest son by his second wife was Langdon Doyle Bates (1900–1989). Langdon D. Bates married Adrienne Marguerite Boutall in 1928 and they had a daughter named Beverly Anne Bates. That marriage ended in divorce and Langdon married Bertye Kathleen Talbert (1907–1997). They had a daughter named Kathleen Doyle Bates, better known as actress Kathy Bates.
"Booth escaped" theory
John St. Helen
According to The Escape and Suicide of John Wilkes Booth, in 1873, Bates met John St. Helen, a liquor and tobacco merchant in Granbury, Texas. The man had a particular tendency toward the theatrical and could recite Shakespeare from memory. Bates and St. Helen cultivated a friendship over five years. In 1878, St. Helen became ill, stating:
"I am dying. My name is John Wilkes Booth, and I am the assassin of President Lincoln. Get the picture of myself from under the pillow. I leave it with you for my future identification. Notify my brother Edwin Booth, of New York City."
St. Helen later recovered and explained in greater detail:
The leader of the conspiracy to assassinate Lincoln was Vice-President Andrew Johnson.
The identity of the man mortally wounded in the Garrett tobacco barn by Thomas P. "Boston" Corbett was a plantation overseer by the name of Ruddy. St. Helen/Booth had asked Ruddy to fetch his papers, which had fallen out of his pocket while crossing the Rappahannock River. Ruddy was able to retrieve Booth's papers, and while still in possession of them, Ruddy was mortally wounded in the Garrett barn, thus leading his captors to believe that he was Booth.
Shortly thereafter, St. Helen moved on to Leadville, Colorado, to pursue mining, and Bates moved to Memphis, losing track of St. Helen.
Bates claimed not to have believed St. Helen's story at the time, calling it an "unpleasant side of St. Helen's character." Bates described him as "modest, unobtrusive and congenial, ever pleasant in association with me. He was a social favorite with all with whom he came in contact." Despite his claims of disbelief, in 1900, Bates wrote the War Department in an unsuccessful attempt to claim the $100,000 reward advertised following Lincoln's assassination. He also informed the Department of State. Bates also wrote the Federal Bureau of Investigation in the early 1920s about his theory concerning Booth's purported escape.
David E. George
David E. George – possibly David Elihu George – a house painter with an appetite for drink and a knack for quoting Shakespeare, committed suicide by ingesting poison on January 13, 1903, while staying at room number 4 in the Grand Avenue Hotel in Enid, Oklahoma. He had purchased the strychnine from the Watrous Drug Store, telling the clerk, Frank Corry, that he wanted "to poison a dog" who had kept him up the night before. Shortly thereafter, store owner Eugene Watrous, unaware that his clerk had just sold George strychnine, provided additional strychnine to George "to poison a cat." By 10:30 a.m. that morning, other tenants complained of hearing groans and moans in George's locked room. They managed their way into George's room and found him writhing in pain. Despite the efforts of Dr. Champion, the local doctor, the poison had claimed him by 11 a.m. that morning. Acting Coroner Joe S. Jacobs assembled a coroner's jury, which included Mayor Charles O. Wood, and determined that George had died of alcohol and poison induced heart failure.
Shortly after George's death, Methodist Episcopal minister Rev. Enoch Covert Harper came to view the body, and relayed a story to William H. Ryan, who was embalming the body. In April 1900, while staying in El Reno, Oklahoma, George had reportedly confessed to Mrs. Jessie May Kuhn (who was soon to be Rev. E. C. Harper's second wife - they were married on May 23, 1900) that he was John Wilkes Booth. Mrs. Kuhn had then dismissed the confessions as the product of drug-induced delirium. George was also quoted as saying, "I killed the best man that ever lived."
Shortly after George's death, Dr. R.W. Baker examined the body and X-rayed it, but refused to reveal his results on "ethical grounds."
George's "afterlife"
George's body was sent to undertaker William Broadwell Penniman, who hesitated to have him buried until the body could be claimed. On December 31, 1902, George had drawn up a will with local lawyer Niles Houston, and it was filed with Judge Milton C. Garber on January 16, 1903. However, the property listed in the will ultimately proved non-existent, and the body remained unclaimed and unburied at Penniman's. The arsenic embalmed body sat for eight years on display in Enid at Penniman's establishment. Penniman had tied the body to a chair, opened its eyes, and placed a newspaper in its lap, creating a spectacle for passersby in the Enid downtown. As a young boy, writer Marquis James led dime tours into the funeral home to view the mummified body where it lay on a shelf. According to Penniman, 10,000 people viewed George's body during its time in Enid, including a few who clipped hair, buttons, and one even attempted to remove his ear.
Other papers found on George requested Finis Bates to be summoned. On January 23, 1903, Bates identified the body as that of his old acquaintance John St. Helen. Ultimately, with no one else to claim it, the body ended up in Bates's care. Bates stored it in the garage of his home located at 1234 Harbert Avenue, Memphis, Tennessee, and toured the alleged mummy of Booth in circus sideshows until after World War I. The body was shown at the 1904 St. Louis World's Fair, but was rejected by the 1933 Chicago World's Fair. In 1920, Bates tried to interest the automaker Henry Ford in buying it for $1,000, but Ford refused.
William B. Evans (died May 19, 1935) – a charter member of the Showmen's League of America (which is headquartered in Chicago) who was known as the "Carnival King of the Southwest" – rented the mummy in 1920, paying Bates $1,000 every five months. In 1920, while traveling to San Diego, the mummy came out unscathed from a trainwreck, where eight of Evans' employees and many of his circus animals died. Before Evans could reestablish a tour, the mummy was kidnapped. Evans ran ads in The Billboard offering a $1,000 reward for its return. Ultimately, the kidnapper himself turned in the mummy for its reward. Evans wanted to return it to Finis Bates, but Bates had died in 1923. Bates' widow sold the mummy to Evans for $1,000. Evans moved to a potato farm in Declo, Idaho, where he displayed George's body in a Pullman train car. James Newton Wilkerson (May 11, 1866 - Dec. 13, 1944) - a Kansas City lawyer and expert on John Wilkes Booth - examined the mummy in 1928, comparing its scars to those of J. W. Booth, and began touring the Southwest with it, incorporating as the American Historical Research Society. Enraged by its presence, Veterans of the Grand Army of the Republic, threatened to lynch the mummy. Wilkerson and Evans were often run out of town by health officials and policemen, and ultimately, the two disbanded. Evans died in 1935, killed during a holdup in Chicago.
In 1931, the Chicago Press Club hired six doctors led by Dr. Orlando Franke Scott (1885–1950) to examine the mummy:
[...]"a scarred right eyebrow that arched upwards, a thickening on the knuckle joint of the right thumb, and a piece of skin missing from the back of the neck [...] X-rays of the head, hands, and legs showed a thickening of the tissues over the right eyebrow, a thickening in the bones of the right thumb, and a marked thickening of the left fibula at its lower end, indicating an earlier fracture."
The results were not conclusive nor widely accepted. The event was viewed as a publicity stunt, and the doctors did not examine other elements such as height and facial features. X-rays from this examination were later displayed with the body, which now had a large opening in its backside as a result.
In 1932, Joseph Barney Harkin of the Wallace-Hagenbeck Circus bought the mummy, then named "John" for $5,000. Joseph and Agnes Harkin shared the back of a truck with "John" by night, and displayed him by day. Ultimately, in 1937, Harkin teamed up with Jay Gould's Million Dollar Spectacle, which displayed "John" for 25 cents admission. It was eventually seized as collateral for debt repayment.
In the 1950s, "John" was stored in a Philadelphia basement. R. K. Verbeck purchased "John" from a female landlord who had held it as collateral from a man who had died owing her rent. Verbeck paid $15.00 and in 1958, traveled back to Philadelphia to claim it, but when he arrived, the entire neighborhood had been razed, and "John" was gone. It was last seen in a midwestern carnival in the late 1970s.
The 1937 short film The Man in the Barn by Jacques Tourneur revisits the story of David E. George as Booth.
The Escape and Suicide of John Wilkes Booth (1907)
In 1907, Finis L. Bates published The Escape and Suicide of John Wilkes Booth to support his claim that the mummy of George was, in fact, the corpse of Booth. The book was published as The Escape and Suicide of John Wilkes Booth with several variations of the following subtitle, The First True Account of Lincoln's Assassination, Containing a Complete Confession by Booth Many Years After the Crime, Giving in Full Detail the Plans, Plot and Intrigue of the Conspirators, and the Treachery of Andrew Johnson, then Vice-President of the United States. Written for the Correction of History.
Memphis publishers Pilcher Printing Company, Bates Publishing Company and Historical Publishing Company; J. L. Nichols & Company of Naperville, Illinois, Atlanta, Georgia; etc.; the Retail Druggist Journal of Detroit; and G.M. Smith of Boston all published various editions of Bates' book in 1907.
Bates, Henry Ford and Fred L. Black
In order to understand how and why Henry Ford became involved with Finis L. Bates and the controversy over the alleged escape of John Wilkes Booth, it will be necessary to set forth here a little background information on some of Ford's activities in the 1916-1925 time period.
Ford v. The Chicago Daily Tribune
In May 1916, the Chicago Daily Tribune published an interview between journalist Charles Newton Wheeler and Henry Ford which contained Ford's now famous statement:
"History is more or less bunk. It's tradition. We don't want tradition. We want to live in the present and the only history that is worth a tinker's damn is the history we make today...."
About a month later the Chicago Daily Tribune printed an editorial by Clifford Samuel Raymond who wrote:
"Inquiry at the Henry Ford offices in Detroit discloses the fact that employees of Ford who are members of or recruits in the National Guard will lose their places. No provision will be made for any one dependent upon them. Their wages will stop, their families may get along in any fashion possible; their positions will be filled, and if they come back safely and apply for their jobs again they will be on the same footing as any other applicants. This is the rule for Ford employees everywhere...."
"If Ford allows this rule of his shops to stand he will reveal himself not merely as an ignorant idealist but as an anarchistic enemy of the nation which protects him in his wealth...."
In September 1916 Ford's legal counsel filed a libel suit in the U.S. District Court at Chicago against the Chicago Daily Tribune, seeking $1 million in damages for its "ignorant idealist" and an "anarchistic enemy of the nation" statements. Originally this case was pending before U. S. District Judge Kenesaw Mountain Landis of Chicago, but Ford's legal counsel withdrew it from Landis' jurisdiction and filed a new libel suit against the Chicago Daily Tribune on July 14, 1917, in the State Court of Michigan at Detroit. However, the Chicago Daily Tribune applied for a change of venue on the grounds that too many people in Detroit worked for Ford, and it was agreed among all the parties concerned that Circuit Judge James G. Tucker of the Circuit Court of Macomb County at Mt. Clemens, Michigan, would hear the case instead. Jury selection for the trial began on May 12, 1919. The case dragged on for about three months, and the jury finally delivered its verdict on August 14, 1919, finding in favor of Ford and awarding him nominal damages of six cents.
During Ford's 8 days on the witness stand he was asked to clarify the meaning of the statement he had made to Charles N. Wheeler that "History is more or less bunk." Ford's explanation to the court of what he had meant by this statement provoked extreme ridicule, not only from representatives of the Chicago Daily Tribune but from many observers of the trial proceedings worldwide. Ford became so annoyed over the public response to his explanation of his now famous statement, that in September 1919 after his libel suit was finally over, he vowed to prove to the world it really is true that "History is more or less bunk."
Fred L. Black
Bates' 1907 book on Booth had come to Ford's attention and in September 1919, Ford decided to vigorously explore the idea that if Bates' claims about John Wilkes Booth could be proven to be true by groundbreaking and exhaustive research, it would lend great credibility to his statement that "History is more or less bunk."
Ford instructed Frederick Lee Black (Jan. 26, 1891 – Nov. 7, 1971), business manager of The Dearborn Independent, to locate Finis L. Bates and to begin investigating the validity of the claims in Bates' book. Black did locate Bates and invited him to Dearborn to tell his story, whereupon Bates tried to interest Ford in buying Booth's alleged mummy from him. Between 1919 and 1923, Black, amidst his many other duties for Ford, conducted extensive research, not only into Bates' specific claims as presented in his 1907 book, but into many other controversial topics connected with the Lincoln assassination as well. However, Black at the end of his research concluded that many of Bates' claims were untrue, and advised Ford not to purchase the mummy. Black published some of his findings and conclusions in articles in The Dearborn Independent (primarily in the March, April, and May 1925 issues of the newspaper), and he also wrote a manuscript setting forth his research findings which was never published. An archive of the documents Fredrick Black collected and his manuscript are located in the Kresge Library at Oakland University in Michigan.
Death
Bates died at his home at 1234 Harbert Street in Memphis, Tennessee, of "cardio-renal" failure on November 29, 1923, and is buried in Elmwood Cemetery in Memphis.
See also
Abraham Lincoln assassination
References
Further reading
Evans, C. Wyatt, The Legend of John Wilkes Booth: Myth, Memory, and a Mummy, 2004, University Press of Kansas
Frederick L. Black Papers at the Kresge Library, Oakland University, Rochester, Michigan
A Collection of Articles Concerning Abraham Lincoln Clipped from The Dearborn Independent (Dearborn, Michigan: Ford Motor Company, 1932) (307 p.), Benson Ford Research Center, Main Collection (Call No.: B Li-De), Dearborn, MI
External links
Finis L. Bates at Find a Grave
The Postmortem Career of John Wilkes Booth
1848 births
1923 deaths
American conspiracy theorists
People from Itawamba County, Mississippi
Lawyers from Memphis, Tennessee
Writers from Memphis, Tennessee
19th-century American lawyers
Burials at Elmwood Cemetery (Memphis, Tennessee) |
4440995 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1984%2024%20Hours%20of%20Le%20Mans | 1984 24 Hours of Le Mans | The 1984 24 Hours of Le Mans was the 52nd Grand Prix of Endurance, and took place on 16 – 17 June 1984. It was also the third round of the 1984 World Endurance Championship.
There were two big stories going into the race weekend: the absence of the Porsche works team and their drivers, and the return of Jaguar. Bob Tullius had commissioned the new Jaguar XJR-5 to run in the IMSA series and entered two for Le Mans. Earlier in the year, FISA had announced abrupt changes to the fuel regulations to bring them more in line with IMSA. Porsche and Lancia objected strongly because of their strong investment in the existing rules. In the absence of dominant Porsche works team, the race was left wide open between Lancia and the number of strong Porsche customer teams.
Run in excellent weather, it was a race of excitement and tragedy. Lancia had qualified 1–2 on pole but from the start it was a hotly contested event. The lead changed fifteen times in the first 50 laps, as a half-dozen cars jostled for the lead with close racing that thrilled the spectators. This group did not include the Joest Porsche of former winners Henri Pescarolo and Klaus Ludwig, who had been badly delayed by fuel-pressure issues in the first hour and were down in 30th position. The previous fragility of the Lancias was not apparent and going into the night Bob Wollek's Lancia held a narrow lead.
It was at 9:15pm, as dusk was falling, that the most serious accident of the race occurred. The two Nimrod-Aston Martins were travelling in line astern on the Hunaudières Straight when John Sheldon's leading car suddenly veered off the road at the Mulsanne kink leading up to the hairpin. Hitting the Armco barrier, it ricocheted violently across the track into the fencing on the other side and burst into flames. In avoiding the disintegrating car, his team-mate also hit the barrier. A track marshal, Jacky Loiseau, was killed by flying debris and another seriously injured. Sheldon was airlifted to hospital with serious burns. After an hour behind safety cars to allow repairs to be done, the race resumed. The Lancias soon established themselves 1–2 at the head of the field ahead of the pursuing pack of Porsches.
The race was also notable for the very large numbers of mechanical incidents with almost no car left unaffected and without a delay. It also meant no car was able to establish a dominant lead. Everything changed around breakfast time on Sunday. Having led through the night, the Wollek/Nannini Lancia had a long stop to fix its gearbox and the JFR Porsche in second pitted running on five cylinders. This all left the Pescarolo/Ludwig Porsche in the lead after charging back up the field after their initial delay. The American Porsche of Preston Henn was second, one of the few that had had a smooth run through the race. It stayed fairly static at the front for the rest of the race, with Pescarolo getting his fourth Le Mans outright victory, and Ludwig his second. The ailing JFR Porsche held on for third, while Wollek took the Lancia out in the last quarter-hour to come home eighth, the first non-Porsche finisher.
Winner of the C2 Class was the Lola-Mazda sponsored by the BF Goodrich tyre company, while neither of the Jaguars finished although they had run in the top-10 for most of the race. Such was the attrition the winners distance was 11 laps fewer than that of the 1983 winner. It was also the biggest comeback in the race by a team after an early-race delay.
Regulations
In March 1984, just before the start of the season and only months before the race, the sport's governing body FISA (Fédération Internationale du Sport Automobile) announced that IMSA classes would be eligible for the World Championship. Hence the minimum weight rose 50 kg to 850 kg to accommodate them. It also stated that the fuel-formula at the heart of the Group C regulations would be scrapped in 1985, in favour of IMSA's system of sliding weight-scale to balance engine capacity. The works teams (essentially Porsche and Lancia) were furious after the considerable investment they had put into developing fuel-efficient engines (and engine-management systems), forecasting it would lead to a spiralling contest for more power over weight. In response FISA agreed to review the decision.
Therefore, the Automobile Club de l'Ouest (ACO) was obliged to admit entries from the IMSA series. The GTP class was very similar to Group C. Its biggest engines were linked to a minimum weight of 900 kg. Only a single turbo was allowed and there were different rules regarding aerodynamics. Safety measures such as a steel rollcage and having footpedals behind the front suspension were further differences. For Le Mans, their usual 120-litre fuel tanks had to be exchanged for the 100-litre ones as used by Group C.
Meanwhile, the Group C Junior class was renamed Group C2, and the senior class became Group C1. The ACO kept the 25-lap limit on oil-replenishment. However, a simple fuel-counter mechanism allowed teams to track their fuel consumption, thereby removing the need for a mandatory number of pit-stops, when there was a set total volume (2600 litres) per car for the race. This did encourage teams to try alternative fuel strategies to gain an advantage. The C2 class were now fitted with 100-litre fuel-tanks but kept their reduced fuel allowance. They also had to comply to the IMSA requirement to fit the pedals behind the line of the front axle.
Entries
In light of the FISA pronouncement, the Rothmans Porsche works team chose to boycott Le Mans. This made it the first since Porsche's debut in 1951 that a works team would not be present. Despite the open invitation to IMSA competitors, very few actually took it up, with only eleven entries submitted. However, of those, a significant drawcard was the return of Jaguar to Le Mans after over 20 years. Group C was flourishing, filling up over half the field. Overall, around 25 cars could be classed as works entries from manufacturers and small constructors, or with direct factory support.
Note: The first number is the number accepted, the second the number who started.
Group C1 and GTP
In the absence of the works team, and their contracted drivers, the onus of success instead fell on the customer teams. The race-winning model from last year was available for sale now – with its revised suspension and including the Bosch Motronic engine-management system. Now called the 956B, one each was picked up by the three leading teams – Joest, Kremer and JFR (John Fitzpatrick Racing). Walter Brun, moving on from the unsuccessful Sehcar project snared a fourth. Along with the older models there were fully 16 cars in the entry list, making Porsche still a strong favourite for the win. Many of the older cars were being retrofitted by their teams with the Motronic system.
Joest Racing had two cars entered, sponsored by the New Man jeans company. They had enticed three-time winner Henri Pescarolo and 1979 winner Klaus Ludwig to join the team and they were given the 956B. The older 956 would be run by young F1 driver Stefan Johansson, Jean-Louis Schlesser and wealthy Colombian flower-merchant Mauricio de Narvaez.
Dieter Schornstein had bought Joest's other 956 (that had finished 4th in 1983). Volkert Merl, who had driven it then, was again on the crew, along with Louis Krages on debut (who ran under the pseudonym "John Winter").
Porsche Kremer Racing likewise had two cars entered. The 956B had 1983-winner Vern Schuppan (not a contracted Porsche works-driver this year, hence not covered by the boycott). He was joined by fellow-Australian Alan Jones and Jean-Pierre Jarier, both of whom had left F1 this year. Their other 956 was the car that had finished third for Kremer the year before. Tiff Needell / David Sutherland / Rusty French would be its drivers this year.
Meanwhile, Porsche had been developing a car for the IMSA series as the 956 was ineligible from its pedal placement. The Porsche 962 had a longer wheelbase, for the pedals to fit behind the axle for the American GTP class. It was fitted with a 2.9-litre single-turbo engine. Two of the first customers were Preston Henn's Swap Shop team and John Fitzpatrick's Skoal Bandit team, who both brought their cars to Le Mans. Fitzpatrick instead chose to fit a standard Porsche 2.65-litre engine, as used in the 956, and entered it in Group C1. This year, he stayed in the pits as team-manager, giving the driving duties to Guy Edwards, Rupert Keegan and debutante Roberto Moreno. A second JFR car was also entered – a brand new 956B, for David Hobbs/Philippe Streiff/Sarel van der Merwe. He also supported the entry from Team Australia, loaning them the 956 that had run the previous year. It would be driven by Bathurst champions Peter Brock and Larry Perkins. Henn raced his 962 in the GTP class. His first-choice drivers were unavailable: A. J. Foyt (family matters) and Hurley Haywood (leg injury) so he instead he got Michel Ferté and Edgar Dören to drive with him. Henn also had a second Porsche in the C1 class, to be driven by previous race-winner Jean Rondeau alongside John Paul Jnr.
Walter Brun had ended his partnership with Seger & Hoffmann and Brun Motorsport purchased both a 956B and a 956 with the uprated Motronic engine-system. Brun himself raced the new car, with American Bob Akin and German Prinz Leopold von Bayern. The second car had the regular championsjip pairing of Oscar Larrauri and Massimo Sigala, with Joël Gouhier joining for a one-off drive.
Richard Lloyd's GTi Engineering had expanded to a two-car team, with his Canon sponsorship. The lead car was driven by pro-drivers Jonathon Palmer and Jan Lammers, and the team had done their own development work to improve its aerodynamics. The other car was the ex-works one that Stefan Bellof had crashed at the Nürburgring the previous year. Lloyd ran it as a camera-car, and brought in Dakar Rally winner René Metge and Pink Floyd drummer Nick Mason as co-drivers. The large field of 16 Group C/GTP Porsches was rounded out with the German Jürgen Lässig/Hans Obermeier car and a new car for the Charles Ivey team stepping up to the main class.
Without the Porsche works team, Lancia saw its best opportunity to win. The Ferrari V8 engine had been bored out from 2.6 to 3.0-litres, tied with electronic engine management from Magneti Marelli. They also had new Abarth gearboxes installed. The LC2 was very fast – able to reach over 350 kp/h (220 mph) on the straights. Team principal Cesare Fiorio had enticed Bob Wollek away from the Porsche teams, with up-and-coming F2 driver Alessandro Nannini. The other team car was driven by Mauro Baldi/Hans Heyer/Paolo Barilla. A third car, driven by Pierluigi Martini/Beppe Gabbiani/Xavier Lapeyre, was not in Martini livery but in the yellow of the Malardeau-sponsored Jolly Club team.
Many of the pre-race headlines were trumpeting the return to Le Mans of the Jaguar brand. It was not a works effort but came from American Bob Tullius and his Group 44 Racing team from the IMSA series, that had finished second in the 1983 championship. The XJR-5 was designed by Lee Dykstra, with a 5.3-litre Jaguar V12 engine. The cars were constructed at Dave Klym's Fabcar Engineering workshop. The Kevlar-carbonfibre composite body was tested in wind-tunnels and the car was deliberately built with a Group C-compatible floor to allow the cars to meet Tullius' aim to take them to Le Mans. Two cars arrived in the GTP-class, now fitted with 6.0-litre fuel-injected engines that could put out 650 bhp. Not wanting to stress the engines, the drivers stayed off full revs, but could reach 340 kp/h (210 mph). The team had a very experienced multinational line-up with Tullius driving with Doc Bundy and British veteran Brian Redman in his car, while F1 driver John Watson, French GT champion Claude Ballot-Léna and Tony Adamowicz (who had last raced at Le Mans in 1972 with an NART Ferrari) were in the other.
The other entry in the GTP class was from March North America. Al Holbert's team had won the 1983 IMSA GT Championship with the 83G, powered by a Chevrolet engine. Tracing its lineage back to the BMW-March project from 1980, the 83G and it successor, the 84G, were dominating the current IMSA season supported by March North America. One of those cars, co-operated in the US by Pegasus Racing and Davidson Racing. This car was powered by a turbo Buick V6 engine prepared by McLaren Engines. Boosted up to 700 bhp, it could achieve impressive straight-line speed, reaching 355 kp/h (220 mph). This was tempered though by driving abilities of the amateur team of Madren/Speer/Pickering.
After a strong racing history, Jean Rondeau's company had now gone into liquidation. The owner had gone to Daytona to tout for drivers to come to Le Mans and race his cars. While there, he also landed himself a pay-drive with Preston Henn's team. Meanwhile, the remnants of the Rondeau team prepared an M482 for Americans Walt Bohren and Jim Mullen, with works driver Alain Ferté on hand for local knowledge. Two regular Rondeau privateers, Christian Bussi and Pierre Yver returned with their older M382s. Yver carried #50 for the 50th anniversary of his ongoing energy sponsor Primagaz.
The small WM team continued its development of their P83 model. The P83B was wider, with improved brakes and cooling. They went back to the 2.65-litre V6 Peugeot engine, but still able to put out 650 bhp in qualifying mode. This all made the small WM the fastest car on the track, reaching over 360 kp/h (225 mph).
Le Mans resident Yves Courage debuted his new Cougar C02, built on the industrial park bedside the circuit. Designed by Marcel Hubert (who had designed the winning Renault in 1978), it had a longer tail, improved suspension and a new cooling system, the 3.3-litre DFL was race-tuned by Heini Mader's Swiss team. Without regular team-mate, Alain de Cadenet (driving with the Charles Ivey team), Courage and Michel Dubois brought in American John Jellinek as the third driver.
For Nimrod-Aston Martin, the 1983 foray into IMSA had been ruinously expensive with poor results. The company folded and the plans for a turbo-powered model were cancelled. The assets were purchased, briefly, by John Cooper until passed on to Viscount Downe (an Aston Martin shareholder and president of the owners' club), who had previously run a privateer Nimrod. This year's derivation had improved aerodynamics, developed by the Ray Mallock Ltd high-performance company. This improved the top speed to 340 kp/h (215 mph). Mallock himself raced one car with Drake Olson, son of the American Aston Martin distributor and the experienced British trio of John Sheldon, Mike Salmon and Richard Attwood (1970 winner).
The works Dome team returned with their new RC83, with a streamlined aerodynamic chassis. Works drivers were the two Swedes Eje Elgh and Stanley Dickens. A second Dome, entered by Dorset Racing was an older RC82i put onto a narrower chassis.
The original Grid car had raced in the past two Le Mans. A second chassis was finished and entered this year by the busy Charles Ivey team for its owner Dudley Wood. They were one of the first teams to do the obvious, and take the very successful 2649cc turbocharged engine from the Porsche 956 and fit it to different chassis. Despite being bored out to 2856cc, the S2 was one of the heaviest Group C cars in the field. Wood and his regular co-drivers John Cooper and Barry Robinson had already taken the car for races in IMSA and the Silverstone WEC round.
Group C2
Mazda continued its programme in the junior C2 class. The works team, Mazdaspeed, brought two cars of the latest development of the 717C chassis by its in-house division, Mooncraft. The new 727C still had the screaming hi-rev 320 bhp Mazda 13B twin-rotary engine but the better aerodynamics made it easier to drive. Regular works-drivers Yojiro Terada and Takashi Yorino were joined by Pierre Dieudonné, while the other European works-driver, Irishman David Kennedy raced with the Belgian Martin brothers, Jean-Michel and Philippe.
In 1982, Jim Busby and the BF Goodrich tyre company had won its class in a Porsche 924 fitted with their standard high-performance road-tyres. This year, they commissioned Lola to design a new car, based on the current T610. With the same Mazda rotary engine as the works cars, it could get up to 275 kp/h (175 mph). Ballast was needed to bring it over the 700 kg minimum weight and ran with the Goodrich high-performance tyres. The cars had performed very well at Daytona before being shipped across to Europe, where Busby took the class victory at Monza. Busby ran one of the cars, while Mazda gave the customer team Yoshimi Katayama, one of their test drivers, to lead the other car.
Alba Engineering had won four Championship races in the 1983 season, run by the Jolly Club team principals Martino Finotto and Carlo Facetti. They proceeded to build a second car. Finotto enlarged the turbo-engine to 1980cc, and it was now capable of 330 kp/h (205 mph) and up to 500 bhp in practice. They were at a disadvantage, by still being fitted with 85-litre fuel cells when the new C2 cars had 100-litre cells. Finotto, Facetti and Vanoli again ran the lead car together, while Coppelli/Pavia/Daccò raced the other car which had taken the class-win at the round before Le Mans, at Silverstone.
As well as the Rondeau cars in the C1-class, a 4-year old M379C was modified and entered in C2. It had been purchased by the new Graff Racing team (the name a combination of the owners Jean-Philippe Grand and François Feymann). All the Rondeau engines were tuned by Heini Mader. Sponsorship was raised by selling 50 lottery tickets for £1000 to choose the racing livery. The winning design was that of Barclays, as used by the Arrows F1 team.
Tiga Race Cars had been founded in the 1970s by antipodeans Tim Schenken and Howden Ganley, with a successful series of cars in the 2-litre Sports car classes. Australian Neil Crang commissioned Tiga's first Group C car, the GC83, was only completed with a Chevrolet V8 late in the past season, racing for Spice Engineering with team-owners Gordon Spice and Ray Bellm. Spice then modified the design, as the new GC84, to incorporate the 3.3-litre Cosworth VFL engine instead and give it a nose akin to that of the Porsche 956. A second car, a GC284, was one of two built based on the old S2000 car and fitted with a Cosworth BDT rally engine. The 1778cc turbocharged engine could put out 380 bhp. It was entered by British privateer Roy Baker and his JQF Engineering team.
Overshadowed by the return of Jaguar, another famous name from the same period re-appeared. The Scottish Écurie Écosse team was reborn by a business group led by Hugh McCaig. Buying Alain DeCadenet's 1977 Group 6 sports car, they used it as the basis for a new aerodynamic C2 bodyshell. The Ecosse C284 still carried the 3-litre Cosworth DFV which could get the car up to 315 kp/h (195 mph). Just after the car was finished, FISA updated the C2 fuel capacity to 100 litres, necessitating the team to squeeze extra capacity into the side-pods. Regular season drivers Mike Wilds/David Duffield was joined by David Leslie for this race.
ADA Engineering had bought the De Cadenet-Lola they had modified for François Duret. Renamed the ADA 01, the team refined the bodywork further and updated the Cosworth engine to a 3.3-litre DFL. In various incarnations, the chassis was now entered for its ninth Le Mans.
Group B, GTX and GTO
The GT classes were split between Group B and the IMSA GTO, with an entry list composed of experienced privateers. The withdrawal of the Camaros of the American Stratagraph team meant it was, once again, going to be a contest between Porsche and BMW. In Group B, the BMW M1 had won the opening rounds and two cars arrived to take on the Porsches. Jens Winther and his Team Castrol Denmark had the victory at Monza, and German Helmut Gall entered his as the French BMW-Bayonne team.
Against them was the very experienced Swiss Claude Haldi (in his 17th Le Mans) and Frenchman Michel Lateste, both driving 3.3-litre 930 turbos. Raymond Boutinard was the other Porsche entry, returning with his 4.7-litre Porsche 928 V8.
There were no American teams in the small, 3-car, GTO class. The Charles Ivey Engineering team had won class victories three years in a row latterly, in Group 5 and Group B, and this year was the favourite moving across to GTO, with their 930 turbo. The French Alméras brothers had a similar car, while Raymond Touroul was the underdog in his non-turbo 3-litre 911 SC.
The 1983 race had been the first post-war Le Mans without a Ferrari presence. However, this year the Italian Scuderia Bellancauto did return to the race. The team had originally planned to convert their Ferrari 512BBB to Group C specification. However, the abrupt change in regulations to include IMSA classes changed their plan to instead convert it to be GTX-compatible. Fitted with a narrower chassis designed by Armando Palanca, it could reach 330 kp/h (205 mph). They were the only GTX-entry, when the similar Ferrari cars of the North American Racing Team were withdrawn.
Practice and Qualifying
Wanting to make a definite statement of intent, Lancia were out early in qualifying and soon put in very fast times with their wound-up qualifying-engines. Lancia were able to lock out the front row of the grid in qualifying. Bob Wollek easily took pole with a 3:17.1, more than three seconds over his team-mate. However, he never got a clear lap to challenge Jacky Ickx's time from the previous year, much to Wollek's disappointment (although he did win his body-weight in champagne). The biggest issue for Lancia was a major accident for Martini in the third car. Walter Brun had spun off in the Porsche Curves, and as he rejoined the track under the waved yellows, Martini came flying round the blind corner on a hot lap, hitting Brun's car square in the mid-rift. Neither driver was hurt but both cars were badly damaged, necessitating a lot of work for the mechanics overnight to repair them.
Well behind them was the pack of 956s, led by the two yellow New Man Joest cars. The best time they could put up was a distant 3:26.1 for Johansson (over 2 seconds slower than their times the year before). Next were the lead cars of the RLR-Canon (Palmer), JFR Skoal Bandit (Hobbs) and Kremer (Schuppan) teams. Eighth was the WM (3:30.0 – six seconds and ten places better than they did the previous year), with the other Kremer Porsche 9th and the Nimrod in 10th. A number of the Porsche teams were finding their new high-downforce nose-cones that set up disturbing fishtailing along the long straits. For those who still had them, some teams reverted to the original low-grip noses. This wasn't an option, however for the new 962s which left their drivers very concerned. A further concerning problem struck the Ivey Porsche, when the suspension failed and it lost its front wheel during practice. De Cadenet would lose another wheel in the Porsche Curves on Saturday evening.
The best of the GTPs was Tullius' Jaguar in 14th (3:35.3) with the March down in 35th (3:50.5). The new 962s were disappointing and off-the-pace with the aerodynamic issues, only qualifying 16th (JFR) and 26th (Henn). The Courage was the fastest of the Cosworth-powered cars in 20th. Top in C2, once again, was the nimble Alba in 22nd (3:41.48) out-qualifying a third of the C1 and GTP cars. Their nearest opposition was the Rondeau in 30th (3:47.5). Among the GTs, it was the GTO-entered Alméras Porsche that was quickest by a sizeable margin, with a 4:02.8 (45th) ahead of the Winther BMW of Group B (46th with a 4:09.9). The GTX Ferrari was just ahead of them in 43rd.
Race
Start
This year the race start-time was moved to 3pm, and the event was run in good weather throughout. As the pace-car pulled off, several cars were already in the pitlane with engine issues - the ADA, Ecosse and Gall's BMW. Wollek duly took the lead into the Dunlop curve from the start, but was surprised when the little yellow bullet that was Dorchy's WM blasted past them all down Hunaudières straight, from eighth on the grid on a light fuel-load, to outbrake him at the Mulsanne corner. WM now led Le Mans for the first time in the team's history. Wollek took back the lead on the second lap, only for Dorchy to snatch it back again on lap 3. This time, however, when he braked for Mulsanne the car snapped left and clattered the guardrail leading to a slow trip back to the pits. But this did not give Wollek a clear path, and for the next half-hour he was hounded by the Porsches of Johansson, Palmer and Schuppan with the lead often chopping and changing. This thrilled the crowd with the unexpected sprint-race tactics.
Several early pit-callers in the first laps were Lloyd in his RLR-Canon Porsche (brakes) and Pescarolo in the Joest Porsche (fuel pressure). After 40 minutes, by the time of the first fuel stops (around lap 11–13) it was Schuppan with a narrow lead. With their larger tanks in GTP, the Jaguars could run up to a quarter-hour longer. So it gave them a brief moment of glory with Tullius leading the race for Jaguar upon their return. Yet, this was only a brief respite as the close racing continued on as the teams' second drivers picked up the pace. After the first hour, there were only four cars left on the lead-lap. After their early problems, Ludwig and Pescarolo were down in 30th. Then Palmer felt a wobble at Tertre Rouge, and got back to the pits to find the car had a broken rear wishbone. The repairs took a quarter-hour and dropped them to the bottom of the field. They were making progress back up the field when the same thing happened on the other rear wishbone. The Team Australia Porsche had been running as high as eighth until a wheel came off at the Porsche Curves.
The leading group were often running barely fifteen seconds apart. After four hours the two Lancias were still battling with the Joest, Kremer and JFR Porsches, all five still on the lead lap. There had been fifteen lead changes in the first 50 laps. Behind them were the JFR 962, Rondeau in the Henn Porsche that split the two Jaguars, with Ray Mallock's Nimrod in tenth, themselves all in close-running tussles. However, soon after, Keegan went straight ahead at the Indianapolis corner when his steering jammed. The car got back to the pits but the suspension was wrecked and the JFR 962 had to be retired. Johansson's Joest Porsche then had a big spin on dropped oil at Indianapolis. The damage was not severe but took over an hour to remedy, including borrowing parts from the JFR team. They returned to the race now down in 37th place. It was then the turn of the Kremer Porsche to be delayed. At 8.30pm, having held the lead for a majority of the past few hours, Schuppan came round a corner to find Dorchy spinning right in front of him. He tried to dodge the errant WM, but it rebounded off the barrier into his path. Winging the car, Schuppan lost 8 minutes getting a wheel-rim and front nose repaired. Without a spare, the team were forced to fit a short-nose to the car until the original got repaired and re-fitted later on. All these issues with the Porsches left the Wollek/Nannini Lancia with a lap's lead. In C2, the class-lead was a contest between the Facetti/Finotto/Vanoli Alba and the Graff Racing Rondeau, with the Lola-Mazdas tracking them, not far behind. Then, either side of 7pm, the Alba lost time replacing the fuel pump and fuel injector.
Then in the twilight, at 9.20pm there was a major accident on the Hunaudières straight. The two Nimrod-Aston Martins were travelling in close proximity, as Sheldon had just lapped his teammate Olsen, with Palmer in turn overtaking him. Sheldon was storming down the straight at full speed, when a puncture made the car suddenly jerk left at the kink approaching the Mulsanne hairpin. The car violently ricocheted across the circuit. Palmer saw the dust and immediately braked as the stricken Nimrod thumped the barrier on the right and exploded in a fireball. Olsen was right behind Palmer, and unsighted, re-passed the slowing Palmer just as a big piece of debris from the crash flew across the track into the path of the other Nimrod. In avoiding it, he himself went into the barrier. The fire was so fierce it set some of the trees alight. John Sheldon was airlifted to hospital with serious burns, but Olsen was unhurt. Sadly, flag marshal Jacky Loiseau was hit by flying debris and killed in the accident, and another badly injured. The field was collected up behind four pace-cars for an hour as the damage cleared away and repairs were made.
Night
Night had fallen by the time the race went green again. Soon the second Lancia of Baldi/Heyer/Barilla, that had been lying third, passed the Hobbs JFR Porsche moved up the field. Going into the night, the Lancias were running 1-2 and showing good reliability. After a routine, careful race, by midnight the Rondeau/Paul Porsche was now in fourth, with the Kremer Porsche (delayed when van der Merwe ran over debris), the two Jaguars and the Schornstein Porsche not far behind, all covered by only three laps.
At 2am Palmer had just got the RLR Porsche back into the top-10 when he pitted expressing concern about the gearbox. Unfortunately, the pit crew did not secure the engine cover properly and when Lammers took the car out, it blew off two laps later going into the Dunlop Curve. That cost the team 40 minutes and six places. Just before half-time, Heyer pitted his Lancia, running second, having stripped its top gear. Repairs took 62 minutes and they emerged in 14th, just ahead of the recovering RLR Porsche. The Skoal Bandit car moved back into second, back on the same lap as the leader. After an early delay with variable fuel pressure, the Joest Porsche of Ludwig/Pescarolo had charged back through the field and was now sitting third. In further close racing in the top-10, the Jaguars were swapping positions with the Porsches of Rondeau, Schornstein and now both Kremer cars, according to the pitting cycles.
The Racing 44 team were banking on their reliability to give a good result, but their luck ran out in the 14th hour. At 4am Claude Ballot-Léna stopped at Arnage with a broken throttle cable. By the time he jury-rigged a repair and got back to the pits to have it replaced, it had lost them 8 laps. The litany of incidents affecting the customer Porsches continued throughout the night. The Team Australia car was out when Perkins crashed at Tertre Rouge. The Johansson/Schlesser/de Narvaez Joest car also retired. Having been an early leader, Schlesser had gone off-road and getting repairs also found terminal engine issues. The Obermeier Porsche was put out, yet another victim of a wheel going adrift. Tiff Needell had a scary moment in his Kremer Porsche, when a bolt sheared in the gearbox plate leaving his rear suspension unsecured. He was coming through the Porsche Curves at speed when the car suddenly slewed left into the barriers. Crawling back to the pits, repairing the steering rack took two hours.
As dawn approached, Wollek made a stop to fix a broken suspension link, but was soon able to take back the lead when the JFR car had a scheduled brake change. Both Jaguars had been running well, staying in the top-10. However, as dawn was breaking Adamowicz crashed at Tertre Rouge when he suffered a puncture while running in 8th. Back at the pits, it was found the damage had broken the oil tank.
Morning
The reliability of the Lancia finally failed at 7am. As the crowd were rousing themselves for breakfast, the race took on a new complexion. Wollek came in without his fifth gear, but then one of the turbos also needed replacing. This took an hour and he returned to the race in fifth. Less than an hour later, the recovering sister-car lost a half-hour repairing a broken gear-linkage. The Skoal Bandit JFR car only had the lead for a lap before Streiff also pitted, with the engine sounding rough. Plugs were changed but van der Merwe had to go back out just running on five cylinders. To round off the mechanical issues, the remaining Jaguar had lost its third gear. Redman came back out after 45 minutes in tenth place. The Lammers/Palmer RLR car threw its alternator belt ruining the engine and forcing their retirement.
All this action put the Pescarolo/Ludwig Joest Porsche into the lead, having run very reliably after their delay very early in the race. With six hours to go, they had a lap over the American Porsche of Henn/Rondeau/Paul running like clockwork in the top-5 all through the night. A degree of consistency came over the field, with the Schuppan Kremer car in third, climbing back up the field, and the JFR Bandit car in 4th. Wollek was going very quickly in the Lancia in 5th, setting the fastest lap of the race at this time. The Brun Porsche had quietly come up the field to be 6th, with the Rondeau and Bundy's Jaguar behind. The top-10 was rounded out with the Joest-supported Schornstein car and the other Brun Porsche.
In the GT classes, the cars had been duelling back and forth, and there were three cars left in both classes. In Group B, Claude Haldi had led going into the night, but during the darkness the lead had been swapping back and forth with the Helmut Gall BMW. By mid-morning, the latter finally managed to establish a gap over the Porsche. The favoured Danish BMW had retired before half-time after ongoing issues with its exhaust and wheel bearings kept it from being competitive. Raymond Touroul's non-turbo Porsche had led the GTO class since the first hour, after early issues stymied his rivals and they never caught up.
From all the issues to the Porsche teams through the night, the mechanical problems in the latter part of the race mainly affected the other manufacturers. Dorchy's WM was finally retired after a series of troubles, including over three hours lost repairing damage from a trio of separate excursions by Dorchy. The pit-crew did a full gearbox rebuild at dawn only for it to fail again at 7.30am. The run of the remaining Jaguar ended around 11.30am when its gearbox seized solid. At the same time, the Rondeau had been having a good run, moving up to 7th through the morning. They became another victim of a burnt-out cylinder, spending 90 minutes in the pits. Alain Ferté drove a cautious shift until parking with 40 minutes to go to eventually finish 13th. The second Lancia finally expired with a broken camshaft, and then soon after 1pm the Wollek/Nannini car came in with its fifth gear broken again. With not enough time to do the major repairs, the car was parked up until the final minutes to at least get to the finish.
Finish and post-race
This left the top-10 full of Porsches suggesting a dominance that had been anything but Vern Schuppan had just jumped into the Kremer car for his final stint and passed Henn into go up to second, when the engine dropped onto five cylinders. They likewise parked up and eventually came out at the end, to finish sixth. Many cars were now easing back to save their cars, but it was not an option for the Brun and Schornstein cars on the same lap fighting for fourth place.
In a strange scene, a number of cars crawled to a halt at the end of the Porsche Curves on the last lap awaiting the leader to come by, so they did not have to do an extra lap. In the end, Ludwig brought the Joest Porsche to the chequered flag two laps ahead of the American Porsche of Preston Henn. Wollek came out at the end and shadowed the winning car on the last laps to finish eighth a full 34 laps down. The John Fitzpatrick Bandit Porsche of Hobbs/Streiff/van der Merwe was third, nine laps behind while the Brun Motorsport Porsche just held on by half a lap for fourth over the Schornstein car.
Tenth overall, and first in the C Junior class, was the Lola-Mazda of the BF Goodrich team. Drivers Katayama, Morton and O'Steen had a very reliable run; the only delay being a quarter-hour lost with the starter motor at 7.40am. The sister car had several interruptions during the night when it hit debris and late Sunday morning losing an hour fixing the gearbox. However, they also got to the finish, third in class. Second was the Rondeau M379 of Graff Racing, having a strong Le Mans debut and a solid run. By contrast, the Mazdaspeed works team had a difficult race. Kennedy had just taken the class lead at dawn when the suspension forced a long pit-stop. The other car had a number of issues but still managed to stay in contact with the class leaders. However, its gearbox broke at 11.15am. Once repaired, the crew rammed it into third gear and Terada moved out with Kennedy in formation to take the flag.
In Class B, after an inauspicious start almost losing their bonnet on the very first lap, the Gall BMW had got to the lead by mid-morning and held on for the class victory, finishing 14th overall. They were 7 laps ahead of Claude Haldi's Porsche after they spent almost an hour fixing their brakes. In the GTO Class, Raymond Touroul's Porsche had never been headed during the race. They took an easy class victory, covering 18 laps further than they did the previous year when they ran a Class B 930.
Pescarolo became only the third driver to win the race four times, and it had been ten years since his previous victory, with Matra. For Ludwig, this was his second victory after joining with the Whittington brothers in the 1979 Kremer-Porsche. This was the first Le Mans victory for Joest Racing, following their aforementioned German rivals. Never before in the race's history had a winning car been so lowly-placed after the first hour and come back to take the victory. For Porsche, it was their ninth victory, equalling the tally of Ferrari. The four new 956B cars all finished, taking four of the top six places.
In July FISA confirmed their decision to reduce the fuel allocation down to 530 litre from the current 600. It further stated that a new method for moderating the power outputs would be devised for 1986.
The Bellancauto Ferrari had retired early in the race, and that would be the last Ferrari racing at Le Mans for ten years. It was also the last time that the Mooncraft division prepared the Mazda sports cars, as they turned to focus on their own single-seater project. Development was picked up directly by the Mazdaspeed team.
That such an exciting race had occurred, despite being without the works Porsches, spoke volumes for the racing regulations and their competitiveness. It boded well for the next year.
Official results
Finishers
Results taken from Quentin Spurring's book, officially licensed by the ACOClass Winners are in Bold text.
Did Not Finish
Did Not Start
Class Winners
Note: setting a new class distance record.
Index of Energy Efficiency
Note: Only the top ten positions are included in this set of standings.
Statistics
Taken from Quentin Spurring's book, officially licensed by the ACO
Pole Position –B. Wollek, #4 Lancia LC2– 3:17.1secs;
Fastest Lap – A. Nannini, #4 Lancia LC2– 3:28.9secs;
Winning Distance –
Winner's Average Speed –
Attendance – ?
References
Clarke, R.M. - editor (1999) Le Mans 'The Porsche & Jaguar Years 1983-1991' Cobham, Surrey: Brooklands Books
Laban, Brian (2001) Le Mans 24 Hours London: Virgin Books
Norris, Ian – editor (1984) Automobile Year #31 1984/85 Edita SA
Spurring, Quentin (2012) Le Mans 1980-89 Yeovil, Somerset: Haynes Publishing
Wimpffen, János (2008) Monocoques and Ground Effects Hong Kong: David Bull Publishing
External links
Racing Sports Cars – Le Mans 24 Hours 1983 with entries, results, technical detail and photos of every car. Retrieved 20 Mar 2023
Le Mans History – Le Mans entry-list and hour-by-hour placings (incl. pictures of every car, quotes, highest speeds per car, YouTube links). Retrieved 20 Mar 2023
World Sports Racing Prototypes – results, reserve entries & chassis numbers. Retrieved 20 Mar 2023
Team Dan – results & reserve entries, explaining driver listings. Retrieved 20 Mar 2023
Unique Cars & Parts – results & reserve entries. Retrieved 20 Mar 2023
Formula 2 – Le Mans results & reserve entries. Retrieved 20 Mar 2023
Speedfreaks – Results table for the World Challenge for Endurance Drivers. Retrieved 20 Mar 2023
Motorsport Memorial – motor-racing deaths by year. Retrieved 20 Mar 2023
YouTube – 28-min race coverage with race sounds & commentary. Retrieved 31 Mar 2023
Event short-clips:
YouTube – Interview with Team Australia (3min). Retrieved 31 Mar 2023
YouTube – In-car practice lap with the Dome (5min). Retrieved 31 Mar 2023
YouTube – Dorchy's early race accident at Mulsanne (1min). Retrieved 31 Mar 2023
YouTube – First pit-stops & Jaguar lead (3min). Retrieved 31 Mar 2023
YouTube – In-car lap with the Richard Lloyd Porsche (4min). Retrieved 31 Mar 2023
YouTube – mid-race damage of Keegan's Skoal Porsche (1min). Retrieved 31 Mar 2023
24 Hours of Le Mans races
Le Mans
Le Mans
1984 in French motorsport |
4441281 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parlement%20Jeunesse%20du%20Qu%C3%A9bec | Parlement Jeunesse du Québec | The Parlement jeunesse du Québec (PJQ) is one of a number of provincial youth parliaments across Canada. Each year, about a hundred of young participants, aged between 18 and 25, meet up in Quebec to discuss and debate like the real politicians. It aims to reproduce the functioning of the parliament of Quebec, the National Assembly of Quebec. Indeed, like the real parliament, the PJQ has its majority party that forms the government, led by the Premier, as well as the official opposition, led by the Leader of Opposition.
While similar in many ways to the National Assembly of Quebec, the PJQ also has many differences that distinguish it from the real parliament. The main one is that there is no vote by party (In the British parliamentary tradition, deputies are required to vote with their party, or else they face expulsion). In other words, deputies from each party are free to vote for what they truly believe, and the Opposition can even agree with the decisions of the Government. This allows more genuine debates and participants have a special opportunity of expressing their ideas without being held back by their party.
The PJQ is organized by the Quebecer Association of the Young Parliament Members inc (Association québécoise des jeunes parlementaires [AQJP]), a non-profit organization that is financed by the participation fees, by governmental subsidies, and by private sponsors.
Rules of procedures
The Parlement jeunesse du Québec aims at reproducing as precisely as possible the proper functioning of the Parliament of Quebec. A fictive party with the majority of the house forms the government and the Premier at its head is facing the leader of the official opposition and his parliamentary group.
The absence of party discipline
The Parlement jeunesse du Québec has nevertheless distinctive elements with regards to the authentic National Assembly. The major one is the absence of party discipline, which enables a member of the governmental party to freely vote against a bill initiated by the executive and presented by a minister of his own party. Likewise, a member of parliament from the opposition can freely support governmental bills. In addition, the ministerial solidarity does not exist.
Those particularities aim at providing a better chance to every member of the simulation to speak their mind on the projects and participate in freer, more inclusive debates.
Legislative menu
For each edition of the parliamentary simulation, four bills are written, presented and defended by their fictive minister. As in the real legislative framework, a shadow minister of the official opposition has the responsibility of passing criticism on the project as well as offering alternative policies. All members of the parliamentary simulation are assigned, based on their preferences, to a commission that will examine more closely one of the four debated pieces of legislation. Members of parliamentary commissions can propose amendments to the bill, in accordance with the governing "principle" of the latter. Accordingly, they have to conduct research on their particular topic and read the provided documentation beforehand to properly fulfill their role. In addition to the four bills presented by the ministers, four members of the opposition have the opportunity to present a motion, consisting in a short proposition of approximately 3 paragraphs addressing a limited and accessible issue and giving way to a 30 minutes debate.
Language
The main language of the simulation is French, as all the written documentation is published in French and mostly all of the interventions are made in French during the debates. However, following the same rule that applies at the National Assembly of Quebec, all participants are free to express their point of view in the idiom of their choice, even though no translation services are provided.
History
The 1950s
Religion at the core of debates
The QYP held its first session in 1949, under the name “Older Boys’ Parliament of Quebec” (“OBPQ”). It was founded through the assistance of the Rev. Normand Hellier of the United Church. The OBPQ was originally sponsored by the Boys’ Work Board of the Council of Christian Education. The members of the OBPQ were almost all members of Protestant churches – Anglican, Baptist, and Presbyterian. The goal of the simulation was “to captivate the interests of young men and to lead them towards a more profound and sane relation with their Church” (according to a founding document of 1953). Topics where chosen in advance with a religious connotation as in 1954 when the organization of the simulation stated that “Programs should be based on the four-fold theme expressed in Luke 2:52: “And Jesus increased in wisdom and stature, and in favor with God and man”.
Establishing the legitimacy of the institution
The main goal of the first legislatures is principally for the PJQ to assert itself as a legitimate institution. Consequently, the debates are oriented towards:
Proper apportionment for electoral ridings
The election and the repartition of representatives for the diverse confessions
The importance of non-partisanship
The budget for the simulation
The proper means of founding
Furthermore, the OBPQ was an Anglophone organization, conducting its debates and business in English.
The 1960s
Debates with a social touch
Through the 1960s, the simulation progressively moved away from its origins as church-sponsored boys’ organization and discussed various topics like the following:
the acknowledgement of birth control as a moral intervention (1954)
The establishment of stringent security norms for car manufacturers (1965)
The responsibility of society with regards to people suffering of drug abuses (1967)
The Quiet Revolution perceptibly marked the debates throughout the decade. Here are some examples:
A bill for the renewing and consolidation of the national identity (1967)
The restriction of access to English schools (1969)
There is also a liberalization of customs, as can be demonstrated with legislative proposals of 1969:
A bill aiming at the recognition of the positive effects of sexual relations before marriage and aiming at the legalization of abortion
A bill aiming at legalizing prostitution
Taking sides
At the same time, the participants demonstrate their awareness to the international crises and conflicts while their debates often denounce particular situations:
A bill denouncing the Apartheid in South Africa (1965)
A bill urging the end of the Vietnam War (1965)
A bill on the rightness and usefulness of furnishing weapons during the Nigerian Civil War (1969)
The advent of women participation
In 1969, the Quebec Older Boys’ Parliament evolve by announcing an important change. By means of resolution, the participants decide that it is about time to include women in their debates. The bill allowing their presence states that “half of the youth of Quebec is not represented at this assembly… and considering that the women have the same rights of men”. It is thereby resolved to change the name of the institution for "Quebec Youth Parliament".
The 1970s
Following the rhythm of changes
The vibrating aspect of the decade, both in terms of social, economical and political changes, is reflected in the content of the debates. Things change even more in the organization as the “share-selling” financing system principle is eventually abandoned and as a woman is elected as Premier for the first time.
Distancing itself from religion
Still profoundly religious at the beginning of the 1970s, the Quebec Youth Parliament demonstrates, beginning in 1975, increasing autonomy toward the church. A modification to the rules of the institution replaces the term “Christian” with “moral” and the door is opened to other religions while the religious characteristics are retrieved from the proclamations at the end of the decade.
The Quebec Youth Parliament even presents a bill that questions the role of the Church in a modern society going as far as to propose that “the church should not try to involve itself with world or community problems and should then direct itself solely towards the spiritual development of man”.
Legislative proposals and front-line debates
This decade was influenced by vanguard legislative propositions like the following:
Legalizing abortion (1970)
The acceptance of sexual relations before marriage (1970)
Endorsement of contraception methods and increased access to them (1970)
Guaranteed universal access to the nursery services (1970)
Pay equity for women (1970)
Control of violent images in the medias (1970)
Fight of sexism and sexual stereotypes in publicity (1972)
Proposition for a genetic control of the population (1974)
For the welfare of society
Many bills presented involve social intervention for the welfare of the community. Debates take place around the importance of old-aged people, the fight of pollution, the control of consumption behaviors, labor peace, the rights of offenders or the proper treatment of prisoners.
A language at the center of discussions
By 1976, the year that the Parti Québécois was first elected to govern Quebec, the QYP was still a largely anglophone organization. However, it introduced bills supporting bilingual teaching and French language integration of new immigrants. In the late 1970s, sponsorship by the Protestant churches declined, contemporaneous with an increase of French-speaking members.
The 1980s
A French-speaking Parliament
By the 1980s, the QYP became increasingly bilingual as bills were introduced in both English and French and debates occurred in both languages more often. All aspects of the organization are also affected, but the essential characteristics of the simulation, with non-partisanship principles at its core, are preserved.
Other interesting fact, the QYP was one of the eight Youth Parliaments that participated in the Youth Parliament of Canada/Parlement jeunesse du Canada ("YPJ Canada") during all of its sessions in Ottawa from 1980 through 1991.
A French-speaking Premier
In 1986, a French-speaking Premier was elected as the head of the QYP for the first time. Within a year, the QYP became a French-speaking organization, with all documentation and legislation produced initially in French, the participants being mostly French-speaking, and the QYP changing its name once again, this time to “le Parlement jeunesse du Québec”.
A look at important debates of the decade
Regulation and control of the implementation of casinos in Quebec (1983)
Severe punishment of drunk driving (1984)
Ban on smoking in indoors public areas (1985)
Ban on the right to strike for the public sector.
The 1990s
Ethics: Order of the Day
The legislative menu of the 1990s gives a large place to ethical questions and protection of rights. Modern questions, often related with the evolution of technology, are debated. Here are some examples:
Surrogate mothers (1990)
Decriminalization of euthanasia (1992)
Human reproduction and genetics (1996)
The 2000s
During this decade the PJQ welcomed French and Israeli delegations. In addition, for the first time since its history of existence, a delegation of Haitians observers was also invited to take part in this political simulation.
A Heritage In Need of Reform
Becoming more conscientiously aware of the mishaps undergone by previous generations, the millennium years are subject to important projects of reform. Notably, there is a desire to rethink society’s make-up, by questioning the current model used since the Quiet Revolution dealing with providence states. This trend is observed in several projects, which aim to redefine how privatization fits into Quebec society. A bill introduced in the year 2000 concerns aspects of private investments in healthcare. Also, 7 years later, a project tackling the question of cost in the health sector set the stage to revise the actual Quebec policies on medication. In 2002, a bill proposed the privatization of water in Quebec.
Moreover, current day society has been an important inspirational source for ministers in the millennium years. Hence, traces of the Oka Crisis in 1990 have been recurring popular topics of debate when deliberating on First Nation issues. This topic has been discussed three times in the last decade with bills dealing with governmental autonomy of Aboriginals in 2000, 2005 and 2008. In 2002 and 2009, a bill concentrating on the dubious question of democratic institutions sought to review the current set-up of Quebec’s political system. Furthermore, problems dealing with personal credit and overly-indebtedness were also the main subjects for a bill to be created in 2009, mainly encompassing the usage of high risk credit. The issue of pollution inspired another bill in 2004 aiming to create a market representing pollution rights.
Social Measures: A Forefront Action Plan
Despite the willpower to revise the role of the State, the millennium years paved the way to other important bills that aimed to ameliorate the quality of life for families. The following are some examples:
Regimes dealing with parental maternity leave and other dispositions for families on the job market needing a leave of absence due to children (2000)
Better access to the judicial system (2002)
Normalizing the divorce process (2005)
Job Security (2007)
The 2010s
The 61st simulation welcomed the beginning of a new era by dealing with four bills encompassing concrete issues in Quebec society, such as:
The decriminalization of euthanasia and the legalization of assisted suicide
Reform on copyright laws
The decriminalization of prostitution
Media and Publicity Control
In 2011 (62nd), the bills addressed topics of another nature :
a reform of the labour code
the creation of a network of autonomous schools
the institutionalisation of chronically homeless people
a change of paradigm regarding international aid
In 2012 (63rd), the bills addressed :
surrogacy
a reform of citizenship
a reform of the agriculture and agri-food system
a reform of the penal justice system
In 2013 (64th), these four bills were introduced:
women's representativity on the job market
the mandatory DNA mapping to prevent severe diseases
the fight against violence
the inauguration of an immigration chosen directly by employers
For the first time, a "néo-québécois" Premier was at the head of the PJQ during this 64th legislature.
In 2014 (65th), the youth parliamentarians debated on:
alcohol from a public health perspective
children's superior interest
the collective right to quality information
revaluation and financing of culture
In 2014, the efforts of past and present executives toward gender parity are recognized, as the "Association québécoise des jeunes parlementaires" receives the "Gouvernance Pluri'elles" award at the Women of merit Gala of the YWCA Quebec. This distinction aims at recognizing the measures put in place by different organizations in order to include more women in their governing entities.
The same year, and for the first time in the whole history of the Quebec Youth Parliament, the entire executive committee was composed of women. The Premier at the time, Anne-Sophie Tommeret-Carrière, was the 7th woman to take on this role in 65 years of the organization's existence.
In 2015 (66th), another precedent is created, as for the first time all members of the presidency of the house and both the Premier and the Leader of the Opposition are women. That year, the assembly debated on controversial and contemporary topics:
A bill on the management of drinking water resources, aiming at the reduction of water consumption in Quebec for a greater capacity to export water in cases of humanitarian crises.
A bill on education, focusing on the adaptation of primary and secondary teaching to the needs of pupils and students.
A bill on the establishing of a sustainable economy, proposing sustainable degrowth through a universal income aimed at reducing the number of worked hours and consumption in the economy.
A bill on the reform of democratic institutions, allowing citizens to have legislative initiative by means of referendums, without submitting these popular bills to the Charter of rights and freedoms.
In 2016 (67th), a position of leader of the native recruitment - occupied by a member of the first nations - is created, with the purpose of reaching out to native communities across Quebec and create bonds among native and non native youths. There is also a remarkable proportion of participants with immigrant ascendance (27%) and a more than gender equal deputation (53% are women), which represent the diversification and inclusion efforts of the organization. The debated bills addressed :
The digital rights and freedoms, including the forbidding of any state or private restriction to the freedom of access to internet.
Rape culture and the judicial treatment of sexual aggression, in particular by putting in place a dialogue procedure and by reversing the burden of proof.
The modernization of national defence, notably by transforming the armed forces into a civil organization.
The democratization of social involvement, by instating a mandatory obligation of social involvement hours and by putting in place a monetary indemnification program accordingly.
Regional Parliaments
During the late 1980s and early 1990s, members of the PJQ and other individuals developed a number of regional parliaments. These are completely independent from the PJQ, but remain in close contact with it. Regional parliaments, in various forms, have been established in Beauce, Montérégie, Outaouais, Mauricie, Estrie, Quebec City, and the area of Laval-Laurentides-Lanaudière, but a limited number of them are currently active.
Partnership with the Youth Parliament of the French Community of Belgium
Starting in 1994, in collaboration with the Quebec-Wallonia-Brussels Agency for Youth, the PJQ has accepted a number of Belgian delegates as members of the PJQ. This opportunity provided a core of young Belgians with the experience to enable them to establish a Youth Parliament of the French Community of Belgium in 1997. Four members of the PJQ were invited to attend the first session. It has now become a tradition that both Quebecer and Belgium simulations receive a delegation from their counterpart every year as a symbol of that initial partnership.
List of premiers of the Parlement jeunesse du Québec since 1949
1949-50: Rodney Booth (1st)
1951: Paul Webb (2nd)
1952: Paul Webb (3rd)
1953: Rodney Booth (4th)
1954: Warren Brown (5th)
1955: Don Luke (6th)
1956: Kent Garrett (7th)
1957: Doug Warren (8th)
1958: Bill Howes (9th)
1959: Peter Rowle (10th)
1960: Sydney Norman (11th)
1961: Sydney Norman (12th)
1962: Thomas Von Eicken (13th)
1963: Bill Machika (14th)
1964: Jim Hone (15th)
1965: Andrew Sancton (16th)
1966: Peter Allnutt (17th)
1967: Ian Thurston (18th)
1968: Russ Springate (19th)
1969: Jack Layton (20th)
1970: Jack Layton (21st)
1971: Bert Markgraff (22nd)
1972: Hugh Thomson / Steve Scanlon (23rd)
1973: Kenneth Peel (24th)
1974: David Lambie (25th)
1975: David Howes (26th)
1976: David Malcolm (27th)
1977: Peter MacArthur (28th)
1978: Cathy Hamilton Lambie (29th)
1979: Robert Peck (30th)
1980: Robert Ramage (31st)
1981: Tom Dunton (32nd)
1982: Russell Copeman (33rd)
1983: Stephen Bryce (34th)
1984: Ariel Delouya (35th)
1985: Lorne Gray (36th)
1986: Ira E. Lax (37th
1987: Philippe Paradis (38th)
1988: Sylvain Ross (39th)
1989: Denis Simard (40th)
1990: Éric Bédard (41st)
1991: Éric Wildhaber (42nd)
1992: Charles-André Sauvé (43rd)
1993: Yves Gaboriault (44th)
1994: Caroline Vallières (45th)
1995: Martin Francoeur (46th)
1996: Patrick Ferland (47th)
1997: Pierre-Yves Boivin (48th)
1998: Philippe de Grandmont (49th)
1999: Sébastien Roy (50th)
2000: Christian Ranger (51st)
2001: Catherine Perreault (52nd)
2002: Marc. Etienne Deslauriers (53rd)
2003: Julien Baudry (54th)
2004: Eve-Marie Quintin (55th)
2005: Alexandre Ramacieri (56th)
2006: François Beaudry (57th)
2007: Maxime Prévost-Desjardins (58th)
2008: Benoit Auger(59th)
2009: Geneviève Bois (60th)
2010: Christopher Campbell-Duruflé (61st)
2011: Jérémie Gravel (62nd)
2012: Sophie Gagnon (63rd)
2013: Patrice César (64th)
2014: Anne-Sophie Thommeret-Carrière (65th)
2015: Eugénie Lépine-Blondeau (66th)
2016 : Sarah Ménard-April (67th)
2017 : Gabriel Laurence-Brook (68th)
2018 : Julien Labrosse (69th)
2019 : Céline Gemmel (70th)
2020 : Frédérick Desbiens (71st)
2021 : Frédérick Desbiens (72nd)
2022 : Élodie Lussier-Piché (73rd)
List of leaders of the Official Opposition of the Parlement jeunesse du Québec since 1985
1985: Philippe Paradis (36th)
1986: Sylvain Ross(37th)
1987: Michel Vincent (38th)
1988: Benoît Bessette (39th)
1989: Nicolas Plourde (40th)
1990: ? (41st)
1991: ? (42nd)
1992: ? (43rd)
1993: Marie-Hélène Gauthier (44th))
1994: Martin S. Côté (45th)
1995: Caroline Sauriol (46th)
1996: Benoît St-Sauveur (47th)
1997: Josée Laporte (48th)
1998: François Blondin (49th)
1999: Nicolas Poirier-Quesnel (50th)
2000: Catherine Perreault (51st)
2001: Michèle Houpert (52nd)
2002: Julien Baudry (53rd)
2003: Eve-Marie Quintin (54th)
2004: Alexandre Ramaceri (55th)
2005: Dominique Favreau (56th)
2006: Maxime Prévost-Desjardins (57th)
2007: Olivier Cournoyer-Boutin (58th)
2008: Saber Labidi (59th)
2009: Christopher Campbell-Duruflé (60th)
2010: Jérémie Gravel (61st)
2011: Mathieu Letendre (62nd)
2012: Alexis Rompré-Brodeur (63rd)
2013: Anne-Sophie Thomerret-Carrière (64th)
2014: Edith Perreault (65th)
2015: Annie Lagueux (66th)
2016 : Pierrick Rouat (67th)
2017 : Clarisse Émond-Larochelle (68th)
2018 : Hanene Mankour (69th)
2019 : Nicolas Pilon (70th)
2020 : Louis-Philippe Codère (71st)
2021 : Louis-Philippe Codère (72nd)
2022 : Julien Breault (73rd)
See also
Youth Parliament of Canada/Parlement jeunesse du Canada
External links
Le Parlement jeunesse du Québec (official website in French only)
Quebec, Parlement Jeunesse du
Organizations based in Montreal
1949 establishments in Quebec
Educational organizations based in Quebec |
4442071 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United%20States%20foreign%20policy%20toward%20the%20People%27s%20Republic%20of%20China | United States foreign policy toward the People's Republic of China | <noinclude>
The United States foreign policy toward the People's Republic of China originated during the Cold War. At that time, the U.S. had a containment policy against communist states. The leaked Pentagon Papers indicated the efforts by the U.S. to contain China through military actions undertaken in the Vietnam War. The containment policy centered around an island chain strategy. President Richard Nixon's China rapprochement signaled a shift in focus to gain leverage in containing the Soviet Union. Formal diplomatic ties between the U.S. and China were established in 1979, and with normalized trade relations since 2000, the U.S. and China have been linked by closer economic ties and more cordial relations.
During the 2010s and early 2020s, there was a significant shift in America's China policy. In his first term as U.S. president, Barack Obama said, "We want China to succeed and prosper. It's good for the United States if China continues on the path of development that it's on". The Trump administration stated, "The United States recognizes the long-term strategic competition between our two systems". The Biden administration stated that previous optimistic approaches to China were flawed, and that China poses "the most significant challenge of any nation-state in the world to the United States". However, the U.S. National Security Advisor, Jake Sullivan, has stated that the Biden administration does not pursue a fundamental transformation of the Chinese political system.
U.S. military presence in the region, efforts to improve relations with India and Vietnam, and the Obama administration's 2012 "Pivot to Asia" strategy for increased American involvement in the Western Pacific, have been associated with a policy aimed at countering China's growing clout. The Trump administration designated China as a "revisionist power" seeking to overturn the liberal international order and displace the United States, and called for a whole-of-government approach to China guided by a return to principled realism. Current U.S. military presence in the region includes military alliances with South Korea, with Japan, and with the Philippines. China remains "the only competitor out there with both the intent to reshape the international order and, increasingly, a power to do so" according to the U.S.-released National Defense Strategy in 2022.
Strategic background
Cold War era
During the Cold War the United States tried to prevent the domino theory of the spread of communism and thwart communist countries including the People's Republic of China. Washington assumed that Communist North Vietnam would be a puppet state of China. However those two later went to war.
Post-Cold War
In more contemporary times, with the Nixon rapprochement and the signing of the Shanghai Communiqué, improvement in U.S.-Sino relations was made possible. Formal diplomatic ties were established in 1979, and with normalized trade relations since 2000, the US and China have been linked by closer economic ties.
The United States' 2006 Quadrennial Defense Review stated that China has "the greatest potential to compete militarily with the United States and field disruptive military technologies that could over time offset traditional U.S. military advantages absent U.S. counter strategies". The 2006 National Security Strategy stated that the U.S. wanted China to continue down the road of reform and openness. It said that as economic growth continues, China would face a growing demand from its own people to follow the path of East Asia's many modern democracies, adding political freedom to economic freedom. The document continues by stating that China cannot stay on this peaceful path while holding on to "old ways of thinking and acting" that exacerbate regional and international security concerns. The U.S. referred to the "old ways" in terms of non-transparent military expansion, mercantilism, and supporting resource-rich regimes with a record of unacceptable behavior.
The United States' political leadership began to shift policy stances in 2011, starting with the Obama administration's "pivot" toward Asia. Then-secretary of state Hillary Clinton called for "increased investment—diplomatic, economic, strategic, and otherwise—in the Asia-Pacific region", which was seen as a move to counter China's growing clout. Supporters of increased American involvement in East Asia have cited the United States as a counterbalance to the excesses of Chinese expansion. Relevant to the argument is the fact that countries in territorial disputes with China, such as in the South China Sea and the Senkaku Islands, have complained about China's harassment in the disputed areas. Some experts have suggested that China may leverage their economic strength in such disputes, one example being the sudden restriction on Chinese imports of Filipino bananas during tensions over the Scarborough Shoal.
Recent development
In April 2019, the fourth iteration of the influential neoconservative think tank, the Committee on the Present Danger, was unveiled, calling itself the "Committee on the Present Danger: China (CPDC)" in a press conference in Washington. The organization was reformed by former Trump administration White House Chief Strategist Steve Bannon and former Reagan administration official Frank Gaffney to "educate and inform American citizens and policymakers about the existential threats presented from the Peoples Republic of China under the misrule of the Chinese Communist Party". The CPDC takes the view that there is "no hope of coexistence with China as long as the Communist Party governs the country". Charles W. Freeman Jr. at the Watson Institute called the CPDC "a Who's Who of contemporary wing-nuts, very few of whom have any expertise at all about China and most of whom represent ideological causes only peripherally connected to it."
In a May 2019 opinion piece published by Foreign Policy, Paul Musgrave, an assistant professor at the University of Massachusetts Amherst commented that the Trump administration revealed details about a long-term strategy in dealing with the rise of China via a "slip" by then-director of policy planning Kiron Skinner at the US State Department. In a speech at the Future Security Forum on April 29, 2019, Skinner characterized the Cold War as "a huge fight within the Western family" and due to that shared heritage and value-system, breakthroughs could be made; on China however, she argued there can be no accommodation or cooperation because it is "... a fight with a really different civilization and a different ideology" and "it's the first time that we will have a great-power competitor that is not Caucasian".
A study on China produced by a small working group within the department led by Skinner reportedly envisioned a world of constant, unavoidable civilizational conflict. The study was informally called "Letter X" in reference to George F. Kennan's X Article that advocated for a containment strategy against the Soviet Union. In August 2019, The New York Times reported that Skinner had been forced out of her job at the United States Department of State, and that Trump administration officials privately dismissed her comments. Earlier in the year, an open letter titled "China is not an enemy" was released by five China-focused scholars and foreign policy experts, and was endorsed by some business leaders, in which they decried what they saw in the U.S. approach as "counterproductive", and urged the Trump administration to continue the more "cooperative" approach.
With questions about the continued purpose of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) in the post–Cold War era, NATO countries have refrained from re-orienting toward and labeling the PRC an outright "enemy", but NATO chief Jens Stoltenberg said the organization needs to recognize the "challenges" posed by China at a NATO event in 2019, saying "China will soon have the world's biggest economy. And it already has the second largest defense budget, investing heavily in new capabilities." He also said that NATO did not want to "create new adversaries". The United States' NATO representative at the event referred to China as a "competitor".
On May 20, 2020, in accordance with the John S. McCain National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2019, the Trump administration delivered a report, "U.S. Strategic Approach to the People's Republic of China" to members of the U.S. Congress. The report states a whole-of-government approach to China under the 2017 National Security Strategy, which says it is time the U.S. "rethink the failed policies of the past two decades – policies based on the assumption that engagement with rivals and their inclusion in international institutions and global commerce would turn them into benign actors and trustworthy partners". The report says it "reflects a fundamental reevaluation of how the United States understands and responds to" the leaders of China, adding "The United States recognizes the long-term strategic competition between our two systems."
In February 2021, U.S. president Joe Biden said that China is the "most serious competitor" that poses challenges on the "prosperity, security, and democratic values" of the U.S. U.S. secretary of state Antony Blinken stated that previous optimistic approaches to China were flawed, and that China poses "the most significant challenge of any nation-state in the world to the United States". Blinken also agreed that Biden's predecessor, Donald Trump, "was right in taking a tougher approach to China".
In April 2021, the U.S. Senate introduced major legislation in response to China's growing clout in international affairs. The bill, titled "Strategic Competition Act of 2021", reflects hardline attitude of both congressional Democrats and Republicans, and sets out to counter the Chinese government's diplomatic and strategic initiatives. Senate Foreign Relations Committee Chairman Bob Menendez (D-NJ) said, "The Strategic Competition Act of 2021 is a recognition that this moment demands a unified, strategic response that can rebuild American leadership, invest in our ability to out-compete China, and reground diplomacy in our core values", adding "The United States government must be clear-eyed and sober about Beijing's intentions and actions, and calibrate our policy and strategy accordingly."
In May 2021, the Strategic Competition Act of 2021 was consolidated into a larger bill, the United States Innovation and Competition Act (USICA), authorizing for basic and advanced technology research over a five-year period. In June 2021, the USICA passed 68–32 in the Senate with bipartisan support.
Military strategy
The United States' Indo-Pacific strategy has broadly been to use the surrounding countries around China to blunt its influence. This includes strengthening the bonds between South Korea and Japan as well as trying to get India, another large developing country to help with their efforts. Additionally, with the US withdrawal from the Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty with Russia (in part because China wasn't a party to it), the US has reportedly wanted to find a host in the Asia-Pacific region to point the previously banned weapons at China. In addition to soft power diplomacy within the region, the US is physically surrounding China with military bases in the event of any conflict. The United States has developed many military bases in the Asia Pacific equipped with warships, nuclear missiles and nuclear-capable strategic bombers as a deterrent and to achieve full spectrum dominance in a strategy similar to that of the Cold War.
Sanctions
The use of economic sanctions has always been a tool of American foreign policy and has become used more frequently in the 21st century, from targeting individuals and sometimes whole countries by using the centrality of the US financial system and the position of the US dollar as the world's reserve currency to limit trade and cashflow.
Xinjiang
In the area of human rights and international law, the U.S. has worked to put pressure on China internationally by drawing attention to its human rights record. In particular, U.S. policymakers have focused on the status of China's internment camps for those accused of religious extremism in China's Xinjiang Autonomous Region, the region inhabited by the Muslim Uyghur minority, as well as the protests in Hong Kong. These camps, which some NGOs such as the Washington-based Victims of Communism Memorial Foundation and East Turkistan National Awakening Movement estimated to have a population of over one million people, have been described as "indoctrination camps" that are reportedly run like prisons to eradicate Uyghur culture and religion in an attempt at Sinicization. The United States Congress has responded to these reports with calls for the imposition of sanctions under the Global Magnitsky Human Rights Accountability Act; in December 2019, the House of Representatives and Senate passed the Uighur Human Rights Policy Act.
Hong Kong
U.S. policy toward Hong Kong had been governed by the United States-Hong Kong Policy Act which said that the U.S. would continue to treat Hong Kong apart from the People's Republic of China even after the 1997 transfer of sovereignty. This changed drastically in 2020 when the U.S. passed the Hong Kong Autonomy Act and Executive Order 13936 in response to the 2019–2020 Hong Kong protests and imposition of the Hong Kong national security law by the Standing Committee of the National People's Congress of China. Under EO13936, the U.S. government has no longer treated Hong Kong as separate from China.
Economic strategy
With China entering the World Trade Organization in 2001 with approval from the US, China and the world economy benefited from globalization and the access to new markets and the increased trade that resulted. Despite this, some in the United States lament letting China in the WTO because part of the motivation to do so, the political liberalization of the PRC's government along the lines of the Washington Consensus never materialized. The US hoped economic liberalization would eventually lead to political liberalization to a government more akin to the then recently repatriated Hong Kong Special Administrative Region under "One country, two systems."
Trans-Pacific Partnership
In part, the Trans-Pacific Partnership (TPP), geopolitically was thought by some to likely bring China's neighbors closer to the United States and reduce its economic leverage and dependence on Chinese trade. If ratified, the TPP would have strengthened American influence on future rules for the global economy. US Secretary of Defense Ash Carter claimed the passage of the TPP to be as valuable to the United States as the creation of another aircraft carrier. President Barack Obama has argued "if we don't pass this agreement—if America doesn't write those rules—then countries like China will". However, on January 23, 2017, the newly elected President Donald Trump formally withdrew the United States from the Trans-Pacific Partnership.
Trade War
In what would become the China–United States trade war, President Donald Trump began setting tariffs and other trade barriers on China in 2018 with the goal of forcing it to make changes to what the U.S. says are "unfair trade practices". The US says those trade practices and their effects are the growing trade deficit, the theft of intellectual property and the forced transfer of American technology to China. Jeff Spross, an economics and business correspondent at TheWeek.com, commented that China is pursuing economic development much in the same way as many other modern industrialized economies before it, except in a world where the rules of the global free trade order are enforced by institutions like the World Bank, the International Monetary Fund, and the World Trade Organization, ensuring economic development is driven by private investors.
At the Bretton Woods Conference, the US representative, Harry Dexter White, insisted that the world reserve currency be the United States dollar instead of a proposed new international unit of currency and that the IMF and World Bank be under the purview of the United States. The Reagan administration and US Trade Representative Robert Lighthizer, and Donald Trump as a private citizen, made identical claims in the 1980s when Japan was undergoing its economic miracle which led Japan to signing the Plaza Accord. Like the TPP, it has been argued that the trade war is simply a more direct attempt to stifle China's development and is indicative of a shift in the US public perception of China as a "rival nation to be contained and beaten" among the two major political parties in Congress, the general public and even the business sector. It has been argued however that employing the Cold War playbook for the seemingly destined-to-fail Soviet Union, a state-run and largely closed economy will not work in the case of China because of its sheer size, growing wealth and vibrant economy. To halt development progress, particularly the Made in China 2025 plan, the US has responded by making it harder for Chinese tech companies from obtaining US technologies by investing in or acquiring US tech companies, and even attempting to stifle specific companies, namely Huawei, ZTE and ByteDance, from doing business domestically and abroad allegedly due to unspecified or speculative national security risks. With senior Trump administration officials such as John Bolton, Peter Navarro and Robert Lighthizer demanding any comprehensive trade deal feature "structural changes" which would essentially entail China surrendering its sovereignty over its economic system and planning (its Made in China 2025 industrial plan) and permanently ceding technology leadership to the US-an untenable situation to the Chinese- some see trade tensions continuing long into the future.
In the face of the US tariffs in the trade war and the sanctions on Russia following the annexation of Crimea, China and Russia have cultivated closer economic ties as well as security and defense cooperation to offset the losses.
Belt and Road Initiative
Another high-profile debate among some people in the United States and China on the international stage is the observation about China's growing geopolitical footprint in "soft power diplomacy" and international development finance. Particularly, this surrounds China's Belt and Road Initiative (formerly "One Belt, One Road"), which U.S. officials have labeled as "aggressive" and "debt trap diplomacy".
Indo-Pacific Economic Framework
The Biden administration and major regional economies such as India and Japan have participated in the Indo-Pacific Economic Framework to varying degrees, which is seen as a way to increase ties between friendly countries economically.
Bilateral relationships
Australia
Starting in 2012, US marines began deploying to Australia on a rotational basis. In 2017, Australia rejoined the Quadrilateral Security Dialogue after leaving the strategic grouping in 2008 and in 2021, it became a member of AUKUS.
India
Against the backdrop of the ongoing border dispute between India and the People's Republic of China, the United States and India signed the Basic Exchange and Cooperation Agreement in October 2020 which enabled greater information-sharing and facilitated defense cooperation. In December 2022, based on BECA, the United States provided real-time location information of the PLA soldiers to help India rout China, during a confrontation in Arunachal Pradesh. As with Australia, Japan and the United States, India is a member of the Quadrilateral Security Dialogue.
India's relationship with Russia has emerged as an impediment to the US in forming a fully-developed united front with India against China. Policymakers in New Delhi see maintaining ties with Moscow as a way to limit China's influence over Russia and thwart any coordinated action the two might take against India.
Japan
As treaty allies, both Japan and the United States have deepened their security alliance since the late 1990s in response to the rise of China which has emerged as a top geopolitical threat to both countries. In 2018, members of the Amphibious Rapid Deployment Brigade held joint exercises with American marines and in 2023, Japan approved an American plan to station a new marine unit in Okinawa. As with Australia, India and the United States, Japan is a member of the Quadrilateral Security Dialogue.
Philippines
The Philippines and the United States are treaty allies and their security alliance has deepened in light of the ongoing territorial dispute between the Philippines and the People's Republic of China in the South China Sea. In 2014, both countries signed the Enhanced Defense Cooperation Agreement which allows the United States to rotate troops into the Philippines for extended stays and allows the United States to build and operate facilities on Philippine bases for both American and Philippine forces.
South Korea
In accordance with the ROK–U.S. Mutual Defense Treaty, the U.S. has maintained a military presence in the South since the end of the Korean War. In late 2016, the United States and South Korea jointly announced the deployment of the Terminal High-Altitude Area Defense (THAAD) in response to nuclear and missile threats by North Korea. South Korea's decision to host the weapon system on its territory led to a significant deterioration in relations between South Korea and China, which viewed the deployment as a threat to its security.
Taiwan (ROC)
While the United States has had formal relations with the PRC whose government it has recognized as the sole legitimate representative of China, it has simultaneously maintained unofficial relations with Taiwan over which, it emphasizes that it does not take any official position regarding sovereignty over Taiwan. The US only “acknowledges” but does not “endorse” PRC’s position over Taiwan, and has considered Taiwan's political status as “undetermined”.
The position of the United States, as clarified in the China/Taiwan: Evolution of the "One China" Policy report of the Congressional Research Service (date: 9 July 2007) is summed up in five points:
The United States did not explicitly state the sovereign status of Taiwan in the three US-PRC Joint Communiqués of 1972, 1979, and 1982.
The United States "acknowledged" the "One China" position of both sides of the Taiwan Strait.
U.S. policy has not recognized the PRC's sovereignty over Taiwan;
U.S. policy has not recognized Taiwan as a sovereign country; and
U.S. policy has considered Taiwan's status as unsettled.
These positions remained unchanged in a 2013 report of the Congressional Research Service.
The US has consistently held to its version of One China policy and has stated that in regards to Cross-Strait relations;
We oppose any unilateral changes to the status quo from either side; we do not support Taiwan independence; and we expect cross-Strait differences to be resolved by peaceful means. We continue to have an abiding interest in peace and stability across the Taiwan Strait.
- US Department of State
A cornerstone in the bilateral relationship is the Taiwan Relations Act through which the United States has maintained its policy of strategic ambiguity. Prior to the normalization of diplomatic ties with the PRC, the US was a treaty ally of Taiwan under the Sino-American Mutual Defense Treaty. The treaty essentially prevented the People's Liberation Army from taking over the island of Taiwan, prolonged and assisted the Republic of China in maintaining legitimacy as the sole government of the whole of mainland China until the early 1970s and also helped US policymakers to shape the policy of containment in East Asia together with South Korea and Japan against the spread of communism.
The recent decade has seen an increasing frequency of US arms sales to Taiwan alongside expanding commercial ties. On December 16, 2015, the Obama administration announced a deal to sell $1.83 billion worth of arms to the Armed Forces of Taiwan, a year and eight months after U.S. Congress passed the Taiwan Relations Act Affirmation and Naval Vessel Transfer Act of 2014 to allow the sale of Oliver Hazard Perry-class frigates to Taiwan. The deal would include the sale of two decommissioned U.S. Navy frigates, anti-tank missiles, Assault Amphibious Vehicles, and FIM-92 Stinger surface-to-air missiles, amid the territorial disputes in the South China Sea.
A new $250 million compound for the American Institute in Taiwan was unveiled in June 2018, accompanied by a "low-key" American delegation. The Chinese authorities denounced this action as violation of the "one China" policy statement and demanded the US to stop all relations with Taiwan without intercession of China. In 2019, the US approved the sale of 108 M1A2 Abrams tanks and 250 Stinger missiles for $2.2 billion and 66 F-16V fighter jets for $8 billion. With the sale, China vowed to sanction any companies involved in the transactions. In May 2020, the U.S. Department of State approved a possible Foreign Military Sales of 18 MK-48 Mod 6 Advanced Technology heavy weight torpedoes for Taiwan in a deal estimated to cost $180 million.
Multilateral relationships
US–Japan–Australia
Then-U.S. secretary of state Condoleezza Rice visited Australia in March 2006 for the "trilateral security forum" with the Japanese foreign minister Taro Aso and his Australian counterpart Alexander Downer.
US–Japan–Australia–India (the "Quad")
In May 2007, the four nations signed a strategic military partnership agreement, the Quadrilateral Security Dialogue. In 2017, with the support of then Japanese Prime Minister Shinzo Abe and Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi, the United States restarted the "Quad".
US–Japan–India
The three nations held their first trilateral meeting in December 2011.
Chinese response
The People's Republic of China officially opposes using the term "competition" to define relations between it and the United States. China’s Xi Jinping claimed “Western countries led by the United States have contained and suppressed us in an all-round way, which has brought unprecedented severe challenges to our development”. In August 2022, U.S. politician Nancy Pelosi, serving as the Speaker of the U.S. House of Representatives, visited Taiwan for the first time in 25 years. China announced plans for live-fire military drills soon after her visit.
In July 2023, at a trilateral forum with Japan and South Korea, China's chief diplomat Wang Yi said it was important for the two countries to "remember their roots" and work with China “prosper together, revitalize East Asia, revitalize Asia and benefit the world” as "Europeans and Americans can’t distinguish between Chinese, Japanese and South Koreans" and that “no matter how blonde you dye your hair, how sharp you shape your nose, you can never become a European or American, you can never become a Westerner." Wang's speech was widely criticized as racist, especially by scholars, with some comparing his rhetoric to Imperial Japan's 20th century concept of Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere.
See also
American geostrategy related
Free and Open Indo-Pacific
AirSea Battle
Blue Team (U.S. politics)
Geostrategy in Central Asia
Island chain strategy
Second Cold War
Chinese geostrategy related
Belt and Road Initiative
Chinese century
China's peaceful rise
List of disputed territories of China
String of Pearls (Indian Ocean)
Bilateral and multilateral relations
Quadrilateral Security Dialogue
Post–Cold War era
Malabar (naval exercise)
Australia–United States relations
China–United States relations
India–United States relations
Japan–United States relations
Philippines–United States relations
References
Further reading
Buzan, Barry and Evelyn Goh, eds. Rethinking Sino-Japanese Alienation: History Problems and Historical Opportunities (2020)
Goh, Evelyn, and Rosemary Foot. From containment to containment? Understanding US relations with China since 1949 (Blackwell, 2003).
Goh, Evelyn, and Sheldon W. Simon, eds. China, the United States, and South-East Asia: Contending Perspectives on Politics, Security, and Economics (2007)
Green, Michael J. By more than providence: Grand strategy and American power in the Asia Pacific since 1783 (Columbia UP, 2017).
Sahashi, Ryo. "Japan’s strategy amid US–China confrontation." China International Strategy Review 2.2 (2020): 232–245.
China–United States relations
United States foreign policy |
4442102 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puerto%20Ricans%20in%20New%20York%20City | Puerto Ricans in New York City | Puerto Ricans have both immigrated and migrated to New York City. The first group of Puerto Ricans immigrated to New York City in the mid-19th century when Puerto Rico was a Spanish colony and its people Spanish subjects. The following wave of Puerto Ricans to move to New York City did so after the Spanish–American War in 1898. Puerto Ricans were no longer Spanish subjects and citizens of Spain, they were now Puerto Rican citizens of an American possession and needed passports to travel to the Contiguous United States.
That was until 1917, when the United States Congress approved Jones–Shafroth Act which gave Puerto Ricans in Puerto Rico U.S. citizenship with certain limitations. Puerto Ricans living in the mainland United States however, were given full American citizenship and were allowed to seek political office in the states in which they resided. Two months later, when Congress passed the Selective Service Act, conscription was extended to the Puerto Ricans both on the island and on the mainland. It was expected that Puerto Rican men 18 years and older serve in the U.S. military during World War I. The Jones–Shafroth Act also allowed Puerto Ricans to travel between Puerto Rico and the U.S. mainland without the need of a passport, thereby becoming migrants. The advent of air travel was one of the principal factors that led to the largest wave of migration of Puerto Ricans to New York City in the 1950s, known as "The Great Migration".
In New York City and other northeast cities such as Philadelphia and Boston, Puerto Ricans were the first Hispanic group to come in large numbers as early as the 1940s, being seen as the "Pioneer" group among the Hispanic community in these cities. From 1970 until about 1990, the city's Puerto Rican population was at its height. They represented up to 80% of the city's Hispanic community and 12% of the city's total population. At that time, nearly 70% of Puerto Ricans in the mainland United States lived in New York City. It wasn't until the 1990s that the percentage of Puerto Ricans that made up the city's Hispanic community and the population as a whole started to decrease, largely due to a declining Puerto Rican population, increasingly diversifying Hispanic community, and New York City's economy rebounding after deindustrialization, which ultimately resulted in a faster growing city population and dwindling Puerto Rican influence. However, since the early 2010s, New York's Puerto Rican population started to grow again, being in the midst of another major migration wave out of Puerto Rico.
According to the 2010 census, Puerto Ricans represent 8.9 percent of New York City alone (32% of the city's Hispanic community), and 5.5% of New York State as a whole. Of over a million Puerto Ricans in the state, about 70% are present in the city, with the remaining portion scattered in the city's suburbs and other major cities throughout New York State. Although Florida has received some dispersal of the population, there has been a resurgence in Puerto Rican migration to New York and New Jersey, primarily for economic and cultural considerations, topped by another surge of arrivals after Hurricane Maria devastated Puerto Rico in September 2017 – consequently, the New York City Metropolitan Area has witnessed a significant increase in its Nuyorican population, individuals in the region of Puerto Rican descent, from 1,177,430 in 2010 to a Census-estimated 1,494,670 in 2016, maintaining New York's status by a significant margin as the most important cultural and demographic center for Puerto Ricans outside San Juan.
Early 19th century
During the 19th century, commerce existed between the ports of the East Coast of the United States and the Spanish colony of Puerto Rico. Ship records show that many Puerto Ricans traveled on ships that sailed from and to the U.S. and Puerto Rico. Many of them settled in places such as New York, Connecticut, and Massachusetts. Upon the outbreak of the American Civil War, many Puerto Ricans, such as Lieutenant Augusto Rodriguez, joined the ranks of the armed forces, however since Puerto Ricans were Spanish subjects they were inscribed as Spaniards. The earliest Puerto Rican enclave in New York City was in Manhattan. Most of the Puerto Ricans who moved there came from well-to-do families or were people whose economic situation could permit them the luxury of traveling from the island to New York City by way of steamship, an expensive and long trip. Amongst the first Puerto Ricans to immigrate to New York City were men and women who were exiled by the Spanish Crown for their political beliefs and struggles for the cause of Puerto Rican independence. By 1850, Puerto Rico and Cuba were the only two remaining Spanish colonies in the New World. The Spanish Crown would either imprison or banish any person who promoted the independence of these two nations. Two of these exiles were Ramón Emeterio Betances and Segundo Ruiz Belvis who together founded "The Revolutionary Committee of Puerto Rico" in New York. They were the planners of the short and failed 1868 revolt against Spain in Puerto Rico known as El Grito de Lares. Another prominent Puerto Rican who in 1871 immigrated to New York was Arturo Alfonso Schomburg, considered by many as the "Father of Black History". He became a member of the "Revolutionary Committee of Puerto Rico" and was an outspoken promoter of not only the independence of Puerto Rico, but of Cuba also.
Origins of the Puerto Rican Flag
Four other Puerto Ricans who moved to New York because of political reasons were Manuel Besosa, Antonio Vélez Alvarado, Juan Ríus Rivera, and Francisco Gonzalo Marín. These four Puerto Ricans joined the Cuban Liberation Army whose headquarters was in New York City.
Some sources document Francisco Gonzalo Marín with presenting a Puerto Rican flag prototype in 1895 for adoption by the Puerto Rican Revolutionary Committee in New York City. Marín has since been credited by some with the flag's design. There is a letter written by Juan de Mata Terreforte which gives credit to Marin. The original contents of the letter in Spanish are the following:
Which translated in English states the following:
It is also believed that on June 12, 1892, Antonio Vélez Alvarado was at his apartment at 219 Twenty-Third Street in Manhattan, when he stared at a Cuban flag for a few minutes, and then took a look at the blank wall in which it was being displayed. Vélez suddenly perceived an optical illusion, in which he perceived the image of the Cuban flag with the colors in the flag's triangle and stripes inverted. Almost immediately he visited a nearby merchant, Domingo Peraza, from whom he bought some crepe paper to build a crude prototype. He later displayed his prototype in a dinner meeting at his neighbor's house, where the owner, Micaela Dalmau vda. de Carreras, had invited José Martí as a guest.
In a letter written by Maria Manuela (Mima) Besosa, the daughter of the Puerto Rican Revolutionary Committee member Manuel Besosa, she stated that she sewed the flag. This message created a belief that her father could have been its designer.
Even though Marín presented the Puerto Rican Flag in New York's "Chimney Corner Hotel", it may never be known who designed the current flag. What is known, however, is that on December 22, 1895, the Puerto Rican Revolutionary Committee officially adopted a design which is today the official flag of Puerto Rico.
In 1897, Antonio Mattei Lluberas, a wealthy coffee plantation owner from Yauco, visited the Puerto Rican Revolutionary Committee in New York City. There he met with Ramón Emeterio Betances, Juan de Mata Terreforte and Aurelio Méndez Martinez and together they proceeded to plan a major coup. The uprising, which became known as the Intentona de Yauco was to be directed by Betances, organized by Aurelio Mendez Mercado and the armed forces were to be commanded by General Juan Ríus Rivera from Cuba. The political immigration to New York practically came to a halt in 1898 after the Spanish–American War when Puerto Rico became a possession of the United States. It is estimated that 1,800 Puerto Rican citizens (they were not American citizens until 1917) had immigrated to New York during this period.
World War I era
In 1902, the United States Treasury Department issued new immigration guidelines that changed the status of all Puerto Ricans to "foreigners". Isabel Gonzalez was a young single mother who was expecting her second child. Her fiancé, who was in New York, sent for her with the intention of getting married. When Gonzalez arrived in New York, she and all the Puerto Ricans who were with her, were detained in Ellis Island and denied entry. She was accused of being an alien and as an unwed parent she was deemed as a burden to the welfare system of the country. Gonzalez challenged the Government of the United States in the groundbreaking case "GONZALES v. WILLIAMS' (her surname was misspelled by immigration officials). The Supreme Court ruled that under the immigration laws González was not an alien, and therefore could not be denied entry into New York. It also stated that Puerto Ricans were not U.S. citizens, they were "noncitizen nationals". Gonzalez, who became an activist on behalf of all Puerto Ricans, paved the way for the Jones–Shafroth Act, which conferred United States citizenship on all citizens of Puerto Rico.
In 1917, the United States entered World War I and that same year the United States Congress approved the Jones–Shafroth Act which gave Puerto Ricans U.S. citizenship. Puerto Ricans no longer needed a passport to travel to the U.S. and were allowed to seek public office in the mainland U.S. The economic situation in the island was bad and continued to worsen as a result of the many hurricanes which destroyed most of its crops. Many Puerto Rican families migrated to the United States, the bulk of whom went to New York, in search of a better way of life. In New York, they faced the same hardships and discrimination that earlier groups of immigrants, such as the Irish, the Italians, and the Jews, had faced before them. It was difficult for them to find well paying jobs because of the language barrier and their lack of technical working skills. The few men who found jobs worked for low salaries in factories. The women usually stayed home as housewives and tended to their children. Those who did not find jobs had the option of joining the United States Military. Prior to the Jones–Shafroth Act, Puerto Ricans in the mainland United States as all other non-citizens, who were permanent residents were required to register with the Selective Service System by law and could be drafted, however one of the effects of the Act was that all Puerto Ricans were now eligible for the military "draft" (conscription). One of the military units at that time was New York's U.S. 369th Infantry Regiment. Rafael Hernández was a Puerto Rican who served in the almost all Afro-American unit. The unit fought against the Germans in France and became known as the "Harlem Hellfighters". Hernández, his brother Jesus and 16 other Puerto Ricans were assigned to the United States Army's Harlem Hellfighters musical band, the Orchestra Europe.
Nero Chen was one of the many Puerto Ricans who settled in East Harlem. He became the first Puerto Rican boxer to gain acclaim when in 1917 he fought against "Panama Joe Gans" at Harlem's Palace Casino which was located at 28 East 135th St., between Fifth and Madison Avenues, in Manhattan. As evidenced by an early 1924 poster, migrants in New York organized baseball teams which played against each other. The poster announces a game which was held at Howard Field in Brooklyn between two teams, the San Juan B.B.C. and the Porto Rican Stars, made of Puerto Ricans from the East Side section of Manhattan.
As the economic situation in the United States worsened in a prelude to the Great Depression, many Puerto Ricans in the mainland found themselves competing with other groups for the positions of unskilled labor such as dishwashers, maintenance and laundry workers. This led to the "Harlem Riots" of July 1926. between unemployed Jews and Puerto Ricans. Various Puerto Rican organizations in East Harlem, organized a media campaign to ease the tensions between the groups involved and called upon the mayor, governor of the state to restore order and provide protection to the area.
In 1937, Oscar Garcia Rivera, Sr. (1900–1969), a native of Mayagüez and resident of East Harlem, became the first Puerto Rican to be elected to public office in the continental United States as a member of the New York State Assembly. A witness of the discrimination which Puerto Ricans were subject to, he created the "Unemployment Insurance Bill" which paved the way for the passage of bills which established minimum hours and wages for working people, the creation of a Wage Board within the Labor Department, and the right of employees to organize and negotiate grievances. In 1956, he also became the first Puerto Rican to be nominated as the Republican candidate for Justice of the City Court.
Tabaqueros
Tabaqueros are tobacco workers. The tobacco industry was extremely popular but increased in popularity and manufacturing during the first decade of the United States domination of exportation. By 1901, exportation Puerto Rico's shifted from importing to exporting, and cigar making began to increase. By the 1920s, the Puerto Rican tobacco-processing industry exports grew thirty times from when it began in 1901. This provided thousands of migrants with job opportunities to move to the United States in search for a better economically.
During this time of industrial prosperity the Puerto Rican community grew in cities like New York City. Bernardo Vega explained in his memoir, Memoirs of Bernardo Vega the lifestyle of the working Puerto Rican community in New York City more importantly the tabaquero culture. Tabaqueros were very politically and socially involved in their communities, and were successfully organized collectively as a group. Politically tabaqueros were suspected of socialist orientation, and were influenced by the Jewish Workmen Circle, that were mutual aid societies of the working-class socialists. These mutual aid groups, tobacco worker's associations were no mimic to those of already established by other ethnic working class, mainly they were recreated organizations that were known to the workers back on the island. The life of a tabaquero was very simple during these times, but were a very progressive working community that understood how cultural form/discrimination could reflect political will towards the community. The Tabaqueros held a sense of pride in their work as well as their eloquent knowledge of politics and culture, which they would learn during working hours and events of associations like Circulo de Tabaqueros. Hand rolling cigars gave pride to the workers as they found this job to be more on the artistic side rather than domestic. They thought of themselves more like an "artist rather than a worker."
Cigar makers would sit in front of tables for hours and hand roll each cigar. Since this was a very tedious process, workers would pay 15–20 cents each week for someone to read them the newspaper or books while they worked. This was more of a custom in the Puerto Rican cigar making factories. Many newspapers and magazines that would advocate social and political doctrines were published in Spanish in New York City: Cultura Proletria an anarchist read; more general-topics El Heraldo; La Prensa, was a daily that began to be published in 1913. Mainly at this time the readers were women, that would read but women during this time were not just reading at factories but also rolling the cigars themselves. By the 1920s the economic depression hit industry hard. Many cigar workers/ tabaqueros were going on strike due to pay. Tabaqueros traditionally were known in the community for being the highest paid workers in the Puerto Rican Community. However now with the crisis, factories began to move and seek workers like women to take over the tabaquero skill for cheap labor. By 1920 there were 8,766 women working in these factories. Women that worked in tobacco factories mainly did leaf stripping and were considered to be equal in the structural exploitation of labor. For the unions of the tabaqueros the difference in sex/gender of the worker did not matter in the fight against exploitation.
World War II and The Great Migration
Several factors contributed and led to what came to be known as "The Great Migration" of Puerto Ricans to New York. These were the following: the Great Depression, World War II and the advent of air travel.
The Great Depression which spread throughout the world was also felt in Puerto Rico. Since the island's economy was and still is dependent to that of the United States, it was to be expected that when the American banks and industries began to fail the effect would be felt in the island. Unemployment was on the rise as a consequence and therefore, many families fled to the mainland US in search of jobs.
The outbreak of World War II opened the doors to many of the migrants who were searching for jobs. Since a large portion of the male population of the U.S. was sent to war, there was a sudden need of manpower to fulfill the jobs left behind. Puerto Ricans, both male and female, found themselves employed in factories and ship docks, producing both domestic and warfare goods. The new migrants gained the knowledge and working skills which in the future would serve them well. The military also provided a steady source of income, in 1944, the Puerto Rican WAC unit, Company 6, 2nd Battalion, 21st Regiment of the Women's Army Auxiliary Corps, a segregated Hispanic unit, was assigned to the New York Port of Embarkation, after their basic training at Fort Oglethorpe, Georgia. They were assigned to work in military offices which planned the shipment of troops around the world.
The advent of air travel provided Puerto Ricans with an affordable and faster way of travel to New York. The one thing that most migrants had in common was that they wanted a better way of life than was available in Puerto Rico, and although each held personal reasons for migrating, their decision generally was rooted in the island's impoverished conditions as well as the public policies that sanctioned migration.
In 1948, the Migration Division of the Department of Labor of Puerto Rico opened its office in New York City. Its mission was to mediate between the island and the New York/Puerto Rican community, assuage the adjustment experience of new arrivals, and generally inform them about jobs, housing and other critical concerns. It wasn't long before the Puerto Rican "Barrios" in the Williamsburg, Bushwick, South Bronx, Spanish Harlem, and Manhattan's Lower East Side began to resemble "Little Puerto Ricos" with their "Bodegas" (small grocery stores) and "Piragueros" (Puerto Rican shaved ice venders) in every corner. It is estimated that from 1946 to 1950 there were 31,000 Puerto Rican migrants each year to New York.
Puerto Rican culture in New York
Puerto Ricans began to form their own small "barrios", in The Bronx, Brooklyn, and in East Harlem (which would become known as Spanish Harlem). It was in East Harlem where the Puerto Rican migrants established a cultural life of great vitality and sociality. They also participated in some of the sports, such as boxing and baseball which were first introduced in the island by the American Armed Forces after the Spanish–American War.
Puerto Ricans who moved to New York not only took with them their customs and traditions, they also took with them their piraguas, a Puerto Rican frozen treat, shaped like a pyramid, made of shaved ice and covered with fruit flavored syrup. According to Holding Aloft the Banner of Ethiopia: by Winston James, piraguas were introduced in New York by Puerto Ricans as early as 1926.
Puerto Rican music
Puerto Rican music flourished with the likes of Rafael Hernández and Pedro Flores who formed the "Trio Borincano" and gained recognition in the city. Myrta Silva who later joined Hernandez's "Cuarteto Victoria" also gained fame as a singer after the group traveled and played throughout the United States.
The South Bronx became a hub for Puerto Rican music. Theaters which had served to previous groups of immigrants, such as the Irish and the Italians, for their dramatic works or vaudeville style shows, now served the growing Puerto Rican and Latino population with musical performances from musicians from Puerto Rico and Latin America. Plus, the local Bronx's burgeoning Latino musicians. Among these theaters were the historical Teatro Puerto Rico at E. 138th St. and Hunts Point Palace in Southern Blvd. During the Teatro Puerto Rico's "golden era", which lasted from 1947 to 1956, musician José Feliciano made his stateside debut
New York City also became the mecca for freestyle music in the 1980s, of which Puerto Rican singer-songwriters represented an integral component. Puerto Rican influence in popular music continues in the 21st century, encompassing major artists such as Jennifer Lopez.
1950s
The third great wave of domestic migration from Puerto Rico came after World War II. Nearly 40,000 Puerto Ricans settled in New York City in 1946, and 58,500 in 1952–53. Many soldiers who returned after World War II made use of the GI Bill and went to college. Puerto Rican women confronted economic exploitation, discrimination, racism, and the insecurities inherent in the migration process on a daily basis, however they fared better than did men in the job market. The women left their homes for the factories in record numbers. By 1953, Puerto Rican migration to New York reached its peak when 75,000 people left the island.
Operation Bootstrap ("Operación Manos a la Obra") is the name given to the ambitious projects which industrialized Puerto Rico in the mid-20th century engineered by Teodoro Moscoso. The attracted industry did not provide sufficient job opportunities. With increased population growth and displacement from traditional labor pursuits, the growing population could not be accommodated. Much of the surplus labor migrated to the United States. In 1948, Puerto Ricans elected their first governor Luis Muñoz Marín, who together with his government initiated a series of social and economic reforms with the introduction of new programs in the island. Some of these programs met some resistance from the American government and therefore, the local government had some trouble implementing the same. New York Mayor Robert F. Wagner, Jr. began a campaign to recruit Puerto Rican laborers in the island to work in the city's factories. Mayor Wagner figured that the city would benefit greatly by the luring of what was considered to be "cheap labor".
Discrimination was rampant in the United States and it was no different in New York. As stated by Lolita Lebrón, there were signs in restaurants which read "No dogs or Puerto Ricans allowed". The Puerto Rican Nationalist Party established an office in New York in the 1950s and attracted many migrants. Leaders of the party conceived a plan that would involve an attack on the Blair House with the intention of assassinating United States President Harry S. Truman and an attack on the House of Representatives. These events had a negative impact on the Puerto Rican migrants. Americans viewed Puerto Ricans as anti-Americans and the discrimination against them became even more widespread.
Many Puerto Ricans were able to overcome these obstacles and became respected members of their communities. Many such as Antonia Pantoja, established organizations such as "ASPIRA", that helped their fellow countrymen to reach their goals.
In 1954, a group of politicians close to Carmine Gerard DeSapio, then the leader of Tammany Hall, chose Tony Méndez to lead the eastern section of the district, known as the 14th Assembly District. He was chosen by the group, which was also known as the Democratic County Committee, because in those days there was no direct election of district leaders. Plus, the influx of Puerto Ricans moving to the 14th Assembly District, in which East Harlem is located, replaced the members of the Italian Community who preceded them and eventually moved out. Méndez became the first native-born Puerto Rican to become a district leader of a major political party in New York City.
The first New York Puerto Rican Day Parade, founded by Tony Méndez was held on Sunday, April 13, 1958, in the "Barrio" in Manhattan. Its first President was Victor López and it was coordinated by José Caballero. The grand marshals were Oscar González Suarez and Tony Méndez Esq. Prominent personalities from Puerto Rico headed by then Governor Luis Muñoz Marín, attended the initial parade. The parade was organized as a show of Puerto Rican pride and is a tradition which not only continues today in the city of New York but, that has also extended to other cities such as Chicago, Illinois and Orlando, Florida. By 1960, the United States census showed that there were well over 600,000 New Yorkers of Puerto Rican birth or parentage. Estimates were that more than one million Puerto Ricans had migrated during that period.
Nuyorican Movement
Puerto Rican writer Jesús Colón founded an intellectual movement involving poets, writers, musicians and artists who are Puerto Rican or of Puerto Rican descent and who live in or near New York City which became known as the Nuyorican Movement. The phenomenon of the "Nuyoricans" came about when many Puerto Ricans who migrated to New York City faced difficult situations and hardships, such as racial discrimination. Leading voices include Giannina Braschi, Sandra Maria Esteves, and Tato Laviera. A "Nuyorican" subculture developed. In 1980, Puerto Rican poets Miguel Algarín, Miguel Piñero and Pedro Pietri established the "Nuyorican Poets Café" on Manhattan's Lower East Side (236 E 3rd Street, between Avenues B and C) which is now considered a New York landmark.
Late 20th century and early 21st century
By 1964, the Puerto Rican community made up 9.3 percent of the total New York City's population. The Puerto Rican migrants who gained economic success began to move away from the "Barrios" and settled in Westchester County, Staten Island, and Long Island or moved to other cities in other states like New Jersey (especially North Jersey which is still a part of the NYC metropolitan area), Pennsylvania, Connecticut, and Florida, among others. New immigrants from the Dominican Republic, Mexico and South America moved into the Barrios which were once mainly occupied by the Puerto Ricans. The 1970s saw what became known as reverse-migration. Many Puerto Ricans returned to the island to buy homes and to invest in local businesses. Puerto Ricans have made many important contributions to the cultural and political spheres of New York and the society of the United States in general. They have contributed in the fields of entertainment, the arts, music, industry, science, politics, and military. Other Puerto Ricans have moved from New York to settle in smaller cities throughout the northeastern United States. For example, in 2009 Puerto Ricans alone made up 29.1% of Reading, Pennsylvania's population, which was over 53% Hispanic, and 25.0% of Lawrence, Massachusetts' population, which was over 70% Hispanic.
However, since 2006, there has been a resurgence in migration from Puerto Rico to New York City and New Jersey, with an apparently multifactorial allure to Puerto Ricans, primarily for economic and cultural considerations. The Census estimate for the New York City, the city proper with the largest Puerto Rican population by a significant margin, has increased from 723,621 in 2010, to 730,848 in 2012; while New York State's Puerto Rican population was estimated to have increased from 1,070,558 in 2010, to 1,103,067 in 2013.
New York State overall has also resumed its net in-migration of Puerto Rican Americans since 2006, a dramatic reversal from being the only state to register a decrease in its Puerto Rican population between 1990 and 2000. The Puerto Rican population of New York State, still the largest in the United States, is estimated by the U.S. Census Bureau to have increased from 1,070,558 in 2010 to 1,103,067 in 2013. New York State gained more Puerto Rican migrants from Puerto Rico as well as from elsewhere on the mainland between 2006 and 2012 than any other state in absolute numbers. Also, unlike the initial pattern of migration several decades ago, this second Puerto Rican migration into New York and surrounding states is being driven by movement not only into New York City proper, but also into the city's surrounding suburban areas, such that the New York City Metropolitan Area gained the highest number of additional Puerto Rican Americans of any metropolitan area between 2010 and 2016, to 1,494,670 in 2016.
Northern New Jersey has also received a robust influx of Puerto Rican migration in the 21st century, given its proximity to both New York City's and Philadelphia's Puerto Rican establishments. Within the metropolitan area surrounding New York City, Paterson and Newark in New Jersey are important homes for Puerto Rican Americans. Jose "Joey" Torres was elected mayor of Paterson in 2014, where he had served two prior terms as mayor as well; while Luis A. Quintana, born in Añasco, Puerto Rico, was sworn in as Newark's first Latino mayor in November 2013, assuming the unexpired term of Cory Booker, who vacated the position to become a U.S. Senator from New Jersey. However, as Puerto Ricans continue to climb the socioeconomic ladder and to enter professional occupations in greater numbers, they are also purchasing homes in New Jersey's more affluent suburban towns. After Hurricane Maria struck Puerto Rico in September 2017, devastating the infrastructure of the island, New York State was expected to be the likeliest destination for Puerto Rican migrants to the U.S. mainland when premised upon family ties, with New Jersey being the third likeliest destination. The 5.6 million Puerto Ricans living stateside in 2017, were largely concentrated in Florida, NY and NJ; 20% in Florida, 20% in New York, and 8% in New Jersey.
2019 was the first time in 15 years when New York was not in the top ten destinations for people leaving Puerto Rico. In 2019, New York was ranked 11th.
Enclaves
Brooklyn has several neighborhoods with a Puerto Rican presence, and many of the ethnic Puerto Rican neighborhoods in Brooklyn formed before the Puerto Rican neighborhoods in the South Bronx because of the work demand in the Brooklyn Navy Yard in the 1940s and 50s. Bushwick has the highest concentration of Puerto Ricans in Brooklyn. Other neighborhoods with significant populations include Williamsburg, East New York, Brownsville, Coney Island, Red Hook, and Sunset Park. In Williamsburg; Graham Avenue is nicknamed "Avenue of Puerto Rico" because of the high density and strong ethnic enclave of Puerto Ricans who have been living in the neighborhood since the 1950s. The Puerto Rican Day Parade is also hosted on the avenue.
Ridgewood, Queens, also has a significant Puerto Rican population, as does the neighboring community of Bushwick, Brooklyn.
Puerto Rican neighborhoods in Manhattan include Spanish Harlem and Loisaida. Spanish Harlem was "Italian Harlem" from the 1880s until the 1940s. By 1940, however, the name "Spanish Harlem" was becoming widespread, and by 1950, the area was predominately Puerto Rican and African American. Loisaida is an enclave east of Avenue A that originally comprised German, Jewish, Irish, and Italian working class residents who lived in tenements without running water; the German presence, already in decline, virtually ended after the General Slocum disaster in 1904. Since then, the community has become Puerto Rican and Latino in character, despite the "gentrification" that has affected the East Village and the Lower East Side since the late 20th century.
Staten Island has a fairly large Puerto Rican population along the North Shore, especially in the Mariners' Harbor, Arlington, Elm Park, Graniteville, Port Richmond, and Stapleton neighborhoods, where the population is in the 20% range.
Puerto Ricans are present in large numbers throughout the Bronx, which has the highest percentage of Puerto Ricans of any borough. In some places in the South Bronx, Spanish is the primary language. Throughout the 1970s, the South Bronx became known as the epitome of urban decay, but has since made a recovery. Although, Puerto Rican presence is widespread throughout the Bronx, the south central portions of the borough have the highest concentrations. Neighborhoods like Castle Hill, Clason Point, Soundview, Longwood, Hunts Point, and West Farms have some of the highest concentrations of Puerto Ricans in the New York metropolitan area. The Bronx currently has more Puerto Ricans than any US county. In 2010, there were 298,921 Puerto Ricans in the Bronx, representing 21.6% of the borough and 41% of the New York City's Puerto Ricans, and between 1970-1990 the percentage Puerto Ricans made up of the Bronx was around 25-30%.
In New York and many other cities, Puerto Ricans usually live in close proximity with Dominicans and African Americans. High concentrations of Puerto Ricans are also present in numerous public housing developments throughout the city.
Puerto Rican population in New York
As of 1990, New Yorkers of Puerto Rican descent (Nuyoricans), numbered 143,974. Nearly 41,800 state residents (Nuyoricans) in 1990 had lived in Puerto Rico in 1985. According to the Census taken in the year 2000, Puerto Rican migrants made up 1.2% of the total population of the United States, with a population of well over 3 million Puerto Ricans (including those of Puerto Rican descent). If taken into account together with the almost 4 million Puerto Ricans who are U.S. citizens (nevertheless, excluded by the U.S. Census statistics of U.S. population), Puerto Ricans make up about 2.5% of the total population of U.S. citizens around the world (within and outside the U.S. mainland).
2020 Puerto Rican population by borough
New York City's total Puerto Rican population was 595,535 and they represented 6.7% of the population. The Puerto Rican population and the percentage Puerto Ricans make up of each borough, as of the 2020 census, is:
Bronx – 237,047 (16.1%)
Brooklyn – 140,029 (5.1%)
Manhattan – 91,274 (5.3%)
Queens – 89,115 (3.7%)
Staten Island – 38,070 (7.6%)
Puerto Rican influence
In July 1930, Puerto Rico's Department of Labor established an employment service in New York City. The Migration Division (known as the "Commonwealth Office"), also part of Puerto Rico's Department of Labor, was created in 1948, and by the end of the 1950s, was operating in 115 cities and towns stateside. The Department of Puerto Rican Affairs in the United States was established in 1989 as a cabinet-level department in Puerto Rico. Currently, the Commonwealth operates the Puerto Rico Federal Affairs Administration, which is headquartered in Washington, D.C. and has 12 regional offices throughout the United States.
Puerto Ricans in New York have preserved their cultural heritage by being involved actively in the different political and social rights movements in the United States. They founded "Aspira", a leader in the field of education, in 1961. The ASPIRA Association is now one of the largest national Latino nonprofit organizations in the United States. Other educational and social organizations founded by Puerto Ricans in New York and elsewhere are the National Puerto Rican Coalition in Washington, DC, the National Puerto Rican Forum, the Puerto Rican Family Institute, Boricua College, the Center for Puerto Rican Studies of the City University of New York at Hunter College, the Puerto Rican Legal Defense and Education Fund, the National Conference of Puerto Rican Women, and the New York League of Puerto Rican Women, Inc., among others.
Hostos Community College in the Bronx, was named after a Puerto Rican Eugenio Maria de Hostos, and was founded as an all-Puerto Rican college. The college now accepts students of all races, however it largely caters to Hispanics with up to 80% of its students being of Hispanic descent. Boricua College is another originally all-Puerto Rican college with campuses in East Williamsburg and Manhattan.
Cultural ties between New York and Puerto Rico are strong. In September 2017, following the immense destruction wrought upon Puerto Rico by Hurricane Maria, New York Governor Andrew Cuomo led an aid delegation to San Juan, including engineers form the New York Power Authority to help restore Puerto Rico's electrical grid. Subsequently, on the one-year anniversary of the storm, in September 2018, Governor Cuomo announced plans for the official New York State memorial to honor the victims of Hurricane Maria, to be built in Battery Park City, Manhattan, citing the deep cultural connections shared between New Yorkers and Puerto Rican Americans. The Hurricane Maria Memorial was unveiled by Governor Cuomo on March 26, 2021 in lower Manhattan.
Notable people who migrated to New York from Puerto Rico
The following is a short list of Puerto Ricans who migrated to New York and became notable in their own right:
Alvarez, Aida – former Small Business Administrator
Juanita Arocho – political activist, journalist
Belen, Ivonne – movie director
Badillo, Herman – first Puerto Rican to serve in Congress
Braschi, Giannina – novelist and essayist
Judge Cabranes, Jose A. – U.S. circuit judge
Camacho Sr., Hector – boxer
Casals Istomin, Marta – musician
Collazo, Oscar – Puerto Rican nationalist
Colon, Jesus – writer
Colon, Miriam – actress
Rev. Cruz, Nicky – minister
de Burgos, Julia – poet
Estavillo, Nicholas – the first Hispanic to become a three-star Chief in NYPD
Falcon. Angelo – political scientist
Ferrer, Jose – actor
Garcia Rivera Sr., Oscar – first Puerto Rican to hold public office in the mainland USA
Gonzalez, Isabel – paved the way for the Jones–Shafroth Act which conferred United States citizenship on all citizens of Puerto Rico
Holly, Maria Elena – widow of "rock n roll" pioneer Buddy Holly
Labarthe, Pedro J. – poet, journalist, essayist, and novelist
Lebron, Lolita – Puerto Rican nationalist
Mark-Viverito, Melissa – elected speaker of the New York City Council in January 2014
Méndez, Olga A. – New York state senator
Méndez, Tony – The first native-born Puerto Rican to become a district leader of a major political party in New York City
Moreno, Rita – actress
Ortiz, Carlos – boxer
Powell IV, Adam Clayton – N.Y. State Assembly member
Santiago, Herman – composer of "Why do Fools Fall in Love"
Serrano, Yolanda – HIV/AIDS activist
Schomburg, Arturo Alfonso – considered by many as the "Father of Black History"
Torres, Jose – boxer
Velazquez, Nydia – congresswoman
Lavoe, Héctor – Singer of the singers
See also
List of Puerto Ricans
List of Stateside Puerto Ricans
Puerto Ricans in the United States (Stateside Puerto Ricans)
Nuyorican
Nuyorican movement
Nuyorican Poets Café
Music of Puerto Rico
Hispanics and Latinos in New Jersey
Puerto Ricans in Philadelphia
References
External links
Puerto Rican Women
Puerto Rican migration within U.S.
History Puerto Rican migration
Hispanic and Latino American culture in New York City
New York
New York City
Society of Puerto Rico
Ethnic groups in New York City |
4442437 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prostitution%20in%20India | Prostitution in India | Prostitution is legal in India, but a number of related activities including soliciting, kerb crawling, owning or managing a brothel, prostitution in a hotel, child prostitution, pimping and pandering are illegal. There are, however, many brothels illegally operating in Indian cities including Mumbai, Delhi, Kolkata, Bangalore, and Chennai. UNAIDS estimate there were 657,829 prostitutes in the country as of 2016. Other unofficial estimates have calculated India has roughly 3–10 million prostitutes. India is widely regarded as having one of the world's largest commercial sex industry. It has emerged as a global hub of sex tourism, attracting sex tourists from wealthy countries. The sex industry in India is a multi-billion dollar one, and one of the fastest growing.
History
A tawaif was a courtesan who catered to the nobility of India, particularly during the Mughal era. The tawaifs excelled in and contributed to music, dance (mujra), theatre, and the Urdu literary tradition, and were considered an authority on etiquette. Tawaifs were largely a North Indian institution central to Mughal court culture from the 16th century onwards and became even more prominent with the weakening of Mughal rule in the mid-18th century. They contributed significantly to the continuation of traditional dance and music forms and then emergence of modern Indian cinema.
Goa was a colony in Portuguese India set up in the early 16th century, and this Portuguese stronghold contained a community of Portuguese slaves. During the late 16th and 17th centuries the Portuguese trade in Japanese slaves resulted in traders from the Portuguese Empire and their captive lascar crew members from South Asia bringing Japanese slaves to Goa. These were usually young Japanese women and girls brought or captured from Japan as sexual slaves.
The culture of the performing art of nautch, an alluring style of popular dance, rose to prominence during the later period of Mughal Empire and the rule of the British East India Company. During the period of Company rule (and after the Indian Rebellion of 1857, the direct administration of the British Crown), British military elements established and maintained brothels across the Indian subcontinent. The prostitutes who worked in such brothels were recruited from rural Indian families and paid directly by the British authoriites. The red-light districts of cities such as Mumbai developed at this time. The governments of many Indian princely states had regulated prostitution in India prior to the 1860s. The British Raj enacted the Cantonment Act of 1864 to regulate prostitution in colonial India as a matter of accepting a necessary evil. The Cantonment Acts regulated and structured prostitution in the British military bases which provided for about twelve to fifteen Indian women kept in brothels called chaklas for each regiment of thousand British soldiers. They were licensed by military officials and were allowed to consort with soldiers only. In the 19th and early 20th centuries, thousands of women and girls from continental Europe and Japan were trafficked into British India, where they worked as prostitutes servicing British soldiers and local Indian men.
According to Priti Patkar, a Maharashtra-based social activist working with sex workers in the state, many sex workers were forced to take loans from private lenders at high interest rates during the first wave of the Covid pandemic. “We conducted a survey during the first wave which revealed sex workers were taking loans to survive. For their daily meals, they were entirely dependent on donations. We have not conducted any such survey during the second wave, but we have heard the same thing has happened this time, too,” said Patkar, who leads the NGO, Prerana.
Profession types
Professions sometimes related to prostitution
Nochi, young female trainee under a Tawaif
Kanjari, low-class uncultured Tawaif
Kasbi, a female belonging to family which practices hereditary sex trade over several generations
Nautch girl, assorted dance performer during colonial India for all classes of people
Tawaif, an elegant and cultured courtesan who is master of arts, including singing and dancing
Other related, often misunderstood, but traditionally, originally non-prostitution professions:
Devdasi, temple dancer devoted to the practice of spiritual dancing
Domni, a hereditary female singer
Organisation
Government organisations like MDACS (Maharashtra District AIDS Control Society) have played a very prominent role in generating awareness on HIV/AIDS, through the assistance in providing free literature and organising street campaigns. There are several NGOs that work to prevent the spread of STI/STDs in the community. NACO (National AIDS Control Organisation), a government agency leads these NGOs. The Durbar Mahila Sumanwua Committee is a sex-workers' union based in Sonagachi, Kolkata, which has 65,000 members. They advocate for labour rights for sex workers, and they also fight against trafficking.
Prevalence
There were an estimated two million female sex workers in the country in 1997. In 2007, the Ministry of Women and Child Development reported the presence of over 3 million female sex workers in India, with 35.47 percent of them entering the trade before the age of 18 years. The number of prostitutes rose by 50% between 1997 and 2004.
Areas of work
Brothels are illegal de jure but in practice are restricted to certain areas of any given town. Though the profession does not have official sanction, little effort is made to eradicate or impede it.
India's largest and best-known red-light districts are Sonagachi in Kolkata, Majestic in Bangalore, Reshampura in Gwalior, Kamathipura, Sonapur in Mumbai and G. B. Road in New Delhi, that host thousands of sex workers. Earlier, there were centres such as Naqqasa Bazaar in Saharanpur, Chaturbhuj Sthan in Muzaffarpur, Lalpur, Maruadih in Varanasi, Meerganj in Allahabad, Kalinganj in Azamgarh and Kabadi bazar of Meerut.
Underage prostitution
Surveys show there are an estimated 1.2 million children involved in prostitution.
Research
Much new knowledge on sex work in India came from the first major survey, in April 2011. This was performed by the Centre for Advocacy on Stigma and Marginalisation (CASAM), which is part of SANGRAM, a major NGO that deals with sex workers.
Legal status
The law is vague on prostitution itself. The primary law dealing with the status of sex workers is the 1956 law referred to as The Immoral Traffic (Suppression) Act (SITA). According to this law, prostitutes can practise their trade privately but cannot legally solicit customers in public. A BBC article, however, mentions that prostitution is illegal in India; the Indian law does not refer to the practice of selling one's own sexual service as "prostitution". Clients can be punished for sexual activity in proximity to a public place. Organised prostitution (brothels, prostitution rings, pimping, etc.) is illegal. As long as it is done individually and voluntarily, a woman (male prostitution is not recognised in any law in India) can use her body in exchange for material benefit. In particular, the law forbids a sex worker to carry on her profession within 200 yards of a public place. Unlike as is the case with other professions, sex workers are not protected under normal labour laws, but they possess the right to rescue and rehabilitation if they desire, and they possess all the rights of other citizens.
In practice SITA is not commonly used. The Indian Penal Code (IPC) which predates the SITA is often used to charge sex workers with vague crimes such as "public indecency" or being a "public nuisance" without explicitly defining what these consist of. In 1986 the old law was amended as the Immoral Traffic (Prevention) Act or ITPA. Attempts to amend this to criminalise clients have been opposed by the Health Ministry, and has encountered considerable opposition.
In a positive development in the improvement of the lives of female sex workers in Calcutta, a state-owned insurance company has provided life insurance to 250 individuals.
Over the years, India saw a growing mandate to legalise prostitution, to avoid exploitation of sex workers and their children by middlemen and in the wake of a growing HIV/AIDS menace.
Supreme Court of India; on May 19, 2022, upheld that everyone, including sex workers are guaranteed the right to dignity and life under Article 21 of Constitution of India. Thus, sex workers can not be harassed and arrested legally. Brothel related practices still remain illegal.
Immoral Traffic (Prevention) Act
The Immoral Traffic (Prevention) Act, or ITPA, also called the Prevention of Immoral Trafficking Act (PITA) is a 1986 amendment of legislation passed in 1956 as a result of the signing by India of the United Nations' declaration in 1950 in New York on the suppression of trafficking. The act, then called the All India Suppression of Immoral Traffic Act (SITA), was amended to the current law. The laws were intended as a means of limiting and eventually abolishing prostitution in India by gradually criminalising various aspects of sex work. The main points of the PITA are as follows:
Sex Workers: A prostitute who seduces or solicits shall be prosecuted. Similarly, call girls can not publish phone numbers to the public (imprisonment up to 6 months with fine, point 8). Sex workers are also punished for prostitution near any public place or notified area (imprisonment of up to 3 months with fine, point 7).
Clients: A client is guilty of consorting with prostitutes and can be charged if he engages in sex acts with a sex worker within 200 yards of a public place or "notified area" (imprisonment of up to 3 months, point 7). The client may also be punished if the sex worker is below 18 years of age (from 7 to 10 years of imprisonment, no matter the age of the minor, point 7).
Pimps : Pimps or live-in lovers who live off a prostitute's earnings are guilty of a crime. Any adult male living with a prostitute is assumed to be guilty unless he can prove otherwise (imprisonment of up to 2 years with fine, point 4).
Brothel: Landlords and brothel-keepers can be prosecuted, maintaining a brothel is illegal (from 1 to 3 years' imprisonment with fine for first offence, point 3). Detaining someone at a brothel for the purpose of sexual exploitation can lead to prosecution (imprisonment of more than 7 years, point 6). Prostitution in a hotel is also a criminal offence.
Procuring and trafficking: A person who procures or attempts to procure anybody is liable to be punished. A person who moves a person from one place to another (human trafficking) can be prosecuted similarly (7 years' imprisonment with fine for first conviction, and up to life imprisonment thereafter, point 5B).
Rescued Women: The government is legally obligated to provide rescue and rehabilitation in a "protective home" for any sex worker requesting assistance (point 21).
A "public place" in context of this law includes places of public religious worship, educational institutions, hostels, hospitals etc. A "notified area" is a place which is declared to be "prostitution-free" by the state government under the PITA. "Brothel" in context of this law, is a place which has two or more sex workers (2a). Prostitution itself is not an offence under this law, but soliciting, brothels, madams and pimps are illegal.
Political and legal debates
In 2006 the Ministry of Women and Child Development put forward a bill aimed at reducing human trafficking. The bill proposed criminalising the clients of trafficked prostitutes. However, it stalled during the legislative process, and legislation against human trafficking was subsequently effected by amendments to the Indian Penal Code.
Clauses in the ITPA relating to living off the earnings of a sex-worker are being challenged in court, together with criminalisation of brothels, prostitution around a notified public place, soliciting and the power given to a magistrate to evict sex-workers from their home and forbidding their re-entry. Other groups are lobbying parliament for amendments to the law.
In 2009 the Supreme Court ruled that prostitution should be legalised and convened a panel to consider amending the law. In 2011 the Supreme Court held that "right to live with dignity" is a Constitutional right and issued an order relating to "creating conditions conducive for sex workers to work with dignity". The court directed the Central Government, States and Union Territories to carry out a survey to determine the number of sex workers in the country willing to be rehabilitated.
However, in 2012 the Central Government made a plea to the Supreme Court arguing that sex workers should not be allowed to pursue their trade under the constitutional "right to live with dignity". Government counsel contended that any such endorsement by the court would be ultra vires of ITPA, which totally bans prostitution. Opposing counsel submitted that the Act only prohibited brothel activities and punitive action against pimps. The Supreme Court agreed to examine the plea.
Reasons for entry
Most of the research done by the development organisation Sanlaap indicates that the majority of sex workers in India work as prostitutes due to lacking resources to support themselves or their children. Most do not choose this profession but out of necessity, often after the breakup of a marriage or after being disowned and thrown out of their homes by their families. The children of sex workers are much more likely to get involved in this kind of work as well. A survey completed in 1988 by the All Bengal Women's Union interviewed a random sample of 160 sex workers in Calcutta: Of those, 23 claimed that they had come of their own accord, whereas the remaining 137 women claimed to have been introduced into the sex trade by agents. The breakdown was as follows:
Neighbour in connivance with parents: 7
Neighbours as pimps (guardians not knowing): 19
Aged sex workers from same village or locality: 31
Unknown person/accidental meeting with pimp: 32
Mother/sister/near relative in the profession: 18
Lover giving false hope of marriage or job and selling to brothel: 14
Close acquaintance giving false hope of marriage or job: 11
"Husband" (not legally married): 3
Husband (legally married): 1
Young college student selling to brothel and visiting free of cost: 1
The breakdown of the agents by sex were as follows: 76% of the agents were female and 24% were males. Over 80% of the agents bring young women into the profession were known people and not traffickers: neighbours, relatives, etc.
Also prevalent in parts of Bengal is the Chukri System, whereby a female is coerced into prostitution to pay off debts, as a form of bonded labour. In this system, the prostitute generally works without pay for one year or longer to repay a supposed debt to the brothel owner for food, clothes, make-up and living expenses. In India, the Government's "central sponsored scheme" provides financial or in-kind grants to released bonded labourers and their family members, the report noted, adding over 2,850,000 people have benefited to date. Almost 5,000 prosecutions have been recorded so far under the Bonded Labour System (Abolition) Act of 1976.
Some women and girls are by tradition born into prostitution to support the family. The Bachara Tribe, for example, follow this tradition with eldest daughters often expected to be prostitutes.
Over 40% of 484 prostituted girls rescued during major raids of brothels in Mumbai in 1996 were from Nepal. In India one estimate calculated that as many as 200,000 Nepalese girls, many under the age of 14, were sold into sexual slavery during the 1990s.
Sex worker health
Sex workers in India find it difficult to access health care and face discrimination, especially in government hospitals, based on their profession, such as being forced to take tests for sexually transmitted infection when they are ill, being refused to be admitted to hospitals without HIV tests, being refused to conduct physical examination before prescribing medication. Surveys have found that sex workers prefer private health care providers over the government ones where they have some kind of sensitisation training. Difficulty in accessing health care is due to factors such as hospitals sending women to their husband for approval to get abortion, financial hurdles such as high fees for abortion and difficulty procuring identification documents as many sex workers live unstable lives, having trouble providing a proof of address. A Supreme Court verdict in 2021 directed that sex workers be provided Aadhar and ration without asking for proof of address, which made the situation better for sex workers. In government hospitals, sometimes it is not even doctors who do abortions for sex workers, but ward boys will do. Sex workers also lack privacy in hospitals because people think they are okay with anybody looking at their private parts. Transgender sex workers face even more discrimination than women sex workers due to doctors' lack of knowledge of transperson bodies, hospitals not having separate queues for transpeople and hospitals not assigning them doctors but rather rush them to testing centres.
Mumbai and Kolkata (Calcutta) have the country's largest brothel based sex industry, with over 100,000 sex workers in Mumbai. It is estimated that HIV among prostitutes have largely fallen, in last decade.
A positive outcome of a prevention programme among prostitutes can be found in Sonagachi, a red-light district in Kolkata. The education programme targeted about 5,000 female prostitutes. A team of two peer workers carried out outreach activities including education, condom promotion and follow-up of STI cases. When the project was launched in 1992, 27% of sex workers reported condom use. By 1995 this had risen to 82%, and in 2001 it was 86%.
Reaching women who are working in brothels has proven to be quite difficult due to the sheltered and secluded nature of the work, where pimps, Mashis, and brothel-keepers often control access to the women and prevent their access to education, resulting in a low to modest literacy rate for many sex workers.
Not only HIV but other infection diseases have been decreased, examined data from 868 prevention projects—serving about 500,000 female sex workers—implemented between 1995 and 2008. The research found that reaching sex workers through prevention programs decreased HIV and syphilis infection rates among young pregnant women tested routinely at government prenatal health clinics.
Foreign prostitutes
Women and girls from China, Arab countries, Japan, the former Soviet Republics, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka and from other origins have been noted as working as prostitutes in India.
In 2015, ten Thai women were arrested in India on prostitution charges for allegedly running two brothels masquerading as massage parlours.
In 2013 there were reports of Afghan women being trafficked as prostitutes to India.
Uzbek women go to India to work as prostitutes.
Sex trafficking
India is a source, destination, and transit country for women and children subjected to sex trafficking. Most of India's trafficking problem is internal, and those from the most disadvantaged social strata—economically, members of tribal communities—are most vulnerable. Thousands of unregulated work placement agencies reportedly lure adults and children under false promises of employment into sex trafficking.
Experts estimate millions of women and children are victims of sex trafficking in India. Traffickers use false promises of employment or arrange sham marriages within India or Gulf states and subject women and girls to sex trafficking. In addition to traditional red light districts, women and children increasingly endure sex trafficking in small hotels, vehicles, huts, and private residences. Traffickers increasingly use websites, mobile applications, and online money transfers to facilitate commercial sex. Children continue to be subjected to sex trafficking in religious pilgrimage centers and by foreign travelers in tourist destinations. Many women and girls, predominately from Nepal and Bangladesh, and from Central Asia, Africa, and Asia, including Rohingya and other minority populations from Burma, are subjected to sex trafficking in India. Prime destinations for both Indian and foreign female trafficking victims include Kolkata, Mumbai, Delhi, Gujarat, Hyderabad, and along the India-Nepal border; Nepali women and girls are increasingly subjected to sex trafficking in Assam, and other cities such as Nagpur and Pune. Some corrupt law enforcement officers protect suspected traffickers and brothel owners from law enforcement efforts, take bribes from sex trafficking establishments and sexual services from victims, and tip off sex traffickers to impede rescue efforts. Some Nepali, Bangladeshi, Afghan, and Pakistani women and girls are subjected to both labor and sex trafficking in major Indian cities. Following the 2015 Nepal earthquakes, Nepali women who transit through India are increasingly subjected to trafficking in the Middle East and Africa.
The United States Department of State Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons ranks India as a 'Tier 2' country.
Popular culture
Prostitution has been a theme in Indian literature and arts for centuries. Mrichakatika, a ten-act Sanskrit play, was written by Śhudraka in the 2nd century BC, and tells the story of a famous courtesan, Vasantsena. It was made into Utsav, a 1984 Hindi film. Amrapali (Ambapali), the legendary nagarvadhu, or royal courtesan of the Kingdom of Vaishali, famously became an enlightened Buddhist monk later in her life - a story retold in a Hindi film, Amrapali (1966).
The tawaif, or elite courtesan in the Mughal era, has been a theme of a number of films, including Pakeezah (1972), Umrao Jaan (1981), Tawaif (1985), Kama Sutra: A Tale of Love (1996) and Umrao Jaan (2006). Other movies depicting lives of prostitutes and dancing girls are Sharaabi (1984), Amar Prem (1972), Mausam (1975) Mandi (1983), Devdas (2002), Chandni Bar (2001), Chameli (2003), Laaga Chunari Mein Daag, Sadak (2007), Dev D (2009), B.A. Pass (2013), Thira (2013) and Begum Jaan (2017).
Various fictional films have featured the subject of prostitution in India, including Slumdog Millionaire (2008), Chaarfutiya Chhokare (2014), Manoranjan (1974), Soothradharan (2001), Calcutta News (2008), Lakshmi (2014), Love Sonia (2018), Gangubai Kathiawadi (2022) among others.
Born into Brothels, a 2004 American documentary film about the children of prostitutes in Sonagachi, Kolkata, won the Academy Award for Documentary Feature in 2004.
Delhi-based woman film maker Shohini Ghosh made a documentary film "Tales of the Night Fairies" in 2002, interviewing five sex workers who are activists of the DMSC sex-worker union in Kolkata. DMSC fights against trafficking and advocates for labour rights for sex-workers.
See also
Born into Brothels
Dance bar
Prostitution in Bangladesh
Prostitution by country
Prostitution in Asia
Prostitution in the Americas
Prostitution in Europe
Pornography in India
Prostitution in Kolkata
Prostitution in Kuki society
Prostitution in colonial India
Prostitution in Thailand
References
Bibliography
Gomare et al. 2002. Adopting strategic approach for reaching out to inaccessible population viz Abstract WePeF6707F abstract, The XIV International AIDS Conference.
.
External links
US State Department Annual Human Rights Reports about India
Rape For Profit — Human Rights Watch Report
Navjeevan Mumbai Sex work outreach
The Immoral Traffic (Prevention) Act 1956
Legalise prostitution in India to address problems of sex industry Article by K Rajasekharan
Society of India
Indian culture |
4442484 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prostitution%20in%20Asia | Prostitution in Asia | The legality of prostitution in Asia varies by country. There is often a significant difference in Asia between prostitution laws and the practice of prostitution. In 2011, the Asian Commission on AIDS estimated there were 10 million sex workers in Asia and 75 million male customers.
Child prostitution is a serious problem in this region. Past surveys indicate that 30 to 35 percent of all prostitutes in the Mekong sub-region of Southeast Asia are between 12 and 17 years of age.
The World Health Organization has called for the decriminalisation of sex work as a means of combating HIV/AIDS. The Asian region has the lowest incidence (5.2%).
This page uses the UN system of subregions.
Central Asia
Kazakhstan
In Kazakhstan prostitution itself is legal, but acts facilitating prostitution, such as operating a brothel or prostitution ring, are illegal. Forced prostitution and prostitution connected to organized crime are prohibited. Prostitution is a serious problem. NGOs reported that criminal prostitution rings often included local law enforcement officials.
Estimates of the number of prostitutes in Kazakhstan vary from 4,000 and 25,000, including a number from Kyrgyzstan, Uzbekistan and Ukraine.
Sex workers often face harassment, extortion, arbitrary arrest, rape and violence from the police.
Kyrgyzstan
Prostitution in Kyrgyzstan has been legal since 1998, but the operation of brothels, pimping, and recruiting persons into prostitution are illegal, with penalties of up to five years There are estimated to be 7,100 sex workers in the country. Prostitution occurs on the streets, in bars, hotels and brothels.
Prostitution has been blamed for a rise in HIV/AIDS. The HIV prevalence amongst sex workers is 2%.
Sex trafficking is a problem in the country.
Tajikistan
Prostitution in Tajikistan is legal, but related activities such as soliciting, procuring and brothel keeping are prohibited. Prostitution has increased within the country since the collapse of the Soviet Union. UNAIDS estimate there are 14,100 female sex workers in Tajikistan. Government official figures for 2015 were 1,777 prostitutes and 194 brothels. Prostitution occurs on the streets and in bars, restaurants, nightclubs and saunas, and HIV prevalence is 3.5% amongst sex workers.
Previously, as soliciting is an administrative offence, arrested prostitutes are given a nominal fine and released, while those procuring are prosecuted, potentially being punished by up to eight years in jail. In 2015 a new law was passed that doubled the fine for solicitation and added 15 days of home arrest to the punishment.
Turkmenistan
Prostitution in Turkmenistan is illegal but common. Prostitution has increased within the country since the collapse of the Soviet Union. Poverty is one of the reasons women have turned to prostitution, sometimes under pressure from family members.
Prostitutes frequent bars, casinos and nightclubs; some are addicted to heroin. In Daşoguz, a major truck stop, many 'night butterflies' service the truck drivers in the overnight truck parks.
Uzbekistan
Prostitution in Uzbekistan is illegal but common, especially in Samarkand, Fergana, and the capital, Tashkent. Prostitution has increased within the country since the collapse of the Soviet Union. UNAIDS estimate there are 22,000 sex workers in the country. Many of the women have turned to prostitution in Uzbekistan because of poverty.
Law enforcement is inconsistent. Some police officers will harass prostitutes and extort "protection money" from them. Sometimes prostitutes work with police as informants to avoid being arrested.
East Asia
China
Officially, prostitution is illegal in mainland China, but in practice is widespread.
Shortly after taking power in 1949, the Chinese Communist Party embarked upon a series of campaigns that purportedly eradicated prostitution from mainland China by the early 1960s. Since the loosening of government controls over society in the early 1980s, prostitution in mainland China not only has become more visible, but can now be found throughout both urban and rural areas. In spite of government efforts, prostitution has now developed to the extent that it comprises an industry, one that involves a great number of people and produces a considerable economic output. Prostitution has also become associated with a number of problems, including organized crime, government corruption and sexually transmitted diseases. For example, a Communist Party official who was a top provincial campaigner against corruption was removed from his post after he was caught in a hotel room with a prostitute.
Hong Kong
Prostitution in Hong Kong is itself legal, but organised prostitution is illegal, as there are laws against keeping a vice establishment, causing or procuring another to be a prostitute, living on the prostitution of others, or public solicitation.
The most visible public venues for sex workers in Hong Kong, especially for tourists, are massage parlours and the so-called "Japanese style night clubs". However, most of the commercial sex worker industry consists of women working in small, usually one-room apartments, usually referred to as "one-woman brothels", the equivalent of the "walk-up brothel" in the United Kingdom. They advertise for clients through the Internet and local classifieds. Most popular mainstream newspapers will carry such classifieds with brothel guides as an insert within racing form guides. Yellow neon advertising boxes were used to advertise sexual services to such an extent that "yellow" (黃) became synonymous with prostitution.
Macau
Prostitution is legal in Macau unlike in mainland China, because the city is a special administrative region of the country. However, operating a brothel and procuring are both illegal in Macau, with the latter punishable by a maximum jail sentence of 8 years. The city has a large sex trade despite there being no official red-light district. The trade is said to be controlled by Chinese organized crime groups, which has occasionally led to violent clashes. Street prostitution takes place in Macau and prostitutes also work in low-rent buildings, massage parlours and illegal brothels, and the casinos, nightclubs, saunas and some of the larger hotels. Most hotels, however, have suspected prostitutes removed from the premises. Many of the city's sidewalks and underpasses are littered with prostitutes' calling cards.
Japan
Prostitution is illegal in Japan; however, as the definition of prostitution is "intercourse with an unspecified person in exchange for payment", the sale of other sexual services is legal and widespread.
Prostitution has existed throughout the country's history. While the Anti-Prostitution Law of 1956 states that "No person may either do prostitution or become the customer of it," loopholes, liberal interpretations and loose enforcement of the law have allowed the sex industry to prosper and earn an estimated 2.3 trillion yen ($24 billion) a year.
In Japan, the is not synonymous with prostitution. Since Japanese law defines prostitution as "intercourse with an unspecified person in exchange for payment," most fūzoku offer only non-coital services, such as conversation, dancing, or bathing, to remain legal. Nevertheless, polls by MiW and the National Women's Education Center of Japan have found that between 20% and 40% of Japanese men have paid for sex.
Mongolia
Prostitution is illegal in Mongolia but widespread in some areas. The Global Fund for Tuberculosis, HIV/AIDS and Malaria estimated there were about 19,000 sex workers in the country in 2006. Many women in Mongolia turn to prostitution through poverty.
Sex trafficking and child prostitution, including child sex tourism, are problems in the country.
North Korea
Prostitution is illegal in North Korea and, according to the North Korean government, does not exist. Under Article 261 of the Criminal law, prostitution is punishable by up to two years labour if engaged in "multiple times". According to CIA analyst Helen-Louise Hunter, during the rule of Kim Il-sung, there was no organized prostitution, but some prostitution was still practiced discreetly near railroad stations and restaurants. While defectors currently report widespread prostitution, this is not experienced by visitors to the country. Allegedly, kippumjo provides sexual entertainment to high-ranking officials.
South Korea
Prostitution is illegal in South Korea, but according to the Korea Women's Development Institute, the sex trade in Korea was estimated to amount to 14 trillion South Korean won ($13 billion) in 2007, roughly 1.6% of the nation's gross domestic product.
According to a survey conducted by the Department of Urology at the Korea University College of Medicine in 2015, 23.1% of males and 2.6% of females, aged 18–69, had sexual experience with a prostitute. Despite legal sanctions and police crackdowns, prostitution continues to flourish in South Korea, while sex workers continue to actively resist the state's activities.
Taiwan
Legislation was introduced in 2011 to allow local governments in Taiwan to set up "special zones" where prostitution is permitted. Outside these zones prostitution is illegal. As of 2017 no "special zones" had been opened.
North Asia
Russia
Prostitution is an administrative, but not criminal, offence in Russia (such as, for example, drinking beer in a public place or walking nude on the street). The maximum punishment is a fine up to 2000 rubles (~$30); however, organising prostitution or engaging somebody into prostitution is punishable by a prison term.
South Asia
Afghanistan
Prostitution is illegal in Afghanistan, with punishments ranging from 5 to 15 years imprisonment. Despite Afghanistan being deeply religious and one of the most conservative countries in the world, where sex outside marriage is against the law, some prostitution activities are reported in the capital Kabul as well as in the Mazar-e-Sharif area in the north of the country.
Small number of women from Iran, Tajikistan, China, and possibly Uganda and other countries are imported for prostitution into Afghanistan. According to the Afghan Interior Ministry's department of sexual crimes, about 2 to 3 prostitution arrests were made each week in Afghanistan between 2007 and 2008.
Bangladesh
Prostitution is legal and regulated in Bangladesh, but it is not considered a respectable profession by Bangladeshi society. Prostitutes must register and swear an affidavit stating she is unable to find any other work. Local NGOs estimate the total number of female prostitutes to be as many as 100,000.
There are 20 brothel-villages in the country. The largest is Daulatdia which has about 1,300 sex workers, it is one of the largest brothels in the world.
Unwed mothers, orphans, and others outside the normal family support system are the most vulnerable to human trafficking. Government corruption greatly facilitates the process of trafficking. Police and local government officials often ignore trafficking in women and children for commercial sexual exploitation and are easily bribed by brothel owners and pimps.
Bhutan
Prostitution is illegal in Bhutan but in many of Bhutan's border towns there are people openly practicing in the sex trade. Prostitution mainly occurs in bars, clubs & hotels. Some of the sex workers are employed by bar and hotel owners to attract customers. Prostitution also occurs in the capital, Thimphu. There are thought to be 400 - 500 sex workers in the country, many from poor backgrounds who enter prostitution for financial reasons.
In 2017, the NGO Lhak-Sam proposed that sex work was legalised by the government, but the proposal was turned down.
India
In India, prostitution is legal only if carried out in the private residence of a prostitute or others. A number of related activities are crimes, including soliciting in a public place, kerb crawling, owning or managing a brothel, prostitution in a hotel, child prostitution, pimping and pandering. But many brothels illegally operate in many Indian cities including Mumbai, Delhi and Kolkata.
There were an estimated two million female sex workers in the country in 1997. In 2007, the Ministry of Women and Child Development reported the presence of over 3 million female sex workers in India, with 35.47 percent of them entering the trade before the age of 18 years.
Maldives
Prostitution in the Maldives is illegal under Islamic sharia law, but occurs on a small scale. A 2014 survey by the Human Rights Commission of the Maldives (HRCM) estimated there were 1,139 female prostitutes on the islands. Some women enter the country posing as tourists but then engage in sex work.
Following complaints that sexual services were being offered in spas in hotels, and a protest in the capital, Malé, by the opposition Adhaalath Party, the government ordered the closure of the spas in 1,000 hotels in late December 2011. Following pressure from the country's tourism industry, president Mohamed Nasheed lifted the ban a few days later.
Nepal
Prostitution is illegal in Nepal. The Human Trafficking and Transportation (Control) Act, 2064, Act Number 5 of the Year 2064 (2008), criminalises prostitution and living of the earnings of prostitution by including it in the definition of human trafficking.
For many, entering into the sex industry is the only way in which they could survive economically in Nepal. However, sex work is not officially recognized among the industrial or service sectors of labour. Sex trafficking happens on a large scale in Nepal, but voluntary sex work is common.
Pakistan
Prostitution is illegal in Pakistan but a taboo culture of sex-trade exists as an open secret. Prostitution is largely based in organisational setups like brothels or furthered by individual call girls in the Punjab province of Pakistan. The sex trade is deemed illegal in the country due to the declaration of extramarital sex as an immoral activity. Pakistani prostitutes, thus, operate underground and in spite of the legal difficulties, prostitution in Pakistan is prevalent. In some areas of the country prostitution is strictly illegal and traditionally punishable by death, especially in the Federally Administered Tribal Areas (FATA), Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa and Balochistan regions.
Sri Lanka
Prostitution is illegal in Sri Lanka, and related activities such as soliciting, procuring, and brothels are outlawed. It is also illegal to traffic persons for prostitution, especially minors. Prostitution is not as widespread in Sri Lanka as in some neighbouring countries. It is estimated that there are 40,000 prostitutes (known as "Ganikawa") in the country, and nearly half of them operate in Colombo.
Southeast Asia
Brunei
Prostitution in Brunei is illegal and can incur a punishment of imprisonment for 1 year and a fine of BN$5,000 for a first offence, or 3 years and BN$10,000 on a second or subsequent conviction.
In 1993, in a diplomatic affair dubbed as the Brunei beauties, Senator Ernesto Maceda, with testimony from Rosanna Roces, claimed that there were illegal recruitment of Filipinas in Brunei as prostitutes and entertainers. Prince Jefri, the brother of Sultan Hassanal Bolkiah were among those linked to the scandal, in which Ruffa Gutierrez, Vivian Velez, Lea Orosa, Aurora Sevilla, Sheila Israel, Rachel Lobangco, Tetchie Agbayani, Maritoni Fernandez, Gretchen Barretto, and Cristina Gonzales were alleged to be amongst the victims.
Cambodia
Prostitution in Cambodia is illegal, but prevalent. The 2008 Cambodian Law on Suppression of Human Trafficking and Sexual Exploitation
has proven controversial, with international concerns regarding human rights abuses resulting from it, such as outlined in the 2010 Human Rights Watch report.
Violence against prostitutes, especially gang rape, called bauk in Cambodian, is very common. Perpetrators include customers and police officers. According to some sources, such assaults are not condemned by society, due to the extreme stigmatization of prostitutes.
Indonesia
Prostitution in Indonesia is legally considered a "crime against decency/morality", although it is widely practised, tolerated and even regulated in some areas. Some women are financially motivated to become prostitutes, while others may be forced by friends, relatives or strangers. Traditionally, they have met with customers in entertainment venues or special prostitution complexes, or lokalisasi. However, recently internet forums and Facebook have been used to facilitate prostitute-client relations. In recent years, child sex tourism has become an issue at the resort islands of Batam and Bali.
Laos
Prostitution in Laos is regarded as a criminal activity and can be subject to severe prosecution. It is much less common than in neighbouring Thailand. Soliciting for prostitution instead takes place mainly in the city's bars and clubs, although street prostitution also takes place. The visibility of prostitution in Laos belies the practice's illegality. Most prostitutes in Laos are from poor rural Laotian families and the country's ethnic minorities. In addition to these, there are many prostitutes in Laos from China and Vietnam, while some Laotian women go to Thailand to work as sex workers.
Malaysia
Prostitution in Malaysia is legal and widespread in all states except Kelantan. Related activities such as soliciting and brothels are illegal. There were an estimated 150,000 prostitutes in Malaysia in 2014 and that the country's sex trade generated US$963 million.
Kuala Lumpur has a number of red-light districts where street prostitution, massage parlours and brothels can be found. The most upmarket, and probably the best known, is Bukit Bintang. More downmarket is the RLD at Lorong Haji Taib where Indian, Chinese, and local prostitutes operate. Close by is the Chow Kit area where transgender prostitutes ply at night. Jalan Alor, Jalan Hicks, and Jalan Thamibipilly in the Brickfields area are red-light districts. Street walkers operate around Jalan Petaling.
Myanmar
Prostitution in Myanmar (also known as Burma) is illegal. Prostitution is a major social issue that particularly affects women and children.
Burma is a major source of prostitutes (an estimate of 25,000–30,000) in Thailand, with the majority of women trafficked taken to Ranong, bordering south Burma, and Mae Sai, at the eastern tip of Burma. Burmese sex workers also operate in Yunnan, China, particularly the border town of Ruili. The majority of Burmese prostitutes in Thailand are from ethnic minorities. Sixty percent of Burmese prostitutes are under 18 years of age. Burma is also a source country of sex workers and forced labourers in China, Bangladesh, Taiwan, India, Malaysia, Korea, Macau, and Japan. Internal trafficking of women for the purpose of prostitution occurs from rural villages to urban centres, military camps, border towns, and fishing villages.
Philippines
Prostitution in the Philippines is illegal, although somewhat tolerated among society, with law enforcement being rare with regards to sex workers. Penalties range up to life imprisonment for those involved in trafficking, which is covered by the Anti-Trafficking in Persons Act of 2003. Prostitution is often available through bars, karaoke bars (also known as KTVs), massage parlors, brothels (also known as casa), street walkers, and escort services.
Singapore
Prostitution in Singapore in itself is not illegal, but various prostitution-related activities are criminalised. This includes public solicitation, living on the earnings of a prostitute and maintaining a brothel. In practice, police unofficially tolerate and monitor a limited number of brothels. Prostitutes in such establishments are required to undergo periodic health checks and must carry a health card.
Thailand
Prostitution in Thailand is technically illegal, but because of police corruption, prostitution remains common. Prostitution operates clandestinely in many parts of the country.
The precise number of prostitutes is difficult to assess. Estimates vary widely and are subject to national and international controversy. Since the Vietnam War, Thailand has gained international notoriety among travellers from many countries as a sex tourism destination.
Timor-Leste
Prostitution in Timor-Leste is legal, but soliciting and third party involvement for profit or to facilitate prostitution is forbidden. Prostitution has become a problem since the country gained independence from Indonesia, especially in the capital, Dili. There are estimated to be 1,688 sex workers in the country.
Law enforcement is weak, but there are occasional clampdowns. Foreign sex workers are usually targeted, and are often deported. Public order laws are also used against prostitutes.
Many of the local prostitutes have entered the sex trade due to poverty and lack of other employment. Foreign prostitutes, especially from Indonesia, China and the Philippines, enter the country on 90-day tourists visas.
Vietnam
Prostitution in Vietnam is illegal and considered a serious crime. The government has estimated that there were 33,000 prostitutes in the country in 2013, this was 9% higher than the previous year's estimate. Other estimates puts the number at up to 200,000 individuals.
Sex workers organisations report that law enforcement is abusive and corrupt.
West Asia
Armenia
In Armenia, prostitution is illegal under administrative law (Article 179.1). Related activities such as running a brothel and pimping are prohibited by the Criminal Code, although there are known to be brothels in the capital, Yerevan, and in Gyumri. According to UNESCO, since the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991, prostitution in the country has grown. There are about 5,600 women involved in prostitution in Armenia, roughly 1,500 of them are in Yerevan. However, official police figures are far lower, for example 240 in 2012. Police and other safety forces reportedly tolerate prostitution. Many women turn to prostitution due to unemployment.
Azerbaijan
Prostitution in Azerbaijan is illegal but common. Prostitution is an administrative offence and punishable by a fine. Keeping a brothel is a criminal offence and punishable by up to 6 years imprisonment. In 2017 a draft law proposing to add heavy fines to the punishment for keeping a brothel was before the National Assembly. It has been estimated that there are 25 054 prostitutes in Azerbaijan, some of which are aged 15 – 18.
Bahrain
Prostitution in Bahrain is illegal but has gained a reputation in the Middle East as major destination for sex tourism. The Bahrain Youth Society for Human Rights reported in 2007 that there were more than 13,500 prostitutes in the country and that the number was rising.
Sex trafficking is a problem in the country.
Cyprus
The law does not prohibit prostitution itself, but operating brothels, organizing prostitution rings, living off the profits of prostitution, encouraging prostitution or forcing a person to engage in prostitution are illegal activities.
Cyprus has been criticised by the US State Department for failing to control the flow of illegal immigrants and legal to be involved in forced prostitution. Cyprus has gained a reputation for being a major transit point for people smugglers to transport women for the purposes of prostitution. International observers have criticized the government for its lack of action to prevent forced prostitution. The law of Cyprus forbids forced (but not voluntary) prostitution. However, it is believed that many immigrants are hired as barmaids and coerced into prostitution by this method.
Northern Cyprus
The Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus is only recognised as a separate state by Turkey. Prostitution is illegal, however in nightclubs, "konsomatrices", who sit with, eat with or entertain customers for money are allowed. Konsomatrices are not allowed to have sex with customers, but this restriction is frequently flouted. Enforcement is generally lax, but in July 2006 the Nicosia District Court ordered the first prostitution-related imprisonment. After pleading no contest to the charges, the manager of Mexico nightclub, Mesut Kilicarslan, was sentenced to 15 days in prison for encouraging and profiting from prostitution. By the year's end three more suspects were sentenced to imprisonment for encouraging and profiting from prostitution.
Egypt
Prostitution in Egypt is illegal. Police department officially combats prostitution but, like almost all other countries, prostitution exists in Egypt. The prostitutes in Egypt are Egyptian, Russian, and of many other nationalities.
Georgia
In Georgia, prostitution is illegal but widespread, particularly in Tbilisi. Many NGO's attribute this to the harsh economic conditions according to the US State Department. Many women from Georgia are part of human trafficking operations to or from countries. Women who are forced to be prostitutes are in Georgia are often from Asia and neighboring European countries.
In 2006 the country incorporated into its domestic law the Protocol to Prevent, Suppress, and Punish Trafficking in Persons, Especially Women and Children, supplementing the UN Convention against Transnational Organized Crime, and the Council of Europe Convention on Action against Trafficking in Human Beings. The punishment for human trafficking in Georgia is 15 years. There is also a special law to protect families of Georgian women who fear reprisals from gang masters of women who refuse to be forced into prostitution abroad.
Iran
Prostitution in Iran is illegal, and incurs various punishments ranging from fines and jail terms to execution for repeat offenders. The exact number of prostitutes working in Iran is unknown. However, prostitutes are visible on some street corners of the major cities. Many of them are runaways from poor and broken homes. In 2002, the Iranian newspaper Entekhab estimated that there were close to 85,000 prostitutes in Tehran alone. Prostitution is rampant in Tehran; "the streets are full of working girls ... part of the landscape, blending in with everything else."
Iraq
Prostitution in Iraq is illegal. The Iraqi penal code outlaws prostitution, with the pimp, the prostitute and the client all being liable for criminal penalties.
Many women fleeing the war in Iraq have been forced into prostitution. Some sources claim up to 50 thousand Iraqi refugee women in Syria, many of them widows or orphans, have been forced into prostitution. Sources claim the women are exploited by Gulf Arabs. After the American invasion of Iraq in 2003, private contracting companies used foreign prostitutes smuggled into bases and the Green Zone to use as bribery for other contracts.
Israel
Prostitution in Israel is legal, but the purchase of sex and organised prostitution in the form of brothels and pimping are prohibited. Legislation passed in the Knesset on 31 December 2018 that criminalises the "clients" of prostitutes came into force in May 2020.
The main centre of prostitution in Israel is Tel Aviv. It has been estimated that 62% of the brothels and 48% of the massage parlors in the country are in Tel Aviv. The traditional red-light district of the old bus station area was subjected to a number of raids and closures in 2017, and the area is subject to gentrification.
Jordan
Prostitution in Jordan is illegal but occurs. Authorities generally turn a blind eye. Prostitution occurs mainly in the larger cities and around refugee camps. It occurs on brothels, restaurants, night clubs and on the streets. The prostitutes are mainly from Russia, Ukraine, the Philippines, Morocco, Tunisia, Syria, Iraq and Palestine as well as some Jordanians.
In the capital, Amman, there is a red-light district in the Jubaiha (al-jubaiha:الجبيهة) neighbourhood. One of the major streets in Jubeiha has been commonly called "Tallaini Street" meaning "the pick me up street". Local residents have tried to stop prostitution in the area.
Kuwait
Prostitution in Kuwait is illegal, but common. Most of the prostitutes are foreign nationals.
Law enforcement usually deports prostitutes or makes them sign a "good conduct pledge" before release. Those running prostitution rings normally receive jail sentences. There are allegations that some police received bribes from brothels and warn them of upcoming raids.
Lebanon
Prostitution is nominally legal in Lebanon. Officially, Lebanese law requires that brothels be licensed, a process that includes regular testing of workers for disease. However, in an attempt to gradually eliminate legal prostitution in the country, current government policy is to not issue new licenses for brothels. As a result, most prostitution now occurs illegally. The majority of prostitutes in Lebanon emigrate from neighboring Arab countries. Those prostitutes working in adult clubs (called "super night clubs") are closely monitored by the Sûreté Générale—the border control agency.
Oman
Prostitution in Oman is illegal and only sex within a legalised marriage is permitted. Women's sex outside legal marriage is criminalised as zina (illegal sex, adultery, fornication). It is women, and not their clients, who are legally penalised for sex work. Living on the proceeds of prostitution is a crime, punishable by a fine and up to three months imprisonment (criminal code article 221). Additionally, any foreigner who commits an act against "public order or good morals" or who does not have a legal source of income may be deported (law 16 of 1995, articles 31[1] and 31[5]).
Palestinian Territories
Prostitution in the Palestinian territories is illegal, under Palestinian Authority law. Ramallah is one of the few outlets for prostitution in the Palestinian territories as premarital sex is seen as taboo in the territories.
A recent report by the UN Development Fund for Women (UNIFEM) and SAWA-All the Women Together Today and Tomorrow, a Palestinian NGO, suggests that an increasing number of women are taking up prostitution in the face of poverty and violence.
Qatar
Prostitution in Qatar is illegal and carries severe punishment of several years in prison. Prostitution normally takes place in bars, nightclubs and hotels. There are occasional clamp-downs and the prostitutes are arrested and deported. Many Chinese women travel to Qatar with tourist visas to work in prostitution.
Saudi Arabia
Prostitution in Saudi Arabia is illegal. Prostitution is punishable by prison and flogging, foreign nationals are also deported after punishment If the parties are also charged with adultery, fornication and sodomy, which can apply to both the prostitute and the client since all sexual activity outside a lawful marriage is illegal, in which case the punishment can be death.
Syria
Prostitution in Syria is technically illegal. Beyond the practice of prostitution by an undisclosed number of Syrian women, many women fleeing the war in Iraq are practicing underworld prostitution for living. Some sources claim up to 50 thousand Iraqi refugee women in Syria, many of them are recent widows or orphans with no professional qualification, started prostitution as the only source for earning a living.
Turkey
In Turkey, prostitution is legal and regulated. Prostitutes must register and acquire an ID card stating the dates of their health checks. Also it is mandatory for registered prostitutes to have regular health checks for sexually transmitted diseases. The police are allowed to check the authenticity of registered prostitutes to determine whether they have been examined properly and to ensure they see the health authorities if they don't. Men cannot register under this regulation. Most sex workers, however, are unregistered, as local governments have made it policy not to issue new registrations. As a result, most sex workers in Turkey are not registered sex workers, working in violation of the law. Turkey is listed by the UNODC as a top destination for victims of human trafficking.
United Arab Emirates
Prostitution in the United Arab Emirates is illegal, but attracts many foreign businessmen as the UAE is slowly gaining a reputation as one of the Middle East's sex tourism destinations. Many of them arrive regularly from the post-Soviet states, Eastern Europe, Far East, Africa, South Asia, and other states of the Middle East.
Yemen
Prostitution in Yemen is illegal, but many sex tourists from other Gulf states indulge in what are known as "tourist marriages". Many of these women come from the city of Yaffai where prostitution is a way to put food on the table. The punishment for prostitution is three years imprisonment.
A lot of prostitution takes place in hotels in the capital, Sana'a. Some hotels have "house prostitutes" and it is possible to book a room and a woman to be ready on arrival.
See also
Prostitution by country
Prostitution law
References
Sexuality-related lists |
4442738 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mark%20Cavendish | Mark Cavendish | Mark Simon Cavendish (born 21 May 1985) is a British professional road racing cyclist from the Isle of Man who currently rides for UCI WorldTeam . As a track cyclist he specialises in the madison, points race, and scratch race disciplines; as a road racer he is a sprinter. He is widely considered one of the greatest road sprinters of all time, and in 2021 was called "the greatest sprinter in the history of the Tour and of cycling" by Christian Prudhomme, director of the Tour de France.
In his first years as an elite track rider, Cavendish won gold in the madison at the 2005 and 2008 UCI Track Cycling World Championships riding for Great Britain, with Rob Hayles and Bradley Wiggins respectively, and in the scratch race at the 2006 Commonwealth Games riding for Isle of Man. After failing to win a medal at the 2008 Summer Olympics he did not compete on track again until 2015, subsequently winning his third UCI Track Cycling World Championships title with Wiggins in the madison in 2016, and an individual silver medal in the omnium at the 2016 Summer Olympics.
As a road cyclist, Cavendish turned professional in 2005, and achieved eleven wins in his first professional season. Cavendish has won 34 Tour de France stages, tying him for first on the all-time list with Eddy Merckx, contributing to a third-highest total of fifty-three Grand Tour stage victories. He won the men's road race at the 2011 Road World Championships, becoming the second male British rider to do so after Tom Simpson. Cavendish has also won the points classification in all three of the grand tours: the 2010 Vuelta a España, the 2011 and 2021 Tour de France and the 2013 Giro d'Italia. In 2012, he became the first person to win the final Champs-Élysées stage in the Tour de France in four consecutive years.
He won seven Grand Tour stages in 2013, one in 2015 and four in 2016. This included a win on stage one of the 2016 Tour de France, claiming his first Tour de France yellow jersey. Cavendish crashed with Peter Sagan on stage four of the 2017 Tour de France, forcing him out of the race. Cavendish continued producing good results until August 2018, when he was diagnosed with Epstein–Barr virus. Before his diagnosis, Cavendish was able to compete in the 2018 Tour de France but was disqualified after not making the cut-off time on stage eleven. He returned to the Tour de France at the 2021 edition, winning four stages to take his total to 34 stage wins, equalling the overall stage victory record, and winning his second points classification.
In the 2011 Queen's Birthday Honours, Cavendish was appointed a Member of the Order of the British Empire (MBE) "for services to British Cycling." He also won the 2011 BBC Sports Personality of the Year Award with nearly half of the votes going to him out of a field of ten nominees.
Early life and amateur career
Cavendish was born in Douglas, Isle of Man, the son of David, a native of the Isle, and Adele from Yorkshire, England. He began riding Bicycle motocross (BMX) at an early age, racing at the National Sports Centre in Douglas.
He joined his local club in Douglas at the age of nine – his determination soon becoming apparent. "He didn't like losing", said Dot Tilbury, his former coach; "He started to win and often he would lap the other riders in the field".
He said: "I was always riding a bike, getting dropped in little races." "My mum would laugh at me, and I said it was because all my mates had mountain bikes, so I asked for a mountain bike for my thirteenth birthday and got one. The very next day I went out and beat everyone." It was at that time that Cavendish met British cyclist David Millar at a race on the Isle of Man, who was an inspiration to him. Cavendish worked in a bank for two years after leaving school to earn enough money for an attempt at a professional career.
He gained a place as one of the first six riders selected for British Cycling's Olympic Academy for junior riders in 2003 having almost been rejected because of his relatively poor performance in stationary bike tests. Coaches Rod Ellingworth, John Herety and Simon Lillistone lobbied British Cycling Performance Director Peter Keen to include him because of his potential. Although he initially struggled because of a lack of fitness, he recorded his first win in senior competition in March 2004; in the Girvan Three Day race he managed to latch back onto the lead group after being dropped over a climb before winning the finishing sprint ahead of Julian Winn. Whilst at the academy, he won two gold medals at the 2003 Island Games.
Cavendish progressed well at the academy. Ellingworth said, "Cav kind of liked it" when asked about the rigid rules and "dictatorship style" of the academy. The junior riders lived on £58 a week and financial management became a part of life at the academy as well as cooking and cleaning. Cycling Weekly described the academy as "a boot camp style training regime" controlled by Ellingworth, who, after finding out they had skipped a three-hour training ride, made the juniors complete four hours hard training at night.
He won gold in the madison with Rob Hayles at the 2005 track world championships in Los Angeles. They had not raced together before as Hayles' usual partner, Geraint Thomas, had crashed during training a few weeks earlier—but finished one lap ahead of the field to claim the gold medal, followed by the Dutch and Belgian teams, Cavendish's first world title. Cavendish also won the European championship points race.
Professional career
Team Sparkasse (2005–06)
Cavendish turned professional in 2005 with Team Sparkasse. During this time, he rode the Tour de Berlin and the Tour of Britain. He began 2006 with the Continental team, Team Sparkasse, a feeder squad for the . In June, he won two stages and the points and sprint competitions in the Tour de Berlin. He rode for the Isle of Man on the track at the 2006 Commonwealth Games in Melbourne, riding the scratch race. He lapped the field with three others: England's Rob Hayles; Ashley Hutchinson of Australia; and James McCallum of Scotland. Hayles then led him out for the sprint to win gold for the Isle of Man. The race time was 23.05, an average .
T-Mobile Team (2006–11)
His success at the 2006 Tour de Berlin led to a post as a stagiaire with the from August until the end of the season. His best result on the road was in the Tour of Britain where he came second twice and third once and won the points classification.
2007
His breakthrough came at the 2007 Scheldeprijs race in Belgium, which he won. He went on to win stages at the Four Days of Dunkirk and the Volta a Catalunya leading to his selection for the Tour de France. He crashed in stages one and two and abandoned the race at stage eight as it reached the Alps. Although he had taken two top-ten placings he was unhappy not to have had a top-five placing. His début season continued with ten stage wins, one behind Alessandro Petacchi's record eleven for a début season. Cavendish took his eleventh win in early October—the Circuit Franco-Belge—to equal Petacchi's record. Among the wins were three in UCI ProTour events—two in the Volta a Catalunya and one in the Eneco Tour.
2008
In 2008, Cavendish returned to the track for the world championships in Manchester. Cavendish was brought in to partner Bradley Wiggins in the madison, as Hayles failed a routine blood test, and was subsequently banned. At around halfway through the race they appeared to be out of contention, with their closest rivals all gaining a lap. With thirty-five laps left to race, however, Wiggins launched an attack which helped them reach the field ten laps later. They took the lead due to the superior points they had collected in the sprints. They held on to win the gold medal, finishing with nineteen points, ahead of Germany on thirteen.
On the road, Cavendish won his first stages of a Grand Tour with two victories in the Giro d'Italia and four stages in the Tour de France, the first of which was on stage five. He won also stages eight, twelve and thirteen. After stage fourteen, Cavendish abandoned the Tour to concentrate on the Olympics in Beijing. He paired with Wiggins in the madison, and as the reigning world champions, they were favourites for the gold medal but finished ninth. Cavendish felt Wiggins had not performed to the best of his ability in the madison.
The rest of his season was successful, with a total of eleven further race wins, including three each at the Tour of Ireland and the Tour of Missouri where he won his only points classification of the season. At the Tour de Romandie, he won the opening time trial, beating compatriot Wiggins and emphasising his short-distance time-trial abilities.
2009
Cavendish's 2009 season began at the Tour of Qatar, where he renewed his rivalry with 's Tom Boonen. Boonen won the race and one stage, though Cavendish took two stages. He also won two stages at the Tour of California, again beating Boonen in the sprint finishes. The Tour of California also saw him win his first points of classification of the 2009 season.
He was a surprise inclusion on the British squad for the 2009 UCI Track Cycling World Championships, where he competed in the scratch race and the madison, failing to pick up medals in either. He took up the European season at Tirreno–Adriatico, the Italian one-week stage race, winning one stage. He then entered his first classic race, Milan–San Remo, where he tracked down rider Heinrich Haussler in the last narrowly winning the sprint and the race—Cavendish's first victory in a race known as one of the five monuments of cycling.
Cavendish repeated his 2008 two-stage victory at the Three Days of De Panne, also winning the points classification. At the start of the Giro d'Italia Team Columbia–High Road won the team time trial and Cavendish was given the pink leader's jersey, becoming the first Manx rider to wear it. The first two road stages, however, were fruitless for Cavendish, who was beaten to the line by Petacchi in the first stage. He was caught behind a crash and failed to make it back for the sprint the next day. Cavendish soon asserted his sprinting dominance on the race, however, gaining three stage wins before abandoning it after stage thirteen, citing a need to rest in preparation for the Tour de France. He continued his preparation by racing the Tour de Suisse where he won stage three and stage six.
During the season, Cavendish developed a remarkable partnership with his lead out man, Mark Renshaw. Continuing his run of success, he won stages two, three, ten, eleven, nineteen and twenty-one of the Tour de France. In winning the third stage, he became the first Briton to hold the green jersey two days in a row. Cavendish's stage eleven win enabled him to reclaim the green jersey from rival Thor Hushovd of Cervélo TestTeam. It also equalled Barry Hoban's British record of eight stage wins. Winning stage nineteen, Cavendish set a new record for Tour de France stage wins by a British rider. In winning the last stage, he led home a one–two for his team, when his team-mate and lead out man, Renshaw, finished second on the Champs-Élysées.
Following on from the Tour de France, Cavendish won the Sparkassen Giro Bochum and took part in the Tour of Ireland, winning stage two. In September he recorded the fiftieth win of his road racing career in a sprint finish in the opening stage of the Tour of Missouri. Before the race he confirmed he would remain with in 2010, ending speculation that he was moving to the newly created British team, . Cavendish retained the leader's jersey by sprinting to victory in stage two but finished fifth in stage three, losing the overall lead to Hushovd. A lung infection forced him to withdraw from the race before stage four. Although selected for the British team for the road race at the 2009 UCI Road World Championships, his illness prevented him from taking part.
2010
After a dental problem, Cavendish delayed the start of his 2010 season until the Vuelta a Andalucía in mid-February. Following the lay off his form was poor, and he failed to defend his victory at the Milan–San Remo, coming in six minutes behind the winner in eighty-ninth place. His pre-season goals were to win the green jersey in the Tour de France and win the road race at the UCI Road World Championships. Cavendish raced in the Tour of Flanders but only to work for a teammate and gain experience. He was involved in a crash and did not finish.
Following a poor start to the season, he found form at the Volta a Catalunya, finishing seventh in the time-trial and winning stage two. His team withdrew Cavendish from the Tour de Romandie for making an offensive gesture after winning the second stage. Missing the Giro d'Italia, he chose instead to compete at the Tour of California starting in May, where he won stage one—only his third victory of the season. In June, Cavendish crashed heavily whilst sprinting in the closing metres of stage four of the Tour de Suisse. He appeared to veer off line and brought down Haussler and several other riders, raising criticism from other teams regarding his riding style.
Cavendish entered the Tour de France. During stage one, he crashed out of the final sprint, with just under remaining in the stage. Overhead camera footage showed him failing to negotiate a corner after entering too fast and turning too late. He then leaned his shoulder into a fellow rider as he travelled away from the racing line. Cavendish returned to form by winning the stage five, six, eleven, eighteen and twenty, bringing his career total to fifteen tour stage wins. He ended up second in the points classification, eleven points behind Petacchi. Cavendish's next race was the Vuelta a España. His team won the team time trial with Cavendish finishing first, taking the leader's jersey. He could place only second or third in the subsequent sprint stages but returned to form later in the race winning stage twelve, thirteen, eighteen and the points classification.
2011
Cavendish had a slow start to 2011 failing to win a race until late February when he won stage six of the Tour of Oman. His second victory of the season came in the Scheldeprijs—his third in this event following his wins in 2007 and 2008—bringing him to the record tied with Piet Oellibrandt. He failed to finish at the Paris–Roubaix. He came second in the second stage of the Giro d'Italia in contentious circumstances (Cavendish gestured at winner Petacchi for appearing to move across his path in the final sprint) to take the pink jersey into stage three. Cavendish got his first grand tour victory of the year by winning stage ten of the Giro, denying claims that he had illegally held on to his team car when climbing Mount Etna on stage nine. He won his second Giro victory of 2011 on stage twelve before leaving the race. On 11 June, it was announced that Cavendish was appointed a Member of the Order of the British Empire (MBE) in the Queen's Birthday Honours.
He won stage five, seven, eleven, fifteen and twenty-one of the Tour de France — bringing his total to twenty career Tour de France stage wins. He also became the first person to win the final stage three years in succession. Cavendish was docked twenty points for finishing outside the time limit after stage nine and again after eighteen. He went on to win the points classification—the first British cyclist to do so.
Over the following weeks, Cavendish took part in the post-Tour criteriums. He won the Stiphout Criterium in The Netherlands, beating brothers Andy and Fränk Schleck of to the line. He then won the Profcriterium Wolvertem-Meise, followed by the Wateringse Wielerdag. In August, Cavendish's team HTC–Highroad announced they would fold at the end of the season, fuelling speculation that Cavendish would move to Team Sky. The following week, racing for team Great Britain, he won the London–Surrey Cycle Classic, the official test event for the road race at the 2012 Summer Olympics and part of the London Prepares series. Less than a week later, Cavendish started the Vuelta a España, but abandoned it during stage four due to the searing heat. After withdrawing from the Vuelta Cavendish was allowed to be a late addition to the line up of the Tour of Britain. Cavendish won stage one in Dumfries to take the leader's jersey, and the final stage in London.
At the end of September, Cavendish went to the UCI Road World Championships in Copenhagen taking part in the road race with an eight-strong British team. After the team controlled the whole race it came down to a sprint finish with Cavendish crossing the line in first place taking the rainbow jersey. He became the second British male UCI world champion after Tom Simpson in 1965.
In November, Cavendish made a cameo return to the track, competing in the Revolution event at Manchester Velodrome. He won the scratch race, his first win on the track of any kind since 2008. He announced he was starting his training for the 2012 season earlier than in previous years, with the aim of being more competitive in the Classics. In November, he won the 2011 Most Inspirational Sportsman of the Year Award at the Jaguar Academy of Sport Annual Awards at The Savoy Hotel in London. In December, Cavendish won the BBC Sports Personality of the Year Award with 169,152 (49.47%) of the votes cast, ahead of Mo Farah and Darren Clarke.
Team Sky (2012)
Amid much speculation, it was announced in October 2011 that Cavendish would join for the 2012 season. His HTC–Highroad team-mate Bernhard Eisel joined him.
Cavendish began his 2012 season at the Tour of Qatar. After recovering from illness, he won stage three—his first victory for Team Sky. He won stage five later in the week, moving back into the top ten of the overall classification. He finished the race in sixth place, despite crashing on the final stage. Although he did not win any stages at the Tour of Oman, having suffered an injury in the first stage, he returned to win the Kuurne–Brussels–Kuurne. Cavendish targeted a second victory in Milan–San Remo in March, but was dropped on Le Manie, from the finish. He did not manage to finish high up in the remaining 2012 Classics. In the Tour de Romandie, he showed his ability in short time trials by finishing third in the prologue but did not take any stage wins.
A week later, Cavendish took his season victories to five by winning the sprint on stage two of the Giro d'Italia. The following day, he was again in contention for victory on stage three, but in the sprint, 's Roberto Ferrari aggressively switched lanes, clipping Cavendish and sending him to the ground, causing other riders to fall including overall leader Taylor Phinney (). Cavendish later tweeted that Ferrari should be "ashamed to take out Pink, Red & World Champ jerseys". He recovered from minor injuries to win stages five and thirteen. Cavendish completed the Giro, but lost the points classification to 's Joaquim Rodríguez by a single point. He did win the minor Azzurri d'Italia and stage combativeness classifications. Cavendish competed in the Ster ZLM Toer GP Jan van Heeswijk, in mid-June. Despite failing to win any of the four, mostly flat, stages, Cavendish's consistency ensured that he won the overall general classification—the first of his professional career—by eight seconds.
In July, Cavendish won stage two of the Tour de France, his twenty-first tour stage win. Cavendish was in contention for another stage victory on stage four, but was taken out in a large crash in the final . He then took on a supporting role as Team Sky attempted to win the overall race overall with Wiggins. He was seen carrying bottles for team-mates and even setting the pace on a Pyrenean climb. The team repaid Cavendish for his hard work by helping chase down a breakaway on stage eighteen, although Cavendish alone had to chase down rider Luis León Sánchez and Nicolas Roche of in the last to take his 22nd Tour stage win, equalling André Darrigade. Cavendish won the final stage of the Tour de France on the Champs-Élysées for a record fourth successive year—the most successful sprinter in Tour history with twenty-three stage wins. He also became the first person to win on the Champs-Élysées in the rainbow jersey. During the Tour, French newspaper L'Équipe named Cavendish the Tour de France's best sprinter of all time.
Cavendish's main target for the season was the road race at the Olympics, which was held six days after the final stage of the Tour de France. A strong British squad of Wiggins, Chris Froome, Ian Stannard and Millar was assembled around Cavendish. The team aimed to control the race and allow him to take a sprint victory on The Mall. However, the team were forced to set the pace for the majority of the race, with few nations offering any support, and on the final climb of the Box Hill circuit, a large breakaway group of over thirty riders formed. Despite the best efforts of Stannard, Wiggins, Millar, Froome and Sky team-mate Bernhard Eisel, the breakaway could not be brought back leaving Cavendish to finish twenty-ninth, forty seconds behind the winner, Alexander Vinokurov of Kazakhstan.
Cavendish won three stages of the Tour of Britain, crossing the line first in Dumfries, Blackpool and Guildford.
Omega Pharma–Quick-Step (2013–15)
On 18 October 2012, he signed a three-year contract with Belgian team Omega Pharma–Quick-Step from the 2013 season.
2013
He started the 2013 season by winning the opening stage of the Tour de San Luis in Argentina on his début for . He then went on to win the Tour of Qatar, with four consecutive stage victories out of six. In March, he won the second stage of the Three Days of De Panne. In April he finished in second place to defending champion Marcel Kittel of at the Scheldeprijs; he faded in the final kilometre, but recovered to launch his sprint from around twenty riders back with remaining.
In May, Cavendish won the opening stage of the Giro d'Italia, taking the pink jersey for the third time in his career. He went on to win stage six from a bunch sprint after a pan-flat stage. This victory moved him above Robert Millar to the top of Cycling Weeklys all-time ranking of British professional riders. He also won stage twelve, claiming his 100th professional victory and reclaiming the lead in the points classification. The next day, he timed his finish perfectly to win stage thirteen, his fourth victory of the 2013 race. His fifth victory of the Giro came on the final stage, wrapping up the points classification which he had led for much of the race. By doing so, Cavendish became only the fifth rider to win the points classification in all three Grand Tours.
On 23 June, Cavendish won the British national road race championship, around the street circuit in Glasgow. He overtook David Millar on the home straight and held off a challenge by Ian Stannard, who recovered from a puncture in the penultimate lap to claim silver.
In July, he won stage five of the Tour de France, giving him twenty-four career Tour stage wins. He was greeted on the line by André Darrigade, the previous record holder for most Tour stages won by a sprinter. In the eleventh stage, a individual time trial, a spectator doused Cavendish with urine. On the thirteenth stage from Tours to Saint-Amand-Montrond, he rode with a fourteen-man breakaway with to go and out-sprinted Peter Sagan to win the stage—his 25th Tour de France stage win. Later that month Cavendish decided to ride the Danmark Rundt winning the race's final stage.
In September, he returned to the track for the first time since the 2008 Olympic Games in Beijing, competing at the velodrome in Ghent for the International Belgian Open. Finishing second in the scratch race and third in the madison with Owain Doull, Cavendish had not ruled out the prospect of competing in the 2016 Olympics in Rio de Janeiro having earned enough points to qualify for the UCI Track Cycling World Cup Classics. On 18 September, Cavendish won stage four of the Tour of Britain, outsprinting Elia Viviani in Llanberis in the Snowdonia national park. He repeated the win three days later to take stage seven—again out-sprinting Italy's Elia Viviani to the finish on Guildford High Street. He also won the final stage in London the next day.
2014
A quiet start to the year, Cavendish decided not to compete in the Giro d'Italia. His best Classics result was a fifth place in the Milan–San Remo. He won four stages and the points classification at the Tour of Turkey. In the first stage of the 2014 Tour de France, which started in Yorkshire, England, from Leeds to Harrogate, Cavendish crashed out during a collision he caused in the final few seconds of the sprint finish. He suffered a separated right shoulder and did not start the next stage. He came back to competition at the Tour de l'Ain, where he was winless. He then showed some form at the Tour du Poitou-Charentes, winning the first two stages.
Cavendish competed in the Tour of Britain in September, coming third in the first stage in Liverpool and second in the final stage in London. Overall, his 2014 season proved to be one of his least successful, winning eleven races but gaining no Grand Tour stage wins. Cavendish ended 2014 competing on the track, taking second place at the Six Days of Ghent and winning the Six Days of Zurich, both with Iljo Keisse. He later ruled out an attempt to enter the track cycling competitions at the 2016 Summer Olympics due to his road commitments.
2015
In contrast to the previous year, he had a successful start to the 2015 season. He won five races by mid-February, including two stages, the points classification and the general classification at the Dubai Tour. In March, Cavendish won Kuurne–Brussels–Kuurne, for the second time in his career. He then participated in the Tirreno–Adriatico, where he was involved in a large crash on stage two due to Elia Viviani clipping his back wheel and causing his chain to drop. Cavendish next raced at the Tour of Turkey, where he won three stages and the points classification ahead of Daniele Ratto. Cavendish then participated in the Tour of California, showing good form by winning four stages and the points classification ahead of overall winner Sagan. His Tour de Suisse was unsuccessful; the best place he managed was sixth on stage six. At the Tour de France, Cavendish won stage seven by taking André Greipel's wheel before passing him in a sprint finish in Fougères. This was his 26th Tour de France win and the first since 2014.On 16 August, Cavendish returned to the track, winning the madison with Bradley Wiggins in the first round of the Revolution cycling series at the newly opened Derby Velodrome. It was the first time the pair had ridden the event together since the 2008 Olympics.
Team Dimension Data (2016–19)
On 29 September 2015, it was announced that Cavendish had signed for —to be renamed as —for the 2016 season, along with his Etixx–Quick-Step teammates Renshaw and Eisel, his former teammate from HTC and Sky. The team principal, Doug Ryder, described the move as "a big step forward for the team."
2016
In February, Cavendish rode the Tour of Qatar, taking the opening stage and the general classification for the second time. Cavendish wanted to win a medal at the Olympics in the omnium. In preparation he competed at the UCI track world championships; he placed sixth in the omnium. Partnered with Wiggins he won the madison. In April he rode the Tour of Croatia, winning stage two.
On 2 July, he won the opening stage of the Tour de France in a sprint finish at Utah Beach, taking his twenty-seventh stage win, and donning the yellow jersey for the first time. He lost the jersey the following day when Sagan won stage two. Cavendish won stage three in a photo finish with André Greipel in Angers, taking his twenty-eighth win and equalling Bernard Hinault's tally. This win put him in the lead of points classification. He won stage six in a bunch sprint at Montauban, ahead of Marcel Kittel and Dan McLay, to increase his lead. Sagan retook the green jersey from Cavendish on the tenth stage, where the Slovakian was part of a breakaway that led the race until the end. He finished second to Michael Matthews at the finish line in Revel and won the stage's intermediate sprint. Cavendish went on to take his fourth stage of the 2016 Tour, and his thirtieth Tour stage victory on stage fourteen, passing Alexander Kristoff and Sagan at the finish in Villars-les-Dombes Parc des Oiseaux. He quit the Tour on the second rest day before the mountainous stages citing his need to prepare for the Olympics. Having competed in two previous Olympics, Cavendish finally won his first medal, finishing second in the men's omnium.
After the Olympics, he returned to track racing, teaming up with Bradley Wiggins to race the Six Day London. The pair narrowly lost to Kenny De Ketele and Moreno De Pauw in the final moments of the sixth day, finishing in second position overall. The pair went on to race at the Six Days of Ghent, this time beating De Ketele and De Pauw to take the overall victory.
2017
After not winning any stages in his opening race, the 2017 Dubai Tour, he won the opening stage of the third event of the 2017 UCI World Tour, the Abu Dhabi Tour. In April, he was diagnosed with Epstein–Barr virus, preventing him from racing until the 2017 British National Championships. In a 2021 interview, Cavendish stated that his health was compromised by being told by doctors that he was fit to train again when Epstein-Barr was still in his system, leading to him reducing his intake of food to make his racing weight and eventually to a deterioration in his mental health and clinical depression.
Cavendish was back to form by the 2017 Tour de France, but reigning World Champion Peter Sagan reportedly forced Cavendish into the barriers in the final sprint at the finish of stage four. Cavendish suffered a fractured shoulder blade, after landing on his right shoulder which he had dislocated three years earlier and withdrew from the race. Sagan was later disqualified as it appeared he had struck Cavendish with an elbow. In response, Cavendish said he was friendly with Sagan but he wasn't "a fan of him putting his elbow in". Rob Hayles, a former professional cyclist, said Cavendish was already heading into the barriers before Sagan put his elbow out. He also claimed no contact occurred between the two cyclists. Others shared Hayles' opinion, stating it was more Cavendish's fault for attempting to squeeze through a small gap than Sagan's. Race officials, however, said Sagan "endangered some of his colleagues seriously" in the sprint.
Cavendish returned to race at the madison in the Six Day London. Following Bradley Wiggins' retirement, he teamed up with Peter Kennaugh, and finished second overall.
2018
Cavendish began his 2018 season at the Dubai Tour, winning stage three. He then raced the Tour of Oman, placing second on the opening stage. He then went on to start the Abu Dhabi Tour, only to crash in the neutralised zone of the first stage. He fell on the shoulder he fractured at the previous year's Tour de France and was forced to abandon the race. He returned to action at Tirreno–Adriatico, but suffered another crash during the opening team time trial. He fractured a rib, and despite getting back on his bike missed the time cut, and was unable to continue in the race. Cavendish was fit to start the Milan–San Remo, but crashed heavily into a bollard in the final as the peloton approached the crucial Poggio di San Remo climb. He suffered another fractured rib, bruising and abrasions, as well as a possible ankle ligament injury.
His hopes of winning a Tour de France stage ended after failing to make the time cut on the stage eleven. He crossed the line one hour five minutes and 33 seconds after stage winner Geraint Thomas, well outside the time limit that had been set at 31:27. Cavendish was due to start the European Road Championships. However, he pulled out on the advice of his medical team, due to a number of injuries earlier in the season. Cavendish said that it was "incredibly disappointing".
2019
Cavendish returned to racing at the Vuelta a San Juan in Argentina, after not having raced since August 2018. He finished eighth and later said it was "nice to be back in the peloton".
He was not selected for the Tour de France because of strained relations with Team Dimension Data principal and owner Douglas Ryder and other health issues since 2017. In response, Cavendish said he was "absolutely heart-broken" to be missing the tour in which he had competed each year since 2007. Douglas Ryder said it "was multiple people who made that decision" and that "there was a whole team involved". Team performance director, Rolf Aldag, however, said the decision had been made by Ryder alone. Aldag had made his intentions clear of selecting Cavendish for the tour, but later accepted it was ultimately the team owner's decision of who would be on the team. Aldag announced his departure from the team at the end of the season in a statement in early September.
Cavendish crashed on stage one of the Tour de Pologne after a touch of wheels around a slow and sharp corner at roughly from the finish; he finished in last place. He was able to finish sixth on stage three, however. He eventually abandoned the race on stage six of the tour to focus on the European Road Championships, where he finished 31st.
He was selected by Team Dimension Data to lead the team at the Deutschland Tour and to ride in the Tour of Britain.
Bahrain–McLaren (2020)
In late October 2019, Cavendish signed with for the 2020 season alongside Mikel Landa, Wout Poels, and Dylan Teuns. The announcement was followed by success in the 2019 Six Days of London where Cavendish, along with Owain Doull, finished second to Elia Viviani & Simone Consonni.
At the beginning of 2020 Cavendish had his hopes of competing in the madison at the 2020 Olympics dashed when he was not selected in the British squads for the final round of the 2019–20 Track Cycling World Cup in Milton, Canada or the 2020 Track Cycling World Championships in Berlin, rendering him ineligible to be selected for the Games. He made his debut for Bahrain-McLaren at the Tour of Saudi Arabia in February 2020, where he helped team-mate Phil Bauhaus to two stage wins and the overall win, after Cavendish crashed twice on the second stage of the race. During the season he alternated between riding as a sprinter and as a lead-out man for team-mates, however Cavendish's racing programme was disrupted by the COVID-19 pandemic. After he was not selected for the delayed 2020 Tour de France, Cavendish said that he felt that he was not ready for the Tour, due to a lack of racing and the race's particularly tough, mountainous route, and backed team-mate Mikel Landa's bid for the yellow jersey. He rode in the delayed cobbled classics in the autumn, making a number of early breakaways. At Gent–Wevelgem he stated in an interview with Sporza that the race might be his last: He subsequently clarified that the comment related to rumours about subsequent Flemish classic races being cancelled, which turned out not to be the case: after riding in Scheldeprijs, the Tour of Flanders and the Three Days of Brugge-De Panne he declared in an interview with Het Nieuwsblad that he had had "(his) best racing month for a long time" and indicated that he wanted to continue racing "for a few more seasons".
Deceuninck–Quick-Step (2021–22)
Following reports that he was due to retire due to difficulty in securing a World Tour contract, in December 2020, Cavendish announced his return to for the 2021 season. His contract was for the UCI WorldTeam minimum salary of €40,000, and he had to bring his own sponsor to the team.
2021
In April he took his first four professional victories since 2018, winning stages 2, 3, 4 and 8 of the Tour of Turkey. In June he took another win in the fifth and final stage of the Tour of Belgium, triumphing over a field which included such names as Caleb Ewan, Tim Merlier, Pascal Ackermann, Dylan Groenewegen and Nacer Bouhanni. Cavendish's teammate, Sam Bennett had an increasingly strained relationship with the team's management, and when Bennett was ruled out of the Tour de France following a training injury, Cavendish was drafted in as the team's lead sprinter. He won stages four, six, ten and thirteen of the Tour, bringing his total of Tour de France stage victories to 34, making him the joint record holder for Tour stage wins along with Eddy Merckx. On the race's final stage to the Champs-Élysées, Cavendish missed out on the win, finishing third behind Wout van Aert and Jasper Philipsen, however he won the points classification for the second time in his career, ten years after his first win in 2011. Cavendish was backed by the "strongest sprint train in the race" with Michael Mørkøv as his lead-out man.
Cavendish's 2021 season was abruptly ended by a crash in the final Madison session of the Six Days of Ghent track event. Cavendish was closely following world Madison champion Lasse Norman Hansen, behind Gerben Thijssen and Kenny De Ketele when Thijssen slipped on a damp patch on the track sending De Ketele up the banking to sweep away Hansen's front wheel, bringing down both Hansen and Cavendish. Cavendish was taken to the intensive care unit of Ghent University Hospital suffering from broken ribs and a punctured lung.
In December, Cavendish extended his contract at for another year.
2022
Cavendish opened his season in the Middle East with the at the Tour of Oman. He finished second to Fernando Gaviria on the opening stage, but the following day he won the sprint for stage 2, taking the lead in both the general and points classifications. He finished the six-day event in fourth place in the points classification following a points deduction after stage 5, and being blocked by Maximiliano Richeze in the sprint for stage 6. Later in February, Cavendish won stage 2 of the UAE Tour. In March, Cavendish became the first British cyclist to win the Italian classic Milano–Torino. After racing at an average speed of over a new course from Magenta to Rivoli, Cavendish out-sprinted Nacer Bouhanni and Alexander Kristoff to take his first victory in Italy since a stage win at the 2014 Tirreno–Adriatico.
In May, Cavendish contested the Giro d'Italia for the first time since 2013, and he won the third stage of the race in Hungary, his 16th Giro stage win. This win gave him 53 career Grand Tour stage wins, bringing him within four of Mario Cipollini and eleven of Eddy Merckx for the most Grand Tour stage wins of all-time. He took two further podium finishes during the race, and ultimately finished third in the points classification, behind Arnaud Démare and Gaviria. The following month, Cavendish won his second British National Road Race Championships title in Castle Douglas, nine years after he won his first title in Glasgow. The following month, his general manager Patrick Lefevere advised that his contract would not be extended beyond the end of the season.
Astana Qazaqstan Team (2023-)
Having reportedly signed a contract with the team prior to its disbanding, Cavendish started 2023 as a free agent; however, in mid-January, he signed a contract with the . He is scheduled to make his first starts with the team in Oman, at the Muscat Classic and the Tour of Oman.
During the 2023 Giro d'Italia, Cavendish announced his intention to retire at the end of the 2023 racing season. A week later, on 28 May, in Rome, Cavendish out-sprinted his rivals to take the 21st and final stage, taking his final tally of Giro stage wins to seventeen.
In July 2023, Cavendish missed out on extending his Tour de France stage win record, finishing second on stage 7. He abandoned the race after a fall during stage 8. In October of that year, he announced he had reconsidered his decision to retire, and would stay with Astana for the following season, in the hope of breaking the Tour de France stage win record in 2024.
Riding style and incidents
Cavendish has an aggressive riding style that has been compared to a sprinter pushing on the starting blocks. At the 2009 Tour de France, the points he gained in the intermediate sprint in stage fourteen were removed after he was judged to have driven Thor Hushovd too close to barriers on the course. After stage nineteen, he said he was "embarrassed" for his comments about "deserving" green jersey wearer Hushovd. After stage four of the 2010 Tour de Suisse, Cavendish was found to be at fault for a crash involving himself and Heinrich Haussler during the end of the sprint stage. The crash caused Haussler, Arnaud Coyot and Lloyd Mondory to quit the race because of their injuries, though Cavendish was able to continue. Cavendish received a thirty-second penalty and a CHF200 fine (£159 or €186 as of January 2020). The start of the next stage was disrupted by fellow riders protesting Cavendish's riding and style, and what they claimed was a lack of respect from him.
His riding style resulted in organisers of the 2013 Boxmeer Criterium in the Netherlands to announce he was not welcome due to an incident during stage ten of the 2013 Tour de France, when he bumped Dutch rider Tom Veelers in a sprint finish, sending the Argos-Shimano rider tumbling. Another instance of dubious safety concerns while riding was witnessed on the opening stage of the 2014 Tour de France as Cavendish caused Simon Gerrans to crash while trying to push him out of the way during the sprint. In 2016, Cavendish accepted responsibility and apologised for the crash of South Korean cyclist Park Sang-hoon at the men's omnium event at the Olympics when an incident between them led to Park being thrown from his bike. After the crash, Park appeared unconscious and did not move while paramedics administered first aid; he was eventually taken away on a stretcher.
Cavendish has been described as confident, even arrogant. In 2008 he said, "When journalists at the Tour de France ask me if I am the best sprinter, I answer 'Yes', and that's seen as arrogance, but if they don't ask me, I don't say I'm the best sprinter in the world." Cavendish has a "photographic" memory for the details of race routes. In a 2013 interview with Jonathan Liew, he said, "If I do a circuit then after three laps I could tell you where all the potholes were." As a test Jonathan asked him to recount the close of his win in San Remo five years earlier. It took him five minutes to recite every detail of the last . This is an obvious asset to Cavendish in planning and timing his races.
Personal life
On 5 October 2013, Cavendish married model Peta Todd in London, making him stepfather to her son from a previous relationship. Cavendish and Todd have four children together. He has three homes: one on the Isle of Man, which he said will always be his real home; one in Ongar, Essex, and a training base in Quarrata, Tuscany, Italy. Their house in Essex was robbed at knifepoint in November 2021, and two men were jailed at Chelmsford Crown Court in February 2023 for their involvement in the robbery.
In January 2015 Cavendish announced the creation of the Rise Above Sportive, a cyclosportive to be held in Chester and North Wales in August 2015. In November 2015, he was awarded an honorary doctorate in science by the University of Chester for his contribution to cycling. He was diagnosed with Epstein–Barr virus in April 2017 and spent months out of action before returning to race the 2017 Tour de France. In August 2018 he was diagnosed with the virus a second time and withdrew from training and racing to recuperate.
Memoirs
In June 2009, his autobiography Boy Racer, which covered his career up to that year, was published by Ebury Press. At a press conference in London ahead of the 2009 Tour de France, Cavendish explained the book was "more a biography of last year's Tour stage wins" than an autobiography. His "biggest motivation for writing it had been to explain himself better", to counter the way he came across during interviews immediately after races. In an interview with Cyclingnews.com, Cavendish said the book would "cause some controversy" before stating it is positive in respect to others. The book addresses many events including an offer of more money from elsewhere to leave Team Columbia–High Road in 2008, which Cavendish declined; relationships with teams and riders; and significant moments for him of some races. Each chapter describes a stage from the 2008 Tour de France stages one to fourteen, using other autobiographical moments from Cavendish's life. In November 2013 his second book At Speed was also published by Ebury. Following on from Boy Racer it covered the part of his career from 2010 to 2013. In November 2021, Ebury Press published Tour de Force: My history-making Tour de France, which detailed Cavendish's return to success at the 2021 Tour.
Career achievements
See also
Chasing Legends
List of British cyclists
List of British cyclists who have led the Tour de France general classification
List of Giro d'Italia classification winners
List of Manx people
List of Tour de France secondary classification winners
List of Vuelta a España classification winners
References
Bibliography
Further reading
External links
1985 births
2010 Tour de France stage winners
2011 Tour de France stage winners
2012 Tour de France stage winners
2013 Tour de France stage winners
BBC Sports Personality of the Year winners
British Giro d'Italia stage winners
British Tour de France stage winners
British Vuelta a España stage winners
British cycling road race champions
British male cyclists
British track cyclists
Commonwealth Games gold medallists for the Isle of Man
Commonwealth Games medallists in cycling
Cyclists at the 2006 Commonwealth Games
Cyclists at the 2008 Summer Olympics
Cyclists at the 2010 Commonwealth Games
Cyclists at the 2012 Summer Olympics
Cyclists at the 2016 Summer Olympics
Living people
Manx male cyclists
Manx people
Manx victims of crime
Medalists at the 2016 Summer Olympics
Members of the Order of the British Empire
Olympic cyclists for Great Britain
Olympic silver medalists in cycling
Olympic silver medallists for Great Britain
People from Douglas, Isle of Man
Presidential Cycling Tour of Turkey stage winners
Tour de France Champs Elysées stage winners
Tour de Suisse stage winners
UCI Road World Champions (elite men)
UCI Track Cycling World Champions (men)
Medallists at the 2006 Commonwealth Games |
4442780 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koreans%20in%20China | Koreans in China | Koreans in China () includes non-Chinese nationalities such as South Korean and North Korean people living in Mainland China to study abroad or business, such as Thae Yong-ho. According to the Korean government, pouplation of Korean with Chinese nationality, South Korean, North Korean in China is 2,109,727 in 2023. For this reason, ethnic Koreans with Chinese nationality or citizenship are termed Korean Chinese (), Joseonjok, Chosŏnjok (), and their official name in China is Chaoxianzu (). They are the 13th largest officially-recognized ethnic minority group in China.
Most of Korean Chinese live in Yanbian and Changbai within Jilin province. Significant populations can also be found in Heilongjiang, Liaoning, and Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region, with a sizable expat community in Shanghai.
Their total population of Chaoxianzu is 1,702,479 according to the 2021 Chinese government census. High levels of emigration to the Republic of Korea for better economic and financial opportunities have contributed to a decrease in their numbers in China. Conversely, it is estimated that 42% (Approximately 708,000) of this Korean Chinese population now resides in Korea, maintaining their Chinese nationality. They are called Jaehan Joseonjok () or Zaihan Chaoxianzu ().
Koreans in China is the second largest ethnic Korean population living outside the Korean Peninsula, after Korean Americans.
Terminology
In South Korea, the terminology describing this demographic has evolved in recent years to adopt a more inclusive tone. Government regulations from 2004 prescribe the use of the terms "jaeoe dongpo" (Korean: 재외동포; Hanja: 在外同胞; lit. "compatriots residing abroad") and "jungguk dongpo" (Korean: 중국동포; Hanja: 中國同胞; lit. "compatriots in China"). The term "Jaejung Hanin" (Korean: 재중한인; Hanja: 在中韓人; lit. "Koreans in China") is considered the most appropriate descriptor for Koreans in China without taking nationality into account.
Additionally, the term "joseon-jok" (Korean: 조선족; Hanja: 朝鮮族; lit. "Joseon ethnicity") is often used to refer to Koreans in China who have Chinese nationality. This terminology parallels "Chaoxianzu," which is predominantly utilized in mainland China and stands as the official designation for this ethnic minority, as stipulated by the Chinese government.
History
Due to the geographic proximity between China and the Korean Peninsula, population migration of some kind has often occurred throughout history. However, most early ethnic Koreans in China had been assimilated by the Han Chinese, Manchus and Mongols. Thus, the overwhelming majority of today's ethnic Korean population in China are descendants of recent Korean arrivals.
Early history
After the conclusion of the Goguryeo–Tang War CE 645 - 668, over 200,000 Korean prisoners from Goguryeo were transported by the victorious Tang forces to the Chinese capital Chang'an.
During the 8th and 9th centuries since Silla, large Korean communities in China settled on the Shandong Peninsula and at the mouth of the Yangtze River.
Liao to early Qing era
According to records of History of Liao (), Khitans set up a Samhan county, in Zhongjing Circuit (中京道), one of the Liao's 5 "circuits", after Goryeo–Khitan War to settle prisoners of wars. In the Yuan dynasty, Koreans were included along with Northern Chinese, Khitan and Jurchen in the third class, as "Han people". Korean settlements in the Yuan Dynasty were mostly war-related. In 1233, former Goryeo commander Hong Bok-won and his followers moved to the current-day Liaoyang and Shenyang areas of Liaoning Province in Northeast China after his surrender to the Mongols during the Mongol invasions of Korea, and was offered an administrator position to take charge of Korean population there. In the next years, another ten thousand Goryeo households were brought under his administration. In 1266, Wang Jun (), a member of the Goryeo royal family, was sent to the Mongol Empire as a hostage. There were 2,000 Goryeo households accompanying him and settling down in the current-day Shenyang city.
The Korean population in China surged during the Ming dynasty. According to Chronicles of Liaodong (), Koreans and Manchus accounted for 30% of the total local population in Northeast China. In 1386, the Ming government set up the Dongningwei () and Guangningwei () to settle the increasing Korean population. Between the mid-15th century and the early 16th century, the Liaodong Peninsula experienced a peaceful and prosperous era. Favorable policies were carried out towards ethnic minorities in areas like Dongningwei (). Many Koreans moved from the Korean Peninsula to Northeast China to enjoy such favorable policies. However, as the rising power of Jianzhou Jurchens grew stronger and stronger, Koreans began to move out of Dongningwei (). In 1537, the Korean population in Dongningwei () had decreased by 60%.
As Jurchens established the Later Jin (), military clashes between Jurchens and Koreans increased. During the two Jurchen invasions of the Korean Peninsula, they plundered large numbers of Korean people. Most of these Koreans captured by Jurchens were drafted as soldiers into the Eight Banners or sold to rich Jurchens as farm laborers or servants. Most of the captured Koreans in the early Qing dynasty were forcefully converted to Manchu or other ethnicities and lost their ethnic identities. But about 2000 descendants from these captured Koreans in Qinglong Manchu Autonomous County Hebei province, Gaizhou and in Liaoning Province have still kept their Korean identity In 1982, during the third national population census of China, these 2,000 ethnic Koreans were restored their Korean ethnicity per their requests in accordance to the then newly issued Chinese government policy.
Late Qing era
In 1677, Manchus sealed the area north of Baekdu Mountain, Yalu River, and Tumen River as a conservation area of their ancestors' birthplace, and prohibited Koreans and other non-Manchu ethnic people from entering the area. The Joseon rulers were also forced by the Qing government to implement harsh penalties to prevent Koreans from entering the sealed areas. As a result, the areas became obsolete with no human settlements. But there were still Koreans living nearby who took the risk to collect ginseng, hunt animals, or cultivate agricultural products in the prohibited area. In 1740, the Qing government extended the ban to the whole Northeast China region.
During the second half of the nineteenth century, Northeast China increasingly became obsolete after 200 years of Manchus' closure to the region. The Russian Empire meanwhile seized the opportunity to encroach on this region. In 1860, the Qing government was forced to sign the Convention of Peking and ceded more than 1 million square kilometers to the Russians. Pressed by the situation, the Qing government lifted the ban on Northeast China in 1860 and lifted the ban on the Yalu River and Tumen River area in 1875 and 1881 respectively. During the years between 1860 and 1870, several unprecedented natural disasters struck the northern part of the Korean Peninsula. Meanwhile, peasant revolts in the south spread to the north. Large numbers of Korean refugees moved to the north banks of the Tumen and Yalu rivers during those turbulent times. In 1879, there were 8722 Korean households living in 28 villages in Tonghua, Huairen, Kuandian, Xinbin areas, with a total population of more than 37,000. In 1881, the Qing government established a special bureau to recruit farmers to cultivate the land and allocated the 700 by 45-square-kilometer area north of the Tumen River as the special farming areas for Korean farmers. The Qing government strengthened the management of Korean emigrants during the start of the 20th century. Korean emigrants were able to obtain land ownership if they were willing to adopt Manchu's dress codes such as the Queue hairstyle and pay taxes to the Qing government. However, most of the Korean emigrants considered adopting Manchu's addressing codes a discriminatory policy of assimilation. By 1910, the number of Korean migrants in China reached about 260,000, with around 100,000 of them living in the current-day Yanbian Korean Autonomous Prefecture.
Development of paddy fields in Northeast China
The development of paddy fields in Northeast China during the modern era was related to rice cultivation by Korean emigrants. Korean emigrants attempted to cultivate rice in the Hun River valley as early as 1848. The experiment by Korean farmers in the Dandong region was successful in 1861. In 1875, Korean farmers also succeeded in cultivating rice in the wetland of Huanren region in Liaoning province. The cultivation of rice in Yanbian region began in 1877. The growth of paddy fields brings the further development of irrigation projects in Northeast China by Korean farmers, who built numerous watering canals to irrigate paddy fields. In June 1906, 14 Korean farmers built the earliest irrigation system in Yanbian. The total length of canals built exceeded 1.3 kilometer, irrigating 33 hectare of paddy fields.
On 3 March 1914, the newly established Republic of China issued a decree aimed to encourage land development in Northeastern China. In the same year, the water bureau of the Mukden province began to recruit Korean emigrants to use the water from Hun River to develop paddy fields near Mukden. In 1916, the local government of Jilin Province submitted a paddy field farming specifications document of a Korean immigrant farmer to the central Agriculture and Business Administration. After receiving the administration's approval, Jinlin Province started to promote rice production. Han Chinese farmer began to hire Korean emigrants to learn how to grow rice. In 1917, Korean farmers in Muling solved the problem of how to grow rice in regions with short frost-free period. Rice farming thereafter quickly expanded to the further north region of Mudan River, Muling River and Mayi River basins.
Between 1921 and 1928, the total areas of paddy fields in Northeast China increased from 48,000 hectare to 125,000 hectares, more than 80% of these rice fields was developed or cultivated by Korean farmers. In 1933, Korean farmers succeeded in growing rice in Aihui and Xunke area along Amur River, breaking the world record of growing rice north of the 50th parallel north. In 1934, Korean population accounted for only 3.3% of Northeast China's total population, but produced 90.1% of the rice outputs there.
During the Japanese Occupation of Korea
After the Japanese Occupation of Korea in 1910, thousands of Koreans fled to Northeast China and other regions of China to escape Japanese rule. Many Korean independence movement activists and organizations established bases or military training schools in Northeast China and move Korean people there in an organized way. In 1919, after the Japanese crackdown on March 1st Movement, Korean migration to China reached a peak. In 1920, the total number of Koreans in Northeast China exceeded 457,400.
During 1910–1934, cadastral land surveys and rice production promotion plans carried out by Governor-General of Korea forced thousands of disadvantaged Korean farmers to lose their land ownership or go to bankruptcy. Since there were no large enough urban industry to absorb these redundant rural population, the Japanese started to migrate these Korean farmers to Northeast China. At the same time, the newly established Republic of China was promoting land developments in Northeast China. This offered a favorable condition for the Japanese population migration policy. After the Chinese government issued the national wild land development decree on 3 March 1914, the water bureau of Mukden Province began to hire Korean emigrants to develop paddy fields near Mukden using the water from Hun River. Since Korean farmers had succeeded in growing rice in Northeast China in large scale and the price of rice in Japan kept climbing every year, the Japanese started to increase their paddy fields in Northeast China each year and hire Korean emigrants to grow rice.
The Fengtian clique in Northeast China maintained a complicated relationship with the Japanese. They sometimes cooperated with the Japanese and sometimes were at odds with them. To fight for the control of Korean emigrants, the Fengtian clique attempted to persuade or force Korean emigrants to become naturalized citizens of China. But most Korean emigrants considered such policies as Chinese authority's attempt to assimilate them into Han Chinese. In September 1930, realizing that Korean emigrants had little trust in Chinese governments, the Chairman of Jinlin Province Zhang Zuoxiang instead carried out policies to encourage Korean emigrants to become naturalized. To prevent the Japanese from using Korean emigrants as a tool of infiltration into Northeast China, the Chinese government also tried to put Korean immigrants' schools into its own national education system, increasing investments on Korean schools annually to sever the Japanese influence on Korean emigrants. In 1921, Jinlin province quadrupled its annual investments on local Korean schools to repair the damages during the Japanese massacre of Koreans(間島慘變) in Oct. 1920. As the Japanese often used the excuse of protecting Korean emigrants to enlarge their sphere of influence in Northeast China, the views of Chinese government and people towards Korean emigrants changed after the mid of 1920, especially after the exposure of Tanaka Memorial and the Wanpaoshan Incident. Korean emigrants used to be considered as independent activists in China, but now they were generally considered as the vanguard of Japanese invasion. Relationship between local Chinese and Korean emigrants became tense. After the Chinese government signed the treaty with the Japanese government on 11 June 1925 to assist the Japanese get rid of Korean independent activists in Northeast China, the Fengtian clique began to use this treaty to expel and persecute Korean emigrants and began to take back the farm lands cultivated by non-naturalized Korean emigrants or put on more restrictions. Naturalized Korean emigrants, however, continue to have the rights to own farm lands.
Under these circumstances, Korean emigrants in Northeast China began to have the consensus of becoming naturalized and actively seeking local autonomy. Many anti-Japanese Korean organizations took measures to protect Korean emigrants and negotiated local Chinese governments into making concessions or acquiescence. In 1928, Zhang Xueliang replaced the Beiyang government flag in Northeast China with Republic of China's flag, after the Huanggutun incident. Many Korean independent organizations seized this good opportunity to encourage Korean emigrants in Northeast China to apply for Chinese citizenship. On 10 September 1928, Korean emigrants in Northeast China established the Korean autonomy organization "Korean Fellow Association" (韓橋同鄕會). In April, the leader of Korean Fellow Association Cui Dongwu went to Nanjing and hold negotiations with the Nationalist government on various issues about Korean emigrants' naturalization and autonomy. These negotiations helped to facilitate the naturalization process for Korean emigrants, but failed in establishing Korean autonomy.
In 1931, Japan staged the Mukden Incident and invaded Northeast China by force, then established a puppet state called Manchukuo. On 14 September 1936, the Japanese set up a special organization (滿鮮拓殖會社) and began to migrate Korean farmers to Northeast China in a planned systemic way. In 1945, when Japan surrendered at the end of World War II, there were more than 2.16 million Korean emigrants living in Northeast China. Among them, about 700,000 returned to Korea after the end of World War II. In 1947, the number of Korean emigrants decreased to 1.4 million, most of them living in the communist party controlled areas, only less than 100,000 living in the Kuomintang-controlled areas.
Anti-Japanese fights
On 13 March 1919 shortly after the March 1st Movement in Korea, around 300,000 Koreans in Yanbian rallied on the Ruidian meadow in Longjing to protest against the Japanese and demonstrate supports for the 1 March Movement. This is the first massive grassroot anti-Japanese demonstration in Yanbian. A declaration of independence drafted by Yanbian Koreans was read out at the rally. The crowd then marched towards the Japanese consulate in Longjing, chanting anti-Japanese slogans and waving Taegukgi and placards. The crowd was stopped by Fengtian clique soldiers and Japanese police near the west gate of the Japanese consulate. Bullets were fired towards the demonstrators. 19 people were killed, 48 injured and 94 arrested. From 13 March to 1 May, a total of 73 anti-Japanese Korean rallies broke out in 15 counties in Northeast China. The total number of people participated in these demonstrations exceed 100,000.
In June 1920, the Korean independence fighters led by Hong Beom-do engaged the first armed force combat with the Imperial Japanese Army in Wangqing County, killing more than 100 Japanese soldiers. This led to the "Gando massacre" a few months later in Yanbian. The Japanese army killed 15,000 Koreans and destroyed more than 3,500 houses, 95 schools, 19 churches and nearly 25,000 kg grains. Between 21 and 26 October 1920, the combined Korean Liberation Army forces led by Kim Chwa-chin, Lee Beom-seok and Hong Beom-do fought the Battle of Qingshanli against Imperial Japanese Army in Helong. Local Korean residents provided vital supports for the Korean Liberation Army.
In the 1930s, many Koreans in China joined the Anti-Japanese forces led by the Chinese Communist Party. In June 1932, Korean leader Li Hongguang established one of the earliest Anti-Japanese Volunteer Armies (磐石工農義勇軍) in Northeast China. Most of its members were ethnic Koreans in China. Li later became a Key member of The Northeast Anti-Japanese United Army. Among the 11 army divisions of the Northeast Anti-Japanese United Army, Koreans accounted for half of the total number in the 1st, 2nd, 3rd and 7th army division. During the 14 years of fight against the Japanese, Northeast Anti-Japanese United Army killed 183,700 Japanese soldiers.
Resumption of Chinese Civil War (1946–1949)
After the end of Second World War, Kuomintang forces took over the Northeast China from the Soviet Red Army. The Kuomintang initially implemented similar policies towards both Korean and Japanese people, impounding or confiscating Korean properties and repatriating Korean emigrants. Since Korean farmers played important roles in rice production in Northeast China, the Kuomintang revoked this hostile policy towards Koreans in China after the intervention of Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea and even took measures to persuade Korean farmers to stay in China to prevent possible declines in rice production in Northeast China.
In contrast to the Kuomintang, the Chinese Communist Party had been very friendly towards Koreans in China. Koreans had a long history of friendship with the Chinese communists. Koreans participated in both the Nanchang Uprising and Guangzhou Uprising, and contributed to the establishment of the Chinese Communist Party's army and the base of the Chinese Red Army in the Jinggang Mountains. The Chinese Communist Party considered Koreans in China as the same class of people in China who were oppressed and exploited by both the Imperial Japanese and feudal warlords in China, and a reliable source of support in the fight against the Imperial Japanese and feudal warlords. In July 1928, the Chinese Communist Party officially included Koreans in China as one of the ethnic minorities of China on its 6th National Conference. After the Japanese invasion of Northeast China, cooperation between the communists and Koreans in China strengthened and the social status of Koreans among the communists rose to new heights. the Chinese Communists let the Koreans choose whether to voluntarily become Chinese citizens and left them ample time and options to choose. In March 1946, Northeast China started the Land Reform Movement, allocating the land formerly occupied by the Japanese or rich Chinese and rich Koreans. Korean farmers in China received farmland just as other Chinese farmers did. From October 1947, the land reform was expanded to nationwide.
During the War of Liberation, 63,000 Koreans from Northeast China joined the People's Liberation Army, more than 100,000 joined local military forces and hundreds of thousands participated logistics supports. Soldiers in the 164th, 166th and 156th of the Fourth Field Army are mostly Koreans. They participated in the Siege of Changchun, Battle of Siping, Liaoshen Campaign, then continued to fight as far as in the Hainan Island Campaign.
Since 1949
After the founding of the People's Republic of China in 1949, Koreans in China became one of the official members of Zhonghua minzu. The total population of Koreans in China was 1.1 million, 47.6% of them living in Yanbian. In September 1949, Zhu Dehai, the chairman and local specialist of Chinese Communist Party in Yanbian attended the first plenary session of Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference (CPPCC) as one of the 10 ethnic minorities, participated in the establishment of CPPCC as a representative of Koreans in China. He also attended the grand ceremony for the founding of the People's Republic of China.
After the outbreak of Korean War in 1950, young Koreans in China actively joined the People's Volunteer Army in response to the Chinese Communist Party's call. These bilingual soldiers provided valuable communications help to other Chinese soldiers with locals in Korea in addition to manpower. Zhao Nanqi, Li Yongtai are two of the most notable Korean figures who participated in the war. Koreans in Longjing also organized the "Yanji Jet" donation campaign. Donations from Koreans in Yanbian reached the equivalent value of 6.5 jet fighters after the enormous destruction caused by the American Bombing of North Korea around 1.5 million Koreans were killed.
On 3 March 1952, Yanbian was officially designated as a Korean Autonomous Region and Zhu Dehai was appointed as the first Chairman. On 20 July 1954, the first session of People's Congress was held in Yanbian. In April 1955, "Yanbian Korean Autonomous Region" was renamed as "Yanbian Korean Autonomous Prefecture" per the stipulation of the first Constitution of People's Republic of China and Zhu Dehai was appointed as the first Chairman. On 29 May 1958, the State Council of the People's Republic of China approved the decision to designate Changbai County as "Changbai Korean Autonomous County".
During the Cultural Revolution, many Korean cadres including Zhu Dehai were prosecuted as capitalist roaders, local nationalists or counterrevolutionists. Many faculty members of Yanbian University were also prosecuted. The number of Yanbian University's faculty and staff decreased to 23.7% of that in 1966. Even Korean Language was criticized as Four Olds. According to Julia Lovell, "[e]vents took a horrific turn in the frontier town of Yanbian, where freight trains trundled from China into the DPRK, draped with the corpses of Koreans killed in the pitched battles of the Cultural Revolution, and daubed with threatening graffiti: 'This will be your fate also, you tiny revisionists!'" After the Cultural Revolution ended, things gradually restored to normal.
On 24 April 1985, the eighth session of the People's Congress of Yanbian Korean Autonomous Prefecture passed the "Autonomy Regulations of Korean Autonomous Prefecture", which was later approved by the sixth session of Jilin Province People's Congress as law. The Yanbian Autonomy Regulations consist of 7 chapters and 75 clauses. It stipulated political, economic, cultural, educational, and social rights of and policies for Korean and other ethnic people in Yanbian Autonomous Prefecture in the form of law. It is the first autonomy regulations in China's history. These regulations stipulated that the Chairman of the Standing Committee of the Prefectural People's Congress should be a Korean, and that Koreans may occupy more than half the posts within the Prefectural People's Government as vice mayors, the chief secretary, directors of bureaus, and so on. Other regulations require the use of both Korean and Chinese languages while performing governmental duties, with Korean being the principal language used, along with encouraging the use of Korean in local primary and middle school.
In September 1994, Yanbian Korean Autonomous Prefecture was selected by the State Council of the People's Republic of China as a "Model Autonomous Prefecture". Yanbian was the first autonomous prefecture in China to receive this title and it had continuously received this title five times. According to a 2012 US undergraduate thesis, the Chaoxianzu are seen as a model minority and have good relations with both the Chinese government and Han majority.
Culture
Education
Koreans in China have a tradition of education. The education level of Koreans in China is above China's national average and one of the highest among ethnic groups in China. The Chinese government is also very supportive in preserving their language and culture. Korean schools from kindergarten to higher education are allowed to teach in Korean language in Yanbian. Yanbian University located in Yanji city is a comprehensive university offering bachelor to doctoral degrees. The university is one of the Project 211 national key university and a member of the Double First Class University Plan.
There are also many South Korean international day schools in Mainland China, including Korean International School in Beijing, Guangzhou Korea School, Korean International School in Shenzhen, , Korean International School in Yanbian, , , , , Korean School in Yantai, Shanghai Korean School, etc. In addition, the Shenzhen Korean Chamber of Commerce and Industry organizes a Korean Saturday school because many Korean students are not studying in Korean-medium schools; the school had about 600 students in 2007. The chamber uses rented space in the Overseas Chinese Town (OCT) Primary School as the Korean weekend school's classroom. There is also the Korean International School of Hong Kong.
Religion
The majority of ethnic Koreans in China have no formal affiliations with a religion. Major religions among ethnic Koreans in China include Buddhism and Christianity (with service in Korean).
Public media
The Korean language has been promoted in Yanbian partly by the government through a large network of schools, local Korean periodicals and television broadcasts, as well as a local law mandating all street signs be written in Korean and Chinese. Most ethnic Koreans in China speak Mandarin Chinese and many also speak fluent Korean as their mother tongue. Many Chinese of Korean descent have ancestral roots and family ties in the Hamgyong region of North Korea and speak the Hamgyŏng dialect of Korean according to North Korean conventions.
However, since South Korea has been more prolific in exporting its entertainment culture, more Korean Chinese broadcasters have been using Seoul dialect. The so-called Korean Wave (Hallyu) has influenced fashion styles.
In public appearances, ethnic Koreans in China are represented by the wearing of Chosŏn-ot, which caused discontent from South Korean ultra-nationalists during the 2022 Winter Olympics opening ceremony.
North Koreans
China has a large number of North Korean refugees, estimated in the tens of thousands. Some North Korean refugees who are unable to obtain transport to South Korea instead marry chaoxianzu and settle down in China, blending into the community; however, they are still subject to deportation if discovered by the authorities. Although the PRC government estimated 10,000 refugees in the country, the United Nations alleged between 30,000 and 50,000 refugees, of which 75 percent are women. Sexual assault, forced marriage, and human trafficking of North Korean refugees in China is common. Most of the refugees originate from North Hamgyong Province. As China deports the majority of North Koreans under a 1986 agreement with North Korea, 86 percent of refugees seek passage to South Korea rather than remain in China. According to a 2015 UC Santa Cruz paper, many North Korean refugees met locals who gave aid to them and did not judge them for their communist origins.
North Koreans seen as politically reliable by their government can acquire passports and visas for travelling to China. , there are an estimated 4,000 to 5,000 North Koreans residing as legal resident aliens in China. An increasing number are applying for naturalization as Chinese citizens; this requires a certificate of loss of North Korean nationality, which North Korean authorities have recently become more reluctant to issue. Major North Korean universities, such as the Kim Il-sung University and the Pyongyang University of Foreign Studies, send a few dozen exchange students to Peking University and other top-ranked Chinese universities each year.
In June 2012, the Los Angeles Times reported that Beijing and Pyongyang had signed an agreement to grant as many as 40,000 industrial trainee visas to North Koreans to permit them to work in China per year; the first batch of workers arrived earlier in the year in the city of Tumen in Yanbian Korean Autonomous Prefecture. There have been reportedly 130 North Korean state-run restaurants in 12 countries, with most in China. Two have been found in Beijing, three in Shanghai, and others in Dandong.
South Koreans
After the 1992 normalization of diplomatic relations between the PRC and South Korea, many citizens of South Korea started to settle in Mainland China; large new communities of South Koreans have subsequently formed in Beijing, Shanghai, Dalian and Qingdao. The South Korean government officially recognizes seven Korean international schools in China (in Yanbian, Beijing, Shanghai, Tianjin, Yantai, Qingdao, and Dalian, respectively), all founded between 1997 and 2003. Most of the population of Koreans in Hong Kong consists of South Korea migrant workers.
Typically, they come to China as employees of South Korean corporations on short-term international assignments or as employers of South Korean businesses operating in China handling Chinese workers; when their assignments are completed, many prefer to stay on in China, using the contacts they have made to start their own consulting businesses or import/export firms. Other South Koreans moved to China on their own after becoming unemployed during the 1997 financial crisis; they used funds they had saved up for retirement to open small restaurants or shops. The low cost of living compared to Seoul, especially the cheap tuition at international schools teaching English and Chinese, is another pull factor for temporary South Korean migration to Mainland China but usually after this period, those that have moved have mostly gone back to Korea.
The number of South Koreans in China was estimated to be 300,000 to 400,000 ; at the 2006 rate of growth, their population had been expected to reach one million by 2008. By 2007, the South Korean Embassy in Beijing stated their population had reached 700,000. However, due to the global economic downturn in 2008 and the depreciation of the Korean won, large numbers of those returned to South Korea. A Bloomberg News article initially stated the proportion as 20% (roughly 140,000 people). Between 2008 and 2009, South Korean government figures show that the number of Koreans in China dropped by 433,000. The Sixth National Population Census of the People's Republic of China reported 120,750 South Koreans in Mainland China, the largest single foreign group.
By city
Shandong
As of 2008 there are more than 148,000 Koreans living in Shandong.
Shenzhen
there were about 20,000 people of Korean origins in Shenzhen, with the Nanshan and Futian districts having significant numbers. That year the chairperson of the Korean Chamber of Commerce and Industry, Kang Hee-bang, stated that about 10,000 lived in Overseas Chinese Town (OCT). Shekou, the area around Shenzhen University, and Donghai Garden housing estate had other significant concentrations. Donghai Garden began attracting Koreans due to its transportation links and because, around 1998, it was the sole residential building classified as 3-A. Donghai had about 200 Korean families.
South Koreans began going to the Shenzhen area during the 1980s as part of the reform and opening up era, and this increased when South Korea established formal diplomatic relations with the PRC.
In 2007 about 500 South Korean companies in Shenzhen were involved in China-South Korean trade, and there were an additional 500 South Korean companies doing business in Shenzhen. In 2007 Kang stated that most of the Koreans in Shenzhen had lived there for five years or longer.
there were some Korean children enrolled in schools for Chinese locals. spaces for foreign students in Shenzhen public schools were limited, so some Korean residents are forced to put their children in private schools. In addition, in 2007, there were about 900 Korean children in non-Chinese K-12 institutions; the latter included 400 of them at private international schools in Shekou, 300 in private schools in Luohu District, and 200 enrolled at the Baishizhou Bilingual School. Because many Korean students are not studying in Korean-medium schools, the Korean Chamber of Commerce and Industry operates a Korean Saturday School; it had about 600 students in 2007. The chamber uses rented space in the OCT Primary School as the Korean weekend school's classroom.
Notable people
Historical figures
Kim Gyo-gak, the Ksitigarbha at Mount Jiuhua (Originally from the Kingdom of Silla)
Yi Tong (義通), the 16th patriarch of the Tiantai school
Kim Ho-shang, Korean Ch'an master who introduced the first streams of Ch'an Buddhism to Tibet
Senglang (僧朗, in Korean Sungnang), 6th century Goguryeo monk who went to China; his works heavily influenced Jizang and Zhouyoung and the Sanlun school.
Gao Xianzhi, a Tang general of Korean Goguryeo descent
Gao Yun, Emperor of Later Yan and Northern Yan of Goguryeo descent
Li Zhengji, general of the Tang dynasty
Li Na, general of the Tang dynasty
Li Shigu, general of the Tang dynasty
Li Shidao, general of the Tang dynasty
Wonch'uk, one of the two pupils of Hsüan-tsang, his work was revered and heavily influenced Tibetan Buddhism and Chinese Buddhism.
Chegwan, (諦觀; 960–962), Korean Buddhist monk who arrived in China, who wrote the Tiantai Sijiaoyi (天台四教儀) which became a basic T'ien-t'ai text.
Empress Gi (Originally from the Goyang, Kingdom of Goryeo)
Li Chengliang, general of the Ming dynasty
Li Rusong, general of the Ming dynasty
Li Rubai, general of the Ming dynasty
Contemporary Chaoxianzu/Joseonjok
Jiang Jingshan, aerospace scientist, Fellow of Chinese Academy of Engineering
Piao Shilong, physical geography scientist, Fellow of Chinese Academy of Sciences
Jin Hongguang, physical chemist, Fellow of the Chinese Academy of Sciences
Jin Ningyi (; ), virologist, Fellow of Chinese Academy of Engineering
Hyen-taik Kimm, oncologist, known as "The Father of Chinese Oncology"
Kong Xuanyou, Chinese Vice Minister of Foreign Affairs and
, Former Deputy Director of the National Bureau of Statistics of China
Bai Lei, Chinese football player
Jin Yan, actor of the 1930s
Cui Jian, Chinese rock musician, composer, trumpet player and guitarist; also known as "The Father of Chinese Rock"
Han Dayuan, Dean of Renmin University of China Law School and Director of the Constitutional Law Institute of China Law Society
Geum Hee, author
Jin Xing, dancer, choreographer and actress
Zhang Lü, film director, screenwriter and novelist
Li Yongtai, member of the 9th NPC Standing Committee, Deputy Commander of the People's Liberation Army Air Force
Piao Wenyao, professional Go player
Joe Wong, Chinese–American comedian and chemical engineer
Zhao Nanqi, People's Liberation Army general, former vice chairman of the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference
Li Xianyu, Fellow of Chinese Academy of Engineering, the first female general of People's Liberation Army Rocket Force
Zheng Lücheng, composer of the Military Anthem of the People's Liberation Army
Jin Longguo, soloist and former member of South Korean Boy Band JBJ
Jin Yulin (金雨霖; Korean: 김우림; Stage name: D.Ark), rapper based in South Korea under P Nation
Jin Bo: Chinese footballer.
Huáng Rénjùn (黄仁俊; Korean: 황인준), member of boygroup NCT DREAM based in South Korea under SM Entertainment
Jin Jingzhe, physician, delegate of the 13th NPC
Li Yunfeng, athlete, delegate of the 14th NPC
Expatriates of other nationalities and their descendants
Kwon Ki-ok, one of the first female pilots in China (Originally from Pyongyang, North Korea)
Pak Cholsu (박철수), head representative of the North Korean government-run company, Taep'oong International Investment Group of Korea (조선대풍국제투자그룹)
Howie Liu, American-born CEO of Airtable
See also
Ethnic Chinese in Korea
General Association of Koreans in China
Korean Chinese cuisine
Harbin No. 2 Korean Middle School
Yanbian Korean Autonomous Prefecture
Koreans in Beijing
Korean community of Shanghai
Koreans in Hong Kong
Pyongyang (restaurant chain)
Notes
References
Citations
Sources
External links
Koreans in China Online Community - Moyiza!
环球阿里郎 Arirang World
Ethnic groups officially recognized by China
China–Korea relations
Immigration to China |
4442867 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hot%20dog%20variations | Hot dog variations | Different areas of the world have local variations on the hot dog, in the type of meat used, the condiments added, and its means of preparation.
United States
Hot dogs are a very popular sandwich throughout the United States. Many regional variations exist.
Alaska
Hot dogs made with caribou meat added are sold as "reindeer dogs" throughout Alaska.
Arizona
The Sonoran hot dog is popular in Tucson, Phoenix, and elsewhere in southern Arizona, as well as in the neighboring Mexican state of Sonora, where it originated.
California
In Los Angeles, Pink's Hot Dogs promotes its celebrity customers and its chili dogs, the latter of which come in a wide number of varieties. A local chain, Tommy's, also has chili dogs featuring a premium natural casing hot dog alongside its much better-known chili hamburgers, and another local chain The Hat, which specializes in pastrami, has them also.
Other notable Los Angeles chains that specialize in hot dogs include Hot Dog On A Stick, which serves a preparation similar to a corn dog, and Wienerschnitzel, a chain that bills itself as "The World's Largest Hot Dog Chain." The Farmer John Dodger Dog is sold at Dodger Stadium.
Street vendors in Los Angeles also serve the "Downtown Dog" or "LA Street Dog" a Mexican-style bacon-wrapped hot dog with grilled onions, jalapeños, and bell peppers, and mustard, ketchup, and mayonnaise as condiments. These are typically sold around closing time outside nightclubs and bars by street vendors, who grill the hot dogs on small push-carts. The legality of such operations may be questionable, leading locals to sometimes refer to these treats as "Danger Dogs".
Connecticut
Connecticut hot dog restaurants often serve sausages produced by local family operations such as Hummel Bros, Martin Rosol, or Grote & Weigel, with national brands being relatively less common. The hot dogs are typically served on New England rolls. There is otherwise no particular Connecticut style though deep frying and homemade condiments are common.
Georgia
In Columbus, Georgia, a local favorite is the "scrambled dog," the exemplar of which was first served at the Dinglewood Pharmacy by "The Lieutenant" Charles Stevens over 50 years ago. The scrambled dog is a chopped hot dog covered by chili, onions and pickles with an accompanying portion of oyster crackers.
In Fitzgerald, Georgia, Johnnie's Drive In served the "scrambled dog" beginning in the early 1940s. Johnnie's scrambled dog is two sliced hot dogs over a hot dog bun with mustard and catsup and covered with oyster crackers, chili, cole slaw, and sliced dill pickles.
Illinois
The Chicago-style hot dog is a steamed kosher-style all-beef, natural-casing hot dog on a steamed poppy seed bun, topped with yellow mustard, chopped white onions, a dill pickle spear, tomato slices, Chicago-style relish, hot sport peppers, and a dash of celery salt. Chicago-style hot dogs do not include ketchup.
This "dragged through the garden" style (more commonly called, "with the works"), is heavily promoted by Vienna Beef and Red Hot Chicago, the two most prominent Chicago hot dog manufacturers, but exceptions are common, with vendors adding cucumbers or lettuce, omitting poppy seeds or celery salt, or using plain relish or a skinless hot dog. Several popular hot dog stands serve a simpler version: a steamed natural-casing dog with only mustard, onions, plain relish and sport peppers, wrapped up with hand-cut fries, while the historic Superdawg drive-ins notably substitute a pickled tomato.
Kansas and Missouri
A Kansas City-style hot dog is a pork sausage in a sesame seed bun topped with brown mustard, sauerkraut and melted Swiss cheese.
Maine
The most popular variety of hot dog in Maine is made with natural casing. The casing is colored red, and one company refers to their red variety as red snappers and "red rockets".
Massachusetts
In Boston, hot dogs are often served steamed as opposed to grilled. The Fenway Frank, served at Fenway Park, is a fixture for Red Sox fans, and there are several other local brands such as Pearl that are used. Hot dogs in the Boston area are associated with Boston baked beans, though this is not unique to the region. Ketchup, mustard, relish, picalilli, and chopped onions are the most common toppings.
Michigan
In southeastern Michigan, restaurants serve what's known as a Coney dog, developed early in the 20th century by Greek immigrants. "Coney joints" are very specific as to the ingredients: a beef or beef and pork European-style Vienna sausage of German origin in a natural lamb or sheep casing, topped with a spiced sauce made with ground beef heart, one or two stripes of yellow mustard and diced or chopped white onions. There are three variations on the Coney dog: Jackson style, which started in 1914 with a ground beef sauce prior to switching to ground beef heart in the early 1940s, Detroit style, first served in 1917 and made with a more soupy beef heart-based sauce, and Flint style, with Flint Coney Island opening in 1924 serving a specially-developed Koegel's coney topped with thicker, meatier sauce based on a Macedonian goulash, made almost entirely of a finely ground beef heart blend from Abbott's Meat. With over 350 chain and independent purveyors of these dogs in the metro-Detroit area alone, an entire restaurant industry has developed from the hot dog and are called Coney Islands. A coney dog is not to be confused with a chili dog, a more generic ground beef-based chili-topped hot dog. See Coney Island hot dog.
Minnesota
In Minnesota, especially the Twin Cities the Minneapolis-style hotdog is popular. It is essentially a hotdog with hot dish, tater tots, and ketchup piled on.
New Jersey
New Jersey's Italian hot dog includes diced fried potatoes combined with brown mustard served on a spicy hot dog. The most common brands of spicy hot dogs used are Sabrett's or Best's, both of which are NJ companies. A traditional Italian Hot Dog is made by cutting a round "pizza bread" in half (for a double) or into quarters (for a single), cutting a pocket into it and spreading the inside with mustard. A deep-fried dog (or two if it is a double) is put in the pocket, topped with fried (or sautéed) onions and peppers, and then topped off with crisp-fried potato chunks. A variation of this, often found at express takeout restaurants (such as "chicken shacks," Chinese restaurants, pizzerias, etc., and can also be requested at some lunch trucks and luncheonettes across the state) substitutes French fries for the traditional potato round, and in some spots a Portuguese or sub roll replaces the traditional round bread used.
The Texas wiener or Hot Texas wiener was created in Paterson, New Jersey sometime before 1920. A traditional Texas wiener is blanched in cool oil, finished in hot oil, and topped with spicy mustard, chopped onions, and a chili sauce.
New York
In New York City, the natural-casing all-beef hot dogs served at Katz's Delicatessen, Gray's Papaya, Papaya King, Papaya Dog and any Sabrett cart are all made by Sabrett's parent company, Marathon Enterprises, Inc. Nathan's hot dogs, which are all-beef and come in both natural-casing and skinless, were also made by Marathon until several years ago. Local kosher brands—which are not permitted natural casings—include Hebrew National, Empire National. The usual condiments are mustard and sauerkraut, with optional sweet onions in a tomato based sauce invented by Alan Geisler, usually made by Sabrett. Hot dogs are available on street corners as well as at delicatessens. New York street vendors generally store their unsold dogs in warm-water baths, giving rise to the semi-affectionate moniker "dirty water dog." Bagel dogs are also sold in Manhattan.
The white hot or "porker" is a variation on the hot dog found mostly in the Rochester area. It is composed of some combination of uncured and unsmoked pork, beef, and veal; it is believed that the lack of smoking or curing allows the meat to retain a naturally white color.
A Michigan hot dog, Michigan red hot, or simply "michigan", is a steamed all-beef hot dog on a steamed bun topped with a meaty sauce, generally referred to as "michigan sauce", and is a specialty in and around Plattsburgh, New York.
In the Capital District surrounding Albany, smaller-than-usual wieners are served with a spicy meat sauce; the Capital District style is quite similar to the New York System or Hot Wieners of Rhode Island. In the mid-twentieth century, hot dog purveyors reportedly would carry the dogs to the table lined up on their bare forearms, giving rise to the term "the Hairy Arm"; today, health codes prohibit this practice. Further north, in three locations in and around Glens Falls, New Way Lunch has served similar hot dogs with meat sauce, mustard, and raw onions for nearly 100 years.
Texas hots have a niche following in western New York. A 2017 article in the Olean Times Herald made note of the dish's disappearance from the city of Olean.
North Carolina
In North Carolina, hot dogs have a distinct red color and are prepared Carolina style which includes chili, cole slaw and onions; locally, mustard sometimes replaces slaw, or is added as a fourth item. Merritt's Burger House has been serving Carolina hot dogs since 1958.
Ohio
In Cincinnati, a hot dog topped with Cincinnati chili is called a "coney," and when grated cheddar cheese is added, a "cheese coney." The default coney also includes mustard and diced onion.
In Toledo, Tony Packo's Cafe sells "world famous" "Hungarian Hot Dogs," which were the subject of multiple M*A*S*H episodes.
Pennsylvania
There are several variety of local dog recipes in Pennsylvania. In Philadelphia, street vendors sell hot dogs that can be topped with one or more of several traditional Philadelphia toppings: ketchup, mustard (yellow and/or spicy brown), chopped onion (cooked/soft or raw), relish, and (without exception) sauerkraut. In the Lehigh Valley region of Pennsylvania, there is regional Yocco's Hot Dogs, which maintains four locations in the region.
Various shops and butchers in Pennsylvania make traditional German natural casing franks. Altoona, Pennsylvania has two remaining Texas Hot Dog stands that claim a legacy going back to 1918. The Texas Tommy was invented in Pottstown, Pennsylvania, and is prepared with bacon and cheese.
Rhode Island
The hot wiener or New York System wiener is a staple of the food culture of Rhode Island.
Virginia
The Norfolk hot dog is a hot dog popular in Norfolk, Virginia. It is served with Lynnhaven mustard, onions and meat sauce.
Washington (state)
In Seattle, hot dogs are served with cream cheese and grilled onions on a toasted bun. The sausages are split in half and grilled before being put in the bun. Stands offer a variety of condiments, such as Sriracha sauce and jalapeños.
Washington, D.C.
Washington, D.C. is home to the half-smoke, a half beef, half pork sausage that is both grilled and smoked. A half-smoke is often placed into a hotdog-style bun and topped with chili, cheese, onions, and mustard, similar to a chili dog. Among the famous half-smoke restaurants in the Washington area include Ben's Chili Bowl, which is a cultural landmark, as well as Weenie Beenie in Arlington, Virginia.
West Virginia
A hot dog with a chili sauce made with finely ground meat, chopped fresh onions, coleslaw and yellow mustard. "Even more telling is the nature of the chili on each. This is not your mama’s bowl chili with chunks of meat and arguable accouterments like beans, tomatoes, peppers and, Lord help us, sometimes spaghetti. Chili Bun Chili is a finely grained aggregate of ground beef, spices and something to make it all hold together in the bun."
Canada
The Whistle Dog is served by some A&W restaurants in Canada. A whistle dog is a hot dog that has been split and served with processed cheese, bacon, and relish.
Montreal
A Montreal-style hot dog, as popularized by numerous shops such as the famous Montreal Pool Room, is either steamed or griddle fried (nicknamed steamies or toasties, respectively). It is generally served topped with coleslaw, onion, relish and mustard; ketchup, mayonnaise and occasionally paprika or chili powder may be added at a condiment counter by the customer. Due to the bilingual nature of Montreal street culture, these are usually ordered, and condiments named, in Franglais. Montreal hot dogs can be found throughout Eastern Canada and the United States.
Latin America
Brazil
In 1926, the Spanish entrepreneur in Brazil and founder of Cinelândia, , began selling (lit. "hot dog") at his cinemas. It inspired Lamartine Babo and Ary Barroso to create the song "Cachorro-Quente," a marchinha de carnaval. In the period following World War II, as Brazil came under considerable US cultural influence, the came to cement its position in Brazil.
In the State of Piauí in the Northeast region of Brazil, the hot dog is made from a long and soft bread cut in half. Its flavorings vary in the cafeterias of the region, the most found are: sausage topped with spicy sauce, meat, corn green Lint and slices of melted cheese.
Chile
In Chile, there is a popular variation called completo (Spanish for "complete", "full") which, besides bread and sausages, can be made up of mashed avocado, chopped tomatoes, mayonnaise, sauerkraut, salsa Americana, Chilean chili, green sauce and cheese. Its size can be twice that of an American hot dog.
Guatemala
In Guatemala shucos are sold across the country, especially in the country's capital, Guatemala City. Shucos are usually served with guacamole, boiled cabbage, mayonnaise, mustard, and an assorted choice of meats. Chopped onions are added by a decent amount of shuqueros (hot dog vendors) across Guatemala City and Antigua. The most popular choices of meats are sausage, chorizo (red sausage), salami, longaniza (white sausage), and bacon. They are cooked in a charcoal grill and hot sauce is offered at customer's request.
Mexico
The Sonoran hot dog, originating from Hermosillo, Sonora, is a hot dog wrapped in mesquite-smoked bacon, cooked on a grill or on a griddle or comal, then topped with pinto beans, onions, tomatoes, mayonnaise, mustard and jalapeño salsa or sauce, and served on a bolillo roll, often with a side of fresh-roasted chili pepper.
Asia
Japan
In Japan, hot dogs are used in bento boxes and are often sliced to resemble an octopus. More conventional hot dogs are also available, either on a stick (with or without a coating) or on a bun. Japanese Fusion Dogs, such as those sold at the Vancouver-based chain Japadog, are not actually from Japan but are a Pacific Northwest invention that pairs hot dogs with Japanese and Asian condiments like wasabi, kimchi and teriyaki.
Malaysia
In October 2016 the Malaysian Islamic Development Department ruled that hot dog vendors must rename their product or risk not getting halal certification, because in Islam dogs are considered unclean. The Malaysian Tourism and Culture Minister criticized the ruling and said, "Even in Malay it's called hot dog — it's been around for so many years. I'm a Muslim and I'm not offended."
Philippines
In the Philippines, hot dogs are eaten as is, in a bun with an optional selection of condiments, or with rice and condiments. Hot dogs are also typically served during breakfast. They are also skewered and grilled over coals, and sold as street food. Skewered waffle hot dogs are also available in the country (a local variant having the hot dogs coated in hotcake batter and then deep-fried). Chopped hot dogs are an ingredient in Filipino spaghetti. They are also used in various other dishes (e.g. as a filling in an embutido, as sliced pieces of meat in tomato-based savories such as caldereta or menudo, etc.).
South Korea
A popular South Korean form of the hot dog, sold at street stalls, fairs, and some fast-food restaurants, involves the placing of the sausage on a stick, followed by a batter of some kind, and sometimes including french fries in the batter. They more resemble a corn dog than a hot dog. Ketchup is a common condiment, and occasionally mustard. Hot dogs in a bun or wrapped in bread are also widely available, or on a stick without a bun.
Taiwan
Taiwanese style hot dogs are put on a bun or without a bun on a stick. In night markets, meat sausages are sometimes wrapped with an outer sticky rice sausage in a snack called small sausage in large sausage.
Thailand
Hot dogs (; ; ) are very popular in Thailand and are also used in various ways in Thai cuisine. It can be sold inside a bun similar to a standard American hot dog but instead of tomato ketchup, they are also often eaten with a sweet tomato-chili sauce. Very popular are street vendors selling hot dogs which have been deep-fried or charcoal grilled. They are served with either a sweet, slightly spicy sauce (nam chim wan) or a very spicy sauce (nam chim phet). Hot dogs can also be used as a filling for a croissant which are served with mayonnaise. Hot dogs are even used as a filling for raisin bread together with shredded dried pork. The Thai dish called khao phat Amerikan or American fried rice, rice fried with tomato ketchup and containing raisins, is always served with hot dogs and a fried egg. Donut sai krok is the Thai name for a sausage filled savoury donut in the shape of a log. Hot dog sausages also feature as an ingredient, together with onion, celery or coriander (cilantro) leaves, lime juice, fish sauce and chili peppers, for a Thai salad called yam hot dok. Another dish that uses hot dogs is called khanom Tokiao (lit. 'Tokyo cake'). This is a Thai style crêpe which is wrapped around a filling of hot dog and sweet chili sauce. The chili sauce can also be served on the side.
Europe
Czech Republic
Hot dogs in the Czech Republic are known as párek v rohlíku, which can be literally translated as "sausage in roll", with the label "hot dog" also applied in marketing to both locals and tourists. Czech-style hot dogs are differentiated by the fact that rather than slicing the bun in half and placing the sausage into the resultant cleavage, the top of the bun is cut off, with a hole punched into the softer inside of the bun where condiments and then the sausage is placed, similar to the Ketwurst. Specially designed appliances (stroj na párek v rohlíku, literally appliance for sausage in bun) that consist of a hot-water cooker for the sausages and heated metal spikes to punch the holes and pre-warm the buns also exist to assist vendors with preparation of this dish.
Denmark
The Danish-style hot dog has spread to the other Scandinavian countries as well as Germany. Steff Houlberg/Tulip corporation operates 4300 hot dog stands in Denmark alone, and has also opened a chain in Korea, Japan, and China.
Germany
Even though the type of sausage that led to the creation of the modern hot dog in the United States is undeniably German, German hot dog culture is mainly influenced by Scandinavian—mostly Danish—elements. This does not affect the type of sausage (unlike the Danish rød pølse, German hot dogs usually have frankfurt- or wiener-style sausages) but the condiments—ketchup, mustard or Danish-style remoulade depending on individual preference as well as roasted onions and thinly sliced pickles—are usually marketed as a Danish influence. While sauerkraut is a common, distinctively German, topping in the US, it is not typical in Germany. Grilling the sausage, which is common in America, is largely unknown in Germany where it is steamed like its Scandinavian counterparts.
Iceland
The Iceland Monitor writes that "locals, expatriates and holiday-makers alike must all be familiar with Iceland’s national dish—hot-dogs with all the trimmings (‘pylsa með öllu’ in Icelandic). The hot-dog sausage is served in bread and liberally accompanied with fried onion, raw onion, mustard, ketchup and remoulade (a cold sauce made with mayonnaise and various condiments and herbs). This delicious snack is traditionally washed down with copious amounts of Coca-Cola."
In August 2006, the British newspaper The Guardian selected Iceland's Bæjarins beztu as the best hot dog stand in Europe. Bæjarins beztu pylsur (English: The best hot dog in town) often shortened to simply "Bæjarins beztu," is a popular hot dog stand in central Reykjavík. Hot dogs from this stand are derived from the Danish hot dog. They are often ordered with "the works," i.e., all condiments, or in Icelandic "eina með öllu". Icelandic hot dogs are made from Icelandic lamb, pork and beef and served with a mix of raw white and fried onion, ketchup, sweet brown mustard, and remoulade.
Norway
In Norway, sausages are most often served in white buns, or in a traditional lompe. The sausages are grilled or warmed in hot water, and they are normally served with ketchup or mustard. Alternative condiments includes potato salad, shrimp salad, fried or raw onions. Many Norwegians will order "pølse med alt", a hot dog with all the condiments. Local specialties occur, such as reindeer dogs in the north and hot dogs served in a waffle in the south east.
Sweden
In Sweden hot dogs are served in a bread and topped with mustard and ketchup, additional toppings include roasted onion, shrimp salad, bostongurka or mashed potatoes, the latter goes by the name of "Halv Special" (half special). "Varmkorv med bröd" (hot dog with bread) is widely sold all over Sweden at most street corners from stands and in kiosks and fast food restaurants.
Ukraine
In Ukraine beside more classic hot dogs there is a variation called slow-dog. Different types of boiled sausages served in a partially sliced brioche or malt bread with various toppings, such as beetroot, salt and vinegar flavoured potato chips, chili peppers, paprika, lettuce, cucumber, buckwheat popcorn, hazelnut rusk, and sauces.
United Kingdom
Genuine "hot dogs" in the American style are very popular in US-themed restaurants, amusement parks and in particular, at cinemas, and one can even find specialist 'gourmet' hot dog and champagne establishments in cities such as London.
See also
Cheese dog
Chili dog
List of hot dogs
List of hot dog restaurants
List of sandwiches
List of sausage dishes
World's longest hot dog
References
Further reading
Christoff, Chris (April 1, 2014). "Detroit’s Coney Island Hot Dogs Are Edible Solace for City". Bloomberg.
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Yung, Katherine and Joe Grimm (2012). Coney Detroit. Detroit, Michigan: Wayne State University Press. .
Lists of foods
Hot dogs
World cuisine |
4443158 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander%20Sauli | Alexander Sauli | Alexander (Alessandro) Sauli, C.R.S.P. (15 February 1534 – 11 October 1592) was an Italian priest who is called the "Apostle of Corsica". He is a saint of the Roman Catholic Church. In 1571, he was appointed by Pius V to the ancient see of Aléria, Corsica, where he rebuilt churches, founded colleges and seminaries, and, despite the depredations of corsairs, placed the Church in a flourishing condition.
In 1591, he was made Bishop of Pavia, and died at Calosso the following year. He left a number of works, chiefly catechetical. He was beatified by Benedict XIV, 23 April 1742, and canonized by Pope Pius X, 11 December 1904. His feast is celebrated on October 11.
Early life
Sauli was born in Milan, on February 15, 1534, to an illustrious Lombard family. His parents were Dominic and Tommasina Spinola Sauli. His father was Marquis of Pozzuolo in the territory of Tortona and an assistant to Duke Francesco II Sforza. The marquis was esteemed by the emperor, who was then president of the High Court of Milan. Both of his parents were from ancient and noble families of Genoa. This social status offered Alexander a great opportunity for a prestigious and brilliant career. He was well-educated at Pavia. In 1551, at the age of 17, Sauli became a page at the court of Emperor Charles V in Milan.
Religious formation
At the age of seventeen, Alexander asked to be admitted to the Congregation of the Barnabites. At this time the Congregation was experiencing the precariousness of its beginnings, extreme poverty, and harsh trials. It had been expelled from the Republic of Venice only two months before. The Fathers advised Alexander to consider other religious congregations, such as the Dominicans, the Franciscans, and the Capuchins, rich with members outstanding in holiness and wisdom.
On Saturday, 17 May 1551, the Vigil of Pentecost, the Barnabites asked young Sauli to carry a large cross through the streets of Milan, dressed as an imperial page, and to preach in public about the love for God and the renunciation of the world. This would give them an indication whether or not his choice was authentic. With the heavy cross on his shoulders, he crossed the city. When he reached the square called Piazza dei Mercanti, he asked a vendor for his stand. He erected the cross on it, and with great fervor he addressed the crowd about the worship of God and the love of neighbor. When Sauli returned to the Barnabite residence after performing this charge, he was received as a postulant.
At first Sauli was assigned to help the sacristans. On the feast of the Assumption of Mary, August 15, 1551, Sauli received the religious habit and started his three years of novitiate. At a subsequent Chapter Sauli was criticized for ineptitude in his work in the sacristy, his bourgeois attitude, his lukewarmness, and many other things. The minutes were written by a Father Raimondi, who may have disliked Sauli's somewhat open and easy going nature.
In October 1552, he took part in the many sessions during which the first Constitutions of the Order were discussed and finally approved. During the second year of novitiate, Alexander was allowed to follow regular theological studies at the Franciscan Friary of St. Mary of Peace, not far from St. Barnabas. He professed his vows on September 29, 1554. He continued his formation program until April 26, 1556, when the Fathers felt he was mature enough to be removed from the discipline of the novitiate, and was appointed the community librarian. On December 22, 1554, he received the subdiaconate and ordination to the diaconate on June 8, 1555. Due to his young age he had to wait for a special dispensation for the priestly ordination, which took place on March 21, 1556, when he was 22.
First ministry in Pavia
When the Grand Duke Gian Galeazzo Sforza became seriously ill, his mother, Bona of Savoy, and his wife, Isabella of Naples, made a vow that if he should get well, they would build a church in Pavia in honor of the miraculous image of the Virgin Mary painted on a wall of the Canepanova palace. The duke recovered, and the church, designed by Bramante was built. The Barnabites were approached to staffed it. This would be the first house of the Order after the establishment of the Motherhouse of St. Barnabas in 1547. Since Sauli was very familiar with the city and the university, he was assigned there as a preacher, and was soon joined by his two Masters, Besozzi and Omodei.
Sauli dedicated himself to pastoral work and encouraged frequent communion and the Forty Hours devotion, He founded schools for religious instructions, offered the people lectures on the Letters of St. Paul, and organized groups at the university. Students asked Sauli for help in their studies. In response he created something of an independent department called an "academy". On February 2, 1560, Sauli celebrated the opening Mass of the Holy Spirit and started weekly conferences on St. Paul and daily repetitions of the university subjects which were divided in three groups: theology, philosophy (or medicine) and law. The teaching was geared to the intelligence and ability of each student, widening their interest to other subjects. He gave ample space to disputes, knowing how well the students would prepare themselves, thereby acquiring self-confidence while clarifying the ideas they were presenting.
Seeing the success that Sauli was having, the Barnabites did not hesitate to open a house of studies for their seminarians, although open to other seminarians and lay people as well. Sauli gave daily classes in theology and philosophy. His method again was innovative. In presenting Aristotle he used the original Greek version avoiding the poor Latin translation of the time and he himself prepared a lexicon to better understand the terminology. In theology, Thomas Aquinas was a requirement, and the students used to say that, if the text of the Summa were to get lost, it was no problem because Sauli knew it by heart. St. Thomas was integrated with St. Bonaventure, the Fathers of the Church, especially St. John Chrysostom and St. Gregory the Great, and contemporary authors such as Savonarola.
How innovative Sauli was is shown by the subsidiary subjects that he introduced, such as geometry which "makes the heart attentive and orderly", and law, so that the students could protect themselves in a world engulfed in never ending legal battles. For the Law of the Church, it was Sauli who suggested to his friend Marcantonio Cucci the preparation of a systematic and well organized exposition of all church laws which was published in 1565 after being revised by him.
Until now Sauli had no official degree of any kind, although he received the Bachelor's degree through a public dispute that he held, between 30 May and 1 June 1560, on 150 theological theses. This was dedicated to Pierpaolo Arrigoni, then the President of the Senate of Milan. The rector of the "Artists" (philosophers and doctors), had offered him a chair of philosophy at the university, but the superior, Besozzi, declined without even notifying Sauli. The Barnabites were concerned that such a position would lead to vain-glory, and to the ruin of their characteristic humility. In any event, in 1562 Sauli had to substitute for Philip Zaffiro, professor of philosophy, lecturing for a semester on the second book of the De Anima. His success and the public’s demand convinced the Fathers to allow him to pursue an official degree.
The Academic Senate dispensed him from the private examination, usually done to test the preparation of a candidate, and for the public exam they allowed him only half a day instead of the customary full day. The subjects selected at random for his exam were: in philosophy, The unity of the creating principle by Peter Lombard and, in theology, the De sacramentis in genere. As a sign of distinction, the examiners were only senior professors. It was his mentor Anthony Aosta, Minister General of the Conventual Franciscan friars, who bestowed on him the doctoral insignia according to tradition: books at first entrusted to him closed, and then opened to symbolize an ongoing need for further studies and renewal, the black hat, symbol of theology, and a golden ring on the right hand, followed by the kiss of peace and a blessing.
After his graduation on May 28, 1563, he became a member of the College of Professors of Theology, teaching philosophy and theology. He was also entrusted with teaching in church the Epistles of St. Paul. He attracted a vast audience, including noted preachers of the day, but Sauli did not follow the career of the pulpit.
Three years later he became dean.
Instead of a permanent job at the university, Sauli preferred to concentrate on the private school of the Order. The Bishop of Pavia, Ippolito de' Rossi had made him his private theologian, examiner of the clergy, lector for the cases of conscience, and an associate for pastoral visits. At the University he participated in the meetings of the professors of theology, gave special lectures and worked on the revision of books.
In the house of studies, Sauli concentrated on the preparation of a complete curricula. He had the gift "for easy explanation. In few words he could present his thought very well. It did not matter how intellectual or difficult they might be", Fr. Bellarmino testified at the Apostolic Process. Books at the time were very scarce, so he republished Savonarola's "Confessionale," adapting it to the documents of the Council of Trent, published a treatise on Marriage, an Enchiridion for professors and for those to be ordained, a manual for "Moral Decisions". He published all of them anonymously, but in the second edition De Rossi revealed the name of the true author.
One of Sauli's unique gifts as a professor was that he allowed room for new and fresher minds. In 1563, he gave his philosophy chair to Basilio Bonfanti, a young cleric who already spoke perfect Latin, Greek and Hebrew. Two years later Sauli was his mentor in Bonfanti's public defense of his 200 philosophical and theological theses, which Bonfanti dedicated to Alexander's father, Dominic Sauli, who, from his house in Pavia, was following with great pride his son's progress. The year before, he had donated to the Barnabites his rich and private library.
Superior General (1566–1569)
In 1567 Sauli was elected superior-general of the congregation. Orazio Premoli, in the biography he wrote in 1904, when Sauli was canonized, said: "As he was, at the young age of 33, elected Superior General of a Religious Congregation, whose members were somewhat elderly, he understood right away that ...To be superior meant for him first of all to lead in the rigorous observance of the Rule, and to be heroically faithful to the vows."
On August 5 he had an unpleasant surprise as Attilio Gritti, a gentleman from Novara, presented himself with pontifical documents claiming possession of the Church and House of St. Barnabas. Sauli immediately contested the claim and the validity of the documents, since Gritti's uncle had donated the church and the house to the Barnabites at the time of Pope Paul III. He entrusted the case into the hands of Charles Borromeo, the Archbishop of Milan, who obtained from Pope Pius IV the resolution of the case.
As a good canon lawyer he made sure that all regulations would comply with the new guidelines emerging from the Council of Trent. In 1568 he called an extraordinary Chapter to deal with the Divine Office. The congregation had adopted the Quinones version of the breviary to be sung in recto tono. In 1568 Pope Pius V published the new breviary eliminating all previous editions. The Chapter (September 10–15) adopted the new breviary, keeping the recto tono recitation.
He wrote rules for the novices and gave guidelines for the curriculum of sacred and profane studies, and for preaching. Sauli was in charge of the monastery of the Angelic Sisters of St. Paul, and of the "Submitted to the Crucified Lord," to whom he gave regular conferences, and with whom he kept regular correspondence even from Corsica. When in 1554 the Countess Torelli left the Angelics, taking with her whatever benefits had been given to the monastery, they survived through the generosity of Julia Sfondrati, but with great tension between the two ladies. Borromeo asked Sauli for the Angelic Sisters of St Paul, and the Jesuit Leonetto Clavonio for the Torelli, to resolve the controversy.
In April 1569, the Bishop of Vicenza, through the recommendation of Borromeo, tried to convince the Barnabites to return to his city for the reformation of the monasteries. Sauli answered, "Yes, on condition that the Serenissima (Venice) will revoke the ban of 1552." Venice's answer was that by now the whole thing had been forgotten, so that they were welcomed back to the Republic. Alexander did not accept those conditions, but in deference to the bishop, he sent over Fr. Berna for a few months.
Sauli's term as Superior General was a period of true renewal for the Order, renewal to be carried out fully by St. Charles. After the shock of 1552 everything was renewed: better structures, rekindling of the original fervor, the members were reinforced with much better quality. Some of those who had left came back to St. Barnabas. The apostolate expanded to new foundations. Sauli is regarded as the "second Founder" because he gave new vigor to the Order.
The co-operator of St. Charles Borromeo
Sauli was invited by Charles Borromeo to preach at the cathedral in Milan, where he made a great impression on both Borromeo and the future Pope Gregory XIV. Sauli participated in the first synod of the Archdiocese of Milan and in the first Provincial Council was entrusted with various tasks by Borromeo. As Superior General of the Barnabites, Sauli became part of Borromeo's circle of friends. Almost daily he was consulted for his wisdom and prudence. Some of the Barnabites complained that they had elected a Superior General, not the cardinal's secretary. But senior members of the Order did not mind at all, because this forced the small congregation to come out of the shell in which it had been hiding since their expulsion from Venice. The archbishop was very impartial in calling on all the Barnabites, according to their activities and talents, for specific cases to be resolved.
The altar of the Sacred Heart holds the reliquary donated to him by Borromeo.
Once a month, Borromeo found refuge at the House of St. Barnabas. Moreover, he spent the whole Holy Week with the Community. At first he used Sauli for delicate and secret missions, such as peace among spouses and families, and delicate cases of conscience. He immediately noticed his prudence and common sense, such as when he wanted to reduce the grate of the Monastery of St. Martha. The nuns rebelled, and Sauli counselled him to leave them alone "because it is not really important if the parlor is made one way or the other."
Sauli showed a great balance in his judgment and decision making passing over secondary items to reach the core of the issue. It was characteristic of him. From Mantua Borromeo asked the Fathers of St. Barnabas to send him someone for a general confession. Fr. Sauli was sent, which made St. Charles exclaim: "They have sent me the Superior himself, to my great satisfaction." From then on the two became like one soul, and later St. Charles said: "From then on I almost started a new course in my spiritual life not taking into consideration at all my previous accomplishments." A particular episode shows their intimacy. When St. Charles miraculously escaped an attempt on his life, he questioned Fr. Sauli: "What spiritual benefit should 1 draw for my soul from it," and Fr. Sauli answered: "To humble yourself and reflect if God has allowed it in punishment for some of your defects," and then frankly questioned him if he was ready to face God's judgment.
In 1568, during the long stay of Borromeo in Mantua, and while the Vicar General, Castelli, was hiding in St. Barnabas, Sauli was to all practical purposes the administrator of the archdiocese, as proved from the long list of practical decisions taken by him as shown in the correspondence between the two. The Second Diocesan Synod of 1569 was completely readied in St. Barnabas.
At one point Borromeo sought to both resolve once and for all the chronic poverty of the congregation, and to reform the Order of the Humiliates, who were absolutely averse to any kind of reform. He wanted to merge the two orders. Sauli opposed this because the union would have been an endless source of internal conflict. This would also have doubled the size of the order, making it practically ungovernable, since the Humiliates did not believe in the need for reform. Borromeo tried an intervention from Rome, but Pope Pius V, well aware of the conditions of the friars, understood Sauli's objections. When Friar Jerome Donati made the famous attempt on Borromemo's life, the Pope suppressed the Order once and for all with a decree signed on 8 February 1571. By that time Sauli was in Corsica.
With great regret Bishop Sauli could not attend Borromeo's funeral, but he furnished Fr. Besozzi with many insights and episodes for the publication of his biography, "because," he wrote from Campoloro on June 8, 1585, "until 1570 I too can say many things, since that Holy Soul has communicated to me the most important things that have happened to him."
Bishop
In 1571, he was appointed by Pius V to the ancient see of Aleria, Corsica, where the state of the Roman Catholic Church was deplorable.
In a letter to the Doge of Genoa, Cardinal Cicada wrote: "This morning February 10, 1570, in a Consistory, the Pope has provided for the Church of Aleria in the person of the Rev. Alexander Sauli, as His Holiness has great trust in the virtues and goodness of this priest for the reformation of the religious and good customs of this island. May the good Lord bring to fruition the pious intentions of His Holiness, who has been motivated by no other aim but the service of God and the salvation of souls, according to the good reports he has received about him, although he has never met or known him."
In Milan the news caused great unrest among the Barnabites who protested, "We have no one who equals him. We have few among us, whom either age does not qualify for active duty, or youth in consequence of their want of experience, does not render unfit for the government of others."
They sought Cardinal Borromeo's help to avert such a disaster. He wrote to his man in Rome, Msgr. Ormaneto: "Having notified the Superior of St. Barnabas about the decision of Our Lord to give him the care of the Church ofAleria in Corsica, he, for the humble esteem of himself, has stated not to be qualified: which I do not agree with, as I know very well his qualifications.... Meanwhile I cannot avoid to present to His Holiness the great worry of the old Fathers of this Congregation, whom I have notified about it.... because of the great damage coming to their Congregation with the loss of this man, as it relies on his prudent government with great help from his knowledge, in which, truthfully, there is no equal; ... Then, I know too how the city at large will suffer because of it, since the Superior is very useful to it in so many ways, such as conferences and confessions, and other spiritual services, and his prudent counsel, of which I avail myself regularly. If, then, Our Lord believes that he will render greater service to God in his new vocation, he is a son of obedience."
To prepare himself to follow God's will, together with St. Charles, Fr. Sauli went to the Carthusian abbey in Carignano for a retreat. Writing to his father, Alexander stated: "The effort I have endured here as Superior General seems to me like roses in comparison with what I am starting to experience as a Bishop."
The ceremony took place in the Cathedral of Milan on March 12. Sauli was consecrated bishop by his friend, Cardinal Borromeo of Milan, with Ippolito de Rossi, Bishop of Pavia, and Federico Comer, Bishop of Bergamo, as concelebrants. St. Charles provided and donated to him all the Episcopal vestments.
Apostle of Corsica (1570–1590)
Corsica had not seen a bishop in 70 years, and in many ways had fallen into a pitiful condition. Pope Pius V had advised him to bring along to Aléria at least a dozen confreres to help him. But the community could afford only four: three priests, Vincent Corti, Thomas Gambaldi, Francis Stauli, and one Brother, John Battista.
At the end of April 1570, Sauli, his four confreres and a few servants landed in Corsica. The first impact was very harsh because the episcopal residence had been destroyed during the war. Seminaries did not yet exist, and in Corsica there were no schools or universities. Only a few priests could be educated in the main land, while the others were learned a little from those who knew a little more.
On May 18, 1570, the new Bishop wrote to Cardinal Borromeo in Milan describing the deplorable conditions:
Most Reverend and honorable my Lord:
It has pleased the Divine Majesty to allow me to reach safe and sound Corsica, and I feel obliged to send you, my reverend greetings and give you news about conditions of my Church of Aleria. ...as I reached Bastia, I had to stop therefore ten days to get the provisions... During that time I received the visit of many of the priests of my diocese. I did not find one who knows Latin, rather many do not even know how to write. I leave to your Illustrious Lordship, to imagine the moral situation here in Corsica, where for a long time there have been wars, where the Bishops did not usually reside in their diocese. My episcopal residence had been the sea and habitation of the guerrilla fighter, Sampiero the Corso, and it has registered more tumults and rebellions than any other section of the island.
I am still in Corte, a devastated area and in ruins. The Fathers of St. Francis have prepared for me two little rooms... Nor can I think to stay here, because the Friars have told me that my overstay would cause too much disturbance in their regular observance; and it seems to me that they are right, because there is a continuous come and go of people, and if any one wishes to come to my room, he is forced to cross through the Friars’ refectory.
What really worries me is that the town is in such ruins and devastation that I am not able to find, what should I say, a house for eighteen people between servants and Fathers that I am taking with me by order of His Holiness, where even two can live. Nor do I have the possibility to build, myself a room, in the Capuchin style, as I have intention to do next year, if God keeps me in life, due to the many expenses I have to face.
During the year I will take residence in Bastia, where I think to stay until harvest time, since in the present moment there is great scarcity. Then I will start the pastoral visit ...I will try always to keep with me some of the priests to instruct them, in the vernacular, the most necessary things about the administration of the Sacraments, and the salvation of souls.
...I close kissing the hands of your Lordship and declare myself a very devout servant. May the Lord God keep you.
From Corte, May 18, 1570.
Your Lordship and reverend devout servant, the Bishop of Aleria
He established himself in precarious and humble dwellings and started immediately the visitation of the whole Diocese, entailing great and severe sacrifices, to bring to all the Word of God "like a beneficial rain that the good Lord sends on a field for long time arid and destroyed." By the end of August he was able to hold a synod with 150 priests present to set up rules and regulations.
The synod became an annual event of three days. Albert Grozio, the Bishop's secretary wrote: "He took advantage of these days to live heart to heart with his priests who were invited, if they wanted, to live with him at his own expenses. He ate with them, talked with each one of them, and was generous in his charity. To instruct them he used to create cases of conscience, going over liturgical formulas, dogmatic or moral principles, and counciliar and ecclesiastical documents. At the end of the synod most of the priests had to face a most arduous trip back home, so he used to prepare for them and their laity, abundant provisions, giving them horses, wine, or whatever could be useful for the trip."
With the passing years he provided his clergy with various booklets of instructions including a simplified edition of the Roman catechism so much praised by St. Francis de Sales.
In the following years he often changed residence to be able to have a good knowledge of his people. He founded a seminary in Bastia, and he dedicated himself to all, in spite of his sickness, like malaria and high fever, which few times brought him to the point of death. He transferred his see to escape the malaria-ridden swamplands around Aléria to Cervione, where, in 1578, he built the Cathedrale St-Erasme.
The factional enmity, the famines, and droughts very much tested Alexander's charity. The pacification of vendettas was a significant part of his pastoral activity. One individual made an attempt on his life. Due to his efforts to end the violence, the people called him "The Angel of Peace".
From letters written when Sauli was appointed a bishop, it seems that Borromeo thought that he would be wasted in Corsica, and tried on various occasions to have him transferred back to his province, always crashing against Sauli's humility, who wanted to "leave his bones in Corsica."
The Corsicans thought to be able to keep him for life. When the news reached them that the Republic of Genoa wanted him to be the coadjutor of the archbishop with the right of succession, they mobilized themselves. They begged the Pope and the Republic to change their decision. The letter they sent to the Pope is a long list of warm praises and Sauli was able to stay for another seven years among the Corsicans.
He corrected abuses, rebuilt churches, founded colleges and seminaries, and despite the depredations of corsairs, and the death of his comrades, he placed the Church in a flourishing condition. Because of his heroic charity, especially during the time of famine and pestilence, he was called “The Guardian Angel and Apostle of Corsica.”
Bishop of Pavia (1591–1592)
What the Corsicans feared in 1584 became a reality in 1591: Pope Gregory XIV, who in Pavia had used Alexander Sauli as his spiritual director, named him successor of Cardinal Ippolito De Rossi, as Bishop of Pavia. The nomination gave great joy to the people of Pavia, but caused tears all over Corsica, tears which accompanied the shepherd to the boat taking him to Rome.
He remained there for two weeks, spending some time in Genoa and at St. Barnabas in Milan, before taking possession of his new diocese on October 19, 1591.
The charity which had made him famous in Corsica immediately became one of his outstanding virtues also in Pavia, since a severe famine had made prices of vital items, such as wheat, climb out of reach. On the first Sunday after his entry, he celebrated a solemn pontifical Mass during which, in simple and clear words, he expressed his desire to be the father of the poor, ready to give them whatever he would receive. As a first sign of his commitment, he ordered four noblemen, and his helpers to distribute a purse with one hundred golden scuds. His action was so contagious it generated a chain reaction in generosity throughout that day, bringing the purse to a very sizeable amount.
Wanting to have a first hand knowledge of his diocese, he started a pastoral visit right away, planning to close it with a synod. He introduced and promoted the Forty Hours Devotions. He dedicated himself also to pastoral services visiting hospitals, monasteries, and schools.
Death and veneration
He left a number of works, chiefly catechetical.
Although for some time he had been sick on and off with fever, toward the end of September 1592, Sauli began the pastoral visit of his new diocese.
After presiding at the ordinations in Bursignano, he reached Colosso d'Asti on October 1, where he spent the day in preaching, catechesis, confirmations, and personal meetings. That night he became sick with fever and gout. Not wanting to disturb the local parish priest, he decided to accept the invitation of his friend, Count Ercole Roero, to stay at his castle. He died on Sunday, October 11, 1592. A few days before he had said: "Don't think that I am dying because of the efforts of this pastoral visit; be convinced that this is the hour fixed by God. If I should start all over what I have done, I would do it over again."
The body was brought to Pavia on October 14, and the next day the solemn funeral took place. His universal fame as a saint spread immediately and grew steadily. The unanimous consensus and great devotion, especially in Pavia, led, in 1623, to the initiation of the canonical process. He was beatified by Benedict XIV, 23 April 1742, and canonized by Pope Pius X, 11 December 1904. St. Alexander Sauli is the Patron of Barnabite seminarians. His feast is celebrated on October 11.
The political and religious events of the 1700s and 1800s put on trial the life of religious orders; therefore, the journey toward canonization experienced a very long pause. Anyway, after the Holy Founder reached the glory of the altar in 1897, Alexander Sauli too reached the same honor. On December 11, 1904, Pius X inscribed him among the saints of the universal Church. The two required miracles, certified and approved by a diocesan and apostolic trial, had taken place one in 1899, in Bastia, Corsica, to the 20-year-old Maria Canessa, and the other in Monza, in 1741, during the celebration of his beatification, the cure of a certain Carlo Riva who had been paralyzed for more than a year.
The Little Flowers of St. Alexander Sauli
Poetic moments of history and spiritual reality of St. Alexander taken from the Apostolic Process
Rain
“Months had passed without a drop of rain. Fearing for the harvest, the people of Cervicone begged Bishop Sauli to have a procession to obtain rain. After three days of fast, the procession took place from the Cathedral to the church of St. Francis, where the Bishop started the singing of the Litanies, and other songs, until the blue sky started to get cloudy. At that moment he started to cry, ‘Mercy!’ and the whole people joined in. After the third cry, the rain poured down. There was so much water that the people had to stay in church for three hours to wait for the rain to stop.” (Friar Sisto Negroni, p.43)
Maimed Healed
“Bartholomew of Cervicone, the treasurer of the Confraternity of the Holy Cross, stole a certain amount of money that belonged to the Confraternity. One day, he had an accident. He fell while going fishing. This left him crippled. Bishop Sauli met him one day and told him, ‘Oh, Bartholomew, you will never be healed unless you pay back your debt.’ Bartholomew, wishing to be healed, sold a piece of his chestnut wood and paid what he owed. After that, he went to confession, received communion, and asked the blessing of the Bishop. From that day on, he showed constant improvement until he was perfectly healed. I have been a personal eyewitness of these events.” (James Alfonsi, p. I08)
Half Bath
“I went once with Bishop Sauli by carriage to St. Mary in Pertica, toward Milan. We had to cross an irrigation canal called Carona. I told the coachman to go further north since the water was too deep. However, rushing carelessly, we went right into the water. The Bishop got wet to his knees. I was quick enough to raise my feet, so I got wet only to my ankles. I got mad at the coachman and scolded him. The Bishop smiled. He tried to calm me down, telling me to take things as part of the joys of life. He did so even though he was more wet than I was.” (Severino Bellingeri, p. 111)
The Best Job
“While still a cleric, I went to Pavia for the admission exam to the Holy Orders. Monsignor Sauli asked me, ‘Why have you come to Pavia?’ I answered, ‘To follow holy obedience.’ And he said, ‘Blessed are you, because your job is better than mine, which is to be a Bishop.’” (Fr. Giannambrogio Mazenta, p. 121)
Calming of a Storm
“At the end of our visit to Gregory XIII, Monsignor Sauli, Fr. Ambrose Ruottoli, Fr. Lawrenceda Corte, Fr. Cesare Fei and I left to go back to Corsica. We embarked on the boat at the port of Ripa on the Tiber and sailed on. When we reached the island of Elba, a violent storm broke out. We all thought that we would die at that time. Fr. Cesare Fei began to cry, ‘We are going to drown!’ Monsignor answered, ‘Now, we are going to die!’ Fr. Cesare replied, ‘Yes, but not like this!’ Monsignor Sauli then raised his eyes to heaven and prayed. And then he made the sign of the cross on the sea. Right away, the wind died down. We sailed on peacefully until we arrived in Bastia.” (Peter Negri, p. 61-62)
Beneficent Hurricane
“Twenty-two Turkish galleys were heading toward Campoloro after destroying Sartone and Monticello. The people started to run in panic. They brought a horse to Bishop Sauli so that he could run away. Instead, he refused and asked them all to stay calm because the Turks were not going to land. They all prayed. All of a sudden, a hurricane came. The strong wind kept the galleys from coming close to the shore. And so the galleys left without doing any damage to the place.” (Palmerino Valle, p. 113)
Parish Priest
“Three farmers from Pavia who tended some land of their church came to complain about their parish priest concerning the interest rates. Monsignor Sauli welcomed them warmly, but then admonished them for not acting well with their own parish priest. The farmers finally admitted that they had acted wrongly. They then withdrew their complaints. Afterwards, the Bishop called the parish priest, reprimanded him, and warned him not to cause anymore problems to anyone.”
(Baldassarre Landini, p. 107)
Fishers of Corals
“Once, in Solensara, the Turks assailed about sixty boats of fishers of corals. The men, about ten in each boat, swam to safety in Cervicone. As soon as he got the news, Bishop Sauli called the fishers together in church to console them. Then he fed them in his residence. He told them, ‘Dear children, eat because this belongs to you, not to the Bishop.’ The next day, he provided them with bread and money for their trip back home. I was sent by the Bishop to Bastia to prepare the dinner and transportation for those who were not from Corsica.” (Thomas Giorgi, p. 90)
Ecstasy
“One day during the Holy Week in Pavia, the Canon Fabio Bottigella accompanied Bishop Sauli to the reposition chapel. There the Bishop immersed himself in prayer. Three hours had passed, and he was still in prayer, totally unaware of the time. It was almost the time for the ceremony, but he did not move. The Cathedral was already full with people. Three times the Canon pulled his cape, but the Bishop did not move a bit. So he shouted to his ear, ‘Bishop, it is late, the people are waiting.’ Almost like coming back from another world, Bishop Sauli said, ‘Is it a lot that we have been here?’” (Thomas Giorgi, p. 74)
Legacy
In 1626 the Barnabites were called from Milan to Saint Michael Church in Vienna, where there is an altar dedicated to St. Alexander Sauli.
A sculpture, The Blessed Alesandro Sauli, made by Pierre Puget can be found in the Santa Maria Assunta church in Carignano, Genoa. A terra-cotta copy can be found at the Cleveland Museum of Art or the Saint Louis art museum.
Notes
Bibliography
Frigerio, D. (1992). Alessandro Sauli: Vescovo e Santo di Ieri e di Oggi (1534–1592). Milano: Edizione "La Voce".
1535 births
1592 deaths
Clergy from Milan
Academic staff of the University of Pavia
Bishops of Aléria
Bishops of Pavia
16th-century Italian Roman Catholic bishops
History of Corsica
Corsican saints
16th-century Christian saints
Italian Roman Catholic saints
Barnabite saints
Canonizations by Pope Pius X
Beatifications by Pope Benedict XIV |
4443802 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Flemish%20painters | List of Flemish painters | This is an incomplete list of Flemish painters, with place and date of birth and death, sorted by patronymic, and grouped according to century of birth. It includes painters such as Rubens from (or mostly active in) the Southern Netherlands, which is approximately the area of modern Flanders and modern Wallonia. Painters born later than c.1810 are in the List of Belgian painters. For painters from the Northern Netherlands (such as Rembrandt), see List of Dutch painters.
Born in the 14th century (or earlier)
Asselt, Jan van der (Ghent, ca. 1330 – Ghent, ca. 1398)
Beauneveu, André (Valenciennes, ca. – Bourges, 1402)
Broederlam, Melchior (1381–1409)
Campin, Robert, aka Master of Flémalle (Valenciennes, 1375 – Tournai, 1444)
Eyck, Hubert van (1366 – Ghent, 1426)
Eyck, Jan van (1370 – Bruges, 1441)
Limbourg brothers (Nijmegen, 1385 – France, 1416)
Malouel, Jean (Nijmegen, 1365 – Paris, 1419)
Born in the 15th century
Aertsz., Rijckaert (Wijk aan Zee, 1482 – Antwerp, 1577)
Beer, Jan de (Antwerp, 1475 – Antwerp, 1528)
Beer, Joos de (Utrecht, 1425 – Utrecht, 1593)
Bellegambe, Jehan (Douai, ca. 1470 – Douai, 1535)
Bening, Alexander (Ghent, 1415 – Bruges, 1519)
Bening, Simon (Ghent, 1483 – Bruges, 1561)
Benson, Ambrosius (Lombardy, 1484 – Bruges, 1550)
Blondeel, Lancelot (Bruges, 1498 – Bruges, 1561)
Bouts, Aelbert (Leuven, 1451 – Leuven, 1549)
Bouts, Dieric (Haarlem, 1415 – Leuven, 1475)
Bouts II, Dieric (Leuven, 1448 – Leuven, 1491)
Christus, Petrus (Baarle, 1415 – Bruges, 1476)
Cleve, Joos van (Kleef, 1485 – Antwerp, 1541)
Coter, Colijn de (Brussels, 1450 – Brussels, 1532)
Coustens, Pieter (Bruges, 1453 – Brussels, 1487)
Coxie, Michiel (Mechelen, 1499 – Mechelen, 1592)
Crabbe van Espleghem, Frans (Mechelen, 1480 – Mechelen, 1552)
David, Gerard (Oudewater, 1460 – Bruges, 1523)
Delemer, Jean (Tournai, 1440 – Brussels, 1460)
Dornicke, Jan van (Tournai, 1470 – Antwerp, 1527)
Eyck, Barthélemy de (France, 1444 – France, 1469)
Goes, Hugo van der (Ghent, 1440 – Auderghem, 1482)
Gossaert, Jan (Maubeuge, 1478 – Middelburg, 1532)
Grenier, Pasquier (Tournai, 1447 – Tournai, 1493)
Hey, Jean (Lyon, 1471 – Northern France, 1500)
Horenbout, Gerard (Ghent, 1465 – Ghent, 1541)
Horenbout, Lucas (Ghent, 1455 – London, 1544)
Isenbrant, Adriaen (Bruges, 1485 – Bruges, 1551)
Joest van Calcar, Jan (Kalkar, 1450 – Haarlem, 1519)
Juan de Flandes (Regensburg, 1465 – Palencia, 1519)
Gent, Justus van, aka Joos van Wassenhove (Ghent, 1430 – Ghent, 1490)
Lathem, Jacob van (Antwerp, 1475 – Antwerp, 1529)
Lathem, Lieven van (Gent, 1430 – Antwerp, 1493)
Liédet, Loyset (Hesdin, 1420 – Bruges, 1479)
Lieferinxe, Josse (Marseille, 1493 – Marseille, 1508)
Looz, Jean de (fl. 1509, d. 1516)
Master of Affligem (Brussels, 1500)
Master of the Antwerp Adoration (Antwerp, 1480 – Antwerp, 1520)
Master of the Legend of St. Ursula (Bruges) (Bruges, 1436 – Bruges, 1505)
Master of the Embroidered Foliage (Bruges, 1480 – Brussels, 1510)
Master of Frankfurt (1460–1520)
Master of Saint Giles (France, 1500)
Master of Hoogstraeten, (Hoogstraten, 1475 – Antwerp, 1530)
Master of the Mansi Magdalen (Antwerp, 1510 – Antwerp, 1530)
Master of the Legend of the Magdalen (Brussels, 1483 – Brussels, 1530)
Master of the Morrison Triptych (Antwerp, 1500 – Antwerp, 1510)
Master of the Legend of St. Catherine, (Brussels, 1470 – Brussels, 1500)
Master of the View of Ste-Gudule (Brussels, 1490 – Brussels, 1499)
Master of the Lille Adoration, (Antwerp, 1510 – Antwerp, 1530)
Master of the Lübeck Bible (Ghent, 1485 – Ghent, 1520)
Master of the Legend of Saint Lucy (Bruges, 1480 – Bruges, 1510)
Massijs, Quinten (Leuven, 1466 – Antwerp, 1530)
Memling, Hans (Seligenstadt, 1430 – Bruges, 1494)
Orley, Bernard van (Brussels, 1490 – Brussels, 1541)
Patinir, Joachim (Antwerp, 1480 – Antwerp, 1524)
Provoost, Jan (Mons, 1462 – Bruges, 1529)
Reymerswale, Marinus van (Reimerswaal, 1490 – Goes, 1546)
Rombouts, Jan the Elder (Leuven, ca. 1480 – Leuven, 1535)
Scorel, Jan van (Schoorl, 1495 – Utrecht, 1562)
Sittow, Michiel (Reval, 1469 – Reval, ca. 1525)
Jacob van Utrecht (Utrecht, 1479 – Antwerp, 1525)
Vrancke van der Stockt (Brussels, 1414 – Brussels, 1495)
Weyden, Goswin van der (Brussels, 1455 – Antwerp, 1543)
Weyden, Rogier van der (Tournai, 1400 – Brussels, 1464)
Willems, Jan (15th century – Leuven, 1547/1548)
Born in the 16th century
Adriaenssen, Alexander (Antwerp, 1587 – Antwerp, 1661)
Anthony van Santvoort, (Mechelen, ca. 1552 – 1600)
Alsloot, Denis van (Mechelen, 1570 – Mechelen, 1626)
Backer, Jacob de (Antwerp, 1545 – Antwerp, 1595)
Backereel, Gillis (Antwerp, 1572 – Antwerp, 1661)
Backereel, Jacques (Antwerp, 1590 – Antwerp, 1668)
Backereel, Willem (Antwerp, 1570 – Rome, 1626)
Balen, Hendrick van (Antwerp, 1575 – Antwerp, 1632)
Balten, Pieter (Antwerp, 1525 – Antwerp, 1584)
Baren, Josse van der (Leuven, between 1540 and 1560 – Leuven, between 1604 and 1624)
Beert, Osias (Antwerp, 1580 – Antwerp, 1623)
Beuckelaer, Joachim (Antwerp, 1533 – Antwerp, 1574)
Bie, Adriaen de (Lier, Belgium, 1593 – Lier, 1667)
Boels, Frans (Mechelen, ca. 1555 – Amsterdam, 1596)
Bol, Hans (Mechelen, 1534 – Amsterdam, 1593)
Bolswert, Boëtius Adamsz. (Bolsward, 1570 – Antwerp, 1633)
Borcht, Hendrik van der (Brussels, 1583 – Frankfurt, 1651)
Borcht, Pieter van der (I) (Mechelen, 1535 – Antwerp, 1608)
Bril, Matthijs (Antwerp, 1550 – Rome, 1583)
Bril, Paul (Antwerp, 1554 – Rome, 1626)
Broeck, Chrispijn van den (Mechelen, 1524 – Antwerp, 1591)
Broeck, Hendrick van den (Mechelen, 1530 – Rome, 1597)
Brueghel, Jan (Brussels, 1568 – Antwerp, 1624)
Bruegel, Pieter (Breda or Bree, 1526 – Brussels, 1569)
Brueghel, Pieter (Brussels, 1564 – Antwerp, 1638)
Calvaert, Denis (Antwerp, 1540 – Bologna, 1619)
Candid, Peter (Bruges, ca. 1548 – Munich, 1628)
Caullery, Louis de (Cambrai (Kamerrijk), 1580 – Antwerp, 1621)
Claesz., Pieter (Berchem, 1597 – Haarlem, 1660)
Clerck, Hendrik de (Brussels, 1570 – Brussels, 1630)
Cleve, Cornelis van (Antwerp, 1520 – Antwerp, 1604)
Cleve, Hendrick van III (ca. 1525 – Antwerp, 1589)
Cleve, Marten van (Antwerp, 1527 – Antwerp, 1581)
Cock, Hieronymus (Antwerp, 1518 – Antwerp, 1570)
Coebergher, Wenzel (Antwerp, 1560 – Brussels, 1634)
Coecke van Aelst, Pieter (Brussels, 1502 – Brussels, 1550)
Coignet, Gillis (Antwerp, 1542 – Antwerp, 1599)
Coignet, Gillis (1586–1647)
Collaert, Jan (Antwerp, 1525 – Antwerp, 1580)
Coster, Adam de (Mechelen, 1586 – Antwerp, 1643)
Coxie, Raphael (Mechelen, 1540 – Mechelen, 1616)
Crayer, Gaspar de (Antwerp, 1582 – Ghent, 1669)
Dalem, Cornelis van (Antwerp, 1530 – Breda, 1576)
Daniels, Andries (ca. 1580 – after 1640)
Diepenbeeck, Abraham van (Den Bosch, 1596 – Antwerp, 1675)
Dyck, Anthony van (Antwerp, 1599 – London, 1641)
Douffet, Gérard (1594–1660)
Dubois, Ambroise (1543–1614)
Eertvelt, Andries van (Antwerp, 1590 – Antwerp, 1652)
Elburcht, Jan van der (Elburg, 1500 – Antwerp, 1571)
Es, Jacob Foppens van (Antwerp, 1596 – Antwerp, 1666)
Finson, Louis (Bruges, 1580 – Amsterdam, 1617)
Floris, Frans (Antwerp, 1519 – Antwerp, 1570)
Fouquier, Jacques (Antwerp, 1590 – Paris, 1659)
Francken, Frans (Antwerp, 1581 – Antwerp, 1642)
Francken, Ambrosius (Herentals, 1544 – Antwerp, 1618)
Francken, Ambrosius (Antwerp, 1581 – Antwerp, 1632)
Francken, Hieronymus I (Antwerp, 1540 – Antwerp, 1610)
Francken, Hieronymus II (Antwerp, 1578 – Antwerp, 1623)
Francken, Frans (Antwerp, 1542 – Antwerp, 1616)
Franchoys, Lucas (Antwerp, 1574 – Antwerp, 1643)
Franckaert, Jacques (Antwerp, 1582 – Antwerp, 1651)
Galle, Cornelis (Antwerp, 1576 – Antwerp, 1650)
Geldorp, Georg (Cologne, 1590 – London, 1665)
Geldorp, Gortzius (Leuven, 1553 – Cologne, 1618)
Gheeraerts, Marcus (Bruges, 1520 – London, 1586)
Gheyn, Jacob de (Antwerp, 1565 – The Hague, 1629)
Govaerts, Abraham (Antwerp, 1589 – Antwerp, 1626)
Gracht, Gommaert van der (Mechelen, ca. 1590 – Mechelen, 1639)
Grimmer, Abel (Antwerp, 1570 – Antwerp, 1619)
Grimmer, Jacob (Antwerp, 1526 – Antwerp, 1590)
Haecht, Willem van (Antwerp, 1593 – Antwerp, 1697)
Heere, Lucas de (Ghent, 1534 – Paris, 1584)
Hemessen, Caterina van (Antwerp, 1528 – Antwerp, 1587)
Hemessen, Jan van (Hemiksem, 1500 – Haarlem, 1575)
Heyden, Jacob van der (Strasbourg, 1573 – Brussels, 1645)
Hoecke, Caspar (Antwerp, 1585 – Antwerp, 1641)
Hoefnagel, Joris (Antwerp, 1542 – Vienna, 1600)
Hulsdonck, Jacob van (Antwerp, 1582 – Antwerp, 1647)
Hulst, Pieter van der (I) (Mechelen, 1570 – Antwerp, 1627)
Huys, Pieter (Antwerp, 1519 – Antwerp, 1584)
Janssens, Abraham (Antwerp, 1570 – Antwerp, 1632)
Jode, Pieter de (Antwerp, 1570 – Antwerp, 1634)
Jordaens, Hans (Antwerp, 1555 – Delft, 1630)
Jordaens, Jacob (Antwerp, 1593 – Antwerp, 1678)
Jordaens, Hans (Delft, 1590 – Antwerp, 1643)
Kempener, Pieter de (1503–1580)
Key, Adriaen Thomasz (Antwerp, 1544 – Antwerp, 1589)
Key, Willem (Breda, 1515 – Antwerp, 1568)
Lampsonius, Dominicus (Bruges, 1532 – Liège, 1599)
Leytens, Gijsbrecht (Antwerp, 1586 – Antwerp, 1657)
Lignis, Pietro de (Mechelen, ca. 1577 – Rome, 6 April 1627)
Lombard, Lambert (Liege, 1505 – Liege, 1566)
Loon, Theodor van (Erkelenz, 1581 – Maastricht, 1649)
Malo, Vincent (Cambrai, 1595 – Rome, 1649)
Mander, Karel van (Meulebeke, 1548 – Amsterdam, 1606)
Mandijn, Jan (Haarlem, 1500 – Antwerp, 1560)
Mars, Melchior de la (ca. 1585 – 1650)
Massijs, Cornelis (1508–1580)
Master LC (fl. ca. 1525–50)
Matsys, Jan (Antwerp, 1510 – Antwerp, 1575)
Matthijs, Abraham (Antwerp, 1581 – Antwerp, 1649)
Miel, Jan (Beveren-Waas, 1599 – Turin, 1664)
Mertens, Jan (1500–1519)
Massijs, Quinten (Antwerp, 1543 – Frankfurt, 1589)
Meulen, Steven van der (Antwerp, 1520 – London, 1568)
Mijtens, Aert (Brussels, 1541 – Rome, 1602)
Mol, Peter van (1599–1650)
Momper, Joos de (Antwerp, 1564 – Antwerp, 1635)
Mont, Deodat van der (Sint-Truiden, 1582 – Antwerp, 1643)
Mostaert, Frans (Hulst, 1528 – Antwerp, 1556)
Mostaert, Gillis (Hulst, 1528 – Antwerp, 1598)
Neefs, Pieter the Elder (Antwerp, 1568 – Antwerp, 1656)
Neufchâtel, Nicolas de (1514–1567)
Noort, Adam van (Antwerp, 1561 – Antwerp, 1641)
Noort, Lambert van (Amersfoort, 1520 – Antwerp, 1571)
Peeters, Clara (Antwerp, 1580 – Antwerp, 1641)
Peeters, Maarten (Geel, ca. 1500 – Antwerp, 1566)
Pepijn, Marten (Antwerp, 1575 – Antwerp, 1642)
Plas Pieter van der (Brussels or Haarlem, ca. 1590 – Brussels, ca. 1661)
Punder, Jacob de (Mechelen, 1527 – Denmark, 1570)
Pourbus, Frans (Antwerp, 1569 – Paris, 1622)
Pourbus, Frans (Bruges, 1545 – Antwerp, 1581)
Pourbus, Pieter (Gouda, 1523 – Bruges, 1584)
Régnier, Nicolas (Maubeuge, 1588 – Venice, 1667)
Rombouts, Theodoor (Antwerp, 1597 – Antwerp, 1637)
Rijckaert, Marten (Antwerp, 1587 – Antwerp, 1631)
Rubens, Peter Paul (Antwerp, 1577 – Antwerp, 1640)
Sadeler, Aegidius (Antwerp, 1570 – Prague, 1629)
Saey, Jacobus Ferdinandus (Antwerp, 1658 – after 1726)
Sallaert, Antoon (Brussels, 1580 – Brussels, 1650)
Schut, Cornelis (Antwerp, 1597 – Antwerp, 1655)
Seghers, Daniël (Antwerp, 1590 – Antwerp, 1661)
Seghers, Gerard (Antwerp, 1591 – Antwerp, 1651)
Snayers, Peter (Antwerp, 1592 – Brussels, 1666)
Snellinck, Jan (Mechelen, 1548 – Antwerp, 1638)
Snijders, Frans (Antwerp, 1579 – Antwerp, 1657)
Soens, Jan (Den Bosch, 1547 – Parma, 1611)
Somer, Paul van (Antwerp, 1577 – London, 1622)
Spranger, Bartholomeus (Antwerp, 1546 – Prague, 1611)
Stalbemt, Adriaen van (Antwerp, 1580 – Antwerp, 1660)
Stalpaert, Pieter (Brussels, 1572 – Amsterdam, before 1639)
Steenwijck, Hendrik van (Kampen, Overijssel, 1550 – Frankfurt, 1603)
Steenwijck, Hendrik van (Antwerp, 1580 – Leiden, 1649)
Stevens, Pieter 2 (Mechelen, ca. 1567 – before 1632)
Straet, Jan van der (Bruges, 1523 – Florence, 1605)
Sustermans, Justus (Antwerp, 1597 – Florence, 1681)
Teerlinc, Levina (Bruges, 1515 – London, 1576)
Teniers, David (Antwerp, 1582 – Antwerp, 1649)
Thiry, Leonard (Fontainebleau, 1500 – Antwerp, 1550)
Toeput, Lodewijk (Antwerp, 1550 – Treviso, 1605)
Uden, Lucas van (Antwerp, 1595 – Antwerp, 1672)
Utrecht, Adriaen van (Utrecht, 1599 – Lübeck, 1652)
Valckenborch, Lucas van (Leuven, 1540 – Frankfurt, 1597)
Valckenborch, Marten van (Leuven, 1535 – Frankfurt, 1612)
Veen, Otto van (Leiden, 1556 – Brussels, 1629)
Verbeeck, Frans (Mechelen, 1520 – Mechelen, 1570)
Verhaecht, Tobias (Antwerp, 1561 – Antwerp, 1631)
Verhagen den Stommen, Hans, (ca. 1540–1545, Mechelen – ca. 1600, Antwerp)
Verwilt, Domenicus (Antwerp, 1520 – Sweden, 1565)
Vos, Cornelis de (Hulst, 1584 – Antwerp, 1651)
Vos, Maerten de (Antwerp, 1532 – Antwerp, 1603)
Vos, Paul de (Hulst, 1593 – Antwerp, 1678)
Vrancx, Sebastiaan (Antwerp, 1573 – Antwerp, 1647)
Vredeman de Vries, Hans (Leeuwarden, 1527 – Amsterdam, 1607)
Vredeman de Vries, Paul (Antwerp, 1567 – Amsterdam, 1617)
Wael, Cornelis de (Antwerp, 1592 – Rome, 1667)
Wael, Hans de (Antwerp, 1558 – Antwerp, 1633)
Wildens, Jan (Antwerp, 1595 – Antwerp, 1653)
Witte, Peter de (Bruges, 1548 – Munich, 1628)
Wolfordt, Artus (Antwerp, 1581 – Antwerp, 1641)
Born in the 17th century
Aelst, Pieter van (f Antwerp, 1644 – 1654)
Aenvanck, Theodor (Antwerp, 1633 – Antwerp, 1690)
Achtschellinck, Lucas (Brussels, 1626 – Brussels, 1698)
Andriessen, Hendrick (Antwerp, 1607 – Antwerp, 1655)
Ange, Jacques de l', also known as the Monogrammist JAD (f 1630 – 1650)
Arthois, Jacques d' (Brussels, 1613 – Brussels, 1685)
Avont, Pieter van (1600–1652)
Baellieur, Cornelis de (Antwerp, 1607 – Antwerp, 1671)
Balen, Hendrick the Younger van (Antwerp, 1623 – Antwerp, 1661)
Balen, Jan van (Antwerp, 1611 – Antwerp, 1654)
Baren, Jan Anton van der (Brussels ?, 1615 – Vienna, 1687)
Beken, Ignatius van der (Antwerp, 1689 – Antwerp, 1774)
Bie, Erasmus de (Antwerp, 1629 – Antwerp, 1675)
Bloemen, Jan Frans van (Antwerp, 1662 – Rome, 1749)
Bloemen, Norbert van (Antwerp, 1670 – Amsterdam, 1746)
Bloemen, Pieter van (Antwerp, 1657 – Antwerp, 1720)
Boeckhorst, Jan (Munster, 1604 – Antwerp, 1688)
Boel, Jan Baptist the Younger (Antwerp, between September 1643 and 4 October 1643 – Antwerp, 9 January 1689)
Boel, Peeter (Antwerp, 1626 – Paris, 1673)
Boeyermans, Theodoor (1620–1678)
Bonnecroy, Jan Baptist (Antwerp, 1618 – after 1676)
Borgraf, Diego de (Antwerp, 1618 – Puebla, ca. 1681)
Bosman, Andries (Antwerp, 1621 – Rome, ca. 1681)
Bosschaert, Jan Baptist (Antwerp, 1667 – Antwerp, 1746)
Bosschaert, Thomas Willeboirts (Bergen op Zoom, 1613 – Antwerp, 1654)
Bossche, Balthasar van den (1681–1715)
Boudewijns, Adriaen Fransz. (Brussels, 1644 – Brussels, 1719)
Bout, Pieter (Brussels, 1630 – Brussels, 1700)
Bouttats, Johann Baptiste (Antwerp, 1680s – Kingston upon Hull (?), 1743)
Bredael, Alexander van (Antwerp, 1663 – Antwerp, 1720)
Bredael, Jan Frans van (Antwerp, 1686 – Antwerp, 1750)
Bredael, Jan Pieter van II (Antwerp, 1683 – Vienna, 1735)
Bredael, Joris van (Antwerp, 1661 – Antwerp, c. 1706)
Bredael, Joseph van (Antwerp, 1688 – Paris, c. 1739)
Bredael, Peeter van (Antwerp, 1629 – Antwerp, 1718)
Breydel, Frans (1679, Antwerp – 1750, Antwerp)
Breydel, Karel (1677, Antwerp – 1733, Antwerp)
Bridt, Bernaert de (fl 1688 – 1722, Antwerp)
Brouwer, Adriaen (Oudenaarde, 1605 – Antwerp, 1638)
Brueghel, Abraham (Antwerp, 1631 – Naples, 1690)
Brueghel, Ambrosius (Antwerp, 1617 – Antwerp, 1675)
Breughel, Jan (Antwerp, 1601 – Antwerp, 1678)
Buken, Jan van (Antwerp, 1635 – Antwerp, 1690)
Caproens, Jacob (fl 1675 – 1725 in Antwerp)
Casteels, Alexander 1 (Antwerp, ca. 1635 – Antwerp, 1682–82)
Casteels, Alexander 2 (Antwerp, 1645/1665 – Antwerp, after 1716)
Casteels, Gonzales Franciscus (? – Antwerp, after 1709)
Casteels, Pauwels (Antwerp, ca. 1625– Antwerp, after 1677)
Casteels, Peter Frans (fl. 1673–1700)
Casteels, Pieter II (fl. 1673–1701)
Casteels, Pieter III (1684–1749)
Cave, Nicolaes (fl 1619 – Antwerp, 1651)
Champaigne, Jean Baptiste de (Brussels, 1631 – Paris, 1680)
Champaigne, Philippe de (Brussels, 1602 – Paris, 1673)
Claessens, Artus (fl 1625 – 1644)
Coignet, Michiel (1618–1663)
Coninck, David de (Antwerp, 1642 – Brussels, 1701)
Coosemans, Alexander (Antwerp, 1627 – Antwerp, 1689)
Coques, Gonzales (Antwerp, 1614 – Antwerp, 1683)
Cossiers, Jan (Antwerp, 1600 – Antwerp, 1670)
Coxie, Jan Anthonie (Mechelen ca. 1660 – Milan, 1720)
Craesbeeck, Joos van (Linter, 1605 – Brussels, 1659)
Croon, Ignatius, (Mechelen, 1639 – Rome, 1667)
Crussens, Anthonie (ca. 1635 – in or after 1665)
Dalen, Jan van (I) (fl. 1632 – 1670)
Damery, Walther (Liège, 1610 – Liège, 1672)
Dandoy, Gilliam (Anwerp fl 1640 – 1654)
Deyster, Louis de (Bruges, 1646 – Bruges, 1711)
Dirven, Jan (Anwerp, 1625 – 1653)
Douw, Simon Johannes van (1630–1687)
Edelinck, Gerard (Antwerp, 1621 – Paris, 1674)
Egmont, Justus van (Leiden, 1601 – Antwerp, 1674)
Ehrenberg, Wilhelm Schubert van (1630–1687)
Ergo, Engelbert (Oudenaarde, ca. 1615 – after 1652)
Eyck, Nicolaas van (Antwerp, 1617 – Antwerp, 1679)
Falens, Carel van (1683–1733)
Flémalle, Bertholet (Liege, 1614 – Liege, 1675)
Francken, Constantijn (Antwerp, 1661 – Antwerp, 1717)
Francken, Hieronymus III (Antwerp, 1611 – Antwerp, 1671)
Francken, Frans (Antwerp, 1607 – Antwerp, 1667)
Franchoys, Lucas (Mechelen, 1616 – Mechelen, 1681)
Franchoys, Peter (Antwerp, 1606 – Antwerp, 1654)
Fromantiou, Hendrik de (Maastricht, 1633 – Potsdam, 1703)
Fruytiers, Philip (Antwerp, 1627 – 1666)
Fyt, Joannes (Antwerp, 1611 – Antwerp, 1661)
Galle, Hieronymus (Antwerp, 1625 – Antwerp, 1679)
Genoels, Abraham (Antwerp, 1640 – Antwerp, 1723)
Gillemans, Jan Pauwel (Antwerp, 1618 – Antwerp, 1675)
Godijn, Abraham (Antwerp (?), 1655/56 – (?), after 1724)
Godijn, Izaak (Antwerp, 1660 – after 1712)
Goubau, Anton (Antwerp, 1616 – Antwerp, 1698)
Gowy, Jacob Peter Gowy (Antwerp, ca. 1610 – Antwerp, after 1644 and before 1664)
Gysaerts, Gualterus (Antwerp, 1649 – Mechelen, in or after 1677)
Gysbrechts, Cornelis Norbertus (Antwerp, 1660 – Antwerp, 1703)
Halen, Peter van (Antwerp, 1612 – Antwerp, 1687)
Hamers, Franciscus (Antwerp, ca. 1657/59 – Antwerp, after 1679)
Hamers, Melchior (Antwerp, 1638 – Antwerp, 1709)
Hecke, Jan van den (Kwaremont, 1620 – Antwerp, 1684)
Heem, Jan Davidsz. de (Utrecht, 1606 – Antwerp, 1683)
Heede, Vigor van (Veurne, 1661 – Veurne, 1708)
Heem, Cornelis de (Leiden, 1631 – Antwerp, 1695)
Heil, Daniël van (Brussels, 1604 – Brussels, 1662)
Heil, Theodoor van (Brussels, 1635 – Brussels, 1691)
Helmont, Jan van (Antwerp, 1650 – between 1714 and 1734)
Helmont, Mattheus van (1623–1685)
Helmont, Zeger Jacob van (1683–1726)
Hermans, Joannes (Antwerp, ca. 1630 – ca. 1677)
Herp, Willem van (Antwerp, 1613 – Antwerp, 1677)
Herregouts, Hendrik (Mechelen, 1633 – Antwerp, 1704)
Herregouts, Jan Baptist (Roermond, c. 1646 – Bruges, 25 November 1721)
Heuvel, Antoon van den (Gent, ca. 1600 – Gent, 1677)
Hoecke, Jan van den (Antwerp, 1611 – Antwerp, 1651)
Hoecke, Robert van den (Antwerp, 1622 – Bergues-Saint-Winoc, 1668)
Hondt the Elder, Lambert de (ca. 1620 – before 10 February 1665)
Horemans, Jan Josef the Elder (Antwerp, 1682 – Antwerp, 1759)
Hulle, Anselm van (Gent, 1601 – (?) 1674/1694)
Hulsdonck, Gillis van (Antwerp 1625 – Antwerp, between 1676 and 1696)
Hulst, Pieter van der (II) ((active in Antwerp from September 1623 to 1637)
Huysmans, Cornelis (Antwerp, 1648 – Mechelen, 1727)
Ieperen, Jan Thomas van (Antwerp, 1617 – Vienna, 1673)
Immenraet, Philips Augustijn (Antwerp, 1627 – Antwerp, 1679)
Janssens, Victor Honoré (Brussels, 1658 – Brussels, 1736)
Jode, Pieter de (Antwerp, 1601 – Antwerp, 1674)
Kessel, Ferdinand van (Antwerp, 1648 – Breda, 1696)
Kessel, Jan van (Antwerp, 1626 – Antwerp, 1679)
Kessel, Jan van (Antwerp, 1654 – Madrid, 1708)
Kessel, Peter van (Antwerp, ca. 1635 – Ratzeburg, 1668)
Laemen, Christoffel Jacobsz. van der (Brussels, 1606 – Antwerp, 1651)
Lairesse, Gerard de (Liege, 1640 – Amsterdam, 1711)
Lambrechts, Jan Baptist (Antwerp, baptised 28 February 1680 – Antwerp, after 1731)
Lambrechts, Kerstiaen (? – Antwerp, 1659)
Leemput, Remee van (Antwerp, 1607 – London, 1675)
Lefebvre, Valentin (Brussels, 1642 – Venice, 1682)
Leyssens, Jacob (Antwerp, 1661 – Antwerp, 1710)
Lint, Peter van (Antwerp, 1609 – Antwerp, 1690)
Luyckx, Carstian (Antwerp, 1623 – Antwerp, 1675)
Mahu, Cornelis (Antwerp, 1613 – Antwerp, 1689)
Marlier, Philips de (probably Antwerp, ca. 1600 – Antwerp, 1668)
Mehus, Livio (Oudenaarde, 1630 – Florence, 1691)
Meiren, Jan Baptist van der (Antwerp, 1664 – Antwerp, 1746)
Mertens, Thomas (Antwerp, fl 1666–1669)
Meulen, Adam Frans van der (Brussels, 1632 – Paris, 1690)
Meulener, Pieter (Antwerp, 1602 – Antwerp, 1654)
Meurs. Balthasar van (Antwerp, ca. 1612/1619 – Antwerp, 1673/1674)
Meyssens, Joannes (Brussels, 1612 – Antwerp, 1670)
Mijn, Herman van der (Amsterdam, 1684 – London, 1741)
Millet, Jean François (Antwerp, 1642 – Paris, 1679)
Minderhout, Willem Augustin van (Antwerp, 1680 – Střílky, 1752)
Momper, Jan de (Antwerp, 16 August 1614 or 1617 – Rome, 1684/1704)
Monteyne, Jan Baptist (fl 1717 – 1718)
Morel, Jean Baptiste (Antwerp, 1662 – Brussels, 1732)
Neefs, Pieter (Antwerp, 1620 – Antwerp, 1659)
Nuemans, Egidus (fl 1650 – 1700)
Oost, Jacob van (Bruges, 1603 – Bruges, 1671)
Oosten, Izaak van (Antwerp, 1613 – Antwerp, 1661)
Orley, Richard van (Brussels, 1663 – Brussels, 1732)
Overschie, Pieter van (Antwerp, fl 1640–1672)
Paep, Thomas de (Mechelen, ca. 1628–1630 – Mechelen, 1670)
Peeters, Bonaventura (I) (Antwerp, 1614 – Antwerp, 1652)
Peeters, Catharina (Antwerp, 1615 – Antwerp, 1676)
Peeters, Gillis (Antwerp, 1612 – Antwerp, 1653)
Peeters, Jan (Antwerp, 1624 – Antwerp, 1677)
Pepijn, Katharina (baptized on 13 February 1619, Antwerp – 12 November 1688, Antwerp)
Plasschaert, Jacobus (ca. 1689 – 1765, Bruges)
Plattenberg, Matthieu van (Anwerp, 1607/1608 – Paris, 1660)
Quellinus, Erasmus (Antwerp, 1607 – Antwerp, 1678)
Quellinus, Jan Erasmus (Antwerp, 1634 – Mechelen, 1715)
Reesbroeck, Jacob van (Antwerp, baptized on 6 December 1620 – Hoogstraten, 27 February 1704)
Reyn, Jean de (Dunkirk, ca. 1610 – Dunkirk, 1678)
Rijckaert, David (Antwerp, 1612 – Antwerp, 1661)
Rijsbrack, Pieter Andreas (Paris, 1685 – London, 1748)
Rubens, Arnold Frans (Antwerp, 1687 – Antwerp, 1719)
Ruel, Johann Baptist (Antwerp, 1634 – ?, 1685 or 1715)
Schoonjans, Anthon (Antwerp, 1655 – Vienna, 1726)
Schut, Cornelis III (Antwerp, 1629 – Seville, 1685)
Siberechts, Jan (Antwerp, 1627 – London, 1703)
Smet, Wolfgang de (Leuven, 1617 – Leuven (?), 1685)
Smout, Lucas the Younger (Antwerp, 27 February 1671 – Antwerp, 8 April 1713)
Snyers, Pieter (Antwerp, 1681 – Antwerp, 1752)
Snyers, Pieter Jan (Antwerp, 1696 – Antwerp, 1757)
Son, Jan Frans van (Antwerp, 1658 – London, 1704–1711)
Son, Joris van (Antwerp, 1623 – Antwerp, 1667)
Soolmaker, Jan Frans (Antwerp, 1635 – after 1665, possibly 1686)
Spierincks, Karel Philips (Brussels, ca. 1609–1610 – Rome, 22 May 1639)
Sweerts, Michael (Brussels, 1618 – Goa, 1664)
Teniers, Abraham (Antwerp, 1629 – Antwerp, 1670)
Teniers, David (Antwerp, 1610 – Brussels, 1690)
Teniers, David (Antwerp, 1638 – Antwerp, 1685)
Thielen, Jan Philip van (Antwerp, 1618 – Antwerp, 1667)
Thielen, Maria Theresia van (Antwerp, 1640 – Antwerp, 1706)
Thijs, Pieter (Antwerp, 1624 – Antwerp, 1677)
Thulden, Theodoor van (Den Bosch, 1606 – Den Bosch, 1669)
Thys, Gysbrecht (Antwerp, baptized on 20 January 1617 – after 1661)
Tijssens, Jan Baptist the Younger (1657 – after 1723)
Tilborch, Gillis van (Brussels, 1625 – Brussels, 1678)
Vadder, Lodewijk de (Grimbergen, 1605 – Brussels, 1655)
Velde, Peter van de (Antwerp, 1634 – Antwerp, 1723)
Verbeeck, François Xaver Henri (Antwerp, 1686 – Antwerp, 1755)
Verbruggen, Pieter (Antwerp, 1615 – Antwerp, 1686)
Verendael, Nicolaes van (Antwerp, 1640 – Antwerp, 1691)
Vergouwen, Johanna (Antwerp, 1630 – Antwerp, 1714)
Vierpeyl, Jan Carel (ca. 1675 – in or after 1723)
Voet, Jacob Ferdinand (Antwerp, 1639 – Paris, 1689)
Vos, Simon de (Antwerp, 1603 – Antwerp, 1676)
Wans, Jan Baptist Martin (Antwerp, 1628 – Antwerp, 1684)
Waterloo, Anthonie (Lille, 1609 – Utrecht, 1690)
Wigans, Isaac (Antwerp, 1615 – Antwerp, ca. 1662)
Willebeeck, Peter (fl. 1632–1648)
Willemsens, Abraham (ca. 1605–1610 – Antwerp, 1672)
Wolfvoet, Victor II (Antwerp, 1612 – Antwerp, 1652)
Wouters, Frans (Lier, Belgium, 1612 – Antwerp, 1659)
Wuchters, Abraham (Antwerp, 1610 – Copenhagen, 1682)
Ykens, Catharina II (Antwerp, 1659 – ?)
Ykens, Frans (Antwerp, 1601 – Antwerp, 1693)
Born in the 18th century
Antonissen, Hendrik-Jozef (1737–1794)
Aved, Jacques André Joseph Camellot (Douai, 1702 – Paris, 1766)
Beschey, Balthasar (1708–1776)
Bossuet, Francois Antoine (1798–1889)
Cardon, Antoine (1772–1813)
Cels, Cornelis (1778–1859)
Coclers, Louis Bernard (1770–1827)
Coene, Constantinus (1780–1841)
Coene, Jean Henri de (1798–1866)
Dael, Jan Frans van (Antwerp, 1764 – Paris, 1840)
Decaisne, Henri (1799–1852)
Defrance, Leonard (1735–1805)
Denis, Simon (1755–1813)
Dorne, Frans van (Leuven, baptized on 10 April 1776 – Leuven, 30 November 1848)
Dorne, Martin van (Leuven, baptized on 22 January 1736 – Leuven, 2 May 1808)
Duvivier, Jan Bernard (Bruges, 1762 – Paris, 1837)
Eliaerts, Jan Frans (Deurne, 1761 – Antwerp, 1848)
Faes, Pieter (1750–1814)
Garemijn, Jan Antoon (Bruges, 1712 – Bruges, 1799)
Geedts, Josse-Pieter (Leuven, 1770 – Leuven, 1834)
Geedts, Laurent (Leuven, 1728 – Leuven, 1813)
Geeraerts, Martinus Josephus (1707–1791)
Geirnaert, Jozef (Eeklo, 1791 – Ghent, 1859)
Gregorius, Albert (Bruges, 1774 – Bruges, 1853)
Herreyns, Willem (1743–1827)
Horemans, Jan Josef the Younger (Antwerp, 1714 – Antwerp, 1792)
Horemans, Peter Jacob (Antwerp, 1700 – Munich, 1776)
Hulst, Jan Baptist van der (1790–1862)
Kinson, François-Joseph (Bruges, 1771 – Bruges, 1839)
Lens, Andries Cornelis (Antwerp, 1739 – Brussels, 1822)
Madou, Jean-Baptiste (Brussels, 1796 – Brussels, 1877)
Navez, François-Joseph (Charleroi, 1787 – Brussels, 1869)
Odevaere, Joseph-Denis (Bruges, 1775 – Brussels, 1830)
Ommeganck, Balthasar Paul (Antwerp, 1755 – Antwerp, 1826)
Quertenmont, Andreas Bernardus (1750–1835)
Sauvage, Piat-Joseph (Tournai, 1744 – Tournai, 1818)
Seeman, Enoch (Danzig, ca. 1694 – London, 1744)
Siclers, Engelbert van (Gent, 6 June 1725 – 24 June 1796)
Verboeckhoven, Eugène-Joseph (Warneton, 1798 – Brussels, 1881)
Verhaegen, Theodor (Mechelen, 1701 – Mechelen, 1759)
Verhaghen, Pieter Jozef (Aarschot, 1728 – Leuven, 1811)
Vermoelen, Jacob Xavier (Antwerp, ca. 1714 – Rome, 1784)
Ziesel, Georges Frederic (1756–1809)
Born in the 19th century
Maldeghem, Eugene van (Dentergem, 1813 – Elsene, 1837)
References
Flemish painters
Flemish painters |
4443957 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cartoon%20Network%20%28British%20and%20Irish%20TV%20channel%29 | Cartoon Network (British and Irish TV channel) | Cartoon Network (commonly abbreviated as CN) is a British pay television channel aimed at children which airs animated programming targeting children and young aged 6 to 12. It is run by Warner Bros. Discovery under its EMEA division. The channel primarily airs animated programming.
The channel initially launched on 17 September 1993 as a larger pan-European feed, serving the UK market along with Western and Northern Europe. In August 1999, the pan-European aspect of Cartoon Network Europe was spun-off as a new feed with an identical schedule to Cartoon Network UK (the former pan-European feed). Cartoon Network UK completely ceased being a pan-European feed on 15 October 1999, which was when it was scrambled with Videocrypt and the launch of the UK only version of TNT. The pan-European feed continued to shadow Cartoon Network UK's schedule until 2001. The pan-European feed excluded shows such as Dragon Ball Z and Angela Anaconda and were substituted, as Cartoon Network did not have the pan-European broadcasting rights to these shows, only the rights for the UK and the Netherlands.
History
Pre-launch
In October 1992, the original Cartoon Network channel was launched at CNN Center, Atlanta, US. Cartoon Network was created in response of Turner Entertainment acquiring MGM's animation library in 1986 and the acquisition of the Hanna-Barbera animation studio and cartoon library in 1991. As a result of Turner purchasing MGM's Cartoon and Film library, Warner Bros. pre-1948 content was also acquired, including early Looney Tunes and Merrie Melodies shorts. At launch in the United States, Cartoon Network had an 8,500-hour cartoon library, and it became the first channel dedicated to cartoons. In April 1993, Cartoon Network expanded into foreign markets by launching a Latin American version of Cartoon Network dubbed in both Spanish, Portuguese and English. Cartoon Network's large animation library was in high demand in Western Europe and as a response to consumer demand, Astra 1C, the satellite on which Cartoon Network broadcast on, was launched in May 1993 on board an Ariane 42L rocket from Kourou, French Guiana. Cartoon Network Europe was launched on 17 September 1993, broadcasting from London. It launched only less than 12 months after the original American version and only 16 days after Nickelodeon.
Launch (1993–1999)
Cartoon Network was originally twinned with TNT and ran from 5am until 7pm, with TNT taking over from 7pm to 5am. Sunday afternoons saw "Super Chunk", which showed back to back episodes of one show for two hours between 1pm and 3pm. Another feature was "The Longest Day", in which Cartoon Network ran for an extra four hours until 11pm in June 1994, every year beginning in 1994. This slot was dedicated to full-length cartoon movies. The first theme was the Checkerboard theme, which showed graphics from its US counterpart and lasted until 1999. The Checkerboard branding package was developed by Hatmaker Studios, now merged and part of its sister company - Corey, McPherson and Nash. Also unlike Nickelodeon, which was part of Sky Multichannels, Cartoon Network was free-to-air across Europe.
Introduction of 24-hour service
In August 1996, Cartoon Network began running for an extra two hours until 9pm, and in December 1996, along with TNT, it became a 24-hour channel. The full time version was only available on the Astra 1G satellite as the timesharing version of the channel continued to appear on analogue platforms, including on all providers in the UK. In December 1998, Cartoon Network launched as part of the Sky Digital satellite platform on the Astra 2A satellite. Also, in February 1997, Dutch cable provider A2000/KTA added the 24-hour Cartoon Network and TNT channels to its programming lineup.
From 15 November 1998, Cartoon Network was part of ITV Digital's channel package, airing 24 hours a day until the service collapsed on 1 May 2002.
Separation from Pan-European version
In October 1999, Cartoon Network officially split from the pan-European feed, this was when the shared transponder analogue feed on Astra 1C became scrambled with VideoCrypt and when the short-lived analogue UK and Ireland only version of TNT launched. Prior to this date, the European version of Cartoon Network moved to Sirius II for serve Central Europe in August 1999 and the French and Spanish version launched at the same time the same month, leaving the ex pan-European version on Astra 1C acting as a de facto free to air secondary/transitional European feed for countries preparing to switchover to their own newly launched local versions of Cartoon Network up until encryption in October 1999. TNT changed its programming from classic movies to general entertainment as the movies were moved to TCM, TNT UK ceased to exist in July 2000 and was replaced by an analogue version of TCM. During the late 90s and the early 2000s, Turner Entertainment Networks International started localising their channels to suit different audiences across different countries around Europe, Middle East and Africa.
Post-pan European split
After the pan-European split, Cartoon Network revamped on 15 October 1999 with the launch of a unique and more intensive variant of the "Powerhouse" theme which had shapes and tiles with lines and footage of characters from various shows shown on Cartoon Network. This lasted until 1 September 2002 in the UK and was used throughout Europe on 30 September 2002. The European version of Powerhouse was produced by now-defunct London based animation and design studio AMGFX. A DJ theme was used during the AKA Cartoon Network programming block, bumpers include a live-action DJ scratching a record, which affects the playback of a cartoon clip.
On 30 June 2001, the analogue feed on Astra 1C of Cartoon Network and TCM ceased broadcasting. Sky's analogue service would later fully shut down on 27 September that year.
On 11 April 2005, after it was introduced in the United States, Cartoon Network adopted the CN City era until 23 May 2007.
Current events
On 24 May 2007, Cartoon Network changed its branding to a similar look to ones used during 1999 to 2005, this branding was known as the Arrow Era. There were also alternate Arrow Era idents designed by the design studio, Stardust, which had a 3D style, rather than the 2D style used by the other Arrow Era idents. The British and Irish version of Cartoon Network used both 2D and 3D Arrow Era idents, while other Cartoon Network channels that used the Arrow Era usually either used only one. This branding lasted until 26 September 2010.
On 27 September 2010, the British version of Cartoon Network introduced its current branding and logo while Cartoon Network Too continued to use the Arrow era until 2012 and the 2004 logo was still used as the network's production logo until 14 April 2013. Designed by Brand New School, it makes heavy use of a black and white checkerboard motif, as well as various CMYK colour variations and patterns. This branding had been introduced earlier in the American version on 29 May 2010. The DOG was moved from the top right corner to the bottom right corner, like in the United States.
On 1 April 2014, Cartoon Network's DOG moved back to the top-right corner and a new Next banner using graphics from the Check It 3.0. branding package was introduced. Also during the same month, Cartoon Network Too closed down and was replaced by a reinstated one-hour timeshift service called Cartoon Network +1, which closed down on 5 March 2006. Cartoon Network's Check It 3.0 was fully implemented on Cartoon Network on 21 July 2014 for the official start of the school summer holidays in the UK, Ninjago: Masters of Spinjitzu also premiered on the channel on the same day. In November 2015, Cartoon Network launched their anti-bullying campaign in conjunction with Childline called Cartoon Network Buddy Network.
After nearly two years of the Laughternoons programming block was replaced by Mega Mondays on 14 April 2014, Laughternoons returned to Cartoon Network for a short period in January 2016. Mega Mondays was the name of Cartoon Network's new episodes programming block for three years before being discontinued in July 2017. It was replaced with New Fridays in March 2018.
In October 2015, Cartoon Network launched their own localised version of the Cartoon Network Anything app, featuring short-form content such as mini-games and video-clips. In February 2016, Cartoon Network used graphics from the Check It 4.0 branding package for the first time on a new episode promo for Transformers: Robots in Disguise. On 22 July 2016, Cartoon Network fully rebranded using graphics from the Check It 4.0 branding package. In April 2016, Cartoon Network signed a deal with Sky for exclusive on-demand boxset rights for a selection of its animated shows. In November 2016, Cartoon Network won two PromaxBDA UK awards for their Where's Ice King and Weetabix Weetabuddies television campaigns. On 21 July 2017, Cartoon Network fully rebranded using graphics from the Dimensional 1.0 branding package. In April 2019, Cartoon Network UK's website was hacked, with a Gumball video replaced with an Arabic meme video.
On 18 November 2020, WarnerMedia was granted a Czech (RRTV) broadcasting licence for Cartoon Network UK and Ireland, entitled Cartoon Network Eire, with the reason being to ensure continued legal carriage of Cartoon Network UK in the Republic of Ireland and Malta in accordance with the EU Audiovisual Media Services Directive (AVMSD) and single market law following the UK's withdrawal from the European Union. Like the UK, the Czech Republic has minimal broadcasting regulations and was chosen for EU licensing purposes as WarnerMedia's HBO had substantial operations located in the country. Editorially, the channel is still managed from Cartoon Network's offices at WarnerMedia's EMEA headquarters in London.
Availability
Cable
Virgin Media : Channel 704 (HD) and Channel 705 (+1)
Online
Now: Watch live
Satellite
Sky: Channel 601 (HD), Channel 602 (+1) and Channel 640 (SD)
IPTV
BT : Channel 466 (SD) and Channel 473 (HD)
Programming
Original scheduling
When Cartoon Network initially launched, its schedule was mainly made up of short cartoons from both Warner Bros. and other studios, such as Looney Tunes, Merrie Melodies and Tom and Jerry. A few years after, it started to broadcast its own programming such as The Powerpuff Girls and Dexter's Laboratory. Eventually, most of Cartoon Network's acquired programming was shifted to the sidelines, with the company's original animated series taking up the majority of Cartoon Network's timeslots.
Programming blocks
In September 2000, Toonami began broadcasting weekdays for two hours between 4pm until 6pm, and from 9pm until 11pm, as well as weekends from 10am until noon and 10pm until midnight. Dragonball Z had already been airing on Cartoon Network since March 2000, and had been attracting very good ratings, which may have contributed to the decision to launch Toonami in the UK. Its output consisted almost solely of Japanese anime such as the cult Dragonball Z, Tenchi Muyo, and Gundam Wing. The only non-Japanese shows for quite some time were The Real Adventures of Jonny Quest and Batman Beyond. As time went on, Toonami started to shift away from Japanese anime and action programming, eventually morphing into CN Too.
Around the same time, there was almost completely new programming on the channel, and so Boomerang began in a late night slot; it ultimately branched off into its own channel after the block was discontinued.
From February 2012 until July 2017, Cartoon Network shifted its major night of premieres to Monday evenings, under the names "Meaty Mondays", and as of April 2014 "Mega Mondays". Additionally, the block's name would change to "Mince Pie Mondays" every December, sporting a more festive look and airing Christmas specials to boot. In May 2014, a much smaller Friday variety block, titled "Funsize Fridays" was launched. This block only ran for around 2014, and consisted of playing "a different show every fifteen minutes". The shows featured in the block were Adventure Time, The Amazing World of Gumball, Clarence, Johnny Test, Regular Show, Steven Universe, Teen Titans Go!, and Uncle Grandpa. Only one of these shows would air new episodes in this block, passing the baton to a different show monthly.
Eventually, both of these blocks were discontinued, and Cartoon Network was completely devoid of programming blocks for some time. However, in March 2018, a brand new Friday night premiere block launched, under the simple name "New Fridays". The block aired on Friday nights from 4pm to 9pm, and it was based upon the United States feed's "NEW NEW NEW NEW" block, carrying the same neon light branding from its international counterpart. Despite only lasting around four months, the block had a large variety of shows rotating in and out of premiere slots, including Adventure Time, The Amazing World of Gumball, Ben 10, Clarence, Cloudy with a Chance of Meatballs, Mighty Magiswords, Ninjago: Masters of Spinjitzu, OK K.O.! Let's Be Heroes, The Powerpuff Girls, Regular Show, Steven Universe, Supernoobs, Teen Titans Go!, We Bare Bears, Uncle Grandpa, and Unikitty!. The Canadian import Wishfart also had its premiere and new episodes restricted to the block. In July 2018, the block was discontinued unexpectedly.
Cartoonito
On 1 March 2022, a Cartoonito block was launched, airing on weekdays from 9 am to 10 am (although it briefly extended to end at 11 am during the Spring-Summer of 2022). Unlike the channel's other programming blocks, it does not air during the school holidays.
Sister networks
Boomerang
In May 2000, Boomerang was launched by Cartoon Network in the UK and Ireland, and most "classic" cartoons were moved from Cartoon Network to Boomerang, which initially broadcast from 6am to 12am. In October 2001, Boomerang became a 24-hour channel and the remaining "classic" cartoons like The Smurfs, also moved to Boomerang.
Cartoonito
In May 2007, Cartoonito was launched as a pre-school channel replacing Cartoon Network Too. Cartoonito aired from 4am to 9pm daily. In January 2018, Cartoonito officially began airing 24 hours a day.
Defunct sister networks
CNX
CNX was a channel operated by Turner Broadcasting System Europe in the UK and Ireland between 2002 and 2003. It was aimed at a male audience, with daytime programming aimed at older children and teenagers, and evening programming aimed at older teenagers and young adults. CNX was carried in the 'Entertainment' section of the Sky programme guide, and was also available on cable
Toonami
Toonami launched in September 2003 showing action programming. Toonami had originally replaced CNX, which launched in October 2002. In May 2007, Toonami was replaced by Cartoon Network Too which was later shut down.
Cartoon Network Too
In April 2006, Cartoon Network Too was launched on Sky on the same day as sister TCM 2 and Nick Jr. 2, broadcasting cartoons primarily made by Hanna-Barbera such as Dexter's Laboratory, The Powerpuff Girls, Johnny Bravo and Wacky Races. Cartoon Network Too aired from 3 am to 7 pm every day until May 2007, when it became a 24-hour channel, taking Toonami's slot and getting a new identity. In April 2014, Cartoon Network Too was replaced by a relaunched version of Cartoon Network +1.
Related services
Cartoon Network +1
Cartoon Network +1 originally launched in 1998 as a one-hour timeshift of Cartoon Network before it was replaced by Cartoon Network Too in April 2006. Cartoon Network +1 was relaunched in April 2014 replacing Cartoon Network Too, just as Cartoon Network Too had replaced them in 2006. In July 2018, Cartoon Network +1 was temporarily replaced by a Ben 10 thematic pop-up channel, the channel reverted to Cartoon Network +1 in July 2018.
Cartoon Network HD
In September 2011, Cartoon Network HD launched on Sky. In January 2013, Cartoon Network HD launched on Virgin Media's cable TV platform.
Virgin On Demand service
In April 2007, Cartoon Network launched onto Virgin Media's On Demand system, thus allowing Virgin Media customers to watch Cartoon Network programmes whenever they like. They can also take advantage of pause, rewind and fast forward functions, when watching these programmes.
Hanna-Barbera Studios Europe
Hanna-Barbera Studios Europe (formerly Cartoon Network Studios Europe, Great Malbrough Productions, Inc. & Cartoon Network Development Studio Europe) is based in Shoreditch, London, located three miles away from Turner EMEA's headquarters. The studio was named after Great Marlborough Street where Turner Europe, Middle East and Africa's headquarters is located. The studio is the European equivalent to Cartoon Network Studios based in Burbank, California, USA. The studio was founded in 2007 and in 2011 it produced its first show, The Amazing World of Gumball, created by Ben Bocquelet. Cartoon Network Europe has also been involved in other co-productions in the past such as The Cramp Twins, Fat Dog Mendoza, Robotboy, Scooby-Doo! Mystery Incorporated, Elfy Food, The Happos Family, Hero 108, Spaced Out, VBirds, Cult Toons, Taffy, Best Ed, Chop Socky Chooks, Skatoony and The Heroic Quest of the Valiant Prince Ivandoe. The studio has also produced animation for the Malaria No More organisation. Originally, the studio's main focus was to produce animated shorts that could potentially become animated shows, this changed when production of The Amazing World of Gumball moved from Boulder Media and Dandelion Studios and went in-house with Studio Soi offering support. In September 2018, Cartoon Network Studios Europe's London-based studio will start production on a new animated show, Elliott from Earth.
2006 power outage
On the night of 26–27 July 2006, Cartoon Network, along with its sister channels suffered a major technical fault due to a power cut in Soho, London, owing to the 2006 European heat wave, with thunderstorms taking full force overnight.
The power cut caused a mix up of Turner Broadcasting System Europe channels (i.e. Cartoon Network being broadcast on Boomerang and Toonami, with Boomerang being broadcast on Cartoon Network Too). Boomerang +1 was off air for some time, while TCM, reverted between TCM France and other programming during the times it was able to provide a service.
TCM 2 remained unaffected due to its downtime of timesharing. Most advertising was suspended and several of the channel websites were offline also. Those who could still receive the channels had a backup transmission played out, making people confused when Cartoon Network Too and Boomerang were showing episodes of The Flintstones at the same time. These backups where played out with a scrolling message which said "We apologise for the disruption to this programme due to technical problems and we are trying to correct the fault. We will resume normal programming as soon as possible" in multiple languages.
Whilst most channels returned to the air within 5–10 minutes, it took longer for Cartoon Network Too to resume programming and it was also joked on various animation based forums by Toonami UK viewers, many of whom have made note of their disdain for the direction in which Turner took the brand in the UK, that the backup transmission was more entertaining, purely due to the lack of live action programming aired during the outage.
The idents on Toonami which aired between shows during the black-out displayed the message "Sorry! Toonami is broken, we'll be right back as soon as we fix it.". These idents have since been re-used in disclaimers warning viewers not to try stunts on various shows at home.
Animated shorts
The studio has also produced animated shorts. Animated shorts produced by the studio include The Furry Pals, Mutant Moments, Hamshanks and the Himalolly Railway, Elliot's Zoo, Pinky Malinky and Verne on Vacation. The shorts were showcased in a similar way to Cartoonstitute by the American version of Cartoon Network. The videos were available to watch on the Cartoon Network Development Studio Europe YouTube channel which has since closed.
See also
Cartoon Network Too
Boomerang (UK & Ireland)
Cartoonito (UK & Ireland)
Cartoonito (brand)
CNX
Toonami (UK & Ireland)
Turner Broadcasting System Europe
References
External links
Official Laughternoons website
Turner employment and information website
Television channels in the United Kingdom
Television channels and stations established in 1993
1993 establishments in the United Kingdom
Cartoon Network
Turner Broadcasting System UK & Ireland
Children's television networks
Children's television channels in the United Kingdom
English-language television stations in the United Kingdom
English-language television stations in Ireland
Television stations in Malta
Television stations in Ireland
Warner Bros. Discovery EMEA |
4444641 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leycesteria%20formosa | Leycesteria formosa | Leycesteria formosa, the pheasant berry, is a deciduous shrub in the family Caprifoliaceae, native to the Himalayas and southwestern China. It is considered a noxious invasive species in Australia, New Zealand, the neighbouring islands of Micronesia, and some other places.
In its native Himalaya the shrub is frequently used in the traditional medicine of the various countries and peoples encompassed within the region.
Names
The genus name Leycesteria was coined by Nathaniel Wallich (one time director of Royal Botanic Garden, Calcutta) in honour of his friend William Leycester, Chief justice and noted amateur horticulturist, in Bengal in about 1820; while the Latin specific name formosa (feminine form of formosus) signifies 'beautiful' or 'handsome' (literally: 'shapely') - in reference to the curious, pendent inflorescences with their richly wine-coloured bracts. There is a popular misconception, however, that the specific name derives from the place name 'Formosa', which is an abbreviation of the original Portuguese name for the island of Taiwan: Ilha Formosa "beautiful island". Portuguese is a romance language (i.e. derived from Latin) and the adjective formosa has passed into it unchanged in spelling and meaning from the original Latin. Leycesteria formosa is so named in recognition of its beauty, not in acknowledgment of an origin on the island now known as Taiwan. The Latin specific names of certain plants, given to indicate that they were native to Taiwan at a time when it was known as Formosa take such forms as formosae, formosana and formosensis, not the Latin adjective/Portuguese adjective-used-as-a-proper-noun formosa.
Other common names include Himalayan honeysuckle, pheasant-eye, Elisha's tears, flowering nutmeg, spiderwort, Cape fuchsia, whistle stick, Himalaya nutmeg, granny's curls,partridge berry, chocolate berry, shrimp plant/flower and treacle tree/berry It is also recorded as Symphoricarpos rivularis Suksdorf.
Contrary to the impression given by the respective common names, the plant is completely unrelated either to the nutmeg tree or to the fuchsia. Further contrary to the name "Cape fuchsia", it is not native to South Africa - the name being especially inappropriate, given that the family Caprifoliaceae as a whole is absent from Sub-Saharan Africa.
Wallich was Danish by birth and perhaps could hardly be expected to forsee that within fifty years or so the name of the worthy Justice [Leycester(ia)] would be corrupted into 'Elisha's tears' - which yet seems strangely to suit the plant, with its pendent white flowers and its persistent bracts which darken to a sombre blood red as the season advances.Garden Shrubs and their HistoriesAlice M. Coats
It is apparent from the above that the common name Elisha's tears falls into the same category (of jocular corruptions of the scientific names of plants into common names more congenial to rural British taste) as Aunt Eliza (for Antholyza) and Sally-my-handsome for Mesembryanthemum. It is also testament to a greater familiarity with the names of biblical figures - such as the Old Testament prophets - on the part of Britons of the nineteenth century, when compared to their counterparts in the twenty-first.
Affiliation within Caprifoliaceae
The results of the genetic testing undertaken by Zhang et al. have revealed that Leycesteria is most closely related to the genera Triosteum (common name - "horse gentians" / Chinese 莛子藨属 tíng zi biāo shǔ) and Heptacodium (Chinese common name 七子花 qī zi huā = "seven son flower"). Of these, only Triosteum has fruits that are berries, the fruits of Heptacodium being dry capsules. These three genera belong to the subfamily Caprifolioideae of the honeysuckle family Caprifoliaceae, the other two genera in the subfamily being Lonicera, the (true) honeysuckles and Symphoricarpos, the snowberries.
Description
It is found to be a hardy evergreen, requiring a considerable degree of moisture, and a situation slightly sheltered and shaded, though the colour of its bracts would be most probably be heightened by exposure to solar light. Propagation is effected by cuttings or layers.Joseph PaxtonPaxton's Magazine of Botany Volume VI (1839)
A deciduous, sometimes evergreen, half-woody, shrub-like plant (intermediate between a shrub and a herbaceous perennial) with young stems that are soft, hollow and upright in various shades of green, salmon pink, maroon and purple, in height, which may only last for 2–5 years before collapsing and being replaced by new stems from the roots. Mature specimens, however, may have short, truly woody trunks clothed in rough, grey bark at the base. The leaves are opposite, dark green and usually cordate long and broad, with an entire, wavy or even deeply-lobed margin and often an extended drip tip (commonly an adaptation to a wet climate). The flowers (bee-pollinated) are produced on long pendulous racemes; each flower is small, white, pale pink or rarely deep purplish pink, subtended by a purplish-pink bract, terminating - like the leaves - in a drip tip. The fruit is a berry, hard and deep pink when unripe, and fragile, soft (easily burst) and a deep purple-brown when ripe and measuring 1 cm in diameter. The berries are eaten avidly by birds, which disperse the seeds in their droppings.
The berries are unpleasantly bitter when unripe, but, once soft and deep purple-brown in colour, are edible and sweet, having a mild flavour reminiscent of toffee or caramel. Being a recent introduction to Europe, the plant lacks any traditional uses there.
Distribution
L. formosa includes within its wide range of distribution the areas of all the other known species of the genus. From the North-West Frontier Province and the Punjab it ranges the whole length of the Himalaya eastwards to south-eastern Yunnan, where it was collected by Henry near Mengtze, and north-eastwards to Szechuan and eastern Tibet, where Rehder's var. stenosepala appears to replace very largely the typical form.
A Revision of the Genus Leycesteria
- H.K. Airy-Shaw
The species is native to Pakistan, India, Nepal, East and West Himalaya, Southwestern China (Sichuan, Yunnan and Guizhou), Tibet and Myanmar.
Introduction to the U.K.
Coats notes that according to John Claudius Loudon the plant was brought into cultivation in 1824 and flowered soon afterwards in Allen and Rogers's Bolingbroke Nursery in Battersea ; and that it was grown at about the same time in the gardens of the Royal Horticultural Society (known at that time as the Horticultural Society of London) from seed procured from India by John Forbes Royle. It proved something of a disappointment to those whose expectations had been raised by a rather highly-coloured plate of it in Wallich's Plantae Asiaticae Rariores (1830-2) [see image of said plate in gallery below].
Its leaves are a pale dull green...it has a rambling inelegant mode of growth, and the colour of the bracts is not at all brighter than what is represented in the accompanying plate.John LindleyThe Botanical Register (1839)
The character of the plant, as developed in an artificial climate, is far from being so good as the accounts of Indian botanists had led us to anticipate. The foliage is large and handsome, and the flowers appear to be produced numerously in terminal pendent racemes; but the most showy feature is the large bracteae at the base of the flowers, which are beautifully veined and tipped with crimson.
Dr. Lindley suggests that this latter character may be more prominently exhibited as the plant becomes older, and more inured to our system of cultivation.Joseph PaxtonPaxton's Magazine of Botany Volume VI (1839)
L. formosa was expected, at the time of its introduction, to be frost-tender in the UK and therefore to need a sunny, South or West-facing aspect, but was soon found to prefer, on the contrary, a cool position, being a plant of dappled woodland shade.
Rallying after his initial disappointment, Lindley could concede
If grown in the shade it is most likely to be a beautiful object.
and, a century or so later, Coats could give it similarly mixed praise, prescient in her anticipation of the plant's subsequent classification, in certain other countries, as an invasive weed:
Its hardiness and ease of propagation have led to it being regarded as a background-shrub, and its peculiar merits are rather overlooked. The design of its hanging racemes is unusual and striking.
Leycesteria formosa became a popular plant in Victorian shrubberies, grown because the berries were relished by the pheasants raised as game birds on country estates - whence the English common name pheasant berry. Attempts have been made in recent years to re-popularise the species in Britain, with new cultivated varieties appearing in garden centres.
Habitat and cultivation
In the wild, in the eastern Himalayas and western China, the plant grows in wet, rocky woods and on cliffs, its predeliction for the latter habitat explaining its success in colonising walls - effectively artificial cliffs. The plant was included in a list of species observed to be resistant to gross atmospheric pollution (smoke and other particulates) compiled in the late 19th century. It is equally resistant to modern atmospheric pollution and will tolerate windy sites and the salty air of coastal localities. Furthermore, deer will not browse upon it. It is often found naturalised in the wild in southern England. In Ireland it is found in roadsides, planted wooded areas, and riverbanks.
Medicinal uses
L. formosa is a frequently-used medicinal plant in Southwest China, where it bears the common name Yi Yao. The Yi people (known also as Nuoso and Lolo) of Sichuan province use the tender shoots of the plant in their system of traditional medicine to treat measles. The Yi (speakers of various Loloish languages of Burmese affiliation) are notable for their rich cultural heritage, having retained their ancient shamanic faith of Bimoism, which incorporates a traditional body of ethnomedicinal knowledge. Furthermore the Yi are fortunate in not having to rely solely upon oral tradition, possessing as they do written records in their own Yi script, dating back at least to the end of the fifteenth century and - according to tradition - even farther back to the time of the Tang dynasty.
In the context of the current global pandemic, it is potentially of considerable interest that the Yi may repeatedly have been exposed to coronavirus in the course their history, discovered herbal treatments effective, in some measure, against viral diseases centuries ago, and incorporated these findings into their system of traditional medicine.
In the Poonch region of Azad Kashmir (Pakistan) a paste of the leaves (or a leaf extract) of L. formosa (known locally under the name of Jummar) is used as a hair tonic to rid the hair of dandruff and lice and the same use has been recorded in the Kedarnath Wildlife Sanctuary of the Garhwal Himalaya range of Uttarakhand province, India. A common name for the plant in 'Chamoli' (= Garhwali), spoken in Uttarakhand, is Bhenkew.
The Monpa people of Mêdog County, Southeast Tibet use unspecified plant parts of L. formosa (known locally by the common name pya-min-mon) to stem blood loss in cases of traumatic bleeding. Shan et al. append to their paper on the ethnobotany of the Monpa a table comparing Monpa plant use for a given species with the reported phytochemical/pharmacological properties of that species as reported in Chinese academic literature and note a good match in the case of L. formosa, although they note further that the plant has been reported elsewhere in China to be used not only to arrest bleeding but also in the treatment of bone fractures.
Coats gives the common name of the shrub in Nepal as nulkuroo but does not state the language of that country from which it derives (it is not Nepali).
The Khaling people of the subtropical lowlands of Solukhumbu district, Nepal use unspecified plant parts of L. formosa as an anthelminthic. In his paper on Khaling plant names, Japanese missionary and ethnographer Sueyoshi Toba lists the Khaling name for the plant as ‘dӕnciki and the Nepali name as paDpaDe, describing the plant itself as 'an aromatic shrub, which sometimes takes parasitic form'. This description is curious on two counts, for Leycesteria formosa – at any rate when grown as an ornamental shrub in Europe – is neither notably aromatic nor a parasite, lacking as it does haustoria to tap nutrients from a host plant. The latter point, at least, may be explicable by Toba having observed (or heard described by a Khaling informant) L. formosa growing epiphytically upon a tree in a deposit of humus. The plant is certainly often to be observed growing as a lithophyte - specifically a chasmophyte - in a minimal substrate e.g. from bird droppings deposited in rock crevices or in cracks in the mortar of old walls. Indeed the plant has been observed growing as a (non-native) epiphyte on the tree fern Dicksonia squarrosa in a survey conducted recently in New Zealand.
Traditional Chinese medicine
In Standard Chinese L. formosa is best-known under the common name 鬼吹簫 (Guĭ chuī xiāo) - approximate pronunciation "gwé chwé siaaow" - meaning ghost flute (literally ghost-blown Flute) / "xiao of the spirits", although Zhang et al. list also (in translation only) other common names rendered as "gun barrel", "hollow wood", "wild lupine" and the more cryptic "golden chicken lock".
In the semi-humoral system of Traditional Chinese medicine, as practised in southwest China, the plant is believed to remove excess "dampness" (湿; shī) and "heat" (火; huǒ), to promote blood circulation and to stop bleeding. It is also used to treat (among other diseases/disease concepts) "damp heat jaundice" (referable possibly to hepatitis), arthritic pain (notably that caused by rheumatoid arthritis), asthma, irregular menstruation, cystitis and bone fracture. L. formosa is regarded in China as the pre-eminent medicinal species of its genus and has been used there as such for millennia.
'Ghost flute' and other Chinese common names
The shrub acquired its picturesque folkloric name of ghost flute (and also that of 鬼竹子 : Guǐ zhúzi : ghost bamboo) in reference to the eerie piping sounds produced by the broken, hollow stems of the plant when blown upon by the wind.
Nowadays in the city, the street lights are so bright, even late at night, but it wasn't like that in the countryside when I was a lad. Moonlit nights weren't so bad, but, when you were out walking and there was no moon, it'd be pitch black and you'd start to imagine all sorts of things...
When I was a child and I and a few friends would be walking along beside these bushes, they'd make the sound of a flute: I would always think that there really was someone playing the flute, but then I'd look around and there'd be no one there. I'd suddenly feel a bit scared and run away. It got to the point where I'd avoid going near the place where those plants grew: If I so much as caught a glimpse of one, I'd beat a hasty retreat. Maybe, in ancient times, people felt the same way and that's why they gave it the name 'ghost flute', although I expect the herb-gatherers at that time were fond of it and didn't let the sound bother them, because they knew that it was such a good medicinal plant. Later, of course, when I grew up and worked out how the plant made the sound, I realised that there was no reason to be afraid of it any more... it's the stems that make the sound, you see - because they're hollow. If the weather's right and you get a good breeze, you'll hear that rich, melodious sound, just like the blowing of a lot of flutes. and - what with all those pretty little bell flowers dancing around in the wind as well - you'd think the ghosts were blowing on them too...
In addition to the above, L.formosa has acquired a wealth of common names in the Chinese language, including:
风吹箫 : Fēng chuī xiāo : Wind(-blown) flute
夜吹箫 : Yè chuī xiāo : Night(-blowing) flute
大追风 : Dà zhuī fēng : Big chase wind
炮筒花 : Pào tǒng huā : Gun barrel flower
炮竹筒 : Pào zhútǒng : Firecracker (Pào 'gun' + zhútǒng 'bamboo tube')
炮仗筒 : Pàozhang tǒng : Firecracker (Pàozhang 'gun battle' + tǒng 'tube')
火炮花 : Huǒpào huā : Artillery flower
金鸡一把锁 : Jīnjī yī bǎ suǒ : Golden rooster lock
空心木 : Kōngxīn mù : Hollow wood
空心草 : Kōngxīn cǎo : Hollow grass
大笔杆草 : Dà bǐgǎn cǎo : Big pen grass/Big-stalked grass
来色木 : Lái shǎi mù : (Come) colour wood
大木比替力 : Dà mù bǐ tì lì : Big wood that is a substitute for strength
鬼竹子 : Guǐ zhúzi : Ghost bamboo
梅叶竹 : Méi yè zhú : Plum-leaved bamboo
野芦柴 :Yě Lú chái : Wild reed firewood
磨倮子 : Mó luǒ zi : Grinding naked seed
猴橘子 : Hóu júzi : Monkey orange
These names refer mostly to the tubular (fistular) form of the stems, their similarity to those of bamboos and their suitability for wind instruments - as suggested by their natural tendency to whistle eerily in the wind. Those referring to (again, tubular) guns and fireworks indicate that the jointed stems of the plant explode (crack / pop) when burnt, like those of bamboo (the popping stems of which the first fireworks were manufactured to mimic ). Only one common name (Hóu júzi 'Monkey orange') references the shrub's edible berries, and does so in a somewhat disparaging manner.
The curious name Jīnjī yī bǎ suǒ, translating as 'Golden rooster lock' suggests that the plant was thought to relate in some way to the good luck / wealth-bringing symbol of the golden cockerel.
Other uses
The hollow canes produced by L. formosa have been used in India to make whistles and flutes. Other uses of the plant in North India (states Assam, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir (union territory), Ladakh and Sikkim) are as a green manure and as firewood.
Animal toxicity
While many sources assert that L. formosa is not toxic, there have been associated deaths of cattle reported in New Zealand and Australia, where the plant is a rampant weed, and thus the plant is best considered suspect until more conclusive evidence comes to light. Leaves and unripe berries are likely to have been the plant parts browsed.
Chemistry
L. formosa has yielded coumarins, monomeric flavonoids and the two biflavonoid compounds amentoflavone (3'-8" biapigenin) and its 4"'methyl derivative podocarpusflavone A. Amentoflavone and, to some extent, podocarpusflavone A are good cAMP phosphodiesterase-4 inhibitors. In the light of these findings L. formosa may be considered of potential interest in the treatment of dermatitis. Prior to the isolation of amentoflavone from Leycesteria, the only genera of Caprifoliaceae in which the compound was known to occur were Viburnum and Lonicera. (Note: the genus Viburnum is now placed, not in Caprifoliaceae, but in the related family Adoxaceae).
The leaves of L. formosa have been found to contain leucoanthocyanins, while the wood contains the fluorescent lactone aesculetin.
Gallery
References
External links
Checklist of the Flowering Plants of Nepal: Leycesteria formosa
Caprifoliaceae
Flora of temperate Asia
Garden plants of Asia
Medicinal plants of Asia
Edible fruits
Weeds
Flora of West Himalaya
Flora of West Tropical Africa
Flora of West-Central Tropical Africa
Flora of Northeast Tropical Africa
Flora of East Tropical Africa
Flora of South Tropical Africa
Flora of Southern Africa
Flora of Madagascar
Flora of India (region)
Flora of Sri Lanka
Flora of Pakistan
Flora of Nepal
Flora of Bhutan
Flora of Sikkim
Flora of Arunachal Pradesh
Flora of East Himalaya
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Flora of Tibet
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Articles containing Chinese-language text
Taxa named by Nathaniel Wallich |
4444730 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vithoba | Vithoba | Vithoba (IAST: viṭhōbā), also known as Vitthala (IAST: viṭṭhala), and Panduranga (IAST: pāṇḍraṅga), is a Hindu god predominantly worshipped in the Indian state of Maharashtra and Karnataka. He is a form of the god Vishnu. Vithoba is often depicted as a dark young boy, standing arms akimbo on a brick, sometimes accompanied by his consort Rakhumai.
Vithoba is the focus of an essentially monotheistic, non-ritualistic bhakti-driven Varkari faith in Maharashtra and the Brahminical Haridasa sect established in Dvaita Vedanta in Karnataka. Vithoba Temple, Pandharpur is his main temple. Vithoba legends revolve around his devotee Pundalik who is credited for bringing the deity to Pandharpur, and around Vithoba's role as a saviour to the poet-saints of the Varkari faith. The Varkari poet-saints are known for their unique genre of devotional lyric, the abhang, dedicated to Vithoba and composed in Marathi. Other devotional literature dedicated to Vithoba includes the Kannada hymns of the Haridasa and the Marathi versions of the generic aarti songs associated with rituals of offering light to the deity. The most important festivals of Vithoba are held on Shayani Ekadashi in the month of Ashadha, and Prabodhini Ekadashi in the month of Kartika.
The historiography of Vithoba and his sect is an area of continuing debate, even regarding his name. Though the origins of both his sect and his main temple are likewise debated, there is clear evidence that they already existed by the 13th century.
Etymology and other names
Vithoba (, ) is known by many names, including: Vitthala, Panduranga, Pandharinath, Hari and Narayan.
There are several theories about the origins and meanings of these names. Varkari tradition suggests that the name Vitthala (also spelled as Vitthal, Viththal, Vittala and Vithal; , , and ; all ) is composed of two Sanskrit-Marathi words: , which means 'brick'; and thal, which may have originated from the Sanskrit sthala, meaning 'standing'. Thus, Vitthala would mean 'one standing on a brick'. William Crooke, orientalist, supported this explanation. The prescribed iconography of Vithoba stipulates that he be shown standing arms-akimbo upon a brick, which is associated with the legend of the devotee Pundalik. However, the Varkari poet-saint Tukaram proposed a different etymology—that Vitthala is composed of the words (ignorance) and (one who accepts), thus meaning 'one who accepts innocent people who are devoid of knowledge'. Historian Ramakrishna Gopal Bhandarkar offers yet another possibility—that Vitthu () is a Kannada corruption of the name Vishnu adopted in Marathi. The suffixes -la and -ba (meaning 'father' in Marathi) were appended for reverence, producing the names Vitthala and Vithoba. This corruption of Vishnu to Vitthu could have been due to the tendency of Marathi and Kannada people to pronounce the Sanskrit () as (), attested since the 8th century.
According to research scholar M. S. Mate of the Deccan College, Pundalik—who is assumed to be a historical figure—was instrumental in persuading the Hoysala king Vishnuvardhana alias Bittidev to build the Pandharpur temple dedicated to Vishnu. The deity was subsequently named as Vitthala, a derivative of Bittidev, by the builder-king. Other variants of the name include (King Vitthala), and (Mother Vitthala). The people of Gujarat add the suffix -nath (Lord) to Vitthala, which yields the name Vitthal-nath. The additional honorific suffix -ji may be added, giving the name Vitthalnathji. This name is generally used in the Pushtimarg sect.
Panduranga (, , ; all ), also spelt as Pandurang and Pandaranga, is another popular epithet for Vithoba, which means 'the white god' in Sanskrit. The Jain author-saint Hemachandra (1089–1172 AD) notes it is also used as an epithet for the god Rudra-Shiva. Even though Vithoba is depicted with dark complexion, he is called a "white god". Bhandarkar explains this paradox, proposing that Panduranga may be an epithet for the form of Shiva worshipped in Pandharpur, and whose temple still stands. Later, with the increasing popularity of Vithoba's cult, this was also transferred to Vithoba. Another theory suggests that Vithoba may initially have been a Shaiva god (related to Shiva), only later identified with Vishnu, thus explaining the usage of Panduranga for Vithoba. Crooke, however, proposed that Panduranga is a Sanskritised form of Pandaraga (belonging to Pandarga), referring to the old name of Pandharpur. Another name, Pandharinath, also refers to Vithoba as the lord of Pandhari (yet another variant for Pandharpur).
Finally, Vithoba is also addressed by the names of Vishnu like Hari and Narayana, in the Vaishnava sect.
Origins and development
Reconstruction of the historical development of Vithoba worship has been much debated. In particular, several alternative theories have been proposed regarding the earliest stages as well as the point at which he came to be recognised as a distinct deity. The Pandurangashtakam stotra, a hymn attributed to Adi Shankara of the 8th century, indicates that Vithoba worship had already existed at an early date.
According to Richard Maxwell Eaton, author of A Social History of the Deccan, Vithoba was first worshiped as the pastoral god Krishna as early as the 6th century. Vithoba's arms-akimbo iconography is similar to Bir Kuar, associated with Krishna, the cattle-god of the Ahirs of Bihar. Vithoba was probably later assimilated into the Shaiva pantheon and identified with the god Shiva, like most other pastoral gods. This is backed by because of the facts that the temple at Pandharpur is surrounded by Shaiva temples (most notably of the devotee Pundalik himself), and that Vithoba is crowned with the Linga, symbol of Shiva. However since the 13th century, the poet-saints like Namdev, Eknath and Tukaram identified Vithoba with Vishnu.
Christian Lee Novetzke of the University of Washington suggests that Vithoba's worship migrated from Karnataka to the formerly Shaiva city of Pandharpur some time before 1000 CE; but under the possible influence of a Krishna-worshipping Mahanubhava sect, the town was transformed into a Vaishnava center of pilgrimage. This proposal is consistent with contemporary remnants of Shaiva worship in the town.
The religious historian R.C. Dhere, winner of the Sahitya Akademi Award for his book Sri Vitthal: Ek Mahasamanvaya, opines that Vithoba worship may be even older—"Vedic or pre-Vedic", hence pre-dating the worship of Krishna. According to this theory, Vithoba is an amalgam of various local heroes, who gave their lives to save their cattle. He was first worshipped by the Dhangar, the cattle-owning caste of Maharashtra. The rise of the Yadava dynasty, which had cowherd ancestry, could have led to the glorification of Vithoba as Krishna, who is often depicted as a cowherd. This Vaishnavization of Vithoba also led to conversion of the Shaiva Pundarika shrine to the Vaishnava shrine of the devotee Pundalik, who—according to legend—brought Vithoba to Pandharpur. There may have been an attempt to assimilate Vithoba into Buddhism; today, both are viewed as a form of Vishnu in Hinduism.
Vithoba is associated more with "compassion, an infinite love and tenderness for his bhaktas (devotees) that can be compared to the love of the mother for her children pining for the presence of his devotees the way a cow pines for her far-away calf."
G. A. Deleury, author of The cult of Vithoba, proposes that the image of Vithoba is a viragal (hero stone), which was later identified with Vishnu in his form as Krishna, and that Pundalik transformed the Puranic, ritualistic puja worship into more idealised bhakti worship—"interiorized adoration prescinding caste distinction and institutional priesthood .." Indologist Dr. Tilak suggests that Vithoba emerged as "an alternative to the existing pantheon" of brahminical deities (related to classical, ritualistic Hinduism). The emergence of Vithoba was concurrent with the rise of a "new type of lay devotee", the Varkari. While Vishnu and Shiva were bound in rigid ritualistic worship and Brahmin (priestly) control, Vithoba, "the God of the subaltern, became increasingly human." Vithoba is often praised as the protector of the poor and needy. Stevenson (1843) suggests that Vithoba could have been a Jain saint, as the Vithoba images were similar to Jain images.
Pandharpur temple and inscriptions
Scholastic investigation of Vithoba's history often begins with consideration of the dating of the chief temple at Pandharpur, which is believed to be the earliest Vithoba temple. The oldest part of the temple dates to the Yadava period of the 12th and 13th centuries. Most of the temple is believed to have been built in the 17th century, though addition to the temple has never ceased. The date the temple was first established is unclear to Bhandarkar, but he insists there is clear evidence to suggest it existed by the 13th century. According to S. G. Tulpule, the temple stood as early as 1189. In fact, a monument dated 1189 records establishment of a small Vithoba shrine at the present location of the temple; thus, Tulpule concludes, the worship of Vithoba predates 1189.
A stone inscription dated 1237, found on an overhead beam of the present Vithoba temple, mentions that the Hoysala king Someshvara donated a village for the expense of the bhoga (food offering) for "Vitthala". An inscription on a copper plate, dated 1249, records the Yadava king Krishna granting to one of his generals the village Paundrikakshetra (kshetra of Pundarik), on the river Bhimarathi, in the presence of the god Vishnu. Another stone inscription in Pandharpur narrates a sacrifice at Pandurangapura due to which "people and Vitthal along with the gods were gratified". Thus from the 13th century, the city is known as the city of Panduranga. Inside the temple, a stone inscription records gifts to the temple between 1272 and 1277 from various donors, notably the Yadava king Ramachandra's minister Hemadri.
Ranade believes that an inscription, found in Alandi and referring to Vitthala and Rakhumai, is the oldest related to Vithoba, and dates it to 1209. However, the name Pandaranga is found on a Rashtrakuta copper plate inscription, dated 516. Citing this, Pande infers that Vithoba's cult was well established by the 6th century.
Central image
The physical characteristics of the central murti (image) of Vithoba at Pandharpur, and various textual references to it, have inspired theories relating to Vithoba worship. Sand concludes, from a version of Pundalik's legend in the Skanda Purana (see Legend below), that two distinct murtis must have existed at Pandharpur—one each of tirtha and kshetra type. The earlier one was a tirtha murti, an image purposely sited near a holy body of water (tirtha), in this case facing west, on the Bhima riverbed, near the Pundalik shrine. The later murti, according to Sand, was a kshetra murti, located at a place of holy power (kshetra), in this case facing east, on the hill where the current temple has stood since about 1189. Thus, Sand proposes that the worship of Vithoba may predate the temple itself.
Deleury suggests that although the temple may have been built in the 13th century, given the Hemadpanthi style architecture, the statue of Vithoba is of an earlier style so may have been carved for an earlier, smaller shrine that existed in Pandharpur. The workmanship of the image is earlier than the style of the Yadava (1175–1318), the Anhivad Chalukya (943–1210) and even the Ajmer Chohans (685–1193) eras. Although no other existing Vishnu temple has iconography like Pandharpur's Vithoba, Deleury finds similarities between the Pandharpur image and the third-century, arms-akimbo Vishnu images at Udaygiri Caves, Madhya Pradesh but declares that they are from different schools of sculpture.
Pundalik
The devotee Pundalik, thrower of the brick (see Legend below), is a major character in the legends of Vithoba. He is commonly perceived to be a historical figure, connected with the establishment and propagation of the Vithoba-centric Varkari sect. Ramakrishna Gopal Bhandarkar considers Pundalik to be the founder of the Varkari sect and the one who promulgated the sect in Maratha country. Stevenson (1843) goes further, suggesting he might have been a Jain or a Buddhist, since Varkari tradition is a combination of Jain and Buddhist morals, and Vithoba is viewed as Vishnu in his form as Buddha. Frazer, Edwards and P.R. Bhandarkar (1922) all suggest that Pundalik tried to unify Shiva and Vishnu, and that this sect originated in Karnataka. Ranade (1933) thinks that Pundalik, a Kannada saint, was not only the founder of the Varkari sect but also the first great devotee or first high priest of the Pandharpur temple. Upadhyaya supports the priest theory but declines the Kannada origin theory. According to M. S. Mate, Pundalik was instrumental in coaxing the Hoysala king Vishnuvardhana to build the Pandharpur temple to Vishnu, placing him in the early 12th century. Other scholars like Raeside (1965), Dhanpalvar (1972), and Vaudeville (1974) have questioned the historicity of Pundalik altogether, and dismissed him as a mythical figure.
Identifications
Primarily, there are three Hindu deities associated with Vithoba: Vishnu, Krishna and Shiva. Gautama Buddha is also associated with Vithoba, consistent with Hindu deification of the Buddha as the ninth incarnation of Vishnu. However, Varkari consider Vithoba to be the svarupa (original)
Vishnu himself, not an Avatar (manifestation) of Vishnu like Krishna, despite legends and consorts linking Vithoba to Krishna. However, even the Mahanubhavas, who rose in the 13th century as a Krishna-worshipping sect, not only dismissed the notion that Vithoba is Krishna but also frequently vilified Vithoba.
In some traditions though, Vithoba is also worshipped as a form of Shiva. The Dhangars still consider Vithoba to be a brother of the god Viroba, and view Vithoba as a Shaiva god rather than a Vaishnava one. Underhill proposes that the shrine of Pandharpur is a combined form of Vishnu-Shiva established by the Bhagavata sect that worships Vishnu-Shiva—the Lord, which is what bhagavata means. However, for the chief priests of the Pandharpur temple—Brahmins of the Badva family —" is neither nor . is " (IAST original). Despite this, some priests of the temple point to marks on the Vithoba image's chest as proof of Vithoba being Vishnu, in his form as Krishna.
Vithoba's image replaces the traditional representation of Buddha, when depicted as the ninth avatar of Vishnu, in some temple sculptures and Hindu astrological almanacs in Maharashtra. In the 17th century, Maratha artists sculpted an image of Pandharpur's Vithoba in the Buddha's place on a panel showing Vishnu's avatars. This can be found in the Shivneri Caves. Stevenson goes so far as to call devotees of Vithoba (Vithal-bhaktas) Buddhist Vaishnavas (Bauddho-Vaishnavas), since they consider Vithoba to be the ninth—namely Buddha—avatar of Vishnu. Some of the poet-saints praised Vithoba as a form of Buddha. B. R. Ambedkar, an Indian political leader and Buddhist convert, suggested that the image of Vithoba at Pandharpur was in reality the image of the Buddha.
Iconography
All Vithoba images are generally modelled on his central image in Pandharpur. The Pandharpur image is a black basalt sculpture that is tall. Vithoba is depicted as dark young boy. The poet-saints have called him "Para-brahman with a dark complexion". He wears high, conical headgear or a crown, interpreted as Shiva's symbol—the Linga. Thus, according to Zelliot, Vithoba represents Shiva as well as Vishnu. The first Varkari poet-saint, Dnyaneshwar (13th century), states that Vithoba (Vishnu) carries Shiva, who according to Vaishnavism is Vishnu's first and foremost devotee, on his own head.
Vithoba is shown standing arms-akimbo on the brick thrown by the devotee Pundalik. He wears a necklace of tulasi-beads, embedded with the legendary kaustubha gem, and makara-kundala (fish-shaped earrings) that the poet-saint Tukaram relates to the iconography of Vishnu. Pandharpur's Vithoba holds a shankha (conch) in his left hand and a chakra (discus) or lotus flower in his right, all of which are symbols traditionally associated with Vishnu. Some images depict Vithoba's right hand making a gesture that has been traditionally misunderstood as a blessing; no gesture of blessing is present in the Pandharpur image. Though usually depicted two-armed, four-armed representations of the deity also exist.
The Pandharpur image, when not clothed by its attendant priest to receive devotees, provides Vithoba with the detailed features distinctive of a male body, visible in full relief. However, close inspection of the stonework reveals the outline of a loincloth, supported by a kambarband (waist belt), traced by thin, light carvings. Other images and pictures depict Vithoba clothed, usually with pitambara – a yellow dhoti and various gold ornaments—the manner in which he is attired by the priests in the daily rites.
The Pandharpur image also bears, on the left breast, the mark known as the srivatsalanchhana—said to be a curl of white hair, usually found on the breast of Vishnu and Krishna images. The image is also dignified with a ring-shaped mark called shriniketana on the right breast, mekhala (a three-stringed waist-belt), a long stick (kathi) embedded in the ground between the legs, and double ring and pearl bracelets on the elbows.
Consorts
Vithoba is usually depicted with his main consort, Rakhumai, on his left side. Rakhumai (or Rakhamai) literally means 'mother Rukmini'. Rukmini is traditionally viewed as the wife of Krishna. Hindus generally consider Krishna to be a form of Vishnu, hence his consort as a form of Lakshmi. Just like her consort, Rakhumai is also depicted in the arms-akimbo posture, standing on a brick. She has an independent cella in the Pandharpur temple complex. According to Ghurye, Rukmini—a princess of the Vidarbha region of Maharashtra—was elevated to the status of the main consort, because of her affiliation with the region. According to Dhangar tradition, Rakhumai is worshipped by the community as Padmavati or Padubai, a protector of the community and cattle in particular. Dhangar folklore explains the reason behind separate shrines for Vithoba and Padubai as the outcome of Vithoba invoking a curse on his consort, and his non-attachment to samsara (the householder's life). Apart from Rakhumai, two other consorts Satyabhama and Rahi (derived from Radha) are worshipped too. All three consorts are regarded as Krishna's in Hindu mythology.
Worship
Vithoba is a popular deity in Maharashtra and Karnataka; devotees also exist in Goa, Telangana and Tamil Nadu but not in the same numbers. Vithoba is worshipped and revered by most Marathis, but he is not popular as a kuladevata (family deity). The main temple of Vithoba, which includes a distinct, additional shrine for his consort Rakhumai, is located at Pandharpur. In this context, Pandharpur is affectionately called "Bhu-Vaikuntha" (the place of residence of Vishnu on earth) by devotees. Devotees, from across Maharashtra, Karnataka and Telangana, have visited Vithoba's central temple at Pandharpur, since the times of Dnyaneshwar (13th century).
Two distinct traditions revolve around the worship of Vithoba in Maharashtra: ritual worship inside the temple by the Brahmin priests of the Badva family; and spiritual worship by the Varkaris. The ritual worship includes five daily rites. First, at about 3 am, is an arati to awaken the god, called . Next comes the , a puja that includes a bath with five (pancha) sweet substances called panchamrita. The image is then dressed to receive morning devotions. The third rite is another puja involving re-dressing and lunch at noon. This is known as . Afternoon devotions are followed by a fourth rite for dinner at sunset—the . The final rite is , an arati for putting the god to sleep. In addition to the rites at the main temple in Pandharpur, Haridasa traditions dedicated to Vitthala flourish in Karnataka.
Varkari sect
The Varkari Panth (Pilgrim Path) or Varkari Sampradaya (Pilgrim Tradition) is one of the most important Vaishnava sects in India. According to Raeside, it is an essentially monotheistic, bhakti sect, focused on the worship of Vithoba and based on traditional Bhagavata dharma. The sect, according to Vaudeville, is a "Shaiva-Vaishnava synthesis" and "nominal Vaishnavism, containing a free mix of other religions". It is believed to have originated in Karnataka and migrated to Maharashtra. This last theory is based on a reference to Vithoba as "Kānaḍā" (belonging to Karnataka) in the work of the first of the poet-saints, Dnyaneshwar. However, this word can also be interpreted as "difficult to understand". Varkaris and scholars who believe Pundalik to have been a historical figure also consider him to be founder of the cult of Vithoba. This is evidenced by the liturgical call—Pundalikavarada Hari Vitthala!—which means "O Hari Vitthala (Vithoba), who has given a boon to Pundalik!" However, according to Zelliot, the sect was founded by Dnyaneshwar (also spelled Jnaneshwar), who was a Brahmin poet and philosopher and flourished during the period 1275–1296. Varkaris also give him credit with the saying—Dnyanadev rachila paya—which means "Dnyaneshwar laid the foundation stone".
Namdev (c. 1270–1350), a Shudra tailor, wrote short Marathi devotional poems in praise of Vithoba called abhangas (literally 'unbroken'), and used the call-and-response kirtan (literally 'repeating') form of singing to praise the glory of his Lord. Public performance of this musical devotion led to the spread of the Vithoba faith, which accepted women, Shudras and outcaste "untouchables", something forbidden in classical brahminical Hinduism. In the times of Muslim rulers, the faith faced stagnation. However, after the decline of the Vijayanagara empire, when wars erupted in the Deccan region, the Muslim rulers had to accept the faiths of Maharashtra in order to gather the support of its people. In this period, Eknath (c. 1533–99) revived the Varkari tradition. With the foundation of the Maratha empire under Shivaji, Tukaram (c. 1568–1650), a Vaishya grocer, further propagated the Vithoba-centric tradition throughout the Maharashtra region.
All these poet-saints, and others like Janabai, the maidservant of Namdev, wrote poetry dedicated to Vithoba. This Marathi poetry advocates pure devotion, referring to Vithoba mostly as a father, or in the case of the female saint Janabai's poetry, as a mother (Vithabai). Not only women, like Janabai, but also a wide variety of people from different castes and backgrounds wrote abhangas in praise of Vithoba: Visoba Khechara (who was an orthodox Shaiva and teacher of Namdev), Sena the barber, Narhari the goldsmith, Savata the gardener, Gora the potter, Kanhopatra the dancing girl, Chokhamela the "untouchable" Mahar, and even the Muslim Sheikh Muhammad (1560–1650). Anyone born Shaiva or Vaishnava who considers Vithoba his maya-baap (mother-father) and Pandharpur his maher (maternal house of a bride) is accepted as a Varkari by the sect irrespective of the barriers of caste. Varkaris often practice Vithoba japa (meditative repetition of a divine name), and observe a fast on the ekadashi of each month.
Haridasa sect
Haridasa means servant (dasa) of Vishnu (Hari). According to Haridasa tradition, their sampradaya, also known as Haridasa-kuta, was founded by Achalananda Vitthala (c. 888). It is a distinct branch within Vaishnavism, centered on Vitthala (the Haridasa–Kannada name for Vithoba). Where Varkari are normally associated with Maharashtra, Haridasa are normally associated with Karnataka. The scholar Sharma considers Vithoba worship first emerged in Karnataka, only later moving to Maharashtra. He argues this on the basis of the reference by Dnyaneshwar, mentioned in section "Varkari sect" above. Lutgendorf credits the movement to Vyasatirtha (1478–1539), the royal guru (rajguru) to king Krishnadevaraya of the Vijayanagara empire. Vitthala enjoyed royal patronage in this era. Krishnadevaraya is also credited with building Vitthala's temple at the then capital city Vijayanagara (modern Hampi).
Haridasas consider the temple of Pandharpur to be sacred, as well that of Hampi, and worship Vitthala along with forms of Krishna. Haridasa literature generally deals with praise dedicated to Vitthala and Krishna. Haridasa poets like Vijaya Vitthala, Gopala Vitthala, Jagannatha Vitthala, Venugopala Vitthala and Mohana Vitthala assumed pen-names ending with "Vitthala", as an act of devotion. The Haridasa poet Purandara Dasa or Purandara Vitthala (1484–1564), "father of Carnatic music", often ended his Kannada language compositions with a salutation to Vitthala.
Pushtimarg sect
The founder of the Hindu sect Pushtimarg – Vallabhacharya (1479–1531) is believed to have visited Pandharpur at least twice and was ordered to marry by Vithoba (called Vitthalnath or Vitthalnathji in the sect) and have children so that he could be born as Vallabhacharya's son. Later, Vallabhacharya married. His second son and successor was recognized as a manifestation of Vithoba and named Vitthalnath, also known as Gusainji. One of the sect's Nidhi Swaroops is Vitthalnathji with his consort Yamunaji.
Festivals
The festivals associated with Vithoba primarily correspond to the bi-annual yatras (pilgrimages) of the Varkaris. The pilgrims travel to the Pandharpur temple from Alandi and Dehu, towns closely associated with poet-saints Dnyaneshwar and Tukaram respectively. Along the way, they sing abhangas (devotional songs) dedicated to Vithoba and repeat his name, carrying the palkhis (palanquins) of the poet-saints. Varkaris do not engage in ritual worship but only practice darshan (visual adoration) of the deity. The ritual worship by the priests is restricted to five days each around the Ashadha (June–July) and Kartik (October–November) Ekadashis, when a large number of Varkaris participate in the yatras. In smaller numbers, the Varkaris also visit the temple on two other Ekadashis—in the Hindu months of Magha and Chaitra.
More than 800,000 Varkaris travel to Pandharpur for the yatra on Shayani Ekadashi, the 11th day of the waxing moon in the lunar month of Ashadha. Both Shayani Ekadashi and Prabodhini Ekadashi (in the waxing half of Kartik), are associated with the mythology of Vishnu. Hindus believe that Vishnu falls asleep in Ksheersagar (a cosmic ocean of milk), while lying on the back of Shesha-nāga (the cosmic serpent). His sleep begins on Shayani Ekadashi (literally the 'sleeping 11th') and he finally awakens from his slumber, four months later, on Prabodhini Ekadashi. The celebrations in Ashadha and Kartik continue until the full-moon in those months, concluding with torchlight processions. Inscriptions dating to the 11th century mention the Ekadashi pilgrimages to Pandharpur. On Shayani Ekadashi and Prabodini Ekadashi, the chief minister or a minister of Maharashtra state performs ritual components of worship on behalf of the Government of Maharashtra. This form of worship is known as sarkari-mahapuja.
Apart from the four Ekadashis, a fair is held on Dussera night at Pandharpur, when devotees dance on a large slab (ranga-shila) before Vithoba, accompanied with torchlight processions. Other observances at the Pandharpur temple include: Ranga-Panchami, when gulal (red powder) is sprinkled on the god's feet; and Krishna Janmashtami, Krishna's birthday, when devotees dance and sing in front of Vithoba for nine days. Other sacred days include Wednesdays, Saturdays and all other Ekadashis, all of which are considered holy in Vaishnavism.
Devotional works
Devotional works dedicated to Vithoba can be categorised into the Varkari tradition, the Brahmin tradition and what Raeside calls a "third tradition", that includes both Varkari and Brahmin elements. The Varkari texts are written in Marathi, the Brahmin texts in Sanskrit, and the "third tradition" are Marathi texts written by Brahmins.
The Varkari texts are: Bhaktalilamrita and Bhaktavijaya by Mahipati, Pundalika-Mahatmya by Bahinabai, and a long abhanga by Namdev. All these texts describe the legend of Pundalik. The Brahmin texts include: two versions of Panduranga-Mahatmya from the Skanda Purana (consisting of 900 verses); Panduranga-Mahatmya from the Padma Purana (consisting of 1,200 verses); Bhima-Mahatmya, also from the Padma Purana; and a third devotional work, yet again called Panduranga-Mahatmya, which is found in the Vishnu Purana. The "third tradition" is found in two works: Panduranga-Mahatmya by the Brahmin Sridhara (consisting of 750 verses), and another work of the same name written by Prahlada Maharaj (consisting of 181 verses).
In addition to the above, there are many abhangas, the short Marathi devotional poems of the Varkaris, and many stutis (songs of praise) and stotras (hymns), some of them originating from the Haridasa tradition. The best known of these is "Pandurangastaka" or "Pandurangastrotra", attributed to Adi Shankara, although this attribution is questioned. A text called "Tirthavali-Gatha", attributed to Namdev or Dnyaneshwar but possibly a collection of writings of many poet-saints, also centers on the propagation of Varkari faith and Vithoba worship. Other devotional works include aratis like "Yuge atthavisa vitevari ubha" by Namdev and "Yei O Vitthala majhe mauli re". These aratis sing of Vithoba, who wears yellow garments (a characteristic of Vishnu) and is served by Garuda (mount of Vishnu) and Hanuman (the monkey god, devotee of Rama—an avatar of Vishnu). Finally, the Telugu poet Tenali Ramakrishna (16th century) refers to Vithoba, as Panduranga, in his poem Panduranga-Mahatmyamu: "(O Parvati), accepting the services of Pundarika and Kshetrapala (Kala-bhairava), becoming the wish fulfilling tree by assuming a subtle body for the sake of devotees, fulfilling their wishes, the deity Panduranga resides in that temple."
Temples
There are many Vithoba temples in Maharashtra, and some in Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Gujarat, Goa and Andhra Pradesh. However, the main centre of worship is Vithoba's temple in Pandharpur. The temple's date of establishment is disputed, though it is clear that it was standing at the time of Dnyaneshwar in the 13th century. Along with Vithoba and his consorts—Rukmini, Satyabhama and Radha—other Vaishnava deities are worshipped. These include: Venkateshwara, a form of Vishnu; Mahalakshmi, a form of Vishnu's consort Lakshmi; Garuda and Hanuman (see previous section). Shaiva deities are also worshipped, such as: Ganesha, the elephant-headed god of wisdom and beginnings; Khandoba, a form of Shiva; and Annapurna, a form of Shiva's consort Parvati. The samadhis (memorials) of saints like Namdev, Chokhamela and Janabai, and of devotees such as Pundalik and Kanhopatra, are in and around the temple. Other significant temples in Maharashtra are located: at Dehu, the birthplace of Tukaram, which attracts visitors at all ekadashis of the year; at Kole (Satara district), in memory of Ghadge Bova, which has a fair on the fifth day of the bright fortnight (waxing moon) in Magha month; at Kolhapur and Rajapur, which host fairs on Shayani Ekadashi and Prabodini Ekadashi; Madhe — a refuge of the Pandharpur image when it was moved to protect from Muslim invaders and finally at the Birla Mandir in Shahad.
Several temples are found in Goa, the well-known ones being the temples at Sanquelim, Sanguem and Gokarna Math. Similarly temple festivals celebrated in Vitthala temples in Margao, Ponda attract a lot a pilgrims. Vitthal is also worshipped as Vitthalnath at the Nathdwara in Rajasthan.
Vithoba was introduced to South India during the Vijayanagara and Maratha rule. In South India he is generally known as Vitthala. The Hampi temple (mentioned above) is a World Heritage Site and the most important of Vitthala's temples outside Maharashtra. Constructed in the 15th century, the temple is believed to have housed the central image from Pandharpur, which the Vijayanagara king Krishnadevaraya took "to enhance his own status" or to save the image from plunder by Muslim invaders. It was later returned to Pandharpur by Bhanudas (1448–1513), the great-grandfather of poet-saint Eknath. Today, the temple stands without a central image, though between 1516 and 1565, most important transactions, which would have been carried out previously in the presence of the original state deity Virupaksha (a form of Shiva), were issued in presence of the central image of Vitthala. Three of Madhvacharya's eight mathas (monasteries) in Karnataka—Shirur, Pejavara and Puttige—have Vitthala as their presiding deity. A Vitthaleshwara temple stands at Mulbagal, Karnataka. In Tamil Nadu, Vitthala shrines are found in Srirangam, Vittalapuram near thiruporur and in Tirunelveli district, and Thennangur, Govindapuram near Kumbakonam and sculptures are also found in Kanchi.
Legend
Legends regarding Vithoba usually focus on his devotee Pundalik or on Vithoba's role as a savior to the poet-saints of the Varkari faith. As discussed in the devotional works section above, the Pundalik legend appears in the Sanskrit scriptures Skanda Purana and Padma Purana. It is also documented in Marathi texts: Panduranga-Mahatmya by a Brahmin called Sridhara; another work of the same name written by Prahlada Maharaj; and also in the abhangas of various poet-saints.
There are three versions of the Pundalik legend, two of which are attested as textual variants of the Skanda Purana (1.34–67). According to the first, the ascetic Pundarika (Pundalik) is described as a devotee of god Vishnu and dedicated to the service of his parents. The god Gopala-Krishna, a form of Vishnu, comes from Govardhana as a cowherd, accompanied by his grazing cows, to meet Pundarika. Krishna is described as in digambara form, wearing makara-kundala, the srivatsa mark (described above), a head-dress of peacock feathers, resting his hands on his waist and keeping his cow-stick between his thighs. Pundarika asks Krishna to remain in this form on the banks of the river Bhima. He believes that Krishna's presence will make the site a tirtha and a kshetra. The location is identified with modern-day Pandharpur, which is situated on the banks of the Bhima. The description of Krishna resembles the characteristics of the Pandharpur image of Vithoba.
The second version of the legend depicts Vithoba appearing before Pundalik as the five-year-old Bala Krishna (infant Krishna). This version is found in manuscripts of both Puranas, Prahlada Maharaj, and the poet-saints, notably Tukaram. The remaining version of the Pundalik legend appears in Sridhara and as a variant in the Padma Purana. Pundalik, a Brahmin madly in love with his wife, neglected his aged parents as a result. Later, on meeting sage Kukkuta, Pundalik underwent a transformation and devoted his life to the service of his aged parents. Meanwhile, Radha, the milkmaid-lover of Krishna, came to Dvaraka, the kingdom of Krishna, and sat on his lap. Radha did not honour Rukmini, the chief queen of Krishna, nor did Krishna hold Radha accountable for the offence. Offended, Rukmini left Krishna and went to the forest of Dandivana near Pandharpur. Saddened by Rukmini's departure, Krishna searched for his queen and finally found her resting in Dandivana, near Pundalik's house. After some coaxing, Rukmini was pacified. Then Krishna visited Pundalik and found him serving his parents. Pundalik threw a brick outside for Krishna to rest on. Krishna stood on the brick and waited for Pundalik. After completing his services, Pundalik asked that Krishna, in the Vithoba form, remain on the brick with Rukmini, in her Rakhumai form, and bless his devotees forever.
Other legends describe Vithoba coming to the rescue of his devotees in the form of a commoner, an outcast Mahar "untouchable" or a Brahmin beggar. Mahipati, in his work Pandurangastrotra, narrates how Vithoba helped female saints like Janabai in their daily chores, such as sweeping the house and pounding the rice. He narrates how Vithoba came to the aid of Sena the barber. The king of Bidar had ordered Sena to be arrested for not coming to the palace despite royal orders. As Sena was engrossed in his prayers to Vithoba, Vithoba went to the palace in the form of Sena to serve the king, and Sena was saved. Another tale deals with a saint, Damaji, the keeper of the royal grain store, who distributed grain to the people in famine. Vithoba came as an outcaste with a bag of gold to pay for the grain. Yet another story narrates how Vithoba resurrected the child of Gora Kumbhar (potter), who had been trampled into the clay by Gora while singing the name of Vithoba.
Notes
References
Translated into English:
Further reading
External links
Official site of Shri Vitthal Rukmini Temple, Pandharpur
Images of the central image of Vithoba and Rukmini
Video of the Pandharpur Vithoba's "Maha-puja" (worship), Maharashtra Times
Article on the Pandharpur temple
The Haridasa movement
A summary of Viththal ek mahasamanvaya by R C Dhere on author's website
Forms of Krishna
Forms of Vishnu
Regional Hindu gods
Titles and names of Krishna
Warkari
Haridasa |
4445128 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hari%20Singh%20Nalwa | Hari Singh Nalwa | Hari Singh Nalwa (29 April 1791 – 30 April 1837) was Commander-in-chief of the Sikh Khalsa Fauj, the army of the Sikh Empire. He is known for his role in the conquests of Kasur, Sialkot, Attock, Multan, Kashmir, Peshawar and Jamrud. Hari Singh Nalwa was responsible for expanding the frontier of Sikh Empire to beyond the Indus River right up to the mouth of the Khyber Pass. At the time of his death, the western boundary of the empire was Jamrud.
He served as governor of Kashmir, Peshawar and Hazara. He established a mint on behalf of the Sikh Empire to facilitate revenue collection in Kashmir and Peshawar.
Early life
Hari Singh Nalwa was born in Gujranwala, in the Majha region of Punjab to Dharam Kaur and Gurdial Singh Uppal. According to historian Autar Singh Sandhu, Hari Singh Nalwa was a Khatri from the Uppal clan. As per Vanit Nalwa who claims to be Hari's descendant, Hari Singh Nalwa was a Khatri who's family originally belonged to Majitha town near Amritsar. After his father died in 1798, he was raised by his mother. In 1801, at the age of ten, he took Amrit Sanchar and was initiated as a Khalsa. At the age of twelve, he began to manage his father's estate and took up horse riding.
In 1804, at the age of fourteen, his mother sent him to the court of Ranjit Singh to resolve a property dispute. Ranjit Singh decided the arbitration in his favor because of his background and aptitude. Hari Singh had explained that his father and grandfather had served under Maha Singh and Charat Singh, the Maharaja's ancestors, and demonstrated his skills as a horseman and musketeer. Ranjit Singh gave him a position at the court as a personal attendant.
Hari Singh had two wives, as customary at the time, Raj Kaur from Rawalpindi and Desan Kaur. He had four sons and two daughters.
Military career
During a hunt in 1804, a tiger attacked him and also killed his horse. His fellow hunters attempted to protect him but he refused their offers and allegedly killed the tiger by himself using a dagger while fending off blows with a shield, thus earning the cognomen Baghmar (Tiger-killer). Whether he was by that time already serving in the military is unknown but he was commissioned as Sardar, commanding 800 horses and footmen, in that year.
Battle of Kasur (1807)
Hari Singh's first significant participation in a Sikh conquest on assuming charge of an independent contingent was in 1807, at the capture of Kasur. This place had long been a thorn in the side of Ranjit Singh's power because of its proximity to his capital city of Lahore. It was captured in the fourth attempt. This attack was led by Maharaja Ranjit Singh and Jodh Singh Ramgarhia. During the campaign the Sardar showed remarkable bravery and dexterity. The Sardar was granted a Jagir in recognition of his services.
Siege of Multan (1807)
Ranjit Singh attacked Multan 7 times. Hari Singh Nalwa fought in 5 of them. Ranjit Singh did not want to finish his enemies in one stroke as Ranjit did not want much blood and wanted to weaken his enemies into an position where they could be easily conquered. On their march to Multan, they conquered the territories of Dilalpur and Jhang. The Sikhs besieged the Multan Fort. Peace was made through the help of Fateh Singh Kaliawalia. The Maharaja lifted the siege with a lot of money.
Battle of Sialkot (1807)
Ranjit Singh nominated Hari Singh Nalwa to take Sialkot from its ruler Jiwan Singh. This was his first battle under an independent command. The two armies were engaged for a couple of days, eventually seventeen year old Hari Singh carried the day. Nalwa lead the army to victory and planted the Sikh Flag on top of the fort.
Battle of Jammu (1808)
The Sikhs invaded Jammu in 1808 right after Sialkot. After Hari Singh Nalwa conquered Sialkot, Ranjit Singh had ordered him to take the surrounding areas of Jammu as well. He was aided by a Sikh named Hukam Singh Chimni and they successfully managed to conquer the city.
Siege of Multan (1810)
Nalwa once more besieged Multan in 1810. Ranjit Singh had given out an order to Muzaffar Khan to pay tribute, but the latter refused. Because of this, the Sikhs besieged Multan once more. In this battle, Hari Singh Nalwa got seriously wounded while climbing the fort because of a fire-pot that was thrown at him. Muzaffar Khan unsuccessfully sought for support from the British but after 2 months of siege, Nawab Muzaffar Khan surrendered. Muzaffar Khan had to pay a tribute of 180,000 rupees and 20 horses to the Sikhs.
Battle of Attock (1813)
The fort of Attock was a major replenishment point for all armies crossing the Indus. In the early 19th century, Afghan appointees of the Kingdom of Kabul held this fort, as they did most of the territory along this frontier. This battle was fought and won by the Sikhs on the banks of the Indus under the leadership of Dewan Mokham Chand, Maharaja Ranjit Singh's general, against Wazir Fatteh Khan and his brother Dost Mohammad Khan, on behalf of Shah Mahmud of Kabul. Besides Hari Singh Nalwa, Hukam Singh Attariwala, Shyamu Singh, Khalsa Fateh Singh Ahluwalia and Behmam Singh Malliawala actively participated in this battle. With the conquest of Attock, the adjoining regions of Hazara-i-Karlugh and Gandhgarh became tributary to the Sikhs. In 1815, Sherbaz Khan of Gandhgarh challenged Hari Singh Nalwa's authority and was defeated.
Campaign in Kashmir
The Sikhs made an attempt to take Kashmir soon after the Battle of Attock. The army was under the general command of Maharaja Ranjit Singh, who camped at Rajauri. The troops were led towards Srinagar by Ram Dayal, grandson of Dewan Mokham Chand, while Jamadar Khushal Singh commanded the van, Hari Singh Nalwa and Nihal Singh Attariwala brought up the rear. Lack of provisions, delay in the arrival of reinforcements, bad weather and treachery of the allies lead to the Sikhs to retreat. The next few years were spent in subduing Muslim chiefs within the Kashmir territory, en route Srinagar Valley. In 1815–16, Hari Singh Nalwa attacked and destroyed the stronghold of the traitorous Rajauri chief.
Conquest of Mahmudkot (1816)
In preparation of the conquest of the strongly fortified Mankera, Maharaja Ranjit Singh decided to approach it from its southern extremity. After the Baisakhi of 1816, Misr Diwan Chand, Illahi Bakhsh, Fateh Singh Ahluwalia, Nihal Singh Attariwala and Hari Singh Nalwa accompanied by seven paltans and the topkhana went towards Mahmudkot. When news of its conquest arrived, it left the Maharaja so elated at the success of Sikh arms that he celebrated this victory with the firing of cannons. Two years later, on their way to Multan, the Sikhs captured the forts of Khangarh and Muzzaffargarh.
Battle of Multan (1818)
By 1818, Muzaffar Khan's resources had been looted by Ranjit Singh in his previous expeditions of Multan. He again ordered the Sikhs to march towards Multan. As soon as the order was received, a force of 15,000 Sikhs clashed between a force of 40,000 Afghans. Another force of 10,000 Sikhs under Dhena Singh reinforced the Sikhs. Muzaffar Khan challenged the Sikhs with a sword valiantly but was shot down with five of his sons. Hari Singh Nalwa was "chiefly instrumental" in the capture of the citadel. The famous Zamzama was badly damaged in the siege. The Sikhs finally captured the city after six attempts. In the siege 1,900 Sikhs were killed and 4,000 wounded. The Afghans had 12,000 men killed.
Peshawar becomes tributary (1818)
When Shah Mahmud's son, Shah Kamran, killed their Barakzai Vazir Fateh Khan in August 1818 the Sikhs took advantage of the resulting confusion and their army formally forded the Indus and entered Peshawar, the summer capital of the Kingdom of Kabul (modern-day Afghanistan), for the first time. Thereafter, Hari Singh Nalwa was deputed towards Peshawar in order to keep the Sikh dabdaba kayam — maintain the pressure.
Mitha Tiwana
Hari Singh Nalwa was left at the suburbs of Mitha Tiwana by Dewan Mokham Chand as an order from the Maharaja. He achieved significant success and was given the jagir of Mitha Tiwana.
Capture of Kashmir
In 1819 Maharaja Ranjit Singh was asked to annex Kashmir from the Durrani Empire as the Afghan rule was very unpopular among the people of Kashmir. Thus Ranjit Singh sent an expeditionary force. The Sikh expeditionary force established two armories for the expedition at Gujrat and Wazirabad. The expedition was split into three columns: Misr Diwan Chand commanded the advance force of about 12,000 with heavy artillery where Kharak Singh and Hari Singh Nalwa marched behind him, and Ranjit Singh commanded the rear guard, protecting the supply train. The expeditionary force marched to Bhimber and resupplied, capturing the fort of a local Hakim without resistance. On 1 May, both columns of the Sikh Army reached Rajouri and its ruler, Raja Agarullah Khan, rebelled and forced a battle. Hari Singh Nalwa took command of a force and routed his army, which offered an unconditional surrender after losing most of its men and war supplies. His brother, Raja Rahimullah Khan, was appointed the Raja of Rajauri in return for assistance in navigating the 'Behram Pass' (the lower end of the Pir Panjal Pass).
Once the Sikh forces reached the Behram Pass, the Durrani-appointed faujdar charged with guarding it, fled to Srinagar. Mir Mohammad Khan, the kotwal of Poonch, and Mohammad Ali, the kotwal of Shopian, attempted a defense at the Dhaki Deo and Maja passed, but were defeated and surrendered to the Sikhs on 23 June 1819.
On 5 July 1819, the Sikh army attempted to march through Shopian to Srinagar but was stopped by a Durrani army headed by Jabbar Khan. The Durrani force had heavily entrenched itself in preparation for the Sikh artillery attack and brought heavy artillery, which the Sikhs were unprepared for because they had brought only light guns.
Once his artillery was in range, Misr Diwan Chand opened the battle with an artillery barrage and multiple infantry and cavalry charges. The Durrani army was able to hold back the Sikh attempts to storm their lines until the Sikhs began moving their guns forward. However, when Misr Diwan Chand was overseeing the movement of guns on the Sikh left flank, Jabbar Khan saw an opening and led the Durrani right flank which stormed Misr Diwan Chand's artillery battery, captured two guns, and threw the Sikh left flank in "disarray". However the Durrani force attacking the Sikh left flank was exposed from their left and Akali Phoola Singh, the commander of the Sikh right flank, rallied his troops and led his command in a charge across the battlefield to the artillery battery. After a close quarters fight which resulted in both sides resorting to using swords and daggers, the Durrani soldiers proved to be ineffective against the much superior martial skills of the Sikh soldiers and sections of the Durrani force began to retreat and Jabbar Khan was wounded while escaping the battlefield. On 15 July 1819, the Sikh army made their way into Srinagar.
Battle of Pakhli (1819)
Following the capture of Kashmir, tribute was due from Pakhli, Damtaur and Darband. Hari Singh Nalwa along with his companions marched through Pakhli in order to collect tribute. The request for tribute resulted in fighting and the Sikhs got the tribute after a well fought battle.
Battle of Mangal (1821)
The Maharaja summoned Nalwa to pay his tax. He marched by Pakhli and Muzaffarabad with a force of 7,000 foot.When he was passing through Mangal in the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Province, he found a large tribal force of 25,000 to 30,000 troops under Bostan Khan and Mohammad Khan Tarain. The Sikh Review Volume 23 gives an number of 70,000 troops, which is very unlikely to have happened and is exaggerated. Despite being heavily outnumbered, Nalwa with his Sikhs slashed 2,000 Afghans and achieved a well deserved victory.
Battle of Mankera (1822)
The Sindh Sagar Doab was chiefly controlled from Mankera and Mitha Tiwana. Nawab Hafiz Ahmed Khan, a relative of the Durranis, exerted considerable influence in this region. Besides Mankera, he commanded a vast area protected by 12 forts. With the weakening of Afghan rule in Kabul, the governors of Attock, Mankera, Mitha Tiwana and Khushab had declared their independence. Ranjit Singh celebrated the Dussehra of 1821 across the river Ravi, at Shahdera. Hari Singh, Governor of Kashmir, was most familiar with the territory that the Maharaja had now set his eyes on. Nalwa was summoned post-haste to join the Lahore Army already on its way towards the river Indus. The Maharaja and his army had crossed the Jehlum when Hari Singh Nalwa, accompanied by his Kashmir platoons, joined them at Mitha Tiwana. The Sikhs commenced offensive operations in early November.
Nawab Hafiz Ahmed's predecessor, Nawab Mohammed Khan, had formed a cordon around Mankera with 12 forts—Haidrabad, Maujgarh, Fatehpur, Pipal, Darya Khan, Khanpur, Jhandawala, Kalor, Dulewala, Bhakkar, Dingana and Chaubara. The Sikh army occupied these forts and soon the only place that remained to be conquered was Mankera itself. A few years earlier, the Nawab of Mankera had actively participated in the reduction of Mitha Tiwana. The Tiwanas, now feudatories of Hari Singh Nalwa, were eager participants in returning that favour to the Nawab. The force was divided into three parts—one column being under Hari Singh—and each column entered the Mankera territory by a different route; capturing various places en route all three columns rejoined near Mankera town. Mankera was besieged, with Nalwa's force being on the west of the fort.
The Nawab was allowed to proceed towards Dera Ismail Khan, which was granted to him as jagir. His descendants held the area until 1836.
Battle of Nowshera (Naushehra) (1823)
The Sikhs forayed into Peshawar for the first time in 1818, but did not occupy the territory. They were content with collecting tribute from Yar Mohammed, its Barakzai governor. Azim Khan, Yar Mohammed's half-brother in Kabul, totally disapproved of the latter's deference to the Sikhs and decided to march down at the head of a large force to vindicate the honour of the Afghans. Azim Khan wanted to avenge both, the supplication of his Peshawar brethren and the loss of Kashmir. Hari Singh Nalwa was the first to cross the Indus at Attock to the Sikh post of Khairabad; he was accompanied by Diwan Kirpa Ram and Khalsa Sher Singh, the Maharaja's teenaged son, beside 8,000 men.
The Afghan army was expected near Nowshera, on the banks of the river Kabul (Landai). Hari Singh's immediate plan was to capture the Yusafzai stronghold to the north of the Landai at Jehangira, and the Khattak territory to its south at Akora Khattak. Jehangira was a masonry fort with very strong towers and the Afghan Yusafzais offered tough resistance. Hari Singh entered the fort and established his thana there. The remaining troops re-crossed the Landai River and returned to their base camp at Akora. Mohammed Azim Khan had encamped roughly ten miles north-west of Hari Singh's position, on the right bank of the Landai, facing the town of Nowshera, awaiting Ranjit Singh's approach. The Sikhs had scheduled two battles – one along either bank of the Landai.
After Hari Singh had successfully reduced the Afghan tribal strongholds on either side of the river, Ranjit Singh departed from the fort of Attock. He crossed the Landai River at a ford below Akora, and set up his camp near the fort of Jehangira. The famous army commander Akali Phula Singh and Gurkha commander Bal Bahadur, with their respective troops, accompanied the Maharaja. The Afghan Barakzais witnessed the battle from across the river. They were not able to cross the Landai river. Eventually, the inheritors of Ahmed Shah Abdali's legacy withdrew from the area, toward the direction of Jalalabad.
Battle of Sirikot (1824)
Sirikot lay less than ten miles to the north-west of Haripur. This Mashwani village was strategically placed in a basin at the top of the north-east end of the Gandhgarh Range, which made its secure location a haven for the rebellious chiefs in the entire region. Hari Singh Nalwa went towards Sirikot before the rains of 1824. It was another six months before the attempt produced conclusive results. The Sardar almost lost his life in the course of this expedition. Ranjit Singh's military campaign for the winter of 1824 was scheduled towards Peshawar and Kabul. While stationed at Wazirabad, he received an arzi (written petition) from Sardar Hari Singh informing him that he and his men were overwhelmingly outnumbered – one Sikh to ten Afghans. Ranjit Singh marched to [Rohtas], from there to [Rawalpindi] and via [Sarai Kala] reached Sirikot. With news of the approach of the Sikh army, the Afghans withdrew.
Battle of Saidu (1827)
The redeemer of the Yusafzais came in the form of one Sayyid Ahmad , who despite being a 'Hindki' was accepted as a leader by them. Budh Singh Sandhanwalia, accompanied by 4,000 horsemen, was deputed towards Attock to assist in suppressing the Yusafzai rebellion. The Maharaja's brief required him to thereafter to proceed towards Peshawar and collect tribute from Yar Mohammed Khan Barakzai. Budh Singh first heard of the Sayyid after he had crossed the Indus and encamped near the fort of Khairabad. Ranjit Singh was still on the sickbed when the news of the Sayyid's arrival, at the head of a large force of the Yusafzai peasantry, reached him. The gallantry of the Yusafzai defence in the Battle of Nowshera was still vivid in his mind. On receiving this news, he immediately put into motion all the forces that he could muster and immediately dispatched them towards the frontier.
The Barakzais in Peshawar, though outwardly professing allegiance to the Sikhs, were in reality in league with the other Afghans. The Sayyid marched from Peshawar in the direction of Nowshera. Sardar Budh Singh wrote to the Sayyid seeking for a clarification of his intention. The Sayyid replied that he wished to first take the fort of Attock and then engage Budh Singh in battle.
Hari Singh Nalwa stood guard at the fort of Attock with the intention of keeping the Sayyid and his men from crossing the river until reinforcements arrived from Lahore. News had reached the Sikhs that the jihadis accompanying the Sayyid numbered several thousand. The battle between the Sayyid and the Sikhs was fought on 14 Phagun (23 February) 1827. The action commenced at about ten in the morning. The Muslim war cry of Allah hu Akbar, or "God is the greatest", was answered by the Sikhs with Bole so nihal, Sat Sri Akal, or "they who affirm the name of God, the only immortal truth, will find fulfilment". Ironically, the opposing forces first professed the glory of the very same God Almighty, albeit in different languages, before they commenced slaughtering each other. The cannonade lasted about two hours. The Sikhs charged at their opponents, routed them, and continued a victorious pursuit for six miles, taking all their guns, swivels and camp equipment. .
Occupies Peshawar (1834)
The occupation of the great city of Peshawar and its ruinous fort, the Bala Hisar was a reflection of Sardar Hari Singh Nalwa's formidable reputation in the region. Masson arrived in Peshawar just in time to see the Sikhs take control of the city. His eyewitness' account reports that the Afghans withdrew from the region and Hari Singh Nalwa occupied Peshawar without conflict.
Dost Mohammad Khan withdraws (1835)
Hari Singh Nalwa was the governor of Peshawar when Dost Mohammed personally came at the head of a large force to challenge the Sikhs. Following his victory against Shah Shuja at Kandahar, in the first quarter of 1834, Dost Mohammed declared himself padshah (king), gave a call for jihad and set off from Kabul to wrest Peshawar from the Sikhs. Ranjit Singh directed his generals to amuse the Afghans with negotiations and to win over Sultan Mohammed Khan. He directed them that on no account, even if attacked, were they to enter into a general engagement until his arrival.
Early skirmishes began in December 1834, which saw Akbar Khan, the son of Dost Mohammad Khan, fight engagements with different Sikh outposts, in one such engagement, defeating Hari Singh Nalwa, leaving around 150 Sikhs dead and wounded, and forcing him to withdraw to Peshawar.
Ranjit Singh chose intrigue rather than facing the Afghans in battle and began sending negotiation efforts to Dost Mohammad Khan. However, the true intentions of this were to divide Dost Mohammad Khan's supporters with bribes, prominently, Sultan Mohammad Khan. Josiah Harlan and Faqir Aziz were sent to the camp of Dost Mohammad, who plotted intrigue in the Afghan camp, including making some of his supporters and brothers jealous of the powerful position Dost Mohammad Khan held. This led to Sultan Mohammad's withdrawal from the camp at night with over 10,000 men, as this force defected to the Sikh camp. This sent the Afghan camp into disarray.
The French division under Jean-François Allard, Paolo Avitabile, Claude Auguste Court and Jean-Baptiste Ventura commanded 20 to 22,000 men who marched very slowly and suitably towards the left flank of Dost Mohammad Khan's army. The main Sikh army led by Hari Singh Nalwa, Gulab Singh, Misr Sukh Raj, Tej Singh, Attar Singh Sandhanwalia, Khushal Singh, Dhian Singh, Jawala Singh, Lehna Singh Majithia and Maharaja Ranjit Singh numbered 60–80,000 and approached Dost Mohammad Khan's center and right side.
Dost Mohammad Khan rejected a truce with the Sikhs. He withdrew at night with his troops and Ghazis, believing that he was being surrounded and having faced a bad omen with the stirrup of a horse, the Afghans withdrew and took all their ammunition and guns with them.
Battle of Michni
Once Hari Singh Nalwa was hunting in the area near Michni with 100 horsemen when a Hindu came up with a complaint about how Dela Khan of Michni had stolen his spouse. Later more Hindus came to tell Nalwa about the atrocities of the Khan. Learning about all of this Hari Singh Nalwa agreed to help the Hindus.
He along with his 100 horsemen attacked the Khan's residence in night. Dela Khan outnumbered him having an army of 5,000 but for the first half of the battle, he only fought with 500. There are 2 accounts of what happened next. The first one refers that Dela Khan was slain in the battle and later his son attacked the Sikhs with the rest of the army, who also died. The other one says that the Khan apologized and offered to return the bride, only to be punished.
The bride was returned to her husband and they both converted into the religion of Sikhism. The bride was Bibi Harsharan Kaur, a Sikh who was later important during Hari Singh Nalwa's martyr.
Jamrud (Khyber Pass) (1836)
In October 1836 following the Dussehra celebrations in Amritsar, Hari Singh made a sudden attack on the village of Jamrud, at the mouth of the Khyber Pass. The Misha Khel Khyberis, the owners of this village, were renowned for their excellent marksmanship and total lack of respect for any authority. Hari Singh Nalwa's first encounter with this tribe had taken place following the Battle of Nowshera when he had pursued the fleeing Azim Khan; and once again, when he chased Dost Mohammed Khan in 1835.
The occupation of Jamrud was rather strongly contested but it appeared that the place was taken by surprise. On its capture, Hari Singh Nalwa gave instructions to fortify the position without delay. A small existing fort was immediately put into repair. News of this event was immediately transmitted to Kabul. Masson informed Wade of the passage of events along this frontier in a letter dated 31 October 1836. With the conquest of Jamrud, at the very mouth of the Khyber, the frontier of the Sikh Empire now bordered the foothills of the Hindu Kush Mountains.
Panjtaar defeated (1836)
The defeat of the Khyberis sent shock waves through the Afghans. Hari Singh Nalwa accompanied by Kanwar Sher Singh, now proceeded towards the Yusafzai strongholds, north-east of Peshawar, which had withheld tribute for three years. The Sikhs defeated the Yusafzais, with their chief, Fateh Khan of Panjtar, losing his territory. It was reported that 15,000 mulkia fled before the Sikhs, many being killed and the remaining taking refuge in the hills. After burning and levelling Panjtar to the ground, Hari Singh returned to Peshawar realising all the arrears of revenue. Fateh Khan was obliged to sign an agreement to pay tribute on which condition Panjtar was released. When news of the conquest of Panjtar reached the Court of Lahore, a display of fireworks was proposed.
Battle of Jamrud (1837)
The Maharaja's grandson, Nau Nihal Singh was getting married in March 1837. Troops had been withdrawn from all over the Punjab to put up a show of strength for the British Commander-in-chief who was invited to the wedding. Dost Mohammed Khan had been invited to the great celebration. Hari Singh Nalwa too was supposed to be at Amritsar, but in reality was in Peshawar (some accounts say he was ill) Dost Mohammed had ordered his army to march towards Jamrud together with five sons and his chief advisors with orders not to engage with the Sikhs, but more as a show of strength and try and wrest the forts of Shabqadar, Jamrud and Peshawar. Hari Singh had also been instructed not to engage with the Afghans till reinforcements arrived from Lahore. Hari Singh's lieutenant, Mahan Singh, was in the fortress of Jamrud with 600 men and limited supplies. Hari Singh was in the strong fort of Peshawar. He was forced to go to the rescue of his men who were surrounded from every side by the Afghan forces, without water in the small fortress. Though the Sikhs were totally outnumbered, presence of Hari Singh Nalwa put the Afghan army into panic. In the melee, Hari Singh Nalwa was grievously wounded. Before he died, he told his lieutenant not to let the news of his death out till the arrival of reinforcements, which is what he did. While the Afghans knew that Hari Singh had been wounded, they waited for over a week doing nothing, till the news of his death was confirmed. The Afghans withdrew after witnessing Nalwa's body hung outside the fort. Hari Singh Nalwa had not only defended Jamrud and Peshawar, but had prevented the Afghans from ravaging the entire north-west frontier, in turn was not able to invade Afghanistan himself. The loss of Hari Singh Nalwa was irreparable and this Sikh defeat was costly for that precise reason.
The victories in battles that were achieved over the Afghans, were a favourite topic of conversation for Ranjit Singh. He was to immortalise these by ordering a shawl from Kashmir at the record price of Rs 5000, in which were depicted the scenes of the battles fought with them. Following the death of Hari Singh Nalwa, no further conquests were made in this direction. The Khyber Pass continued as the Sikh frontier till the annexation of the Punjab by the British.
Administrator
Hari Singh's administrative rule covered one-third of the Sikh Empire. He served as the Governor of Kashmir (1820–21), Greater Hazara (1822–1837) and was twice appointed the Governor of Peshawar (1834-5 & 1836-his death). He worked closely with 2nd in command of the Khalsa Army, the Sikh Brahmin 'Raja Mahan Singh Mirpuri' on many affairs related to administration.
In his private capacity, Hari Singh Nalwa was required to administer his vast jagir spread all over the kingdom. He was sent to the most troublesome spots of the Sikh empire in order to "create a tradition of vigorous and efficient administration". The territories under his jurisdiction later formed part of the British Districts of Peshawar, Hazara (Pakhli, Damtaur, Haripur, Darband, Gandhgarh, Dhund, Karral and Khanpur), Attock (Chhachch, Hassan Abdal), Jehlum (Pindi Gheb, Katas), Mianwali (Kachhi), Shahpur (Warcha, Mitha Tiwana and Nurpur), Dera Ismail Khan (Bannu, Tank, and Kundi), Rawalpindi (Rawalpindi, Kallar) and Gujranwala. In 1832, at the specific request of William Bentinck, the Maharajah proposed a fixed table of duties for the whole of his territories. Sardar Hari Singh Nalwa was one of the three men deputed to fix the duties from Attock (on the Indus) to Filor (on the Satluj).
In Kashmir, however, Sikh rule was generally considered oppressive, protected perhaps by the remoteness of Kashmir from the capital of the Sikh empire in Lahore. The Sikhs enacted a number of anti-Muslim laws, which included handing out death sentences for cow slaughter, closing down the Jamia Masjid in Srinagar, and banning the azaan, the public Muslim call to prayer. Kashmir had also now begun to attract European visitors, several of whom wrote of the abject poverty of the vast Muslim peasantry and of the exorbitant taxes under the Sikhs.
The Sikh rule in lands dominated for centuries by Muslims was an exception in the political history of the latter. To be ruled by 'kafirs' was the worst kind of ignominy to befall a Muslim. Before the Sikhs came to Kashmir (1819 CE), the Afghans had ruled it for 67 years. For the Muslims, Sikh rule was the darkest period of the history of the place, while for the Kashmiri Pandits (Hindus) nothing was worse than the Afghan rule. The Sikh conquest of Kashmir was prompted by an appeal from its Hindu population. The oppressed Hindus had been subjected to forced conversions, their women raped, their temples desecrated, and cows slaughtered. Efforts by the Sikhs to keep peace in far-flung regions pressed them to close mosques and ban the call to prayer because the Muslim clergy charged the population to frenzy with a call for 'jihad' at every pretext. Cow-slaughter (Holy Cow) offended the religious sentiments of the Hindu population and therefore it met with capital punishment in the Sikh empire. In Peshawar, keeping in view "the turbulence of the lawless tribes ... and the geographical and political exigencies of the situation" Hari Singh's methods were most suitable.
Diplomatic mission
In 1831, Hari Singh Nalwa was deputed to head a diplomatic mission to Lord William Bentinck, Governor-General of British India. The Ropar Meeting between Maharaja Ranjit Singh and the head of British India followed soon thereafter. The Maharaja saw this as a good occasion to get his son, Kharak Singh, acknowledged as his heir-apparent. Hari Singh Nalwa expressed strong reservations against any such move. The British desired to persuade Ranjit Singh to open the Indus for trade.
Death
Hari Singh Nalwa Sahib was severely wounded while fighting the forces of Dost Mohammad Khan of Afghanistan. He died of his injuries and was cremated in the Jamrud Fort built at the mouth of the Khyber Pass in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa. According to Afghan chronicle Siraj al-Tawarikh, he was killed in a duel with Wazir Akbar Khan. According to historian Hari Ram Gupta, Hari Singh rallied his men and rode to the front where he was struck by two bullets and later expired after being rushed inside the fort. Babu Gajju Mall Kapur, a Hindu resident of Peshawar, commemorated his memory by building a memorial in the fort in 1892.
Legacy
Nalwa was also a builder. At least 56 buildings were attributed to him, which included forts, ramparts, towers, gurdwaras, tanks, samadhis, temples, mosques, towns, havelis, sarais and gardens. He built the fortified town of Haripur in 1822. This was the first planned town in the region, with a superb water distribution system. His very strong fort of Harkishengarh, situated in the valley at the foothill of mountains, had four gates. It was surrounded by a wall, four yards thick and 16 yards high. Nalwa's presence brought such a feeling of security to the region that when Hügel visited Haripur in 1835–6, he found the town humming with activity. A large number of Khatris migrated there and established a flourishing trade. Haripur, tehsil and district, in Hazara, North-West Frontier Province, are named after him.
Nalwa contributed to the prosperity of Gujranwala, which he was given as a jagir sometime after 1799, which he held till his death in 1837.
He built all the main Sikh forts in the trans-Indus region of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa — Jehangira and Nowshera on the left and right bank respectively of the river Kabul, Sumergarh (or Bala Hisar Fort in the city of Peshawar), for the Sikh Kingdom. In addition, he laid the foundation for the fort of Fatehgarh, at Jamrud (Jamrud Fort). He reinforced Akbar's Attock fort situated on the left bank of the river Indus by building very high bastions at each of the gates. He also built the fort of Uri in Kashmir.
A religious man, Nalwa built Gurdwara Panja Sahib in the town of Hassan Abdal, south-west of Haripur and north-west of Rawalpindi, to commemorate Guru Nanak's journey through that region. He had donated the gold required to cover the dome of the Akal Takht within the Harmandir Sahib complex in Amritsar.
Following Hari Singh Nalwa's death, his sons Jawahir Singh Nalwa and Arjan Singh Nalwa fought against the British to protect the sovereignty of the Kingdom of the Sikhs, with the former being noted for his defence in the Battle of Chillianwala.
Abhinav Bindra, India's first individual Olympic Gold Medalist, is his 5th generation direct descendant.
See also
Bajirao
Banda Singh Bahadur
Popular culture
Hari Singh Nalwa's life became a popular theme for martial ballads. His earliest biographers were poets, including Qadir Bakhsh urf Kadaryar, Misr Hari Chand urf Qadaryaar and Ram Dayal, all in the 19th century.
In the 20th century, the song Mere Desh Ki Dharti from the 1967 Bollywood film Upkaar eulogises him. Amar Chitra Katha first published the biography of Hari Singh Nalwa in 1978 (see List of Amar Chitra Katha comics).
On 30 April 2013 the Indian Minister of Communications Kapil Sibal released a commemorative postage stamp honouring Hari Singh.
Hari Singh Nalwa Champion of the Khalsaji 1791–1837, a biography by Vanit Nalwa – a direct descendant of the general – was published in 2009. It is being adapted into an Indian feature film by Prabhleen Kaur of Almighty Motion Picture.
A commemorative postage stamp was issued by the Government of India in 2013, marking the 176th anniversary of Nalwa's death.
Hari Singh Nalwa is the subject of Punjabi singer Sidhu Moose Wala's song, Vaar. The song was released on November 8, 2022, to align with the 553rd birth anniversary of Guru Nanak. The song marked Sidhu's second posthumous release, and garnered 1.5 million YouTube views within the first 30 minutes of its release.
In September 2023, a depiction of Hari Singh Nalwa was imprinted on official sweater merchandise of the Dallas Cowboys football team as part of the Carpe Omnia ('seize everything') theme for the upcoming sports season.
Notes
References
Citations
Sources
Further reading
Niara, Gurabacana (1995). The Campaigns of Hari Singh Nalwa. Punjabi University. Publication Bureau.
External links
Hari Singh Nalwa
Hari Singh Nalwa Foundation Trust
1791 births
1837 deaths
Haripur District
Indian military leaders
Indian Sikhs
People from Gujranwala
Punjabi people
Ranjit Singh
Sikh warriors
Sikh martyrs |
4445282 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lewis%20%28surname%29 | Lewis (surname) | Lewis is a surname in the English language. It has several independent origins.
One of the origins of the surname, in England and Wales, is from the Norman personal name Lowis, Lodovicus. This name is from the post-Classical Latin name Ludovicus, the latinized form of the Germanic name Hlūtwīg, meaning "famed battle" (hlūt meaning "loud" or "famous" and wīg meaning "battle"). The name developed into the Old French Clovis, Clouis, and Louis. The name Lowis spread to England through the Normans.
In the United Kingdom Lewis is most commonly associated with Wales, and is a common Welsh Patronym. The name developed as an Anglicised or diminutive form of native Welsh names such as Llywelyn. Among the earliest examples being the Lewis family of Glamorgan in the 1540s. Other derivations include the Gaelic surname Mac Lughaidh, meaning "son of Lughaidh", which has also been Anglicised as Lewis. The surname Lewis is also an Anglicisation of several like-sounding Jewish surnames, such as "Levy" or "Levi", and of the Arab form of the name "Elias".
Lewis is the 4th most common surname in Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, 6th most common surname in Wales, 16th most common in Jamaica, 22nd most common in England, 24th most common in the United States, 61st most common in Canada and 129th most common in Scotland.
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Eugene Lewis (born c. 1940), American political scientist
Evan Lewis (politician) (1869–1941), American politician
Fielding Lewis (1725–1781), brother-in-law of George Washington
Francis Lewis (1713–1802), American merchant and politician
Fred E. Lewis (1865–1949), US Congressman from Pennsylvania and Mayor of Allentown, Pennsylvania
Geordin Hill-Lewis (Born 1986), Mayor of Cape Town
George Cornewall Lewis (1806–1863), British statesman
J. Hamilton Lewis (1863–1939), American politician
Helmar Lewis (1900–1999), American politician
Herbert Lewis (1858–1933), British politician
Ivan Lewis (born 1967), British politician
James A. Lewis (politician) (1933–1997), American libertarian politician
James T. Lewis (1819–1904), politician
Jerry Lewis (California politician) (1934–2021), American politician
John Lewis (1844–1923), Australian pastoralist and politician
John Lewis (1940–2020), American civil rights activist and politician
John Bower Lewis (1817–1874), Canadian politician
John F. Lewis (1818–1895), American farmer and politician
John Wood Lewis Sr. (1801–1865), American politician
Joseph J. Lewis (1801–1883), American Commissioner of Internal Revenue
JT Lewis (born 2000), American political candidate
Julian Lewis (born 1951), British politician
Kenneth Lewis (1916–1997), British politician
Kimmi Lewis (1957–2019), American politician
Leslyn Lewis (born 1970 or 1971), Canadian politician
Loran L. Lewis (1825–1916), New York politician and judge
Louie E. Lewis (1893–1968), Illinois politician
Marilyn Lewis (1931–2020), American politician
Mary Parker Lewis, American political consultant and activist
Merton E. Lewis (1861–1937), NY State Attorney General 1917–1918
Morgan Lewis (governor) (1754–1844), Governor of New York State
Mungo Lewis (1894–1969), Canadian politician
Oswald Lewis (1887–1966), British businessman, barrister and politician
Peter Lewis (politician) (1942–2017), Australian politician
Richard Lewis (New Zealand politician) (born 1969), New Zealand politician
Ron Lewis (born 1946), American politician
Sandy Lewis (1931–2016), Australian politician
J. E. Stanley Lewis (1888–1970), Canadian politician
Stephen Lewis (born 1937), Canadian politician, son of David Lewis (politician)
Terry Lewis (politician) (born 1935), British politician
Thomas Lewis (NSW) (1922–2016), Australian politician
Thomas Lewis Jr. (1760–1847), U.S. Congressman from Virginia
Tommy Lewis (trade unionist) (1873–1962), British trade unionist and Labour MP
Tryon D. Lewis (born 1947), Texas politician
Vaughan Lewis (born 1940), St. Lucian politician
William Berkeley Lewis (1784–1866), American politician
William Mather Lewis (1878–1945), American teacher, university president, local politician, and a state and national government official.
Religion
Christopher Andrew Lewis (born 1944), British academic and clergyman
Saint David Lewis (1616–1679), one of the Forty Martyrs of England and Wales
David Lewis (1839–1901), Anglican priest and Archdeacon of Carmarthen
Edwin Lewis (1881–1959), American Methodist theologian
Harvey Spencer Lewis (1883–1939), American Rosicrucian
John Lewis (philosopher) (1889–1976), British philosopher and religious leader
Joseph Lewis (freethinker) (1889–1968), freethinker and atheist
Oswald Lewis (bishop) (born 1944), Indian Roman Catholic bishop
Ralph Maxwell Lewis (1904–1987), American Rosicrucian
Row Lewis, Grenadian Director of the Liberty Fellowship Center
Ruth Lewis (died 2020), Pakistani Roman Catholic nun
Sharma Lewis, African American United Methodist bishop
Science
Adrian Lewis (mathematician) (born 1962), British-Canadian mathematician
Bennett Lewis (1908–1987), Canadian physicist
Bunnell Lewis (1824–1908), English archaeologist
Carenza Lewis (born 1963), archaeologist
Edward B. Lewis (1918–2004), American geneticist
George W. Lewis (1882–1948), director of NACA
Georgina King Lewis (1847–1924), English philanthropist
Gilbert N. Lewis (1875–1946), American physical chemist
Glyn Lewis, British professor of psychiatric epidemiology
Graceanna Lewis (1821–1912), American naturalist and anti-slavery activist
Gwilym Peter Lewis (born 1952), British botanist
Harlan Lewis (1919–2008), American botanist
Henry Carvill Lewis (1853–1888), American geologist
Jack Lewis, Baron Lewis of Newnham (1928–2014), English chemist
John S. Lewis (born 1941), American professor of planetary science at the University of Arizona
Jonathan Lewis (oncologist), biomedical researcher, cancer drug developer
Margaret Reed Lewis (1881–1970), American cell biologist and embryologist
Marion Lewis (born 1925), Canadian medical researcher and professor of medicine
Paul A. Lewis (1879–1929), American pathologist
Stephen J. Lewis, British gastroenterologist; development of the Bristol Stool Chart
Trevor Lewis (entomologist) (born 1933), British entomologist
Warren Harmon Lewis (1870–1964), American cell biologist and embryologist
Sports
Lewis (baseball), baseball player
Adrian Lewis (born 1985), English darts player
Ady Lewis (born 1975), English boxer who fought in the 1990s and 2000s
Alan Lewis (born 1964), Irish cricketer and rugby union referee
Allan Lewis (baseball) (born 1941), Panamanian professional baseball player
Ashton Lewis Jr. (born 1972), American driver
Becky Lewis (born 1983 or 1984), British long-distance swimmer
Bernie Lewis (born 1945), Welsh footballer
Bill Lewis (football) (born 1941), American football coach
Billy Lewis (footballer, born 1864) (1864–1935), Welsh international footballer
Brad Alan Lewis (born 1954), American rower
Brian M. Lewis (born 1974), American athlete
Bryn Lewis (1891–1917), Wales international rugby union footballer
Cam Lewis (born 1997), American football player
Carl Lewis (born 1961), American Olympic athlete
Chad Lewis (born 1971), American football player
Chavaughn Lewis (born 1993), American basketball player for Hapoel Galil Elyon of the Israeli Basketball Premier League
Charles Lewis (footballer) (1886–1967), English football player
Chris Lewis (cricketer) (born 1968), England international and county cricketer
Claude Lewis (1908–1993), English cricketer
Chris Lewis (tennis player) (born 1957), New Zealand tennis player
Colby Lewis (born 1979), American baseball player
Corey Lewis (racing driver) (born 1991), American racing driver
D. D. Lewis (linebacker, born 1945), retired American football player
D. D. Lewis (linebacker, born 1979), active American football player
Dai Lewis (1866–1943), Wales international rugby union footballer
Dale Lewis (footballer) (born 1969), Australian Rules footballer
Dan Lewis (footballer) (1902–1965), Welsh football player
Daniel Lewis (volleyball) (born 1976), Canadian volleyball player
Darren Lewis (born 1967), American baseball player
Darryl Lewis (born 1961), American football player
Darryll Lewis (born 1968), American football player
Dave Lewis (linebacker) (1954–2020), retired National Football League linebacker
Dave Lewis (hockey) (born 1953), Canadian hockey coach
Denise Lewis (born 1972), British heptathlete
Desmond Lewis (1946–2018), Jamaican cricketer
Donnie Lewis (born 1997), American football player
Duffy Lewis (1888–1979), American baseball player
Ed Lewis (wrestler) (1891–1966), American wrestler
Eddie Lewis (American soccer player) (born 1974), American football (soccer) player
Eddie Lewis (English footballer) (1935–2011), English football (soccer) player
Edward John Lewis (1859–1925), Wales international rugby union footballer
Eldece Clarke-Lewis (born 1965), Bahamian runner
Evin Lewis (born 1991), Trinidadian cricketer
Fred Lewis (born 1980), American baseball player
Fred Lewis (handball) (born 1947), American handball player
Geno Lewis (born 1993), American (college) football player
Geoff Lewis (born 1935), Welsh retired jockey
George Lewis (rugby), rugby union and rugby league footballer of the 1920s and 1930s for Pontypool RFC (RU), for Wales (RL), and St. Helens
George Lewis (rugby league), rugby league footballer of the 1920s, 1930s and 1940s for Castleford
Grant Lewis (born 1985), American NHL ice hockey player
Greg Lewis (wide receiver) (born 1980), American football player
Guy Lewis (1922–2015), American basketball coach
Harry Lewis (boxer) (1886–1956), American boxer
Haydn Lewis (born 1986), Barbadian tennis player
Hayley Lewis (born 1974), Australian swimmer
Herbie Lewis (ice hockey) (1906–1991), Canadian hockey player
Jackie Lewis (born 1936), British racing driver
Jamal Lewis (American football) (born 1979), American football player
Jamal Lewis (footballer) (born 1998), Northern Irish footballer
Jamie Lewis (born 1991), Welsh darts player
Jensen Lewis (born 1984), American baseball player
Jim Lewis (racehorse owner), owner of racehorse Best Mate
Jim Lewis (1980s pitcher) (born 1955), American baseball player
Jimi Lewis (born 1974), English hockey player
Joe Lewis (footballer) (born 1987), English footballer
John Henry Lewis (1914–1974), boxer
Jon Lewis (born 1975), English cricketer
Jonathan Lewis (soccer) (born 1997), American soccer player
Jourdan Lewis (born 1995), American football player
Kahlil Lewis (born 1997), American football player
Kevin Lewis (American football) (born 1978), American football linebacker
Kira Lewis (born 2001), American basketball player
Kirstin Jean Lewis (born 1975), South African archer
Kyle Lewis (born 1995), American baseball player
Lennox Lewis (born 1965), English boxer
Leo Lewis (1933–2013), American football player
Lesa Lewis (born 1967), American IFBB professional bodybuilder
Lionel Lewis (born 1982), Singaporean footballer
Luke Lewis (born 1983), Australian rugby league player
M. Lewis, Surrey cricketer
Maia Lewis (born 1970), New Zealand cricketer
Marcedes Lewis (born 1984), American football player
Mark Lewis (Arena Football League) (born 1979), American football player
Mark Lewis (baseball) (born 1969), American baseball player
Mark Lewis-Francis (born 1982), British athlete
Martin Lewis (basketball) (born 1975), American basketball player
Martyn Lewis (badminton) (born 1982), British badminton player
Marvin Lewis (born 1958), American football coach
Mick Lewis (born 1974), Australian cricketer
Michael Lewis (safety) (born 1980), American Football player for the San Francisco 49ers
Michael Lewis (wide receiver) (born 1971), American Football player for the New Orleans Saints
Mo Lewis (born 1969), American football player
Norman Lewis (fencer) (1915–2006), American Olympic fencer
Oliver Lewis (1856–1924), American jockey
Olivia Lewis (born 1999), Australian netballer
Osia Lewis (born 1962), American football player
Oswald Lewis (cricketer) (1833–1895), Australian cricketer
Panama Lewis (1945–2020), American boxing trainer
Patrick Lewis (born 1991), American football player
Percy "Plum" Lewis (1884–1976), South African cricketer
Percy Lewis (1864–1922), Australian cricketer
Percy Lewis (1927–2019), Trinidad and Tobago/British boxer who fought in the 1950s and 1960s
Rashard Lewis (born 1979), American basketball player
Rawl Lewis (born 1974), Grenadian cricketer
Ray Lewis (American football) (born 1975), American football player
Ray Lewis (runner) (1910–2003), Canadian athlete
Rico Lewis (born 2004), English footballer
Reg Lewis (1920–1997), English footballer
Reggie Lewis (1965–1993), American basketball player
Reginald Lewis (cricketer) (1927–1981), South African cricketer
Ricky Lewis (born 1982), American soccer player
Robert B. Lewis (1924–2006), Thoroughbred racehorse owner
Roderick Lewis (born 1971), American football player
Royce Lewis (born 1999), American baseball player
Scott Lewis (left-handed pitcher) (born 1983), American baseball player
Sian Lewis (born 1976), British pentathlete
Stacy Lewis (born 1985), American golfer
Steve Lewis (athlete) (born 1969), American athlete
Stuart Lewis-Evans (1930–1958), British Formula One driver
Tamsyn Lewis (born 1978), Australian athlete
Ted "Kid" Lewis (Gershon Mendeloff) (1893–1970), English world champion Hall of Fame welterweight boxer
Thomas Lewis (football) (born 1972), American football wide receiver in the NFL
Tim Lewis (born 1961), American football player
Thyron Lewis (born 1982), American football player
Tommylee Lewis (born 1992), American football player
Tony Lewis (born 1938), Welsh cricketer
Trevor Lewis (born 1987), American hockey player
Trey Lewis (American football) (born 1985), American NFL defensive tackle
Trey Lewis (basketball) (born 1992), American basketball player in the Israeli Basketball Premier League
Tyquan Lewis (born 1995), American football player
Vernon Lewis (American football) (born 1970), American football player
Vernon Lewis (footballer) (1881–1941), English footballer
Wally Lewis (born 1959), Australian rugby league player
Wilf Lewis (1903–1976), Welsh international footballer
Television and film
Al Lewis (actor) (1923–2006), American actor
Andrea Lewis (born 1985), Canadian actress
Avi Lewis (born 1968), Canadian television journalist and documentary filmmaker, son of Stephen Lewis
Charlotte Lewis (born 1967), English actress
Chauntal Lewis (born 1984), American actress
Damian Lewis (born 1971), English actor
Dan Lewis (newsreader) (born 1949), Seattle-based Newsreader
Daniel Day-Lewis (born 1957), English actor
David Lewis (actor) (1916–2000), American actor
Dawnn Lewis (born 1961), American actress
Diana Lewis (1919–1997), American Actress
Emmanuel Lewis (born 1971), American actor
Francine Lewis, a British actress, model, television presenter and impressionist
Forrest Lewis (1899–1977), American actor
Gary Lewis (actor) (born 1957), Scottish actor
Geoffrey Lewis (actor) (1935–2015), American actor
George Lewis (journalist) (born 1943), broadcast journalist at NBC News
Harry Lewis (actor) (1920–2013), actor
Herschell Gordon Lewis (1926–2016), American film director
Howard Lew Lewis (1941–2018), English actor and comedian
Ida Lewis (1842–1911), Canadian actress
Jason Lewis (born 1971), American actor
Jenifer Lewis (born 1957), American actress
Jerry Lewis (1926–2017), American comedian, actor, screenwriter, and director
Johnny Lewis (1983–2012), American actor
Joseph Lewis (1907–2000), American film director
Judy Lewis (1935–2011), American actress
Juliette Lewis (born 1973), American actress
Leah Lewis (born 1996), American actress
Martin Lewis (humorist) (born 1952), English humorist/producer/writer/TV host
Martyn Lewis (journalist) (born 1945), British newsreader
Mary Jane Lewis, married name of Mary Jane Croft (1916–1999), American actress
Matthew Lewis (actor) (born 1989), English actor
Phill Lewis (born 1968), American actor
Richard Lewis (comedian) (born 1947), American comedian and actor
Richard J. Lewis, TV and film director
Robert Lewis (actor) (1909–1997), American actor
Robert Q. Lewis (1920–1991), American actor and game show host
Sharon Lewis, Canadian television personality
Stephen Lewis (actor) (1926–2015), English actor
Tamasin Day-Lewis (born 1953), English television chef
Ted Lewis (voice actor), voice actor
Terence Lewis (choreographer) (born 1975), Indian dancer and choreographer
Vicki Lewis (born 1960), American actress
Victor Lewis-Smith, British TV critic and humorist
Theater
Shari Lewis (1933–1998), American puppeteer
Visual art
Bill Lewis (born 1953), English artist
Corey Lewis, American comics artist
Edmonia Lewis (1844–1907), American sculptor
Ivor Lewis (1882–1958), Canadian sculptor
Martin Lewis (1881–1962), Australian artist
Maud Lewis (1903–1970), Canadian artist
Nate Lewis (born 1985), American artist
Neville Lewis (1895–1972), South African artist
Tau Lewis (born 1993), Canadian artist
Other
Anna Lewis (1885–1961), American historian
Bernard Lewis (1916–2018), English historian
Damien Lewis (disambiguation), multiple people
Don Lewis (born 1938), wealthy zookeeper who disappeared in 1997
Doris E. Lewis (1911-1988), Canadian librarian
Lady Davina Lewis (born 1977), minor British Royal
Dorothy Otnow Lewis, American psychiatrist
Dorothy Swain Lewis (1915–2013), American aviator
Earl Lewis, American academic administrator
Essington Lewis (1881–1961), Australian industrialist
Fulton Lewis (1903–1966), American radio broadcaster
Geoffrey Lewis (scholar) (1920–2008), English professor of the Turkish language
James Lewis (disambiguation), multiple people
James Paul Lewis Jr., American Ponzi schemer
Joel W. Lewis, American abolitionist and reformer
John Lewis (Virginia colonist) (1678-1762), early settler in western Virginia
John L. Lewis (1880–1969), American labor leader'
Justin Lewis (disambiguation), multiple people
Levi Lewis (disambiguation), multiple people
Lillian A. Lewis (1861–?), American journalist
Mark Edward Lewis (born 1954), American historian of early China
Meriwether Lewis (1774–1809), American explorer and co-leader of Lewis and Clark expedition
Reina Lewis (born 1963), British art historian
Richard D. Lewis (born 1930), British linguist and cross-cultural communication consultant
Samuel L. Lewis (1896–1971), American Sufi and founder of Dances of Universal Peace
Shirley A. R. Lewis (born 1937), American educator, academic administrator, college president
Terrell Lewis (disambiguation), multiple people
Thomas Lewis (Virginia politician) (1718–1790), American surveyor
Thomas Lewis (unionist) (1866–1939), president, United Mine Workers of America
Tom Lewis (M.D.) (1918–2004), English obstetrician
William Lewis (chess player) (1787–1870), English chess player of the 19th century
Christopher John Lewis, a New Zealand assassin.
Fictional characters
Alphie Lewis, fictional character from House of Anubis
Anne Lewis, fictional cop character in RoboCop and its first two sequels
Charlotte Lewis (Lost), fictional character from Lost
Cliff Lewis, fictional character from Matlock
Darcy Lewis, fictional character in Thor (film) & Thor: The Dark World
Edward Lewis, fictional character in Pretty Woman
Gareth Lewis, a fictional character from the British soap opera Doctors
Jerry Lewis, a fictional character from the animated television series Totally Spies
Josh and Reva Lewis, fictional characters from Guiding Light
Luke Lewis, fictional character from music business Universal
Melissa Lewis, fictional character from The Martian
Marisol Lewis, from Degrassi
Meldrick Lewis, from Homicide: Life on the Street
Parker Lewis, fictional character from Parker Lewis Can't Lose
Robbie Lewis, fictional character in Inspector Morse and Inspector Lewis
Shelley Lewis, fictional character from EastEnders
Simon Lewis, fictional character from The Mortal Instruments (series)
Susan Lewis (ER), fictional character from ER
Tara Lewis, protagonist of Criminal Minds
Tony Lewis, fictional character from The Tenth Kingdom
Vanessa Lewis, fictional character from Virtua Fighter
See also
Lewis (given name)
Lewis (disambiguation)
References
English-language surnames
Surnames of Jewish origin
Surnames of Norman origin
Surnames of Welsh origin
Germanic-language surnames
Levite surnames
Anglicised Welsh-language surnames |
4445482 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red%20Rice%2C%20Hampshire | Red Rice, Hampshire | Red Rice is a hamlet and country house in the civil parish of Upper Clatford, south-west of Andover in the English county of Hampshire.
Etymology
The name originates from:
The word 'rice', meaning shrubby twigs or withies (such as wild dogwood, which is abundant locally, and whose branches turn bright red in winter).
The Anglo-Saxon term 'Rede Ric', meaning a council chamber.
The brick colour of clay loam, chalk and iron oxide from Sidbury.
Red Rice House and park
Red Rice has a house built in an early Georgian park probably built around 1740. The outside is faced with Clipsham stone. It has a slate roof and arched windows. There are 13 bays and a porte cochere of 4 Tuscan columns. The stables areas include a clock tower and an arch of rubbed bricks. The park was extended by the diversion of a local road and the building has been extended. William Burn re-modelled the house in the mid 19th century. More buildings were added when the site became a school in 1961. The gate lodge and gatepiers are designated English Heritage Listed Building Designation Grade II.
Historical significance
Red Rice was home of the family, associated with the Prince of Wales (later King George IV), in a secret and illegal marriage to the Roman Catholic mistress, Maria Anne Fitzherbert. The building was used during World War II by American forces and used for various secret and high-level planning. This included the reserve headquarters of the D-Day Landings, should the primary location become unserviceable.
Early history
The current House was built around 1740 with red brick. A water-supply system was installed during the period, but it is not clear where the supply originated. The parts examined in 1960 by Mr Wilfred Carpenter Turner, an expert on older buildings, were found to be still operating and in very good condition.
986. The lands were owned by the Abbey of Wherwell, when it was founded by Queen Aelfrida, the widow of King Edgar.
1086. The area is recorded in the Domesday book.
c. 1534. Around the time of the dissolution of the monasteries, the Abbey's lands were granted to Thomas West, Lord De La Warr of Delaware.
1710. The origin of the house is unclear. Abbotts Ann was the property of Thomas Pitt who purchased Little Ann in 1710, and probably acquired the neighbouring manor about the same date.
1726. Governor Pitt dies.
1730. It is believed a map of about 1730 shows the 'Rice Field' and that no house appears on maps until 1760.
1740. The house may have been built by General John Richmond Webb, a subordinate of the Duke of Marlborough, in about 1740. It is claimed that the trees in the park surrounding the house represent the troop line-up at the battle of Malplaquet in 1709. There is no evidence the park's trees showed battle lines, other than the row of beeches from St John's cross along the Fullerton towards Red Rice; which could have appeared like two rows of soldiers.
1760. The House appears in maps of 1760 and suggests it still belonged to the Pitt family, along with lands in Abbotts Ann
Errington family
1730. Mr John Errington lives at Red Rice, married to Maria Levery. They have a daughter called 'Mary' (born about 1730) and a son named Henry Errington (birth date not known).
1731. The estate of Upper Clatford (including Red Rice) was the property of George Tarrant.
1733. The Upper Clatford estate was sold by George Tarrant to William Evans in 1733.
1746. John Errington dies, and his widow Maria remarries the same year.
1755. The late John Errington's daughter marries 'Walter Smyth', the 2nd son of Sir John Smythe.
1756. Henry Errington becomes the Uncle of Maria Anne Smythe (later to become Maria Fitzherbert). The Smythe family move closer geographically to the Errington family.
1759. Appears on Isaac Taylor's survey of Hampshire. The 1759 maps suggests a rectangular area and the existence of a single 'red' building at the northern edge of a wooden parkland with ornamental pathways. The main road passes along the north border, and the eastern edge has a footpath marked.
1763. Leases describe Redrice House as a:'genteel, modern built house with large and pleasant gardens or walks, all in thorough repair at present, it is very well adapted for the reception of any nobleman or gentleman of fortune with a small family as a hunting seat, as it stands in fine healthy and sporting country, but it is not fit for a large family, nor a constant residence, there not being a foot of land belonging to it but yards and gardens. It is at present well tenanted but as the lease expires within a year, it is not certain that a good tenant can readily be got for it, and if it happens to be untenanted it will be attended with the expense of keeping servants there to take care of both house and gardens which, if once suffered to run out of order will cost money to repair these circumstances reducing the value of it greatly as it is not for everybody's money. It may be long on hand before a purchaser can be found for it.'
Mansion and grounds. 49 acres, 14p.
Garden. 2 acres, 2r, 16p.
Paddock pasture. 1 acre, 3r, 34p. (occupier: J. Parsons).
Rents:
Pasture and Wood. Arable land 6 UKP 10 shillings and 6 pence.
Gardens - walled gardens, Cottage and gardens. 1 UKP 17 shillings and 6 pence.
1763. Sir Brian Broughton Delves of Broughton, Staffordshire, bought various estates in Hampshire, including the Abbotts Ann property, which he contracted to purchase from 'the Honourable Thomas Pitt, esquire,' great-grandson of Governor Pitt and afterwards first Lord Camelford. He may also have purchased the manor of Upper Clatford and lands in Upper Clatford for 10,000 UKP, from the heirs-at-law of Maynard Guerin and of Sir Thomas Gatehouse.
1766. Sir Brian Broughton-Delves, 5th Baronet (1740–1766), dies childless. His younger brother (Thomas) became the 6th Baronet, but Brian left all his real estate in Hampshire to his wife Mary (Lady Delves).
1769. Henry Errington marries Sir Brian's widow and lives at Red Rice.
1774. At Henry Errington's house, Red Rice, Maria Smythe, his niece, met a future husband, Mr. Edward Weld (aged 45, with no children) who died three months later (1775) by accident or illness. Henry was more or less Maria's guardian, since her father had become an invalid. It is likely that Maria often visited and stayed at Red Rice.
1785. Henry Errington is heavily involved with his niece's attachment to the Prince of Wales. The secret and illegal marriage did not take place at Red Rice; the wedding occurred in the drawing room of Mrs Maria Fitzherbert's house in Park Street on the evening of 15 December. Her uncle, Henry Errington, gave her away.
1791. Referenced in map. The map shows the single building (appearing in a changed position since the 1759 map). No ornamental pathways are shown, and the land appears to be separated between a wooded, and less wooded area. The eastern corner of the land appears truncated; suggesting that some land was no longer part of the estate. The southern path is not shown, and appears to have been replaced by a new road on the western boundary.
1794. Henry Errington is visited by Mrs Fitzherbert at Red Rice, then travels to Kempshott, expecting a tête-à-tête dinner with the Prince of Wales to discuss the terms of their reconciliation.
1801. Map shows Red Rice at the western edge of the Hundreds of Wherwell [wherwell]
1812. Henry Errington's wife (Lady Delves) dies.
1817. Appears in Ordnance Survey map The eastern boundary appears increased. A possible walled area is shown at the northern edge. The main building(s) are shown; and a second set of buildings appear on the southern side. There is also a small square area; possibly containing a set of buildings with a 'T' shaped courtyard.
1819. Henry Errington died and the property came to his nephews, the Hon. William and the Rev. the Hon. Richard Hill, afterwards Noel-Hill, who succeeded in turn as third and fourth Lords Berwick. Henry Errington's character appears in a 1947 film named "Mrs. Fitzherbert".
Lords Berwick
At times before 1913, the external walls were rendered with cement. Creepers were planted. There were Flemish gables and sashes of cavernous plate-glass. The road at the front was diverted. A stable block (with a mounting block) and archway were built of red brick. A wide variety of trees were planted.
It is not clear who was living in the House after 1819. It probably remained to be owned by Thomas, the childless 2nd Baron Berwick. Thomas died in 1832, leaving his estate to his brother, the new Baron.
1820. The Salisbury and Winchester Journal reports that the family make their (usual) donation of a good fat ox and two fat sheep to the poor of the parishes of Abbotts Ann and Clatford.
1826. Appears in map.
1827. 8 December, authority is given authorising the diversion of part of the Abbotts Ann to Titcomb Bridge and the Winchester Highway for 4 furlongs and 97 yards, of medium breadth of 40 feet. It was signed by Lord Berwick.
1840. The Tithe map shows the old road discontinued and the route marked by an avenue of trees. A track is shown arriving from the lodge gates to the stables. After the enclosure and diversion of the Fullerton road the grounds probably had two entrances. The main one where the North and South Lodges now stand, another on the Fullerton Road about three-quarters of a mile beyond the crossroads outside the school gates. Here a lodge still remains.
1842. William Noel Hill, 3rd Lord Berwick dies at Red Rice, aged 68, unmarried and intestate. His estate was administered in June 1843.
Best family
Three generations of Thomas Best lived there. Rev Thomas Best (1796-1880) purchased it in late 1845 or early 1846. He was a Magistrate, a Clerk in Holy Orders and Lord of the Manor. His son Thomas Best, Magistrate (1828-1886) was the second generation, and his son Captain Thomas George Best of the Royal Horse Artillery (1861-1926), the third generation, became the new Lord of the Manor; and then sold it. In 1844, they planned to divert the road that ran in front of the park (to make a more imposing drive leading to the house), build stables, start an arboretum, create pleasure grounds and develop a large, productive kitchen garden. The legacy of those early trees provided sequoias, mighty green and copper beeches, cedars, a rare weeping beech (outside Errington House) and innumerable elms. At the back of the house a great variety of trees were planted in such a way that a large number of different species of tree could be seen individually from the house.
1841/2. The Manor was purchased from the 3rd Lord Berwick by the Rev. Thomas Best. Thomas's wife, Sophia (Hardwick) came from a wealthy family.
1844. Plans were drawn by architect William Burn to remodel the house to become a mansion.
1845/46. In 1846 a red-brick stable block was built with archway (described as 'delightful, if architecturally uncouth'). The date of 1846 was still visible in the drain pipe heads 120 years later.
1846. The building works were delayed. The newspapers, Hampshire Advertiser and Worcestershire Chronicle report on a shooting at Red Rice. On 7 March, Thomas Mullard Shurmur, a foreman overseeing restorations at Red Rice, shot (almost mortally) Thomas Brealey (a 'time-keeper'). On 22 July at Winchester assizes, Shurmur was found guilty of 'Shooting with intent', and was sentenced to 14 years' transportation.
1858. Thomas Best, only son of Rev. Thomas Best marries Louisa Emily Shifner. An account of hunt meeting describes how the Rev Best arranged breakfast for about 100 attendees.
1871. Cornelius Palmer is recorded as working as a Coachman at Redrice.
1873. The Farmer's Magazine reports 'Thomas Best, of Red Rice House, Andover, sent a sample of Linseed cake, which was found to be adulterated with earth-nut cake and Buckwheat' Another sample of the cake was subsequently sent by Mr. Best, who stated that the cake cost him £12 per ton ready money, and that he bought it as the best English linseed cake.
1878. Gazetteer describes Red Rice House: 'the seat of the Rev. Thomas Best, BCL, JP, is a large mansion, about 3 miles SW of Andover, finely embosomed in woods and surrounded by open downs.'
1886. On 2 April, the newspapers, the Reading Mercury and the London Gazette report the death of Thomas Best. The house is let to Henry Adolphus Simonds, director of the H & G Simonds Brewery in Reading.
1896. Book published 'Hunting diary of Annie Best, wife of Thomas George Best'
1897. The newspaper the Reading Mercury reported on 31 July: 'on Monday afternoon a fire broke out in the servants' wing', 'the residence of Mr. H. Adolphus Simonds.'
1900/1901. Newspaper advertisements appear for staff with the correct qualifications. 'Stableman wanted. Must be abstainer, strong and willing.' 'Kitchen maid and scullery maid'. 'Groom and Gardener. With boys preferred, but not objected to without.'
1903. Thomas Best is named in a document relating to a 'Heating apparatus'.
Grantley family
Lord Grantley's son suggests his father purchased Red Rice for shooting, rather than hunting. The family removed a number of rooms on two floors to construct a very fine Great Hall with plasterwork in a coved ceiling and pillared entrance. A new ceiling, in the style of Adam, was added to the dining-room. Several marble fireplaces were installed. General Edwardian alterations included plaster cherubs in the morning-room. More trees were added.
1913. Lord Grantley (John Richard Brinsley Norton), 5th Baron Grantley (1855–1943) purchased the Red Rice estate from Captain Best. The sale was for more than 5,500 acres; including parts of the village of Abbots Ann and Upper Clatford. The mansion was described as having 'excellent shooting and trout fishing' and cost over 100,000 UKP. The purchase occurred close to the birth of his first (and male) grandchild, by his eldest daughter's marriage to a Thomas Bevan. Perhaps he bought the estate for her.
1919 Lord Grantley's son, Richard Henry Brinsley married; and the estate was sold shortly afterwards.
1915/1924. Between these years, parts of the Estate were sold; including parts of Abbotts Ann and much of the surrounding countryside.
Miller Mundy family
The family made many changes and repairs to the building. Outbuildings were built to accommodate estate workers involved in the family's interests in sport, shooting and rearing pheasants and livestock. Four tennis courts and a secluded Japanese water-garden, trees and a path leading to two discreet rose-gardens, each containing a fountain, were built. In 1933 there were major renovations. The old, decaying, grey rendering was removed and the red brick walls were encased in honey-coloured Clipsham stone with the ground floor boldly rusticated and a beetling cornice at the top. All windows replaced by chain-hung sashes with proportioned panes. The roof was renewed and drains re-designed. Fire hydrants and static water-tanks were built around the house, fed from the original Regency water-supply system. Almost all internal timber was replaced due to damage from death-watch beetle and woodworm.
Rooms were grouped into suites, plumbing and bathrooms were improved, and electrical outlets were added. They built some form of early oil-fired central heating. The interior was decorated throughout with a durable paint of beige colour. A nursery wing was built onto the main House, linking it to the stables. The new floorspace was used for a 'studio and a boudoir', and working and living areas for the senior house servants.
1920 – The Miller-Mundy family buy the estate, having moved from their estate at Shipley Park, Derbyshire. Two houses may have been built by architect Leonard Stokes Drysdale & Aylwin, and builders F Beale & Sons. Alfred Edward Miller-Mundy, who had originally been buried at Shipley Hall, was exhumed two years later to be moved with the family to Red Rice House when they sold the estate. It is not clear which members of the family moved to Red Rice. They may have included Alfred's widow (his second wife, Catherine Louisa Cradock-Hartopp); and his unmarried daughter Esme Sybil. Certainly Alfred's only son, Major Godfrey Edward Miller Mundy, the inheritor, moved there with his first wife Mollie and children (Edward) Peter Godfrey, and Maureen Angela. They were attracted by the agricultural and sporting potential of Red Rice. They set about building up the shoot and the estate to a record production of livestock and pheasants, in improving the grounds with, among other things, four tennis courts and a romantic, conveniently secluded Japanese style water-garden, and trees. The water garden contained a ginkgo tree and a great thicket of bamboo.
1921 – Two lodges (or gatehouses), gate piers and gates are built. Each lodge has a stone with the date (1921) and the Miller Mundy family crest.
1933 – Major restoration work is undertaken. The cost was 50,000 UKP.
1933 – A nursery wing was built onto the main house, to link up with the stables and probably providing additional living areas for servants.
1935 – Alfred's widow dies. The estate had already passed to the already married, eldest son, Major Godfrey Edward.
1937 – A local story relates how Peter Miller Mundy, at his 21st birthday party, turned fire-hoses on his guests, and released and shot a pheasant in the Great Hall (where the chapel is now).
The war years
1939/1945. The house had been taken over in the Second World War as a planning centre, mainly used by the American army; it was visited by the Supreme Commander, U.S. General Dwight D. Eisenhower, and it is part of local folklore that the bomb which destroyed the pub in Goodworth Clatford was aimed at him. Members of the Women's Land Army worked in the farm on the estate.
1939. Early in September, eight of the rooms were filled with specimens of butterflies, birds, mammals, etc., which were sent there for safekeeping by the British Museum.
1940. In the spring, Red Rice became the centre of a bomb disposal unit.
1940. In the summer, the House was occupied by Women's Auxiliary Air Force personnel from RAF Middle Wallop, which had opened that year.
1941. Major Peter marries for the first time; to Margaret. Their first son, Edward Simon Peter Mundy was born in November.
1941. A liaison unit of the United States Army Air Force was installed, and the entrance hall and the present library were divided by partitions into a number of small offices. Meanwhile, most of the furniture and pictures had been put into store, except for the contents of the main suite (later to be Sherwin and Bryant dormitories) and the library (now the Masters' Common Room), which were used by Major Miller-Mundy throughout. Outside, owing to war-time conditions, maintenance had been reduced to a minimum and the grounds had become very overgrown.
1943. Major Geoffrey Edward marries Julia Dorothea "Ullu" Brodnitz.
1944. Major Edward Peter has a son, Andrew Godfrey Miller Mundy; who was brought up on the estate.
1944. Red Rice was transformed into an American VIP centre. In one week the internal partitions were removed, damage was made good, the floors were sanded and polished. Many vans arrived bringing back the furniture, pictures and carpets. Rooms were redecorated, the grounds were tidied up, and in general the house was restored, at the request of the U.S. army authorities, to its pre-war splendour. The depleted Redrice staff, supplemented by large numbers of American troops both inside and outside, worked to meet a tight schedule. In addition to the work of restoration various other changes took place. Three or four direct telephone links between Redrice and Washington were installed, and the Servants' Hall became a telephone exchange. One room - probably the Major's 'Studio' room - was used as the map room, in which the plans for D-Day were recorded with coloured flags, as was later the progress of the troops after the invasion of France. It was during this period that General Eisenhower paid his two short visits to Red Rice, sleeping in the suite of rooms (later to become the infirmary and Matron's room in Redrice School). His leisure hours were spent fishing in the River Anton at Upper Clatford.
1944. Royal Air Force Substitution Unit: IX Fighter Command. Formed at Red Rice House, Andover (UK) in February.
1944. In August, a conference was held at Red Rice, attended by Secretary Henry Morgenthau Jr. and the UK War Cabinet Minister Brendan Bracken. It was to discuss the Morgenthau Plan, the 'Treasury Plan for the Treatment of Germany'. The plan was ratified by Churchill and Eisenhower three weeks later in Canada. However, the Morgenthau Plan eventually lost out to the philosophy of the Marshall Plan of 1947.
1945. The Army attempted to return the house to civilian use in good order after the war. The interior was painted the colour of weak tea on all walls, doorways, window-frames and the plasterwork on the ceilings.
After the war
1948. After the war, Major Edward Peter Godfrey Miller Mundy (July 1916, d. 27 July 1981) made a gift of a plot of land at the top of the village to be used as a council house estate and a sports field, and perhaps 5 acres situated between Goodworth and Upper Clatford to the Parish Council for use. A photograph exists of the Andover Ladies football team, pictured at a "Soldiers, Sailors, Airmen and Families Association" fete in Red Rice Park.
1949. Major Godfrey Edward dies and Major Edward Peter has a son, Mark Mundy.
1950s. An article in Country Life in the 1950s gave an account of the origins of Red Rice. This version was generally accepted in the locality in 1961, but contains some legends since disproved.
1952 Following a divorce, Major Edward Peter marries for the second time, to Bridget Eileen Suzanne Smiley. He continued to live at Red Rice until 1961, but his 2nd wife was no longer living at Red Rice in 1961.
1953. Major Edward Peter Miller-Mundy inherits the 5,000-acre estate and a Georgian house in perfect order. He also inherited the estate manager, Mr F.L. "Nick" Jones, who had joined the household in 1921.
1961. Major Edward Peter Miller-Mundy sells part of the Redrice Estate for 300,000 UKP to Sir Richard Boughey. The land sold was the middle part of the Red Rice estate extending to approximately 1800 acres.
With the departure in 1961 of Major Miller Mundy, the main entity of Redrice was divided into two main parts, the house and immediate grounds, and Home Farm.
Redrice School
The H-shaped estate workshop buildings and most of the stable block perimeter wall were removed. The stable yard was reconstructed to provide three classrooms and two day-rooms, together with changing rooms, ablutions and a housemaster's study below, and upstairs dormitories for 28 and studies for 30, as well as bathrooms and three master's rooms. The courtyard was floored with paving and chippings. A refectory area was created and roofed in over the old backyard of the house, between the kitchen and the house's 1933 wing. Trees were cleared for playing fields.
1960. A sale was advertised in the pages of The Times where it was spotted by Veronica Stokes, wife of a future Headmaster at Redrice School. The eastern portion of his 5,000 acre estate would become the School, consisting of the main house and stable block with its clock tower, plus the two lodges at the gate and 46 surrounding acres. On 17 February, at an auction at the Star and Garter Hotel in Andover, it was purchased by its consortium of new owners for 41,100 UKP plus the sixpenny stamp for Stamp Duty.
1961. Redrice School opened. Parts were adapted to school use and new buildings were built behind the house. The park had shrunk in size and the arboretum had suffered from neglect.
1962. The stable yard was developed and trees were removed from the grounds.
1965. Former U.S. President Dwight D. Eisenhower gave the school a signed photograph when he visited the UK in memory of Red Rice's contribution during the war.
1981. The house and grounds were used in the filming of Codename Icarus, a BBC TV series in 1981 (the whole series is on YouTube).
1988. The music group, The Troggs played in the grounds at a Summer Musical event at Farleigh School
Recent history
1968 (approximate date) The Scotts invited the Andover and District Model Engineering Society (ADMES)to have their main base in the Market Garden of Red Rice. This enabled the society to build a raised model railway track, a turntable, sidings, and many other miniature railway facilities. The Society remained there until 2003 when Mr & Mrs Scott sold the land.
After 1982, several new buildings have been added for Farleigh School.
1982. Occupied by Farleigh School.
1974. Part of the Home Farm land was used in the filming of "No Hiding Place" an Independent Television production.
1976. On the Home Farm estate land at Dipden Bottom, was turned into a giant map of Great Britain for the BBC Wildlife Production of "Spectacular Britain". David Attenborough spent many days being filmed as he walked round the map to introduce the location of unusual wildlife.
1977. An underwater film set was built on the land inside the market garden for the filming of "Tarka The Otter". Edward Scott and his son Philip both worked for the production. Philip was a set decorator for the production, and in particular the underwater scene at Red Rice.
Paintings and photographs
Until the House became a School in 1961, the House contained many portraits. In 1893, a local history society reported there was a portrait of General Pitt in Thomas Best's house. When Eisenhower visited during the war, it was noted that the mansion was "hung with ancient paintings".
A photograph of the Great Hall (now a Chapel) in 1945 shows the original "Cupid & Psyche" by John Hoppner hanging with many other paintings.
In 1960, purchasers saw many family portraits and engravings of ladies, which were not part of the sale; and taken by the vendor; and some were sold by Auction at Christies. In the 1920s the sale of the property is believed to have included a printed prospectus which included photographs. The earliest known existing photograph is an aerial photograph; probably taken between 1933 and 1960.
Home Farm
On 28 April 1961, the farming side of the hamlet (approximately 850 acres) was purchased by the Scott family. This was farmed with their relatives the Barnes-Gorell family.
This included the parkland to the south east of the main house, 16 farm workers' cottages, the market garden, farm buildings, outlying barns and woodland. Over the years, the houses were improved and modernized. Several were knocked into larger accommodation to increase the quality of the homes. The farm infrastructure was improved and in 1967 the dairy herd was sold and the output switched solely to arable crops. Unusually the farm retained extensive soil, climate and other key data from every growing season. This enabled it to be competitive by specializing in growing seed crops for the major seed producers.
Before the First World War, the farm employed 40 men and about 80 horses. There were required for all aspects of the farming process. The introduction of traction engines did little to reduce their numbers. When they were being used, up to 8 horses were required to pull the water bowsers from the Pill Hill Brook, a tributary of the River Anton that runs through the Clatfords, to Red Rice to keep their boilers supplied. The introduction of modern tractors reduced the number of horses required.
In 1963, the Scott family built their family home in the Horse Meadow field. It was aptly named Horse Meadow. Mary Scott was an internationally acclaimed sculptor, whose work includes the plaque commemorating the battle of Gallipoli during the First World War which is found in the Crypt of St Paul's Cathedral, London. Her husband, Edward Scott was part of the small photographic unit that recorded the devastation from Britain's atomic weapons test in Montebello in 1952.
The family sold the majority of the farmland and Home Farm in 2004, and retained their home, a cottage and surrounding lands of 40 acres around the family home, and a small paddock and 18 acres of woodland to the south of Redrice House called Home Covert.
Legends and associated stories
A local legend about the avenue tells of a ghostly coach and horses on the road between Red Rice and Abbotts Ann. This is almost certainly a reference to a Roman mosaic unearthed in the nearby field by "Squire" Errington, depicting a "coach and a pair of galloping horses". In the house itself, one boy who used to practise on the chapel organ was sure he had seen a 'Grey Lady' walking up the aisle. Two of the school staff, accommodated in the upper floor of the stable courtyard, (previously occupied by grooms and domestic servants of the estate), told of overwhelming feelings of terror at night experienced in one particular corner. Three stories could account for this. One tells of a drunken fight between two grooms, which ended with one of them killed by a fall down a steep staircase. The second relates to a shooting episode in 1886. The third is told by Lord Grantley in his autobiography 'A Silver-plated Spoon'; One evening the butler, appropriately named Butler, came in and announced that he intended to 'do himself in,' but that he had made arrangements for his duties to be taken over by the senior footman. The family's reaction was 'Poor old Butler, drunk again,' but they found him dead next day.
Popular culture
Eliza Carthy named her 1998 Mercury Music Prize nominated album Red Rice after travelling in the area.
References
External links
Villages in Hampshire |
4445491 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serbianisation | Serbianisation | Serbianisation or Serbianization, also known as Serbification, and Serbisation or Serbization ( or ; ; or ; ; ) is the spread of Serbian culture, people, and language, either by social integration or by cultural or forced assimilation.
Medieval period
Populated by Bulgarians and Romanians, the area between the Morava and Timok rivers became part of the Serbian state in 1291/1292 which began the Serbianisation of the region. Catholic Albanians that came under the rule of Serb Emperor Stefan Dušan were required by state policy to convert to Orthodoxy and Serbianise their Albanian names. Uglješa Mrnjavčević, a fourteenth-century Serbian despot who ruled much of Macedonia on behalf of Serb Emperor Stefan Uroš V attempted to Serbianise the monastic community of Mount Athos.
19th century
Principality of Serbia
The historical sources demonstrate that before the 19th century and the rise of nationalism in the Ottoman Empire the majority of the ordinary Orthodox Christians on the Balkans had only a vague idea of their ethnic identity. The local South Slavic-speaking peasants were accustomed to defining themselves in terms of their religion, locality, and occupation. After the national states were established, peasantry was indoctrinated through the schools and military conscription, the official Church, and the governmental press. It was through these instruments of the state administration, that a national identity came into real and rapid development.
Some Serbian sources from the mid 19th century, continued to claim, the areas southeast of Niš, including Southern Pomoravlje and Macedonia, were mainly Bulgarian populated. Per Serbian newspaper, Vidovdan (No. 38, March 29, 1862), the future Bulgarian-Serbian frontier would extend from the Danube in North, along the Timok and South Morava, and then on the ridge of Shar Mountain towards the Black Drin River to the Lake of Ohrid in South.
The region of today's Eastern Serbia faced a number of changes in regard to the dominant population group in the area, due to constant wars, conquests, plague Great Migrations of the Serbs, and Migrations of Bulgarians during the 17th and the 18th-19th century. It was only after the Serbian revolution and later independence that the Serbian national idea gained monumentum within the area east of Niš. According to many authors ca. 1850 the delineation between Serbs and Bulgarians ran north of Niš, although Cyprien Robert claimed that Serbs formed half of the town of Niš population. In the sub-district of Prokuplje, the most numerous ethnic group were the Albanians, while in Vranje, Bulgarians and Albanians were equally distributed alongside minority Serbian population. In Pirot and Leskovac sub-districts, the Bulgarians were the main ethnic group. The Turks lived mainly in the bigger towns. In Ottoman usage then the Sanjak of Niš was included in an area designated as "Bulgaristan", i.e. Bulgaria.
Serbian elites after the mid of the 19th century, claimed that the Bulgarians located south-east of Niš were Old Serbians, which was an implementation of Garašanin's expansionist plan called Načertanije. In 1870, the Southern Pomoravlje was included in the Bulgarian Exarchate. Milan Savić still claimed that at this time (1878) Nis and environs were Bulgarian populated. After the war between Russia and the Ottoman Empire (1877–1878), the lands in the regions of Niš, Pirot and Vranje became a part of Serbia. Serbia had successfully homogenized and modernized these new territories and in this way it assimilated the local Bulgarians of the Timok and Morava river valleys toward the end of the nineteenth century. Afterwards Serbia turned its attention to the region of Macedonia. The demographics of Niš underwent change whereby Serbs who formed half the urban population prior to 1878 became 80 percent in 1884.
Kingdom of Serbia
In 1878 Serbia became independent and pressure developed in the state for people from different ethnic groups to Serbianise religious denominations and their personal names. Serbianisation of identity along with ideological and cultural Serbianisation followed. Belgrade was reconstructed as a new capital by the Serb elite that removed elements of the Ottoman era. While Serb commonfolk looked for ways to aid the Serb cause and assist other Serbs still residing in areas ruled by the Muslim Ottoman Empire. Austro-Hungarian Serbs who had integrated within Serbia and promoted Serbianisation opened the country up to cultural and economic influences of Austria-Hungary in the 1880s.
Principality of Montenegro
According to jurist and sociologist Valtazar Bogišić all Eastern Orthodox citizens of Montenegro were Serbs. He states that they Serbianised a small number of Romani people who mostly worked as blacksmiths.
Ottoman Macedonia
Representatives from Serbia, such as the statesmen, diplomat and historian Stojan Novaković encouraged a separate Slavic Macedonian identity to counter the strong Bulgarian influence, to separate the local population from the rest of the Bulgarians, and to instill the "Serbian idea". Serbianising directly the local Slavic population through propaganda and education was difficult due to strong Bulgarian sentiments at the time in the region. The spread and promotion of Serbian Macedonianism was seen by Serbs as the first move toward eventually Serbianing the Macedonians. Serbian nationalist-oriented politicians in the 19th century traveled to the area of Ottoman Macedonia and spread national propaganda with intent to build a Serbian national feeling among the local population. One of these nationalist was Miloš Milojević who claimed that Serbia in ancient times has been far bigger, with expansion to more continents.
Vlachs
Pre-Ottoman Serbian Empire and its institutions had no time to serbicize the Balkan Vlachs in medieval Serbia, since it soon fell under the Turkish dominance; that process was not finished until the 19th century. Furthermore, the process of serbization, of "Vlachs" has been accomplished through the Serbian Orthodox Church in Dalmatia and the Military Frontiers (Vojna Krajina), i. e., in the territories of the Croatian Kingdom, together with Bosnia, where Vlachs found their final domicile. The Church had the most decisive role in the serbization process of Vlachs in the initial and middle phases. During the 16–18th centuries the amalgamation of the process of sedentarization of the Orthodox Vlachs and their gradual fusion into the Serbian rural population reached a high level and was recognized by the Ottoman authorities. In the final phase, the most significant role was played by the newspaper Srbobran in the 1880s and 1890s. According to Ivo Banac almost whole civil authority of the former Serbian state Ottomans transfer to the patriarchs of Peć. The millet system that the Serbs transferred to the Habsburg Monarchy was a good instrument for transmitting the Serbian national identity. Patriarchate of Peć and later Metropolitanate of Karlovci Serbianized parts of Balkan Orthodox people such as Bulgars, "Vlachs", Albanians, Romanians and a significant number of Catholic Croats. According to Vjeran Kursar although Catholic and Muslim Vlachs, or other, non-Serbian elements which exist in the western Balkans should not be underestimated still the vast majority of Vlachs in that area were Orthodox Christians and Serbian(ised), often still bilingual. All Slavic or Slavicised Orthodox Christians under the jurisdiction of Patriarchate of Peć ie Serbian patriarchs were eventually identified as Serbs, this process did not finish until modern times.
20th century
Interwar Yugoslavia
Following the First World War, the new Kingdom was reliant on patronage from the Serb monarchy that resulted in tendencies of centralisation and Serbianisation that other ethnic communities in the country opposed. In Belgrade a new government was formed after the war that quickly Serbianised the gendarmerie and made non-Serbs in the country view the new Kingdom as an extension of the old Kingdom of Serbia.
Vardar Macedonia
The region of present-day North Macedonia until 1912 was part of the Ottoman Empire. According to Encyclopædia Britannica 1911 Edition, at the beginning of the 20th century the Slavs constituted the majority of the population in Macedonia. Per Britannica itself the bulk of the Slavs there were regarded as "Bulgarians". Immediately after annexation of Vardar Macedonia to the Kingdom of Serbia, the Macedonian Slavs were faced with the policy of forced serbianisation.
Those who declared as ethnic Bulgarians were, harassed or deported to Bulgaria. The high clergymen of the Bulgarian Exarchate were also deported. Bulgarian schools were closed and teachers expelled. The population of Macedonia was forced to declare as Serbs. Those who refused were beaten and tortured. Prominent people and teachers from Skopje who refused to declare as Serbs were deported to Bulgaria. International Commission concluded that the Serbian state started in Macedonia wide sociological experiment of "assimilation through terror." All Bulgarian books gave way to Serbian. The government Serbianized personal names and surnames for all official uses. Between 1913 and 1915 all people who spoke a Slavic language in Vardar Macedonia were presented by Serbia as Serbs.
During the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes, the government of the Kingdom pursued a linguistic Serbisation policy towards population of the Macedonia, then called "Southern Serbia" (unofficially) or "Vardar Banovina" (officially). The dialects spoken in this region were referred to as dialects of Serbo-Croatian. Southern dialects were suppressed with regards to education, military and other national activities, and their usage was punishable. Following the First World War Serbian rule was reinstated over Vardar Macedonia, the local Bulgarian or Macedonian population was not recognised and an attempted Serbianisation occurred. Yugoslavia aimed to incorporate Macedonia through "assimilation" and "nationalisation" through two main goals. Firstly, to legitimate its control, the state based its claims to Macedonia as an inheritance of the medieval monarch Stefan Dušan or as a promised land given by God to the Serb people. Secondly, the state used the modernist idea of the nation and spread it through schools. Both processes merged as myths, people, symbols and dates originating from Serbian history were also used in the endeavour. During 1920 the Orthodox community of Vardar Macedonia was placed under the Serbian Orthodox Church after payment was made to the Constantinople Patriarchate who sold its control for 800,000 francs in 1919. In Vardar Macedonia, Bulgarian signage and literature was removed and societies were shut down along with the expulsion of Bulgarian teachers and clergy who had returned during the war. Names of people were forcefully Serbianised such as Atanasov becoming Atanasović and Stankov as Stanković along with a spate of repression that followed through arrests, internment and detention.
The Kingdom was also interested to change the ethnic composition of the population in Vardar Macedonia. Yugoslavia commenced a policy of forced Serbianisation through such measures as the Agrarian Reform which was a settlement plan. In 1919 there were announced the orders for preparing for colonization of Southern Serbia. The Serbian colonization was maintained through "agricultural" and "administrative" actions. In the Interbellum, the Kingdom has settled 3,670 families (18,384 persons). The colonists were given properties. Also, in the same time, almost all clerks in the area were Serbs. This means that in the period between the two World wars the Kingdom succeeded through the agricultural and the administrative colonizations to create significant Serbian ethnic minority in Vardar Macedonia. Total numbers were 4,200 Serb families with 50,000 Serb gendermes and troops relocated from Serbia to Vardar Macedonia to advance the Serbianisation of the region and population.
Politicians based in Belgrade thought that ideology alongside repression could generate the "correct national" sentiments among local inhabitants. Serb officials, gendarmes and teachers, often poorly trained and little interested in their job according to reports of the time were given the task to "nationalise and assimilate" the region. The initiation of an educational campaign made children to learn that "I am a true Serb like my father and my mother" while their parents were not receptive of the Yugoslav state. A small number of inhabitants did declare themselves as South Serbs and Serbs, often done for reasons of opportunism. Government authorities due to maladministration had difficulties in Serbianising the local population as they were strongly attached to the Bulgarian Orthodox Church (Exarchate) and Bulgarian nationalism. The same authorities held conflicting views toward the population, whom they told were Serbian, whereas local inhabitants noticed they were treated unequally in relation to their Serb counterparts. Some state officials let locals know that they viewed them as Bulgarians and used the term bugaraši for people that supported Bulgarians or were not recognised as Serbs. The state considered individuals that supported local autonomy, culture or language as a Bulgaroman and sought their suppression. In Vardar Macedonia Bulgarian newspapers were banned in many areas and mail from Bulgaria remained undelivered within the region due to "a technicality".
As a counteraction to Serb efforts the paramilitary IMRO began sending armed bands into Yugoslav Macedonia to assassinate officials and stir up the spirit of the locals. After 1923 the IMRO had de facto full control of Bulgarian Macedonia and acted as a "state within a state". It used Bulgaria as a base for terrorist attacks against Yugoslavia with the unofficial agreement of the right-wing governments. Because of this, contemporary observers described the Yugoslav-Bulgarian border as the most fortified in Europe. Meanwhile, several hundred political assassinations were organized by the Yugoslav security police led by Dobrica Matković. Following regular attacks by pro-Bulgarian IMRO komitadjis on Serbian colonists and gendarmes, the government appealed to Association against Bulgarian Bandits, responsible for the massacre of 53 inhabitants of the village of Garvan in 1923. Regions with pro-Bulgarian sentiments such as Tikveš and Bregalnica were violently Serbianised by Serb četniks that resulted in the population being gathered up for forced labour and local leaders killed.
In the 1930s a more homogeneous generation was growing up in Vardar Macedonia, which resisted Serbianisation and increasingly identified itself as Macedonian, but which also made it clear that the Bulgarian idea was no more the only option for them. A sizable part of the local population nonetheless had undergone a transformation as Serbianised Slavs. The government and its widespread massive Serbianisation campaign was unsuccessful in trying to eliminate the traces of an emerging Macedonian national consciousness among the local population. The failed assimilation of the region was due to Serb policies that were exploitative and colonial and not directed toward integration. Funds were controlled from Belgrade and the economy was geared toward resource extraction whose raw materials were bought by the government at low prices it determined for itself. The state controlled the local tobacco monopoly and acquired a steady and sizable amount of revenue without investing much in return to raise the living standards of the inhabitants. The government in Belgrade or the wider administration showed little concern toward conditions within the region. A high rate of turnover existed among ministers and officials who mainly showed up prior to elections or to advance their own career and often staff in the local administration from other parts of the country were incompetent and corrupt.
Locals were excluded from involvement in the sociopolitical system, suppression of elites occurred and state security forces instilled an environment of fear among inhabitants. New arrivals to the region were favoured over the local population regarding state employment, loans and agricultural reform and both groups continued to be separate from each other. During the interwar period the Croatian question dominated politics, Macedonia was sidelined and the view of the time was that discontent within the region could be contained through use of repressive measures. Local inhabitants were mistrusted by the political elite of Belgrade whom designated them as being pure Serbs or through terms such as the "classical south". During the interwar period Bulgaria resented the Serbianisation policy in Vardar Macedonia. In World War II, the Bulgarian Army occupied southern Yugoslavia and their troops were welcomed as liberators from Serbianisation by the local Macedonian Slavs.
Kosovo
The attempt at the Serbianisation of Kosovo and Albanian reaction toward resisting those efforts has been a factor contributing to conflict among Albanians and the Serbs. The region was strategically important for the state and its security with the local Albanian population deemed as "unreliable". Kosovo from the early twentieth century was exposed to the politics of Serbianisation through violence and administrative measures such as replacing Albanians with another population. In the aftermath of the First World War Serbian control over Kosovo was restored and the Kingdom attempting to counteract Albanian separatism pursued a policy to alter the national and religious demographics of Kosovo and to Serbianise the area. The government implemented policies such as the Agrarian Reform. It was a settlement plan to encourage Serb and Montenegrin settlers from other parts of Yugoslavia to resettle in Kosovo through preferential treatment of financial and land incentives to strengthen the Slavic element. The process involved the construction of new settlements in Kosovo and due to serbianisation efforts some were named Lazarevo, Obilić, Miloševo after heroes from Serbian epic poetry. Other places such as Ferizović (Alb: Ferizaj) had their name changed to Uroševac.
Albanian land was illegally confiscated and often through expropriations, whereas Serb settlers gained possession of prime land. The Albanian population was encouraged to leave the region, as they were perceived to be immigrants in need of repatriation to either Turkey, Albania or expected to assimilate within Yugoslavia. The state closed Albanian schools in 1918 as part of its efforts toward Serbianising the local Albanian population. Between 1918 and 1923, as a result of state policies 30,000 and 40,000 mainly Muslim Albanians migrated to the Turkish regions of Izmir and Anatolia. Albanian historians state that during the whole interwar period 300,000 Albanians left Yugoslavia due to duress. By 1931 the Serbianisation efforts had failed as Albanians still composed 63% of the Kosovan population. Other parts of the Serbianisation policy in Kosovo included establishing an effective government administration and refusing autonomous Albanian cultural development in the region.
Vojvodina
During the interwar period, the government through its policy subjected ethnic Hungarians in Vojvodina to Serbianisation.
Communist Yugoslavia
SR Macedonia
After WWII Marshal Tito formed out SR Macedonia of a part of 1929–1941 Vardar Banovina, and encouraged the development of Macedonian identity and Macedonian as a separate South Slavic language. The Macedonian national feelings were already ripe, but some researchers argue that even then, it was questionable whether the Macedonian Slavs considered themselves to be an ethnicity separate from the Bulgarians. Yugoslav Communists recognized the existence of a separate Macedonian nation to quiet the fears of the Slavic population that a new Yugoslavia would continue to follow the policies of forced serbianization. For the Yugoslav authorities to recognize the local Slavs as Bulgarians would be to admit, they should be part of Bulgaria. In fact, the recognition of the Macedonian language and nation aimed to de-bulgarize the local population and to create a national consciousness that would support the identification with Yugoslavia. As result, persons continuing to declare Bulgarian identity were again imprisoned or went into exile, and so Vardar Macedonia was finally de-bulgarised.
Some researchers have described the process of codifying the Macedonian language during 1945–1950 as 'Serbianization'. Within the period of Macedonian language codification, two tendencies emerged: one language majority, that was pro-Macedonian, with some pro-Bulgarian biases, and one language minority openly pro-Serbian. The language minority, with the help of the Yugoslav political establishment defeated the language majority. Macedonian became a “first” official language in the newly proclaimed SR Macedonia, where Serbian was declared as “second” language, while Bulgarian was prohibited. The irreversible turning point of Serbianisation of the Macedonian standard took place in the late 1950s. On the other hand, during the time of federation in Socialist Yugoslavia, Yugoslav citizens learned Serbo-Croatian at school. This bilingualism was stimulated by the subordinated pro-Serbian elites in Yugoslav Macedonia. In this way the influence of Serbo-Croatian arose to such a level, that the colloquial speech of the capital Skopje has been described as a "creolized form of Serbian". For Bulgarians, Macedonian nationalism represents the result of the Serbification process in the region. Bulgarian scholars and politicians maintain that the Macedonian language was Serbified as it adopted words from the Serbian language in the postwar codification process under Yugoslavia that the Bulgarian government has denounced.
"Western Outlands"
The territories called Western Outlands were ceded by Bulgaria to the Kingdom of Yugoslavia in 1920 as a result of the Treaty of Neuilly, following the First World War. All Bulgarian schools and churches there were closed. Serbian primary schools were opened, teaching and learning in Serbian, while Bulgarian was prohibited. In 1920 a Law on the Protection of the State was adopted, which forced the Bulgarians there to accept Serbian names and surnames. A large part of the population emigrated to Bulgaria. An armed conflict started in 1922 when pro-Bulgarian separatist IWORO carried out numerous assaults on the Tzaribrod–Belgrade railway. Bulgarians have received the status of a national minority after WWII. They live in the Caribrod and Bosilegrad municipalities and in some villages in Pirot, Babušnica and Surdulica municipalities. However, in 1948 there was a sharp deterioration for several decades of the Bulgarian-Yugoslav relations, due to the Tito–Stalin split. The Bulgarian teachers there were expelled again. The population was subjected to humiliation and systematic psychological terror. Bulgarians made the highest percentage among the minorities detained on Goli Otok labour camp after the WWII. The decades of geographic isolation of other Bulgarians, and the repressions additionally led this community to inability to build its own minority space for many years.
Yugoslav wars
During the 1980s, some Serb intellectuals criticised and the League of Communists and held them responsible for Yugoslavia's political and economic troubles while offering solutions to the "Serbian question" through discussions and explanations of the Serb predicament. One of the narratives that emerged claimed that under communism Serbs had abandoned their old traditions resulting in a loss of Serbian identity and unawareness of Serb interests with looming historical defeat in a process called "de-Serbisation".
Yugoslav army
The Yugoslav army (JNA) prior to the 1990s was a multi-ethnic force consisting of conscripts, regulars, commissioned and non-commissioned officers that for the highest ranks was determined through an ethnic principle of representative proportionality reflected in Yugoslavia's multi-ethnic composition. Serbs overall held most senior, middle and junior ranks. Following 1990-1991 during the later stages of the breakup of Yugoslav federation that descended into war the JNA underwent a process of Serbianisation. It transformed from being multi-ethnic into a mainly Serb organisation under the Serbian republic's President Slobodan Milošević who held control and command over the force. During the period non-Serb personnel defected to the new armies of the new post-Yugoslav republics and others who felt disillusioned yet were unable to defect resigned. Slovene, Croat, Macedonian and Muslim (Bosniak) officers left the ranks of the Yugoslav army. As the army became dominated more by Serbs a program has instituted to retire non-Serb personnel that resulted in 24 generals remaining out of 150 on the eve of when the JNA was formally disbanded on 19 May 1992. In that time 42 of those generals had been removed by General Božidar Stevanović during his campaign of Serbianisation. He belonged to a clandestine network called Vojna Linija (Military Line) that backed the Serbianisation of the JNA and Milošević placed Stevanović as head of the air force to accelerate the removal of military personnel deemed unreliable and non-Serb. Following these processes the JNA was impacted due to the realisation that Yugoslavia no longer existed and its priority shifted toward creating the frontiers of a new Serbian state. A campaign to shift the political orientation of the JNA to a Serbian character also occurred.
At the end of May 1992, over 90% of the JNA was composed of Serbs. The Serbianisation of the Yugoslav army created the conditions for their support of Serbs in the Krajina region of Croatia and Bosnia. Following the independence of Bosnia and formation of a new Yugoslav federation of Serbia and Montenegro, the old Yugoslav army was divided into two new armed forces due to UN sanctions imposed on the federation. Several months prior to May 1992 a division of armies and its assets was planned as authorities in Belgrade assessed its involvement in Bosnia would receive a hostile international reaction along with being accused of aggression. JNA General Veljko Kadijević was appointed to carry out the task by redeploying all Serbs from Bosnia to local Bosnian army units and removing any Serbs not from the area. As such Belgrade later claimed to be uninvolved in the Bosnian War while Bosnian Serb military forces remained under its control. Seen as reliable by Belgrade, Ratko Mladić was promoted to general and given command over the Serbian armed forces in Bosnia while maintaining the fiction of a separate armed force as the old Yugoslav chain of command remained. Mladić and Serb Bosnian forces under his command followed Belgrade's Serbian nationalist aims and objectives. Serb military forces in Croatia were also under the control of Belgrade.
On 25–26 August 1993 at a gathering the Supreme Defense Council of retired generals, Milošević's full control over the Yugoslav army was complete as the few remaining traces of the JNA were done away with. It was succeeded by the Army of Yugoslavia (Vojska Jugoslavije -VJ). Serbianisation continued during the first few years of the new military force through purges of personnel arising out of a need to ensure the loyalty of the armed forces to Milošević. During the Yugoslav Wars, the Serbianised Yugoslav National Army was involved in the destruction of urban centres such as Sarajevo, Mostar and Vukovar. Territories within Bosnia conquered during the war by Bosnian Serbs were subjected to homogenisation and assimilation through Serbianisation. The processes of Serbianisation of the Yugoslav army resulted in the creation of three Serbian armies under the control of Milošević. Following the conclusion of the Yugoslav Wars of the early 1990s, the Serbianisation process of the Yugoslav army (JNA) was confirmed at the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY) by witnesses.
Kosovo
In the late 1980s Milošević promoted a Serbian nationalist platform that entailed the re-Serbianisation of two autonomous Yugoslav provinces, Kosovo and Vojvodina. On 23 March 1989, the autonomy of Kosovo within the Yugoslav federation was revoked by the government of the Serb Republic and Serbianisation of the province followed. During the 1990s under the government of Milošević the Serbianisation of Kosovo occurred. Laws were passed by the parliament of Serbia that sought to change the power balance in Kosovo relating to the economy, demography and politics. Various measures included prohibiting the official use of Albanian, prevention of Albanian involvement in education, severely limiting the usage of Albanian symbols and efforts to deal with the imbalances of demography between Albanians and Serbs. In the education sector Serbian authorities pressed Albanian schools to follow the Serbian language curriculum and to achieve those aims Albanian teachers in the thousands were replaced with Serbs. The government imputed the mass dismissal of Albanian teachers to incompetence in the Serbian language, and that Kosovo educational institutions were centres for resistance and counterrevolution that indoctrinated Albanian students.
Other reforms of the Kosovo education system segregated Albanian and Serb students within schools while funding, teaching staff and educational facilities were allocated for Serbian students and Albanian students received little. An entrance exam in Serbian literature and language became compulsory for students to pass in secondary schools. The Kosovo police force underwent Serbianisation after accusations of maltreatment toward non-Albanian civilians (mainly Serbs and Montenegrins) were made against ethnic Albanian police that resulted in their dismissal. The Kosovo Albanian police force was replaced with Serb special police units of the Serbian Interior Ministry. Albanians were against the measures and as such riot police and troops prevented them through force from going to school with some educational facilities being surrounded by tanks to stop attendance by students. The Kosovo police force that was newly Serbianised maltreated the Albanian population.
At the University of Pristina similar reforms occurred and lecturers that were not dismissed were required to use Serbian as the medium of instruction, with the level of Albanians at the university declining toward the conclusion of 1991. Pristina University along with its students became an important centre of Albanian resistance to Serbianisation. The parliament of Kosovo repudiated Serbianisation and made a declaration of the province's independence, established an alternative government and ministry of education. Demonstrations by Albanians were followed by more dismissals and reprisals in the education sector which led to the establishment of an Albanian parallel education system consisting of previously dismissed teachers giving lessons in private homes. Kosovan Albanian school textbooks of the interwar period of the 1990s referred to the Serbianisation of Kosovo through attempted colonisation and mass expulsion of Albanians by Serbs for a prolonged period of Kosovo's history in the twentieth century. Hospitals had their Albanian nurses and physicians dismissed.
Another aspect of Serbianisation in Kosovo was the implementation of a discriminatory language policy. In 1991 public discourse was Serbianised through a campaign by the government such as targeting signs and government organs that became unfamiliar to many monolingual Albanians. Kosovo media was Serbianised as 1,300 employees of Radio & TV Pristina were dismissed with television coming under Belgrade control and a propaganda tool for the government. Albanian language newspapers were shut down and the most popular newspapers placed under the control of the government while other independent papers allowed to exist were under constant pressure from the state. Cultural institutions of Kosovo only showed Serbian productions. Albanian municipal officials and industrial workers were also dismissed from their employment. State sanctioned Serbianisation overall resulted in more than 100,000 Kosovo Albanians losing employment with many made to leave their apartments while their jobs were given to Serbs that migrated into the region.
At the time, for Serb nationalists the process of Serbianisation entailed the resettlement of Serbs to Kosovo and limiting the favorable demographic position Albanians held. Originating from the 1930s, the works of Vaso Čubrilović, a Serb nationalist writer became popular in Serbia during the 1990s and their content called for the dislocation of Albanians through mass resettlement. In 1995, a Serb Radical politician Vojislav Šešelj wrote in the publication Velika Srbija (Greater Serbia) a memorandum that outlined the Serbianisation of Kosovo. Šešelj called for violence and expulsion against Albanians and their leadership with aims toward discrediting them within Western public opinion. Following similar themes the parliament of Serbia on 11 January 1995 passed the Decree for Colonisation of Kosovo of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. It outlined government benefits for Serbs who desired to live in Kosovo with loans to build homes or purchase other dwellings and offered free plots of land. Few Serbs took up the offer due to the worsening situation in Kosovo at the time.
The government in 1995 resorted to forcefully resettling in Kosovo Serb refugees from Croatia, with most leaving thereafter and few remaining that increased tensions in the area. Serbs selling property to Albanians was made illegal by the government. Fines existed for ethnic Albanians that did not undertake military service in Bosnia and Croatia. The government also made if difficult for Albanians living overseas to return, and penalties existed for ethnic Albanian families that had more than one child while Kosovo Serbs were rewarded for having multiple children. Serbianisation of the Kosovo economy also occurred with areas inhabited by Serbs receiving investment, new infrastructure and employment opportunities, while Albanians overall were either excluded or had limited economic participation. The Kosovo war began in 1998. In January 1999, the government authorities initiated a planned offensive against Kosovo Albanians that involved the violent liquidation of assets aimed at their displacement and Serbianisation of the region.
Serbian language
Following the breakup of Yugoslavia, the official language Serbo-Croatian broke up into separate official languages and the process in relation to Serbian involved the Serbianisation of its lexicon.
21st century
North Macedonia
The historical event that created the Yugoslav Macedonian republic on 2 August 1944 is viewed differently through political party rivalries. The Social Democrats (SDSM) celebrate it and the VMRO-DPMNE condemn it as part of a Serbification project.
Under the leadership of Nikola Gruevski (2006–2016), the then-governing VMRO-DPMNE would embrace a pro-Serbian policy. In 2015 the former Prime Minister and leader of the VMRO-NP, Ljubčo Georgievski told Radio Free Europe that the authorities had a clear goal: to keep the country closer to Serbia, and at some future stage to join the northern neighbour. According to him a classical pro-Yugoslav policy was being conducted, where confrontation with all the other neighbors was taking place, but the border between Macedonian and Serbian national identity had been erased. "Stop the Serbian assimilation of the Macedonian nation" was the motto of the billboards that were placed then on Skopje streets, through which the Party launched a campaign for preserving the Macedonian national identity. The pro-governmental press claimed that the "Bulgarian" Georgievski organised a new provocation. As a result, the billboards were removed quickly by the authorities.
Other ethnic groups
Voluntary Serbianisation has sometimes been attributed to Romanians in Serbia since the 19th century.
The Hungarian minority in north Serbia (Vojvodina) has also been affected by Serbianisation since the aftermath of World War II.
See also
Serbomans
Serbophobia
Albanisation
Bosniakisation
Bulgarisation
Croatisation
Germanisation
Macedonianisation
Magyarization
Montenegrinisation
Romanianization
Yugoslav colonization of Kosovo
Notes
Serbian nationalism
Cultural assimilation
Cultural history of Serbia
Serbian irredentism
Slavicization
Social history of Yugoslavia
Vardar Macedonia (1918–1941) |
4445638 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkification | Turkification | Turkification, Turkization, or Turkicization () describes a shift whereby populations or places received or adopted Turkic attributes such as culture, language, history, or ethnicity. However, often this term is more narrowly applied to mean specifically Turkish rather than merely Turkic, therefore referring to the Ottoman Empire, and the Turkish nationalist policies of the Republic of Turkey toward ethnic minorities in Turkey. As the Turkic states developed and grew, there were many instances of this cultural shift.
The earliest instance of Turkification took place in Central Asia, when by the 6th century AD migration of Turkic tribes from Inner Asia caused a language shift among the Iranian peoples of the area. Also, by the 8th century AD, Turkification of Kashgar was completed by Qarluq Turks, who also Islamized the population.
Turkification of Anatolia occurred in the time of the Seljuk Empire and Sultanate of Rum, when Anatolia had been a diverse and largely Greek-speaking region after previously being Hellenized.
Etymology
Prior to the 20th century, Anatolian, Balkan, Caucasian, and Middle Eastern regions were said to undergo Ottomanization. "Turkification" started being used interchangeably with "Ottomanization" after the rise of Turkish nationalism in the 20th century.
The term has been used in the Greek language since the 1300s or late-Byzantine era as "εκτουρκισμός", or "τούρκεμα". It literally means "becoming a Turk". Apart from persons, it may refer also to cities that were conquered by Turks or churches that were converted to mosques. It is more frequently used in the verb form "τουρκεύω" (turkify, become Muslim or Turk).
History
Early examples of Turkification
By 750, the Turkification of Kashgar by the Qarluq Turks was underway. The Qarluqs were ancestors of the Karakhanids, who also islamized the population. The Iranian language of Khwarezm, a Central Asian oasis region, eventually died out as a result of Turkification.
Turkification of Central Asia
The current population of Central Asia is the result of the long and complex process that started since at least 1,400 years ago. Today this region consists of mainly Turkic ethnic groups, barring Persian-speaking Tajiks, although centuries ago its native inhabitants were Iranian peoples. Turkification of the native Iranian population of Central Asia began by the 6th century A.D. partly due to migration of Turkic tribes from Inner Asia. The process of Turkification of Central Asia, besides those parts that today constitute the territory of the present-day Tajikistan and parts of Uzbekistan with native Tajik population, accelerated with the Mongol conquest of Central Asia. Mahmud al-Kashgari writes that the people who lived between Bukhara and Samarkand were Turkified Sogdians, whom he refers to as “Sogdak”.
Tajiks are considered to be the only ethnic group to have survived the process of Turkification in Central Asia. Despite their clear Iranian ethnicity, there are arguments that attempt to denounce Tajiks' Iranian identity, and instead link them with the descendants of Arabs raised in Iran or Turks who have lost their language under the influence of Persian civilization.
Turkification of Azerbaijan
Turkification of the non-Turkic population derives from the Turkic settlements in the area now known as Azerbaijan, which began and accelerated during the Seljuq period. The migration of Oghuz Turks from present-day Turkmenistan, which is attested by linguistic similarity, remained high through the Mongol period, since the bulk of the Ilkhanate troops were Turkic. By the Safavid period, the Turkic nature of Azerbaijan increased with the influence of the Qizilbash, an association of the Turkmen nomadic tribes that was the backbone of the Safavid Empire.<ref>{{cite book|author=Blow, David|year=2009|title=Shah Abbas: The Ruthless King Who Became an Iranian Legend|publisher=I.B. Taurus|isbn=978-1-786-72953-8|page=165|quote=The primary court language remained Turkish. But it was not the Turkish of Istambul. It was a Turkish dialect, the dialect of the 'Qizilbash Turkomans"}}</ref>
According to Soviet scholars, the Turkification of Azerbaijan was largely completed during the Ilkhanate period. Turkish scholar Faruk Sumer notes three distinct periods in which Turkification took place: Seljuq, Mongol and Post-Mongol (Qara Qoyunlu, Aq Qoyunlu and Safavid). In the first two, Oghuz Turkic tribes advanced or were driven to Anatolia and Arran. In the last period, the Turkic elements in Iran (Oghuz, with lesser admixtures of Uyghur, Qipchaq, Qarluq as well as Turkified Mongols) were joined now by Anatolian Turks migrating back to Iran. This marked the final stage of Turkification.
Turkification of Anatolia
Anatolia was home to many different peoples in ancient times who were either natives or settlers and invaders. These different people included the Armenians, Anatolian peoples, Persians, Hurrians, Greeks, Cimmerians, Galatians, Colchians, Iberians, Arabs, Arameans, Assyrians, Corduenes, and scores of others. During the Mycenaean and Classical periods of Greek history, Greeks colonised the Western, Northern and Southern Coasts of Anatolia. Over the course of many centuries a process of Hellenization occurred throughout the interior Anatolia which was aided by the fact Koine Greek was the lingua-franca in political circles and also later became the primary liturgical language, and the similarity of some of the native languages of Anatolia to Greek (cf. Phrygian). By the 5th century the native people of Asia Minor were entirely Greek in their language and Christian in religion. These Greek-speaking Christian inhabitants of Asia Minor are known as Byzantine Greeks, although at the time they would have considered themselves to be Romans (Rhomaioi), and they formed the bulk of the Byzantine Empire's Greek-speaking population for one thousand years, from the 5th century until the fall of the Byzantine state in the 15th century. In the northeast along the Black Sea these peoples eventually formed their own state known as the Empire of Trebizond, which gave rise to the modern Pontic Greek population. In the east, near the borderlands with the Persian Empire, other native languages remained, specifically Armenian, Assyrian Aramaic, and Kurdish. Byzantine authorities routinely conducted large-scale population transfers in an effort to impose religious uniformity and quell rebellions. After the subordination of the First Bulgarian Empire in 1018, for instance, much of its army was resettled in Eastern Anatolia. The Byzantines were particularly keen to assimilate the large Armenian population. To that end, in the eleventh century, the Armenian nobility were removed from their lands and resettled throughout western Anatolia with prominent families subsumed into the Byzantine nobility, leading to numerous Byzantine generals and emperors of Armenian extraction. These resettlements spread the Armenian-speaking community deep into Asia Minor, but an unintended consequence was the loss of local military leadership along the eastern Byzantine frontier, opening the path for the inroads of Turkish invaders.
Beginning in the eleventh century, war between the Turks and Byzantines led to the deaths of many in Asia Minor, while others were enslaved and removed. As areas became depopulated, Turkic nomads moved in with their herds. However, despite the suffering of the local Christian populations at the hands of the Turks and in particular the Turkoman tribesmen, they were still an overwhelming majority of the population 50 years after the Battle of Manzikert. The Turks seem to have been aware of their numerical inferiority during this time period as evidenced by the fact many Turkish rulers went to lengths to disarm their Christian subjects. There is also evidence that the Turks resorted to kidnapping Christian children and raising them as Turks, as attested by contemporary chronicler Matthew of Edessa. Intermarriage between Turks and Greek, Armenian and Georgian natives of Anatolia was not unheard of, although the majority of these unions were between Turkish men and Christian women. The children of these unions, known as 'Mixovarvaroi', were raised as Turks and were of the Muslim faith (although there were some cases of Mixovarvaroi defecting to the Byzantines). It is likely that these unions played a role in the eventual diminishment of the Christian population in Anatolia and its transition from Greek/Christian to Turkish/Muslim.
Number of pastoralists of Turkic origin in Anatolia
The number of nomads of Turkic origin that migrated to Anatolia is a matter of discussion. According to Ibn Sa'id al-Maghribi, there were 200,000 Turkmen tents in Denizli and its surrounding areas, 30,000 in Bolu and its surrounding areas, and 100,000 in Kastamonu and its surrounding areas. According to a Latin source, at the end of the 12th century, there were 100,000 nomadic tents in the regions of Denizli and Isparta.
According to Ottoman tax archives, in modern-day Anatolia, in the provinces of Anatolia, Karaman, Dulkadir and Rûm, there were about 872,610 households in the 1520s and 1530s; 160,564 of those households were nomadic, and the remainder were sedentary. Of the four provinces, Anatolia (which does not include the whole of geographic Anatolia but only its western and some of its northwestern parts) had the largest nomadic population with 77,268 households. Between 1570 and 1580, 220,217 households of the overall 1,360,474 households in the four provinces were nomadic, which means that at least 20% of Anatolia was still nomadic in the 16th century. The province of Anatolia, which had the largest nomadic population with 77,268 households, saw an increase of its nomadic population to 116,219 households in those years.
Devşirme
Devşirme (literally "collecting" in Turkish), also known as the blood tax, was chiefly the annual practice by which the Ottoman Empire sent military to press second or third sons of their Christian subjects (Rum millet) in the villages of the Balkans into military training as janissaries. They were then taught to speak Turkish and converted to Islam with the primary objective of selecting and training the ablest children of the Empire for military or civil service, mostly into the ranks of the Janissaries.
Started by Murad I as a means to counteract the growing power of the Turkish nobility, the practice itself violated Islamic law. By 1648, the practice was slowly drawing to an end. An attempt to re-institute it in 1703 was resisted by its Ottoman members who coveted its military and civilian posts, and in the early part of Ahmet III's reign, the practice was abolished.
Late Ottoman era
The late Ottoman government sought to create "a core identity with a single Turkish religion, language, history, tradition, culture and set of customs", replacing earlier Ottoman traditions that had not sought to assimilate different religions or ethnic groups. The Ottoman Empire had an ethnically diverse population that included Turks, Arabs, Albanians, Bosniaks, Greeks, Persians, Bulgarians, Serbs, Armenians, Kurds, Zazas, Circassians, Assyrians, Jews and Laz people. Turkish nationalists claimed that only Turks were loyal to the state. Ideological support for Turkification was not widespread in the Ottoman Empire.
One of its main supporters was sociologist and political activist Ziya Gökalp who believed that a modern state must become homogeneous in terms of culture, religion, and national identity. This conception of national identity was augmented by his belief in the primacy of Turkishness, as a unifying virtue. As part of this belief, it was necessary to purge from the territories of the state those national groups who could threaten the integrity of a modern Turkish nation state. The 18th article of the Ottoman Constitution of 1876 declared Turkish the sole official language, and that only Turkish speaking people could be employed in the government.
After the Young Turks assumed power in 1909, the policy of Turkification received several new layers and it was sought to impose Turkish in the administration, the courts, and education in the areas where the Arabic-speaking population was the majority. Another aim was to loosen ties between the Empire's Turk and ethnically non-Turkish populations through efforts to purify the Turkish language of Arabic influences. In this nationalist vision of Turkish identity, language was supreme and religion relegated to a subordinate role. Arabs responded by asserting the superiority of Arabic language, describing Turkish as a "mongrel" language that had borrowed heavily from the Persian and Arabic languages. Through the policy of Turkification, the Young Turk government suppressed the Arabic language. Turkish teachers were hired to replace Arabic teachers at schools. The Ottoman postal service was administrated in Turkish.
Those who supported Turkification were accused of harming Islam. Rashid Rida was an advocate who supported Arabic against Turkish. Even before the Young Turk Revolution of 1908, the Syrian Reformer Tahrir al-Jazairi had convinced Midhat Pasha to adopt Arabic as the official language of instruction at state schools. The language of instruction was only changed to Turkish in 1885 under Sultan Abdulhamid. Though writers like Ernest Dawn have noted that the foundations of Second Constitutional Era "Arabism" predate 1908, the prevailing view still holds that Arab nationalism emerged as a response to the Ottoman Empire's Turkification policies. One historian of Arab nationalism wrote that: "the Unionists introduced a grave provocation by opposing the Arab language and adopting a policy of Turkification", but not all scholars agree about the contribution of Turkification policies to Arab nationalism.
European critics who accused the CUP of depriving non-Turks of their rights through Turkification saw Turk, Ottoman and Muslim as synonymous, and believed Young Turk "Ottomanism" posed a threat to Ottoman Christians. The British ambassador Gerard Lowther said it was like "pounding non-Turkish elements in a Turkish mortar", while another contemporary European source complained that the CUP plan would reduce "the various races and regions of the empire to one dead level of Turkish uniformity." Rifa'at 'Ali Abou-El-Haj has written that "some Ottoman cultural elements and Islamic elements were abandoned in favor of Turkism, a more potent device based on ethnic identity and dependent on a language based nationalism".
The Young Turk government launched a series of initiatives that included forced assimilation. Uğur Üngör writes that "Muslim Kurds and Sephardi Jews were considered slightly more 'Turkifiable' than others", noting that many of these nationalist era "social engineering" policies perpetuated persecution "with little regard for proclaimed and real loyalties." These policies culminated in Armenian and Assyrian genocides.
During World War I, the Ottoman government established orphanages throughout the empire which included Armenian, Kurdish, and Turkish children. Armenian orphans were given Arabic and Turkish names. In 1916 a Turkification campaign began in which whole Kurdish tribes were to be resettled in areas where they were not to exceed more than 10% of the local population. Talaat Pasha ordered that Kurds in the eastern areas be relocated in western areas. He also demanded information regarding if the Kurds Turkified in their new settlements and if they got along with their Turkish population. Additionally, non-Kurdish immigrants from Greece, Albania, Bosnia and Bulgaria were to be settled in the Diyarbakır province, where the deported Kurds had lived before. By October 1918, with the Ottoman army retreating from Lebanon, a Father Sarlout sent the Turkish and Kurdish orphans to Damascus, while keeping the Armenian orphans in Antoura. He began the process of reversing the Turkification process by having the Armenian orphans recall their original names. It is believed by various scholars that at least two million Turks have at least one Armenian grandparent.
Around 1.5 million Ottoman Greeks remained in the Ottoman Empire after losses of 550,000 during WWI. Almost all, 1,250,000, except for those in Constantinople, had fled before or were forced to go to Greece in 1923 in the population exchanges mandated by the League of Nations after the Greco-Turkish War (1919–1922). The lingual Turkification of Greek-speakers in 19th-century Anatolia is well documented. According to Speros Vryonis the Karamanlides are the result of partial Turkification that occurred earlier, during the Ottoman period. Fewer than 300,000 Armenians remained of 1.2 million before the war; fewer than 100,000 of 400,000 Assyrians.
Modern Turkey
After the Great Thessaloniki Fire of 1917 displaced many of the Salonikan Jews and the Burning of Smyrna, the rebuilding of these places by the post-Ottoman Turkish and Greek nation-states devastated and erased the past of non-Turkish (and non-Hellenistic) habitation. According to historian Talin Suciyan, for non-Muslims in the Republic of Turkey, Turkification resulted in "de-identification, in which a person loses all references to his or her own grandparents, socialisation, culture and history, but cannot fully become part of the society, culture, and politics of the imposed system". There continues to be state-organized discrimination, such as keeping files of citizens of non-Muslim descent.
Ottoman Turkish classical music was banned from the school curriculum. Ottoman archival documents were sold to Bulgaria as recycled paper. Sunday was made the official rest day instead of Friday (the traditional rest day in the Muslim religion).
Political elites in the early Republic were divided: the modernist agenda, which promoted radical transformation, erasing all vestiges of the Ottoman past, and moderate nationalists, who preferred a softer transition that retained some elements of Ottoman heritage.
Ethnonational identity
When the modern Republic of Turkey was founded in 1923, nationalism and secularism were two of the founding principles. Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, the leader of the early years of the Republic, aimed to create a nation-state () from the Turkish remnants of the Ottoman Empire. The Turkish Ministry of National Education in 2008 defines the "Turkish People" as "those who protect and promote the moral, spiritual, cultural and humanistic values of the Turkish Nation." One of the goals of the establishment of the new Turkish state was to ensure "the domination of Turkish ethnic identity in every aspect of social life from the language that people speak in the streets to the language to be taught at schools, from the education to the industrial life, from the trade to the cadres of state officials, from the civil law to the settlement of citizens to particular regions." In 2008, the then Defense Minister of Turkey; Vecdi Gönül remarked defending the actions of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk regarding the Turkification of Anatolia: "Could Turkey be the same national country had the Greek community still lived in the Aegean or Armenians lived in many parts of Turkey?"
The process of unification through Turkification continued within modern Turkey with such policies as:
According to Art. 12 of the Turkish Constitution of 1924, citizens who could not speak and read Turkish were not allowed to become members of parliament.
A law from December 1925 demanded that clothes worn by employees in all companies must be of Turkish production.
A Report for Reform in the East was released in September 1925 according to which non-Turkish languages shall be forbidden.
On 18 March 1926 a Civil Servants Law came into effect, which allowed only Turks to become civil servants and explicitly excluded Armenians and Greeks to become such.
On 28 May 1927 it was decided that business correspondence must be in Turkish language, and foreign assurance companies must employ Turks, except for the director and the deputy director.
The Law 1164 from September 1927 enabled the creation of regional administrative areas called Inspectorates-General (), where extensive policies of Turkififaction were applied. The Inspectorates Generals existed until 1952.
Citizen, speak Turkish! (Turkish: Vatandaş Türkçe konuş!) – An initiative created by law students but sponsored by the Turkish government which aimed to put pressure on non-Turkish speakers to speak Turkish in public in the 1930s. In some municipalities, fines were given to those speaking in any language other than Turkish.
The Law 2007 of 11 June 1932 reserved a wide number of professions like lawyer, construction worker, artisan, hairdresser, messenger, etc. to Turkish citizens and forbade foreigners also to open shops in rural areas. Most affected by the Law were the Greeks.Vryonis, Speros (2005). The Mechanism of Catastrophe: The Turkish Pogrom of September 6–7, 1955, and the Destruction of the Greek Community of Istanbul. New York: Greekworks.com, Inc. .
1934 Resettlement Law (also known as Law no. 2510) – A policy adopted by the Turkish government which set forth the basic principles of immigration. The law was issued to impose a policy of forceful assimilation of non-Turkish minorities through a forced and collective resettlement.
Surname Law – The surname law forbade certain surnames that contained connotations of foreign cultures, nations, tribes, and religions. As a result, many ethnic Armenians, Greeks, and Kurds were forced to adopt last names of Turkish rendition. Names ending with "yan, of, ef, viç, is, dis , poulos, aki, zade, shvili, madumu, veled, bin" (names that denote Armenian, Russian, Greek, Albanian, Arabic, Georgian, Kurdish, and other origins) could not be registered, and they had to be replaced by "-oğlu."
From 1932 on, it was implemented by the Diyanet that the Adhan and the Salah shall be called in Turkish. Imams who delivered the Adhan in Arabic were prosecuted according to the article 526 of the Turkish Criminal Code for "being opposed to the command of officials maintaining public order and safety". 1941 a new paragraph was added to Article 526 of the Turkish Criminal Code and from then on Imams who refused to deliver the Adhan in Turkish could be imprisoned for up to 3 months or be fined with between 10 and 300 Turkish Lira. After the Democrat Party won the elections in 1950, on 17 June 1950 it was decided that the prayers could be given in Arabic again.
The conscription of the 20 Classes working battalions in the years 1941–1942. Only non-Muslims, mainly Jews, Greeks and Armenians were conscripted to work under difficult conditions.Rifat Bali, Model Citizens of the State: The Jews of Turkey during the Multi-Party Period, Lexington Books, 2012, , p. 12.
Varlık Vergisi ("Wealth tax" or "Capital tax") – A Turkish tax levied on the wealthy citizens of Turkey in 1942, with the stated aim of raising funds for the country's defense in case of an eventual entry into World War II. Those who suffered most severely were non-Muslims like the Jews, Greeks, Armenians, and Levantines, who controlled a large portion of the economy; the Armenians who were most heavily taxed. According to Klaus Kreiser for President Inönü the aim of the tax was to evict the foreigners who control the Turkish economy and move the economy to the Turks
Article 16 of the Population Law from 1972 prohibited to give newborns names that were contrary to the national culture.
Animal name changes in Turkey – An initiative by the Turkish government to remove any reference to Armenia and Kurdistan in the Latin names of animals.Revue des deux mondes 2006 "L'espèce de moutons appelée Ovis armeniana a été renommée Ovis orientalis anatolicus. De même, le chevreuil dit Capreolus caprelus armenius a été rebaptisé Capreolus caprelus capreolus. « Les noms de ces espèces animales auraient ..." "The Ovis Armeniana (wild sheep) is now the Ovis Orientalis Anatolicus, while the roe deer, formerly known as Capreolus Capreolus Armenus, has become Capreolus Cuprelus Capreolus. These previous names have disappeared thanks to ..."
Confiscated Armenian properties in Turkey – An initiative by the Ottoman and Turkish governments which involved seizure of the assets, properties and land of the Armenian community of Turkey. The policy is considered a nationalization and Turkification of the country's economy by eliminating ownership of non-Turkish minorities which in this case would be of the Armenian community.
Geographical name changes in Turkey – An initiative by the Turkish government to replace non-Turkish geographical and topographic names within the Turkish Republic or the Ottoman Empire, with Turkish names, as part of a policy of Turkification. The main proponent of the initiative has been a Turkish homogenization social-engineering campaign which aimed to assimilate or obliterate geographical or topographical names that were deemed foreign and divisive against Turkish unity. The names that were considered foreign were usually of Armenian, Greek, Laz, Slavic, Kurdish, Assyrian, or Arabic origin. For example, words such as Armenia were banned in 1880 from use in the press, schoolbooks, and governmental establishments and was subsequently replaced with words like Anatolia or Kurdistan. Assyrians have increased their protest regarding the forced Turkification of historically Aramaic-named cities and localities and they see this process as continuing the cultural genocide of their identity and history (as part of the wider erasure of Assyrian, Kurdish and Armenian cultures).
Article 301 (Turkish Penal Code) – An article of the Turkish Penal Code which makes it illegal to insult Turkey, the Turkish nation, or Turkish government institutions. It took effect on 1 June 2005, and was introduced as part of a package of penal-law reform in the process preceding the opening of negotiations for Turkish membership of the European Union (EU), in order to bring Turkey up to the Union standards.
Turkification was also prevalent in the educational system of Turkey. Measures were adopted making Turkish classes mandatory in minority schools and making use of the Turkish language mandatory in economic institutions.
Imprecise meaning of Türk
During the 19th century, the word Türk was a derogatory term used to refer to Anatolian villagers. The Ottoman elite identified themselves as Ottomans, not as Turks. In the late 19th century, as European ideas of nationalism were adopted by the Ottoman elite, and as it became clear that the Turkish-speakers of Anatolia were the most loyal supporters of Ottoman rule, the term Türk took on a much more positive connotation.
The imprecision of the appellation Türk can also be seen with other ethnic names, such as Kürt, which is often applied by western Anatolians to anyone east of Adana, even those who speak only Turkish. On the other hand, Kurdish-speaking or Arabic-speaking Sunnis of eastern Anatolia are often considered to be Turks.
Thus, the category Türk, like other ethnic categories popularly used in Turkey, does not have a uniform usage. In recent years, centrist Turkish politicians have attempted to redefine this category in a more multicultural way, emphasizing that a Türk is anyone who is a citizen of the Republic of Turkey. After 1982, article 66 of the Turkish Constitution defines a "Turk''" as anyone who is "bound to the Turkish state through the bond of citizenship".
Genetic testing
The population of Asia Minor (Anatolia) and Balkans including Greece was estimated at 10.7 million in 600 AD whereas Asia Minor was probably around 8 million during the early part of Middle Ages (950 to 1348 AD). The estimated population for Asia Minor around 1204 AD was 6 million, including 3 million in Seljuk territory. Turkish genomic variation, along with several other Western Asian populations, looks most similar to genomic variation of South European populations such as southern Italians.
Data from ancient DNA – covering the Paleolithic, the Neolithic, and the Bronze Age periods – showed that Western Asian genomes, including Turkish ones, have been greatly influenced by early agricultural populations in the area; later population movements, such as those of Turkic speakers, also contributed. The first and only (as of 2017) whole genome sequencing study in Turkey was done in 2014. Moreover, the genetic variation of various populations in Central Asia "has been poorly characterized"; Western Asian populations may also be "closely related to populations in the east".
An earlier 2011 review had suggested that "small-scale, irregular punctuated migration events" caused changes in language and culture "among Anatolia's diverse autochthonous inhabitants," which explains Anatolian populations' profile today.
See also
1925 Report for Reform in the East
Cultural assimilation
Demographics of Turkey
Genetic history of Europe
Genetic origins of the Turkish people
Hellenisation
History of Anatolia
Kurdification
Pan-Turkism
Russification
Sun Language Theory
Turkification and Islamification of Xinjiang
Turkish History Thesis
Turkish settlers in Northern Cyprus
Uzbekisation
Turco-Mongol tradition
Turco-Persian tradition
Notes
References
Sources
Turkish nationalism
Cultural assimilation |
4445683 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catholic%20Church%20in%20Indonesia | Catholic Church in Indonesia | The Catholic Church in Indonesia () is part of the worldwide Catholic Church, under the spiritual leadership of the pope in Rome. Catholicism is one of the six approved religions in Indonesia, the others being Islam, Protestantism, Hinduism, Buddhism, and Confucianism. According to official figures, Catholics made up 3.12 percent of the population in 2018.
The number of Catholics is, therefore, more than 8.3 million. Indonesia is primarily Muslim, but Catholicism is the dominant faith in certain areas of the country.
The Church is organised into 10 archdioceses and 27 dioceses, all of which are members of the Indonesian Catholic Bishops Conference (KWI) led by Archbishop Ignatius Cardinal Suharyo Hardjoatmodjo. There are several Catholic religious institutes active in the country including the Jesuits, the Missionaries of the Sacred Heart (MSC) and the Divine Word Missionaries.
Catholicism in Indonesia began with the arrival of the Portuguese in search of the Spice Islands in the 16th century. Currently, East Nusa Tenggara is the only province in Indonesia where Catholicism is the majority, around 55% of its population. There are also significant Catholic populations in North Sumatra, West Kalimantan, South Papua, South Sulawesi, Maluku and Central Java, especially in and around Muntilan.
History
Overview
In the 14th century, the first Catholic mission that reached Indonesia was led by Italian Franciscan friar Mattiussi. In his book "Travels of Friar Odoric of Pordenone", he visited several places in today's Indonesia: Sumatra, Java, and Banjarmasin in Borneo, between 1318 and 1330. He was sent by the Pope to launch a mission into the Asian interiors. In 1318 he departed from Padua, crossed the Black Sea into Persia and then to Calcutta, Madras, and Sri Lanka. Thence he headed to Nicobar island and Sumatra, before visiting Java and Banjarmasin. He returned to Italy by land through Vietnam, China, and the silkroad to Europe in 1330. The Javanese kingdom mentioned in his record was the Hindu-Buddhist Majapahit kingdom. This mission was a pioneer one, providing the church with some information about Asia. At that time the Catholic church was not yet established in the region, with Hinduism and Buddhism being the religions of the majority of the population.
In the 16th century, the Portuguese sailed east to Asia and eventually captured Malacca in 1511. They came for the spice but Catholic missionaries soon arrived in the region, most notably Francis Xavier who worked in Ambon, Ternate and Morotai (Halmahera) in 1546–1547. Dominican missionaries also converted many in Solor. With the expulsion of Portugal from Ternate in 1574, many Catholics in the northern Moluccas were killed or converted to Islam. Ambon was conquered and occupied by the Dutch East India Company in 1605. Subsequently, the Catholics were forced to convert to Protestantism. The same happened in Manado and the islands of Sangihe-Talaud. In 1613 Solor also fell to the Dutch, and Catholic mission activities declined in Flores and Timor, even though these were still under Portuguese administration.
It was not until 1808 under H.W. Daendels, as governor-general, that Catholics were permitted freedom of worship in the Dutch Indies, though this measure was mainly intended for European Catholics since Daendels ruled under the authority of Napoleonic France. This freedom was consolidated by Thomas Raffles.
From 1835 the Catholic Church was affiliated with the colonial state: clergy received a salary from the colonial government which in turn had the right to reject church appointments. In 1846, clashes over policy led the Dutch authorities to expel all but one of the Catholic priests in the colony. In 1848 there were Catholic churches in only four centres in the colony.
Active mission work resumed in the second half of the 19th century and was concentrated in a few areas. Larantuka in the island of Flores was a particularly important mission field under the Jesuits because the freedom of the Catholic Church was guaranteed there under an 1859 treaty with Portugal, which settled conflicting territorial claims in the region. Bengkulu, Bangka, West Borneo, and the islands south of New Guinea were also important. In other regions, Catholic mission work was banned. Many Batak people in the interior of North Sumatra adopted Catholicism at this time, even though authorities banned Catholic missionaries in other parts of the province. In 1898, a mission program also began in Muntilan, though the first ethnic Javanese priest was not installed until 1926.
After Indonesian independence, the Church grew steadily although the Dutch and other Europeans were expelled. Catholicism and other religions grew phenomenally after the Overthrow of Sukarno in 1965.
Portuguese era
Portuguese explorers arrived in the Maluku Islands in 1534, with the goal of converting the natives to Catholicism and to obtain valuable spices endemic to the region. The Spaniard Francis Xavier, a co-founder of the Jesuit Order, worked in the islands from 1546 to 1547 and baptised several thousand locals of the islands of Ambon, Ternate and Morotai (or Moro), laying the foundations for a permanent mission there. Following his departure from Maluku, others carried on his work and by the 1560s there were 10,000 Catholics in the area, mostly on Ambon; by the 1590s there were 50,000 to 60,000. Portuguese Dominican priests also had some success in missionary activities on Solor whereby in the 1590s the Portuguese and local Catholic population is thought to have numbered 25,000.
VOC era
Cornelis de Houtman was the first Dutchman who sailed east to modern-day Indonesia, in 1595. Although his expedition could be considered a commercial failure, it showed the Dutch they were able to sail east in search of the spices. In 1602 the Dutch East India Company (VOC) was created. The Netherlands, like Britain, had a staunchly Protestant government at the time, which extended to the VOC; even though there were many Dutch Catholics, they had little influence. Ambon was conquered and occupied by the VOC in 1605, and the Catholics were forced to convert to Protestantism. The same happened in Manado and the islands of Sangihe-Talaud. In 1613 Solor also fell to the Dutch, and Catholic mission activity was reduced in Flores and Timor, which were still under Portuguese administration.
The Catholic priests were replaced with Protestant clergy from the Netherlands. Many Christians at the time converted to Protestantism. For some time, Catholic priests were threatened with capital punishment if found to be residing in VOC territory. In 1624, Father Egidius d'Abreu SJ was executed in Batavia during the administration of Governor-General Jan Pieterszoon Coen, for celebrating Mass in prison.
Father Alexander de Rhodes, a French Jesuit who invented the Vietnamese westernized alphabet system, was forced to watch his cross and Mass accessories burned underneath where two convicted thieves were just hung to their deaths. De Rhodes was then expelled from VOC territories in 1646.
John Gaspard Cratz, an Austrian, was forced to leave Batavia due to difficulties with the administrators when he helped Catholic priests who were in transit in Batavia. He was moved to Macau, joined the Jesuit Order, and died as a martyr in Vietnam in 1737.
At the end of the 18th century Western Europe saw intense warfare between France and Great Britain and their respective allies. The sympathies of the people of the Netherlands were divided, and the Netherlands lost its independence. In 1799 the VOC went bankrupt and was dissolved. In 1806 Napoleon assigned his brother Louis Bonaparte, a Catholic, to the throne of the Netherlands.
East Indies era
The change of politics in the Netherlands, mainly because of the accession of Louis Bonaparte, a fervent Catholic, brought a positive effect. Religious freedom was recognised by the government. On 8 May 1807, the pope in Rome was given permission from King Louis to establish an Apostolic Prefecture of East Indies in Batavia.
On 4 April 1808, two Dutch priests arrived in Batavia. They were Fr. Jacobus Nelissen and Fr. Lambertus Prinsen. Nelissen became the first Apostolic Prefect when the Apostolic Prefecture of Batavia was created in 1826.
Governor-General Daendels (1808–1811) replaced VOC with the government of Dutch East Indies. Religious freedom was then practised, although Catholicism was still difficult.
Van Lith era
Catholicism started to spread in Central Java when Fr. Frans van Lith from the Netherlands came to Muntilan, Central Java, in 1896. His effort showed little progress until 1904 when four chiefs (the heads of the town) from the Kalibawang region came to his house and demanded that he catechize them. On 15 December 1904, a group of 178 Javanese were baptised at Semagung, between two trees called "Sono". This place is now called Sendangsono in Muntilan, district Magelang, Central Java, near the border of the province of DI Yogyakarta.
Van Lith also established a school for teachers in Muntilan called "Normaalschool" in 1900 and "Kweekschool (also for teachers)" in 1904. In 1918, all Catholic schools were put under the jurisdiction of an institute named "Yayasan Kanisius", which produced the first priests and bishops of Indonesia. In the 20th century, the Catholic Church grew quickly.
In 1911, Van Lith established the "Seminari Menengah" (minor seminary). Three out of the six candidates that were at the school during 1911–1914 were received into the priesthood in 1926–1928. Those priests were FX Satiman SJ, Adrianus Djajasepoetra SJ, and Albertus Soegijapranata SJ.
World War II and the War of Independence
Albertus Soegijapranata SJ became the first Indonesian bishop in 1940 and later Archbishop of Semarang.
On 20 December 1948, Father Sandjaja and Brother Hermanus Bouwens SJ were killed in a village called Kembaran, near Muntilan, when Dutch soldiers attacked Semarang. Father Sandjaja is recognised as a martyr by the Indonesian Catholics, (not officially canonized or approved by the Holy See).
Monsignor Soegijapranata with Bishop Willekens SJ faced Japanese colonial rule. They managed, however, to keep Saint Carolus Hospital operating normally.
Some of the most notable Indonesian national heroes are Catholics, including Agustinus Adisoetjipto (1947) after whom is named Yogyakarta International Airport, Adisutjipto Airport, Ignatius Slamet Riyadi (1945), and Yos Soedarso (1961).
Post-independence era
The first Indonesian archbishop to be made cardinal was Justinus Darmojuwono on 29 June 1967. Indonesian Bishops took part in the second Vatican Council, which was convened from 1962 to 1965.
Pope Paul VI visited Indonesia in 1970, followed in 1989 by Pope John Paul II. The places visited were Jakarta (capital of Indonesia), Medan (North Sumatra), Yogyakarta (DI Yogyakarta), cities of Central Java province, Maumere (Flores), and Dili (Timor Timur) (now the country of East Timor).
The head Archdiocese of Jakarta ("Keuskupan Agung Jakarta"), is Archbishop Ignatius Suharyo Hardjoatmodjo. Indonesia's only cardinal is Julius Darmaatmadja SJ. He took part in the conclave which elected Pope Benedict XVI. For health reasons, however, he declined to take part in the recent conclave that elected Pope Francis.
In 1965, after the overthrow of Sukarno, a purge was carried out against Indonesian communists and alleged communists, especially in Java and Bali. Hundreds of thousands, perhaps millions, of civilians were killed in the ensuing turmoil by the army and vigilantes. Communism was associated with atheism and since that time every Indonesian citizen has been expected to adopt one of the then five official state-endorsed religions.
Catholicism and other minority religions have experienced enormous growth especially in areas inhabited by large numbers of Chinese Indonesians and ethnic Javanese. For example, in 2000 in Jakarta alone there were 301,084 Catholics, while in 1960 there were only 26,955. This means the Catholic population increased elevenfold while in the same period the population of Jakarta merely tripled, from 2,800,000 to 8,347,000. This growth may also be attributed to increased migration to the capital from Christian parts of Indonesia when in 1960 there were not so many from the regions residing in Jakarta as now.
The dramatic increase of the number of Catholics in particular, and Christians in general, has led to enmity and unfounded allegations of "Christianization".
The second half of the 1990s and beginning of the 2000s were also marked by violence against Catholics in particular and Christians in general. However, former president Abdurrahman Wahid, himself a leader of Nahdatul Ulama, one of the biggest Muslim organisations in Indonesia, made several contributions in reconciling the simmering antipathy among the different religious groups.
As recently as 2010, there were incidents where Catholics and other Christians were banned from celebrating Christmas services.
Demographics
The Indonesian Central Statistic Bureau (BPS) conducts a census every 10 years. Data available from 2000 drew on 201,241,999 survey responses. BPS estimated that the census missed 4.6 million people. The BPS report indicated that 85.1 per cent of the population label themselves Muslim, 9.2 per cent Protestant, 3.5 per cent Catholic, 1.81 per cent Hindu, 0.84 per cent Buddhist, and 0.2 per cent "other," including traditional indigenous religions, other Christian groups, and Judaism. The country's religious composition remains a politically charged issue; as some Christians, Hindus, and members of other minority faiths argue that the census undercounted non-Muslims. The 2000 BPS then claims 88.22% of the population would be Muslim if the missed 4.6 million people were counted. In 2018, Indonesia made another census by the Badan Pusat Statistik Indonesia. The results stated that 86.7% of Indonesians are Muslims, 10.72% Christians (7.6% Protestants, 3.12% Roman Catholic), 1.74% Hindus, 0.77% Buddhists and 0.07% others.
List of Catholic provinces and dioceses in Indonesia
Ecclesiastical Province of Jakarta
Archdiocese of Jakarta
Diocese of Bandung
Diocese of Bogor
Ecclesiastical Province of Ende
Archdiocese of Ende
Diocese of Denpasar
Diocese of Larantuka
Diocese of Maumere
Diocese of Ruteng
Ecclesiastical Province of Kupang
Archdiocese of Kupang
Diocese of Atambua
Diocese of Weetebula
Ecclesiastical Province of Makassar
Archdiocese of Makassar
Diocese of Amboina
Diocese of Manado
Ecclesiastical Province of Medan
Archdiocese of Medan
Diocese of Padang
Diocese of Sibolga
Ecclesiastical Province of Merauke
Archdiocese of Merauke
Diocese of Agats
Diocese of Jayapura
Diocese of Manokwari-Sorong
Diocese of Timika
Ecclesiastical Province of Palembang
Archdiocese of Palembang
Diocese of Pangkal-Pinang
Diocese of Tanjungkarang
Ecclesiastical Province of Pontianak
Archdiocese of Pontianak
Diocese of Ketapang
Diocese of Sanggau
Diocese of Sintang
Ecclesiastical Province of Samarinda
Archdiocese of Samarinda
Diocese of Banjarmasin
Diocese of Palangkaraya
Diocese of Tanjung Selor
Ecclesiastical Province of Semarang
Archdiocese of Semarang
Diocese of Malang
Diocese of Purwokerto
Diocese of Surabaya
See also
List of Catholic dioceses in Indonesia
List of church buildings in Indonesia
Holy See–Indonesia relations
Religion in Indonesia
Christianity in Indonesia
Demographics of Indonesia
Notes
References
Robert Cribb, Historical Atlas of Indonesia. London: Curzon Press, Singapore: New Asian Library (2000)
Adolf Heuken, 'Archdiocese of Jakarta - a Growing Local Church (1950–2000)' in Een vakkracht in het Koninkrijk. Kerk- en zendingshistorie opstellen onder redactie van dr. Chr.G.F. de Jong (2005:104-114)
Leopold Maria van Rijckevorsel S.J., Pastoor F. van Lith S.J. : de stichter van de missie in Midden-Java, 1863-1926. Nijmegen: Stichting St.Claverbond (1952)
Karel Steenbrink, Catholics in Indonesia, 1808-1942 : a documented history. Leiden:KITLV Press
Karel Steenbrink, 'A Catholic Sadrach: the contested conversions of Madrais adherents in West Java between 1960-2000' in Een vakkracht in het Koninkrijk. Kerk- en zendingshistorie opstellen onder redactie van dr. Chr.G.F. de Jong (2005:286-307)
External links
Example of Catholic hymns used by Indonesians
Catholic Church by country |
4445744 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinle%20Formation | Chinle Formation | The Chinle Formation is an Upper Triassic continental geological formation of fluvial, lacustrine, and palustrine to eolian deposits spread across the U.S. states of Nevada, Utah, northern Arizona, western New Mexico, and western Colorado. In New Mexico, it is often raised to the status of a geological group, the Chinle Group. Some authors have controversially considered the Chinle to be synonymous to the Dockum Group of eastern Colorado and New Mexico, western Texas, the Oklahoma panhandle, and southwestern Kansas. The Chinle Formation is part of the Colorado Plateau, Basin and Range, and the southern section of the Interior Plains. A probable separate depositional basin within the Chinle is found in northwestern Colorado and northeastern Utah. The southern portion of the Chinle reaches a maximum thickness of a little over . Typically, the Chinle rests unconformably on the Moenkopi Formation.
The Chinle Formation was probably mostly deposited in the Norian stage, according to a plethora of chronological techniques. It is a thick and fossiliferous formation with numerous named members (subunits) throughout its area of deposition.
History of investigation
While colorful Triassic sediments of the Colorado Plateau have been investigated since the 19th century, the Chinle Formation was only formally named and described by Herbert E. Gregory in 1917. It was named for Chinle Valley in Apache County, Arizona, land which is largely within the Navajo Nation. Gregory did not designate a type locality. He split the Chinle into four subunits, labelled A (youngest) to D (oldest). This did not include the underlying Shinarump Conglomerate (named by G. K. Gilbert and Edwin E. Howell in 1875), which he considered a separate formation.
United States Geological Survey geologists and paleontologists continued to map out the Chinle Formation through the 20th century, revising the unnamed subunits of Gregory. A basic stratigraphy of the formation was developed for north-central New Mexico by Wood and Northrop (1946), and stratigraphy in the Four Corners Region was established by the late 1950s. In 1956, Economic geologist Raymond C. Robeck identified and named the Temple Mountain member as the basal-most unit in the area of the San Rafael Swell of Utah. In 1957, John H. Stewart revised the Shinarump Conglomerate and renamed it the Shinarump member of the Chinle formation.
Study of the formation expanded northwards into northern Utah and Colorado, facilitated through papers by Forrest G. Poole and Stewart (1964) and Steve W. Sikich (1965), who named informal local members equivalent to those of Arizona and New Mexico. The complete areal extent of the unit was mapped by R.F. Wilson and Stewart in 1967. Stewart and his colleagues created an expansive overview and revision of the formation in 1972, summarizing previous knowledge on Chinle stratigraphy.
V.C. Kelley assigned more members and revised the unit in 1972. Spencer G. Lucas and S.N. Hayden did the same thing in 1989. The Rock Point Member was assigned by R.F. Dubiel in 1989.
The Chinle was raised to group rank by Lucas in 1993, thus also raising many of the members to formation status. He also included the formations of the Dockum Group of eastern New Mexico and west Texas within the "Chinle Group". This modified nomenclature is controversial; many still retain the Chinle as a formation and separate out the Dockum Group. The Dockum was named in 1890, before the Chinle. Lucas also advocated abandoning the name Dolores Formation as a parochial synonym for the Chinle Group.
Overviews of the Chinle were created by Dubiel and others (1992) and Hintze and Axen (1995).
Paleobiota
The Chinle Formation is fossiliferous, with a diverse array of extinct reptile, fish, and plant fossils, including early dinosaurs and the famous petrified wood of Petrified Forest National Park in Arizona.
Stratigraphy
The formation members and their thicknesses are highly variable across the Chinle.
Arizona and western New Mexico
Some of the most extensive deposits of the Chinle Formation are found in the southern Colorado Plateau, including Arizona and the western portion of New Mexico. In this region, the oldest and stratigraphically lowest portion of the Chinle is the Shinarump Conglomerate. The Shinarump includes braided-river system channel-deposit facies. The Shinarump interfingers with a finer-grained subunit, the Mesa Redondo Member, one of the oldest widespread units in the badlands of the Painted Desert area. In western New Mexico (particularly the Zuni Mountains area), the Mesa Redondo Member may be replaced by another sandy unit known as the Zuni Mountains Formation. Sediments from this time interval are followed by a geological unit called the Bluewater Creek Formation.
Most Chinle outcrops in the Painted Desert have traditionally been placed within the following Petrified Forest Member, a segment of Triassic sediments which are so diverse and extensive that it is sometimes raised to its own formation, subdivided further, or redefined more narrowly. In its widest definition, the Petrified Forest Member (or Formation) is split into three sections: the muddy Lower Petrified Forest and Upper Petrified Forest, and the sandy Sonsela Sandstone bed, which separates them. The Lower "Petrified Forest Member" is generally known as the Blue Mesa Member. In Petrified Forest National Park (PEFO) and its vicinities, the Sonsela Sandstone is thick enough that it can be resolved into several distinct sandstone-rich layers. It is renamed as the Sonsela Member in this situation. The Sonsela Sandstone is a collection of braided-stream channel facies. The Upper "Petrified Forest Member" is sometimes called the Painted Desert Member, or simply referred to as the Petrified Forest Member in a more restricted definition of the term. The Petrified Forest is predominately overbank deposits with thin lenses of channel-deposit facies and lacustrine deposits.
The Petrified Forest Member grades into the Owl Rock Member, a marginal lacustrine to lacustrine facies possibly representing a large lake system. The Owl Rock Member is followed by the youngest and sandiest subunit of the Chinle, the Rock Point Member. The Rock Point is distinct enough that it was previously considered a unit of the Wingate Sandstone, a latest Triassic - early Jurassic aeolian formation which overlies the Chinle in many areas.
Central New Mexico
Unambiguous exposures of the Chinle Formation extend into central New Mexico, beyond the eastern edge of the Colorado Plateau. Most of these are found in the Chama Basin of north-central New Mexico, particularly several famed paleontological sites at Ghost Ranch near Abiquiu. Minor exposures also occur in the Lucero Uplift west of Albuquerque, as well as other areas along the Rio Grande Rift.As in the Colorado Plateau, the lowest major unit in north-central New Mexico is a sandstone-rich member. This layer, the Agua Zarca Sandstone, is often synonymized with the Shinarump Conglomerate, though it may be derived from a different erosional source. It is often preceded by a very thin layer of silty mottled strata. This mottled strata is sometimes termed the Zuni Mountains Formation, though the application of this term beyond the Zuni Mountains is questionable. In the Chama Basin at least, the mottled strata is derived from the eroded and pedogenically modified surface of the Moenkopi Formation.
The coarse lower unit grades into the fine-grained Salitral Formation, which is equivalent to the Blue Mesa Member and Bluewater Creek Formation. In south-central New Mexico, it may instead grade into the San Pedro Arroyo Formation, a similar heterolithic unit. Coarse sandstone returns along a sharp contact with the following Poleo Formation, an equivalent of the Sonsela Member. The Poleo Formation grades into the thick colorful sediments of the Petrified Forest Member. Authors which raise this member to a formation subdivide it into the lower Mesa Montosa Member and the upper Painted Desert Member. The Petrified Forest Member is fossiliferous in the Chama Basin, with major sites including the Hayden, Canjilon, and Snyder quarries of Ghost Ranch.
The stratigraphically highest unit in north-central New Mexico is the informally-named “siltstone member”. This unit is best exposed at Ghost Ranch, where it has produced the famous Whitaker Quarry, also known as the Coelophysis quarry due to a high concentration of fossils belonging to the theropod dinosaur Coelophysis bauri. The "siltstone member" may be equivalent to the Rock Point Member, and some authors refer to it as such.
Monument Valley and southern Utah
The Chinle continues northwards into southern Utah and the Four Corners area, though it thins greatly to the northwest. A narrow band of undifferentiated purplish sediments from the lower part of the formation extend into vicinity of St. George. The formation thickens eastward into Zion National Park and Grand Staircase–Escalante National Monument. The Chinle is a prominent component of badlands and outcrops in the various national parks, monuments, and recreation areas of southeast Utah, extending in a discontinuous patchwork up to the San Rafael Swell. The stratigraphic nomenclature used in southern Utah is also utilized in Monument Valley, where the coarse-grained lower members of the Chinle form a caprock for many famous buttes which characterize the valley.
In this region, the stratigraphically lowest unit in the Chinle is usually the Shinarump Conglomerate (or Shinarump Member), which thins northward but is a reliable component of outcrops throughout the region. In several areas, a thin layer of mottled paleosols, the Temple Mountain Member, may be superimposed onto the Shinarump and underlying Moenkopi Formation.
The Monitor Butte Member overlies the Shinarump and Temple Mountain members in southeast Utah and Monument Valley. This unit comprises drab and generally fine-grained sediments, equivalent to the Blue Mesa Member and Bluewater Creek Formation found further south. The facies of this interval have been interpreted as overbank (distal floodplain) and lacustrine deposits. At Zion National Park, the Monitor Butte Member is replaced by a thick time-equivalent unit, the Cameron Member, which is also found in the Navajo Nation near its namesake of Cameron, Arizona. The Cameron Member is practically identical to the Blue Mesa Member, and likely represents the same depositional environment along the ancient river system responsible for the Chinle Formation. It is also distinct from the Monitor Butte Member, which has more evaporite deposits and fewer red sandy layers.
The drab mudstone of the Monitor Butte and Cameron members are succeeded in a few areas by a thin section of massive conglomeratic sandstone, the Moss Back Member. This member represents sandy river channel deposits and is likely equivalent to part of the Sonsela Member. Elsewhere, the Monitor Butte grades into the Petrified Forest Member, which in Utah includes the thin but geographically extensive Correo Sandstone Bed. The Petrified Forest Member is followed by the Owl Rock Member. A unit of drab interbedded coarse and fine sediments, the Kane Springs beds, develops in the Paradox Basin. The Kane Springs beds are river deposits which are likely equivalent to the Owl Rock Member and the upper part of the Petrified Forest Member. Finally, either the Rock Point Member or Church Rock Member overlie the Owl Rock. Some researchers feel that the Church Rock and Rock Point members may be synonymous. They are complex heterolithic units, representing variously braided-river facies, lacustrine, and overbank deposits.
Chronology
Tetrapod biostratigraphy
The Chinle Formation is entirely Late Triassic in age. Tetrapod biostratigraphy for the Chinle was first developed based on phytosaurs and aetosaurs, which in 1998 were combined into global biozones in Spencer G. Lucas's Land Vertebrate Faunachrons system. Simplified stratigraphy based on Litwin. Note that age inferences devised by Lucas do not necessarily align with other chronological methods used in the Chinle Formation. Other works on Chinle biostratigraphy, such as Martz & Parker (2017), are better integrated with magnetostratigraphy and radiometric dating, and are considered more accurate.
Radiometric dating
Since 2011, widespread radiometric dating has helped to refine precise age data for part of the Chinle Formation, particularly in areas with a more complete stratigraphic record such as Petrified Forest National Park (PEFO). Volcanism further southwest along the Cordilleran magmatic arc supplies zircon crystals to the Chinle system, allowing for U-Pb dating of layers which host zircon grains. Eroded sediments from the Ancestral Rocky Mountains, Ouachita Mountains and Mogollon Highlands also supply older reworked zircon to the basin.
Chinle radiometric dating is complicated by lithological quirks of zircon deposition. Taken at face value, U-Pb dates from coarse-grained layers are often several million years older than expected based on magnetostratigraphy, while mud-dominated layers are generally more accurate despite a lower sample size. This is likely because sandy rivers receive a higher proportion of recycled zircon grains from distant eroded rocks, while muddy plains are supplied with fresh zircon-rich ash from contemporary volcanic eruptions. While zircons from sandstone-rich layers are less useful for inferring direct depositional ages, they can be very useful for inferring sediment sources: each igneous or metamorphic sediment source has its own set of old (usually Precambrian) zircon ages, which can be traced in Triassic sediments.
Outcrops of the Mesa Redondo Member at PEFO have been dated to ~225 Ma (2011) or ~228 Ma (2013), though these may be influenced by recycled grains. Later estimates from a major core drilling project support a more recent depositional age of 223-222 Ma (2020). This firmly suggests that practically all of the Chinle Formation was deposited in the Norian stage; According to the consensus "long Norian" hypothesis and radiometric assessments of marine strata, the Carnian-Norian boundary is tentatively set to ~227 Ma.
At PEFO, U-Pb estimates from the Blue Mesa Member include 223 Ma (2011), 222 Ma (2020), and 221-218 Ma (2020). Dated outcrops of drab mudstone near St. Johns, Arizona fit this general time period as well. The fossiliferous Placerias quarry, previously regarded as belonging to an older subunit, is likely part of the Blue Mesa Member based on an age date of 219.4 Ma (2014). At Six Mile Canyon near Fort Wingate, New Mexico, the base of the Blue Mesa Member (or its local equivalent) is defined by a distinct sandstone bed, which has been dated to 221-219 Ma (2009) or 218 Ma (2011). The underlying Bluewater Creek Formation has also been dated to 221-219 Ma (2014), suggesting that it overlaps in time with the Arizonan Blue Mesa Member and possibly part of the Sonsela Member.
Radiometric dates are well-recorded for the Sonsela Member, though a high concentration of reworked zircons must be accounted for when inferring an accurate age of deposition. The true duration of the Sonsela Member is likely from around 218 Ma to 213 Ma (2020), though older estimates place its base at 220-219 Ma (2011, 2013). A prominent biological turnover is found at the Adamanian-Revueltian boundary in the middle of the Sonsela Member, around 214 Ma. It may correspond to a local extinction, or simply represents a time period which is truncated by slow deposition or a geological hiatus. The thin Sonsela Sandstone bed, the namesake of its corresponding member, has been dated to 216.6 Ma (2019) at its type locality at Sonsela Buttes in Arizona.
The first Chinle U-Pb age data to be published referred to the Black Forest Bed, a sandstone layer near the top of the Petrified Forest Member in PEFO. U-Pb estimates for this layer include ~213 Ma (2003 maximum), ~211 Ma (2009), and ~210 Ma (2011, 2020). A presumably older exposure of the Petrified Forest Member, the Hayden Quarry at Ghost Ranch, is dated to 212 Ma (2011). A similar age was found for the middle part of the member in PEFO. The end of the Petrified Forest Member was probably close to 208 Ma, meaning that overlying strata is presumably latest Norian-Rhaetian in age.
Places found
Geologic Province:
Parklands:
Arches National Park
Canyonlands National Park – see geology of the Canyonlands area
Capitol Reef National Park – see geology of the Capitol Reef area
Colorado National Monument
Dinosaur National Monument
Flaming Gorge National Recreation Area
Glen Canyon National Recreation Area
Gold Butte National Monument
Grand Canyon National Park – see geology of the Grand Canyon
Grand Staircase–Escalante National Monument
Lake Mead National Recreation Area
Natural Bridges National Monument
Petrified Forest National Park
Red Fleet State Park
Wupatki National Monument
Zion National Park – see geology of the Zion and Kolob canyons area
Red Rock Canyon National Conservation Area
Other:
Ghost Ranch
See also
List of dinosaur-bearing rock formations
Paleobiota of the Chinle Formation
Triassic land vertebrate faunachrons
References
Further reading
Lucas, S.G. (1998). "Global Triassic tetrapod biostratigraphy and biochronology". Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, and Palaeoecology, v. 143, pp. 347–384.
External links
Spatial distribution of Chinle in Macrostrat
Chinleana- "Chinle Confusion"
Geologic formations of Nevada
Triassic formations of New Mexico
Triassic Colorado
Geologic formations of Utah
Triassic Arizona |
4445863 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Donald%20Shebib | Donald Shebib | Donald Everett "Don" Shebib (born 27 January 1938) is a Canadian film director. Shebib is a central figure in the development of English Canadian cinema who made several short documentaries for the National Film Board of Canada and CBC Television in the 1960s before turning to feature films, beginning with the influential Goin' Down the Road (1970) and what many call his masterpiece, Between Friends (1973). He soon became frustrated by the bureaucratic process of film funding in Canada and chronic problems with distribution as well as a string of box office disappointments. After Heartaches (1981), he made fewer films for theatrical release and worked more in television.
Shebib is Noah "40" Shebib's father.
Early life
Shebib was born in Toronto, Ontario, the son of Mary Alice Long, a Newfoundlander of Irish descent, and Moses "Morris" Shebib, born in Sydney, Nova Scotia, in 1910, himself the son of Lebanese immigrants.
Shebib grew up in an economically precarious household, and in a neighbourhood where he felt he was an outsider, "growing up with a name like Shebib, very working class, being raised a Catholic in Orange Ontario", conceding he "probably took it more sensitively" than he had to, adding that he was always shy in high school: "I didn't know where I fit in. I grew up feeling pretty inferior." In a 2011 interview with Andrea Nemetz in the Halifax Chronicle Herald, Shebib said: "I was aware of migratory experiences – like the Okies in California in the dust bowl. I had a cousin who came to stay with us in Toronto in the late 1950s and he tried to make a go of it and couldn't and went back to the Maritimes."
The young Shebib grew up loving sports, comic books, and Hollywood "chestnuts" or vintage films, the family acquiring their first television set in 1952; for a certain time, Shebib refused to watch any film made after 1940.
Education
Shebib played semi-pro football as a young man, and studied sociology and history at the University of Toronto. While very interested in sociological patterns from history, he did not enjoy reading enough to pursue this interest further academically, but was still looking for something to do that would appeal to his "jock and artist impulses".
In 1961, Shebib enrolled in the UCLA School of Theater, Film and Television, where he gained early experience working on Roger Corman productions, notably as a cinematographer and assistant editor on Dementia 13 (1962), his classmate Francis Ford Coppola's first film, and The Terror (1963). He also made his earliest short films. In 1965, he graduated with a Master of Arts, but decided to return home rather than pursue a career in Hollywood.
Career
Over the next five years, Shebib found his way into the Canadian film industry and quickly established himself, reflecting on his decision to return in 1970:There's more of a chance here... and it's much easier to get started. There isn't really all that much filmmaking to be done in the States. Educational TV has opened up some opportunities for the documentary, but other than that there is nothing at all. Period. Flat. Nothing exists. Nothing at all.
Short documentaries
Shebib directed, shot, and edited several award-winning, "lucid" documentaries for the National Film Board of Canada, CTV Television Network, and the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation in the 1960s, notably his thesis film, The Duel (1962), Surfin (1964), Satan's Choice (1965), an inside view of the motorcycle club, and Good Times, Bad Times (1969), before turning to feature filmmaking.
Feature films
Debut
Shebib gained prominence and critical acclaim in Canadian cinema for his seminal 1970 feature Goin' Down the Road, which combined narrative storytelling with Canadian documentary tradition influenced by the British. The low-budget film crew travelled around Toronto in a station wagon, supported by funding from the newly formed Canadian Film Development Corporation. The movie was screened in New York and hailed by Pauline Kael and Roger Ebert. Kael wrote that the movie showed up the ostensibly forced sincerity and perceived honesty of the films of John Cassavetes. It has consistently remained near the top of the list of top 10 films made in Canada in three separate surveys of academics, critics, and film programmers, and was designated a "masterwork" by the Audio-Visual Preservation Trust of Canada. In 1998, a DVD copy was struck from the master negative by the Toronto International Film Festival in conjunction with Telefilm Canada. The film was digitally remastered as one of the key films in the Canadian film canon and was honoured with a screening at the Art Gallery of Ontario.
Later features and sequel
Following the success of Goin' Down the Road, Shebib expressed a preference for making dramatic rather than documentary films going forward, and directed a mix of commercially unsuccessful genre films beginning with the teen comedy Rip-Off (1971) and the critically acclaimed Between Friends (1973), a somber story of a pair of aspiring surfers who plan a mining robbery in Northern Ontario that goes wrong. Shebib was one of four directors, and many critics, who felt the wrong film had won the Best Feature Film at the 25th Canadian Film Awards, which was already under pressure from a boycott of the awards by Quebec filmmakers. In its December 1973 year in review The Globe and Mail singled out the Canadian Film Award jury for a special "Grand Prix for General All-Around Stupidity" for the Awards' choice over four much stronger nominees. Worse still, the ceremony itself was cancelled and all the promotional planning along with it:In unison, the long promise of the Canadian industry and Don Shebib seemed to be coming to fruition this year: Shebib had made the film which was the confirmation of all his earlier work; there were six strong feature entries in the Canadian Film Awards; the Awards were to be carried on network television; the films were booked to open across the country with full publicity—all firsts. But instead both had their heads bitten off. Today, Don Shebib says he will never again enter a film in the Canadian Film Awards, that he needs a job and would take one in the U.S. in a minute. This is not sour grapes from someone who's inadequate. This is English Canada's best feature filmmaker reacting to the treatment of the best feature film he's ever made.
The awards scheduled for the following year were cancelled and did not return until 1975. Shebib did enter his next film, Second Wind (1976) and won the award for Best Editing. Neither it nor Fish Hawk (1979) were commercial successes. He found success once more with Heartaches (1981), described by Wyndham Wise as a variation of Goin' Down the Road with a pair of working-class women.
Beginning in the 1980s, Shebib has worked primarily in television, but occasionally returned to feature films with Running Brave (1983), Change of Heart (1993), The Ascent (1994), and Down the Road Again (2011), a sequel to Goin' down the Road, featuring some of the original cast members as well as a new generation of characters.
In between The Ascent and Down the Road Again, Shebib said there had been little work, though he had written a few scripts. There was some talk of Shebib directing Rob Stefaniuk in a film called Bart Fargo, an homage to La Petomane, in 2004 and 2005, but it is unclear as to whether it was made, completed, and released. In 2008, he was quoted as saying that Canada was a great place to make a first film, but "a hard place to keep things going."
Nightalk
Shebib's son Noah "40" Shebib is the executive producer of his father's latest film, Nightalk, which stars Al Mukadam and was in postproduction as of February 2020. The film premiered on September 16, 2022 at the 2022 Toronto International Film Festival.
Television
Shebib earned critical acclaim and a Canadian Film Award for Good Times, Bad Times, made for the CBC in 1969. Another television film, The Fighting Men (1977), was later given a theatrical release.
The director's later television work has included By Reason of Insanity (1982), Slim Obsession (1984) both made for the CBC series For the Record and sold to overseas markets,<ref name="Henley">{{cite journal |last1=Henley |first1=Gail |title=On the record: For the Record'''s 10 distinctive years. |journal=Cinema Canada |date=April 1985 |pages=18–21 |url=http://cinemacanada.athabascau.ca/index.php/cinema/article/download/2808/2851. |access-date=4 July 2020}}</ref> and the television movies The Climb (1986), The Little Kidnappers (1990) and The Pathfinder (1996). In the 21st century, the Gilbert and Sullivan documentary A Song to Sing-O (2007) was well received.
Drama series work has included The Edison Twins, Night Heat, Counterstrike and The Zack Files. Philosophy and aesthetics
In 1970, Shebib said that his personal philosophy was influenced by television and the Canadian media theorist Marshall McLuhan.
Shebib still watches Turner Classic Movies "religiously", and after John Ford, his favourite directors are Frank Capra, William Wellman, Howard Hawks, Marcel Carné, David Lean ("especially his early stuff") and F.W. Murnau ("Sunrise is one of my favorite films"):These films made from 1930 to 1934, the Pre-Code films, are among the best Hollywood films ever made. People always think 1939 was the sort of glory year of American film. Actually I'd say it was 1933. The films made before the code were infinitely superior.
He said he approved of a few contemporary Canadian feature filmmakers, but found CBC film dramas "just dreadful" and "boring", dismissing them as "silly stories of girls growing up in the prairies", while at the same time he found the broadcaster's "tape dramas" were still "wonderful, they still have that expertise".
In 2011, Shebib told Geoff Pevere he had expanded his range of Hollywood cinematic viewing from watching only films up to 1950 to films made as late as and even later than 1950, but contended that movies mainly "went in the toilet" after 1950 (with some notable exceptions like Stanley Kramer's The Defiant Ones, a "perfect movie" made in 1958). His dislike for the styles (and subjects) employed by contemporary films is matched by his "seething disdain of critics" and a "testy" ambivalence with respect to the quality of his own work (he called himself "lazy and sloppy" in the execution of his work): Pevere's assessment: "Shebib is an old-fashioned traditionalist adrift in a modernist cultural movement, and therefore as much an outsider as anybody he'd make movies about." His feelings of ambivalence extend to a "reluctance to accept being the designated representative of Canadian anything": "I don't like the idea of suddenly being used as a model for Canada or something. Why take me – whatever my feelings are – and blame that on the Canadian people?"
Style and technique
In 1973, Shebib said that an independent filmmaker must become involved in all aspects of the filmmaking process. Restating this in a 1982 interview, he noted that few filmmakers were capable of directing, writing, and editing the same film, and that, as a Canadian commercial filmmaker, he believed his own taste was more in tune with that of the general public than other "intellectual" filmmakers who were making "pretentious" and "dull" films. Shebib believes in the John Ford style of cinematic storytelling. In 1993, he said that conflict is essential to a film and should be inherent to the basic structure, and should be present in every scene, every change of scene, of a film: "Conflict is one of the basic essences of humanity."
Recurring themes and socio-political views
The director's own youth as an "outsider" is particularly reflected in the early short films: "every one of Shebib's two dozen films has studied the shades of yet another caste of society's disbarred... who never quite make it to their place in the sun." Geoff Pevere remarked that almost without exception, the documentary shorts dealt with "isolated individuals or groups existing on the periphery of mainstream society", sometimes as a lifestyle choice as in Surfin and Satan's Choice (1966), but also as "a forced condition dictated by an unfeeling, ungrateful society", referencing Good Times, Bad Times and the later We've Come Along Way Together, "a poignant, compassionate exploration of old age in a world busting its ass to stay young and beautiful."
In the mid 1970s, Peter Harcourt remarked on the frequent moments of silence denoting introspection in Shebib's films, both in the early documentaries and in the feature films, a "feeling of emptiness, of restlessness, often of irrelevance". Shebib places great value on "male comradeship" and "the need of real challenges to give individuals a sense of their dignity". Piers Handling noted that Shebib was so preoccupied with male bonding that women were absent from his work prior to the start of his feature film career, and likewise identified a tension between the desire to transcend boundaries and existential limits. Sam Weisberg asserts that "all of his films share a common interest in, and empathy with, the extraordinary aspirations of ordinary people," whether "goofy teenagers" trying to make it as a rock band (Rip-Off), a "bored businessman" who takes up jogging (Second Wind), or an Italian prisoner of war "itching to climb Mount Kenya" (The Ascent).
Shebib still considers himself a sociologist at heart, and suggests his films have a strong sociological basis, incorporating social commentary, human relationships being a frequent theme. However, he never considered himself an intellectual: he "didn't talk like one"; not that he was anti-intellectual, just "anti-bullshit": politically "liberal" but not laissez-faire or "bleeding heart", and with "socialist leftist leanings", but believing that Marxism is "just another form bullshit", not that capitalists were "any better".
Critical assessment and influence
John Hofsess remarked in 1971 that Shebib's documentary style, developed over five years, is "suffused with a wry, ironic humanism", a "superb style for needling the sacred cows of the establishment and the sanctimonious bull of counter-culture groups" a style often maintained even in Shebib's second dramatic feature, Rip-Off. Sandra Gathercole found it impossible to overstate his significance as "one of the few English Canadian filmmakers whose work illustrates what is meant by indigenous, rather than derivative, Canadian films – films with a character, integrity and identity that are the backbone of any hope we have for an autonomous Canadian industry."
As late as 1993, Goin' Down the Road still had "legendary status" and as of the Toronto International Film Festival's most recent poll of greatest Canadian films, is ranked 6th. It had done more than any other work to advance the Canadian film industry at the time of its release. Within a few years, Shebib's body of work had made him a "unique and recognizable film presence" in Canada and beyond, "verging on international stature." Scholar Katherine A. Roberts remarks how, since the release of Shebib's film, "numerous Canadian filmmakers have sought to explore the mobility/masculinity nexus as it relates to landscape and the national narrative."
Sam Weisberg opines that, with the exception of Between Friends (1973), none of Shebib's feature films made after Goin' Down the Road have quite the same resonance.
Despite his artistic vision and technical skills, a perception grew that Shebib was "his own worst publicity agent", complaining regularly that his scripts were weak or else that he had difficulties with actors. By 1993, after having directed eight feature length dramatic films, around thirty documentaries, and "scores of TV dramas and series" over twenty-five years, Shebib was finding it hard to find work, even in television: "People have given me the reputation of being terrible-tempered on the set, of being hard to work with. But I don't know where that comes from, I'm really the softest guy in the world." When Geoff Pevere interviewed him in 2011, then aged 73, he found Shebib "generous, courteous, and thoughtful", but he had certainly not mellowed: "He can't help himself, even if it has cost him dearly in professional terms."
In 2017, Shebib was presented with a Directors Guild of Canada Lifetime Achievement Award.
Legacy
Don Shebib Collection
In 1999, the TIFF Reference Library in Toronto received "records created by Shebib and his collaborators," consisting of "script drafts and occasional production records" ranging in production date from "circa 1969 to 1994."
Personal life
Pastimes
Shebib surfed while he lived in Los Angeles, and continued to play football until 1981 when he had to stop due to shoulder injuries, nevertheless remaining active: he played golf and rock climbed, still able to train enough in 1993 to make the mountain climbing film, The Ascent, for which he climbed up to 15,000 feet.
In 2011, Shebib said of his hobbies and sporting life that he was "a very serious, obsessive person. If it isn't golf it's football or it's stamp collecting. And I was a serious airplane model maker."
Marriage and children
Shebib married Canadian actress Tedde Moore, whom he met through a mutual friend. Tedde Moore is known for her role as Miss Shields in A Christmas Story and she was pregnant with their son Noah during filming. They no longer live together, though Moore calls him her "life partner."
Their two children Noah and Suzanna are both involved in the performing arts: Suzanna began her career an actress, while Noah, better known as OVO Sound's "40", an actor and music producer (the siblings have an older half-sister, Zoe). Suzanna is now a chemistry teacher at Toronto's Central Technical School.
Friendships and connections
Shebib met his lifelong friend Carroll Ballard, with whom he often collaborated, while attending classes at UCLA. In a 1982 interview, he said that Ballard was one of the few contemporary filmmakers he admired.
Shebib attended classes at UCLA with Francis Ford Coppola and worked with him on Dementia 13. He also "hung out" with Jim Morrison during this period, and one summer Beach Boys guitarist Al Jardine stayed with him and his roommates, sharing a love of Gilbert and Sullivan musical numbers.
On his return to Toronto, Shebib met and befriended writer and editor William Fruet when he began working for the CBC on The Way It Is.
Selected accolades
Canadian Film Awards
Best Feature Length Documentary, Good Times, Bad Times (1969)
Best Feature Film, Goin' Down the Road (1970)
Best Editing, Second Wind (1976)
Columbus International Film Festival
Chris Bronze Plaque, Slim Obsession (1984)
Directors Guild of Canada
Lifetime Achievement Award (2017)
Filmography
Films
Early short films and documentaries
• Student films (UCLA)
1961 The Train (13 min., 16mm)
1962 Joey (10 min., 16mm)
The Duel (27 min., 16mm) (thesis)
1963 Revival (10 min., 16mm)
Reparations (unfinished, 16mm)
1964 Surfin' (25 min., 16mm)
Eddie (40 min., 16mm)
Autumnpan (60 min., 16mm)
• National Film Board
1965 Satan's Choice (28 min., 16mm)
1966 A Search for Learning (13 min., 16mm)
Feature films
1970 — Goin' Down the Road (87 min., 16mm; also writer)
1971 — Rip-Off (89 min.; co-editor)
1973 — Between Friends (91 min.; co-editor)
1976 — Second Wind (93 min.; also editor)
1979 — Fish Hawk (97 min.)
1981 — Heartaches (105 min.; video release 90 min.)
1983 — Running Brave (106 min.; as "D.S. Everett")
1993 — Change of Heart (96 min.)
1994 — The Ascent (96 min.)
2011 — Down the Road Again (84 min.)
2022 — Nightalk Television
Films
• Documentaries
1966 Allan (CBC, 22 min., 16mm)
1966-67 CTV, This Land Is People1966 David Secter (14 min., 16mm); June Marks (15 min., 16mm); Christalot Hanson (15 min., 16mm)
1967 Everdale Place (22 min., 16mm)
1967 CBC, TBA: Basketball (24 min., 16mm)
1967-69 CBC,The Way It Is1967 Satan's Choice (short version, 8 min., 16mm); Haight-Ashbury;
1968 San Francisco Summer 1967 (59 min., 16mm); Unknown Soldier (7 min., 16mm); Stanfield (20 min., 16mm); Graduation Day (7 min., 16mm)
1969 Good Times, Bad Times (40 min.;; rebroadcast 1974: Such Is Life)
1972 CBC, Telescope: Born Hustler (25 min., 16mm)
1974 CBC, Gallery: Winning is the Only Thing! (24 min., 16mm)
CBC, Of All People: Mrs. Gray (22 min., 16mm)
CTV, We've Come a Long Way Together (29 min., 16mm)
1990 CBS, Top Cops: Larry Mullane/John Benedict
2007 Bravo!: A Song to Sing-O• Dramas and docudramas
1975 The Canary (48 min., 16mm; CBC, Performance)
1977 Old Man Reever (40 min., 16mm; CBC, This Monday)
The Fighting Men (75 min., 16mm; CBC, Saturday Night Movies; 1988 theatrical release: Men of Steel, 91 min., 35mm)
1982 By Reason of Insanity (60 min., 16mm; CBC, For the Record)
1984 Slim Obsession (60 min., 16mm; CBC, For the Record)
1986 The Climb (90 min.; BBC/CTV, Mountain Men; edited version in Summits of Glory anthology)
The Little Kidnappers (CBC/Disney)
1996 The Pathfinder (Hallmark)
1997 Highwayman (Showtime, Dead Man's Gun)
Dramatic series episodes
Shebib directed at least one episode of the following series.
1974 The Collaborators (CBC): "Deedee", "Once Upon a Time in Genarro"
1978 Sidestreet (CBC): "Holiday for Homicide"
1985–1986 The Edison Twins (CBC): 4 episodes
1987 Danger Bay (CBC): "All the King's Horses", "S.S. Friendship"
Diamonds Night Heat: "Bad Timing" "Vantage Point", "The Mercenary"
Sea Hunt: 5 episodes
T. and T. 1987–1988: Katts and Dog 1988–1990: The Campbells: "Ancient Wounds", "The Miller's Son", "The Reluctant Candidate", "Fortunes of War", "The Sky Is the Limit"
My Secret Identity: "The Lost Weekend", "Look Before You Leap", "When the Sun Goes Down", "White Lies", "Seems Like Only Yesterday"
1990–1992 E.N.G.: "All Things Betray Thee", "Lest You Be Judged", "Harvest"
1991 Street Justice (CBC): "Shadows"
1990–1993: Counterstrike: "Verathion", "Masks", "Clearcut"
1994–1995 Lonesome Dove: The Series: "Law and Order", "Blood Money", "Rebellion"
1997–1999 Wind at My Back: "Triple Trouble", "New Directions", "Grace of Hollywood"
1998 Police Academy: The Series: "Mr. I.Q.", "The Truth Ain't What It Used to Be", "Luke...Warm"
1998 The New Addams Family: "Cousin Itt Visits the Addams Family", "Thing Is Missing"
2000 Code Name: Eternity: "Dark of Night"
2001–2002 Caitlin's Way: "Duh Truth, Uh-Huh"
2000–2002 The Zack Files: "Captain Sonic", "Things to Do at Horace Hyde White When You're Dead", "Zack Greenburg's Day Off"
2003 Radio Free Roscoe Further reading
Monographs
Handling, Piers. The Films of Don Shebib. Canadian Film Institute, 1978 (Canadian film series ; 2).
Pevere, Geoff. Donald Shebib's 'Goin' Down the Road'. University of Toronto Press, 2012 (Canadian cinema ; 8).
Essay
Harcourt, Peter. "Men of vision: Donald Shebib." Cinema Canada 32 (November 1976): 35–40.
References
External links
Northern Stars: Donald Shebib
Donald Shebib on the Canadian Film Encyclopedia
Donald Shebib at the National Film Board (Satan's Choice and A Search for Learning'')
1938 births
Best Editing Genie and Canadian Screen Award winners
Film producers from Ontario
Canadian male screenwriters
Film directors from Toronto
Living people
Writers from Toronto
Canadian people of Irish descent
Canadian people of Lebanese descent
Canadian television directors
Directors of Genie and Canadian Screen Award winners for Best Documentary Film
University of Toronto alumni
Producers of Best Picture Genie and Canadian Screen Award winners |
4446153 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Art%20intervention | Art intervention | Art intervention is an interaction with a previously existing artwork, audience, venue/space or situation. It is in the category of conceptual art and is commonly a form of performance art. It is associated with Letterist International, Situationist International, Viennese Actionists, the Dada movement and Neo-Dadaists. More latterly, intervention art has delivered Guerrilla art, street art plus the Stuckists have made extensive use of it to affect perceptions of artworks they oppose and as a protest against existing interventions.
Intervention can also refer to art and actions which enter a situation outside the art world in an attempt to change the existing conditions there. For example, intervention art may attempt to change economic or political situations, or may attempt to make people aware of a condition that they previously had no knowledge of. Since these goals mean that intervention art necessarily addresses and engages with the public, some artists call their work "public interventions".
Although intervention by its nature carries an implication of subversion, it is now accepted as a legitimate form of art and is often executed with the endorsement of those in positions of authority over the artwork, audience, or venue/space to be intervened in. However, unendorsed (i.e. illicit) interventions are common and lead to debate as to the distinction between art and vandalism. By definition it is a challenge, or at the very least a comment, related to the earlier work or the theme of that work, or to the expectations of a particular audience, and more likely to fulfil that function to its full potential when it is unilateral, although in these instances, it is almost certain that it will be viewed by authorities as unwelcome, if not vandalism, and not art.
Origins
Intervention art exists where an individual or group has strong enough beliefs to take perceived ethical action around social issues from materialism to war. Its origins within the history of art are evidenced by such work as Leonardo Da Vinci's "A cloudburst of material possessions" which depicts the artist taking a stand against the materialist status quo. Goya's Black etchings 1812–15 depict almost documentary evidence of actual war depravities. Both examples display the art of conscience.
These examples were made by artists who relied for their livelihoods on ruling class patronage so both were only posthumously made public.
A potted history of intervention artworks
Intervention art also contests the boundaries between the art world and the real world. Such interaction surfaced when artists started using found objects which they incorporated into painting. This began with Cubism around 1912 and the use of collage such as Kurt Schwitters' Merz.
For the remainder of the 20th century and into the early 21st century Intervention artists gravitated away from the market driven art back into the real world; "artists must be activists"... framing elephants in rooms."
Significant Intervention works of art
1915 – Dada publications and performances
1917 – Marcel Duchamp's "Fountain"
1937 – Picasso's Guernica
1952 – Letterist international, Situationists international, Vienese Actionists
1960s – Land art – Robert Smithson's "Spiral Jetty" and Walter De Maria, Jan Dibbets, Hans Haacke, Michael Heizer, Neil Jenney, Richard Long, David Medalla, Robert Morris, Dennis Oppenheim, Gunther Uecker.
1970 – Bonnie Sherk's "Sitting still" (1970), "Public Lunch" (1971), "The Park" (1974)
1974 – Christo's "Valley curtain"
1975 – Adam Purple's NYC guerrilla garden
1978 – Alan Sonfist's Time Landscape
1978 – Barry Thomas's "Vacant Lot of Cabbages", (1978) "Street Stringing" (1978, '79, 2017), rADz (1997-2001)
1982 – Joseph Beuys' "7000 Oaks"
1982 – Agnes Denes' "Wheatfield"
1984 - Don Joyce's Culture Jamming
1986 – Burning man
1989 – Kalle Lasn's Ad busters anti advertising
1999 – Stuckists
2003 – Bill Wasik's Flashmobs
2005 – Magda Sayeg's Yarn bombing
2011 – Pussy Riot
2015 – Banksy's "Dismaland" and "Walled off" (2017)
2023 – Ai Weiwei's "Middle finger"
2023 – Boris Eldagsen Wins photography prize using Artificial Intelligence
Authorised
There are many art interventions which are carried out in contexts where relevant invitation and approval has been given.
Detroit MONA goes kaBOOM!, 2002
The extreme to which an authorised intervention can go and yet still meet with institutional approval was shown in 2002, when the Museum of New Art in Detroit staged a show kaBoom!, with the announcement, "Over the course of the exhibition, museum visitors will be invited to smash, drop, throw and slash artworks..." The show was scheduled for two months, but by the end of the first night had been totally destroyed by visitors:
"They even destroyed the pedestals and wall shelves," one museum staffer shrugged in disbelief. Fires were set in isolated galleries and a wrecking ball for one display had been removed from its chain and used instead as a bowling ball, taking out an installation as well as the corner of one wall. "In a twisted way, it was a wild success," MONA’s director Jef Bourgeau says the morning after, on a surprisingly bright note as he wades through the carnage and debris. This follows the precedent of the Dadaists. At one of their shows, visitors were invited to smash the exhibits with an axe.
Hanging Old Masters backwards, 2004
A more usual authorised art intervention in an institution is done with great care to make sure that no harm comes to the existing collection. In 2004, the Old Town House in Cape Town, South Africa, hung its Michaelis Collection of 17th century Dutch Old Master paintings facing the wall. The curator Andrew Lamprecht said this exhibition, titled Flip, "would force gallery goers to reconsider their preconceptions about the art and its legacy." Knowledge of intent is integral to such a process, as it would be perceived differently if it were announced in a conservation context, rather than as an art piece. However, in this instance there was some ambiguity about the purpose of the exercise as Lamprecht, although stating, "I'm asking questions about the history," also added a more standard "educative" comment, "the reverse of the paintings revealed a wealth of detail not normally on view to the public, ranging from old attempts to preserve the canvas to notes from different collectors over the years," thus lessening the confrontational impact of his actions.
Lord Napier in red tape, 2004
An authorised art intervention that required considerable effort to gain the requisite permission was the wrapping in red duct tape of the equestrian statue of Lord Napier of Magdala, situated on Queen's Gate in West London. This was done by Eleonora Aguiari, a Royal College of Art (RCA) student for her final show. When questioned as to whether she had considered a clandestine act, she replied, "No, not my style, I like to challenge the institutions." In order to do this she needed clearance letters from the RCA Rector, a professor, the Victoria and Albert Museum conservation department and the RCA conservation department, bronze tests, a scaffolding license, indemnity insurance, and permission from English Heritage (who own the statue), the City of Westminster, two Boroughs (Chelsea and Kensington, as their boundary bisects the length of the horse) and the present Lord Napier.
Then a layer of cling wrap and almost 80 rolls of red duct tape were applied by 4 people working for 4 days. Aguiari described it as "a Zen action up there in the middle of traffic, but alone with a beautiful statue. Every detail on the statue is perfect and slightly larger than normal," and said that "statuary that symbolizes military past, or imperialism should be covered to make the topics of the past visible." Aguiari then received a phone call: "Saatchi wants to talk to you," but, on keeping the appointment, she found herself talking not to Charles Saatchi but to Michael Moszynski of the advertising firm, Saatchi & Saatchi, who thought her idea would be suitable for "a Tory advertising campaign," and wanted her to wrap an ambulance in red tape. She declined the offer.
Despite her official clearance, the action caused controversy through press coverage, including a Reuters press agency photo reproduced in the Daily Times of Pakistan.
Paul Kuniholm at Nordic Heritage Museum, 2013
Paul Kuniholm intervened his steel and textile sculptures worn on the body, with wicker art of his great-grandfather John Emil Kuniholm, posed by The Nordic Heritage Museum in 2013. The action was repeated several more times at locations such as Seattle Art Museum, Taipei, Taiwan, New York City's Central Park, and in Sweden for the Jönköping Municipality.
Illicit
Some artists challenge the orthodoxy by not seeking, or perhaps not being able to obtain, permission, but carry out their intention anyway, contravening regulations—with official reactions of differing degrees of severity.
Concomitant, 1983
Since 1983 Eberhard Bosslet is doing site-specific outdoor intervention: so-called "Re/formations and side effects" in the Canary Islands.
The black sheep, 1994
In 1994, Damien Hirst curated the show, Some Went Mad, Some Ran Away, at the Serpentine Gallery in London, where he exhibited Away from the Flock (a sheep in a tank). An artist poured black ink into it, and was subsequently prosecuted, at Hirst's wish. The artist's defence was that he thought Hirst would benefit from the publicity and one critic (Tony Parsons) said the artist's action proved that what Damien Hirst does is art. The exhibit was restored at a cost of £1000.
Two men jump naked into Tracey's bed, 1999
A notable case of an unauthorised intervention—which did no damage, yet was still liable for prosecution—occurred at 12.58 p.m. on 25 October 1999, when two artists, Yuan Chai and Jian Jun Xi, jumped on Tracey Emin's installation My Bed, in the Turner Prize at Tate Britain, wearing only underwear. They called their performance Two Naked Men Jump Into Tracey's Bed. They were arrested for their action, but no charges were pressed. Chai had written, among other things, the words "ANTI STUCKISM" on his bare back. They said they were "improving" Emin's work, because they thought it had not gone far enough, and opposed the Stuckists, who are anti-performance art.
Banksy, c.2000 – 2023
"Banksy" is the operating name of one of the best-known interventionists in the UK. He has carried out many graffiti stencillings, usually with a specific message or comment. He has also infiltrated his own artwork into museums, where they have remained for varying amounts of time before being removed. In May 2005, for example, he hung his own version of a primitive cave painting, showing a human hunting with a shopping trolley, in the British Museum. He is now one of the most sought-after artists. His work now commands millions of dollars in the auction houses of Britain and America.
In 2015 Banksy and 58 other artists created Dismaland using a disused theme park to portray the antithesis of Disneyland. In 2017 Bansky worked with local people in the West bank to establish a working Hotel the Walled Off Hotel that literally looks out onto the Israeli-constructed Israeli West Bank Barrier separating Palestinian and Israeli communities. Bansky "exhibits a strong sense of inclusivity and humanity" "It takes a lot of guts to stand up anonymously in a western democracy for things no one else believes in – like peace, justice and freedom"
Lennie Lee, 2005
In February 2005 Jewish artist, Lennie Lee, was censored for exhibiting a piece called "Judensau" (Jew pig) in Treptow Town Hall gallery, Berlin. The intervention was organized by the other artists working in the show who claimed (incorrectly) Lee was one of them. Lee's work was designed to put the institution in a difficult position. If they left it on the wall they would be accused of anti-semitism by their opponents. On the other hand, if they took the work down, they would be censoring the work of a Jewish artist dealing with antisemitic stereotypes.
The authorities were forced to take the piece down. The piece attracted considerable attention from the media. Lee had previously "offered" to remove his "Judensau" on condition that a 14th-century sculpture of a "Judensau" was removed from the side of Martin Luther's church in Wittenberg.
Taking a hammer to a urinal, 2006
On 4 January 2006, while on display in the Dada show in the Pompidou Centre in Paris, Marcel Duchamp's Fountain was attacked with a hammer by Pierre Pinoncelli, a 77-year-old French performance artist, causing a slight chip. Pinoncelli, who was arrested, said the attack was a work of performance art that Marcel Duchamp himself would have appreciated. This may be true, as on one occasion visitors to a Dada show were invited to smash up the exhibits with an axe. Previously in 1993, Pinoncelli urinated into the piece while it was on display in Nîmes, in southern France. Both of Pinoncelli's performances derive from neo-Dadaists' and Viennese Actionists' intervention or manoeuvre.
The Fountain attacked by Pinoncelli was actually number 5 of 8 recreated by Duchamp at a much later date, after the original one was lost. Another is on display in the Indiana University Art Museum, and there is one also in Tate Modern, where in 2000 it too was the target of a urination performance (unsuccessful according to the gallery) by Yuan Chai and Jian Jun Xi.
Pencils removed from Damien Hirst's Pharmacy, 2009
Artist Cartrain removed a packet of Faber Castell 1990 Mongol 482 series pencils from Damien Hirst's installation at his restaurant Pharmacy. This followed Hirst's action against Cartrain for using copies of Hirst's work. Cartrain stated:
For the safe return of Damien Hirsts pencils I would like my artworks back that Dacs and Hirst took off me in November. Its not a large demand he can have his pencils back when I get my artwork back. Dacs are now not taking any notice of my emails and I have asked nicely more than five times to try and resolve this matter. Hirst has until the end of this month to resolve this or on 31 July the pencils will be sharpened. He has been warned.
Illicit confronts the approved
Although the legal technicalities are straightforward, when an unauthorised intervention intervenes in an officially sanctioned one, the moral issues may be far less straightforward, especially when the legal act meets with widespread public disapproval (even to the point of considering it vandalism), while the illicit reaction to it satisfies a public sense of justice.
String up the perpetrator, 2003
In spring 2003, artist Cornelia Parker intervened in Auguste Rodin’s sculpture The Kiss (1886) in Tate Britain by wrapping it in a mile of string. This was a historical reference to Marcel Duchamp's use of the same length of string to create a web inside a gallery. Although the intervention had been endorsed by the gallery, many people felt it offensive to the original artwork and an act of vandalism rather than art. This reaction then prompted a further, unauthorised, intervention, in which Parker's string was cut by Stuckist Piers Butler, while couples stood around engaging in live kissing.
Sticking it to Goya, 2003
In 2003, Jake and Dinos Chapman montaged clown and other "funny" faces onto a set of etchings of Goya's The Disasters of War (which they had purchased), thereby intervening in the original work. Aside from complaints on the grounds of bad taste, this act was described by some as "defacement", although the set was a late 1930s printing. Ostensibly as a protest against this piece, Aaron Barschak (who later became famous for gate-crashing Prince William's 21st birthday party dressed as Osama bin Laden in a frock) threw a pot of red paint over Jake Chapman during a talk he was giving in May 2003.
The Chapmans then added monster heads to Goya's Los Caprichos etchings and exhibited them at the White Cube in 2005 under the title Like a dog returns to its vomit. Like other interventionists they asserted this was an improvement on the original: "You can't vandalise something by making it more expensive." However, Dinos pointed out one problem: "sometimes it is difficult to make the original Goya etchings any nastier; in one I found a witch sexually molesting a baby.".
Throwing something at boxes, 2006
Another example at the Tate was an intervention in Rachel Whiteread’s Embankment installation in the Turbine Hall of Tate Modern on 25 February 2006. Whiteread's site-specific installation consisted of large piles of white plastic cubes, made by using a mould from cardboard boxes. Jonathan Meese, a German performance artist had staged a scheduled event in this environment, erecting props, and giving a wild monologue. During this, an object was thrown, or fell, from the walkway over the hall, landing with a bang. This was seen as intentional and considered by some people an art intervention, while others thought it was simply vandalism. A month later, the Tate pronounced on this incident, "works get interfered with all the time and people often are unsure of the boundaries or social etiquette of Art and react accordingly, sometimes going beyond the pale."
Art addressing social and environmental issues via self funded and local media
String works
In 1978 Barry Thomas strung up a suburban street in Wellington, New Zealand and with friends delivered the Claremont Grove street directory so the neighbours could get to know each other. It was the first of many string works, the latest being in Dunedin in 2017 where he tied up 13 kilometres of flood prone lower Dunedin with the safe, wealthier areas – ending in a circle tied in a knot at the opening of the Art and Revolution symposium.
Fearless Girl and Charging Bull, 2017
A rare inversion of this was the placement of Fearless Girl, part of a marketing campaign for State Street Global Advisors, in opposition to Charging Bull in New York City. Charging Bull was originally placed illicitly by sculptor Arturo Di Modica on Broad Street, opposite the New York Stock Exchange, in 1989. The city moved the statue to the Bowling Green, where it has remained on an expired temporary permit. While the placement of Fearless Girl was endorsed by New York City, it was opposed by Di Modica. In 2018, New York City mayor Bill de Blasio announced that both statues would be moved to face the New York Stock Exchange, no longer in opposition.
Contesting the rules redefines art
A non-authorised and yet not illicit ploy is sometimes adopted, by carrying out purportedly "normal" behaviour, while finding loopholes in the regulations, pushing them to the limit, using them against the regulators and in 1917 heralding the future of art itself.
Duchamp, 1917 and influences
A seminal example of this approach took place in 1917 when Marcel Duchamp submitted a urinal (laid on its back, signed by him "R.Mutt 1917", and titled Fountain) to the Society of Independent Artists exhibition. The Society had proclaimed their open-mindedness by stating they would accept all work submitted, only anticipating that conventional media (paintings) would be. Duchamp was a member of the Society's board, and interpreted the regulations at face-value. His entry was immediately rejected as "not being art", and he resigned from the board shortly after. The original Fountain was lost. Fifty years later, Duchamp commissioned reproductions, which were then highly sought by museums.
In 1961, fellow Dadaist, Hans Richter, wrote to Duchamp:
You threw a bottle rack and urinal in their faces as a challenge and now they admire them for their aesthetic beauty.
Duchamp wrote "Ok, ça va très bien" ("that's fine") in the margin beside it, and the quote is often erroneously attributed to him.
Legacy
Duchamp's collective name for this and his other "readymades" tested the boundaries between the real and the art worlds.
Joseph Kosuth said “... With the unassisted Readymade, art changed its focus from the form of the language to what was being said…This change – one from ‘appearance’ to ‘conception’ – was the beginning of ‘modern’ art and the beginning of conceptual art. All art (after Duchamp) is conceptual (in nature) because art only exists conceptually.”
His key advance here was to rail against what he termed "retinal thinking" especially around the visual aspects of art making versus what he called the "gray matter"
"Fountain" was named in 2004 as the world's most influential work of art that opened the door to modern art.
Duchamp also foresaw several trends in art and society with revolutionary concepts such as "I have forced myself to contradict myself in order to avoid conforming to my own taste” and that he "preferred breathing rather than working" He chose indifference to good or bad taste selection criteria for his readymades.
As the head of the hanging committee Duchamp displayed an egalitarian propensity in his alphabetical hanging criteria at the 1917 Society of Independents exhibition. Because his deliberate testing of the segregation between artist created objects and the readymade object with his "Fountain" the board voted to reject it so Duchamp and his patron Walter Arensberg resigned their board seats.
Along with these concepts and his notion that the artist does not act in isolation and it takes the viewer to complete the work of art he profoundly foresaw the boundary breaking art movements such as Conceptual Art, Happenings, Land Art, Relational Aesthetics, Intervention art and much more.
The 1960s heralded many such boundary shattering social movements such as the Sexual revolution, The environmental movement, followed by the Occupy and the MeToo movement along with an "aesthetic revolution".
Duchamp developed an almost allergic reaction to polemic thinking preferring the third way of "indifference" to "even" out "good" and "bad" taste. His chess book was called "Opposition and sister squares reconciled". In 1966 summarizing his own legacy (and perhaps pointing to the direction of art returning to the real world, not unlike his "reciprocal readymade") Duchamp said his life's work amounted to "Using painting, using art, to create a modus vivendi, a way of understanding life; that is, for the time being, of trying to make my life into a work of art itself, instead of spending my life creating works of art in the form of paintings or sculptures."
In 2023 Boris Eldagsen won the Sony World Photography Awards admitting he used Artificial Intelligence to create his image.
Stuckist clowns at the Tate, 2000–05
The Stuckists have followed Duchamp's lead in exploiting regulations to their own advantage in yearly demonstrations outside the Turner Prize (2000–05) at Tate Britain. Prior to their first demonstration (dressed as clowns), they obtained written permission from the gallery that this form of dress was acceptable, and then walked round the Turner Prize wearing it.
In 2002, when Martin Creed won with lights going on and off in an empty room, they flicked flashlights on and off outside, and in 2003 displayed a blow-up sex doll to parody Jake and Dinos Chapman's bronze (painted) sculpture modelled on one, by claiming they had the original. Although barred from the prize ceremony, they have succeeded in infiltrating it psychologically to the extent that twice they have been mentioned by the guest of honour on live TV, just before the announcement of the winner. They have also handed out manifestos to arriving guests at the Tate (and the Saatchi Gallery), thus getting their message carried into the events from which they were excluded.
As the Stuckists condemn performance art as not real art, it raises the question as to whether their activities—which are carried out by artists and would therefore normally be classified as "art"—are still classified as "art", if they do not classify it that way themselves. On one occasion they were given an award for conceptual art by the proto-MU group nevertheless.
Art or vandalism?
It is claimed that the legitimacy and artistic value of an art intervention may vary, depending on the perception and standpoint of the viewer. The following statement, entitled Stuckism Handy Guide to the Artworld, first appeared on the Stuckist website with specific reference to the Meese incident at Tate Modern, and was then posted by Jennifer Maddock on the Artforum board with the comment, "I found a pretty cynical attempt to differentiate between vandalism and intervention while I was reading about the event in Tate Modern, for example the Stuckists' cynical definition":
Sometimes art vandalism is used to make a political protest. Whether this is or isn't regarded as a legitimate political act, it is not normally seen as art, nor until recently would the question have even arisen. However, with the increasing dissolution of boundaries between art and life, and the broadening of art's scope, there has been an increasing tendency to view unusual or spectacular actions as art, even though the actions were never intended as art.
Damien Hirst and 9/11, 2002
Public outrage followed one attempt to reclassify an event in art terms on 10 September 2002, the eve of the first anniversary of the 9/11 World Trade Center attacks, when Damien Hirst said in an interview with BBC News Online:
The thing about 9/11 is that it's kind of like an artwork in its own right ... David Hockney said that it was the 'most wicked piece of artwork'—a lot of people have compared it to a work of art. Of course, it's visually stunning and you've got to hand it to them on some level because they've achieved something which nobody would have ever have thought possible—especially to a country as big as America. So on one level they kind of need congratulating, which a lot of people shy away from, which is a very dangerous thing.
The following week, he issued a statement through his company, Science Ltd:
I apologise unreservedly for any upset I have caused, particularly to the families of the victims of the events on that terrible day.
Other meanings
Corporate art intervention
The book Privatising Culture: Corporate Art Intervention Since the 1980s by Chin-Tao Wu was published in 2001 in New York. One aim of the book is to counter the effect of skinflint policies instituted by Margaret Thatcher and Ronald Reagan that slashed government funding of art, to encourage increased private funding of the arts, and how, for example, the consequent change in membership of trustee boards from academics to corporate executives has inevitably lead to potential conflicts of interest.
Art therapy
The National Institute for Trauma and Loss in Children uses the term "art intervention" in the sense of art therapy., as does the University of Hong Kong, which states:
Therapeutic art intervention for older adult.
The use of artistic intervention to improve the quality of life of the elderly persons has gained attention from health care professionals quite recently. The course will introduce the theoretical perspectives and applications of art orientations in service delivery. Advanced skills of using different artistic and non-verbal communication means to enhance expression of those with dementia and neurological impairment will be taught by progressive and experiential methods.
Art installation
There is also a widespread use of the term "art intervention" to refer not to a particular intended or achieved act, but generically to any presence of art or artists in an environment, where this may not have previously been the case. The extensive use of this is shown in instances from the London Borough of Bexley ("This Strategy aims to put 'culture at the heart of regeneration', and will build on the success of the first major Public Art intervention in the borough—The Erith Arts Project"), to Neal Civic Center in Florida ("Plans include video documentation of this project so it can be used as a prototype for rural art intervention programs nationwide"), and Mayor Howard W. Peak, City of San Antonio, Texas (with the wish to "disseminate 'best practices' models of national art intervention programs").
Another example is Wochenklausur, where the issue of homelessness was dealt with by intervening artists.
Tactical urbanism and beyond
Intervention by artists and especially western, democratic citizens has become widespread including yarn bombing, flash mobs, guerrilla art, street art, graffiti, performance art, Adbusters, ephemeral art, environmental art to the occupy movement, guerrilla cycling, guerrilla gardening, urban agriculture, Extinction Rebellion and anthropocene activism, climate change activism, and even de-growth advocates. Governments along with regional and local councils have adopted tactical urbanism processes and boundary setting to keep a lid on and embrace these widespread interventionist movements. A growing number of people want to have their say in shaping their local and global environments. The UK town of Todmorden developed guerrilla gardening as its tourist brand, even growing corn at the police station. This has benefitted the local economy. "Culture jamming" is an intervention and was popularized by Naomi Klein in her No Logo book but was a much earlier invention by Don Joyce. In 2023 Ai Weiwei's Middle finger app 'The bird' allows users to disapprove of any place on earth using a picture of Ai's middle finger superimposed on images from Google Maps.
See also
Contemporary art
Environmental art
Ephemeral art
Appropriation (art)
Art and dementia
Classificatory disputes about art
Conceptual art
Guerrilla art
Guerrilla gardening
Yarn bombing
Graffiti
Street Art
Found object
Installation art
Performance art
Stuckist demonstrations
Yuan Chai and Jian Jun Xi
Further reading
Cabbage Patch as art Occupation and event specific art see https://web.archive.org/web/20150507143550/http://muir.massey.ac.nz/handle/10179/3041
http://bat-bean-beam.blogspot.co.nz/2011/10/occupy-wellington.html
https://www.buzzworthy.com/food-is-free-movement/
https://louderthanwar.com/situationism-explained-affect-punk-pop-culture/
https://www.academia.edu/resource/work/7582676 up
https://dailyutahchronicle.com/2023/05/22/jarvis-og-woi-guerilla-community-gardens/
https://www.academia.edu/resource/work/39740997
References
Contemporary art movements
Performance art
21st century in art |
4446186 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American%20juvenile%20justice%20system | American juvenile justice system | The American juvenile justice system is the primary system used to handle minors who are convicted of criminal offenses. The system is composed of a federal and many separate state, territorial, and local jurisdictions, with states and the federal government sharing sovereign police power under the common authority of the United States Constitution. The juvenile justice system intervenes in delinquent behavior through police, court, and correctional involvement, with the goal of rehabilitation. Youth and their guardians can face a variety of consequences including probation, community service, youth court, youth incarceration and alternative schooling. The juvenile justice system, similar to the adult system, operates from a belief that intervening early in delinquent behavior will deter adolescents from engaging in criminal behavior as adults.
History and background
Pre-1900
Juvenile delinquency punishments trace back to the Middle Ages when crimes were severely punished by the Church. Throughout the 17th and 18th centuries, few legal differences existed between children and adults. Children as young as six and seven years were considered productive members of the family and their labor contributed to family income. In court, children as young as seven were treated as adults and could receive the death penalty. Early debates questioned whether there should be a separate legal system for punishing juveniles, or if juveniles should be sentenced in the same manner as adults
With the changing demographic, social, and economic context of the 19th century resulting largely from industrialization, "the social construction of childhood...as a period of dependency and exclusion from the adult world" was institutionalized. This century saw the opening of the first programs targeting juvenile delinquency. Barry Krisberg and James F. Austin note that the first ever institution dedicated to juvenile delinquency was the New York House of Refuge in 1825. Other programs, described by Finley, included: "houses of refuge", which emphasized moral rehabilitation; "reform schools", which had widespread reputations for mistreatment of the children living there; and "child saving organizations", social charity agencies dedicated to reforming poor and delinquent children. These 'child-saving efforts' were early attempts at differentiating between delinquents and abandoned youth.
Prior to this ideological shift, the application of parens patriae was restricted to protecting the interests of children, deciding guardianship and commitment of the mentally ill. In the 1839 Pennsylvania landmark case, Ex parte Crouse, the court allowed use of parens patriae to detain young people for non-criminal acts in the name of rehabilitation. Since these decisions were carried out "in the best interest of the child," the due process protections afforded adult criminals were not extended to juveniles.
Early 1900s
The nation's first juvenile court was formed in Illinois in 1899 and provided a legal distinction between juvenile abandonment and crime. The law that established the court, the Illinois Juvenile Court Law of 1899, was created largely because of the advocacy of women such as Jane Addams, Louise DeKoven Bowen, Lucy Flower and Julia Lathrop, who were members of the influential Chicago Woman's Club. The Chicago court opened on July 1, 1899 with Judge Tuthill presiding, along with several members of the Chicago Woman's Club who acted as advisors about the juvenile offender's backgrounds. Establishing a juvenile court helped reframe cultural and legal interpretations of "the best interests of the child." The underlying assumption of the original juvenile system, and one that continues to prevail, was that juveniles were generally more amenable to rehabilitation than adult criminals. This new application of parens patriae and the development of a separate juvenile court formed the foundation for the modern juvenile justice system.
After states began passing compulsory education laws in the second half of the nineteenth century, repeated acts of truancy could land students in state juvenile courts. In enforcing the truancy laws, Progressive Era judges and educators relied on teachers' report cards to monitor the behavior of probationers. Report cards often categorized truants as disobedient and unyielding.
The creation of the juvenile justice system in Chicago coincided with the migration of southern black families to the North. A combination of factors like lack of parental supervision and extreme poverty left black children vulnerable. In one case a 13 year old Kentuckian was accused of "habitual truancy" by the principal of his school, which would have been a violation of compulsory education laws, but the principal herself admitted that his attendance was perfect and that she had filed a petition for him to be sent to a Parental School because his parents were not giving him adequate care and "something should be done to keep him off the streets and away from bad company".
1960s to 1980s
The debate about morality and effectiveness surrounded juvenile courts until the 1950s. The 1960s through the 1980s saw a rise in attention to and speculation about juvenile delinquency, as well as concern about the court system as a social issue. This era was characterized by distinctly harsh punishments for youths. There was also a new focus on providing minors with due process and legal counsel in court. Criticism in this era focused on racial discrimination, gender disparities, and discrimination towards children with mental health problems or learning disabilities.
While still recommending harsher punishments for serious crimes, "community-based programs, diversion, and deinstitutionalization became the banners of juvenile justice policy in the 1970's". However, these alternative approaches were short lived. The rising crime rates of the 1960s and media misrepresentation of this crime throughout the 1970s and 80s, paved the way for Reagan's War on Drugs and subsequent "tough-on-crime" policies. Heightened fears of a 'youth problem' "revealed white, middle- and upper-class anxieties about growing social unrest and the potential volatility stemming from social and economic inequality". Public perception of juvenile deviance was such that at the 1999 Juvenile Justice Hearings, Bill McCollum claimed "simply and sadly put: Today in America no population poses a larger threat to public safety than juvenile offenders". In the late 1980s, the United States experienced a large increase in crime, and juvenile crime was brought into public view (Juvenile delinquency in the United States). Americans feared a "juvenile super-predator", and this fear was met by the government with harsher policies for juvenile crime.
1990s to present day
In the 1990s, juvenile crime – especially violent crime – decreased, although policies remained the same. Schools and politicians adopted zero-tolerance policies with regard to crime and argued that rehabilitative approaches were less effective than strict punishment.
The increased ease in trying juveniles as adults became a defining feature of "tough-on-crime" policies in the 1990s. As Loyola law professor Sacha Coupet argues, "[o]ne way in which "get tough" advocates have supported a merger between the adult criminal and juvenile systems is by expanding the scope of transfer provisions or waivers that bring children under the jurisdiction of the adult criminal system". Some states moved specific classes of crimes from the juvenile court to adult criminal court while others gave this power to judges or prosecutors on a case-by-case basis. Still, others require the courts to treat offending youth like adults but within the juvenile system. In some states, adjudicated offenders face mandatory sentences. By 1997, all but three states had passed a combination of laws that eased the use of transfer provisions, provided courts with expanded sentencing options, and removed the confidentiality tradition of the juvenile court.
Juvenile courts were transformed to more easily allow for prosecution of juveniles as adults at the same time the adult system was re-defining which acts constituted a "serious crime." The "three strikes laws" that began in 1993 fundamentally altered the criminal offenses that resulted in detention, imprisonment, and even a life sentence, for both youth and adults. "Three strikes laws" were not specific to juvenile offenders, but they were enacted during a period when the lines between juvenile and adult courts were becoming increasingly blurred. The War on Drugs and "tough-on-crime" policies like Three Strikes resulted in an explosion in the number of incarcerated individuals.
Implementation of the Gun-Free School Act (GFSA) in 1994 is one example of a "tough on crime" policy that has contributed to increased numbers of young people being arrested and detained. It was intended to prosecute young offenders for serious crimes like gun possession on school property, but many states interpreted this law to include less dangerous weapons and drug possession. Many schools even interpreted GFSA to include "infractions that pose no safety concern, such as 'disobeying [school] rules, 'insubordination,' and 'disruption". These offenses can now warrant suspension, expulsion and involvement with juvenile justice courts. Schools have become the primary stage for juvenile arrest and the charges brought against them and punishments they face are increasing in severity. Today this is frequently referred to as the school-to-prison pipeline.
Demographics
Demographic information for youth involved in the Juvenile Justice system is somewhat difficult to collect, as most data is collected at state, county, and city levels. Although the office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention publishes national numbers that breakdown the racial make-up of youth involved in the juvenile justice system, this data provides an incomplete picture, as it excludes Hispanic youth in its demographic calculations.
According to the Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention, in 2011 there were a total of 1,236,200 cases handled by the juvenile courts. 891,100 cases dealt with males, compared with 345,100 for females. The most prominent age group represented in the courts is 13 to 15 years, which make up 552,000 of the total cases. 410,900 of the cases involved Black adolescents, which represents about one-third of the total court cases.
The number of cases handled by the juvenile courts in the United States was 1,159,000 in 1985, and increased steadily until 1998, reaching a high point of 1,872,700. After this point, the number of cases steadily declined until 2011.
In the 1,236,200 cases settled in 2011, 60% of the juveniles had a previous background of criminal history in their families and 96% of the juveniles had substance abuse problems, often related to parental/guardian substance abuse. In 1999, juveniles accounted for 16% of all violent crime arrests, and 32% of all property crime. They also accounted for 54% of all arson arrests, 42% of vandalism arrests, 31% of larceny-theft arrests, and 33% of burglary arrests.
Racial discrepancies
Since 1995, the rate of confinement has dropped by 41%, and the rate has decreased among all major racial groups in the US. However, disparities by race remain apparent: in 2010, 225 youths per 100,000 were in confinement. When separated by race, there were 605 African-Americans, 127 Non-Hispanic Whites, 229 Hispanics, 367 Native Americans, and 47 Asian/Pacific Islanders in confinement per 100,000. African-Americans are close to five times more likely to be confined than white youths, while Latino and Native Americans are two to three times more likely to be confined than white youths. Racial disparities in confinement are relatively constant across states.
According to the Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention, females constitute 14% of juveniles in residential placement in 2011. Of these females, 61% belong to racial minority groups.
The Annie E. Casey Foundation provides additional information about the demographics of the juvenile justice system.
Juveniles in residential placement
Residential placement refers to any facility in which an adolescent remains on-site 24 hours a day. These facilities include youth detention centers, group homes, shelters, correctional facilities, or reform schools. According to census data of Juveniles in residential placement and the Annie E. Casey Foundation, the number of youths in juvenile detention centers in the United States has declined in the past two decades. The number of adolescents incarcerated peaked in 1995, with 107,637 in confinement in a single day. In contrast, there were fewer than 62,000 adolescents in residential placement in October 2011. Juvenile offenders are placed either in public facilities operated by the State or local government, or private, for-profit facilities operated by separate corporations and organizations. Private facilities are smaller than public facilities. Half of all juvenile placement facilities in the US are privately operated, and these facilities hold nearly one-third of juvenile offenders.
Since 1997, 44 states and the District of Columbia have experienced a decrease in incarceration of adolescents. As of 2010, only 1 in 4 juveniles in confinement were incarcerated as a result of a violent crime (homicide, robbery, sexual assault, aggravated assault). Additionally, 40% of juvenile delinquency cases and detentions are a result of offenses that are not considered threats to public safety. These include underage possession of alcohol, truancy, drug possession, low-level property offenses, and probation violations. The most common age of offenders was 17 years old, with 17,500 in placement in 2011. Juveniles aged 12 and under accounted for 1% of all youth in placement.
Criticisms
The current debate on juvenile justice reform in the United States focuses on the root of racial and economic discrepancies in the incarcerated youth population. Residual fear from "get-tough" policies implement harsher practices in schools that perpetuate an unhealthy cycle. The most common is the implementation of zero tolerance policies which have increased the numbers of young people being removed from classrooms, often for minor infractions. Low-income youth, youth of color and youth with learning and cognitive disabilities are over-represented in the justice system and disproportionately targeted by zero tolerance policies. Collectively this creates the school-to-prison pipeline - a phenomenon that contributes to more students falling behind, dropping out and eventually being funneled into the juvenile justice system.
Much of the criticism about the American juvenile justice system revolves around its effectiveness in rehabilitating juvenile delinquents. Research on juvenile incarceration and prosecution indicates that criminal activity is influenced by positive and negative life transitions regarding the completion of education, entering the workforce, and marrying and beginning families. According to certain developmental theories, adolescents who are involved in the court system are more likely to experience disruption in their life transitions, leading them to engage in delinquent behavior as adults.
Lois M. Davis et al. argue that adolescents are affected by a juvenile system that does not have effective public policies. Currently the juvenile system has failed to ensure that all youth in the system with learning disabilities or mental health issues, and from lower-class individuals and racial minorities are provided with the benefits for a productive life once out of the system. In 2013 30% of youth in system have a learning disability and nearly 50% test below grade level. They argue that the juvenile justice system should be restructured to more effectively lower the chances of future crime among youth, and advocate for increased educational programs for incarcerated youth as the most important method to reduce recidivism.
There are many drug addicts that are also failed with the benefits for a productive life once out of the system. They are convicted too harshly and do not get the privilege to truly learn and get better enough to not crave drugs. “According to the National Center on Addiction and Substance Abuse, 65% of the U.S. prison population meets the medical criteria for drug or alcohol use disorders, but less than 11% receive treatment for those illnesses.” Drug rehab has proven to be significantly more beneficial than jail time to those with drug charges. Additionally, 1 in 28 kids has a parent in prison. There is a reason why much of the criticism about the American juvenile justice system revolves around its effectiveness in rehabilitating juvenile delinquents.
A 12 BC report from The Council of State Governments Justice Center showed only states provide incarcerated youth with the same educational services as the general student population in the United States. The report recommended juvenile detention facilities should be held to the same academic standards as other public schools.
Proposed reforms
Many scholars stress the importance of reforming the juvenile justice system to increase its effectiveness and avoid discrimination. Finley argues for early intervention in juvenile delinquency, and advocates for the development of programs that are more centered on rehabilitation rather than punishment. James C. Howell et al. argue that zero tolerance policies overwhelm the juvenile justice system with low risk offenders and should be eliminated. They also argue that the most effective ways to reform the juvenile justice system would be to reduce the overrepresentation of minorities and eliminate the transfer of juveniles to the criminal justice system.
Zimring and Tannenhaus also discuss the future of the juvenile justice system in the United States. They argue that educational reentry programs should be developed and given high importance alongside policies of dropout prevention. Reentry programs focus on providing care and support to juveniles after being released from detention facilities, and encouraging family support to help adolescents during this adjustment period. They also argue for the elimination of juvenile sex offender registration requirements, and the reform of criminal record information for juvenile offenders.
Some popular suggested reforms to juvenile detention programs include changing policies regarding incarceration and funding. One recommendation from the Annie E. Casey Foundation is restricting the offenses that are punishable by incarceration, so that only youth who present a threat to public safety are confined. Other suggestions include investing in alternatives to incarceration, changing economic incentives that favor incarceration, and establishing smaller, more humane and treatment-oriented detention centers for the small number who are confined.
Positive youth development and the juvenile justice system
Positive youth development (PYD) encompasses the intentional efforts of other youth, adults, communities, government agencies and schools to provide opportunities for youth to enhance their interests, skills, and abilities.
The justice system offers specific services to youth facing significant mental health and substance use challenges, but the majority of youth do not qualify for these targeted programs and interventions. Butts, et al. suggest that the integration of positive youth development into the juvenile justice system would benefit youth charged with nonviolent, less serious offenses.
Widespread implementation of PYD approaches in the juvenile justice system faces many challenges. Philosophically however, the PYD framework resembles the progressive era ideals that informed the creation of the first juvenile court. As Butts, Mayer and Ruther describe, "The concepts underlying PYD resemble those that led to the founding of the american juvenile justice system more than a century ago. [...] Organizers of the first juvenile courts saw the solution to delinquency in better schools, community organizations, public health measures, and family supports. They believed an improved social environmental would encourage youth to embrace pro-social norms."
Integration of PYD into the juvenile justice system is informed by social learning theory and social control theory. Taken together, these theories suggest that "youth are less attracted to criminal behavior when they are involved with others, learning useful skills, being rewarded for using those skills, enjoying strong relationships and forming attachments, and earning the respect of their communities". This is in stark contrast to the theories of deterrence and retributive justice espoused by the current justice system.
Youth court
Youth courts are programs in which youth sentence their peers for minor delinquent and status offenses and other problem behaviors. The program philosophy is to hold youth responsible for problem behavior, educate youth about the legal and judicial systems, and empower youth to be active in solving problems in their community. Youth courts function to determine fair and restorative sentences or dispositions for the youth respondent. Youth court programs can be administered by juvenile courts, juvenile probation departments, law enforcement, private nonprofit organizations, and schools. Youth court programs operate under four primary models: Adult Judge, Youth Judge, Peer Jury, and Youth Tribunal Models.
Under the adult judge model, an adult volunteer serves as the judge while youth volunteers serve as prosecuting and defense attorneys, jurors, clerks, and bailiffs. Under the youth judge model, youth volunteers fill all roles, including judge. Under a peer jury model, youth jurors question the respondents and make sentencing determinations. Under a youth tribunal model, youth serve as prosecuting and defense attorneys, and present their cases to a panel of youth judges, who then make a sentencing determination. To date, there are no comprehensive national guidelines for youth courts, but rather, courts operate under and are tailored to their local jurisdictions. To date, there are more than 675 youth courts in the United States.
East Palo Alto and Boston have both implemented youth courts. The East Palo Alto youth court is based on restorative justice principles. Eligible youth must admit the facts of the case, after which youth attorneys explain the facts of the case to a youth jury.
In Boston, youth court is available to first time, low level offenders. It is based on a restorative justice framework.
Restorative justice
Restorative justice is an approach to justice that focuses on the needs of the victims and the offenders, and the involved community, rather than punishing the offender. Victims and offenders both take an active role in the process, with the latter being encouraged to take responsibility for their actions. Doing so is an attempt by offenders to repair the harm they've done and also provides help for the offender in order to prevent future offenses. Restorative justice is based on a theory of justice that views crime to be an offense against an individual and/or a community, versus the state. Programs that promote dialogue between victim and offender demonstrate the highest rates of victim satisfaction and offender accountability.
Restorative justice practices have been implemented in schools that experience higher rates of violence or crime. This can catch the juvenile before they're involved in the justice system and can change discipline into a learning opportunity. It encourages accountability, supportive climates, appropriate listening and responding and contributes to a development of empathy for the offender. The difference between student exclusion and restorative approaches is shown through not only low recidivism, but school climates. With restorative approaches focusing on relationships, it prioritizes interpersonal connections which creates an overall better community. The underlying thesis of restorative practices is that ‘‘human beings are happier, more cooperative and productive, and more likely to make positive changes in their behavior when those in positions of authority do things with them, rather than to or for them.’’
Raise the age
Many advocates argue that the juvenile system should extend to include youth older than 18 (the age that most systems use as a cut-off). Research in neurobiology and developmental psychology show that young adults' brains do not finish developing until their mid-20s, well beyond the age of criminal responsibility in most states. Other non-criminal justice systems acknowledge these differences between adults and young people with laws about drinking alcohol, smoking cigarettes, etc.
Georgia, Texas and Wisconsin remain the only states to prosecute all youth as adults when they turn 17 years of age. Connecticut Governor, Dannel Malloy proposed in 2016 raising the age in his state to 20.
See also
Youth incarceration in the United States
References
Juvenile law
Law of the United States
Juvenile justice system |
4446348 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italian%20General%20Confederation%20of%20Labour | Italian General Confederation of Labour | The Italian General Confederation of Labour (, ; CGIL ) is a national trade union centre in Italy. It was formed by an agreement between socialists, communists, and Christian democrats in the "Pact of Rome" of June 1944. In 1950, socialists and Christian democrats split forming UIL and CISL, and since then the CGIL has been influenced by the Italian Communist Party (PCI) and until recent years by its political heirs: the Democratic Party of the Left (PDS), the Democrats of the Left (DS) and currently the Democratic Party (PD).
It has been the most important Italian trade union since its creation. It has a membership of over 5.5 million. Along with the decline of membership within its political counterpart, the Democratic Party (PD), its membership is in steep decline since 2013, with the percentage of pensioners in constant rise. On 1 July 2015, the number of working adults reached a ceiling of 2.185.099. The CGIL is currently the second-largest trade union in Europe, after the German DGB, which has over 6 million members. The CGIL is affiliated with the International Trade Union Confederation and the European Trade Union Confederation, and is a member of the Trade Union Advisory Committee to the OECD.
History
Beginnings and opposition to Fascism
The roots of CGIL date back to early 1900s with the foundation of the General Confederation of Labour, an Italian labour union founded in 1906, under the initiative of socialist members. In 1926, during the fascist dictatorship of Benito Mussolini, CGdL's headquarter in Milan was attacked and completely destroyed by fascist blackshirts; after few months, the CGdL's central committee decided to dissolve the trade union and disbanded the entire organization. Their decision was opposed by communists and left socialists like Bruno Buozzi, who spent the next decades maintaining the old trade union clandestinely. The underground CGdL faced a perilous course, not only because of the fascist repression, but because of the dramatic changes in direction of the Communist International (IC). In 1929 Italian communist militants were ordered to enter fascist trade unions, only to be told in 1935, when the IC adopted the Popular Front strategy, to reconcile with the socialists and other anti-fascists in trade unions and faced the fascist regime.
On 9 June 1944, the Pact of Rome was signed between representatives of the three main anti-fascist parties: the Christian Democracy (DC), the Italian Socialist Party (PSI) and the Italian Communist Party (PCI). However, a few days before, Bruno Buozzi, who had worked intensively on the Pact, was murdered by the Nazi troops. The pact established the foundation of a new CGdL, named Italian General Confederation of Labour (CGIL). The Pact was signed by Giuseppe Di Vittorio for the PCI, by Achille Grandi for the DC and by Emilio Canevari for the PSI. The latter will be later replaced as responsible for the socialist component of CGIL by Oreste Lizzadri.
Despite the unitary CGIL was strongly supported by communists and socialists, the Catholic Church did not oppose it. However, in 1945 it favoured the establishment of the Christian Associations of Italian Workers (ACLI). Until the end of the World War, the CGIL worked in the freed regions to spread the so-called "Labour Chambers" and stipulated wage agreements. With the general insurrection proclaimed by the Italian Resistance on 25 April 1945 and the definitive defeat of the Nazi-Fascist regime, the CGIL extended its influence throughout the country. The trade union contributed to the victory of the Republic in the 1946 institutional referendum, that ended the Savoy's monarchy.
First congress and split
On 1 February 1947, Salvatore Giuliano, a Sicilian bandit and separatist leader, killed 11 farmworkers and wounded other 27, during May Day celebrations in the municipality of Piana degli Albanesi. His aim had been to punish local leftists for the recent election results. In an open letter, he took sole responsibility for the murders and claimed that he had only wanted his men to fire above the heads of the crowd; the deaths had been a mistake. The massacre created a national scandal and The CGIL called a general strike in protest against the massacre. According to newspaper reports hints at the possibility of civil war were heard as communist leaders harangued meetings of 6,000,000 workers who struck throughout Italy in protest against the massacre.
After a few months, in the first national congress, which took place in Florence in June 1947, the CGIL registered 5,735,000 members and Giuseppe Di Vittorio, from the PCI, was elected General Secretary. Already during the congress, the signs of the divisions between the social-communist component and the Catholic were evident. Tensions increased with the beginning of the Cold War and the 1948 general election, which saw the DC facing the socialists and communists' Popular Democratic Front. The pretext that the Christian democratic faction was trying to create to split from the CGIL was provided by the general strike that the Confederation proclaimed following the attack to the communist leader, Palmiro Togliatti, which took place outside the Italian Parliament on 14 July 1948. The Catholic associations ACLI offered a structure on which built, after few days from the strike, the Christian democratic trade union, which was initially named "Free CGIL" and then, in 1950, Italian Confederation of Workers' Trade Unions (CISL). In the same year, the secular and social-democratic faction split from the CGIL too, founding the Italian Federation of Labor, which was quickly transformed into the Italian Labour Union (UIL). These are, even today, the three main Italian trade unions.
Di Vittorio Era
In January and March 1953, Di Vittorio proclaimed general strikes against the so-called "Scam Law", an electoral law proposed by the Christian Democratic government of Alcide De Gasperi, which introduced a majority bonus of two-thirds of seats in the Chamber of Deputies for the coalition which would obtain at-large the absolute majority of votes.
The anti-communist winds broke out in harsh repression against CGIL members in factories and in the countryside. Many activists were fired, while many others were forced into the so-called "confinement" departments, where communist members were humiliated. To increase the repression against communists, the American ambassadress in Italy, Clare Boothe Luce, declared that the companies where the CGIL trade unionists obtained more than 50% of the votes in the internal commission's election, could not have access to deals with the United States of America. Moreover, Pope Pius XII launched the excommunication to the communists and favoured the alliance between DC and neo-fascist Italian Social Movement (MSI), for the Municipality of Rome. Police repression was also very hard, due to the Christian democratic Minister of the Interior, Mario Scelba, who ordered the police to shoot the communist demonstrators, in order to prevent further strikes. On 9 January 1950, six workers were killed by police in Modena, while more than 200 had been wounded.
Giuseppe Di Vittorio, along with the socialist Fernando Santi, reacted to the Government and Confindustria, launching the "Work Plan", a major political initiative with an alternative idea of economic and social development. The Work Plan supported the nationalization of electric companies, the creation of a vast program of public works and public housing and the establishment of a national body for land reclamation. The Plan of Work was not implemented by the Government but with it the CGIL managed to break the isolation, speaking to the whole country and keeping workers and unemployed workers together, from the industrialized North to the rural South. In the early 1950s, the contrast between CISL and UIL was at its peak; while the CGIL was fighting for great national issues, CISL, backed by the government, pursued its rooting in factories, signing numerous separate agreements.
The tragic facts of the 1956 Hungarian revolution, brutally repressed by the Soviet Union, reinforced the conflict between the three trade unions. For CGIL it was a very difficult moment: Di Vittorio, who, unlike the Communist Party, had immediately condemned the Soviet invasion, was forced by Togliatti to a humiliating retraction. Many officials resigned and the number of members dropped by 1 million from 1955 to 1958. Di Vittorio died on 3 November 1957 in Lecco, after a trade union assembly. He directed the CGIL during the post-war period, preserving its internal unity and creating the premises for the resumption of the unitary dialogue with CISL and UIL. On 3 December, Agostino Novella was elected new General Secretary.
Protests of 1968 and Hot Autumn
After years of approach between the three trade unions, in 1966, the Catholic association ACLI broke with the Christian Democracy, asking for a new season of cooperation with communists. 1968 opens with a historical success for the workers' movement: the pension reform, obtained after a strong protest in workplaces. The general strike proclaimed by the CGIL on 7 March was characterized by massive and unitary participation in all the country. The student revolt, launched by the Californian University of Berkeley against the Vietnam War, extended to France, Germany and Italy. In Italy, the student struggles were intertwined with the workers' struggles that, in hundreds of factories, invested work organization, contracts, timetables, and wage inequalities. On 1 May 1968, for the first time after the 1948 break, CGIL, CISL and UIL celebrated Labor Day together. Moreover, the 7th National Congress of CGIL in Livorno was attended for the first time by members from CISL and UIL.
On 21 August 1968, Novella's CGIL not only expressed its clear condemnation against the Soviet invasion of Czechoslovakia, but broke with the World Federation of Trade Unions, the international organization of Marxist-inspired unions. Meanwhile, in Italy, the struggles in the South exploded and the Government did not hesitate in repressing them with extreme hardness. On 2 December 1968, in Avola, near Siracusa, the police shot the workers who were demonstrating after the end of the negotiations for the renewal of employment contracts, killing two demonstrators. On 9 April 1969, near Battipaglia, Campania, the police shot workers who were demonstrating against the probable closure of the local tobacco factory, killing a 19-year-old worker and a young teacher. Workers' protest continued in the so-called Hot Autumn (Autunno Caldo), a term used for a series of large strikes in factories and industrial centres of Northern Italy, in which workers demanded better pay and better conditions. In 1969 and 1970 there were over 440 hours of strikes in the region. The decrease in the flow of labour migration from Southern Italy had resulted in nearly full employment levels in the northern part of the country.
Lama Era
On 24 March 1970, Luciano Lama succeeded Novella, becoming the third General Secretary of CGIL. Through all his secretariat, Lama pursued a unified policy between the three unions. In May 1970, on the wave of the great mass struggles and thanks to the socialist Minister of Labour, Giacomo Brodolini, the "Statute of Workers" was approved by the Parliament.
In October 1970 the general councils of the three confederations met together in Florence to examine the possibility of starting a unification process. In particular, the metalworkers' factions, FIOM, FIM and UILM, strongly supported the union, but the proposal faced strong opposition from UIL and large sectors of CISL. In July 1972, the three general councils, in a unified session, signed the "Federative Pact" in Rome, electing a joint committee of 90 members and a secretariat of 15 members. The CGIL–CISL–UIL Federation will guarantee the unitary management of the main trade union events for all the 1970s and will be dissolved only after the so-called "Valentine's Day decree" of Bettino Craxi's government in 1984.
The 1970s were also marked by great civil rights achievements. In 1970 the Law n. 898 on divorce was approved, while in 1971 the Parliament approved the Law n. 1204 for the protection of working mothers and the one on nursery schools. In 1975, Law n. 151 introduced equality between men and women inside families. Finally, in 1978 the Law n. 194 "Rules for the social protection of motherhood and voluntary interruption of pregnancy" was approved. However, in the second half of the decade, the unions' action began to weaken. Entrepreneurs used the economic crisis to overturn in their favour the balance of power, resulting from Hot Autumn. Intense restructuring processes were implemented almost everywhere, favoured by the introduction of new automation technologies. While, investments in new plants, based on robotics and information technology created unemployment.
During the decade, with the beginning of the so-called, "strategy of tension", the CGIL was the target of terrorist attack, perpetrated by neo-fascist groups. On 28 May 1978, a bomb exploded during a trade union rally in Piazza della Loggia, Brescia, killing eight people and wounding more than one hundred. The bomb was placed inside a rubbish bin at the east end of the square. It was the beginning of the Years of Lead, a period of social and political turmoil that lasted from the late 1960s until the early 1980s, marked by a wave of both left-wing and right-wing political terrorism, which culminated with the kidnapping and murder of Christian democratic leader, Aldo Moro, in 1978 and Bologna railway station massacre in 1980.
In February 1978 three trade unions, on the initiative of Luciano Lama, ratified at the Palazzo dei Congressi in Rome, a document, known as the "EUR Turn", proposing a wage restraint in exchange for an economic policy that would support the development and defend employment. But in those years, CGIL and the unitary union were mostly committed to fighting the strategy of tension, defending democracy and democratic institutions from terrorist attacks. The total isolation of subversive groups from the working world would be the main basis of their defeat. In September 1980, Fiat declared that it would proceed with the dismissal of 14,000 workers and unilaterally put 23,000 workers into redundancy. Metalworkers blocked the Fiat factories for 35 days. Luciano Lama and Enrico Berlinguer, General Secretary of the Communist Party, strongly supported the workers' strikes. In October 1980, Fiat's employees and managers protested through the streets of Turin in an event remembered as the "March of Forty Thousand", to protest against the strikes and against the trade unions which organized it. It was a sound defeat for all Italian trade unions, but especially for the CGIL. The "Fiat case" marked forever trade unions' history in Italy, accelerating towards the dissolution of the unitary federation.
In June 1982, the three unions rejected, with a major demonstration in Rome in June 1982, the end of an agreement on the sliding wage scale, better known in Italy as "escalator" (scala mobile in Italian), a method which consisted in increasing the wages as the prices rise in order to maintain the purchasing power of the workers even if there is inflation. However, after few days CISL and UIL opened to the revision of the "escalator", while CGIL was strongly against it. On 14 February 1984, the government led by socialist Prime Minister, Bettino Craxi, unilaterally reduced the "escalator" with the famous "Valentine's Day decree". CISL and UIL expressed their positive view on the decree, while the CGIL announced strikes. The divisions between the trade unions caused the definitive breaking of the unitary federation. The CGIL launched a referendum on the "escalator", which was rejected by voters, marking a strong defeat for the trade union.
From the late 1980s to Tangentopoli
The defeat in the referendum on the escalator opened a difficult period for the CGIL, in a context marked by a drastic loss of representativeness of the three confederations and the birth of small autonomous trade unions. In 1986 Antonio Pizzinato, succeeded Lama, becoming the new General Secretary. However, difficulties within the CGIL were suddenly reflected in the following National Congress. Pizzinato, after only two years of the secretariat, resigned from his post in favour of Bruno Trentin, former General Secretary of FIOM during the Hot Autumn.
Meanwhile, in the Soviet Union, the new head of the Soviet Communist Party, Mikhail Gorbachev, started the Perestroika reform movement. Meanwhile, other socialist countries were also invested in renewal processes, inspired by Solidarność trade union movement in Poland. In 1989 the collapse of the Berlin Wall assumed the symbolic value of the defeat of socialism in the countries of the Soviet bloc.
In 1992 the Tangentopoli scandal broke out. It was a nationwide judicial investigation into political corruption in Italy, which led to the demise of the so-called "First Republic", resulting in the disappearance of many political parties. Christian Democracy, which dominated the entire political system for almost fifty years, was disbanded in January 1994, while the Socialist Party disappeared in November. The Communist Party had previously transformed into a democratic socialist party, the Democratic Party of the Left (PDS), led by Achille Occhetto, but it suffered a split from the left with the foundation of the Communist Refoundation Party (PRC), by Armando Cossutta. In this period, new populist movements, such as the Northern League (LN), grew up.
In July 1992, the government of Giuliano Amato proposed the definitive overcome of the "escalator" and its replacement with a negotiated recovery. Bruno Trentin, to prevent a new dramatic rupture between the unions, signed the agreement and then resigned, being that signature contrary to the negotiating mandate of the governing bodies of CGIL. The next CGIL directorate rejected his resignation and decided to negotiate a new system of relations based on the income policy. A few days later, the financial crisis seems to plunge into bankruptcy. Amato's government decided a drastic devaluation of Italian lira, the consequent exit from the European Monetary System and an extraordinary financial bill of one hundred thousand billion. The measures implemented, such as the increase in the retirement age and the seniority of contributions, the blocking of retirement, the "minimum tax" on autonomous income, the balance sheet on companies, the withdrawal on bank accounts, the introduction of health tickets, the institution of house tax (ICI), caused a widespread of social protest which turned against the three trade unions too. However, in July 1993 CGIL, CISL and UIL signed a new wage agreement with the new Prime Minister, Carlo Azeglio Ciampi, and Confindustria.
On 29 June 1994, Sergio Cofferati became the new General Secretary of CGIL and quickly start facing the new Prime Minister, Silvio Berlusconi, a media magnate who founded the new conservative party, Forza Italia (FI), collecting the electoral heritage of the Christian Democrats in the 1994 election, in alliance with the Northern League and the heirs of the neo-fascist MSI, National Alliance (AN). The first act of the Berlusconi's government concerned the attempt to radically reduce the Italian social security system, breaking the "pact between generations" that supports it. The confederations react unanimously with extreme determination and on 12 November a demonstration took place in Rome with a million workers and pensioners. The great popular participation in protest put the centre-right coalition in crisis and, with the withdrawal of the League from the cabinet, the Berlusconi's government fell. The reform, launched in 1995 after an agreement with the social partners and the positive outcome from workers, innovated the social security system with a gradual transition to the contributory system and the beginning of supplementary pensions.
With the victory of Romano Prodi's centre-left coalition in 1996 general election, the dialogue with the trade union movement was strengthened and, as already mentioned, allowed Italy to reach Euro convergence criteria and enter into the single currency. CGIL, CISL and UIL were also protagonists of a battle against the secessionism of the League, which put at risk the political unity of Italy, with major demonstrations in Milan and Venice.
From 2000 to the Great Recession and the COVID-19 pandemic
Berlusconi returned to power after the 2001 general election. His government tried to abolish Article 18 of the Workers' Statute, which protected workers from unjustified dismissal. On 23 March 2002, the CGIL led by Sergio Cofferati announced a great demonstration against the reform. It was the largest mass demonstration in Italian history, with more than three million people gathered at the Circus Maximus in Rome to protest against the abolition of Article 18. The CGIL continued the struggle, proclaiming a general strike for 18 April of the same year, which was later joined by CISL and UIL. After a few weeks the government announced the withdrawal of the reform.
In September 2002, CGIL elected Guglielmo Epifani as the new General Secretary. Epifani continued the fight against Berlusconi's government, started by his predecessor. In particular he launched general strikes against budget laws of 2003 and 2004. After the 2006 general election, Prodi's centre-left, strongly supported by Epifani's CGIL, returned to power. However, he lost the majority after less than two years and Berlusconi became Prime Minister once again after the 2008 general election.
On 3 November 2010, Susanna Camusso was elected General Secretary; she was the first woman to hold the office. Camusso's secretariat was characterized by the Great Recession and the European sovereign debt crisis, which harshly affected Italy in early 2010s, leading Berlusconi to resign in November 2011. On 4 December 2011, the technocratic government of Mario Monti introduced emergency austerity measures intended to stem the worsening economic conditions in Italy and restore market confidence, especially after rising Italian government bond yields began to threaten Italy's financial stability. The austerity package called for increased taxes, pension reform and measures to fight tax evasion. Monti also announced that he would be giving up his own salary as part of the reforms. On 20 January 2012, Monti's government formally adopted a package of reforms targeting Italy's labour market. The reforms were intended to open certain professions to more competition by reforming their licensing systems and abolishing minimum tariffs for their services. Article 18 of Italy's Workers' Statute, which requires companies that employ 15 or more workers to re-hire any employee found to have been fired without just cause, would also be reformed. The proposals faced a strong opposition from Camusso's CGIL and other trade unions, which was followed by public protests, which forced the government to withdraw the amendment on Article 18.
In 2014, Article 18 was finally abolished by the centre-left cabinet of Matteo Renzi as part of a huge labour market reform called the Jobs Act. The proposal was heavily criticised by Camusso, who announced a public protest. On 25 October, almost one million people took part in a mass protest in Rome, organised by the CGIL in opposition to the labour reforms of the government. Some high-profile members of the left-wing faction of the Democratic Party also participated in the protest. On 8 November, more than 100,000 public employees protested in Rome in a demonstration organised by the three trade unions. Despite the mass protests, the Parliament approved the Jobs Act in December 2014. After years of fights to protect Article 18 from the reforms promoted by the centre-right, it was finally abolished by the centre-left, causing a serious break between CGIL and its political counterpart, the Democratic Party.
On 24 January 2019, during the 18th National Congress in Bari, Maurizio Landini, a left-wing populist and former Secretary of FIOM, was elected General Secretary. Landini's main opponent in the Congress, Vincenzo Colla, a reformist and former Regional Secretary of CGIL for Emilia-Romagna, was appointed Vice Secretary. During his inaugural speech, Landini strongly attacked the M5S–League government and especially its Interior Minister, Matteo Salvini, denouncing a serious risk of a return of fascism in the country. On 9 February, CGIL, CISL and UIL protested together in Rome, against the economic measures promoted by Conte's government; more than 200,000s people participated in the march. It was the first time since 2013 that the three trade unions organized a unified rally.
On 9 October 2021, the CGIL's national headquarters in Rome was attacked by a mob of members of the neo-fascist party New Force, who were protesting against the introduction of a COVID-19 vaccination certificate in Italy. Secretary Landini described the attack as an "act of fascist squadrismo".
General Secretaries
Timeline
National Congresses
1st National Congress – Florence, Tuscany, 1–7 June 1947
2nd National Congress – Genoa, Liguria, 4–9 October 1949
3rd National Congress – Naples, Campania, 26 November–3 December 1952
4th National Congress – Rome, Lazio, 27 February–4 March 1956
5th National Congress – Milan, Lombardy, 2–7 April 1960
6th National Congress – Bologna, Emilia-Romagna, 31 March–5 April 1965
7th National Congress – Livorno, Tuscany, 16–21 June 1969
8th National Congress – Bari, Apulia, 2–7 July 1973
9th National Congress – Rimini, Emilia-Romagna, 6–11 June 1977
10th National Congress – Rome, Lazio, 16–21 November 1981
11th National Congress – Rome, Lazio, 28 February–4 March 1986
12th National Congress – Rimini, Emilia-Romagna, 23–27 October 1991
13th National Congress – Roma, Lazio, 2–5 July 1996
14th National Congress – Rimini, Emilia-Romagna, 6–9 February 2002
15th National Congress – Rimini, Emilia-Romagna, 1–4 March 2006
16th National Congress – Rimini, Emilia-Romagna, 5–8 May 2010
17th National Congress – Rimini, Emilia-Romagna, 6–8 May 2014
18th National Congress – Bari, Apulia, 22–24 January 2019
19th National Congress – Rimini, Emilia-Romagna, 15–18 March 2023
Affiliated union federations
Current affiliates
Former affiliates
Formally associated bodies
Symbols
See also
CISL
UIL
Rete degli Studenti Medi
References
External links
Official website
100 Years of History of CGIL
National trade union centers of Italy
International Trade Union Confederation
European Trade Union Confederation
Trade Union Advisory Committee to the OECD
Trade unions established in 1944 |
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